https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=NorrisKruttschniBharatpedia - User contributions [en]2026-08-09T01:32:50ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mario_Cabral_e_S%C3%A1&diff=516528Mario Cabral e Sá2026-05-03T20:28:44Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating data</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian journalist (c. 1932–2023)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{Infobox writer <br />
| name = Mario Cabral e Sá<br />
| image= Mario Cabral e Sa.png<br />
| caption= Cabral e Sa in 2008<br />
| birth_date = c. 1932<br />
| birth_place = [[Portuguese India]]<br />
| death_date = {{Death date|2023|6|19}} (aged 91)<br />
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], Maharashtra, India<br />
| notable_works = ''Goa: Pearl of the East''<br />
| occupation = {{hlist|Journalist|writer}}<br />
}}<br />
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'''Mario Cabral e Sá''' (c. 1932 – 19 June 2023) was an Indian journalist and writer.<ref name="GomantakRemember">{{Cite web |title=Remembering Mario Cabral e Sa: Journalist, writer and mentor |url=https://www.gomantaktimes.com/news/goa/remembering-mario-cabral-e-sa-journalist-writer-and-mentor |website=Gomantak Times |access-date=2025-12-01}}</ref> He was regarded as a veteran figure in the field of journalism.<ref name="HeraldDeath">{{Cite web |title=Veteran journalist Mario Cabral e Sa passes away |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/goa/veteran-journalist-mario-cabral-e-sa-passes-away/306518/ |website=O Heraldo |access-date=2025-12-01}}</ref><br />
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==Career==<br />
Cabral e Sa established a career as a journalist and author. Beyond his writing, he was known for his role as a mentor to other professionals in the field.<ref name="GomantakRemember" /><br />
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Cabral e Sa was the Goa unit manager during the production of the 1980 war film ''[[The Sea Wolves]]''.<ref name="TheGoanSeaWolves">{{Cite web |title=‘The Sea Wolves’ to be screened at ESG on April 20 |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-inshorts/%EF%BB%BF%E2%80%98the-sea-wolves%E2%80%99-to-be-screened-at-esg-on-april-20/97886.html |website=The Goan |access-date=2025-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Pai Raikar |first=Ramnath N |date=18 August 2018 |title=The Sea Wolves: WWII adventure in Goa |url=https://epaper.navhindtimes.in/PageImages/pdf/2018/08/18/18082018-md-ga-22.pdf}}</ref><br />
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==Works==<br />
Cabral e Sa authored several books during his career. His notable works include ''Legends of Goa'', ''Song of the Golden Gateway'', and ''Goa: Pearl of the East''.<ref name="HeraldDeath" /><br />
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==Death==<br />
Mario Cabral e Sa died on 19 June 2023 at the age of 91 in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="HeraldDeath" /> His ashes were interred in the cemetery at [[Divar]].<ref name="GomantakRemember" /><br />
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==References==<br />
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==External links==<br />
* {{IMDb person}}<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Cabral e Sá, Mario}}<br />
[[Category:1932 births]]<br />
[[Category:2023 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Writers from Goa]]<br />
[[Category:Journalists from Goa]]<br />
[[Category:People from Portuguese India]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maharaja%27s_College,_Kochi&diff=549565Maharaja's College, Kochi2026-04-30T14:14:16Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Made redirect</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Maharaja's College, Ernakulam]]<br />
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}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=C._K._Revathi_Amma&diff=492654C. K. Revathi Amma2026-04-29T04:40:04Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Created A Details...</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian social activist (1891 - 1981)}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = C. K. Revathi Amma<br />
| image = <br />
| imagesize = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_name = <br />
| birth_date = {{birth year|1891}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Thalassery]], [[Malabar District]], [[British India]]<br />
| death_place =<br />
| death_date = {{death year and age|1981|1891}}<br />
| alma_mater = <br />
| occupation = Social activist<br />
| movement = <br />
| notable_works = ''Sahasra Poornima'' (autobiography)<br />
| spouse = <br />
| children = <br />
| parents = <br />
| awards = [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Biography and Autobiography]] (1980)<br />
| influences = <br />
| signature = <br />
}}<br />
'''C. K. Revathi Amma''' was an Indian activist and Malayalam language writer from [[Kerala]]. In 1980, she won the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Biography and Autobiography]] for her autobiography ''Sahasra Poornima''.<br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
C. K. Revathi Amma was born into a prominent [[Thiyya]] family in [[Thalassery]], [[Malabar District]], (present-day [[Kannur district]] of [[Kerala]]) in 1891.<ref name="keralaliterature">{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-10-13 |title=രേവതിയമ്മ സി.കെ. (സി.കെ.രേവതിയമ്മ) |url=https://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE-%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86-%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86-%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4/ |access-date=2025-09-18 |website=Keralaliterature.com |language=ml}}</ref><ref name="thalassery">{{cite web |title=CK Revathy Amma |url=https://thalassery.info/personality.htm}}</ref> She was the daughter of Karai Damayanti, who was also a social activist.<ref name="thalassery"/> Her maternal grandfather Karayi Bapu and his brother Karayi Kutty were businessmen who had relations with English companies.<ref name="Hindu">{{Cite news |date=2015-12-03 |title=The calm after the storm |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/ck-revathy-amma-on-the-women-of-her-times/article7944494.ece |access-date=2025-09-17 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> She was educated at Thalassery Sacred Heart School.<ref name="Kerala Women">{{cite web |title=സി.കെ. രേവതിയമ്മ |url=https://keralawomen.gov.in/ml/C.K.Revathy_Amma |website=Kerala Women |publisher=[[Government of Kerala]] |language=ml |date=26 March 2021}}</ref><br />
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===Personal life and death===<br />
Revathi Amma is married to Paidal, the police commissioner of French colony [[Mayyazhi]] (present-day [[Mahé, India]]).<ref name="samyukta">{{cite web |last1=G |first1=Devi |title=THE STRAY GOATS OF THE BAZAAR |url=http://samyukta.info/site/book/export/html/12 |website=samyukta.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108032042/http://samyukta.info/site/book/export/html/12 |archive-date=8 November 2012 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="shyamalan">{{Cite book |last=M.D |first=N. C. SHYAMALAN |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYWVBQAAQBAJ&dq=c.k+revathy+amma&pg=PT236 |title=North Africa To North Malabar: AN ANCESTRAL JOURNEY |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-93-83416-64-6 |language=en}}</ref> After marriage she moved to Mayyazhi. Her son K. V. Padmanabhan was Indian ambassador to Thailand and Iran.<ref name="shyamalan" /> She died in 1981.<ref>{{cite web |title=രേവതി അമ്മ. സി.കെ. |url=https://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%e0%b4%ae%e0%b4%b2%e0%b4%af%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%b3%e0%b4%82-%e0%b4%8e%e0%b4%b4%e0%b5%81%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%81%e0%b4%95%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%b0%e0%b5%8d/revathy-amma-c-k-%e0%b4%b0%e0%b5%87%e0%b4%b5%e0%b4%a4%e0%b4%bf-%e0%b4%85%e0%b4%ae%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%ae-%e0%b4%b8%e0%b4%bf-%e0%b4%95%e0%b5%86/ |website=Keralaliterature.com |date=14 October 2017}}</ref><br />
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==Activism==<br />
Revathi Amma was a woman welfare activist. She worked as the president of the Mahila Mandiram, a centre for educating and uplifting economically backward women.<ref name="Hindu"/><ref name="Shakkeela">{{cite book |last1=Uv |first1=Shakkeela |title=Reading Sahasrapoornima(1977): A Glimpse of Thiyya Reformation under Colonialism |work=ISHAL PAITHRKAM |date=2023 |issue=33 |url=https://ojs.ishalpaithrkam.info/index.php/ishal/article/view/573/335 |language=en}}</ref> After her marriage, Revathi Amma moved to [[Mayyazhi]] and led the women's liberation movement there. She started her social activism in Mayyazhi by trying to liberate the women of Mayyazhi.<ref name="thalassery"/> In order to raise funds to help the people injured in warfor the French army, she conducted drama performances by girls in Mayyazhi.<ref name="Kavyasree">{{cite journal |last1=R |first1=Kavyasree |title=Entangled Histories: Gender and the Community Mobilisations of the Ezhavas in Colonial Kerala |journal=Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities |date=November 21, 2021 |volume=13 |issue=4 |url=https://rupkatha.com/V13/n4/v13n405.pdf}}</ref> She was also worked with the Red Cross Society in Mayyazhi.<ref name="Kavyasree"/><br />
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[[Mahathma Gandhi]] had reached Mayazhi as part of his countrywide tour of the freedom struggle and to receive donations for his Harijan Welfare Fund. At that time, M. K. Menon, a staunch supporter of the [[Indian National Congress]] in Mayazhi, requested Revathi Amma to arrange a reception for Gandhiji and to persuade women to donate their jewellery to him.<ref name="Hindu"/> An active supporter of Indian freedom movement, she donated her daughter's chain and a pair of her own bangles to Gandhiji's Harijan Welfare Fund.<ref name="Hindu"/><br />
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During the Thalassery riots, there was a rumor that the Thalassery Saidar Mosque would be attacked. Hearing this, at the ''Sahasra Poornima'' launch ceremony, being a Hindu, Revathi Amma sat in front of the mosque and said that the mosque could only be touched by stepping on her dead body.<ref name="Kerala Women"/> Even though she was well accepted as a social activist, her relatives were against that, and they even mockingly called her 'stray goat of the bazar'.<ref name="thalassery"/><br />
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==Works==<br />
Revathi Amma's first published novel was ''Randu Sahodarimaar'' [Two Sisters]. Her husband, who was a police commissioner, was initially not interested in writing or publishing this novel.<ref name="Hindu"/> She has also wrote many short stories and another novel titled ''Shobhana''.<ref name="shyamalan"/> Her autobiography ''Sahasra Poornima'' [completing thousands full moons] was published in 1977.<ref name="samyukta"/><br />
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==Awards and honors==<br />
In 1980, she won the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]] for her autobiography ''Sahasra Poornima''.<ref name="Kerala Women"/><br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Revathi Amma, C. K.}}<br />
[[Category:1891 births]]<br />
[[Category:1981 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Malayalam-language novelists]]<br />
[[Category:Indian women's rights activists]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]<br />
[[Category:Women writers from Kerala]]<br />
[[Category:Activists from Kerala]]<br />
[[Category:Novelists from Kerala]]<br />
[[Category:People from Kannur district]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian women novelists]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADhe%C5%9Bvara_temple&diff=522658Nīlakaṇṭheśvara temple2026-04-25T11:48:45Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: starting new place added tags</p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}<br />
[[File:Udaipur Temple, west side.jpg|thumb|Nīlakaṇṭheśvara temple from the west, as documented in 1982.]]<br />
The '''Nīlakaṇṭheśvara temple''' is a large medieval temple dedicated to Śiva in the town of [[Udaypur, Madhya Pradesh|Udaypur]], in the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]], India. The temple is a [[List of Monuments of National Importance in Madhya Pradesh/East|Monument of National Importance]] under the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], numbered N-MP-289. The temple, also known as the '''Udayeśvara Temple''', was built by king [[Udayaditya]] in {{circa|1070–1093}} [[Common Era|CE]]. It is the only surviving royal temple of the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] kings. <br />
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[[File:Dedication.jpg|thumb|right|Dedicatory inscription of the temple, on a lintel in the entrance porch, dated VS 1137.]]<br />
==Dedicatory inscription==<br />
[[File:Udaipur temple.jpg|thumb|The temple exterior of the sanctum showing mouldings and niches with Śaiva deities, 1982.]]<br />
[[File:Temple inscriptions.jpg|thumb|right|A sample of the votive and pilgrim inscriptions inside the eastern entrance.]]<br />
[[File:Udaypur eastern porch.jpg|thumb|Eastern entrance porch, engraved with a host of pilgrim and votive records.]]<br />
An inscription in the eastern porch records the building of the temple in Vikrama Saṃvat 1137 or 1080-81 CE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://siddham.network/inscription/inpar1501/|title=Foundation record of the Udayesvara temple|website=SIDDHAM: the Asia Inscriptions Database|access-date=19 Feb 2020}}</ref><br />
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The translation of the text is as follows: <br />
<br />
Left half:<br />
<br />
From every quarter, O King, we recite the Veda<br />
that is primordial and the bestower of siddhis,<br />
so that the lord of the earth, Udayāditya,<br />
may bring the earth under a single umbrella.<br />
Upon his head the earth prospers, thus he is renowned as the Earth-Bearer.<br />
<br />
At the sun’s passage (into another zodiac?). This is the verse of Paṇḍita Mahīpāla, son of Paṇḍita Gṛhavāsa. Saṃvat 1137 on the bright fortnight of Vaiśākha. Completion of the raising of the flag of Śrī Udayeśvaradeva. May there be auspiciousness! May there be great fortune!<br />
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Right half:<br />
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It was the celebrated one who has no superior, the Self-Born (Śiva),<br />
who ordained that the city, lord, ocean, etc. of the lord of the earth, Udayāditya, have the epithet ‘Udaya’.<br />
What is the use of many other Vedas? What is the use of many other hymns of praise?<br />
Extol the Veda that has but one ruler; it grants success in all things.<br />
The verses were engraved by ''sūtradhāra'' Dhīradev, brother of the illustrious Madhusūdana. May there be auspiciousness! May there be great fortune!<br />
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Annex below:<br />
These verses—engraved by ''sūtradhāra'' Dhīradev and composed by Paṇḍita Śrī Mahīpāla—are fit for all things.<br />
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==Architecture==<br />
Although of the same date as some of the buildings at [[Khajuraho]], architecturally speaking, the temple spire belongs to a class known as ''[[Bhumija|bhūmija]]'', or 'earth born,' a mode of temple construction that originated in the Mālwa region.<ref>Krishna Deva, "Bhumija Temples," in ''Studies in Indian Temple Architecture'', ed. P. Chandra (Delhi: AIIS, 1975): 90-113; Adam Hardy, ''Theory and Practice of Temple Architecture in Medieval India: Bhoja's Samarānganasūtradhāra and the Bhojpur Line Drawings'', with translations by Mattia Salvini (New Delhi: IGNCA, 2015)</ref> Other temples of this type are found at [[Nemawar]] and Un ([[Khargone]] district).<br />
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==Iconography==<br />
The complex Śaiva iconography of the temple was studied by Doria Tichit.<ref>Doria Tichit, "Le programme iconographique du temple d’Udayeśvara à Udayapur, Madhya Pradesh, XIe siècle," Arts asiatiques 67, no. 1 (2012): 3-18. Available online: http://www.persee.fr/doc/arasi_0004-3958_2012_num_67_1_1770.</ref> Subsequently a detailed analysis was prepared by Anupa Pande and published in 2018.<ref>Anupa Pande, ''The Udayeśvara Temple : Art, Architecture and Philosophy of the Śaiva Siddhānta''. (Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2018).</ref> In 2023, Saurabh Saxena published an richly-illustrated study in ''Puratattva'', accessible online.<ref>Saurabh Saxena, "Udaipur – Epoch of Parmara Architecture," ''Puratattva'' 08 September 2023, online at https://puratattva.in/udaypur-epoch-of-parmara-architecture/. Retrieved February 2024.</ref><br />
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==Votive and pilgrim inscriptions==<br />
The temple is unique in [[north India]] for the many inscriptions on and in the building, with a particular concentration being found in the eastern entrance. In addition to the consecration record, located on a [[lintel]] on the left (south side) of the porch and dated Vikrama year 1137 or 1080-81 CE in the time of [[Udayaditya|Udayāditya]], the porch carries more than sixty votive records.<ref>The records are listed in ''Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1961-62)'', section C, nos. 1611-1677. For the dedication inscription, see [[Nīlakaṇṭheśvara temple, Udaypur, Madhya Pradesh]].</ref> Not yet studied in a systematic fashion, these form a continuous sequence from the time of the Paramāras – [[Devapala (Paramara dynasty)|Devapāla]] (''circa'' 1218–39 CE) is mentioned – through the period of the [[Tughluq dynasty]], the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and their successors. <br />
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An early votive record from the time of the Tughluqs is dated Vikrama year 1394 (1323-24 CE) and records the homage paid by two brahamins named Mādhava and Keśava. It is engraved on the sculpture of an elephant just inside the entrance (''see'' figures). Another important inscription, documenting the co-existence Hindu and Muslim religious activities at the site, mentions a festival (''yātrā'') of the god Udaleśvara in 1338, the same year as the Tughluq inscription recording the construction of the mosque in the temple precinct.<ref>''Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy (1961-62)'', section C, no. 1625.</ref> For the Tugluq inscription, see [[Tughluq Shāhī mosque, Udaypur, Madhya Pradesh]]. Udaleśvara is a local spelling of Udayeśvara, the main deity in the temple, named eponymously after the Paramāra king [[Udayaditya|Udayāditya]].<ref>The eponymous naming of temple deities is explained in M. Willis, ''The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual'' (Cambridge: University Press, 2014; first published 2009), pp. 137-40.</ref><br />
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== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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{{coord|23.900701263892568|78.05720271933697|region:IN-MP_type:landmark|format=dms|display=title}}<br />
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[[Category:Monuments of National Importance in Madhya Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Vidisha district]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sinhalese_Sports_Club_Cricket_Ground&diff=549754Sinhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground2026-04-24T05:08:40Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: </p>
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<div>{{Short description|Cricket ground in Sri Lanka}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox cricket ground<br />
| ground_name = {{black|Sinhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground}}<br />
| nickname = Maitland Place<br />
| othernames = SSC Ground<br />
| logo_image = <br />
| logo_caption = Sinhalese Sports Club Crest<br />
| image = SCC Ground Colombo.jpg<br />
| caption = A Test match in March 2001 between Sri Lanka and England<br />
| country = Sri Lanka<br />
| location = [[Cinnamon Gardens]], [[Colombo]]<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|6|54|21.32|N|79|52|09.85|E|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}<br />
| establishment = {{Start date and age|1952}}<br />
| seating_capacity = 10,000<br />
| owner = [[Sinhalese Sports Club]] (SSC)<br />
| operator = <br />
| tenants = [[Sri Lanka Cricket]]<br />
| end1 = Tennis Courts End<br />
| end2 = South End<br />
| international = true<br />
| firsttestdate = 16–21 March<br />
| firsttestyear = 1984<br />
| firsttesthome = Sri Lanka<br />
| firsttestaway = New Zealand<br />
| lasttestdate = 25–28 June<br />
| lasttestyear = 2025<br />
| lasttesthome = Sri Lanka<br />
| lasttestaway = Bangladesh<br />
| firstodidate = 13 February<br />
| firstodiyear = 1982<br />
| firstodihome = Sri Lanka<br />
| firstodiaway = England<br />
| lastodidate = 22 February<br />
| lastodiyear = 2020<br />
| lastodihome = Sri Lanka<br />
| lastodiaway = West Indies<br />
| firstt20idate = 3 February<br />
| firstt20iyear = 2010<br />
| firstt20ihome = Canada<br />
| firstt20iaway = Ireland<br />
| lastt20idate = 18 February<br />
| lastt20iyear = 2026<br />
| lastt20ihome = Pakistan<br />
| lastt20iaway = Namibia<br />
<br />
| firstwodidate = 25 November<br />
| firstwodiyear = 1997<br />
| firstwodihome = Sri Lanka<br />
| firstwodiaway = Netherlands<br />
| lastwodidate = 4 May<br />
| lastwodiyear = 2023<br />
| lastwodihome = Sri Lanka<br />
| lastwodiaway = Bangladesh<br />
| firstwt20idate = 24 April<br />
| firstwt20iyear = 2011<br />
| firstwt20ihome = Sri Lanka<br />
| firstwt20iaway = Netherlands<br />
| lastwt20idate = 12 May<br />
| lastwt20iyear = 2023<br />
| lastwt20ihome = Sri Lanka<br />
| lastwt20iaway = Bangladesh<br />
| year1 = 1974–present<br />
| club1 = [[Sinhalese Sports Club]]<br />
| year2 = 1982–present<br />
| club2 = [[Sri Lanka national cricket team]]<br />
| date = 18 February <br />
| year = 2026<br />
| source = http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/content/ground/59308.html Cricinfo<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Sinhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground''' ('''SSC Cricket Ground''') ({{langx|si|සිංහල ක්රිඩා සමාජ ක්රීඩාංගනය}}; {{langx|ta|சிங்களவர் விளையாட்டுக் கழக அரங்கம்}}) is one of the most famous [[cricket]] grounds in [[Sri Lanka]], and the headquarters of [[Sri Lanka Cricket]], the controlling body of [[cricket in Sri Lanka]].<ref name="yahoo">{{cite web|url=http://cricket.yahoo.com/ground-profile/Sinhalese-Sports-Club-Ground_147|title=Sinhalese Sports Club Ground (Maitland Place)|work=cricket.yahoo.com|publisher=Yahoo Cricket|access-date=2009-03-23}}</ref><ref name="cricinfo">{{cite web|url=http://content.cricinfo.com/srilanka/content/ground/59308.html|title=Sinhalese Sports Club|work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=2009-03-23}}</ref> The ground is sometimes described as "the [[Lord's]] of Sri Lanka",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.takingthefield.com/clubs/sinhalese-sports-club?page=1|title=Sinhalese Sports Club|access-date=2015-02-05}}</ref> It hosts the most domestic finals and is an important international cricket venue. The ground staged its first [[Test cricket|Test]] in 1984 against [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]] and its first [[One Day International]] in 1982 against [[England national cricket team|England]].<ref name=cricinfo /> The [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lankan team]] has an impressive record here. Out of 38 Tests played at the SSC {{as of|2015|January|lc=y}}, Sri Lanka has won 18 matches, and drawn 14, with only 6 losses.<ref name=statsguru>{{cite web|title=Aggregate/overall records|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/59308.html?class=1;template=results;type=aggregate|work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
In 1899, a combined school cricket team, composed mainly of cricketers from [[Royal College, Colombo|Royal College]], [[S. Thomas' College, Mount Lavinia|S. Thomas' College]] and [[Wesley College, Colombo|Wesley College]] beat [[Colts Cricket Club]] by a one run. A decision was made to form an all-[[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] club, and thus [[Singhalese Sports Club]] was founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thepapare.com/test-venues-in-sri-lanka-part-1/ |title=Test venues in Sri Lanka: The Oldies |work=The Papare |date=6 May 2020 |access-date=6 May 2020}}</ref> The club leased land in [[Viharamahadevi Park|Victoria Park]] with sandy soil and covered with [[cinnamon]] trees.<ref name="observer">{{cite web|url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2003/08/03/spo11.html|title=Sri Lanka cricket – serious winning business!|author=Kumar Sangakkara|author-link=Kumar Sangakkara|date=3 August 2003|publisher=Sunday Observer|access-date=2009-03-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605214945/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2003/08/03/spo11.html|archive-date=5 June 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1952 the club leased another {{convert|20|acre|m2}} and moved to its present location in Maitland Place, which had been used as an [[aerodrome]] by the [[Allies of World War II|allied forces]] in [[World War II]].<ref name="cricinfo" /><br />
<br />
==Ground==<br />
The pavilion of the ground was built in 1956 with the sponsorship of Donovan Andree, a leading nightclub entrepreneur.<ref name="observer"/> A giant [[scoreboard]] and sightscreens were built in the mid-70s. Later the current scoreboard was built. The ground also has a media center and commentary box with modern facilities. Various sponsors including Lankabell, [[Seylan Bank]] and [[HSBC]] have built stands bearing their brands. There are two grass embankments for the spectators.<br />
<br />
The SSC Stadium underwent a reconstruction project in preparation to host 5 matches for the [[2026 Men's T20 World Cup]] at the cost of Rs. 1.8 billion. As stated by SLC, the upgraded lighting system employs state-of-the-art LED technology that complies with international sports and broadcasting requirements. It incorporates high-performance LED fixtures with a 5,700 Kelvin correlated color temperature and a color rendering index of 90, delivering superior visibility for players, match officials, and spectators. The floodlighting setup includes 630 LED fixtures on six high-mast towers, providing consistent illumination with reduced glare. A smart control system offers multiple lighting modes to enhance the viewing experience.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rs. 1.7bn lights & more: How SSC is being transformed for T20 World Cup|url=https://www.newswire.lk/2026/01/02/rs-1-7bn-lights-more-how-ssc-is-being-transformed-for-t20-world-cup/|publisher=News Wire|access-date=4 January 2025}}</ref> <br />
<br />
Additional developments at the SSC include the refurbishment of players’ dressing rooms to better align with international standards, the construction of new office spaces for match referees, third umpires, and anti-corruption officials, as well as upgrades to overall stadium facilities. And spectator capacity of the stadium will be increased gradually as part of the long-term development plan for the venue.<ref>{{cite web|title=SSC to officially become Sri Lanka’s fifth floodlit venue|url=https://www.sundaytimes.lk/260104/sports/ssc-to-officially-become-sri-lankas-fifth-floodlit-venue-626487.html|publisher=Sunday Times|access-date=4 January 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Highlights==<br />
In 1992 Australian tour of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka lost the SSC Test match to [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] by 16 runs after being set a target of only 181 runs.<ref name="australia">{{cite web|url=http://content.cricinfo.com/ci/content/story/153615.html|title=SRI LANKA v AUSTRALIA 1992–93|publisher=Wisden|access-date=2009-03-23}}</ref> This is one of Sri Lanka's narrowest defeats in Test cricket.<ref>{{cite web|title=Team records|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=amount;orderbyad=reverse;result=2;team=8;template=results;type=team;view=results|work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> [[Shane Warne]] took three wickets in thirteen balls; this was his first notable performance in Test cricket.<ref>{{cite web|title=1st Test: Sri Lanka v Australia at Colombo (SSC), Aug 17-22, 1992|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/63580.html|work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
In the [[2001–02 Asian Test Championship]], [[Mohammed Ashraful]] of [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]] become the youngest cricketer to score a Test hundred,<ref name="Ashraful">{{cite web|url=http://content.cricinfo.com/ci/content/story/110265.html|title=Dream comes true for Bangladeshi teenager|last=Austin|first=Charlie|date=8 September 2001|work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=2009-03-23}}</ref> one day before his 17th birthday. However Bangladesh went on to lose the match by an innings and 137 runs.<br />
<br />
[[Chaminda Vaas]] took 8 wickets for 19 runs in 2001–02 against [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]], the best bowling performance in a One Day International match.<ref name="vaas">{{cite web|url=http://content.cricinfo.com/srilanka/content/story/97644.html|title=Chaminda Vaas starts LG Abans tri-series with record-breaking bonanza|last=Austin|first=Charlie|date=8 December 2001|work=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=2009-03-23}}</ref> The Zimbabwean total of 38 was the lowest team innings total in ODIs at that point of time.<ref name="lowest">{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283987.html|title=Lowest innings totals|work=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=2009-03-23}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Kumar Sangakkara]] and [[Mahela Jayawardene]] shared a partnership of 624 runs against [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]] in 2006–07 season, the highest partnership for any wicket in Test and [[First-class cricket|first class]] cricket.<ref name="partnership">{{cite web|url=http://content.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/291123.html|title=Sri Lanka v South Africa, 2006|last=Austin|first=Charlie|date=18 April 2007 |publisher=Wisden|access-date=2009-03-23}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2026, the ground was selected as a venue for the '''[[2026 Men's T20 World Cup|ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]''', marking a significant return to hosting major global tournaments following extensive infrastructure upgrades.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-26 |title=T20 World Cup 2026 Venues & Stadiums: Complete List (India & Sri Lanka) |url=https://t20worldcup2026.com/t20-world-cup-2026-venues-stadiums-list/ |access-date=2026-01-26 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Ground Figures==<br />
<br />
===Key===<br />
<br />
* '''P''' Matches Played<br />
* '''H''' Matches Won by Home Side<br />
* '''T''' Matches Won by Touring Side<br />
* '''N''' Matches Won by Neutral Side<br />
*'''D/N/T''' Matches Drawn/No Result/Tied<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"| '''Ground Figures'''<br />
|-<br />
! Format !! P !! H !! T !! N !! D/N/T !! Inaugural Match<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:left;"| Test matches<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.howstat.com.au/cricket/Statistics/Grounds/GroundStats.asp?GroundCode=056| title =Ground Records and Statistics – Statistical Overview – Test cricket| publisher =How Stat| access-date =5 September 2017}}</ref>|| 43 || 21 || 8 || 0 || 14 || 16 March 1984<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:left;"| One-Day Internationals<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.howstat.com.au/cricket/Statistics/Grounds/GroundStats_ODI.asp?GroundCode=056| title =Ground Records and Statistics – Statistical Overview – ODI| publisher =How Stat| access-date =5 September 2017}}</ref> || 60 || 23 || 11 || 19 || 7 || 13 February 1982<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:left;"| Twenty20 Internationals<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.howstat.com.au/cricket/Statistics/Grounds/GroundStats_T20.asp?GroundCode=056| title =Ground Records and Statistics – Statistical Overview – T20I| publisher =How Stat| access-date =5 September 2017}}</ref> || 2 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 0 ||| 3 February 2010<br />
|}<br />
Updated 5 February 2024<br />
<br />
==Cricket World Cup matches==<br />
<br />
===1996 Cricket World Cup===<br />
{{Main|1996 Cricket World Cup}}<br />
<br />
{{Limited overs international<br />
| date = 21 February 1996<br />
| team1 ={{cr-rt|ZIM}}<br />
| score1 = 228/6 (50 overs) <br />
| score2 = 229/4 (37 overs) <br />
| team2 = {{cr|SRI}}<br />
| runs1 = [[Alistair Campbell (cricketer)|Alistair Campbell]] 75 (102)<br />
| wickets1 = [[Chaminda Vaas]] 2/30 (10 overs)<br />
| runs2 = [[Aravinda de Silva]] 91 (86) <br />
| wickets2 = [[Heath Streak]] 3/60 (10 overs)<br />
| result = {{cr|SRI}} won by 6 wickets (with 78 balls remaining)<br />
| report = [http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65164.html scorecard]<br />
| venue = Singhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground, Colombo, Sri Lanka<br />
| umpires = [[Steve Dunne (cricket umpire)|Steve Dunne]] and [[Mahboob Shah]]<br />
| motm = [[Aravinda de Silva]] (Sri)<br />
| rain = Zimbabwe won the toss and elected to bat first. <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==ICC Champions Trophy matches==<br />
<br />
The [[2002 ICC Champions Trophy]] was held in [[Sri Lanka]]. Six group matches played in SSC. Other matches played in [[R. Premadasa Stadium]].<br />
<br />
===2002 ICC Champions Trophy===<br />
{{Main|2002 ICC Champions Trophy}}<br />
<br />
{{Limited overs international<br />
| date = 13 September 2002<br />
| team1 = {{cr-rt|West Indies}}<br />
| score1 = 238/8 (50 overs)<br />
| score2 = 242/8 (49 overs)<br />
| team2 = {{cr|RSA}}<br />
| runs1 = [[Chris Gayle]] 49 (55)<br />
| wickets1 = [[Jacques Kallis]] 2/41 (9 overs)<br />
| runs2 = [[Jonty Rhodes]] 61 (70)<br />
| wickets2 = [[Mervyn Dillon]] 4/60 (10 overs)<br />
| result = {{cr|RSA}} won by 2 wickets<br />
| report = [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/2002-03/OD_TOURNEYS/ICCCT/SCORECARDS/POOL3/RSA_WI_ICCCT_ODI2_13SEP2002.html Scorecard]<br />
| venue = Singhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground, Colombo, Sri Lanka<br />
| umpires = [[David Shepherd (umpire)|David Shepherd]] and [[Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan]]<br />
| motm = [[Jonty Rhodes]] (RSA)<br />
| rain = South Africa won the toss and elected to bowl first.<br />
}}<br />
{{Limited overs international<br />
| date = 15 September 2002<br />
| team1 = {{cr-rt|AUS}}<br />
| score1 = 296/7 (50 overs)<br />
| score2 = 132 (26.2 overs)<br />
| team2 = {{cr|NZL}}<br />
| runs1 = [[Damien Martyn]] 73 (87)<br />
| wickets1 = [[Jacob Oram]] 2/60 (10 overs)<br />
| runs2 = [[Shane Bond]] 26 (22)<br />
| wickets2 = [[Glenn McGrath]] 5/37 (7 overs)<br />
| result = {{cr|AUS}} won by 164 runs<br />
| report = [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/2002-03/OD_TOURNEYS/ICCCT/SCORECARDS/POOL1/AUS_NZ_ICCCT_ODI4_15SEP2002.html Scorecard]<br />
| venue = Singhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground, Colombo, Sri Lanka<br />
| umpires = [[Dave Orchard]] and [[Russell Tiffin]]<br />
| motm = [[Glenn McGrath]] (Aus)<br />
| rain = Australia won the toss and elected to bat first.<br />
}} <br />
{{Limited overs international<br />
| date = 17 September 2002<br />
| team1 = {{cr-rt|West Indies}}<br />
| score1 = 261/6 (50 overs)<br />
| score2 = 232 (49.1 overs)<br />
| team2 = {{cr|KEN}}<br />
| runs1 = [[Brian Lara]] 111 (120)<br />
| wickets1 = [[Steve Tikolo]] 2/49 (7 overs)<br />
| runs2 = [[Steve Tikolo]] 93 (91)<br />
| wickets2 = [[Pedro Collins]] 3/18 (9.1 overs)<br />
| result = {{cr|West Indies}} won by 29 runs<br />
| report = [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/2002-03/OD_TOURNEYS/ICCCT/SCORECARDS/POOL3/KENYA_WI_ICCCT_ODI6_17SEP2002.html Scorecard]<br />
| venue = Singhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground, Colombo, Sri Lanka<br />
| umpires = [[Daryl Harper]] and [[Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan]]<br />
| motm = [[Brian Lara]] (WI)<br />
| rain = West Indies won the toss and elected to bat first.<br />
}} <br />
{{Limited overs international<br />
| date = 19 September 2002<br />
| team1 = {{cr-rt|BAN}}<br />
| score1 = 129 (45.2 overs)<br />
| score2 = 133/1 (20.4 overs)<br />
| team2 = {{cr|AUS}}<br />
| runs1 = [[Alok Kapali]] 45 (75)<br />
| wickets1 = [[Jason Gillespie]] 3/20 (10 overs)<br />
| runs2 = [[Matthew Hayden]] 67* (70)<br />
| wickets2 = [[Mohammad Rafique (cricketer)|Mohammad Rafique]] 1/32 (5 overs)<br />
| result = {{cr|AUS}} won by 9 wickets<br />
| report = [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/2002-03/OD_TOURNEYS/ICCCT/SCORECARDS/POOL1/AUS_BDESH_ICCCT_ODI8_19SEP2002.html Scorecard]<br />
| venue = Singhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground, Colombo, Sri Lanka<br />
| umpires = [[Asoka de Silva (cricketer)|Asoka de Silva]] and [[Russell Tiffin]]<br />
| motm = [[Jason Gillespie]] (Aus)<br />
| rain = Bangladesh won the toss and elected to bat first.<br />
}} <br />
{{Limited overs international<br />
| date = 21 September 2002<br />
| team1 = {{cr-rt|NED}}<br />
| score1 = 136 (50 overs)<br />
| score2 = 142/1 (16.2 overs)<br />
| team2 = {{cr|PAK}}<br />
| runs1 = [[Roland Lefebvre]] 32 (70)<br />
| wickets1 = [[Shahid Afridi]] 3/18 (10 overs)<br />
| runs2 = [[Imran Nazir (cricketer)|Imran Nazir]] 59 (40)<br />
| wickets2 = [[Feiko Kloppenburg]] 1/23 (2 overs)<br />
| result = {{cr|PAK}} won by 9 wickets<br />
| report = [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/2002-03/OD_TOURNEYS/ICCCT/SCORECARDS/POOL4/NL_PAK_ICCCT_ODI10_21SEP2002.html Scorecard]<br />
| venue = Singhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground, Colombo, Sri Lanka<br />
| umpires = [[Rudi Koertzen]] and [[Dave Orchard]]<br />
| motm = [[Shahid Afridi]] (Pak)<br />
| rain = The Netherlands won the toss and elected to bat first.<br />
}}<br />
{{Limited overs international<br />
| date = 23 September 2002<br />
| team1 = {{cr-rt|NZL}}<br />
| score1 = 244/9 (50 overs)<br />
| score2 = 77 (19.3 overs)<br />
| team2 = {{cr|BAN}}<br />
| runs1 = [[Mathew Sinclair]] 70 (122)<br />
| wickets1 = [[Mohammad Ashraful]] 3/26 (5 overs)<br />
| runs2 = [[Tushar Imran]] 20 (16)<br />
| wickets2 = [[Shane Bond]] 4/21 (5 overs)<br />
| result = {{cr|NZL}} won by 167 runs<br />
| report = [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/2002-03/OD_TOURNEYS/ICCCT/SCORECARDS/POOL1/BDESH_NZ_ICCCT_ODI12_23SEP2002.html Scorecard]<br />
| venue = Singhalese Sports Club Cricket Ground, Colombo, Sri Lanka<br />
| umpires = [[Asoka de Silva (cricketer)|Asoka de Silva]] and [[David Shepherd (umpire)|David Shepherd]]<br />
| motm = [[Shane Bond]] (NZ)<br />
| rain = Bangladesh won the toss and elected to bowl first.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of Test cricket grounds]]<br />
*[[List of international cricket centuries at the Sinhalese Sports Club Ground]]<br />
*[[List of international cricket five-wicket hauls at the Sinhalese Sports Club Ground]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://content.cricinfo.com/srilanka/content/ground/59308.html Cricinfo SSC ground profile]<br />
*[http://www.ssc.lk SSC website]<br />
* [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/25/1708.html CricketArchive]<br />
* [https://t20worldcup2026.com/ssc-cricket-ground-colombo-t20-world-cup-2026-venue/ T20 World Cup 2026]<br />
{{Cricket in Sri Lanka}}<br />
{{Test Cricket Grounds of Sri Lanka}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cricket grounds in Colombo]]<br />
[[Category:Sport in Colombo]]<br />
[[Category:Test cricket grounds in Sri Lanka]]<br />
[[Category:1952 establishments in Ceylon]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitapu_Balasubrahmanyam&diff=545014Vitapu Balasubrahmanyam2026-04-22T02:35:49Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Made a details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian politician}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Vitapu Balasubrahmanyam<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1950|06|30|df=y}}<br />
| birth_place = Mamuduru village, [[Chejerla, Nellore district|Chejerla]], [[Nellore district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
| occupation = Politician<br />
| party = [[Progressive Democratic Front (Andhra Pradesh)|Progressive Democratic Front]]<br />
| office = Member of [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council]]<br />
| term_start = 30 March 2007<br />
| constituency = Prakasam-Nellore-Chittoor Teachers<br />
| office1 = Pro tem [[Chairman of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council]]<br />
| term_start1 = 19 June 2021<br />
| term_end1 = 18 November 2021<br />
| parents = V. Subba Ramaiah<br />
| spouse = Dadithota Kumari Padmini<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Vitapu Balasubrahmanyam''' is an Indian politician from the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. He is currently a member of the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council]], and was formerly its [[pro tem]] Speaker.<ref name="Governor appoints pro-tem chairman of AP Legislative Council">{{cite news |last1=Outlook India |title=Governor appoints pro-tem chairman of AP Legislative Council |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/governor-appoints-protem-chairman-of-ap-legislative-council/2104905 |accessdate=20 June 2021 |work=outlookindia.com|date=18 June 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620055922/https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/governor-appoints-protem-chairman-of-ap-legislative-council/2104905 |archivedate=20 June 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Early life and education==<br />
Vitapu Balasubrahmanyam was born on 30 June 1950 in Mamuduru village in [[Nellore district]]. He completed his M.A. in [[Telugu language]] from [[Sri Venkateswara University]] in [[Tirupati]], Andhra Pradesh.<br />
<br />
==Political career==<br />
Balasubrahmanyam won his first election as MLC from Prakasam-Nellore-Chittoor Teachers constituency in 2007. In 2011 he won his second election.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 March 2011 |title=Independents Win MLC Elections |work=Full Hyderabad |url=https://news.fullhyderabad.com/hyderabad-news/independents-win-6-council-seats-in-mlc-elections-3900.html |archive-date=9 November 2024 |access-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109082332/https://news.fullhyderabad.com/hyderabad-news/independents-win-6-council-seats-in-mlc-elections-3900.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2017 he won his third election.<ref name="విఠపు హ్యాట్రిక్">{{cite news |last1=Sakshi |title=విఠపు హ్యాట్రిక్ |url=https://m.sakshi.com/news/district/teacher-mlc-election-win-as-a-pdf-candidate-460456 |accessdate=20 June 2021 |work=Sakshi |date=21 March 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620060203/https://m.sakshi.com/news/district/teacher-mlc-election-win-as-a-pdf-candidate-460456 |archivedate=20 June 2021 |language=te |url-status=live }}</ref> He was appointed pro-tem chairman from June 2021 to November 2021.<ref name="Andhrapradesh: శాసన మండలి ప్రొటెం స్పీకర్గా విఠపు బాలసుబ్రహ్మణ్యం">{{cite news |last1=10TV |title=Andhrapradesh: శాసన మండలి ప్రొటెం స్పీకర్గా విఠపు బాలసుబ్రహ్మణ్యం|url=https://10tv.in/latest/balasubramanian-is-the-protem-speaker-of-the-ap-legislative-council-239586.html |accessdate=20 June 2021 |work=10TV |date=18 June 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620060355/https://10tv.in/latest/balasubramanian-is-the-protem-speaker-of-the-ap-legislative-council-239586.html |archivedate=20 June 2021 |language=telugu |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Balasubrahmanyam, Vitapu}}<br />
[[Category:People from Nellore]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council]]<br />
[[Category:1950 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
<br />
{{AndhraPradesh-politician-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music_of_Mizoram&diff=519264Music of Mizoram2026-04-20T04:28:15Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating info - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Music culture of the Mizo people}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Indian music|expanded=Territory}}<br />
The '''music of [[Mizoram]]''' encompasses the [[folk music|folk]], sacred, and popular musical traditions of the [[Mizo people]] of northeast India.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> Traditional Mizo music is primarily vocal, accompanied by [[drum]]s, [[gong]]s, bamboo wind instruments, and other percussion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=25}}</ref> Music is deeply embedded in Mizo social life; a well-known Mizo saying, ''Khuang lova chai ang'' ("a festival without a drum"), conveys that life without music is incomplete.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> Scholars of Tibeto-Burman cultures have characterised the Mizo as a people who in all they do, think, or believe, mark their experience in song, and with the introduction of literacy many oral compositions survive today as the earliest known examples of Mizo poetry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pachuau |first=Joy L.K. |title=Being Mizo: Identity and Belonging in Northeast India |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |page=1}}</ref><br />
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== Etymology ==<br />
The Mizo did not traditionally possess a single collective term for music; each instrument and each form of song had its own name.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=25}}</ref> The word ''rimawi'' was coined in 1966 by B. Thanmawia, then Deputy Director General of [[All India Radio]], during a broadcast.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=25}}</ref> ''Rimawi'' is composed of two syllables: ''ri'' (sound) and ''mawi'' (melodious, beautiful).<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=25}}</ref> The term covers instrumental music but does not necessarily include song (''hla'') or dance (''lam'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=25}}</ref> The word ''hla'', meaning song, is among the most frequently occurring words in Mizo oral tradition and forms part of the name of virtually every recognised song category.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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== History ==<br />
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=== Early history ===<br />
The precise origins of Mizo music are difficult to establish, and the chronological sequences of its heritage are hard to arrange.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The earliest known song forms are couplets believed to have developed during the Mizo settlement at [[Thantlang]] in Burma, estimated at around the 13th to 14th centuries AD.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lalthangliana |first=B. |title=History of Mizo Literature |year=1993 |publisher=M.C. Lalrinthanga |location=Mizoram |page=76}}</ref> According to B. Lalthangliana, the folk songs of this period included ''dar hla'' (gong songs), ''bawh hla'' (war chants), ''hlado'' (hunting chants), and ''nauawih hla'' (cradle songs).<ref>{{cite book |last=Lalthangliana |first=B. |title=History of Mizo Literature |year=1993 |publisher=M.C. Lalrinthanga |location=Mizoram |page=76}}</ref> These early songs were simple expressions of individual experience, lacking the philosophical depth or rational attitudes towards life found in later Mizo compositions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref><br />
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A more substantial body of song emerged during the settlement at Lentlang in Burma, estimated between the late 15th and 17th centuries, when triplet verse forms appeared alongside couplets.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lalthangliana |first=B. |title=History of Mizo Literature |year=1993 |publisher=M.C. Lalrinthanga |location=Mizoram |page=76}}</ref> After the Mizo settled in present-day Mizoram from the late 17th century onward, their songs grew more numerous and linguistically refined, and many came to be named after their composers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> Notable among pre-colonial composers was Saikuti, a poetess who composed songs encouraging warriors and celebrating their victories.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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Mizo historians have argued that the music of the Kabaw Valley period, broadly the 10th to 13th centuries AD, had already developed close to its pre-contact form by the time the Mizo moved into the hills of what is now Mizoram.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=25}}</ref> The influence of the [[Pagan Kingdom]] (9th to 13th centuries) is considered the most probable vector through which certain percussion instruments, including the drum, reached the Mizo people via Burmese cultural contact.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref><br />
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The pre-colonial period, spanning the 18th and 19th centuries, is recognised as an important era in the history of Mizo folk literature and music.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref> Prior to British annexation, the Mizo community had inhabited present-day Mizoram for approximately two centuries, and during this time their folk songs evolved in quantity, form, and content.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref> Songs of this era exhibited a higher degree of linguistic refinement and musical sophistication, and many bore the names of their composers, indicating the development of individual authorship in Mizo music.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref><br />
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=== Impact of Christianity ===<br />
[[File:Cheraw Mizoram.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cheraw (dance)|Cheraw dance]] at the [[Chapchar Kut]] festival, 2010. Traditional dances are accompanied by ''khuang'' and ''darbu''.]]<br />
The arrival of [[Christianity in Mizoram|Christian missionaries]] in the late 19th century transformed Mizo musical life.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pachuau |first1=Joy |last2=Schendel |first2=Willem van |title=The Camera as Witness |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107073395 |page=37}}</ref> Rev. J.H. Lorrain and Rev. F.W. Savidge, Welsh missionaries who arrived in Mizoram in 1894 under the sponsorship of the Arthington Aborigines Mission, were among the first to introduce systematic literacy and hymnody to the region.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=14}}</ref> The northern region subsequently came under the [[Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church|Welsh Calvinistic Methodist]] (later Presbyterian) Mission and the southern under the [[Baptist Missionary Society]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=14}}</ref><br />
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Welsh missionaries brought with them an enthusiasm for congregational hymn-singing and for the tonic sol-fa notation system, which had been a principal choral method in 19th-century Britain.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stevens |first=Robin S. |title=A Missionary Inheritance: Tonic Sol-fa in India |journal=Journal of Research in Music Education |year=2023 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=153–171 |doi=10.1177/15366006211069638}}</ref> Hymnbooks were published with Mizo words and tonic sol-fa notation, and this system became the foundation of choral music-making in Mizoram, where it remains in widespread use today.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stevens |first=Robin S. |title=A Missionary Inheritance: Tonic Sol-fa in India |journal=Journal of Research in Music Education |year=2023 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=153–171 |doi=10.1177/15366006211069638}}</ref> The most common hymn book in Mizoram is the ''Kristian Hla Bu'' (Christian Song Book), containing 600 hymns, many of which are translations of 19th-century evangelical hymns alongside original Mizo compositions.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=45}}</ref> Tonic sol-fa notation is introduced at the school level, and members of church congregations are often competent sight-readers of the harmonies.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=46}}</ref><br />
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Traditional instruments other than the drum fell into disuse following the missionary period, and the folk music environment shifted toward hymns, gospel music, and choral singing.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pachuau |first1=Joy |last2=Schendel |first2=Willem van |title=The Camera as Witness |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107073395 |page=37}}</ref> Many early Mizo-language hymns were direct translations of British evangelical hymns incorporating congregational worship styles.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=44}}</ref> The drum itself was initially banned by some missionary-aligned congregations but was reintroduced during the third spiritual revival and subsequently became central to church worship.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref> A series of spiritual revivals beginning in 1906, influenced in part by the Welsh Revival of 1904, led to the broad and rapid Christianisation of the Mizo population; the Mizo have widely identified as a Christian people since approximately 1930.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Lengkhawm Zai: A Singing Tradition of Mizo Christianity in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2013 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6376/ |page=1}}</ref><br />
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During the revival period between 1906 and 1930, a distinct style of congregational singing emerged known as ''lengkhawm zai''.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Lengkhawm Zai: A Singing Tradition of Mizo Christianity in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2013 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6376/ |page=2}}</ref> Songs composed specifically for this tradition represent a Christian but indigenous musical practice, combining elements of traditional Mizo melody with Christian themes, and are performed in a monophonic style accompanied by drums.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Lengkhawm Zai: A Singing Tradition of Mizo Christianity in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2013 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6376/ |page=2}}</ref> The ''lengkhawm zai'' repertoire dominates the Christmas and Easter seasons, as well as periods of mourning and informal community gatherings known as ''zaikhawm''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> Although ''lengkhawm zai'' and formal Western choral singing are stylistically divergent, both forms have been recognised as performing distinct and equally significant functions within Mizo Christian communities.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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A related repertoire, ''khawhar zai'', is associated with death and bereavement.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=1}}</ref> A Mizo death is customarily signalled by communal singing in the home of the bereaved for at least three days and nights, drawing the wider community to the household.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=1}}</ref> This practice has been studied as a distinctive ethnomusicological phenomenon combining theological, anthropological, and musicological dimensions of Mizo life.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=1}}</ref><br />
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The first Western musical instrument brought into Mizoram was a [[mouth organ]], introduced by Mrs Fraser in 1907.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pachuau |first1=Joy |last2=Schendel |first2=Willem van |title=The Camera as Witness |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107073395 |page=37}}</ref> [[Vankhama]] (1906 to 1970), a well-known composer, later helped popularise the [[guitar]] in Mizoram and is recognised for a unique lyrical style; he composed over fifty songs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pachuau |first1=Joy |last2=Schendel |first2=Willem van |title=The Camera as Witness |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107073395 |page=37}}</ref><br />
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=== Nationalism and the hnam hla tradition ===<br />
Alongside the church tradition, a genre known as ''hnam hla'' (nationalist songs) emerged in the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref> These songs expressed attachment to the homeland and Mizo identity, and became particularly significant during the formation of the [[Mizo Union]] and the [[Mizo insurgency|insurgency of 1966 to 1986]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref> [[Zo nationalism|Mizo nationalism]] emerged prominently in composition between approximately 1908 and 1911, with composers penning songs that fostered communal solidarity; this musical nationalist current culminated in the formation of the Mizo Union in 1946.<ref>{{cite web |title=Song and its Centrality in the Mizo |url=https://www.academia.edu/35491879 |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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Notable composers of ''hnam hla'' include [[Rokunga]] (20 February 1914 -- 12 July 1969), Laltanpuia, Kaphleia, and Captain L.Z. Sailo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> Rokunga began composing songs recognised publicly from 1934 onward and composed a total of over 127 songs across Christian, nationalist, nature, and festive categories.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music |journal=Innovations |volume=71 |year=2022 |pages=530–538 |url=https://journal-innovations.com/assets/uploads/doc/cae90-530-538.16077.pdf}}</ref> His choir music extended beyond religious repertoire to include nationalist songs employing poetic expressions of nostalgia and combining them with Christian vocabulary, giving voice to a new form of Mizo patriotism.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> His hymn calling on God to lead the Mizo people, ''Aw nang, kan Lal, kan Pathian'', was included in the ''Kristian Hla Bu'' and has been adopted as the de facto Mizo national anthem.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> Rokunga was posthumously honoured as Poet of the Century by the Mizoram Millennium Celebration Committee on 14 January 2000.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music |journal=Innovations |volume=71 |year=2022 |pages=530–538 |url=https://journal-innovations.com/assets/uploads/doc/cae90-530-538.16077.pdf}}</ref><br />
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=== Contemporary music ===<br />
Modern Mizo music spans gospel, pop, rock, and hip-hop, with an active recording and awards scene.<ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution of Mizo Traditional Music and Dance |url=https://mizoram.pscnotes.com/history-of-mizoram/evolution-of-mizo-traditional-music-and-dance/ |publisher=Mizoram PSC Notes |year=2024 |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> The ''Thazual Awards'' and the ''Lelte'' awards recognise achievement across genres.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vanlalawmpuia |first=C. |title=Exploring the Pursuit of Happiness in SaiWanah's 'Ka Pa Khuma' and the Essence of Ikigai from Japanese Culture |journal=Mizo Studies |volume=XII |issue=4 |year=2023 |pages=615–623 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/382947646}}</ref> Fusion bands combining traditional instruments and melodies with modern genres have gained popularity, and dance troupes incorporate contemporary choreography while preserving the essence of traditional forms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution of Mizo Traditional Music and Dance |url=https://mizoram.pscnotes.com/history-of-mizoram/evolution-of-mizo-traditional-music-and-dance/ |publisher=Mizoram PSC Notes |year=2024 |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> The [[Young Mizo Association]] (YMA) has organised ''lengkhawm zai'' competitions to ensure that younger generations continue to engage with the indigenous Christian musical tradition.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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Contemporary Mizo-language gospel music has gained a wide following both within Mizoram and in the diaspora.<ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution of Mizo Traditional Music and Dance |url=https://mizoram.pscnotes.com/history-of-mizoram/evolution-of-mizo-traditional-music-and-dance/ |publisher=Mizoram PSC Notes |year=2024 |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> [[Rpa Ralte]] (Lalrinpuia Ralte), a musician and songwriter from [[Aizawl]], is known for the Christmas gospel song "[[Angelte Zai Ri]]" (''Songs of Angels''), featuring Strings For Christ, released in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Angelte Zai Ri |url=https://open.spotify.com/track/00bkJX4mO3uNVkBU3yjIdZ |website=Spotify |access-date=2025-03-01}}</ref><br />
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== Periodisation ==<br />
Scholars have divided the history of Mizo music into three broad periods.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref><br />
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The first period, known as ''pipute hla'' (songs of the ancestors), encompasses the pre-missionary era.<ref>{{cite web |title=Song and its Centrality in the Mizo |url=https://www.academia.edu/35491879 |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> This category of song embodies oral tradition, draws heavily on nature imagery, and includes war chants, hunting chants, and other categories described in the indigenous folk song classification system.<ref>{{cite web |title=Song and its Centrality in the Mizo |url=https://www.academia.edu/35491879 |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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The second period, ''sakhaw thar hla'' (songs of the new religion), developed within the missionary era from 1894 onward and is shaped by Western hymn forms and tonic sol-fa notation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Song and its Centrality in the Mizo |url=https://www.academia.edu/35491879 |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> Many of these songs began as direct translations of British evangelical hymns before a substantial body of original Mizo compositions proliferated through the 20th century.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=44}}</ref><br />
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The third period, ''tunlai hlate'' (contemporary songs), encompasses the full range of modern Mizo popular music including gospel, pop, rock, and hip-hop, alongside the continuing development of choral and congregational traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref><br />
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== Classification of folk songs ==<br />
The Mizo possess an indigenous system of song classification.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> A study of their folk songs on the basis of this indigenous system shows that the Mizo have approximately one hundred different types of folk song.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lalruanga |title=Mizo Folk Songs: A Study |year=1984 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Aizawl}}</ref> R.L. Thanmawia groups these broadly into ten categories:<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="champhai">{{cite web |title=Culture and Heritage |url=https://champhai.nic.in/culture-heritage/ |publisher=Champhai District, Government of Mizoram |access-date=2025-03-05}}</ref><br />
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# '''Bawh hla''' (war chants) -- These are chants or cries uttered by a warrior returning from a successful raid, asserting his victory over the enemy.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> Only the warrior who had killed the enemy was permitted to chant ''bawh hla''; after a successful raid he would trample the body of the slain and cry out his own name before chanting.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The belief was that performing this rite would prevent the enemy's spirit from haunting the warrior and that the spirit would serve him in ''Pialral'' (Paradise) in the afterlife.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# '''Hlado''' (hunting chants) -- Chants celebrating a successful hunt, which could be performed on the spot, on the way home, or at the village celebration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lalthangliana |first=B. |title=History of Mizo Literature |year=1993 |publisher=M.C. Lalrinthanga |location=Mizoram |page=76}}</ref> Unlike ''bawh hla'', any witness to the hunt was permitted to join in.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# '''Thiam hla''' and '''dawi hla''' (invocation and incantation) -- Verse forms chanted by priests (''thiam'') and sorcerers during ritual ceremonies.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> These were transmitted orally and kept strictly private; they were used for medicinal purposes, animal sacrifices, and rituals involving the spirit world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# '''Dar hla''' (gong songs) -- Instrumental tunes composed for the gong ensemble rather than the human voice.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> ''Dar hla'' literally means "gong song" and employs three musical notes; it is the most numerous named category of Mizo folk song.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# '''Puipun hla''' (festive songs) -- Popular songs composed for community celebrations, including sub-types such as ''chai hla'', ''chawngchen zai'', ''salu lam zai'', and ''tlanglam zai''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> These are the most popular among all Mizo folk song categories and were sung communally while dancing at festive occasions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# '''Lengzem zai''' (love songs) -- Songs named after their amorous themes, with no fixed verse form.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# Songs named after '''tribes''' -- Some verse forms are named after a particular sub-group, for example ''Sailo zai'' and ''Saivate zai''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# Songs named after '''villages''' -- A few songs are named after the village of their composition, such as ''Lumtui zai'' and ''Darlung zai'', expressing patriotic attachment to one's birthplace.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# Songs named after '''vocal modulation''' -- A few songs are named after the modulation of the voice or a characteristic sound, such as ''Kawrnu zai'' (named after the gentle sound of the ''kawrnu'' cicada), ''Puma zai'', and ''Vai zawi zai''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
# Songs named after '''individuals''' -- A large number of folk songs bear the name of their composer or of a celebrated person, such as ''Saikuti zai'', ''Laltheri zai'', and ''Darpawngi zai''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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A defining characteristic of Mizo folk song is that each stanza or couplet is self-sufficient: every couplet or triplet carries its own complete message, a structure typical of oral folk traditions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The ''pipute hla'' category in particular is characterised by nature imagery and an absence of the philosophical or religious content that marks later song forms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Song and its Centrality in the Mizo |url=https://www.academia.edu/35491879 |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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=== The Chawngvungi legend and gong songs ===<br />
One of the most celebrated narrative folk songs is the ''Dar hla'' associated with Chawngvungi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The song describes the absurdity of the bride price demanded by Chawngvungi's mother, who required the ''Dar Huai'' (Gong of the Brave), a prized gong believed to ring of its own accord and considered too sacred to surrender as a bride price.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mizo music |url=https://en.bharatpedia.org/wiki/Mizo_music |publisher=Bharatpedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> When the gong was surrendered in breach of tradition, a sequence of fatal events followed, culminating in Chawngvungi's death, after which her mother and in-laws composed a lamentation immortalised in a three-note gong melody.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mizo music |url=https://en.bharatpedia.org/wiki/Mizo_music |publisher=Bharatpedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> R.L. Thanmawia has noted that in one of the oldest folk songs the lines attesting to the extraordinary value of the sacred gong in this narrative are preserved.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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== Musical instruments ==<br />
Traditional Mizo musical instruments are broadly grouped into percussion (striking), wind, and stringed instruments.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=25}}</ref> Although simple compared with the classical instruments of other Indian traditions, they served a central role in Mizo festive, martial, and spiritual life.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The Asia InCH Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage notes that the hills of Mizoram have long been characterised by a strong sense of music and song manifested in locally made instruments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Musical Instruments and Sound Objects of Mizoram |url=https://asiainch.org/craft/hill-crafts-of-mizoram/ |publisher=Asia InCH: Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> The Mizo possess six varieties of wind instrument and several types of percussion and stringed instrument.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zawla |first=K. |title=Mizo Pi Pute leh an Thlahte Chanchin |year=1964 |publisher=Gosen Press |location=Aizawl |page=82}}</ref><br />
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=== Percussion instruments ===<br />
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==== Khuang (drum) ====<br />
The ''khuang'' is the principal Mizo drum, made from a hollowed log of softwood roughly three feet long, with both ends covered in animal hide.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=29}}</ref> Preference is given to trees with softness and workability.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The hide is soaked in water for several days before being dried in the sun, cut to size, and lashed onto the drum with strips of skin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=29}}</ref> Sound quality varied with the weather: on damp days the skin loosened, requiring splinters to tighten it further.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=29}}</ref><br />
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Drums are classified by size: ''khuangpui'' (large), ''khuanglai'' (medium), and ''khuangte'' (small); an elongated drum is called ''kawlkhuang''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=29}}</ref> Historically, ''zawlbukkhuang'' drums were kept in the ''[[zawlbuk]]'' (young men's dormitory).<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref> Scholars believe the drum reached the Mizo through Burmese cultural contact during the period of the [[Pagan Kingdom]] (9th to 13th centuries), with Chinese influence on Burmese drum traditions forming a further possible vector.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref><br />
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The ''khuang'' is the only traditional Mizo instrument that remains in widespread daily use in the 20th and 21st centuries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> Once absent from religious ceremonies, it became central to church worship services following its reintroduction during the third spiritual revival.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref> In 1995, the Mizoram Department of Arts and Culture organised drum-making competitions to revive traditional craftsmanship.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref><br />
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==== Gongs (''dar'') ====<br />
[[File:Zamluang.jpg|thumb|A traditional ''darkhuang'' (large brass gong)]]<br />
Mizo gongs appear to be Burmese in origin, likely acquired during the Mizo residence in the [[Kabaw Valley]] during the 9th to 13th centuries AD.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lalthangliana |first=B. |title=History of Mizo In Burma |year=1975 |publisher=Arts and Science University Mandalay |location=Mandalay |page=10 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.14107/page/n3/mode/2up}}</ref> The collective Mizo term for gong is ''dar'', and all principal varieties of gong in Mizo use are classified under this broader category.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music |journal=Innovations |volume=71 |year=2022 |pages=530–538 |url=https://journal-innovations.com/assets/uploads/doc/cae90-530-538.16077.pdf}}</ref><br />
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* '''Darkhuang''' (also ''zamluang'') -- The largest Mizo gong, made of brass, with no standardised size.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=27}}</ref> The biggest known example, measuring 31 inches in diameter, is held in the [[Mizoram State Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The ''darkhuang'' was a luxury item owned by few individuals and was sometimes used as a means of exchange or demanded as [[bride price]] by the parents of a prospective bride.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> Beyond music, the ''darkhuang'' was sounded to convey messages, to call village meetings, for church congregations, and as an alarm for impending raids or wild animals.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music |journal=Innovations |volume=71 |year=2022 |pages=530–538 |url=https://journal-innovations.com/assets/uploads/doc/cae90-530-538.16077.pdf}}</ref> Since the late 20th century, the ''darkhuang'' has been used in the [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]] to signal quorum calls at the opening and close of each session.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music |journal=Innovations |volume=71 |year=2022 |pages=530–538 |url=https://journal-innovations.com/assets/uploads/doc/cae90-530-538.16077.pdf}}</ref><br />
* '''Darbu''' -- A set of three medium brass gongs producing three distinct notes, typically played by three specialists, one to each gong.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=26}}</ref> In some cases an expert ties two gongs to his body with rope and strikes them against one another, producing three distinct rhythmic notes simultaneously.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> These gongs were typically owned by a chief or an influential village elder and accompanied dances including [[Khuallam]] and [[Cheraw (dance)|Cheraw]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=26}}</ref><br />
* '''Darmang''' -- The smallest gong, used to keep time within the ensemble; it produces two different sounds depending on how it is held.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=27}}</ref> It has no musical effect without the support of other gongs or instruments, but is essential for rhythmic timekeeping during traditional dances.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
* '''Darbenthek''' -- A pair of equal-sized brass gongs clapped together, typically at festivals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=27}}</ref><br />
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==== Other percussion ====<br />
* '''Bengbung''' -- An indigenous [[xylophone]]-like instrument consisting of a series of flat wooden bars producing three musical notes, typically played by girls at leisure.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> The instrument has fallen into disuse and few contemporary Mizo know how to play it.<ref>{{cite web |title=Musical Instruments and Sound Objects of Mizoram |url=https://asiainch.org/craft/hill-crafts-of-mizoram/ |publisher=Asia InCH: Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
* '''Talhkhuang''' -- A larger variant of the ''bengbung'', made of three curved wooden pieces of varying depth so that the sounds produced when beaten differ in note.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref> It was brought out only for special occasions, such as the erection of memorial stones at the village ''lungdawh'' (entrance platform).<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
* '''Sekikhawn''' -- A hollowed [[gayal|mithun]] horn beaten to keep time for the ''darbu'' and ''darkhuang'', widely used in the Chai dance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=31}}</ref> It can be beaten against any object or another horn and provides rhythmic support to the gong ensemble.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
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=== Wind instruments ===<br />
* '''Rawchhem''' -- A [[bagpipe]]-like instrument made from a dried gourd into which nine bamboo tubes of varying sizes are inserted; five tubes are grouped on one side of the gourd and four on the other.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=28}}</ref> The player blows into a central mouthpiece and produces notes by covering holes with the fingers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=28}}</ref> Also known as ''rewchhem'', it has fallen out of everyday use and very few Mizo play it today.<ref>{{cite web |title=Musical Instruments and Sound Objects of Mizoram |url=https://asiainch.org/craft/hill-crafts-of-mizoram/ |publisher=Asia InCH: Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
* '''Tawtawrawt''' -- A bamboo [[trumpet]] assembled from successively smaller tubes fitted within one another, with a dried gourd fitted on the widest end.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=29}}</ref> This continues typically until the last tube is approximately the size of a forefinger; it was blown to signal one's location in the ''[[jhum]]'' (shifting cultivation field) or for amusement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=29}}</ref><br />
* '''Phenglawng''' -- The traditional Mizo [[flute]], made from a bamboo tube open at both ends with a notched blowing hole and three finger-holes on the opposite end to produce distinct notes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref> The [[Mara people|Mara]] call it ''siaramang chanongpa''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=30}}</ref><br />
* '''Tumphit''' -- Three bamboo tubes of different heights tied together in a row; the player blows down each tube to produce a separate note.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=31}}</ref> The ''tumphit'' was compulsory during the ''rallulam'' ceremony.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=31}}</ref><br />
* '''Buhchangkuang''' -- A flute made from a rice stalk or reed, generally played by girls.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thanmawia |first=R.L. |title=Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music (An overview) |url=https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) |publisher=Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Mizoram |access-date=5 March 2025}}</ref><br />
* '''Hnahtum''' -- A thin, tender leaf folded and placed between the lips, producing sound when blown; the volume depends on the force of the player's breath.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=31}}</ref><br />
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=== Stringed instruments ===<br />
* '''Tingtang''' (''tringtrang'') -- A one-stringed bowed instrument played in a manner similar to a [[violin]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=27}}</ref> A bamboo shaft is fixed to a hollow gourd covered with a dried animal bladder; the string is made from the fibre of the [[Metroxylon|Malay sago palm]] (''thangtung'') and is drawn with a thin bamboo bow.<ref>{{cite web |title=Musical Instruments and Sound Objects of Mizoram |url=https://asiainch.org/craft/hill-crafts-of-mizoram/ |publisher=Asia InCH: Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> The word ''tingtang'' now colloquially refers to the guitar in Mizo usage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=27}}</ref><br />
:A folk tale traces the tingtang to a blind woman named Chhunruii, who learned the craft from a feared instrument-maker named Thinglanga during the Mizo settlement in the Kabaw Valley; because of Thinglanga's fearful reputation, no one else would approach him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=28}}</ref> Chhunruii's wandering performances with the instrument became known as ''Chhunruii Zai'', and after her death the tingtang was further popularised, until it declined into disuse with the introduction of the Hawaiian, Spanish, and electric guitars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=28}}</ref><br />
* '''Lemlawi''' -- A bamboo instrument related to the [[jew's harp]] family, differing from it in shape and size.<ref>{{cite web |title=Musical Instruments and Sound Objects of Mizoram |url=https://asiainch.org/craft/hill-crafts-of-mizoram/ |publisher=Asia InCH: Encyclopedia of Intangible Cultural Heritage |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
* '''Tuiumdar''' -- A children's instrument in which a bamboo tube between two joints is carved so that strips of the outer covering are raised as strings and placed over the nodes inside it, played like a small guitar.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lianhmingthanga |title=Material Culture of the Mizo |year=1998 |publisher=Tribal Research Institute |location=Mizoram |page=32}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Choral music and tonic sol-fa ==<br />
Northeast India has gained a substantial reputation as a region rich in choral singing, a tradition that can in part be traced to the 19th century when Welsh missionaries brought with them an enthusiasm for congregational hymn-singing.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> In Mizoram, the tonic sol-fa method introduced by these missionaries became the mainstay of choral music-making, building on what commentators have described as the inherent musicality of the Mizo people.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stevens |first=Robin S. |title=A Missionary Inheritance: Tonic Sol-fa in India |journal=Journal of Research in Music Education |year=2023 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=153–171 |doi=10.1177/15366006211069638}}</ref> Almost all hymns in the ''Kristian Hla Bu'' are printed in SATB (soprano, alto, tenor, and bass) arrangements notated in tonic sol-fa, and this notation remains in use for community choral singing in Mizoram today.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=46}}</ref><br />
<br />
Choirs occupy a significant place in Mizo church life, performing on special occasions rather than in regular weekly services.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> In a choir performance, participants are hand-picked and have rehearsed together; they perform in at least four parts and exhibit high levels of vocal control and precision before an audience.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> Many songs performed by choirs today are original Mizo-language compositions; translated choruses including works associated with [[George Frideric Handel]] remain alongside a large and growing corpus of original works.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Overcoming Dissonance: Choral and Congregational Songs in Mizoram |url=http://www.sahapedia.org/overcoming-dissonance-choral-and-congregational-songs-mizoram |publisher=Sahapedia |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> The first edition of the ''Kristian Hla Bu'' was published in 1899, though the new compositions of Mizo composers were not formally included until the 1950 edition.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Heath |first=Joanna |title=Khawhar Zai: Voices of Hope in the Bereavement Singing of Mizo Christians in Northeast India |degree=PhD |institution=Durham University |year=2016 |url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11588/ |page=45}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Preservation and scholarship ==<br />
The intangible cultural heritage of Mizo music has been the subject of increasing documentation efforts since the late 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=N. |last2=Ramdinmawii |first2=E. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nath |first4=S. |title=Database creation and preliminary acoustic analysis of Mizo folk songs |journal=SN Computer Science |year=2024 |volume=5 |issue=8 |article-number=1153 |doi=10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Mizoram Department of Arts and Culture has been engaged in archiving the state's musical heritage, including maintaining a collection of recorded folk songs used in inter-school and inter-village competitions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=N. |last2=Ramdinmawii |first2=E. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nath |first4=S. |title=Resource building and classification of Mizo folk songs |journal=Natural Language Processing |year=2024 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=655–673 |doi=10.1017/nlp.2024.23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi-access=free }}</ref> The Mizo people are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group whose folk culture is described as an amalgamation of festivity, kinship, brotherhood, and merriment, and scholars have emphasised the urgency of preserving this intangible heritage as traditional customs give way to globalised modes of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=N. |last2=Ramdinmawii |first2=E. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nath |first4=S. |title=Resource building and classification of Mizo folk songs |journal=Natural Language Processing |year=2024 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=655–673 |doi=10.1017/nlp.2024.23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Computational and acoustic analysis of Mizo folk songs has been undertaken since the early 2020s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=N. |last2=Ramdinmawii |first2=E. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nath |first4=S. |title=Database creation and preliminary acoustic analysis of Mizo folk songs |journal=SN Computer Science |year=2024 |volume=5 |issue=8 |article-number=1153 |doi=10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A database known as the Tezpur University-Mizo Folk Song Database (TU-MFSD) has been compiled for acoustic characterisation and automatic classification of Mizo folk songs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=N. |last2=Ramdinmawii |first2=E. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nath |first4=S. |title=Database creation and preliminary acoustic analysis of Mizo folk songs |journal=SN Computer Science |year=2024 |volume=5 |issue=8 |article-number=1153 |doi=10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Acoustic analysis has confirmed the presence of creaky phonation at the end of sustained vowels in hunting chant and war chant categories, validated by spectrogram analysis, and has demonstrated that percussion events are more frequent in lyrical than in non-lyrical regions of recorded songs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=N. |last2=Ramdinmawii |first2=E. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nath |first4=S. |title=Database creation and preliminary acoustic analysis of Mizo folk songs |journal=SN Computer Science |year=2024 |volume=5 |issue=8 |article-number=1153 |doi=10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A machine learning classifier trained on this dataset achieved an accuracy rate of approximately 87.5 percent for automatic genre classification of recorded Mizo folk songs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=N. |last2=Ramdinmawii |first2=E. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nath |first4=S. |title=Database creation and preliminary acoustic analysis of Mizo folk songs |journal=SN Computer Science |year=2024 |volume=5 |issue=8 |article-number=1153 |doi=10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42979-024-03502-z|url-access=subscription }}</ref><br />
<br />
The role of song in Mizo identity formation has been the subject of academic enquiry that emphasises the function of oral song as a space for memory, offering access to the Mizo past that written history has not fully documented.<ref>{{cite web |title=Song and its Centrality in the Mizo |url=https://www.academia.edu/35491879 |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref> The ''Mizo Hlakungpui Mual'' (Mizo Poets Square), established in 1986 in Aizawl, commemorates outstanding Mizo literary and musical figures with memorial monuments; four phases of monuments have been erected, honouring a total of 36 individuals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malsawmdawngliana |last2=Lalsangpuii |first2=R. |title=Windows to the Past: Cultural Heritage of the Mizo |year=2024 |publisher=South-Eastern Book Agencies |location=Guwahati}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Notable musicians ==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Classic and pioneer artists<ref>{{cite journal |last=McKenzie |first=Kathryn |title=Pioneer Mizo artists |journal=Chhinlung Magazine |volume=II |year=1986 |page=19}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Lallianmawia Pachuau || CFL Hmingthanga || Laltanpuia Tochhawng || H. Lalthakima<br />
|-<br />
| C. Lalrinmawia || K. Lalchamliana || Liandailova Chhangte || [[Lalsangzuali Sailo]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Selected contemporary musicians<br />
|-<br />
! Name !! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[K.C. Runremsangi]] || Called the "Queen of Mizo Folk Song"; received the [[Padma Shri]] in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Femina's Fab 40: KC Runremsangi |url=https://www.femina.in/trending/in-the-news/feminas-fab-40-kc-runremsangi-is-dedicated-to-safeguarding-our-culture-278661.html |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=Femina}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| SaiWanah || His song ''Ka Pa Khuma'', featuring [[Mary Dawgni|Mary Dawngi]], won "Song of the Year 2023" from both the ''Thazual'' and ''Lelte'' award ceremonies; the song depicts a character named Khuma who finds happiness in a simple agrarian life and has been analysed in relation to the Japanese concept of ikigai.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vanlalawmpuia |first=C. |title=Exploring the Pursuit of Happiness in SaiWanah's 'Ka Pa Khuma' and the Essence of Ikigai from Japanese Culture |journal=Mizo Studies |volume=XII |issue=4 |year=2023 |pages=615–623 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/382947646}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[Rpa Ralte]] || Songwriter and musician from Aizawl; composed "[[Angelte Zai Ri]]" and other Mizo gospel songs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Angelte Zai Ri |url=https://open.spotify.com/track/00bkJX4mO3uNVkBU3yjIdZ |website=Spotify |access-date=2025-03-01}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[Mami Varte]] || Popular female vocalist.<ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution of Mizo Traditional Music and Dance |url=https://mizoram.pscnotes.com/history-of-mizoram/evolution-of-mizo-traditional-music-and-dance/ |publisher=Mizoram PSC Notes |year=2024 |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[Vanhlupuii]] || Popular female vocalist.<ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution of Mizo Traditional Music and Dance |url=https://mizoram.pscnotes.com/history-of-mizoram/evolution-of-mizo-traditional-music-and-dance/ |publisher=Mizoram PSC Notes |year=2024 |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Young Fella || Awarded "Best Male Artist 2023" at the 9th Thazual Awards.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vanlalawmpuia |first=C. |title=Exploring the Pursuit of Happiness in SaiWanah's 'Ka Pa Khuma' and the Essence of Ikigai from Japanese Culture |journal=Mizo Studies |volume=XII |issue=4 |year=2023 |pages=615–623 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/382947646}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Mizo culture]]<br />
* [[Cheraw (dance)]]<br />
* [[Chapchar Kut]]<br />
* [[Darkhuang]]<br />
* [[Rokunga]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150428073505/http://www.dipr.mizoram.gov.in/article/heritage-of-mizo-traditional-music-(an-overview) Heritage of Mizo Traditional Music] – Government of Mizoram<br />
<br />
{{Lushai frontier}}<br />
{{Mizoram}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mizo music| ]]<br />
[[Category:Music of India by state or union territory|Mizoram]]<br />
[[Category:Culture of Mizoram]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byatarayanapura_Assembly_constituency&diff=492602Byatarayanapura Assembly constituency2026-04-19T19:24:56Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Created A Details...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Constituency of the Karnataka legislative assembly in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox Indian constituency<br />
|name = Byatarayanapura<br />
|state = [[Karnataka]]<br />
|type= SLA<br />
| constituency_no = 152<br />
| map_image = 152-Byatarayanapura constituency.svg<br />
| map_caption = <br />
| map_alt = <br />
|mla = [[Krishna Byre Gowda]]<br />
|party = [[Indian National Congress]]<br />
| latest_election_year = [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2018]]<br />
|district = [[Bangalore Urban district|Bangalore Urban]]<br />
| loksabha_cons = [[Bangalore North (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bangalore North]]<br />
|established = 2008<br />
|electors = 5,08,799 (2023)<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/15163-karnataka-2023/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in |access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|7}}<br />
| reservation = None <br />
}}<br />
'''Byatarayanapura Assembly constituency''' is Assembly constituency under [[Bangalore North Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite news |title=List of elected members of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly |url=http://kla.kar.nic.in/assembly/member/14assemblymemberslist.htm |work=kar.nic|access-date=October 6, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=DELIMITATION OF PARLIAMENTARY AND ASSEMBLY CONSTITUENCIES ORDER, 2008 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |work=Election commission of India |access-date= October 6, 2017 }}</ref> [[Krishna Byre Gowda]] is currently the sitting MLA.<br />
<br />
== Members of Legislative Assembly ==<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
!Year<br />
!Member<br />
!colspan=2|Party<br />
|-<br />
|colspan=4 |Before 2008: ''Constituency did not exist''<br />
|-<br />
|[[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<br />
| rowspan="4" |[[Krishna Byre Gowda]]<br />
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress| rowspan=4}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2013]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2018]]<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/6933-karnataka-2018/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election -2018 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=7 September 2021}}</ref><ref name=karCeoResults2018>{{cite web |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/GenELC_2018/ResultsACWise.PDF |title=Karnataka 2018 - Candidate-wise Votes Details |date=2018-05-16 |access-date=7 September 2021 |website=ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in |publisher=Chief Election Office - Karnataka}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|[[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Election results==<br />
=== Assembly Election 2023 ===<br />
{{Election box begin |title = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Byatarayanapura }}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Krishna Byre Gowda]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 160,182 |percentage = 54.43% |change = {{increase}}9.12 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Thammesh Gowda H. C |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 121,978 |percentage = 41.45% |change = {{decrease}}1.63 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Nagaraj Gowda. P |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 4,365 |percentage = 1.48% |change = {{decrease}}7.38 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 2,383 |percentage = 0.81% |change = {{decrease}}0.04 }}<br />
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 38,204 |percentage = 12.98% |change = {{increase}}10.74 }}<br />
{{Election box turnout |votes = 294,894 |percentage = 57.96% |change = {{increase}}0.33 }}<br />
{{Election box total valid |votes= 294,274}}<br />
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 508,799 |ref = |change = {{increase}}15.53 }}<br />
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}9.12 }}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
=== Assembly Election 2018 ===<br />
{{Election box begin |title = [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Byatarayanapura }}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Krishna Byre Gowda]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 114,964 |percentage = 45.31% |change = {{increase}}3.79 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. Ravi |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 109,293 |percentage = 43.08% |change = {{increase}}15.55 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Chandra. T. G |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 22,490 |percentage = 8.86% |change = {{decrease}}9.00 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 2,154 |percentage = 0.85% |change = ''New'' }}<br />
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,671 |percentage = 2.24% |change = {{decrease}}11.75 }}<br />
{{Election box turnout |votes = 253,817 |percentage = 57.63% |change = {{decrease}}5.43 }}<br />
{{Election box total valid |votes= 253,709}}<br />
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 440,396 |ref = |change = {{increase}}33.28 }}<br />
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}3.79 }}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
=== Assembly Election 2013 ===<br />
{{Election box begin |title = [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Byatarayanapura <ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 : To the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=2014-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220034253/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Krishna Byre Gowda]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 96,125 |percentage = 41.52% |change = {{decrease}}1.49 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. Ravi |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 63,725 |percentage = 27.53% |change = {{decrease}}8.88 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hanumante Gowda |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 41,360 |percentage = 17.86% |change = {{increase}}2.63 }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. Manjunath |party = Karnataka Janata Paksha |votes = 1,781 |percentage = 0.77% |change = ''New'' }}<br />
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 32,400 |percentage = 13.99% |change = {{increase}}7.39 }}<br />
{{Election box turnout |votes = 208,380 |percentage = 63.06% |change = {{increase}}9.84 }}<br />
{{Election box total valid |votes= 231,515}}<br />
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 330,426 |ref = |change = {{increase}}24.02 }}<br />
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}1.49 }}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
=== Assembly Election 2008 ===<br />
{{Election box begin |title = [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Byatarayanapura <ref>{{cite web |title=General Election Karnataka Legislative Assembly 2008 Election Statistics |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |publisher=Government of Karnataka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201232433/https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}<br />
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Krishna Byre Gowda]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 60,979 |percentage = 43.01% |change = ''New'' }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. Ravi |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 51,627 |percentage = 36.41% |change = ''New'' }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C Narayanaswamy |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 21,598 |percentage = 15.23% |change = ''New'' }}<br />
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P Appaiah |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 3,728 |percentage = 2.63% |change = ''New'' }}<br />
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 9,352 |percentage = 6.60% |change = }}<br />
{{Election box turnout |votes = 141,793 |percentage = 53.22% |change = }}<br />
{{Election box total valid |votes= 141,782}}<br />
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 266,428 |ref = |change = }}<br />
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}<br />
{{Election box end}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of constituencies of Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]<br />
* [[Bangalore North (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bangalore North Lok Sabha Constituency]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Karnataka}}<br />
{{coords|13.060|77.594|display=title}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]<br />
[[Category:Politics of Bengaluru]]<br />
[[Category:Bengaluru Urban district]]<br />
[[Category:2008 establishments in Karnataka]]<br />
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Padma_Shri_award_recipients_in_literature_and_education&diff=512620List of Padma Shri award recipients in literature and education2026-04-19T16:28:01Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating a entry - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Recipients of a civilian award in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}<br />
<br />
This is a list of recipients of the [[Padma Shri]] award in the field of Literature & Education. The Padma Shri is the fourth-highest civilian award of the [[Republic of India]], after the [[Bharat Ratna]], the [[Padma Vibhushan]] and the [[Padma Bhushan]]. Instituted in 1954, the award is conferred by the [[President of India]] at ceremonial functions which are held at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Padma Awards Dashboard |url=https://www.padmaawards.gov.in |url-status= |access-date=31 July 2025 |website=padmaawards.gov.in |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs (Govt. of India)}}</ref><br />
<br />
As of 2025, a total of 693 individuals have been awarded Padma Shri for their contributions to literature and education.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
== Recipients ==<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 1950 – 1959<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Satyendra Nath Bose]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Arcot Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Amarnath Jha]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Josh Malihabadi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Maithilisharan Gupt]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Hussain Ahmad Madani|Husain Ahmed Madni]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Vallathol Narayana Menon]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1954<br />
|[[Shankar Pillai]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Bhagwan Das]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Dhondo Keshav Karve]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Prana Krushna Parija|Pran Krushna Parija]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Maneklal Sankalchand Thacker]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Krishna Kanta Handique]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Laxminarayan Sahu]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1955<br />
|[[Ratan Shastri|Rattan Shastri]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1956<br />
|[[Bhai Vir Singh]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1956<br />
|[[Kasturi Srinivasan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1956<br />
|[[Rajshekhar Bose]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1956<br />
|[[Mahadevi Varma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1956<br />
|[[Surya Kumar Bhuyan]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1956<br />
|[[Sukhdev Pande]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Abid Hussain]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Bhikham Lal Atreya]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Hazari Prasad Dwivedi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Siddheshwar Varma]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Govind Sakharam Sardesai]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Shyam Nandan Sahay]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Shiyali Ramamritha Ranganathan]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1957<br />
|[[Nalini Bala Devi]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1958<br />
|[[Kuppali Venkatappagowda Puttappa]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1958<br />
|[[Poola Tirupati Raju]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1958<br />
|[[Surya Narayan Vyas]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1958<br />
|Maganlal Tribhuvandas Vyas<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1958<br />
|Ram Chandra Varma<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1959<br />
|[[John Matthai]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1959<br />
|Barhgavram Vithal Warerkar<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1959<br />
|[[Nirmal Kumar Sidhanta]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1959<br />
|[[Ramdhari Singh Dinkar]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1959<br />
|[[Tiruppattur R. Venkatachala Murthi]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1959<br />
|[[Komaravolu S. Chandrasekharan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 1960 – 1969<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|1960<br />
|[[Kazi Nazrul Islam]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1960<br />
|[[Balakrishna Sharma Naveen]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1960<br />
|[[Rajeshwar Shastri Dravid]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1960<br />
|[[Haridas Siddhanta Bagish]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1960<br />
|[[Shiv Pujan Sahai]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1960<br />
|[[Artaballabha Mohanty]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1960<br />
|[[B. S. Kesavan|Bellary Shamanna Kesavan]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Seth Govind Das]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Rai Krishnadasa]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Sumitranandan Pant]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Parsuram Misra]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|Evangeline Lazarus<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|Muni Shri Jin Vijayji<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[N. D. Sundaravadivelu|Neyyadupakkam Duraiswami Sundaravadivelu]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Premendra Mitra]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Vinayak Krishna Gokak]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1961<br />
|[[Vishnukant Jha]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Sisir Kumar Mitra]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Venkataraman Raghavan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Gyanesh Chandra Chatterji]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Jafar Ali Khan]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Niaz Mohd. Khan (Niaz Fatehpuri)]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Narayan Sitaram Phadke]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Radhika Raman Prasad Sinha]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|Channapatna Krishnappa Venkataramayya<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Dula Bhaya Kag]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Sochi Raut Roy]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1962<br />
|[[Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Badri Nath Prasad]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Ram Kumar Verma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Makhanlal Chaturvedi]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Rahul Sankritayan]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Trivenkata Rajendra Seshadri]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Rashid Ahmed Siddiqi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1963<br />
|[[Ahindra Chowdhury]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1964<br />
|[[Gopinath Kaviraj]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1964<br />
|[[Kakasaheb Kalelkar|Acharya Kakasaheb (Dattatreya Balkrishna) Kalelkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1964<br />
|[[Sheikh Abdullah (educationalist)|Sheikh Abdullah]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1964<br />
|[[Anukul Chandra Mukerji]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1964<br />
|[[R. K. Narayan|Rasipuram Krishnaswami Narayan]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1964<br />
|[[Tushar Kanti Ghosh]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1964<br />
|[[Krishna Chandra Shukla]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Triguna Sen]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Mohd Mujeeb]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Vrindavanlal Verma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Narasinh Narayan Godbole]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[T. M. A. Pai|Tonse Madhava Anantha Pai]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Anant Atmaram Kanekar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Vishnu Namdeo Adarkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|Rev [[Panavelil Thomas Chandi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Gopal Prasad Vyas]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[John Travere Mends Gibson]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1965<br />
|[[Kandathil Mammen Cherian]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Bhai Jodh Singh]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Haribhau Upadhyaya]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Vinayak Sitaram Sarwate]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Nirmal Kumar Bose]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|B. Sivamurthy Sastry<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Harishankar Sharma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Inderjit Singh Tulsi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Poddar Ramavtar Arun]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Purushottam Laxman Deshpande]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Rajeshwar Nath Zutshi]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1966<br />
|[[Sayyid Ahmadullah Qadri]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[D. C. Pavate|Dadasaheb Chintamani Pavate]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Khwaja Ghulam Saiyidain]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Telliavaram Mahadevan Ponnambalam Mahadevan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Akshay Kumar Jain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Asoke Kumar Sarkar]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Benegal Shiva Rao]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Datto Vaman Potdar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Kalyanji Vithalbhai Mehta]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Krishna Kanta Handique]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Mulk Raj Anand]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Puthenpurayil Mathew Joseph]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Ali Sardar Jafri]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Balkrishna Bhagwant Borkar]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Chandravadan Chimanlal Mehta]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Mayadhar Mansinha]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1967<br />
|[[Prabhjot Kaur]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Acharya Vishva Bandhu]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Kota Shivaram Karanth]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Mariadas Ruthnaswamy]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Sudhir Ranjan Sen Gupta]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Gopalan Narasimhan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[G. Sankara Kurup|Govinda Kurup Shankara Kurup]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Mamidipudi Venkatarangayya]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Manchakkattuvalasu Palanivelappa Gounder Periaswamy Thooran]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Manukonda Cholapathi Rao]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Radhanath Rath]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Firaq Gorakhpuri|Raghupati Sahai 'Firaq']]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Shripad Damodar Satwalekar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Vishnu Sakharam Khandekar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Akhtar Mohiuddin]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Balasaheb Amgonda Patil]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Dattetreya Ramachandra Bendre]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1968<br />
|[[Kedar Ghosh]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Narayan Bhikaji Parulekar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Niharranjan Ray]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Haroon Khan Sherwani]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Gobind Behari Lal]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Krishna Chander]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Krishna Ramchand Kriplani]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Raja Rao]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Raman Madhavan Nair]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Samad Yar Khan Saghar Nizami]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Vithalbhai Jhaveri]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Yeshwant Dinkar Pendharkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Tarapada Basu]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Brahm Nath Datta 'Qasir']]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Gajanan Digambar Madgulkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Mahendra Nath Kapur]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Pandurang Vasudeo Gadgil]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Shyam Lal Gupta]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Srinivasa Natarajan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Surendra Nath Ghosh]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Thiagarajan Muthian]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Vairamuthu Pillai Subbiah Pillai]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1969<br />
|[[Amrita Pritam]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 1970 – 1979<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Tara Chand (archaeologist)|Tara Chand]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Amiya Chakravarty]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Birendra Nath Ganguli]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Purushottam Kashinath Kelkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Syed Abdul Latif]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Viswanatha Satyanarayana]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Buddhadeva Bose]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Gurram Joshuva]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Yashpal]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Ratan Lal Joshi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Tiuper Subramaniam Avinashillingam Chettiar]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Vivekananda Mukhopadhyaya]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Chandran David S. Devanasan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|P. Narasimhayya<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Vadlamudi Venkata Rao]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Miss Lilian Godfreda Lutter]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Pandita Sumatiben Nemchand Shah]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Ananda Chandra Barua]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Din Dayal]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Kumud Ranjan Mallick]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Kunnenkeril K. Jacob]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[P. Lal]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Phaneshwar Nath Renu]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Siddheshwar Shastri Chitrao]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Sikander Ali Wjad]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Sohan Lal Dwivedi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Weer Rajendra Rishi]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1970<br />
|[[Syed Masud Hasan Rizvi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Veni Shankar Jha]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Anant Vithal alias Dhananjay Keer]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Bhagwati Charan Verma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Jainendra Kumar Jain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Kalindi Charan Panigrahi]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Kandathil Mammon Cherian]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Namakkal Venkatarama Ramalingam Pillai]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Suraj Bhan]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Miss Grace Mary Linnell]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Ratan Shankar Mishra]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|Rev. Mother Theodosia<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|Abdul Haye '[[Sahir Ludhianvi]]'<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Atma Ram Bhatt]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Atul Chandra Hazarika]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Chinganbam Kalachand Shastri]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Ghulam Rabbani Taban]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Kothamanglam Subbu]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Labhu Ram 'Josh Malsiani']]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Narayan Gopal Thakar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Nirmal Chandra Sinha]]<br />
|Sikkim<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Pramatha Nath Bishi]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Suresh Singh]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Syed Mohd. Mirza Mohazzab]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Sheila Bhatia]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1971<br />
|[[Kum. Sulabha Panandikar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Hormusji Maneckji Seervai]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Pran Nath Chhutani]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Krishnaswami Swaminathan]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Adya Rangacharya]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Pothen Philip]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Syam Nandan Prasad Kishore]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Virendra Verma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Bhawani Prasad Tiwari]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Dharam Vir Bharati]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Jagan Nath Krishan Kate]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Mylai Ponnuswamy Sivagnanam]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Phool Chand Chowdhary]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Puttaparthi Narayanacharya]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Rajindra Singh Bedi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Shalil Ghosh]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Badal Sarkar]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Vedakantara Subramania Krishnan]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1972<br />
|[[Vidya Nath Langer]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Banarsi Dass Chaturvedi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Harindranath Chattopadhyaya]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Kunjuraman Sukumaran]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Pothen Joseph]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Bhoi Bheemanna]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Mohamed Abdul Khader Malik Mohamed]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Balwant Gargi]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Ranjit Ramchandrarao Desai]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Salam Machhlisheri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Shyam Lal Gupta 'Parshad']]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1973<br />
|[[Coover Bai Jehangir Vakil]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Camille Bulcke]]<br />
|Belgium<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[D. V. Gundappa|Devanahalli Venkataramaiah Gundappa]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Vasant Shankar Huzurbazar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Bhupati Mohan Sen]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Jayant Pandurang Naik]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Khushwant Singh]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Sukhlal Sanghavi]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Maheswar Neog]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Shiv Mangal Singh Summan]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Father Thomas V. Kunnunkal]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Anant Gopal Sheorey]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Ishrat Ali Siddiqui]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Kaifi Azmi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Qazi Abdus Sattar]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1974<br />
|[[Satyanarayan Rajguru]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|(Smt.) [[Premlila Vithaldas Thackersey]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Basanti Dulal Nag Chaudhuri]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Pratul Chandra Gupta]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Kirpal Singh Narang]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Balai Chand Mukhopadhyaya]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Mahadeo Lalji Shahare]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Bachubhai Ravat]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Jatindra Mohan Dutta]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1975<br />
|[[Mathew M. Kuzhiveli]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|Col. [[Bashir Hussain Zaidi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Kalu Lal Shrimali]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Giani Gurmukh Singh 'Musafir']] (Posthumous)<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[E. C. George Sudarshan|Ennacal Chandy George Sudarshan]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Harivansh Rai Bachchan]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Nava Kanta Barua]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Devulapalli Venkata Krishna Sastry]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Laxman Shastri Joshi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Begum Mumtaz Mirza]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Krishna Chandra Panigrahi]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Manickam Narayanan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Raghubhai Morarji Nayak]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[A. K. Ramanujan|Attipat Krishnaswamy Ramanujan]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Keshavaram Kashiram Shastri]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Syed Bashiruddin]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Mohd. Shafi Khan 'Bekal' Utsahi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Mukutdhar Pande]]<br />
|Chhattisgarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Mulk Raj Saraf]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Asha Purna Devi]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Gertrude Emerson Sen]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[Ismat Chughtai]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1976<br />
|[[M. K. Binodini Devi]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Harish-Chandra]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Thenpattinam Ponnusamy Meenakshi Sundaran]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Yusuf Husain Khan]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Kailas Nath Kaul]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[(Smt.) Madhuri Ratilal Shah]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Cingireddy Narayana Reddy]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Devendra Satyarthi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Pritish Nandy]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Sita Ram Lalas]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[T. S. Satyan|Tambarhalli Subramanya Satyan]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Evelyn Norah Shullai]]<br />
|Meghalaya<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1977<br />
|[[Indira Miri]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 1980 – 1989<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|1980<br />
|[[Rai Krishnadasa]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|[[Amritlal Nagar]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|[[Gopinath Mohanty]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|[[Krishna Datta Bharadwaj]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|[[Ram Partabrai Panjwani]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|[[Abid Ali Khan]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1981<br />
|[[Kunwar Singh Negi]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Acharya Pudukkottai Nattar Pattabhirama Sastri]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Stella Kramrisch]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Jhabar Mall Sharma]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Sher Singh 'Sher']]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Kalimuddin Ahmed]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Raghunath Vishnu Pandit]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Vaikom Muhammad Basheer]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1982<br />
|[[Gaura Pant 'Shivani']]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|Nagendra<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[K. Gopalaiyer Ramanathan]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Subodh Chandra Sen Gupta]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Benudhar Sharma]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Raghuvir Sharan 'Mitra']]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Ahalya Chari|Miss Ahalya Chari]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Attar Singh]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Amitabha Chaudhuri]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Hundraj Lilaram Manik 'Dukhayal']]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Komal Kothari]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1983<br />
|[[Saliha Abid Husain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Acharya Baladeva Upadhyaya]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Ganda Singh]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Hanumanthappa Narasimhaiah]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Ishwari Prasad]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Miss Marie Seton]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Horace Alexander]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Kotta Satchidananda Murty]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Pt. Shri Narayana Chaturvedi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Sadhu Singh Hamdard]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|Miss [[Qurratulain Hyder]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Shanta Kalidas Gandhi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Ganapatrao Govindrao Jadhav]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[John Arthur King Martyn]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Kshem Chandra 'Suman']]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Mayangnokcha Ao]]<br />
|Nagaland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Suranad P.N. Kunjan Pillai]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Syed Abdul Malik]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1984<br />
|[[Lakshmi Kumari Chundawat]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Rais Ahmed]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Gurbachan Singh Talib]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Shiba Prasad Chatterjee]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Tribhuvandas Purushottamdas Luhar 'Sundaram']]<br />
|Puducherry<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Vuppuluri Ganapathi Sastry]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Bharat Mishra]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Syed Hasan Askari]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Ashangbam Minaketan Singh]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Hari Shankar Parsai]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[James Dokhuma]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1985<br />
|[[Prabhulal Garg (Kaka Hathrasi)]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1986<br />
|[[(Smt.) Chitra Jayant Naik]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1986<br />
|[[Abdur Rahman]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1986<br />
|[[Binode Kanungo]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1986<br />
|[[Raghunath Sharma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1986<br />
|[[Nuchhungi Renthlei]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Annada Sankar Ray]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Nalapat Balamani Amma]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Debiprasanna Pattanayak]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Nazir Ahmed (scholar)|Nazir Ahmad]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Vanaja Iyengar]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Sant Singh Sekhon]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Abdus Sattar]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Khelchandra Singh Ningthoukhongjam]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1987<br />
|[[Khawlkungi]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Kuvempu|Kuppali Venkatappagowda Puttappa]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Mahadevi Varma]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Bal Ram Nanda]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Kartar Singh Duggal]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Karimpumannil Mathai George]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Vidya Niwas Misra]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Nissim Ezekiel]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Ali Jawad Zaidi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Madaram Brahma]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1988<br />
|[[Mario De Miranda]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[Mukut Vehari Mathur]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[Girilal Jain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[Barsane Lal Chaturvedi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[Kalim Ahmed Ajiz]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[V. Venkatachalam]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[Moti Lal Razdan Saqi]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[Rong Bong Terang]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|[[Anita Desai]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 1990 – 1999<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Bhabatosh Datta]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|Sattaiyappa Dhandapani Desikar<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Sukumar Sen (linguist)|Sukumar Sen]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Bimal Krishna Matilal]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Hirendra Nath Mukerjee]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Trilochan Pradhan]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Arun Shourie]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[C. D. Narasimhaiah|Closepet Dasappa Narasimhaiah]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Kunwar Singh Negi]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[N. Ram|Narasimhan Ram]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Muthukumaraswamy Aram]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Shyam Singh Shashi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Guru Aribam Surchand Sharma]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|(Dr.) [[Gopi Chand Narang]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Anjan Kumar Banerji]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Ashin Das Gupta]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Ram Nath Shastri]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Barjinder Singh]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Behram Pirojshaw Contractor]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|Dagadu Maruti Pawar alias [[Daya Pawar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Kanhaiya Lal Misra 'Prabhakar']]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Madhav Yeshwant Gadkari]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Nilmani Phookan]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Radha Mohan Gadanayak]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Sharad Joshi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Vijay Kumar Chopra]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|[[Yashpal Jain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Indraprasad Gordhanbhai Patel]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Rajaram Shastri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Al-I-Ahmad Suroor]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Kuthur Ramakrishnan Srinivasan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar alias Kusumagraj]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[(Ms.) Shareefunnisa Begum Ansari]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Kapil Deva Dvivedi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Madan Lal Madhu]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[P. T. Narasimhachar|Purohita Thirunarayana Iyengar Narasimhachar]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Sardar Anjum]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Syed Hasan (educator)|Syed Hasan]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Vishnu Bhikaji Kolte]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[B. K. S. Iyengar|Bellur Krishnamachar Sunderraja Iyengar]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Gopal Das Neeraj]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Keshav Malik]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Namdeo Dhondo Mahanor]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[R.K. Lalhluna]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Ramanarayan Upadhyay]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Rameshwar Singh Kashyap]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Satis Chandra Kakati]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Shadi Lal Dhawan]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Surendra Mohanty]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1991<br />
|[[Shila Jhunjhunwala]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Govinddas Shroff]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Laxmanshastri Balaji Joshi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Cingireddy Narayana Reddy]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Dalsukh Dahyabhai Malvania]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Setu Madhava Rao Pagadi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Syed Abdul Malik]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[(Kum.) Esther Abrham Solomon]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[(Smt.) Rajammal Packiyanathan Devadas]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Moirangtham Kirti Singh]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Vishnu Ganesh Bhide]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Mir Mushtaq Ahmed]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Laxmi Narayan Dubey]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Saiyid Amir Hasan Abidi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Vangalampalayam Chellappagounder Kulandai Swamy]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Vasant Shankar Kanetkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Bal Krishen Thapar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Gulabdas Harjivandas Broken]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Krishnan Krishnan Nair alias Krishna Chaitanya]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Nilkanth Yeshwant Khadilkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Nisith Ranjan Ray]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Ram Sarup Lugani]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[William Mark Tully]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1992<br />
|[[Sundari Krishnalal Shridharani]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[Bhisham Sahni]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[U. R. Ananthamurthy|Udupi Rajagopalachar Ananthamurthy]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[Debi Prasad Chattopadhyaya]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[Hari Krishan Sua]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[K. M. Mathew]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[Brijinder Nath Goswamy]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[Gurdial Singh]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[Narayan Gangaram Surve]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[O. N. V. Kurup|Ottaplakkal Neelakanta Velu Kurup]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1998<br />
|[[Lalsangzuali Sailo]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Amartya Sen]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Sarvepalli Gopal]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Shivmangal Singh Suman]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Vidya Niwas Misra]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[D. C. Kizhakemuri|Dominic Chacko Kizhakemuri]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Bashir Badr]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Kanhaiya Lal Nandan]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Satya Vrat Shastri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Asis Datta]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Gian Parkash Chopra]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Namdev Dhasal]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Rajkumar Jhalajit Singh]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Ruskin Bond]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|1999<br />
|[[Shayama Chona]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 2000 – 2009<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Jagdish Natwarlal Bhagwati]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Kakkadan Nandanath Raj]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[R. K. Narayan|Rasipuram Krishnaswami Narayan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[H. Y. Sharada Prasad|Holenarasipur Yoganarasimham Sharada Prasad]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Mandan Mishra]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Grigoriy Lvovitch Bondarevsky]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Abdur Rahman Rahi]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Late Shri Elangbam Nilakanta Singh]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Kalika Prasad Saxena]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Pahlira Sena Chawngthu]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Nabaneeta Dev Sen]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2000<br />
|[[Piloo Nowshir Jungalwalla]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[John Kenneth Galbraith]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Kotta Satchidananda Murty]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Boyi Bhimanna]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Karimpumannil Mathai George]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Shiv K. Kumar|Shiv Kumar Kumar]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Aroon Purie]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Bhabendra Nath Saikia]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Chandrashekhara Kambara]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Javaregowda|Devegowda Javaregowda]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Ravindra Kumar (political scientist)|Ravindra Kumar]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Gnanananda Kavi]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Bala V. Balachandran]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Kalidas Gupta Riza]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Keshavkumar Chintaman Ketkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Khalid Abdul Hamid Ansari]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Manoj Das]]<br />
|Puducherry<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Vachnesh Tripathi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Jeelani Bano]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2001<br />
|[[Padma Sachdev]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Chakravarthi Rangarajan]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[B. K. S. Iyengar|Bellur Krishnamachar Sundara Raja Iyengar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Mario Miranda]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Nirmal Verma]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Yevgeni Petrovich Chelyshev]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Ashok Ramchandra Kelkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Munirathna Anandakrishnan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Turlapaty Kutumba Rao]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Dimitris C. Velissaropoulos]]<br />
|Greece<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Gopal Chhotray]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Gyan Chand Jain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Madhu Mangesh Karnik]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Muzaffer Hussain]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2002<br />
|[[Veettikat Kunduthodiyil Madhvan Kutty]]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Bal Ram Nanda]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Sitakant Mahapatra]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[O. V. Vijayan|Ottupulakkal Velukkuty Vijayan]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Prabhu Dayal Chawla]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Subhash Mukhopadhyay (poet)|Subhas Mukhopadhyay]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Thaliyadiparambil Vittappa Ramachandra Shenoy]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Jagdish Chaturvedi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Motilal Jotwani]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Pritam Singh]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Yarlagadda Lakshmi Prasad]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Jahnu Barua]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Manzoor Ahtesham]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Nokdenlemba]]<br />
|Nagaland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Pratapsinh Ganapatrao Jadhav]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Vairamuthu|Ramasamy Vairamuthu]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|[[Shailendra Nath Shrivastava]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Amrita Pritam]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[(Prof.) Chennamaneni Hanumantha Rao]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Krishna Srinivas]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Gopi Chand Narang]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[M. V. Kamath|Madhav Vittal Kamath]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Vishnu Prabhakar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Kumarpal Desai]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Ramesh Chandra Shah]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Samuel Paul]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Shyam Narain Panday]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Syed Shah Mohammed Hussaini]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Dr.(Smt.) Dalip Kaur Tiwana]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Dr.(Smt.) Tatyana Yakovlevna Elizarenkova]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Premlata Puri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[(Smt.) Asifa Zamani]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Anil Kumar Gupta]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Hamlet Bareh Ngapkynta]]<br />
|Meghalaya<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Kesava Paniker Ayyappa Paniker]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Prithvi Nath Kaula]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr.) Heinrich Freiherr Von Stietencron]]<br />
|Germany<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Prof.(Smt.) Sunita Jain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Aubakir Dastan-uly Nilibayev]]<br />
|Kazakhstan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Bal Gangadhar Samant]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Kanhaiyalal Sethia]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Leeladhar Jagoodi]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[P. Parameswaran]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Sudhir Tailang]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2004<br />
|[[Gowri Ishwaran]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Andre Beteille]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Mrinal Datta Chaudhuri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Sardar 'Anjum']]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|(Ms.) [[Qurratulain Hyder]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Irfan Habib]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Mrinal Miri]]<br />
|Meghalaya<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Balraj Puri]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[M. T. Vasudevan Nair|Madath Thekepat Vasudevan Nair]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|William [[Mark Tully]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Shantaram Balwant Mujumdar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Mehrunnisa Parvez]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Amiya Kumar Bagchi]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Jagtar Singh Grewal]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Darchhawna]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Amin Kamil]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Bilat Paswan Vihangam]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Gadul Singh Lama (Sanu Lama)]]<br />
|Sikkim<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Mammen Mathew]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Manas Chaudhuri]]<br />
|Meghalaya<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2005<br />
|[[Shobhana Bhartia]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Mahasweta Devi]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Dusan Zbavitel]]<br />
|Czech Republic<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|Dr.(Smt.) [[Dinesh Nandini Dalmia]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Gregory Bongard-Levin]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Moolamattom Varkey Pylee]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Vijay Shankar Vyas]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr.) Lokesh Chandra]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Kamleshwar (writer)|Kamleshwar]]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Ramakanta Rath]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Miss Mahmuda Ahmad Ali Shah]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Sucheta Dalal]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Laltluangliana Khiangte]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Sitanshu Yashaschandra]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr.) Lothar Lutze]]<br />
|Germany<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Kashmiri Lal Zakir]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Ajeet Cour]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Fatma Rafiq Zakaria]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Mrinal Pande]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2006<br />
|[[Sugathakumari]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Raja Rao]] (Posthumous)<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Khushwant Singh]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Capt. L.Z. Sailo]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Gopaldas Neeraj]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Father Gabriel Chiramel C.M.I.]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Chandra Prasad Saikia]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Bhikhu Parekh]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Jeffrey D. Sachs]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Tapan Kumar Raychaudhuri]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Thirukodikaval Nilakanta Srinivasan]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Javed Akhtar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|(Smt.) [[Pratibha Ray]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Bakul Harshadrai Dholakia]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Giriraj Kishore]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Mahadev Prasad Pandey]]<br />
|Chhattisgarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Yusufkhan Mohamadkhan Pathan]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Dr.(Ms.) Meenakshi Gopinath]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Ravindra Dayal]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Mira Salganik alias Mariam L'vovna Salganik]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[(Dr.) Adya Prasad Mishra]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[(Dr.) Shekhar Pathak]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[(Ms.) Temsula Ao]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Mushirul Hasan]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Rybakov Rostislav]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Amitav Ghosh]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Mujtaba Hussain]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Vaali (poet)|T.S. Rangarajan alias Kavignar Vaalee]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Vijai Dan Detha]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2007<br />
|[[Vikram Seth]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[(Smt.) Shayama Chona]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[(Smt.) Padma Desai]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Brijinder Nath Goswamy]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Ji Xianlin]]<br />
|China<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Kaushik Basu]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Srinivasa Varadhan]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr.) Tharaileth Koshy Oommen]]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Ravindra Kelekar]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Shrilal Shukla]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[B. Sivanthi Adityan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Nirupam Bajpai]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Srinivas Udgata]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Vellayani Arjunan]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Mohammed Yusuf Taing]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Barkha Dutt]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Amitabh Mattoo]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Bholabhai Patel]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Bina Agarwal]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|(Smt.) [[M. Leelavathy]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[K. S. Nissar Ahmed]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Sukhadeo Kisanrao Thorat]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Rajdeep Sardesai]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Surjya Kanta Hazarika]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2008<br />
|[[Vinod Dua]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Debi Prasad Chattopadhyaya]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Isher Judge Ahluwalia]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Ramachandra Guha]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[(Dr.) Minoru Hara]]<br />
|Japan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[A. Sreedhara Menon]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[C. K. Prahalad]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[D. Jayakanthan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Kunwar Narain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Shekhar Gupta]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Aayu. Laxman Mane]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[A. Sankara Reddy]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Alok Mehta]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[John Ralston Marr]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Mathoor Krishnamurti]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Panchapakesa Jayaraman]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Ravindra Nath Shrivastava alias Ravindra Rajhans]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Utpal K. Banerjee]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[(Dr.) Ranbir Chander Sobti]]<br />
|Chandigarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Birendranath Datta]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Geshe Ngawang Samten]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Jalees Ahmed Khan Tareen]]<br />
|Puducherry<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Ram Shankar Tripathi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Abhay Chhajlani]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Bannanje Govindacharya]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Jayanta Mahapatra]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Lalthangfala Sailo]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Norden Tshering Bhutia]]<br />
|Sikkim<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Shamsur Rahman Faruqi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Sunny Varkey]]<br />
|UAE<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Suresh Gundu Amonkar]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2009<br />
|[[Shashi Deshpande]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 2010 – 2019<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Fareed Rafiq Zakaria]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Bipan Chandra]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Mohammad Amin (historian)|Mohammad Amin]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Satya Vrat Shastri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Tan Chung]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Anil Bordia]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Gian Parkash Chopra]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Jitendra Udhampuri]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Lal Bahadur Singh Chauhan]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Maria Aurora Couto]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|Ranganathan Parthasarathy ([[Indira Parthasarathy]])<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Surendra Dubey]]<br />
|Chhattisgarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Dr.(Smt.) Y.G. Rajalakshmi Parthasarathy]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Fr. Romuald D’Souza]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Bertha Gyndykes Dkhar]]<br />
|Meghalaya<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Arvind Kumar (academic)|Arvind Kumar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Govind Chandra Pande]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Hamidi Kashmiri]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Hermann Kulke]]<br />
|Germany<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Ramaranjan Mukherji (Posthmous)]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Sadiq-ur-Rahman Kidwai]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Sheldon Pollock]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Arun Sarma]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2010<br />
|[[Lalzuia Colney]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Sitakant Mahapatra]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[O. N. V. Kurup]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Ramdas Madhav Pai]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Sankha Ghosh]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[T. J. S. George]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Avvai Natarajan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Chandra Prakash Deval]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Pravin Darji]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Mamang Dai]]<br />
|Arunachal Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Urvashi Butalia and Smt. Ritu Menon (Duo)]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[D. D. Sharma]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Karl Harrington Potter]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Koneru Ramakrishna Rao]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Krishna Kumar (educationist)|Krishna Kumar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Nilamber Dev Sharma]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Pullella Sri Rama Chandrudu]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Riyaz Punjabi]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr) Bhalchandra Vana Nemade]]<br />
|Himachal Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr) Devi Prasad Dwivedi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Balraj Komal]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Barun Mazumder]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Devanur Mahadeva]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Granville Austin]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Mahim Bora]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Buangi Sailo]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2011<br />
|[[Rajni Kumar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[José Pereira (scholar)|Jose Pereira]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Arvind Panagariya]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Homi K. Bhabha]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Vidya Dehejia]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr.) Shantaram Balwant Mujumdar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Eberhard Fischer (art historian)|Eberhard Fischer]]<br />
|Switzerland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Surjit Singh Patar]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Pepita Seth]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Ralte L. Thanmawia]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Sachchidanand Sahai]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Irwin Allan Sealy]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Kedar Gurung]]<br />
|Sikkim<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Vijay Dutt Shridhar]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2012<br />
|[[Geeta Dharmarajan]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Mangesh Padgaonkar]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Jagdish Prasad Singh]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Radhika Herzberger]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Rama Kant Shukla]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[(Capt.) Dr. Mohammad Sharfe Alam]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Akhtarul Wasey]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Anvita Abbi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Christopher Pinney]]<br />
|United Kingdom<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Noboru Karashima]]<br />
|Japan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Devendra Patel]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[J. Malsawma]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Nida Fazli]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Salik Lakhnawi]] (Posthumous)<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|[[Surender Sharma]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Dhirubhai Premshanker Thaker]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Mrityunjay B. Athreya]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Anita Desai]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Lloyd I. Rudolph (Duo)]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Anisuzzaman]]<br />
|Bangladesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Susanne H. Rudolph (Duo)]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Vairamuthu]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Ruskin Bond]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[(Mrs.) P. Kilemsungla]]<br />
|Nagaland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Naheed Abidi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[(Dr.) Sengaku Mayeda]]<br />
|Japan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Ashok Chakradhar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Dinesh Singh (academic)|Dinesh Singh]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[G. N. Devy]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Kolakaluri Enoch]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Rehana Khatoon]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Ved Kumari Ghai]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Vishnu Narayanan Namboodiri]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Chhakchhuak Chhuanvawra]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Keki N. Daruwalla]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Waikhom Gojen Meetei]]<br />
|Manipur<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|[[Manorama Jafa]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|Jagadguru Swami [[Rambhadracharya]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[David Frawley]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Rajat Sharma]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Swapan Dasgupta]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Bettina Sharada Baumer]]<br />
|Himachal Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Gyan Chaturvedi]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Sunil Jogi]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Dr.(Mrs.) Annette Schmiedchen]]<br />
|Germany<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Ashok Gulati]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Bimal Kumar Roy]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Gunvant Shah]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Huang Baosheng]]<br />
|China<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Jagmohan Singh Rajput]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Nadarajan Raj Chetty]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Prof.(Dr.) Lakshmi Nandan Bora]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Bibek Debroy]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Brahmdev Sharma 'Bhaiji']]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[George L. Hart]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Jean-Claude Carriere]]<br />
|France<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Lambert Mascarenhas]]<br />
|Goa<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Manu Sharma]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[N. Purushothama Mallaya]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Rambahadur Rai]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Tarak Janubhai Mehta]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2015<br />
|[[Ushakiran Khan]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Avinash Kamlakar Dixit]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Ramoji Rao]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Barjinder Singh Hamdard]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Yarlagadda Lakshmi Prasad]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[N. S. Ramanuja Tatacharya]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Kameswar Brahma]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Ravindra Nagar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[S. L. Bhyrappa]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Shree Dahyabhai Karunashankar Shastri]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Pushpesh Pant]]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Ashok Malik]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Dhirendra Nath Bezboruah]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Haladhar Nag]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Jawahar Lal Kaul]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|[[Prahlad Chandra Tasa]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2016<br />
|Salman Khan<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Her Royal Highness Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn]]<br />
|Thailand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[(Dr.) Devi Prasad Dwivedi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Cho Ramaswamy]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Narendra Kohli]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[G. Venkatasubbiah]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Balbir Dutt]]<br />
|Jharkhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Hasmukh(H.R.)Shah]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Michel Danino]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Punam Suri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Viharidas Gopaldas Patel]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Anant Agarwal]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Birkha Bahadur Subba Muringla]]<br />
|Sikkim<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Chamu Krishna Shastry]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Harihar Kripalu Tripathi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Kashinath Pandit]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Vishnu Pandya]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Bhawana Somaaya]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Eli Ahmed]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|[[Dr.(Smt.) Vege Koteswaramma]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[P. Parameswaran]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Ved Prakash Nanda]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Prafulla Govinda Baruah]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Pandit Shyamlal Chaturvedi]]<br />
|Chhattisgarh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Arup Kumar Dutta]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Arvind Kumar Gupta]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Digamber Hansda]]<br />
|Jharkhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[M. Piyongtemjen Jamir]]<br />
|Nagaland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Malti Joshi]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Dr.(Ms.) Joyshree Goswami Mahanta]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Zaverilal Dalpatram Mehta]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Krishna Bihari Mishra]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Keshavrao Sadashivshastri Musalgaonkar]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Chandrasekhar Rath]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Bhagirath Prasad Tripathi ‘Vagish Shastri’]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Maharao Raghuveer Singh, Sirohi]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Gangadhar Vithobaji Pantawane]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[A Zakia]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Anwar Ahmad alias Anwar Jalalpuri]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Tomio Mizokami]]<br />
|Japan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|[[Habibullo Rajabov]]<br />
|Tajikistan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Kuldip Nayar]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Narsingh Dev Jamwal]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Kailash Madbaiya]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Ganpat I. Patel]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Nagindas Sanghavi]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Mohammad Hanif Khan Shastri]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Brijesh Kumar Shukla]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2019<br />
|[[Devendra Swarup]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"<br />
|+ class="nowrap" | 2020 – 2025<br />
!Year<br />
!Name<br />
!State<br />
!Field<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Manoj Das]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Puducherry<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Jagdish N. Sheth]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Kazi Masum Akhtar]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Gloria Arieira]]<br />
|Brazil<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Damayanti Beshra]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Lil Bahadur Chettri]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Indra Dassanayake]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Sri Lanka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[H. M. Desai]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Meenakshi Jain]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Beni Chandra Jamatia]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Tripura<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Vidushi K.S. Jayalakshmi and Shri K. V. Sampathkumar (Posthumous) (Duo)]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[C. Kamlova]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Narayan J. Joshi 'Karayal']]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Sriprakash Kotharii]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Rajendra Mishra]]<br />
|Himachal Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Binapani Mohanty]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Prithwindra Mukherjee]]<br />
|France<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[N. Chandrasekharan Nair]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Shiv Datt 'Nirmohi']]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Lalbiakthanga Pachuau]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Prasanta Kumar Pattanaik]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Jogendra Nath Phukan]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Yogesh Praveen]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Shahbuddin Rathod]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Sribhashyam Vijayasarathi]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Yeshe Dorjee Thongchi]]<br />
|Arunachal Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|[[Robert A.F. Thurman]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Chandrashekhara Kambara]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Asavadi Prakasa Rao]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Dharma Narayan Barma]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Sujit Chatterjee]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Srikant Madav Datar]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Dadudan Gadhavi (Kavi “Daad”)]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Jaibhagwan Goyal]]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Jagadish Chandra Halder]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[(Prof.) Mangalsingh Hazowary]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Namdeo Chandrabhan Kamble]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Rajat Kumar Kar]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[R. L. Kashyap]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Nicholas Kazanas]]<br />
|Greece<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Chandrakant Mehta]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Sundaram Solomon Pappiah]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Nanda Prusty]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Balan Putheri]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Chaman Lal Sapru]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Roman Sarmah]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Imran Shah (writer)|Imran Shah]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Arjun Singh Shekhawat]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Ram Yatna Shukla]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Mridula Sinha]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Kapil Tiwari]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Father Carlos G. Vallés]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Spain<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|[[Usha Yadav]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Radheyshyam Khemka]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Pratibha Ray]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Sachchidanand Swami]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|Acharya [[Vashishth Tripathi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Najma Akhtar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[T. Senka Ao]]<br />
|Nagaland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Jatinder Kumar Bajaj]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Sirpi Balasubramaniam]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Akhone Asgar Ali "Basharat"]]<br />
|Ladakh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[(Prof.) Harmohinder Singh Bedi]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[(Dr.) Maria Krzysztof Byrski]]<br />
|Poland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Khalil Dhantejvi]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Dhaneswar Engti]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Garikapati V.B. Narasimha Rao]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Giridhari Ram Gaunjhu "Giriraj"]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Jharkhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Shaibal Gupta]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Narasingha Prasad Guru]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Awadh Kishore Jadia]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Tara Jauhar]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Rutger Kortenhorst]]<br />
|Ireland<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[P. Narayana Kurup]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[V. L. Naghaka]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Chirapat Prapandavidya]]<br />
|Thailand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Vidyanand Saraik]]<br />
|Himachal Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Kali Pada Saren]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Dilip T. Shahani]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Vishwa Murti Shastri]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Tatiana Shaumyan]]<br />
|Russia<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Siddalingaiah]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Vidya Vindu Singh]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[Raghuvendra Tanwar]]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2022<br />
|[[(Ms.) Badaplin War]]<br />
|Meghalaya<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[S. L. Bhyrappa]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Kapil Kapoor]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Radhacharan Gupta]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[C I Issac]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Rattan Singh Jaggi]]<br />
|Punjab<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Anand Kumar]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Prabhakar Bhanudas Mande]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Antaryami Mishra]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Ramesh Raghunath Patange]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Bandi Ramakrishna Reddy]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Mohan Singh]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Prakash Chandra Sood]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Janum Singh Soy]]<br />
|Jharkhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Vishwanath Prasad Tiwari]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2023<br />
|[[Dhaniram Toto]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Hormusji N. Cama]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Kundan Vyas]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Raghuveer Chaudhari]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[R. N. Joe D’ Cruz]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat]]<br />
|France<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[(Dr.) Rajaram Jain]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Yashwant Singh Kathoch]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Zahir Ishaq Kazi]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Surendra Kishore]]<br />
|Bihar<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[M. K. Sridhar|Sridhar Makam Krishnamurthy]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Pakaravoor Chithran Namboodiripad]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Harish Naik]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Fred NEGRIT]]<br />
|France<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Swami Muni Narayana Prasad]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Bhagwatilal Rajpurohit]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Navjivan Rastogi]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Kethavath Somlal]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Gouri Lakshmi Bayi Thampuratty]]<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2024<br />
|[[Kurella Vithalacharya]]<br />
|Telangana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Kerala<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[A. Surya Prakash]]<br />
|Karnataka<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Bibek Debroy]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Rambahadur Rai]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Anil Kumar Boro]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Arunoday Saha]]<br />
|Tripura<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Arvind Sharma]]<br />
|Canada<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Chandrakant Sheth]] (Posthumous)<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[David R Syiemlieh]]<br />
|Meghalaya<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Ganeshwar Shastri Dravid]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Gita Upadhyay]]<br />
|Assam<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Hriday Narayan Dixit]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Hugh and Colleen Gantzer (Posthumous) (Duo)*]]<br />
|Uttarakhand<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Jagadish Joshila]]<br />
|Madhya Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[K L Krishna]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Lakshmipathy Ramasubbaiyer]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Lalit Kumar Mangotra]]<br />
|Jammu and Kashmir<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Maruti Bhujangrao Chitampalli]]<br />
|Maharashtra<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Nagendra Nath Roy]]<br />
|West Bengal<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Nitin Nohria]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Pratibha Satpathy]]<br />
|Odisha<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Ramdarash Mishra]]<br />
|Delhi<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Renthlei Lalrawna]]<br />
|Mizoram<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Sant Ram Deswal]]<br />
|Haryana<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Seeni Viswanathan]]<br />
|Tamil Nadu<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Sheen Kaaf Nizam (Shiv Kishan Bissa)]]<br />
|Rajasthan<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Stephen Knapp]]<br />
|United States of America<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Syed Ainul Hasan]]<br />
|Uttar Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[Tushar Durgeshbhai Shukla]]<br />
|Gujarat<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|[[V. R. Panchamukhi|Vadiraj Raghawendracharya Panchamukhi]]<br />
|Andhra Pradesh<br />
|Literature and Education<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Lists of Padma Shri award recipients]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anil_Kumar_Yadav_(politician,_born_1956)&diff=486597Anil Kumar Yadav (politician, born 1956)2026-04-18T21:42:09Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: bio</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1956)}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Anil Kumar Yadav<br />
| image = [[File:Anil Kumar Yadav.jpg|200px]]<br />
| caption = Anil Kumar Yadav<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age |1956|07|2|df=y}}<br />
| birth_place = Tintanga Karari, [[Bhagalpur District]], [[Bihar]]<br />
| death_date =<br />
| death_place = <br />
| office = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]<br />
| constituency = [[Khagaria (Lok Sabha constituency)|Khagaria]], [[Bihar]]<br />
| term = 1996-98<br />
| predecessor = [[Ram Sharan Yadav]]<br />
| successor = [[Shakuni Choudhury]]<br />
| office1 = <br />
| constituency1 = <br />
| term1 = <br />
| predecessor1 = <br />
| successor1 = <br />
| party = [[Janata Dal]]<br />
| spouse = Baby Kumari<br />
| children = <br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
| date = <br />
| year = <br />
| source = https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/3828.htm <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Anil Kumar Yadav''' (born 2 July 1956) is an Indian politician. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]], lower house of the [[Parliament of India]] from [[Khagaria (Lok Sabha constituency)|Khagaria]], [[Bihar]] as member of the [[Janata Dal]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://164.100.47.194/loksabha/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/3828.htm | title=Anil Kumar Yadav Lok Sabha Profile | publisher=[[Lok Sabha]] | accessdate=4 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/archive/electionanalysis/GE/PartyCompWinner/S04/partycomp28.htm | title=Partywise Comparison since 1977 Khagaria Parliamentary Constituency | publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] | accessdate=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="People1996">{{cite book|author=India. Parliament. House of the People|title=Lok Sabha Debates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LapXAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=1 June 2016|year=1996|publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat.|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Statistical Report on General Elections, 1996 to the Eleventh Lok Sabha: Constituency data, summary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7j2NAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=1 June 2016|year=1996|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|page=89}}</ref><ref name="India. Parliament. Lok Sabha 1997 p. ">{{cite book | author=India. Parliament. Lok Sabha | title=Lok Sabha Debates | publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat. | issue=v. 16, no. 14 | year=1997 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1VPAQAAMAAJ | language= | access-date=23 March 2024 | page=}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/3828.htm Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Yadav, Anil Kumar}}<br />
[[Category:1956 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:India MPs 1996–1997]]<br />
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Bihar]]<br />
[[Category:Janata Dal politicians]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heeralal_Samariya&diff=502482Heeralal Samariya2026-04-05T00:32:56Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: started basic post w/ refs</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Former Chief Information Commissioner of India }}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Heeralal Samariya<br />
| honorific_suffix = [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]] (Retd.)<br />
| image = File:Heeralal Samariya (Cropped).jpg<br />
| office = [[Chief Information Commissioner of India]]<br />
| term_start = 6 November 2023<br />
| term_end = 13 September 2025<br />
| predecessor = [[Yashvardhan Kumar Sinha]]<br />
| successor = [[Raj Kumar Goyal]]<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1960|9|14|df=y}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Bharatpur District]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]]<br />
| occupation = Retired [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS officer]]<br />
| alma_mater = ([[Bachelor of Engineering|B.E.]]) [[University of Rajasthan]]<br />
| children = <br />
| profession = [[Bureaucrat]]<br />
| spouse = <br />
| sibling = <br />
| website = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Heeralal Samaria''' (born 14 September 1960) is a [[retired]] <br />
[[Indian Administrative Service|Indian Administrative Service officer]] of 1985 batch. He has served as [[Chief Information Commissioner of India]] from 2023 till 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-06 |title=Heeralal Samariya appointed as chief information commissioner |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/heeralal-samariya-appointed-as-chief-information-commissioner-101699260619504.html |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
Heeralal Samaria was born on 14 September 1960{{Citation needed|date=January 2025|reason=BLP}}, in a [[Khatik]]<ref>globalkhatik.com/आदरणीय-श्री-हीरालाल-सामर/</ref>([[Dalit]]) family of Kugra village of [[Bharatpur district]] in the state of [[Rajasthan]].<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
[[File:హీరాలాల్_సామరియా.jpg|thumb|Heeralal Samariya]]<br />
<br />
Heeralal, a former IAS officer of the 1985 batch of [[Telangana]] cadre, who is currently holding the post of Information Commissioner, was promoted by the central government.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2023-11-06 |title=Heeralal Samariya sworn in as Chief Information Commissioner |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/heeralal-samariya-sworn-in-as-chief-information-commissioner/article67503327.ece |access-date=2024-02-06 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He was administered the oath of office by President [[Droupadi Murmu]] at a ceremony held at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]] in [[New Delhi]] on 6 November 2023. Hiralal Samaria is recognized as the first [[Dalit]] person to take up this responsibility.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/heeralal-samariya-sworn-in-as-chief-information-commissioner/articleshow/105000479.cms?from=mdr|title=Heeralal Samariya sworn in as Chief Information Commissioner|date=2023-11-06|work=The Times of India|access-date=2024-02-06|issn=0971-8257}}</ref> He will continue in this post till 13 September 2025. He has been appointed as the Chief Commissioner of CIC for a period of two years by the central government. He previously served in various capacities in the united [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]] states. He served as Director of [[Singareni Collieries Company|Singareni]], Chairman of [[Telangana State Southern Power Distribution Company Limited|Southern Power Distribution Company]] in the electricity sector, and as Secretary in the [[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)|Union Ministry of Labour and Employment]]. He was appointed as the Central Information Commissioner on 7 November 2020, and been promoted to the post of Chief Commissioner in year 2023 where he served till 2025.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Samariya, Heeralal}}<br />
[[Category:1960 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]<br />
[[Category:Indian government officials]]<br />
[[Category:People from Rajasthan]]<br />
[[Category:People from Bharatpur district]]<br />
[[Category:Dalit people]]<br />
<br />
{{India-bio-stub}}<br />
{{Gov-bio-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bandla_Krishna_Mohan_Reddy&diff=489518Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy2026-04-04T03:39:04Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: entry...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian politician}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy<br />
| father = <br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1975|11|26|df=y}}<br />
| alma_mater = <br />
| education = Intermediate, Govt Junior College, Gadwal<br />
| children = <br />
| parents = Venkatrami Reddy<br />
| spouse = <br />
| birth_place = Bureddypally, [[Dharur mandal, Jogulamba Gadwal district|Dharoor Mandal]], [[Jogulamba Gadwal district]], [[Telangana]]<br />
| constituency = [[Gadwal Assembly constituency|Gadwal]]<br />
<br />
| <br />
| predecessor = [[D. K. Aruna]]<br />
| office = [[Telangana Legislative Assembly|Member of Telangana Legislative Assembly]]<br />
| term_end = <br />
| term_start = 2018<br />
| term_start1 = <br />
| term_end1 = <br />
| predecessor1 = <br />
| successor1 = <br />
| constituency1 = <br />
| party = [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi]] (2014–2024, 2024–present)<br />
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]] (2024)<br>[[Telugu Desam Party]] (until 2014)<br />
| committees = <br />
}}<br />
'''Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy''' (born 21 September 1967) is an Indian politician, who is currently serving as [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of Legislative Assembly]] from [[Gadwal Assembly constituency]].<br />
<br />
==Political career==<br />
Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy during his school days he was an active leader in [[ABVP]]. He joined the [[Telugu Desam Party]] and contested from [[Gadwal Assembly constituency|Gadwal]] in 2009 elections and lost to [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] candidate [[D. K. Aruna]], he later joined [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi]] and contested as MLA in 2014 Assembly polls and lost to [[Indian National Congress]] candidate [[D. K. Aruna]].<br />
<br />
Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy contested 2018 elections on [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] ticket and elected to the State Assembly from [[Gadwal Assembly constituency|Gadwal]], defeating his nearest rival [[Indian National Congress|INC]] candidate [[D. K. Aruna]] with a majority of 28,445 votes. In 2023 elections he contested on [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] ticket and consecutively elected second time as MLA by defeating his nearest rival Congress candidate [[Saritha Thirupathaiah]] with a majority of 7,036 votes.<ref name="2023 Telangana Assembly Election Results - Gadwal">{{cite news |title=2023 Telangana Assembly Election Results - Gadwal |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S2979.htm |access-date=6 July 2024 |date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706172641/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S2979.htm |archive-date=6 July 2024}}</ref><br />
<br />
Krishna Mohan Reddy joined [[Indian National Congress|INC]] in the presence of Chief Minister and PCC president [[Anumula Revanth Reddy]] and other party leaders at the CM's residence at Jubilee Hills on 6 July 2024.<ref name="Gadwal BRS MLA Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy Joins Congress">{{cite news |last1=Deccan Chronicle |first1= |title=Gadwal BRS MLA Bandla Krishna Mohan Reddy Joins Congress |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/gadwal-brs-mla-bandla-krishna-mohan-reddy-joins-congress-1808805 |access-date=6 July 2024 |work= |date=6 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706173930/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/gadwal-brs-mla-bandla-krishna-mohan-reddy-joins-congress-1808805 |archive-date=6 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Seventh BRS MLA joins Congress">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |first1= |title=Seventh BRS MLA joins Congress |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/yet-another-brs-mla-joins-congress/article68374214.ece |access-date=6 July 2024 |date=6 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706173355/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/yet-another-brs-mla-joins-congress/article68374214.ece |archive-date=6 July 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="BRS continues to leak MLAs, seventh party leader joins Congress in Telangana">{{cite news |last1=The Indian Express |title=BRS continues to leak MLAs, seventh party leader joins Congress in Telangana |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/brs-mla-joins-congress-telangana-bandla-krishna-mohan-reddy-9437115/ |access-date=6 July 2024 |date=6 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240706173843/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/brs-mla-joins-congress-telangana-bandla-krishna-mohan-reddy-9437115/ |archive-date=6 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref> He returned to BRS after meeting party president [[K. T. Rama Rao]] on 31 July 2024.<ref name="After four weeks in Congress, Gadwal MLA Bandla Krishnamohan Reddy returns to BRS">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |first1= |title=After four weeks in Congress, Gadwal MLA Bandla Krishnamohan Reddy returns to BRS |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/gadwal-mla-bandla-krishnamohan-reddy-returns-to-brs-after-4-weeks-in-congress/article68463915.ece |access-date=31 July 2024 |date=30 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731113735/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/gadwal-mla-bandla-krishnamohan-reddy-returns-to-brs-after-4-weeks-in-congress/article68463915.ece |archive-date=31 July 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="Another U-turn by BRS MLA Bandla Krishnamohan Reddy: now expresses desire to continue in Congress">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |first1= |title=Another U-turn by BRS MLA Bandla Krishnamohan Reddy: now expresses desire to continue in Congress |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/another-u-turn-by-brs-mla-bandla-krishnamohan-reddy-now-expresses-desire-to-continue-in-congress/article68471863.ece |access-date=7 August 2024 |date=1 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807173003/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/another-u-turn-by-brs-mla-bandla-krishnamohan-reddy-now-expresses-desire-to-continue-in-congress/article68471863.ece |archive-date=7 August 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Reddy, Bandla Krishna Mohan}}<br />
[[Category:People from Mahbubnagar district]]<br />
[[Category:Telangana MLAs 2018–2023]]<br />
[[Category:Telangana MLAs 2023–2028]]<br />
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]<br />
[[Category:Telugu Desam Party politicians]]<br />
[[Category:Bharat Rashtra Samithi politicians]]<br />
[[Category:1975 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lister_Expedition&diff=513333Lister Expedition2026-03-29T15:05:45Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating new post</p>
<hr />
<div>{{over-quotation|date=May 2025}}<br />
{{Short description|Punitive Expedition against Mora (1850)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox military conflict<br />
| conflict = Lister Expedition<br />
| width = <br />
| partof = <br />
| image = <br />
| image_size =<br />
| alt =<br />
| caption = <br />
| date = 13 January 1850 - 23 January 1850<br />
| place = [[Lushai Hills]]<br />
| coordinates = <!--Use the {{coord}} template --><br />
| map_type = <br />
| map_relief = <br />
| map_size = <br />
| map_marksize = <br />
| map_caption = <br />
| map_label = <br />
| territory = <br />
| result = British Victory<br /><small>Subjugation of Mora<br />Release of 400 captives</small><br />
| status = <br />
| combatants_header = <br />
| combatant1 = {{flag icon|British Raj}}[[British Raj]]<br />{{flag icon|United Kingdom}}[[United Kingdom]]<br />
| combatant2 = [[Mizo Chieftainship|Lushai chiefdoms]]<br />
| combatant3 = <br />
| commander1 = {{flag icon|British Raj}} [[Frederick George Lister]]<br />
| commander2 = [[Mora (chief)|Mora]]<br />
| commander3 = <br />
| units1 = [[Sylhet Light Infantry]]<br />
| units2 = Tribal Militias<br />Raiding parties<br />
| units3 = <br />
| strength1 = 200 men<br />
| strength2 = <br />
| strength3 = <br />
| casualties1 = <br />
| casualties2 = <br />
| casualties3 = <br />
| notes = <br />
| campaignbox = <br />
}}<br />
The '''Lister Expedition''' was a punitive expedition in 1850 against Lushai chiefs such as [[Mora (chief)|Mora]] who raided Cachar. It is referred to as the Lister Expedition, which was headed by Colonel [[Frederick George Lister]].{{sfn|Griffin}}<br />
==Background==<br />
In November 1849, the Magistrate of Sylhet reported a series of raids on the Simla River within British territory. A party of wood-cutters had been attacked. Another attack had followed up on a village of Halams (a class of Tipperahs), which had been cut up and destroyed. Reports from Cachar stated that the Lushais, under Chief Lalianvunga and his son Mora, had attacked a Kuki settlement ten miles south of Silchar belonging to Seyahpow. The raid saw 29 people killed and 42 captives taken. Lallianvunga and Mora would subsequently attack the village of Chief Leelong and burn it down before withdrawing back.{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=291}}<br />
<br />
==Lister's Expedition==<br />
The government resolved on a strong response. The King of [[Hill Tipperah]], [[Ishan Chandra Manikya]], was ordered to summon the guilty chiefs and their warriors to release the captives. The British warned him that if he was unable to fulfil the demand, the British would march a force into his territory to enforce justice.{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=291}}<br />
<br />
Colonel Lister, the commandant of the Sylhet Infantry and Agent for the Khasi Hills was made responsible for the expedition. Lister was instructed to not heed to any land disputes or claims by the King of Tripura in regards to British holdings. Inquiries showed that the Sylhet raid was far within British territory along with the Cachar raid. Friendly Kuki scouts reported that the attacking party belonged to Khojawal or the Kachak tribe. The settlement was established two days march southeast of Chutterchoora. The Kuki scouts offered to join the expedition to the settlements of the tribe.<br />
<br />
On 13 January 1850, the expedition was preparing for departure when another raid occurred. In Sylhet, a boundary point in dispute of the King of Tripura known as Thannah Latoo was raided. Originally the responsibility was assigned to the targeted tribe of the expedition before it was realized that Tripuri subjects had done it. The enquiry was not followed up afterwards.{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=292}}<br />
<br />
Colonel Lister's force marched from Silchar on 4 January 1850. The expedition consisted of 200 men. Mules and elephants limited the party's ability to penetrate the Lushai Hills.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1985|p=30}} The road was dangerous due to small rivulets and dense jungles. He was helped by Chief Salpoe who supplied [[coolie]]s. Salpoe also contributed to the force with food and [[ryot]]s.<br />
<br />
On 14 January, Lister arrived at a village belonging to a chief called Mora.{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=292}} Mora built his capital settlement at the top of a high mountain.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1995}} The expedition sounded their [[bugle]]s which echoed across the hills but no shots were fired. It was assumed that the warriors had undertaken a hunting party trip or another raid while the expedition had reached the village. The expedition was also considered to be a surprise as most Lushai chiefs didn't expect the British to be able to locate their settlements. Salpoe's coolies and auxiliaries in Lister's force provided the information required to achieve this.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1985|p=30}} The settlement possessed 800-1000 houses full of grain, cotton and other resources.{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=292}} On 16 January, Lister entered the village with no resistance as Mora had retreated to his settlement at the top of the hill. The force managed to free 429 captives. Lister was cautious on account of Salpoe's kukis' advice and didn't ascend the mountain with his smaller force.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1990|p=284}} Lister had observed the capital settlement with a telescope and observed a well fortified position on an uphill incline to reach it.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1985|p=30}} On 16 January, Mora's settlement was burnt down, and Lister retreated after its destruction.{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=292}} Lister would return on 23 January. When questioned on cutting the expedition short, he reasoned that severe damage would have occurred to the force if he had delayed.{{sfn|Chatterjee|2009|p=21}}<br />
<br />
==Lister's report==<br />
Lister prepared a report on the details of the expedition to the secretary of the Bengal Government on 2 February 1850 from Cherrapunji. He stated the expedition began on 4 January 1850 with a detachment of 200 men. The road was dangerous due to the small rivulets and dense jungles. Elephants and supply caravans with great difficulty overcame the terrain of the Lushai Hills. After Mora's village's destruction, the journey was taken from 17 to 23 January.{{sfn|Chatterjee|2009|p=20}} As a result, for the report, the government of Bengal readily agreed to the suggestions and appointed him Frontier Officer to ward off the Lushai raids. With this, the interference of British authorities from Sylhet became restrained. Lister was reassigned from Sylhet to Cachar as a result.{{sfn|Chatterjee|2009|p=23}} Lister's report on the expedition is also considered one of the earliest analysis and observations of the Lushai Hills prior to widespread communication and familiarization. Chatterjee argues that the quarrels of British bureaucracy between Tripura and Sylhet shifted the focus away from understanding the Lushai Hills and the threat they carried in their raids. The British failed to see the new Sailo chiefs descended from Lallula take over the Lushai Hills in the north and West.{{sfn|Chatterjee|2009|p=24}} Lister's report is provided below from Alexander Mackenzie's 1884 book on British relations with the Northeast Hill Tribes:<br />
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{{blockquote<br />
|text= The Lushais are a very powerful tribe under the Government of six sirdars, of whom one is the acknowledged chief. They all have their separate cantonments with a number of dependent villages attached. In these cantonments the fighting men reside; in the dependent villages are located their ryots, who are merely used as coolies, and for tilling the soil. They consist, in many instances, of the captives they have brought away in their different expeditions, a great part of them probably taken as mere children and gradually reconciled to their captivity.<br />The fighting part of the Lushai population are composed, first, of Lushai who appear to be a cross between the Kookies and Burmese; secondly, of a certain number of true Burmese, entertained for the purposes of warfare; and thirdly, of refugees and outlaws from Manipur and our own frontier.<br />The chief who is now at the head of these tribes by name Barmoeelin is said to have 300 Burmese in his service. His headquarters, which lay to the south-west of Mora's village, I could see plainly with a telescope. It appeared to be a cantonment laid out with the utmost regularity, and containing, I should say, not less than three thousand fighting men, and from what I saw, and the information I have received, I do not consider this beyond the mark. The Burmese portion of the force are armed with muskets and ''dows'', the remainder with spears and ''dows''.<br />I have before remarked that the Lushai are a cross between the Kookies and Burmese, and this opinion is strengthened by the belief universally prevalent that a part turned to Ava, but settled in the jungles south of Cachar. Almost all the other kookie tribes are migratory in their habits, changing their residence every two or three years but from ther substantial way in which the Lushai villages are built, I cam convinced they are a stationary tribe, and this stamps them as different from the other Kookies, who one and all entertain a great dread of them.<br />His honor will remark on the facility with which I gained possession of a large village in the face of this powerful people. But to explain this, I have only to state that with very few exceptions, the whole fighting population of this village were absent on one of their marauding excursions, added to which they were taken completely by surprise, as the path by which I approached the cantonments they believed to be known only to themselves; and as all their lookouts were posted on the main road, they were in utter ignorance of my movements.<br />On reaching the village, however, and discovering the description of country I had got into, the distance from any supports, and the difficulties of the road, I considered I should be compromising the safety of my detachment by remaining a longer time than would suffice to give the men necessary rest.<br />The nature of the country is such, that a few stockades thrown up at certain points would serve to cut off all communication and these, expert as the Kookies I heard from my spies that Barmooelin's village was full of men, and they could have intercepted me at any point along the road. Indeed, although I was only one night in Mora's village, yet in that intervene they had commenced stocktaking the direct road, with a view of cutting me off, though probably not anticipating my so speedy return, the works were not complete and no attempt was made to defend them. No doubt a short delay on my part would have enabled them to raise the whole country to intercept my line of march. Even as it is, I have some reason for thinking they expected me to return by the path I had taken in going, and had I chosen that route I should probably have met with some opposition. it is not their muskets or other offensive weapons that are to be dreaded, but their expertness in the use of the ''dow'', and the facilities in which their jungles afford, both in materials and position for throwing obstacles in the way of an advance or retreat.<br />There can be no doubt that Mullah was the chief whose people committed the outrage on the Roopa Cherra in November last, and to confirm this, an abkaree perwannah was found in his house, bearing the name of a man belonging to the Tripoorah village, which was plunged on that occasion and dated 1849. Lalpoo the chief who conducted the expedition into Cachar, had died a few days before I reached the Lushai country.<br/>One gratifying circumstance attending the expedition I have now to record, which is that during the confusion caused by the destruction of his cantonment, 429 captives made their escape from the villages dependent on Mora and succeeded in finding their way to Cachar. This, and the loss of consequent on the destruction of all his property, will probably cripple him for some time, but he is only one of the petty chiefs, and I cannot feel assured that my expedition will have had little real effect on the tribe at large, further than shewing them that is it possible for us to penetrate their jungles.<br/>I am of opinion that to put down these people effectually would employ a well appointed force of not less than three thousand men. From 500 to 1000 of these would be required for keeping open the road from Cachar and protecting the various reports (since there are several bypaths leading on to the main road easily passable for the Kookies), and the remainder for carrying on operations in the country. A portion of this force ought to consist of Europeans, as a great deal of stockade work might be expected from the great abundance of materials and the ease and rapidity with which these people run up stockades, to which may be added the well known character of the Burmese for this kind of warfare.<br />From the nature of the country (all the ranges of hills running north and south), I feel convinced that an attack from any other quarter, except Cachar, would be attended with the greatest difficulty and, indeed, is in my opinion impracticable. Towards the Chittagong side the ranges rise higher and higher and both from that direction and from Sylhet or Comillah numerous ranges of hills, as well as difficult swamps and unfordable rivers, would have to be crossed; whereas from Cachar a good chain of hills runs down unbroken into the enemy's country, and along this a good practicable road might be constructed by a couple of companies of pioneers aided by builders and Kookies to cut the jungle. The road might be commenced on the 1st of November and it could be completed in a month. Depots for provisions would have to be formed along the road. All supplies must come from Cachar and very extensive Commissariat arrangements would of course be necessary.<br />It will be for his honor to decide whether such considerable operations should be entered upon. I can only state my views that, unless something decisive is done, the whole of Cachar south of the Barak and probably a great extent of country south of Sylhet will become a desert. The Lushais have been getting bolder, and extending their ravages further every year, and I feel convinced they are the authors of all the massacres committed on the frontier from year to year.<br />Even allowing that small detachments could penetrate into their country from time to time and destroy one or two of their villages, this would be at very considerable risk and would only have the effect of inciting them to fresh outrages from a spirit of revenge. Unless their independence as a powerful tribe is quite broken, the frontier will never be free from their attacks.<br />That they acknowledge no allegiance to the Tipperah Raja is certain; but whether as is reported, he or his ministers have any means of communicating with them, I cannot say. Certainly he must be powerless to ''prevent'' their ravages. Should he, however, have any means to his disposal, I think that he as well as the Raja of Manipur should be invested to co-operate in whatever measures my be taken for effectual putting down of these miscreants.<br />As a temporary measure, I venture to suggest the arming with muskets of a few hundred Kookies (could they be got to serve) under a young, active and enterprising European officer. These I would have taught to fire with accuracy; nothing more; and I would post them in stockards along the frontier at the most frequented passes into Sylhet and Cachar. Many of the Kookies who accompanied me expressed their willingness to take service and said that armed with muskets they would have no dread of the Lushais.<br />I would further suggest that all condemned muskets belonging to the Sulhet Light Infantry should be handed over to the Superintendent of Cachar for distribution among the frontier villages, and I would recommend that that officer be authorized to indent for ammunition, to be served out at his discretion. <br />
<br />
|title=Lister's Report on the Expedition to Secretary of Bengal Government<br />
|source=History of the Relations of the government with the Hills Tribes of the North-east Frontier of Bengal, [[Alexander Mackenzie (civil servant)|Alexander Mackenzie]], 1884<br />
|author=[[Frederick George Lister]]{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=292-294}}<br />
}}<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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==Sources==<br />
*{{cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Suhas |date=1985 |title=British rule in Mizoram |location=New Delhi |publisher=Mittal Publications}}<br />
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*{{cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Suhas |date=1995 |title=Mizo Chiefs and the Chiefdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YON9iVgsDRUC |location=New Delhi |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=81-85880-72-7}}<br />
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*{{cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Suhas |date=2009 |title=Frontier Officers in Colonial Northeast India|location=New Delhi |publisher=Akansha Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8370-168-6}}<br />
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*{{cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Suhas |date=1990 |title=Mizo Encyclopaedia|location=Aizawl|publisher=Jaico Publishing House}}<br />
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*{{cite web |last=Griffin |first=Charles |title=8th Gurkha Rifles:44th Sylhet Light Infantry |url=https://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/8thgurkhas.htm |website=The British Empire |location= |publisher= |access-date=19 January 2025}}<br />
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*{{cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Alexander |date=1884 |title=History of the Relations of the government with the Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier of Bengal |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501684/page/n5/mode/2up |location=Calcutta |publisher=Home Department Press}} {{PD-notice}}<br />
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*{{cite book |last=Shakespear |first=L.W |date=1929 |title=History of the Assam Rifles|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.2395/page/n1/mode/2up |location=London |publisher=Macmillan and Co, Limited}}<br />
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{{Lushai frontier}}<br />
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[[Category:1850 in India]]<br />
[[Category:1840s in British India]]<br />
[[Category:1850s in British India]]<br />
[[Category:Conflicts in 1850]]<br />
[[Category:Punitive expeditions in the Lushai Hills]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fascism&diff=473290Fascism2026-03-29T02:35:32Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: further cleaned up article based on references also and corrected details</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Far-right authoritarian political ideology}}<br />
{{pp-semi-indef}}<br />
{{For-multi|other uses|Fascism (disambiguation)|the original Italian political movement|Italian fascism}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}<br />
[[File:Mussolini and Hitler 1940 (retouched) (cropped b).jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Benito Mussolini]], dictator of [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] (left), and [[Adolf Hitler]], dictator of [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] (right), were notable fascist leaders.]]<br />
{{fascism sidebar}}<br />
'''Fascism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|æ|ʃ|ɪ|z|əm}} {{respell|FASH|iz|əm}}) is a <!-- DO NOT REMOVE THIS TERM, SEE TALK PAGE -->[[far-right]]<!-- DO NOT REMOVE THIS TERM, SEE TALK PAGE -->, [[authoritarian]], and [[ultranationalist]] political ideology and movement that rose to prominence in early-20th-century Europe.<ref name="RoutledgeCompanion">{{harvp|Davies|Lynch|2002|pp=[https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00davi/page/1 1–5]}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Badie|Berg-Schlosser|Morlino|2011|loc=Fascism|pp=887–888}}<br />{{harvp|Payne|1975|p=162|ps=: "[...] goals of radical and authoritarian nationalism"}}<br />{{harvp|Larsen|Hagtvet|Myklebust|1984|p=424|ps=: "[...] organized form of integrative radical nationalist authoritarianism"}}<br />{{harvp|Paxton|2004|pp=32, 45, 173|ps=: (32) "[...] antiliberal values, more aggressive nationalism and racism, and a new aesthetic of instinct and violence"; (173) "[...] overtly violent racism and nationalism. [...] its defining elements—unlimited particular sovereignty, a relish for war, and a society based on violent exclusion"}}<br />{{harvp|Nolte|1965|p=300|ps=: "National fascism, as we have shown, is distinguished from nationalism by, among other things, the fact it demands the destruction of a neighbouring state whose very existence appears to threaten its own position of power and the historic remains of its past dominant status in the area."}}<br />{{harvp|Merriam-Webster ''Fascism''}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{harvp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fascism''|ps=: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy and the rule of elites, and the desire to create a {{lang|de|Volksgemeinschaft}} (German: "people's community"), in which individual interests would be subordinated to the good of the nation"}}</ref> Fascism is characterized by support for a [[dictator]]ial leader, centralized [[autocracy]], [[militarism]], forcible suppression of [[Opposition (politics)|opposition]], belief in a natural [[social hierarchy]], subordination of [[individual]] interests for the perceived interest of the [[nation]] or [[Race (human categorization)|race]], and strong regimentation of society and the economy.<ref name="Britannica"/>{{sfnp|Merriam-Webster ''Fascism''}} Opposed to [[communism]], [[democracy]], [[liberalism]], [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]], and [[socialism]],<ref>{{harvp|Larsen|Hagtvet|Myklebust|1984|pp=22–23, 30, 35}}; {{harvp|Payne|1992|p=168}}; {{harvp|Davies|Lynch|2002|pp=96, 103, 129–130}}; {{harvp|Kallis|2003b|pp=20–21, 234}}; {{harvp|Paxton|2004|p=}};{{pn|date=May 2025}} {{harvp|Blamires|2006|pp=5, 8, 16–17, 21}}; {{harvp|Copsey|2008|pp=12, 79}}; {{harvp|Badie|Berg-Schlosser|Morlino|2011|loc=Fascism|p=889}}; {{harvp|Eley|2013|pp=3–9}}; {{harvp|Richardson|2017|p=21–32}}; {{harvp|Copsey|2023|pp=271–272}}</ref>{{sfnp|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Fascism''}} fascism is at the far-right of the traditional [[left–right spectrum]].<ref name="RoutledgeCompanion"/>{{sfnp|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Fascism''}}<ref name="University-Aristotle-Hartley-Reich-Payne">{{harvp|Griffin|1995|pp=8, 307}}; {{harvp|Hartley|2004|p=187}}; {{harvp|Reich|1970|p=73}}; {{harvp|Payne|1992|pp=167–175}}; {{harvp|Copsey|2008|p=}};{{pn|date=May 2025}} {{harvp|Goodwin|2011|pp=1–9}}; {{harvp|Woodley|2010|pp=9–10}}; {{harvp|Blamires|2006|pp=xxi–xxii}}; {{harvp|Richardson|2017|pp=18–19, 21–22}}; {{harvp|Eley|2013|p=75}}; {{harvp|Davies|Lynch|2002|pp=5–6}}; {{harvp|Wistrich|1976|p=}};{{pn|date=May 2025}} {{harvp|Staudenmaier|2004|p=517}}</ref> What constitutes a precise [[definition of fascism]] has been a longrunning and complex debate among scholars.<br />
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The first fascist movements emerged [[Italian fascism|in Italy]] during [[World War I]] before spreading to [[Fascism in Europe|other European countries]], most notably [[Nazi Germany|Germany]].<ref name="RoutledgeCompanion"/> Fascism also had adherents outside of Europe.{{sfnp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fascism''}} Fascists saw World War I as a [[revolution]] that brought massive changes to the nature of war, society, the state, and technology. The advent of [[total war]] and the [[mass mobilization]] of society erased the distinction between civilians and combatants. A military citizenship arose, in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner.{{sfnmp|Griffin|2006|1pp=140–141|Gentile|2006b|2p=670|Mann|2004|3p=65}} The war resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines, providing logistics to support them, and having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens.{{sfnmp|Griffin|2006|1pp=140–141|Gentile|2006b|2p=670|Mann|2004|3p=65}}<br />
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Fascism views forms of violence—including [[political violence]], [[imperialist]] violence, and [[war]]—as means to national rejuvenation.{{sfnmp|Grčić|2000|1p=120|2a1=Griffin|2a2=Feldman|2y=2004c|2p=185 |Spielvogel|2012|3p=935|Payne|1995|4p=106}}{{sfnp|Rietbergen|2000|pp=160–161}} Fascists often advocate for the establishment of a [[totalitarian]] [[one-party state]],{{sfnp|Griffin|2013|pp=1–6}}{{sfnp|Mussolini|2002|p=40}} and for a [[dirigiste]] economy, which is a [[market economy]] in which the state plays a strong directive role through [[market intervention]] with the principal goal of achieving national economic self-sufficiency, or "[[autarky]]".<ref>{{harvp|Davies|Lynch|2002|p=275|ps=: "Detailed and intrusive state direction of the economy and/or society. Dirigisme was central to both fascism and Communist systems. However, in the case of fascism, there was no requirement for outright state ownership of the means of production, as long as the economy could be harnessed to serve what fascists deemed to be the 'national interest'."}}</ref>{{sfnp|Berend|2016|p=93}} Fascism emphasizes both [[palingenesis]]—national rebirth or regeneration—and [[modernity]] when it is deemed compatible with national rebirth.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=168-169}} In promoting the nation's regeneration, fascists seek to purge it of decadence.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=168-169}} Fascism may also centre around an [[In-group and out-group|ingroup-outgroup]] opposition and [[demonization]] of "[[Other (philosophy)|Others]]", such as various [[ethnicity|ethnicities]], [[immigration|immigrants]], nations, races, political opponents of fascist parties, religious groups, and [[sexual and gender minorities]]. In the case of [[Nazism]], this involved [[racial purity]] and a belief in a [[master race]]. Such demonization has motivated fascist regimes to commit [[massacre]]s, [[forced sterilizations]], [[deportation]]s, and [[genocide]]s.{{sfnmp|1a1=Kallis|1y=2011|1p=|2a1=Paxton|2y=1998|2p=|3a1=Lancaster|3y=2011|3pp=366–368}}{{sfnp|Marhoefer|The Conversation|2023}} During [[World War II]], the genocidal and imperialist ambitions of the fascist regimes of the [[Axis powers]] resulted in the murder of millions of people.<br />
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Since the end of World War II in 1945, fascism has been largely disgraced, and few parties have openly described themselves as ''fascist''; the term is often [[Fascist (insult)|used pejoratively]] by political opponents. The descriptions ''[[neo-fascist]]'' or ''[[post-fascist]]'' are sometimes applied to contemporary parties with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th-century fascist movements.<ref name="RoutledgeCompanion"/>{{sfnp|Enciclopedia Italiana ''Neofascismo''}}<br />
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==Etymology==<br />
[[File:Fasces FR2.svg|thumb|200x200px|The [[fasces]], a symbol of [[Ancient Rome]], was employed in the modern era by various political movements to denote strength through unity.{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|pp=4–5}}]]<br />
The Italian term {{lang|it|fascismo}} is derived from {{lang|it|fascio}}, meaning 'bundle of sticks', ultimately from the [[Latin language|Latin]] word {{lang|la|[[fasces]]}}.{{sfnp|Merriam-Webster ''Fascism''}} This was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as [[fasci]], groups similar to [[Italian guilds|guilds]] or [[syndicate]]s. According to Italian fascist dictator [[Benito Mussolini]]'s own account, the [[Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria|Fasces of Revolutionary Action]] were founded in Italy in 1915.{{sfnp|Mussolini|2006|p=227}} In 1919, Mussolini founded the [[Fasci Italiani di Combattimento|Italian Fasces of Combat]] in Milan, which became the [[National Fascist Party]] two years later. The fascists came to associate the term with the ancient Roman fasces or {{lang|it|[[fascio littorio]]}},{{sfnp|Falasca-Zamponi|2000|p=95}} a bundle of rods tied around an axe,{{sfnp|Johnston|2013}} an [[ancient Roman]] symbol of the authority of the civic [[Roman Magistrates|magistrate]],{{sfnp|Brennan|2023}} carried by his [[lictor]]s.<ref>{{harvp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fasces''}}: "When carried inside Rome, the ax was removed (unless the magistrate was a dictator or general celebrating a triumph) as recognition of the right of a Roman citizen to appeal a magistrate's ruling."</ref> The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.{{sfnp|Brennan|2022|pp=2, 12}}<br />
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Prior to 1914, the fasces symbol was widely employed by various political movements, often of a left-wing or liberal persuasion. For instance, according to Robert Paxton, "[[Marianne]], symbol of the French Republic, was often portrayed in the nineteenth century carrying the fasces to represent the force of Republican solidarity against her aristocratic and clerical enemies."{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|pp=4–5}} The symbol often appeared as an architectural motif, for instance on the [[Sheldonian Theatre|Sheldonian Theater]] at Oxford University and on the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in Washington, D.C.{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|pp=4–5}}<br />
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==Definitions==<br />
{{Main|Definitions of fascism}}<br />
Historian [[Ian Kershaw]] once wrote, "Trying to define 'fascism' is like trying to nail jelly to the wall."{{sfnp|Kershaw|2016|p=228}} Each group described as "fascist" has at least some unique elements, and frequently definitions of "fascism" have been criticized as either too broad or too narrow.{{sfnmp|Payne|1980|1p=7|2a1=Griffiths|2y=2000|2p=}}{{pn|date=May 2025}} According to many scholars, fascists&mdash;especially when they are in power&mdash;have historically attacked communism, socialism, and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far-right.<ref name="Laqueur 1997 p223">{{harvp|Laqueur|1997|p=223}}; {{harvp|Eatwell|1996|p=39}}; {{harvp|Griffin|1991|pp=185–201}}; {{harvp|Weber|1982|p=8}}</ref><br />
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One of the schools of fascism studies understands fascism as a movement based on the myth of national rebirth, called [[palingenesis]].{{sfnp|Shenfield|2016|pp=6–15, 21–23}} Prominent members of the school include [[Stanley G. Payne]], [[Roger Griffin]], and [[Roger Eatwell]], who defined their theories as the "new consensus".{{sfnp|Renton|1999|p=19}}<br />
Payne's definition of fascism focuses on three concepts:{{sfnp|Payne|1980|p=7}}<br />
# "Fascist negations" – [[anti-liberalism]], [[anti-communism]], and anti-[[conservatism]].<br />
# "Fascist goals" – the creation of a nationalist [[dictatorship]] to regulate economic structure and to transform social relations within a modern, self-determined culture, and the expansion of the nation into an empire.<br />
# "Fascist style" – a political aesthetic of romantic symbolism, mass mobilization, a positive view of violence, and promotion of masculinity, youth, and charismatic authoritarian leadership.{{sfnmp|Ramswell|2017|1p=9|2a1=Griffin|2a2=Feldman|2y=2004a|2p=258|Kallis|2003b|3pp=84–85|Renton|1999|4p=21}}<br />
Eatwell defines fascism as "an ideology that strives to forge social rebirth based on a [[Holism|holistic]]-national radical [[Third Position|Third Way]]".{{sfnp|Eatwell|1996|p=24}} Roger Griffin follows the description of Payne, calling fascism "a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti-conservative nationalism", and adds an emphasis{{sfnp|Griffin|2003|p=3}}{{sfnp|Renton|1999|p=19}} on the "mythic core" of fascism which he defines as a "palingenetic form of populist [[ultranationalism]]".{{sfnp|Griffin|1991|p=26}} According to Griffin, fascism as an ideology includes: "(i) the rebirth myth, (ii) populist ultra-nationalism, and (iii) the myth of decadence".{{sfnp|Griffin|1991|p=201}} Thus, [[palingenetic ultranationalism]] constitutes the minimum, without which a "genuine fascism" is not possible according to Griffin,{{sfnp|Griffin|1996|pp=18–21}}{{sfnp|Pinto|Eatwell|Larsen|2014|pp=xxiv-xxv}} and fascism draws on ancient and arcane myths of racial, cultural, ethnic, and national origins to develop the fascist "[[New Man (utopian concept)|new man]]";{{sfnp|Ross|2017|p=5}} and acts as a "political religion" seeking to establish a community based on a new culture.{{sfnp|Pinto|Eatwell|Larsen|2014|pp=xxiv-xxv}} Griffin explored this 'mythic' or 'eliminable' core of fascism with his concept of ''post-fascism'' to explore the continuation of Nazism in the modern era.{{sfnp|Griffin|2008|loc=Chapter 8: Fascism's New Faces (and New Facelessness) in the 'Post-Fascist' Epoch}} Additionally, other historians{{which|date=November 2025}} have applied this minimalist core to explore ''proto-fascist'' movements.{{sfnp|Roel Reyes|2019|pp=310–311}}{{sfnp|Roel Reyes|2021|p=83}} <br />
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While the theories of "new consensus" authors have proven to be very influential, they have also failed to establish a historiographic consensus and received criticism from other scholars, often as a static and isolated from context "[[ideal type]]" or set of ideas disregarding the dynamic, contradictory and syncretic nature of fascism and its context.{{sfnp|Pinto|Eatwell|Larsen|2014|pp=xxiv-xxv}}{{sfnmp|1a1=Paxton|1y=2004|1p=21-22|2a1=Renton|2y=1999|2p=19-25}}{{sfnp|Lorenz|2023|pp=223–224}} In particular, the critics pointed out the failure to address the contradiction between anti-conservatism and anti-communism, since fascism preserved the latter while achieving power through alliance conservatism, or that the majority of fascists sought to synthesize fascism with traditional religions and cultures instead of replacing them.{{sfnp|Renton|1999|p=19-25}}{{sfnp|Pinto|Eatwell|Larsen|2014|pp=xxiv-xxv}} Griffin's 'minimal' criterion of national rebirth also received criticism as too broad, applicable to non-fascist movements,{{sfnp|Pinto|Eatwell|Larsen|2014|pp=xxiv-xxv}} or arbitrary, not applicable to certain regimes which may be considered fascist,{{sfnp|Shenfield|2016|pp=5-6}}{{sfnp|Lorenz|2023|pp=223–224}} and also as a rework of the '[[Totalitarianism#Nazism and Fascism|totalitarian]]' model of understanding fascism.{{sfnp|Pinto|Eatwell|Larsen|2014|pp=xxiv-xxv}}<br />
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[[Walter Laqueur]] sees the core tenets of fascism as "self-evident: nationalism; [[social Darwinism]]; racialism, the need for leadership, a new aristocracy, and obedience; and the negation of the ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution".{{sfnp|Laqueur|1997|p=96}}<br />
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Kershaw argues that the difference between fascism and other forms of right-wing authoritarianism in the [[interwar period]] is that the latter generally aimed "to conserve the existing social order", whereas fascism was "revolutionary", seeking to change society and obtain "total commitment" from the population.{{sfnp|Kershaw|2016|pp=228–229}}<br />
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In his book ''[[How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them]]'' (2018), [[Jason Stanley]] defined fascism thusly: <blockquote>[A] cult of the leader who promises national restoration in the face of humiliation brought on by supposed communists, Marxists and minorities and immigrants who are supposedly posing a threat to the character and the history of a nation ... The leader proposes that only he can solve it and all of his political opponents are enemies or traitors.</blockquote> Stanley says recent global events {{As of|2020|lc=y}}, including the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the [[2020–2023 United States racial unrest]], have substantiated his concern about how fascist rhetoric is showing up in politics and policies around the world.{{sfnp|Silva|2020}}<br />
<br />
[[Cas Mudde]] and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser argue that although fascism "flirted with populism ... in an attempt to generate mass support", it is better seen as an elitist ideology.{{sfnp|Mudde|Kaltwasser|2017|pp=33–34|ps=: "... fascism flirted with populism, particularly during their movement phases, in an attempt to generate mass support."}} They cite in particular its exaltation of the Leader, the race, and the state, rather than the people. They see populism as a "thin-centered ideology" with a "restricted morphology" that necessarily becomes attached to "thick-centered" ideologies such as fascism, liberalism, or socialism. Thus populism can be found as an aspect of many specific ideologies, without necessarily being a defining characteristic of those ideologies. They refer to the combination of populism, authoritarianism and ultranationalism as "a marriage of convenience".{{sfnp|Mudde|Kaltwasser|2017|p=6|ps=: "... thin-centered ideologies have a restricted morphology, which necessarily appears attached to—and sometimes is even assimilated into—other ideologies. In fact, populism almost always appears attached to other ideological elements, which are crucial for the promotion of political projects that are appealing to a broader public. Consequently, by itself populism can offer neither complex nor comprehensive answers to the political questions that modern societies generate. ... [Populism] is not so much a coherent ideological tradition as a set of ideas that, in the real world, appears in combination with quite different, and sometimes contradictory, ideologies."}}<br />
<br />
[[Robert Paxton]] says: <blockquote>[Fascism is] a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation, or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|p=216}}</blockquote><br />
<br />
[[Umberto Eco]] lists fourteen "features that are typical of what [he] would like to call 'Ur-Fascism', or 'Eternal Fascism'. These features cannot be organized into a system; many of them contradict each other, and are also typical of other kinds of [[despotism]] or fanaticism. But it is enough that one of them be present to allow fascism to coagulate around it."{{sfnp|Eco|1995}} Historian [[John Lukacs]] argues that there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that [[Nazism]] and [[communism]] are essentially manifestations of [[populism]], and that states such as Nazi Germany and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] are more different from each other than they are similar.{{sfnp|Lukacs|1998|p=118}}<br />
<br />
Historian [[Emilio Gentile]] has defined fascism thusly:<br />
<blockquote>[A] modern political phenomenon, [[revolutionary]], [[anti-liberal]], and [[anti-Marxist]], organized in a militia party with a [[totalitarian]] conception of politics and the state, an activist and anti-theoretical ideology, with a mythical, virilistic and anti-hedonistic foundation, sacralized as a secular religion, which affirms the absolute primacy of the nation, understood as an ethnically homogeneous organic community, hierarchically organized in a [[corporate state]], with a bellicose vocation to the politics of greatness, power, and conquest aimed at creating a new order and a new civilization.{{sfnp|Gentile|2002|loc=Introduzione. È esistito il fascismo?}}</blockquote><br />
<br />
Historian and cultural critic [[Ruth Ben-Ghiat]] has described fascism as "the original phase of authoritarianism, along with early communism, when a population has undergone huge dislocations or they perceive that there's been changes in society that are very rapid, too rapid for their taste".{{sfnp|Pareene|Marsh|2023}}<br />
<br />
Racism was a key feature of German fascism, for which [[the Holocaust]] was a high priority. According to ''The Historiography of Genocide'', "In dealing with the Holocaust, it is the consensus of historians that Nazi Germany targeted Jews as a race, not as a religious group."{{sfnp|Weiss-Wendt|Krieken|Cave|2008|p=73}} Several historians, such as Umberto Eco,{{sfnp|Eco|1995}} Kevin Passmore,{{sfnp|Passmore|2002|p=31}} and Moyra Grant,{{sfnp|Grant|2003|pp=60–61}} stress [[racism]] as a characteristic component of German fascism. Historian [[Robert Soucy]] stated, "Hitler envisioned the ideal German society as a {{lang|de|[[Volksgemeinschaft]]}}, a racially unified and hierarchically organized body in which the interests of individuals would be strictly subordinate to those of the nation, or Volk."{{sfnp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Volksgemeinschaft''}} Kershaw noted that common factors of fascism included "the 'cleansing' of all those deemed not to belong—foreigners, ethnic minorities, 'undesirables{{'"}}—and belief in its own nation's superiority, even if it was not biological racism like in Nazism.{{sfnp|Kershaw|2016|pp=228–229}} Fascist philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretical commonality: all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any [[political spectrum]], catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities.<ref name="RoutledgeCompanion"/><br />
<br />
===Position on the political spectrum===<br />
[[File:Francoist demonstration in Salamanca.jpg|thumb|Pro-government demonstration in [[Salamanca]], [[Francoist Spain]], in 1937. [[Francisco Franco]] was later labeled by some commentators the "last surviving fascist dictator".{{sfnp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Franco's dictatorship''}}]]<br />
<br />
Scholars place fascism on the [[far right]] of the political spectrum.<ref name="RoutledgeCompanion"/>{{sfnp|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Fascism''}}<ref name="University-Aristotle-Hartley-Reich-Payne"/> Such scholarship focuses on its [[social conservatism]] and its [[authoritarian]] means of opposing [[egalitarianism]].<ref>{{harvp|Davies|Lynch|2002|pp=126–127}}; {{harvp|Zafirovski|2008|pp=137–138}}; {{harvp|Woodley|2010|pp=17–18, 26}}; {{harvp|Richardson|2017|pp=25–26, 34–35}}; {{harvp|Kallis|2003b|pp=234, 282}}</ref> Roderick Stackelberg places fascism—including Nazism, which he says is "a radical variant of fascism"—on the political right by explaining: "The more a person deems absolute equality among all people to be a desirable condition, the further left he or she will be on the ideological spectrum. The more a person considers inequality to be unavoidable or even desirable, the further to the right he or she will be."{{sfnp|Stackelberg|1999|pp=4–6}}<br />
<br />
Fascism's origins are complex and include many seemingly contradictory viewpoints, ultimately centered on a mythos of national rebirth from decadence.{{sfnp|Griffin|2003|p=5}} Fascism was founded during [[World War I]] by Italian [[national syndicalists]] who drew upon both [[left-wing]] organizational tactics and [[right-wing]] political views.{{sfnp|Gregor|2009|p=191}} [[Italian fascism]] gravitated to the right in the early 1920s.{{sfnmp|1a1=Sternhell|1a2=Sznajder|1a3=Ashéri|1y=1994|1p=161|2a1=Borsella|2a2=Caso|2y=2007|2p=76}} A major element of fascist ideology that has been deemed to be far right is its stated goal to promote the right of a supposedly [[Supremacism|superior people]] to dominate, while purging society of supposedly inferior elements.{{sfnp|Woshinsky|2008|p=156}}<br />
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Mussolini and [[Giovanni Gentile]] described their ideology as right-wing in the political essay ''[[The Doctrine of Fascism]]'' (1932), stating: "We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right,' a fascist century."{{sfnmp|1a1=Schnapp|1a2=Sears|1a3=Stampino|1y=2000|1p=57|Mussolini|1935|2p=26}} Mussolini stated that fascism's position on the political spectrum was not a serious issue for fascists: "[F]ascism, sitting on the right, could also have sat on the mountain of the center. ... These words in any case do not have a fixed and unchanged meaning: they do have a variable subject to location, time and spirit. We don't give a damn about these empty terminologies and we despise those who are terrorized by these words."<ref>Mussolini quoted in {{harvp|Gentile|2005|p=205}}</ref><br />
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Major Italian groups politically on the right, especially rich landowners and big business, feared an uprising by groups on the left, such as sharecroppers and labour unions.{{sfnp|Baranski|West|2001|pp=50–51}} They welcomed fascism and supported its violent suppression of opponents on the left.{{sfnp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''The fascist era''}} The accommodation of the political right into the Italian Fascist movement in the early 1920s created internal factions within the movement. The "fascist left" included [[Michele Bianchi]], [[Giuseppe Bottai]], [[Angelo Oliviero Olivetti]], [[Sergio Panunzio]], and [[Edmondo Rossoni]], who were committed to advancing national syndicalism as a replacement for parliamentary liberalism in order to modernize the economy and advance the interests of workers and the common people.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=112}} The "fascist right" included members of the paramilitary [[Blackshirts]] and former members of the [[Italian Nationalist Association]] (ANI).{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=112}} The Blackshirts wanted to establish fascism as a complete dictatorship, while the former ANI members, including [[Alfredo Rocco]], sought to institute an authoritarian corporatist state to replace the liberal state in Italy while retaining the existing elites.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=112}} Upon accommodating the political right, there arose a group of monarchist fascists who sought to use fascism to create an [[absolute monarchy]] under King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]].{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=112}}<br />
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A number of post-World War II fascist movements described themselves as a "third position", outside the traditional political spectrum.{{sfnp|Shaffer|2018|pp=83–91}} [[Falange Española de las JONS]] leader [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]] said: "[B]asically the Right stands for the maintenance of an economic structure, albeit an unjust one, while the Left stands for the attempt to subvert that economic structure, even though the subversion thereof would entail the destruction of much that was worthwhile."{{sfnp|Neocleous|1997|p=54}}<br />
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===''Fascist'' as a pejorative===<br />
{{Main|Fascist (insult)}}<br />
The term ''fascist'' has been used as a [[pejorative]],{{sfnp|Gregor|2005|p=4}} regarding varying movements across the far right of the political spectrum. [[George Orwell]] noted in 1944 that the term had been used to denigrate diverse positions "in internal politics". Orwell said that while fascism is "a political and economic system" that was inconvenient to define, "''as used'', the word 'Fascism' is almost entirely meaningless. ... almost any English person would accept 'bully' as a synonym for 'Fascist{{'"}},{{sfnp|Orwell|2019}} and in 1946 wrote that {{"'}}Fascism' has now no meaning except in so far as it signifies something not desirable."{{sfnp|Orwell|1946}} Richard Griffiths of the [[University of Wales]] wrote in 2000 that "fascism" is the "most misused, and over-used word, of our times".{{sfnp|Griffiths|2000|p=1}} ''Fascist'' is sometimes applied to post-World War II organizations and ways of thinking that academics more commonly term ''[[neo-fascist]]''.{{sfnp|Woolf|1981|p=18}}<br />
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Despite fascist movements' history of [[anti-communism]], [[Communist state]]s have sometimes been referred to as ''fascist'', typically as an insult. It has been applied to [[Marxist–Leninist]] regimes in [[Cuba]] under [[Fidel Castro]] and [[Vietnam]] under [[Ho Chi Minh]].{{sfnp|Griffin|Feldman|2004a|p=231}} Chinese Marxists used the term to denounce the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Sino-Soviet split]], and the Soviets used the term to denounce Chinese Marxists,{{sfnp|Quarantotto|1976}} in addition to [[social democracy]], coining a new term in ''[[social fascism]]''. In the United States, [[Herbert Matthews]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'' asked in 1946: "Should we now place Stalinist Russia in the same category as Hitlerite Germany? Should we say that she is Fascist?"{{sfnp|Adler|Paterson|1970|p=1046}} [[J. Edgar Hoover]], longtime [[FBI]] director and ardent anti-communist, wrote extensively of [[red fascism]].{{sfnp|Hoover|1947}} The [[Ku Klux Klan]] in the 1920s was sometimes called ''fascist''. Historian Peter Amann states that, "Undeniably, the Klan had some traits in common with European fascism—chauvinism, racism, a mystique of violence, an affirmation of a certain kind of archaic traditionalism—yet their differences were fundamental ... [the KKK] never envisioned a change of political or economic system."{{sfnp|Amann|1986|p=562}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
{{Further|Fascism and ideology}}<br />
<br />
===Background and 19th-century roots===<br />
[[File:Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg|thumb|160px|Bust of the ancient Greek philosopher [[Plato]], whose works were admired by Mussolini<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ludwig |first1=Emile |last2=Mussolini |first2=Benito |author2-link=Benito Mussolini |title=Talks with Mussolini |location=Boston |publisher=[[Little Brown & Co.]] |date=1933 |page=130}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:Hoplit.png|thumb|160px|Depiction of a Greek Hoplite warrior; ancient [[Sparta]] has been considered an inspiration for fascist and quasi-fascist movements, such as [[Nazism]] and quasi-fascist [[Metaxism]]<ref>{{harvp|Roche|2017|pp=3–28}}; {{harvp|Cole|2019}}; {{harvp|Grafton|Most|Settis|2010|p=353}}; {{harvp|Fischer|2007|p=184}}</ref>]] <br />
<br />
Early influences that shaped the ideology of fascism have been dated back to [[ancient Greece]]. Mussolini had a strong attachment to the works of the Greek philosopher [[Plato]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ludwig |first1=Emile |last2=Mussolini |first2=Benito |author2-link=Benito Mussolini |title=Talks with Mussolini |location=Boston |publisher=Little Brown & Co. |date=1933 |page=130}}</ref> In October 1943, Mussolini was reported to have kept Plato's work ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' on his desk at home, and he claimed to consult it from time to time before beginning his work each day.<ref name="Moseley">{{cite book |last1=Moseley |first1=Ray |title=Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce |date=2004 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1-58979-095-7 |page=39}}</ref> The political culture of ancient Greece and specifically the ancient Greek city state of [[Sparta]] under [[Lycurgus of Sparta|Lycurgus]], with its emphasis on militarism and racial purity, were admired by the Nazis.{{sfnp|Roche|2017|pp=3–28}}{{sfnp|Cole|2019}}{{sfnp|Grafton|Most|Settis|2010|p=353}} Hitler emphasized that Germany should adhere to Hellenic values and culture – particularly that of ancient Sparta.{{sfnp|Roche|2017|pp=3–28}}{{sfnp|Cole|2019}}<br />
<br />
Plato supported many similar political positions to fascism.<ref name=Sharma>{{cite book |first1=R.N. |last1=Sharma |title=Plato: An Inter-disciplinary Perspective |location=New Delhi, India |publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |year=1991 |pages=131–132}}</ref> In his work ''Republic'' (c. 380 BC),<ref name="Contemporary Political Theory 2007. Pp. 705">{{cite book|title=Contemporary Political Theory: New Dimensions, Basic Concepts and Major Trends |edition=12th |location=New Delhi, India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Private Ltd |date=2007 |pages=705}}</ref> he emphasized the need for a philosopher king in an ideal state.<ref name="Contemporary Political Theory 2007. Pp. 705"/> He believed the ideal state would be ruled by an elite class of rulers known as "Guardians" and rejected the idea of [[social equality]].<ref name=Sharma/> He believed in an authoritarian state.<ref name=Sharma/> He held [[Athenian democracy]] in contempt by saying: "The laws of democracy remain a dead letter, its freedom is anarchy, its equality the equality of unequals".<ref name=Sharma/> Like fascism, he emphasized that individuals must adhere to laws and perform duties while declining to grant individuals rights to limit or reject state interference in their lives.<ref name=Sharma/> He claimed that an ideal state would have education that was designed to promote able rulers and warriors.<ref name=Sharma/> However, there are also significant differences between Plato's ideals and fascism.<ref name=Sharma/> Unlike fascism, he never promoted expansionism and he was opposed to offensive war.<ref name=Sharma/><br />
<br />
[[Georges Valois]], founder of the first non-Italian fascist party [[Faisceau]],{{sfnp|Sternhell|1976}} claimed the roots of fascism stemmed from the late 18th century [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] movement, seeing in its totalitarian nature a foreshadowing of the fascist state.{{sfnp|Camus|Lebourg|2017|p=20}} Historian [[George Mosse]] similarly analyzed fascism as an inheritor of the [[mass movement (politics)|mass ideology]] and [[civil religion]] of the [[French Revolution]], as well as a result of the brutalization of societies in 1914–1918.{{sfnp|Camus|Lebourg|2017|p=20}}<br />
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Historians such as [[Irene Collins]] and Howard C. Payne see [[Napoleon III]], who ran a 'police state' and suppressed the media, as a forerunner of fascism.{{sfnp|Williams|2015|p=28}} According to [[David Thomson (historian)|David Thomson]],{{sfnp|Thomson|1966|p=293}} the Italian [[Risorgimento]] of 1871 led to the 'nemesis of fascism'. [[William L Shirer]]{{sfnp|Shirer|1960|p=97}} sees a continuity from the views of [[Fichte]] and [[Hegel]], through [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]], to Hitler; [[Robert Gerwarth]] speaks of a 'direct line' from Bismarck to Hitler.{{sfnp|Gerwarth|2005|p=166}} Julian Dierkes sees fascism as a 'particularly violent form of [[imperialism]]'.{{sfnp|Dierkes|2010|p=54}}<br />
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[[Marcus Garvey]], founder and leader of the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association]], had described the organisation as "the first fascists".{{sfnp|Gregor|2006|p=111}}{{undue inline|date=August 2025|reason=This lacks context, and Gregor's views of both race and fascism are controversial.}} In 1938, [[C. L. R. James]] wrote "all the things that Hitler was to do so well later, Marcus Garvey was doing in 1920 and 1921".{{sfnp|Gilroy|2000|p=70}}<br />
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===Fin de siècle era and lead up to World War I (1880–1914)===<br />
{{See also|National syndicalism}}<br />
The historian [[Zeev Sternhell]] has traced the ideological roots of fascism back to the 1880s and in particular to the {{lang|fr|[[fin de siècle]]}} theme of that time.{{sfnmp|Sternhell|1998|1p=169|Payne|1995|2pp=23–24}} The theme was based on a revolt against [[materialism]], [[rationalism]], [[positivism]], [[bourgeois]] society, and [[democracy]].{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=170}} The {{lang|fr|fin-de-siècle}} generation supported [[emotionalism (disorder)|emotionalism]], [[irrationalism]], [[subjectivism]], and [[vitalism]].{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=24}} They regarded civilization as being in crisis, and as requiring a massive and total solution.{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=170}} Their intellectual school considered the individual as only one part of the larger collectivity, which should not be viewed as a numerical sum of atomized individuals.{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=170}} They condemned the rationalistic, [[liberal individualism]] of society and the dissolution of social links in bourgeois society.{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=170}}<br />
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The {{lang|fr|fin-de-siècle}} outlook was influenced by various intellectual developments, including [[Darwinian]] biology, {{lang|de|[[Gesamtkunstwerk]]}}, [[Arthur de Gobineau]]'s racialism, [[Gustave Le Bon]]'s [[psychology]], and the philosophies of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], and [[Henri Bergson]].{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=171}} Social Darwinism, which gained widespread acceptance, made no distinction between physical and social life, and viewed the human condition as an unceasing struggle to achieve the [[survival of the fittest]].{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=171}} It challenged positivism's claim of deliberate and rational choice as the determining behaviour of humans, with social Darwinism focusing on heredity, race, and environment.{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=171}} Its emphasis on {{linktext|biogroup}} identity and the role of organic relations within societies fostered the legitimacy and appeal of nationalism.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=29}} New theories of social and political psychology rejected the notion of human behaviour being governed by rational choice and instead claimed that emotion was more influential in political issues than reason.{{sfnp|Sternhell|1998|p=171}} Nietzsche's argument that "God is dead", coinciding with his attack on the "[[herd mentality]]" of [[Christianity]], on democracy, and on modern [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]], his concept of the {{lang|de|[[Übermensch]]}}, and his advocacy of the [[will to power]] as a primordial instinct, were major influences upon many of the {{lang|fr|fin-de-siècle}} generation.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|pp=24–25}} Bergson's claim of the existence of an {{lang|fr|élan vital}}, or vital instinct, centred upon free choice and rejected the processes of materialism and determinism; this challenged [[Marxism]].{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=25}}<br />
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{{multiple image<br />
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| caption2 = [[Georges Sorel]]<br />
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<br />
[[French nationalist]] and [[reactionary]] monarchist [[Charles Maurras]] influenced fascism.{{sfnp|Carroll|1998|p=92}} Maurras promoted what he called [[integral nationalism]], which called for the organic unity of a nation, and insisted that a powerful monarch was an ideal leader of a nation. Maurras distrusted what he considered the democratic mystification of the [[general will|popular will]] that created an impersonal collective subject.{{sfnp|Carroll|1998|p=92}} He claimed that a powerful monarch was a personified sovereign who could exercise authority to unite a nation's people.{{sfnp|Carroll|1998|p=92}} Fascists idealized Maurras' integral nationalism, but modified into a modernized revolutionary form - devoid of Maurras' [[monarchism]].{{sfnp|Carroll|1998|p=92}}<br />
<br />
French revolutionary [[syndicalist]] [[Georges Sorel]] (1847-1922) promoted the legitimacy of [[political violence]] in his work ''[[Reflections on Violence]]'' (1908) and in other works in which he advocated radical syndicalist action to achieve a revolution to overthrow capitalism and the bourgeoisie through a [[general strike]].{{sfnp|Antliff|2007|pp=75–81}} In ''Reflections on Violence'', Sorel emphasized need for a revolutionary [[political religion]].{{sfnp|Antliff|2007|p=81}} Also in his work ''The Illusions of Progress'' (1908), Sorel denounced democracy as reactionary, stating that "nothing is more aristocratic than democracy".{{sfnp|Antliff|2007|p=77}} By 1909, after the failure of a syndicalist general strike in France, Sorel and his supporters left the radical left and went to the radical right, where they sought to merge militant Catholicism and French patriotism with their views—advocating anti-republican Christian French patriots as ideal revolutionaries.{{sfnp|Antliff|2007|p=82}} Initially, Sorel had officially been a [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionist]] of Marxism, but by 1910 he had announced his abandonment of socialist literature. In 1914, using an aphorism of [[Benedetto Croce]], he claimed that "socialism is dead" because of the "decomposition of Marxism".{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=78}} Sorel began to support reactionary Maurrassian nationalism beginning in 1909, and this influenced his works.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=78}} Maurras held interest in merging his nationalist ideals with Sorelian [[syndicalism]], known as [[Sorelianism]], as a means to confront democracy.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=82}} Maurras stated, "A socialism liberated from the democratic and cosmopolitan element fits nationalism well as a well made glove fits a beautiful hand."{{sfnp|Holmes|2000|p=60}}<br />
<br />
The fusion of Maurrassian nationalism and Sorelian syndicalism influenced radical Italian nationalist [[Enrico Corradini]] (1865-1931).{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=163}} Corradini spoke of the need for a nationalist-syndicalist movement, led by elitist aristocrats and anti-democrats who shared a revolutionary syndicalist commitment to direct action and a willingness to fight.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p= 163}} Corradini spoke of Italy as being a "proletarian nation" that needed to pursue imperialism in order to challenge the "[[plutocratic]]" French and British.{{sfnp|Blinkhorn|2006|p=12}} Corradini's views were part of a wider set of perceptions within the right-wing Italian Nationalist Association (ANI, founded in 1910), which claimed that Italy's economic backwardness was caused by corruption in its political class, liberalism, and division caused by "ignoble socialism".{{sfnp|Blinkhorn|2006|p=12}}<br />
<br />
The ANI had ties and influence among [[conservatives]], Catholics, and the [[business sector|business community]].{{sfnp|Blinkhorn|2006|p=12–13}} Italian national syndicalists held a common set of principles: the rejection of bourgeois values, democracy, liberalism, Marxism, [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]], and [[pacifism]], and the promotion of [[heroism]], vitalism, and violence.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=32}} The ANI claimed that liberal democracy was no longer compatible with the modern world, and advocated a strong state and imperialism. They believed that humans are naturally predatory, and that nations are in a constant struggle in which only the strongest would survive.{{sfnp|Gentile|2003|p=6}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Manifesto of Futurism.jpg|thumb|[[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]], Italian modernist author of the [[Futurist Manifesto]] (1909) and later the co-author of the [[Fascist Manifesto]] (1919){{sfnp|Elazar|2001|p=73}}]]<br />
<br />
[[Futurism]] was both an artistic-cultural movement and initially a political movement in Italy led by [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]] (1876-1944) who wrote the [[Manifesto of Futurism]] (1908), that championed the causes of modernism, action, and political violence as necessary elements of politics while denouncing liberalism and parliamentary politics.<ref name="20th-Century art book">{{cite book |last=Lawson |first=Susannah |year=2001 |title=The 20th-Century art book |page=506 |publisher=Phaidon Press |location=London |isbn=978-0714835426 |edition=Reprinted.}}</ref><ref name="I manifesti del futurismo">{{cite book |last=Marinetti |first=Filippo Tommaso |date=1909 |url=https://archive.org/details/imanifestidelfut28144gut |title=I manifesti del futurismo |language=it |trans-title=The Manifestos of Futurism}}</ref>{{pn|date=August 2025}} Marinetti rejected conventional democracy - based on majority rule and egalitarianism - for a new form of democracy, promoting what he described in his work "The Futurist Conception of Democracy" as the following: "We are therefore able to give the directions to create and to dismantle to numbers, to quantity, to the mass, for with us number, quantity and mass will never be—as they are in Germany and Russia—the number, quantity and mass of mediocre men, incapable and indecisive."{{sfnp|Hewitt|1993|p=153}}<br />
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Futurism influenced fascism in its emphasis on recognizing the virile nature of violent action and war as necessities of modern civilization.{{sfnp|Gori|2004|p=14}} Marinetti promoted the need of physical training of young men, saying that, in male education, gymnastics should take precedence over books. He advocated segregation of the genders because womanly sensibility must not enter men's education, which he claimed must be "lively, bellicose, muscular and violently dynamic".{{sfnp|Gori|2004|pp=20–21}}<br />
<br />
===World War I and its aftermath (1914–1929)===<br />
[[File:Benito Mussolini 1917.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Benito Mussolini]] in 1917 as an Italian soldier in [[World War I]]]]<br />
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Italian political left became severely split over its position on the war. The [[Italian Socialist Party]] (PSI) opposed the war but a number of Italian revolutionary syndicalists supported war against Germany and Austria-Hungary on the grounds that their reactionary regimes had to be defeated to ensure the success of socialism.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=175}} Angelo Oliviero Olivetti formed a pro-interventionist ''[[fascio]]'' called the [[Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista|Revolutionary Fasces of International Action]] in October 1914.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=175}} Benito Mussolini upon being expelled from his position as chief editor of the PSI's newspaper {{lang|it|[[Avanti! (Italian newspaper)|Avanti!]]}} for his anti-German stance, joined the interventionist cause in a separate ''fascio''.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=214}} The term "fascism" was first used in 1915 by members of Mussolini's movement, the Fasces of Revolutionary Action.{{sfnp|O'Brien|2014|p=52}}<br />
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The first meeting of the Fasces of Revolutionary Action was held on 24 January 1915{{sfnp|O'Brien|2014|p=41}} when Mussolini declared that it was necessary for Europe to resolve its national problems—including national borders—of Italy and elsewhere "for the ideals of justice and liberty for which oppressed peoples must acquire the right to belong to those national communities from which they descended".{{sfnp|O'Brien|2014|p=41}} Attempts to hold mass meetings were ineffective and the organization was regularly harassed by government authorities and socialists.{{sfnp|Gregor|1979|pp=195–196}}<br />
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[[File:Hitler World War I.jpg|thumb|Adolf Hitler as a German soldier in World War I]]<br />
Similar political ideas arose in Germany after the outbreak of the war. German sociologist [[Johann Plenge]] spoke of the rise of a "National Socialism" in Germany within what he termed the "ideas of 1914" that were a declaration of war against the "ideas of 1789" (the French Revolution).{{sfnp|Kitchen|2006|p=205}} According to Plenge, the "ideas of 1789"—such as the rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism—were being rejected in favor of "the ideas of 1914" that included "German values" of duty, discipline, law and order.{{sfnp|Kitchen|2006|p=205}} Plenge believed that racial solidarity ({{lang|de|Volksgemeinschaft}}) would replace class division and that "racial comrades" would unite to create a socialist society in the struggle of "proletarian" Germany against "capitalist" Britain.{{sfnp|Kitchen|2006|p=205}} He believed that the [[Spirit of 1914]] manifested itself in the concept of the People's League of National Socialism.{{sfnp|Hüppauf|1997|p=92}} This National Socialism was a form of [[state socialism]] that rejected the "idea of boundless freedom" and promoted an economy that would serve the whole of Germany under the leadership of the state.{{sfnp|Hüppauf|1997|p=92}} This National Socialism was opposed to capitalism because of the components that were against "the national interest" of Germany but insisted that National Socialism would strive for greater efficiency in the economy.{{sfnp|Hüppauf|1997|p=92}} Plenge advocated an authoritarian rational ruling elite to develop National Socialism through a hierarchical [[Technocracy|technocratic]] state.{{sfnp|Rohkrämer|2007|p=130}}<br />
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====Impact of World War I====<br />
[[File:Italian Arditi.jpg|thumb|Members of Italy's {{lang|it|[[Arditi]]}} corps, shown here in 1918 holding daggers, a symbol of their group. They were formed in 1917 as groups of soldiers trained for dangerous missions, characterized by a refusal to surrender and a willingness to fight to the death. Their black uniforms inspired those of the Italian Fascist movement.{{sfnp|Corni|2015}}]]<br />
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Fascists viewed World War I as bringing revolutionary changes in the nature of war, society, the state and technology, as the advent of [[total war]] and mass mobilization had broken down the distinction between civilian and combatant, as civilians had become a critical part in economic production for the war effort and thus arose a "military citizenship" in which all citizens were involved to the military in some manner during the war.{{sfnmp|Griffin|2006|1pp=140–141|Gentile|2006b|2p=670|Mann|2004|3p=65}} World War I had resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines or provide economic production and logistics to support those on the front lines, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens.{{sfnmp|Griffin|2006|1pp=140–141|Gentile|2006b|2p=670|Mann|2004|3p=65}} Fascists viewed technological developments of weaponry and the state's total mobilization of its population in the war as symbolizing the beginning of a new era fusing state power with [[mass politics]], technology and particularly the mobilizing myth that they contended had triumphed over the myth of progress and the era of liberalism.{{sfnmp|Griffin|2006|1pp=140–141|Gentile|2006b|2p=670}}<br />
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====Impact of the October Revolution in Russia====<br />
{{see also|October Revolution}}<br />
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The [[October Revolution]] of 1917, in which [[Bolshevik]] communists led by [[Vladimir Lenin]] seized power in Russia, greatly influenced the development of fascism.{{sfnp|Umland|2006|pp=95–96}} In 1917, Mussolini, as leader of the [[Fasces of Revolutionary Action]], praised the October Revolution, but later he became unimpressed with Lenin, regarding him as merely a new version of [[Tsar Nicholas II]].{{sfnp|Neville|2004|p=36}} After World War I, fascists commonly campaigned on anti-Marxist agendas.{{sfnp|Umland|2006|pp=95–96}}<br />
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[[Andreas Umland]] argues that there are similarities between fascism and Bolshevism, including that they believed in the necessity of a vanguard leadership, showed contempt for bourgeois values, and had totalitarian ambitions.{{sfnp|Umland|2006|pp=95–96}} He says that in practice both have commonly emphasized revolutionary action, proletarian nation theories, one-party states, and party-armies;{{sfnp|Umland|2006|pp=95–96}} With the antagonism between [[anti-interventionist]] Marxists and pro-[[Interventionism (politics)|interventionist]] fascists complete by the end of the war, the two sides became irreconcilable.{{cn|date=July 2025}} The fascists presented themselves as [[anti-communists]] and as especially opposed to the [[Marxists]].{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=178}} In 1919, Mussolini consolidated control over the fascist movement, known as {{lang|it|[[Sansepolcrismo]]}}, with the founding of the ''[[Italian Fasces of Combat]]''.{{sfnp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''The fascist era''}}<br />
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====Fascist Manifesto and Charter of Carnaro====<br />
[[File:Promised Borders of the Tready of London.png|thumb|Territories promised to Italy by the [[Treaty of London (1915)]]: [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], the [[Julian March]] and [[Dalmatia]] (tan) and the [[Snežnik (plateau)|Snežnik Plateau]] area (green).<ref name="treatyOfLondon">{{cite wikisource|title= Agreement between France, Russia, Great Britain and Italy, signed at London, April 26, 1915|wslink= Treaty of London (1915)|location= London|ref={{harvid|Treaty|1920}}|oclc= 807191361|publisher= [[H.M. Stationery Office]]|year= 1920}}</ref> However, after World War I, while Italy annexed the capital city [[Zadar|Zara]] of Dalmatia the rest of Dalmatia was not assigned to Italy but to [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}]]<br />
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In 1919, [[Alceste De Ambris]] and [[futurist]] movement leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti created "[[The Manifesto of the Italian Fasces of Combat]]".{{sfnp|Elazar|2001|p=73}} The Fascist Manifesto was presented on 6 June 1919 in the fascist newspaper {{lang|it|[[Il Popolo d'Italia]]}} and supported the creation of [[universal suffrage]], including [[women's suffrage]] (the latter being realized only partly in late 1925, with all opposition parties banned or disbanded);{{sfnp|Passmore|2003|p=116}} [[proportional representation]] on a regional basis; government representation through a [[corporatist]] system of "National Councils" of experts, selected from professionals and tradespeople, elected to represent and hold legislative power over their respective areas, including labour, industry, transportation, public health, and communications, among others; and abolition of the [[Senate of the Kingdom of Italy]].{{sfnp|Borsella|Caso|2007|p=69}} The Fascist Manifesto supported the creation of an [[eight-hour work day]] for all workers, a [[minimum wage]], worker representation in industrial management, equal confidence in labour unions as in industrial executives and public servants, reorganization of the transportation sector, revision of the draft law on invalidity insurance, reduction of the retirement age from 65 to 55, a strong [[progressive tax]] on capital, confiscation of the property of religious institutions and abolishment of bishoprics, and revision of military contracts to allow the government to seize 85% of profits.{{sfnp|Borsella|Caso|2007|pp=69–70}} It also called for the fulfillment of expansionist aims in the Balkans and other parts of the Mediterranean, the creation of a short-service national militia to serve defensive duties, [[nationalization]] of the armaments industry, and a foreign policy designed to be peaceful but also competitive.{{sfnp|Borsella|Caso|2007|p=70}}<br />
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The next events that influenced the fascists in Italy were the raid of [[Fiume (city)|Fiume]] by Italian nationalist [[Gabriele d'Annunzio]] and the founding of the [[Charter of Carnaro]] in 1920.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=186}} D'Annunzio and De Ambris designed the Charter, which advocated national-syndicalist corporatist [[productionism]] alongside D'Annunzio's political views.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=187}} Many fascists saw the Charter of Carnaro as an ideal constitution for a fascist Italy.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=189}} This behaviour of aggression towards Yugoslavia and [[South Slavs]] was pursued by Italian fascists with their persecution of South Slavs—especially Slovenes and Croats.{{sfnp|Hehn|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nOALhEZkYDkC&pg=PA45 44–45]}}{{sfnp|Millett|Murray|2010|p=184}} The Italians claimed Fiume on the principle of self-determination, disregarding the 50.4% of its population that were [[Yugoslavs]].{{sfnp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fiume question''}}<br />
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====Accommodating conservatives====<br />
In 1920, militant strike activity by industrial workers reached its peak in Italy and 1919 and 1920 were known as the "Red Year" ({{lang|it|[[Biennio Rosso]]}}).{{sfnp|Borsella|Caso|2007|p=73}} Mussolini and the fascists took advantage of the situation by allying with industrial businesses and attacking workers and peasants in the name of preserving order and internal peace in Italy.{{sfnp|Borsella|Caso|2007|p=75}}<br />
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Fascists identified their primary opponents as the majority of socialists on the left who had opposed intervention in World War I.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=189}} The fascists and the Italian political right held common ground: both held Marxism in contempt, discounted class consciousness and believed in the rule of elites.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=193}} The fascists assisted the anti-socialist campaign by allying with the other parties and the conservative right in a mutual effort to destroy the Italian Socialist Party and labour organizations committed to class identity above national identity.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=193}}<br />
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Fascism sought to accommodate Italian conservatives by making major alterations to its political agenda—abandoning its previous populism, [[republicanism]] and [[anticlericalism]], adopting policies in support of [[free enterprise]] and accepting the [[Catholic Church]] and the monarchy as institutions in Italy.{{sfnp|De Grand|2000|p=145}} To appeal to Italian conservatives, fascism adopted policies such as promoting [[family values]], including policies designed to reduce the number of women in the workforce—limiting the woman's role to that of a mother. The fascists banned literature on birth control and increased penalties for abortion in 1926, declaring both crimes against the state.{{sfnp|Blinkhorn|2003|p=14}}<br />
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Although fascism adopted a number of anti-modern positions designed to appeal to people upset with the new trends in sexuality and women's rights—especially those with a reactionary point of view—the fascists sought to maintain fascism's revolutionary character, with Angelo Oliviero Olivetti saying: "Fascism would like to be conservative, but it will [be] by being revolutionary."{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|p=190}} The Fascists supported revolutionary action and committed to secure law and order to appeal to both conservatives and syndicalists.{{sfnp|Blinkhorn|2003|p=22}}<br />
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Prior to fascism's accommodations to the political right, fascism was a small, urban, northern Italian movement that had about a thousand members.{{sfnp|Borsella|Caso|2007|p=72}} After Fascism's accommodation of the political right, the fascist movement's membership soared to approximately 250,000 by 1921.{{sfnp|Borsella|Caso|2007|p=76}} A 2020 article by [[Daron Acemoğlu]], Giuseppe De Feo, Giacomo De Luca, and Gianluca Russo in the [[Center for Economic and Policy Research]], exploring the link between the threat of [[socialism]] and Mussolini's rise to power, found "a strong association between the Red Scare in Italy and the subsequent local support for the Fascist Party in the early 1920s".{{sfnp|Acemoğlu|De Feo|De Luca|Russo|2020}} According to the authors, it was local elites and large landowners who played an important role in boosting Fascist Party activity and support, which did not come from socialists' core supporters but from [[centre-right]] voters, as they viewed traditional centre-right parties as ineffective in stopping socialism and so turned to the fascists.{{sfnp|Acemoğlu|De Feo|De Luca|Russo|2020}} In 2003, historian Adrian Lyttelton wrote: "The expansion of Fascism in the rural areas was stimulated and directed by the reaction of the farmers and landowners against the peasant leagues of both Socialists and Catholics."{{sfnp|Acemoğlu|De Feo|De Luca|Russo|2020}}<br />
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====Fascist violence====<br />
Beginning in 1922, fascist paramilitaries escalated their strategy from one of attacking socialist offices and the homes of socialist leadership figures, to one of violent occupation of cities. The fascists met little serious resistance from authorities and proceeded to take over several northern Italian cities.{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=87}} The fascists attacked the headquarters of socialist and Catholic labour unions in Cremona and imposed forced Italianization upon the German-speaking population of [[Bolzano]].{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=87}}{{sfnp|Ferrandi|Obermair|2023|p=127–167}} After seizing these cities, the fascists made plans to take [[Rome]].{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=87}}<br />
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[[File:March on Rome.jpg|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] with three of the four [[quadrumvirs]] during the [[March on Rome]] (from left to right: unknown, [[Emilio de Bono|de Bono]], Mussolini, [[Italo Balbo|Balbo]] and [[Cesare Maria de Vecchi|de Vecchi]]){{sfnp|Morgan|1995|p=58}}]]<br />
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On 24 October 1922, the Fascist Party held its annual congress in [[Naples]], where Mussolini ordered Blackshirts to take control of public buildings and trains and to converge on three points around Rome.{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=87}} The Fascists managed to seize control of several post offices and trains in northern Italy while the Italian government, led by a left-wing coalition, was internally divided and unable to respond to the Fascist advances.{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=88}} King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy perceived the risk of bloodshed in Rome in response to attempting to disperse the Fascists to be too high.{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=90}} Victor Emmanuel III decided to appoint Mussolini as [[Prime Minister of Italy]] and Mussolini arrived in Rome on 30 October to accept the appointment.{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=90}} Fascist propaganda aggrandized this event, known as "[[March on Rome]]", as a "seizure" of power because of Fascists' heroic exploits.{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=87}}<br />
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===Fascist Italy===<br />
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====Mussolini in power====<br />
[[File:Enrico De Nicola, il re e Mussolini all'uscita di Montecitorio, Roma 1923.jpg|thumb|right|[[Victor Emmanuel III]], [[King of Italy]], with Mussolini.]]<br />
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Upon being appointed Prime Minister of Italy, Mussolini had to form a coalition government because the fascists did not have control over the Italian parliament.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=110}} Mussolini's coalition government initially pursued [[Economic liberalism|economically liberal]] policies under the direction of liberal finance minister [[Alberto De Stefani]], a member of the Center Party, including balancing the budget through deep cuts to the civil service.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=110}} Initially, little drastic change in government policy had occurred and repressive police actions were limited.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=110}}<br />
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The fascists began their attempt to entrench fascism in Italy with the [[Acerbo Law]], which guaranteed a plurality of the seats in parliament to any party or coalition list in an election that received 25% or more of the vote.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=113}} Through considerable fascist violence and intimidation, the list won a majority of the vote, allowing many seats to go to the fascists.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=113}} In the aftermath of the election, a crisis and political scandal erupted after Socialist Party deputy [[Giacomo Matteotti]] was kidnapped and murdered by a Fascist.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=113}} The liberals and the leftist minority in parliament walked out in protest in what became known as the [[Aventine Secession (20th century)|Aventine Secession]].{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=114}} On 3 January 1925, Mussolini addressed the Fascist-dominated Italian parliament and declared that he was personally responsible for what happened, but insisted that he had done nothing wrong. Mussolini proclaimed himself dictator of Italy, assuming full responsibility over the government and announcing the dismissal of parliament.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=114}} From 1925 to 1929, fascism steadily became entrenched in power: opposition deputies were denied access to parliament, censorship was introduced and a December 1925 decree made Mussolini solely responsible to the King.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=115}}<br />
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====Catholic Church====<br />
[[File:Firma_dei_Patti_Lateranensi_1929.jpg|thumb|right|The signing of the [[Lateran Treaty]], Mussolini shown on the right side of the photograph.]]<br />
In 1929, the fascist regime briefly gained what was in effect a blessing of the Catholic Church after the regime signed a concordat with the Church, known as the [[Lateran Treaty]], which gave the papacy state sovereignty and financial compensation for the seizure of Church lands by the liberal state in the 19th century, but within two years the Church had renounced fascism in the Encyclical ''[[Non Abbiamo Bisogno]]'' as a "pagan idolatry of the state" which teaches "hatred, violence and irreverence".{{sfnp|Payne|1995|pp=119–120}} Not long after signing the agreement, by Mussolini's own confession, the Church had threatened to have him "excommunicated", in part because of his intractable nature, but also because he had "confiscated more issues of Catholic newspapers in the next three months than in the previous seven years".{{sfnp|Mack Smith|1983|p=162}} By the late 1930s, Mussolini became more vocal in his anti-clerical rhetoric, repeatedly denouncing the Catholic Church and discussing ways to depose the pope. He took the position that the "papacy was a malignant tumor in the body of Italy and must 'be rooted out once and for all,' because there was no room in Rome for both the Pope and himself."{{sfnp|Mack Smith|1983|pp=222–223}} In her 1974 book, Mussolini's widow Rachele stated that her husband had always been an atheist until near the end of his life, writing that her husband was "basically irreligious until the later years of his life".{{sfnp|Mussolini|1977|p=131}}<br />
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The Nazis in Germany employed similar anti-clerical policies.{{sfnp|Gellott|2006|pp=69–70}} The Gestapo confiscated hundreds of monasteries in Austria and Germany, evicted clergymen and laymen alike and often replaced crosses with swastikas.{{sfnp|von Lang|1979|p=221}} Referring to the swastika as "the Devil's Cross", church leaders found their youth organizations banned, their meetings limited and various Catholic periodicals censored or banned. Government officials eventually found it necessary to place "Nazis into editorial positions in the Catholic press".{{sfnp|Evans|2005|p=239}} Up to 2,720 clerics, mostly Catholics, were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned inside of Germany's Dachau concentration camp, resulting in over 1,000 deaths.{{sfnp|Berben|1975|pp=276–277}}<br />
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====Corporatist economic system====<br />
The fascist regime created a corporatist economic system in 1925 with creation of [[Pact of the Vidoni Palace|the Palazzo Vidoni Pact]], in which the Italian employers' association {{lang|it|[[Confindustria]]}} and fascist trade unions agreed to recognize each other as the sole representatives of Italy's employers and employees, excluding non-fascist trade unions.{{sfnp|Pollard|2006|p=150}} The Fascist regime first created a Ministry of Corporations that organized the Italian economy into 22 sectoral corporations, banned workers' strikes and lock-outs and in 1927 created the [[Labour Charter of 1927|Charter of Labour]], which established workers' rights and duties and created labour tribunals to arbitrate employer-employee disputes.{{sfnp|Pollard|2006|p=150}} In practice, the sectoral corporations exercised little independence and were largely controlled by the regime, and the employee organizations were rarely led by employees themselves, but instead by appointed Fascist party members.{{sfnp|Pollard|2006|p=150}}<br />
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====Aggressive colonial and foreign policies====<br />
[[File:Al-Magroon Concentration Camp.jpg|thumb|right|Inmates at the [[Sid Ahmed el Maghrun concentration camp]] in [[Italian Libya|Libya]] during the [[Second Italo-Senussi War]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graziani |first1=Rodolfo |title=Cirenaica pacificata |date=1932 |publisher=A. Mondadori |location=Milan |page=84}}</ref>]]<br />
In the 1920s, Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive foreign policy that included ambitions to expand Italian territory.{{sfnp|Kallis|2000|p=132}} In response to revolt in the Italian colony of [[Libya]], Fascist Italy abandoned previous liberal-era colonial policy of cooperation with local leaders. Instead, claiming that Italians were a superior race to African races and thereby had the right to colonize the "inferior" Africans, it sought to settle 10 to 15 million Italians in Libya.{{sfnp|Ahmida|1994|pp=134–135}} This resulted in an aggressive military campaign known as the [[Second Italo-Senussi War]] also known as the Pacification of Libya against natives in Libya, including mass killings, the use of [[concentration camp]]s and the forced starvation of thousands of people.{{sfnp|Ahmida|1994|pp=134–135}} Italian authorities committed [[ethnic cleansing]] by forcibly expelling 100,000 [[Bedouins|Bedouin]] Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica in Libya, from their settlements that was slated to be given to Italian settlers.{{sfnmp|Cardoza|2006|1p=109|2a1=Bloxham|2a2=Moses|2y=2010|2p=358}}<br />
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====Nazi adoption of the Italian model====<br />
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 119-1486, Hitler-Putsch, München, Marienplatz.jpg|thumb|Nazis in Munich during the [[Beer Hall Putsch]] ]]<br />
The March on Rome brought fascism international attention. One early admirer of the Italian fascists was Adolf Hitler, who less than a month after the March had begun to model himself and the [[Nazi Party]] upon Mussolini and the Fascists.{{sfnp|Kershaw|2000|p=182}} The Nazis, led by Hitler and the German war hero [[Erich Ludendorff]], attempted a "March on Berlin" modeled upon the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed [[Beer Hall Putsch]] in [[Munich]] in November 1923.{{sfnp|Jablonsky|1989|pp=20–26, 30}}<br />
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===International impact of the Great Depression and buildup to World War II===<br />
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-16196, Nürnberg, Reichsparteitag, SA- und SS-Appell.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nuremberg rallies|Nazi Party rally]] in [[Nuremberg]], Germany, in 1934<ref>{{cite web |title=Bundesarchiv - Bilddatenbank |url=https://www.bild.bundesarchiv.de/dba/de/search/?query=Bild+102-16196 |website=Bundesarchiv |access-date=September 4, 2025}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:GömbösYMussolini1936.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungarian]] [[Prime Minister of Hungary|Prime Minister]] [[Gyula Gömbös]] (left) meeting with Mussolini (right).]]<br />
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The conditions of economic hardship caused by the [[Great Depression]] brought about an international surge of social unrest.{{sfnp|Tenorio|2023}} Fascist propaganda blamed the problems of the long depression of the 1930s on minorities and [[scapegoat]]s: "[[antisemitism|Judeo]]-[[Freemasonry|Masonic]]-[[Bolshevism|bolshevik]]" conspiracies, [[Left-wing politics#Nationalism, anti-imperialism and anti-nationalism|left-wing internationalism]] and the presence of immigrants.{{sfnp|Chomsky|2003|p=46}}<br />
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The [[Great Depression in Germany]] contributed to the rise of the Nazi Party, which resulted in the demise of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the establishment of the fascist regime, [[Nazi Germany]], under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.{{sfnp|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''"Degenerate" Art''}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Module 5: The Twin Drivers of Nazi Culture |url=https://library.mcmaster.ca/archives/virtualmuseum/mod5-1.html |website=The Madeleine and Monte Levy Virtual Museum of the Holocaust and the Resistance |publisher=[[McMaster University]] |language=en |access-date=10 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317120658/https://library.mcmaster.ca/archives/virtualmuseum/mod5-1.html |archive-date=17 March 2025}}</ref> With the rise of Hitler and the Nazis to power in 1933, [[liberal democracy]] was dissolved in Germany and the Nazis mobilized the country for war, with expansionist territorial aims against several countries.{{sfnp|Shirer|1960|pp=199–201}}{{sfnp|Evans|2008|p=7}} In the 1930s, the Nazis implemented racial laws that deliberately discriminated against, [[Disfranchisement|disenfranchised]] and persecuted Jews and other racial and minority groups.{{sfnp|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Anti-Jewish Legislation''}}<br />
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Fascist movements grew in strength elsewhere in Europe. Hungarian fascist [[Gyula Gömbös]] rose to power as Prime Minister of [[Hungary]] in 1932 and attempted to entrench his [[Unity Party (Hungary)|Unity Party]] throughout the country.{{cn|date=May 2025}} He created an eight-hour work day and a forty-eight-hour work week in industry; sought to entrench a corporatist economy; and pursued [[Irredentism|irredentist]] claims on Hungary's neighbors.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=270}} The fascist [[Iron Guard]] movement in [[Romania]] soared in political support after 1933, gaining representation in the Romanian government, and an Iron Guard member assassinated Romanian prime minister [[Ion Duca]].{{sfnp|Payne|1995|pp=282–288}} The Iron Guard was the only fascist movement outside Germany and Italy to [[National Legionary State|come to power]] without foreign assistance.{{sfnp|Gallagher|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1zoXqTR_dAC&pg=PA35 35]}}{{sfnp|Deletant|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8taGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 66]}} During the [[6 February 1934 crisis]], [[France]] faced the greatest domestic political turmoil since the [[Dreyfus Affair]] when the fascist [[Francist Movement]] and multiple far-right movements rioted ''[[en masse]]'' in Paris against the French government resulting in major political violence.{{sfnp|Woolf|1983|p=311}} A variety of [[Para-fascism|para-fascist]] governments that borrowed elements from fascism were formed during the Great Depression, including those of [[Greece]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]] and Yugoslavia.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=145}} In [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], the [[National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands]] was at its height in the 1930s due to the Great Depression, especially in 1935 when it won almost eight percent of votes, until the year 1937.{{sfnp|Rietbergen|2000|pp=160–161}}<br />
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[[File:SaudacaoIntegralista1935.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Brazilian Integralism|Integralists]] marching in Brazil]]<br />
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| caption1 = [[Luis A. Flores]], [[Prime Minister of Peru]] in 1932, shown saluting in the party uniform of the [[Revolutionary Union (Peru)|Revolutionary Union]] of Peru that he led as its Supreme Chief from 1933–1956.{{sfnp|Molinari|2006|pp=321–322}}{{sfnp|Ciccarelli|1990|p=408}}<br />
| image2 = Corneliu Zelea Codreanu.jpg<br />
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| caption2 = [[Corneliu Zelea Codreanu]], founder of the [[Iron Guard]] in Romania.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 April 2012|title=Romanian Holocaust center blasts local council for funding anti-Semitic children’s book|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/romanian-holocaust-center-blasts-public-funded-childrens-book-featuring-fascist-wwii-leader/|website=The Times of Israel|access-date=29 March 2026}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
In the Americas, the [[Brazilian Integralism|Brazilian Integralists]] led by [[Plínio Salgado]] claimed as many as 200,000 members, although following coup attempts it faced a crackdown from the [[Estado Novo (Brazil)|Estado Novo]] of [[Getúlio Vargas]] in 1937.{{sfnp|Griffin|1991|pp=150–152}} In [[Peru]], the [[Revolutionary Union (Peru)|Revolutionary Union]] was a fascist political party which was in power 1931 to 1933. In the 1930s, the [[National Socialist Movement of Chile]] gained seats in [[Chile]]'s parliament and attempted a coup d'état that resulted in the [[Seguro Obrero massacre]] of 1938.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|pp=341–342}}<br />
<br />
During the Great Depression, Mussolini promoted active state intervention in the economy. He denounced the contemporary "[[Supercapitalism (concept in Italian Fascism)|supercapitalism]]" that he claimed began in 1914 as a failure because of its alleged [[decadence]], its support for unlimited [[consumerism]], and its intention to create the "standardization of humankind".{{sfnp|Berghaus|2000|pp=136–137}} Fascist Italy created the [[Institute for Industrial Reconstruction]] (IRI), a giant state-owned firm and holding company that provided state funding to failing private enterprises.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=189}} The IRI was made a permanent institution in Fascist Italy in 1937, pursued fascist policies to create national [[autarky]] and had the power to take over private firms to maximize war production.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=189}} While Hitler's regime only nationalized 500 companies in key industries by the early 1940s,{{sfnp|Overy|1994|p=16}} Mussolini declared in 1934, "[t]hree-fourths of Italian economy, industrial and agricultural, is in the hands of the state."<ref>{{harvp|Toniolo|2013|p=59}}; Mussolini's speech to the Chamber of Deputies was on 26 May 1934.</ref><br />
<br />
Due to the worldwide depression, Mussolini's government was able to take over most of Italy's largest failing banks, who held controlling interest in many Italian businesses. The IRI reported in early 1934 that they held assets of "48.5 percent of the share capital of Italy", which later included the capital of the banks themselves.{{sfnp|Toniolo|2013|p=59}} Political historian Martin Blinkhorn estimated Italy's scope of state intervention and ownership "greatly surpassed that in Nazi Germany, giving Italy a public sector second only to that of Stalin's Russia".{{sfnp|Blinkhorn|2006|p=46}} In the late 1930s, Italy enacted manufacturing cartels, tariff barriers, currency restrictions and massive regulation of the economy to attempt to balance payments.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=72}} Italy's policy of autarky failed to achieve effective economic autonomy.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=72}} Nazi Germany similarly pursued an economic agenda with the aims of autarky and rearmament and imposed [[Protectionism|protectionist]] policies, including forcing the German steel industry to use lower-quality German iron ore rather than superior-quality imported iron.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=190}}<br />
<br />
===World War II (1939–1945)===<br />
[[File:WWII Europe 1941-1942 Map EN.png|thumb|right|Map of World War II in Europe from 1941-1942. Axis powers shown in red and Allied powers shown in blue.]]<br />
In Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, both Mussolini and Hitler pursued territorial expansionist and interventionist foreign policy agendas from the 1930s through the 1940s culminating in World War II.{{cn|date=July 2025}} From 1935 to 1939, Germany and Italy escalated their demands for territorial claims and greater influence in world affairs. Italy [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|invaded Ethiopia in 1935]] resulting in its condemnation by the [[League of Nations]] and its widespread diplomatic isolation.{{cn|date=July 2025}} In 1936, Germany [[Remilitarization of the Rhineland|remilitarized the industrial Rhineland]], a region that had been ordered demilitarized by the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. In 1938, Germany annexed [[Federal State of Austria|Austria]]{{sfnp|Knaur|1951|pp=367–369}}{{sfnp|Luža|1975|p=52}} and Italy assisted Germany in resolving the diplomatic crisis between Germany versus Britain and France over claims on [[Czechoslovakia]] by arranging the [[Munich Agreement]] that gave Germany the [[Sudetenland]] and was perceived at the time to have averted a European war.{{sfnp|Corvaja|Miller|2008|pp=73–74}}{{sfnp|Goldstein|Lukes|1999|pp=59–60}} These hopes faded when Czechoslovakia was dissolved by the proclamation of the German client state of [[Slovak State|Slovakia]], followed by the next day of the occupation of the remaining [[Czech Lands]] and the proclamation of the German [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]]. At the same time from 1938 to 1939, Italy was demanding territorial and colonial concessions from France and Britain.{{sfnp|Rodogno|2006|p=47}} In 1939, Germany prepared for war with Poland, but attempted to gain territorial concessions from Poland through diplomatic means.{{sfnp|Davidson|2004|pp=371–372}} The Polish government did not trust Hitler's promises and refused to accept Germany's demands.{{sfnp|Davidson|2004|pp=371–372}}<br />
<br />
The invasion of Poland by Germany was deemed unacceptable by Britain, France and their allies, leading to their mutual declaration of war against Germany and the start of World War II.{{sfnp|Kochanski|2012|pp=34–93}}{{sfnp|Steiner|2011|pp=690–692, 738–741}} In 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II on the side of the Axis. During World War II, the Axis Powers in Europe led by Nazi Germany participated in the extermination of millions of Poles, Jews, Roma, Sinti and others in the genocide known as the Holocaust.{{sfnp|Cesarani|2016|p=xxix}}{{sfnp|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|pp=45–52}}{{sfnp|Peck|Berenbaum|2002|p=311}} In 1943, after Italy faced multiple military failures, the complete reliance and subordination of Italy to Germany, the Allied invasion of Italy and the corresponding international humiliation, Mussolini [[25 Luglio|was removed as head of government and arrested]] on the order of King Victor Emmanuel III, who proceeded to dismantle the Fascist state and declared Italy's switching of allegiance to the Allied side.{{citation needed|date=July 2025}} Mussolini was rescued from arrest by German forces and led the German client state, the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to 1945. Nazi Germany faced multiple losses and steady Soviet and Western Allied offensives from 1943 to 1945.{{sfnp|Bianchi|1963|pp=609, 704}}<br />
<br />
On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian communist partisans. On 30 April 1945, Hitler committed suicide.{{sfnp|Kershaw|2008|pp=947–948}} Shortly afterwards, Germany surrendered and the Nazi regime was [[denazification|systematically dismantled]] by the occupying Allied powers. An International Military Tribunal was subsequently convened in [[Nuremberg#Nazi era|Nuremberg]]. Beginning in November 1945 and lasting through 1949, numerous Nazi political, military and economic leaders were [[Nuremberg trials|tried and convicted]] of [[war crime]]s, with many of the worst offenders being sentenced to death and executed.{{sfnp|Grandi|1983|p=21}}{{sfnp|De Felice|1996|p=1391}}<br />
<br />
===Post-World War II (1945–2008)===<br />
{{Main|Neo-fascism}}<br />
<br />
The victory of the Allies over the Axis powers in [[World War II]] led to the collapse of many fascist regimes in Europe. The [[Nuremberg Trials]] convicted several Nazi leaders of crimes against humanity involving the Holocaust.{{sfnp|Hirsch|2020|p=386}} However, there remained several movements and governments that were ideologically related to fascism.{{sfnp|Deutsch|2009|p=20}}<br />
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[[Francisco Franco]]'s [[Falangist]] one-party state in Spain was officially neutral during World War II, although Franco's rise to power had been directly assisted by the militaries of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany during the [[Spanish Civil War]].{{sfnp|Payne|Palacios|2014|p=194}}{{sfnp|Alpert|2019|p=174}} The first years were characterized by a repression against the anti-fascist ideologies, deep censorship and the suppression of democratic institutions (elected Parliament, [[Spanish Constitution of 1931]], Regional Statutes of Autonomy).{{sfnp|Valencia-García|2018|pp=65–66, 70–71}}{{sfnp|Gallo|1974|pp=17–18}} After World War II and a period of international isolation, Franco's regime normalized relations with the Western powers during the Cold War, until Franco's death in 1975 and the transformation of Spain into a liberal democracy.{{sfnp|Payne|1973|p=632}}<br />
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Historian Robert Paxton observes that one of the main problems in defining fascism is that it was widely mimicked. Paxton says: "In fascism's heyday, in the 1930s, many regimes that were not functionally fascist borrowed elements of fascist decor in order to lend themselves an aura of force, vitality, and mass mobilization." He goes on to observe that [[António de Oliveira Salazar|Salazar]] "crushed Portuguese fascism after he had copied some of its techniques of popular mobilization".{{sfnp|Paxton|1998|pp=3, 17}} Paxton says: "Where Franco subjected Spain's fascist party to his personal control, Salazar abolished outright in July 1934 the nearest thing Portugal had to an authentic fascist movement, Rolão Preto's blue-shirted National Syndicalists. ... Salazar preferred to control his population through such 'organic' institutions traditionally powerful in Portugal as the Church. Salazar's regime was not only non-fascist, but 'voluntarily non-totalitarian,' preferring to let those of its citizens who kept out of politics 'live by habit.{{'"}}{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|p=150}} However, historians tend to view the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] as [[para-fascist]] in nature,{{sfnp|Davies|Lynch|2002|p=[https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00davi/page/237 237]}} possessing minimal fascist tendencies.{{sfnp|Passmore|2002|p=76}} Other historians, including [[Fernando Rosas]] and Manuel Villaverde Cabral, think that the Estado Novo should be considered fascist.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 April 2024 |title=Inauguração do Museu de Peniche é um gesto antifascista atual contra a extrema-direita |trans-title=The opening of the Peniche Museum is a current anti-fascist gesture against the far right |url=https://www.esquerda.net/artigo/inauguracao-do-museu-de-peniche-e-um-gesto-antifascista-atual-contra-extrema-direita/90683 |access-date=1 August 2024 |website=Esquerda.net |language=pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801011112/https://www.esquerda.net/artigo/inauguracao-do-museu-de-peniche-e-um-gesto-antifascista-atual-contra-extrema-direita/90683 |archive-date=1 August 2024}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Giorgio Almirante crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Giorgio Almirante]], leader of the [[Italian Social Movement]] from 1969 to 1987{{sfnp|Ignazi|2003|pp=36, 42}}]]<br />
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The term neo-fascism refers to fascist movements that generally originated after World War II. According to [[Jean-Yves Camus]] and [[Nicolas Lebourg]], the neo-fascist ideology emerged in 1942, after [[Nazi Germany]] [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the USSR]] and decided to reorient its [[Propaganda in World War II|propaganda]] on a Europeanist ground.{{sfnp|Camus|Lebourg|2017|pp=9–10, 38}} In Italy, the [[Italian Social Movement]] led by [[Giorgio Almirante]] was a major neo-fascist movement that transformed itself into a self-described "post-fascist" movement called the [[National Alliance (Italy)|National Alliance]] (AN),{{sfnp|Ignazi|2003|p=51}} which has been an ally of [[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s [[Forza Italia (1994)|Forza Italia]] for a decade.{{sfnp|Giuffrida|2023}} In 2008, AN joined Forza Italia in Berlusconi's new party [[The People of Freedom]], but in 2012 a group of politicians split from The People of Freedom, refounding the party with the name [[Brothers of Italy]].{{sfnp|Slomp|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=V1uzkNq8xfIC&pg=PA4073625 407]}}{{sfnp|Cecchi de Rossi|2012}} In Germany, various neo-Nazi movements have been formed and banned in accordance with Germany's constitutional law which forbids Nazism. The [[National Democratic Party of Germany]] (NPD) is widely considered a neo-Nazi party, although the party does not publicly identify itself as such.{{sfnp|Schori Liang|2013|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7I_pDb1O2EQC&pg=PA139 139]}}<br />
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In Argentina, [[Peronism]], associated with the regime of [[Juan Perón]] from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was influenced by fascism.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=512}}{{sfnp|Finchelstein|2010|p=98}} Between 1939 and 1941, prior to his rise to power, Perón had developed a deep admiration of Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on Italian fascist policies.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=512}} However, not all historians agree with this identification,{{sfnp|Page|2014|p=10 and ss}} which they consider debatable<ref>{{harvp|Romero|2015|p=14}}: "Although it is incorrect to define Peronism as Nazism, and it is debatable to conceptualize it as fascism, the truth is that in the University the Catholic sectors that received the support of the General did much to make the students consider as fascist to Perón."</ref> or even false,{{sfnp|Galasso|2003|pp=2–3}} biased by a pejorative political position.{{sfnp|Cucchetti|2012|pp=151–152}} Other authors, such as the historian [[Raanan Rein]], categorically maintain that Perón was not a fascist and that this characterization was imposed on him because of his defiant stance against US hegemony.{{sfnp|Rein|2015|pp=127–128}}<br />
<br />
===Contemporary fascism (2008–present)===<br />
<br />
====Greece====<br />
{{Main|Golden Dawn (Greece)|l1 = Golden Dawn}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Golden Dawn demonstration 1.jpg|thumb|Golden Dawn demonstration in Greece in 2012]]<br />
<br />
After the onset of the [[Great Recession]] and economic crisis in Greece, a movement known as the [[Golden Dawn (Greece)|Golden Dawn]], widely considered a neo-Nazi party,{{sfnp|Porat|Stauber|2002|p=123}} soared in support out of obscurity and won seats in [[Greek parliament|Greece's parliament]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/9250142/Greece-elections-Ultra-nationalists-Golden-Dawn-celebrate-parliamentary-first.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508020901/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/9250142/Greece-elections-Ultra-nationalists-Golden-Dawn-celebrate-parliamentary-first.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 May 2012 |title=Video: Greece elections: Ultra-nationalists Golden Dawn celebrate parliamentary first |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=7 May 2012 |access-date=7 May 2012 |location=London}}</ref> espousing a staunch hostility towards minorities, illegal immigrants and refugees.{{sfnp|Wodak|2020|p=279}} In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician by a person with links to Golden Dawn, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader [[Nikolaos Michaloliakos]] and other members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24314319 |title=Greece's Golden Dawn leader Michaloliakos held in crackdown |work=[[BBC News]] |date=28 September 2013 |access-date=28 September 2013 |archive-date=28 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928063556/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24314319 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Michael|2013}} On 7 October 2020, Athens Appeals Court announced verdicts for 68 defendants, including the party's political leadership. Nikolaos Michaloliakos and six other prominent members and former members of parliament (MPs) were found guilty of running a criminal organization.{{sfnp|Samaras|2020}} Guilty verdicts were delivered on charges of murder, attempted murder, and violent attacks on immigrants and left-wing political opponents.<ref>{{cite news |title=Greece Golden Dawn: Neo-Nazi leaders guilty of running crime gang |work=[[BBC News]] |date=7 October 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-54433396 |access-date=7 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010211224/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-54433396 |archive-date=10 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Post-Soviet Russia====<br />
{{Main|Ruscism|Putinism}}<br />
<br />
[[Marlene Laruelle]], a French political scientist, contends in ''Is Russia Fascist?'' that the accusation of "fascist" has evolved into a strategic narrative of the existing world order.{{sfnp|Laruelle|2021|pp=161–162}} Geopolitical rivals might construct their own view of the world and assert the moral high ground by branding ideological rivals as fascists, regardless of their real ideals or deeds.{{sfnp|Laruelle|2021|p=20}} Laruelle discusses the basis, significance, and veracity of accusations of fascism in and around Russia through an analysis of the domestic situation in Russia and the Kremlin's foreign policy justifications; she concludes that Russian efforts to brand its opponents as fascist is ultimately an attempt to determine the future of Russia in Europe as an antifascist force, influenced by its role in fighting fascism in World War II.{{sfnp|Laruelle|2021|p=43}}<br />
<br />
According to [[Alexander J. Motyl]], an American historian and political scientist, Russian fascism has the following characteristics:{{sfnp|Motyl|2016|pp=33–34}}{{sfnp|Motyl|2022}}<br />
* An [[Dictatorship|undemocratic political system]], different from both traditional authoritarianism and totalitarianism;<br />
* [[Statism]] and [[hypernationalism]];<br />
* A hypermasculine [[Cult of personality|cult of the supreme leader]] (emphasis on his courage, militancy and physical prowess);<br />
* General popular support for the regime and its leader.{{sfnp|Wilson Center|2008}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Anti-War protest, Odessa 02.jpg|thumb|upright|Protester against the Russian government, holding an image portraying [[Dmitry Medvedev]] and [[Vladimir Putin]] as Nazis with a [[swastika]] made of colours of the [[Ribbon of Saint George]] and a [[Coat of arms of Russia|Russian coat of arms]] in the centre ([[Odesa]], 2014)]]<br />
<br />
Yale historian [[Timothy Snyder]] has stated, "Putin's regime is ... the world center of fascism" and has written an article entitled ''"We Should Say It: Russia Is Fascist"''.{{sfnp|Laruelle|2022|p=149}} Oxford historian Roger Griffin compared Putin's Russia to the World War II-era [[Empire of Japan]], saying that like Putin's Russia, it "emulated fascism in many ways, but was not fascist".{{sfnp|Coalson|2022}} Historian Stanley G. Payne says Putin's Russia "is not equivalent to the fascist regimes of World War II, but it forms the nearest analogue to fascism found in a major country since that time" and argues that Putin's political system is "more a revival of the creed of Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] in the 19th century that emphasized 'Orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationality' than one resembling the revolutionary, modernizing regimes of Hitler and Mussolini".{{sfnp|Coalson|2022}} According to Griffin, fascism is "a revolutionary form of nationalism" seeking to destroy the old system and remake society, and that Putin is a reactionary politician who is not trying to create a new order "but to recreate a modified version of the Soviet Union". German political scientist [[Andreas Umland]] said genuine fascists in Russia, like deceased politician [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]] and activist and self-styled philosopher [[Aleksandr Dugin]], "describe in their writings a completely new Russia" controlling parts of the world that were never under tsarist or Soviet domination.{{sfnp|Coalson|2022}} According to Marlene Laurelle writing in ''[[The Washington Quarterly]]'', "applying the "fascism" label ... to the entirety of the Russian state or society short-circuits our ability to construct a more complex and differentiated picture."{{sfnp|Laruelle|2022|p=150}}<br />
<br />
[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], collecting the opinions of experts on fascism, said that while Russia is repressive and authoritarian, it cannot be classified as a fascist state for various reasons, including Russia's government being more reactionary than revolutionary.{{sfnp|Coalson|2022}} In 2023, [[Oleg Orlov]], the chairman of the Board of Human Rights Center "[[Memorial (society)|Memorial]]", claimed that [[Russia under Vladimir Putin]] had descended into fascism and that the army is committing "mass murder" in the [[Russo-Ukrainian war (2022–present)|Russo-Ukrainian war]].{{sfnp|Papachristou|2024}}{{sfnp|Ebel|2024}} On 7 March 2024, in his [[2024 State of the Union Address]], American President [[Joe Biden]] compared Russia under Vladimir Putin to Adolf Hitler's [[German-occupied Europe|conquests of Europe]].{{sfnp|New Voice of Ukraine|2024}}<br />
<br />
====United States====<br />
{{Main|Fascism in the United States}}<br />
<br />
{{See also|Alt-right|Donald Trump and fascism|Radical right (United States)}}<br />
While initially composed of distinctive movements, in the 21st century, many U.S. Neo-Nazi groups have moved towards more decentralized organization and online social networks with a terroristic focus.{{sfnp|Southern Poverty Law Center|2021}} After the election of [[Donald Trump]], fascist groups began coalescing around his right-wing populism to take advantage of it.{{sfnp|Berger|2025|pp=177–179}} In 2017, the [[Unite the Right rally]]{{sfnp|Berger|2025|p=186}} saw marchers come together from a variety of far-right groups and movements, including members of the [[alt-right]],{{sfnp|Stapley|2017}} [[neo-Confederates]],{{sfnp|Weill|2018}} neo-fascists,{{sfnp|Gunter|2017}} [[white nationalists]],{{sfnp|Kelkar|2017}} neo-Nazis,{{sfnp|Wootson|2017}} Klansmen,{{sfnp|Park|2017}} and [[Far-right politics|far-right]] [[Militia organizations in the United States|militias]].{{sfnp|Early|2018}} Around this period, a number of prominent fascist groups were also founded, including the [[Proud Boys]] and [[Patriot Front]].{{sfnp|Berger|2025|p=190}}{{sfnp|Cruz|Sawyer|2021|pp=247–249}}<br />
<br />
==Tenets==<br />
Robert Paxton finds that even though fascism "maintained the existing regime of property and social hierarchy", it cannot be considered "simply a more muscular form of conservatism" because "fascism in power did carry out some changes profound enough to be called 'revolutionary{{'"}}.{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|p=11}} These transformations "often set fascists into conflict with conservatives rooted in families, churches, social rank, and property". Paxton argues:<br />
<br />
<blockquote>fascism redrew the frontiers between private and public, sharply diminishing what had once been untouchably private. It changed the practice of citizenship from the enjoyment of constitutional rights and duties to participation in mass ceremonies of affirmation and conformity. It reconfigured relations between the individual and the collectivity, so that an individual had no rights outside community interest. It expanded the powers of the executive—party and state—in a bid for total control. Finally, it unleashed aggressive emotions hitherto known in Europe only during war or social revolution.{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|p=11}}</blockquote><br />
<br />
===Ultranationalism===<br />
{{Nationalism sidebar|Types}}<br />
<br />
Ultranationalism, combined with the myth of national rebirth, is a key foundation of fascism.<ref>{{harvp|Griffin|2006b|pp=451–453}}; {{harvp|Ross|2017|p=5}}; {{harvp|Griffin|2008|loc=Chapter 8: Fascism's New Faces (and New Facelessness) in the 'Post-Fascist' Epoch}}; {{harvp|Davies|Lynch|2002|p=96}}</ref> Robert Paxton argues that "a passionate nationalism" is the basis of fascism, combined with "a conspiratorial and [[Manichean]] view of history" which holds, "the chosen people have been weakened by political parties, social classes, unassimilable minorities, spoiled rentiers, and rationalist thinkers."{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|p=41}} Roger Griffin identifies the core of fascism as being palingenetic ultranationalism.{{sfnp|Griffin|1991|p=26}}<br />
<br />
The fascist view of a nation is of a single organic entity that binds people together by their ancestry and is a natural unifying force of people.{{sfnp|Zimmer|2003|pp=80–107|loc=ch. 4}} Fascism seeks to solve economic, political, and social problems by achieving a [[Millenarianism|millenarian]] national rebirth, exalting the nation or [[race (biology)|race]] above all else and promoting cults of unity, strength, and purity.{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|pp=218–219}}{{sfnp|Laqueur|1997|p=223}}{{sfnp|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fascism''}} European fascist movements typically espouse a racist conception of non-Europeans being inferior to Europeans.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=11}} Beyond this, European fascists have not held a unified set of racial views.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=11}} Historically, most fascists promoted imperialism, although there have been several fascist movements that were uninterested in the pursuit of new imperial ambitions.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=11}} For example, Nazism and Italian Fascism were [[expansionist]] and [[irredentist]].{{sfnp|Kallis|2000|p=41}}{{sfnp|Giaccaria|Minca|2016|p=37}} Falangism in Spain envisioned the worldwide unification of Spanish-speaking peoples ({{lang|es|[[Hispanidad]]}}).{{sfnp|Larsen|2001|pp=120–121}} [[British Fascism]] was [[non-interventionist]], though it did embrace the British Empire.{{sfnp|Benewick|1972|p=134}}<br />
<br />
===Totalitarianism===<br />
Fascism promotes the establishment of a totalitarian state.{{sfnp|Griffin|2013|pp=1–6}}<!-- Page numbers may be for 2005 edition --> It opposes liberal democracy, rejects multi-party systems, and may support a [[one-party state]] so that it may synthesize with the nation.{{sfnp|Mussolini|2002|p=40}} Mussolini's ''The Doctrine of Fascism'' (1932), partly [[ghostwriter|ghostwritten]] by philosopher Giovanni Gentile,{{sfnp|Lyttelton|1973|p=13|ps=: "The first half of the article was the work of Giovanni Gentile; only the second half was Mussolini's own work, though the whole article appeared under his name."}} who Mussolini described as "the philosopher of Fascism", states: "The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people."{{sfnp|Mussolini|1935|p=14}} In ''[[The Concept of the Political]]'', Nazi political theorist [[Carl Schmitt]] argued against liberal and parliamentarian democracy as being obstacles to the execution of state power.{{sfnp|Schweller|2006|p=122}} In ''The Legal Basis of the Total State'', Schmitt further described the Nazi intention to form a "strong state which guarantees a totality of political unity transcending all diversity" in order to avoid a "disastrous pluralism tearing the German people apart".{{sfnp|Schmitt|1995|p=72}}<br />
<br />
Fascist states pursued policies of social [[indoctrination]] through [[propaganda]] in education and the media, and regulation of the production of educational and media materials.{{sfnmp|Pauley|2003|1p=117|Payne|1995|2p=220}} Education was designed to glorify the fascist movement and inform students of its historical and political importance to the nation. It attempted to purge ideas that were not consistent with the beliefs of the fascist movement and to teach students to be obedient to the state.{{sfnp|Pauley|2003|pp=117–119}}<br />
<br />
===Economy===<br />
{{Main|Economics of fascism}}<br />
<br />
Historians and other scholars disagree on the question of whether a specifically [[fascist]] type of [[economic policy]] can be said to exist. David Baker argues that there is an identifiable economic system in fascism that is distinct from those advocated by other ideologies, comprising essential characteristics that fascist nations shared.{{sfnp|Baker|2006|p=229–230}} Payne, Paxton, Sternhell ''et al.'' argue that while fascist economies share some similarities, there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization.{{sfnp|Sternhell|Sznajder|Ashéri|1994|pp=227–228}}{{sfnp|Payne|1995|p=10}}{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|p=145}} [[Gerald Feldman]] and [[Timothy Mason (historian)|Timothy Mason]] argue that fascism is distinguished by an absence of coherent economic ideology and a lack of serious economic thinking. They state that the decisions taken by fascist leaders cannot be explained within a logical economic framework.{{sfnp|Woodley|2010|p=161}}<br />
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Fascists presented their views as an alternative to both international socialism and free-market economics.{{sfnp|Bastow|Martin|2003|p=36}} While fascism opposed mainstream socialism, fascists sometimes regarded their movement as a type of nationalist "socialism" to highlight their commitment to [[nationalism]], describing it as national [[solidarity]] and unity.{{sfnp|Bar On|2020|p=}}{{pn|date=November 2025}}{{sfnp|Blamires|2006b|p=610}} Fascism had a complex relationship with [[capitalism]], both supporting and opposing different aspects of it at different times and in different countries. In general, fascists held an instrumental view of capitalism, regarding it as a tool that may be useful or not, depending on circumstances.{{sfnp|Laqueur|1978|p=357}}{{sfnp|Overy|1994|p=1}} Fascist governments typically established close connections between big business and the state, and business was expected to serve the interests of the government.{{sfnp|Laqueur|1978|p=357}}{{sfnp|Overy|1994|p=1}} Economic self-sufficiency, known as autarky, was a major goal of most fascist governments.{{sfnp|De Grand|1995|pp=60–61}}<br />
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Fascist governments advocated for the resolution of domestic [[class conflict]] within a nation in order to guarantee national unity.{{sfnp|Griffin|1991|pp=222–223}} This would be done through the state's mediating relations between the classes (contrary to the views of [[Classical liberalism|classical liberal]]–inspired capitalists).{{sfnp|Hoover|1935|pp=13–20}} While fascism was opposed to domestic class conflict, it held that [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]]–[[Proletariat|proletarian]] conflict existed primarily in international conflict between proletarian nations and bourgeois nations.{{sfnp|Neocleous|1997|pp=21–22}} Fascism condemned what it viewed as widespread character traits that it associated with the typical bourgeois mentality that it opposed, such as materialism, crassness, cowardice, and the inability to comprehend the heroic ideal of the fascist "warrior"; and associations with liberalism, individualism, and [[Parliamentary system|parliamentarianism]].{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=102}} From 1914, Enrico Corradini developed the idea of "proletarian nations", defining proletarian as being one and the same with producers, a [[Productivism|productivist]] perspective that associated all people deemed productive, including entrepreneurs, technicians, workers and soldiers as being proletarian.{{sfnp|Corner|2012|p=16}}{{sfnp|Gregor|1974|p=374–377}}{{sfnp|Lim|2012|p=71}} Mussolini adopted this view in his description of the proletarian character.{{cn|date=May 2025}}<br />
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[[File:VW Typ 83 vr.jpg|thumb|The need for a ''people's car'' ({{lang|de|[[Volkswagen]]}} in German), its concept and its functional objectives were formulated by [[Adolf Hitler]].{{sfnp|Nelson|1967|p=333}}]]<br />
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Because productivism was key to creating a strong nationalist state, it criticized internationalist and Marxist socialism, advocating instead to represent a type of nationalist productivist socialism.{{sfnp|Kedar|2010|pp=7–9}} Nevertheless, while condemning parasitical capitalism, it was willing to accommodate productivist capitalism within it so long as it supported the nationalist objective.{{sfnp|Spektorowski|Ireni-Saban|2013|p=33}} The role of productivism was derived from [[Henri de Saint Simon]], whose ideas inspired the creation of [[utopian socialism]] and influenced other ideologies that stressed solidarity rather than class war and whose conception of productive people in the economy included both productive workers and productive bosses to challenge the influence of the aristocracy and unproductive financial speculators.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006b|p=535}} Saint Simon's vision combined the traditionalist right-wing criticisms of the French Revolution with a left-wing belief in the need for association or collaboration of productive people in society.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006b|p=535}} Whereas Marxism condemned capitalism as a system of exploitative property relations, fascism saw the nature of the control of credit and money in the contemporary capitalist system as abusive.{{sfnp|Spektorowski|Ireni-Saban|2013|p=33}}<br />
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Unlike Marxism, fascism did not see class conflict between the Marxist-defined proletariat and the bourgeoisie as a given or as an engine of historical materialism.{{sfnp|Spektorowski|Ireni-Saban|2013|p=33}} Instead, it viewed workers and productive capitalists in common as productive people who were in conflict with parasitic elements in society, including corrupt political parties, corrupt financial capital, and feeble people.{{sfnp|Spektorowski|Ireni-Saban|2013|p=33}} Fascist leaders such as Mussolini and Hitler spoke of the need to create a new managerial elite led by engineers and captains of industry—but free from the parasitic leadership of industries.{{sfnp|Spektorowski|Ireni-Saban|2013|p=33}} Hitler stated that the Nazi Party supported {{lang|de|bodenständigen Kapitalismus}} ("productive capitalism") that was based upon profit earned from one's own labour, but condemned unproductive capitalism or loan capitalism, which derived profit from speculation.{{sfnp|Friedman|2011|p=24}}<br />
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Fascist economics supported a state-controlled economy that accepted a mix of [[private ownership|private]] and [[public ownership]] over the [[means of production]].{{sfnp|Millward|2007|p=178}} [[Economic planning]] was applied to both the public and private sectors, and the prosperity of private enterprise depended on its acceptance of synchronizing itself with the economic goals of the state.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=189}} Fascist economic ideology supported the [[profit motive]] but emphasized that industries must uphold the national interest as superior to private profit.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=189}}<br />
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While fascism accepted the importance of material wealth and power, it condemned materialism, which was identified as being present in both communism and capitalism, and criticized materialism for lacking acknowledgment of the role of the spirit.{{sfnp|Davies|Lynch|2002|p=103}} In particular, fascists criticized capitalism, not because of its competitive nature nor support of private property, which fascists supported—but due to its materialism, individualism, alleged bourgeois decadence and alleged indifference to the nation.{{sfnp|Paxton|2005|p=10}} Fascism denounced Marxism for its advocacy of materialist internationalist class identity, which fascists regarded as an attack upon the emotional and spiritual bonds of the nation and a threat to the achievement of genuine national solidarity.{{sfnp|Breuilly|1994|p=290}}<br />
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In discussing the spread of fascism beyond Italy, historian Philip Morgan states: <blockquote>Since the Depression was a crisis of laissez-faire capitalism and its political counterpart, parliamentary democracy, fascism could pose as the 'third-way' alternative between capitalism and Bolshevism, the model of a new European 'civilization.' As Mussolini typically put it in early 1934, 'from 1929 ... fascism has become a universal phenomenon ... The dominant forces of the 19th century, democracy, socialism, [and] liberalism have been exhausted ... the new political and economic forms of the twentieth-century are fascist'.{{sfnp|Morgan|2003|p=32}}</blockquote><br />
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Fascists criticized egalitarianism as preserving the weak and instead promoted social Darwinist views and policies.{{sfnp|Griffin|Feldman|2004|p=353|ps=: "When the Russian revolution occurred in 1917 and the 'Democratic' revolution spread after the First World War, anti-[[bolshevism]] and anti-egalitarianism rose as very strong "restoration movements" on the European scene. However, by the turn of that century no one could predict that fascism would become such a concrete, political reaction."}}{{sfnp|Hawkins|1997|p=285|ps=: "Conflict is in fact the basic law of life in all social organisms, as it is of all biological ones; societies are formed, gain strength, and move forwards through conflict; the healthiest and most vital of them assert themselves against the weakest and less well adapted through conflict; the natural evolution of nations and races takes place through conflict." Alfredo Rocco, Italian Fascist.}} They were in principle opposed to the idea of [[social welfare]], arguing that it "encouraged the preservation of the degenerate and the feeble".{{sfnp|Evans|2005|pp=483–484}} The Nazi Party condemned the welfare system of the Weimar Republic, as well as private charity and philanthropy, for supporting people whom they regarded as racially inferior and weak and who should have been weeded out in the process of natural selection.{{sfnp|Evans|2005|p=484}} Nevertheless, faced with the mass unemployment and poverty of the Great Depression, the Nazis found it necessary to set up charitable institutions to help racially pure Germans in order to maintain popular support while arguing that this represented "racial self-help" and not indiscriminate charity or universal social welfare.{{sfnp|Evans|2005|pp=484–485}} Thus, Nazi programs such as the [[Winterhilfswerk|Winter Relief of the German People]] and the broader [[Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt|National Socialist People's Welfare]] (NSV) were organized as quasi-private institutions, officially relying on private donations from Germans to help others of their race—although in practice those who refused to donate could face severe consequences.{{sfnp|Evans|2005|pp=486–487}} Unlike the social welfare institutions of the Weimar Republic and the Christian charities, the NSV distributed assistance on explicitly racial grounds.{{sfnp|Evans|2005|pp=486–487}} It provided support only to those who were "racially sound, capable of and willing to work, politically reliable, and willing and able to reproduce". Non-Aryans were excluded, as well as the "work-shy", "asocials" and the "hereditarily ill".{{sfnp|Evans|2005|p=489}} Under these conditions, by 1939, over 17 million Germans had obtained assistance from the NSV, and the agency "projected a powerful image of caring and support" for "those who were judged to have got into difficulties through no fault of their own".{{sfnp|Evans|2005|p=489}} Yet the organization was "feared and disliked among society's poorest" because it resorted to intrusive questioning and monitoring to judge who was worthy of support.{{sfnp|Evans|2005|pp=489–490}}<br />
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===Direct action===<br />
Fascism emphasizes [[direct action]], including supporting the legitimacy of political violence, as a core part of its politics.{{sfnmp|Payne|1995|1p=106|Breuilly|1994|2p=294}} Fascism views violent action as a necessity in politics that fascism identifies as being an "endless struggle";{{sfnp|Woodley|2010|p=106}} this emphasis on the use of political violence means that most fascist parties have also created their own private [[militias]] (e.g. the Nazi Party's [[Brown shirts]] and Fascist Italy's [[Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale|Blackshirts]]).{{sfnp|Jackson|2023|p=334}} The basis of fascism's support of violent action in politics is connected to social Darwinism.{{sfnp|Woodley|2010|p=106}} Fascist movements have commonly held social Darwinist views of nations, races, and societies.{{sfnp|Payne|1995|pp=485–486}} They say that nations and races must purge themselves of socially and biologically weak or [[Social degeneration|degenerate]] people while simultaneously promoting the creation of strong people in order to survive in a world defined by perpetual national and racial conflict.{{sfnp|Griffin|1995|p=59}}<br />
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===Age and gender roles===<br />
[[File:Piccole Italiane.jpg|thumb|Members of the {{lang|it|[[Piccole Italiane]]}}, an organization for girls within the National Fascist Party in Italy]]<br />
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-04517A, Potsdam, Mädchen in der Führerinnenschule.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[League of German Girls]], an organization for girls within the Nazi Party in Germany]]<br />
Fascism emphasizes [[youth]] both in a physical sense of age and a spiritual sense as related to virility and commitment to action.{{sfnp|Antliff|2007|p=171}} The Italian Fascists' political anthem was called ''[[Giovinezza]]'' ("The Youth").{{sfnp|Antliff|2007|p=171}} Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for the moral development of people who will affect society.{{sfnp|Quine|1996|p=47}} Walter Laqueur argues "[t]he corollaries of the cult of war and physical danger were the cult of brutality, strength, and sexuality ... [fascism is] a true counter-civilization: rejecting the sophisticated rationalist humanism of Old Europe, fascism sets up as its ideal the primitive instincts and primal emotions of the barbarian."{{sfnp|Laqueur|1978|p=341}}<br />
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Italian fascism pursued what it called "moral hygiene" of youth, particularly regarding [[Human sexuality|sexuality]].{{sfnp|Quine|1996|pp=46–47}} Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered deviant sexual behaviour.{{sfnp|Quine|1996|pp=46–47}} It condemned [[pornography]], most forms of [[birth control]] and contraceptive devices (with the exception of the [[condom]]), [[homosexuality]] and [[prostitution]] as deviant sexual behaviour. However, enforcement of laws opposed to such practices was erratic, and authorities often looked the other way.{{sfnp|Quine|1996|pp=46–47}} Fascist Italy regarded the promotion of male sexual excitation before [[puberty]] as the cause of criminality amongst male youth, declared homosexuality a social disease and pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women.{{sfnp|Quine|1996|pp=46–47}}<br />
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Mussolini perceived women's primary role as primarily child bearers, while that of men as warriors, once saying: "War is to man what maternity is to the woman."{{sfnp|Bollas|1993|p=205}} In an effort to increase birth rates, the Italian Fascist government gave financial incentives to women who raised large families and initiated policies intended to reduce the number of women employed.{{sfnp|McDonald|1999|p=27}} Italian Fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation", and the Italian Fascist government held ritual ceremonies to celebrate women's role within the Italian nation.{{sfnp|Mann|2004|p=101}} In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment" and that for women, working was "incompatible with childbearing"; Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force".{{sfnp|Durham|1998|p=15}}<br />
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The German Nazi government strongly encouraged women to stay at home to bear children and keep house.{{sfnp|Evans|2005|pp=331–332}} This policy was reinforced by bestowing the [[Cross of Honor of the German Mother]] on women bearing four or more children. The unemployment rate was cut substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could take their jobs. Nazi propaganda sometimes promoted premarital and extramarital sexual relations, unwed motherhood and divorce, but at other times the Nazis opposed such behaviour.{{sfnp|Heineman|2002|pp=29–31, 46–49}}<br />
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The Nazis decriminalized abortion in cases where fetuses had hereditary defects or were of a race the government disapproved of, while the abortion of healthy pure German, [[Aryan race|Aryan]] fetuses remained strictly forbidden.{{sfnp|Friedlander|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gqLDEKVk2nMC 30]}} For non-Aryans, abortion was often compulsory. Their [[eugenics]] program also stemmed from the "progressive biomedical model" of [[Weimar Germany]].{{sfnp|McLaren|1999|p=139}} In 1935, Nazi Germany expanded the legality of [[history of abortion|abortion]] by amending [[Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring|its eugenics law]] to promote abortion for women with hereditary disorders.{{sfnp|Friedlander|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gqLDEKVk2nMC 30]}} The law allowed abortion if a woman gave her permission and the fetus was not yet viable{{sfnp|Proctor|1989|p=366|ps=: "This emendation allowed abortion only if the woman granted permission, and only if the fetus was not old enough to survive outside the womb. It is unclear if either of these qualifications was enforced."}}{{sfnp|Arnot|Usborne|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q1BFiRa3KHkC 241]}} and for purposes of so-called [[racial hygiene]].{{sfnp|Proctor|1989|pp=122–123|ps=: "Abortion, in other words, could be allowed if it was in the interest of racial hygiene. ... the Nazis did allow (and in some cases even required) abortions for women deemed racially inferior. ... On 10 November 1938, a Luneberg court declared abortion legal for Jews."}}{{sfnp|Tierney|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gQLqRd7hJq0C 589]|ps=: "In 1939, it was announced that Jewish women could seek abortions, but non-Jewish women could not."}}<br />
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The Nazis said that homosexuality was degenerate, effeminate, perverted, and undermined masculinity because it did not produce children.{{sfnp|Evans|2005|p=529}} They considered homosexuality curable through therapy, citing modern [[scientism]] and the study of [[sexology]]. Open homosexuals were interned in Nazi concentration camps.{{sfnp|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Persecution of Homosexuals''}}<br />
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===Palingenesis and modernism===<br />
{{Main article|Reactionary modernism}}<br />
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Fascism emphasizes both palingenesis (national rebirth or re-creation) and [[modernism]].{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=168}} In particular, fascism's nationalism has been identified as having a palingenetic character.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=451–453}} Fascism promotes the nation's regeneration and purging it of decadence.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|p=168}} Fascism accepts forms of modernism that it deems promote national regeneration while rejecting forms of modernism regarded as antithetical to national regeneration.{{sfnp|Blamires|2006|pp=168–169}} Fascism aestheticized modern technology and its association with speed, power, and violence.{{sfnp|Neocleous|1997|p=63}} Fascism admired advances in the economy in the early 20th century, particularly [[Fordism]] and [[scientific management]].{{sfnp|Neocleous|1997|p=65}} Fascist modernism has been recognized as inspired or developed by various figures—such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, [[Ernst Jünger]], [[Gottfried Benn]], [[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]], [[Knut Hamsun]], [[Ezra Pound]] and [[Wyndham Lewis]].{{sfnp|Welge|2007|p=547}}<br />
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In Italy, such modernist influence was exemplified by Marinetti, who advocated a palingenetic modernist society that condemned liberal-bourgeois values of tradition and psychology while promoting a technological-martial religion of national renewal that emphasized militant nationalism.{{sfnp|Welge|2007|p=550}} In Germany, it was exemplified by Jünger who was influenced by his observation of the technological warfare during World War I and claimed that a new social class had been created that he described as the "warrior-worker";{{sfnp|Welge|2007|p=553}} Like Marinetti, Jünger emphasized the revolutionary capacities of technology. He emphasized an "organic construction" between humans and machines as a liberating and regenerative force that challenged liberal democracy, conceptions of individual autonomy, bourgeois nihilism, and decadence.{{sfnp|Welge|2007|p=553}} He conceived of a society based on a totalitarian concept of "total mobilization" of such disciplined warrior-workers.{{sfnp|Welge|2007|p=553}}<br />
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==Culture==<br />
===Aesthetics===<br />
[[File:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti.jpg|thumb|[[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]]]<br />
In ''[[The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction]]'' (1935), [[Walter Benjamin]] identifies [[aestheticization of politics]] as a key ingredient in fascist regimes.{{sfnp|Jay|1992|pp=41–42}} On this point he quotes Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, founder of the [[Futurism (art)|Futurist]] art movement and co-author of the [[Fascist Manifesto]] (1919), who [[Violence in art|aestheticizes war]] in his writings and claims "war is beautiful".{{sfnp|Benjamin|2008|pp=36–37}}<br />
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In ''[[Simulacra and Simulation]]'' (1981), [[Jean Baudrillard]] interprets fascism as a "political aesthetic of death" and a vehement [[countermovement]] against the increasing rationalism, secularism, and pacifism of the modern Western world.<ref>{{harvp|Baudrillard|1994|p=48}}: "Fascism itself, the mystery of its appearance and of its collective energy, ... can already be interpreted as the 'irrational' excess of mythic and political referentials, the mad intensification of collective value (blood, race, people, etc.), the reinjection of death, of a 'political aesthetic of death' at a time when the process of the disenchantment of value and of collective values, of the rational secularization and unidimensionalization of all life, of the operationalization of all social and individual life already makes itself strongly felt in the West. Yet again, everything seems to escape this catastrophe of value, this neutralization and pacification of life. Fascism is a resistance to this, even if it is a profound, irrational, demented resistance, it would not have tapped into this massive energy if it hadn't been a resistance to something much worse. Fascism's cruelty, its terror is on the level of ''this other terror that is the confusion of the real and the rational,'' which deepened in the West, and it is a response to that."</ref><br />
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The standard definition of fascism, given by Stanley G. Payne, focuses on three concepts, one of which is a "fascist style" with an aesthetic structure of meetings, symbols, and political liturgy, stressing emotional and mystical aspects.{{sfnp|Payne|1980|p=7}}<br />
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Emilio Gentile argues that fascism expresses itself aesthetically more than theoretically by means of a new political style with myths, rites, and symbols as a lay religion designed to acculturate, socialize, and integrate the faith of the masses with the goal of creating a "[[New Man (utopian concept)#Fascism|new man]]".{{sfnp|Payne|1995|pp=5–6}}<br />
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Cultural critic [[Susan Sontag]] writes:<br />
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{{Blockquote|Fascist aesthetics ... flow from (and justify) a preoccupation with situations of control, submissive behavior, extravagant effort, and the endurance of pain; they endorse two seemingly opposite states, egomania and servitude. The relations of domination and enslavement take the form of a characteristic pageantry: the massing of groups of people; the turning of people into things; the multiplication or replication of things; and the grouping of people/things around an all-powerful, hypnotic leader-figure or force. The fascist dramaturgy centers on the orgiastic transactions between mighty forces and their puppets, uniformly garbed and shown in ever swelling numbers. Its choreography alternates between ceaseless motion and a congealed, static, 'virile' posing. Fascist art glorifies surrender, it exalts mindlessness, it glamorizes death.{{sfnp|Sontag|1975}}}}<br />
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Sontag also enumerates some commonalities between fascist art and the official art of communist countries, such as the obeisance of the masses to the hero, and a preference for the monumental and the "grandiose and rigid" choreography of mass bodies. But whereas official communist art "aims to expound and reinforce a utopian morality", the art of fascist countries such as Nazi Germany "displays a utopian aesthetics – that of physical perfection", in a way that is "both prurient and idealizing".{{sfnp|Sontag|1975}}<br />
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According to Sontag, fascist aesthetics "is based on the containment of vital forces; movements are confined, held tight, held in". Its appeal is not necessarily limited to those who share the fascist political ideology because fascism "stands for an ideal or rather ideals that are persistent today under the other banners: the ideal of life as art, the cult of beauty, the fetishism of courage, the dissolution of alienation in ecstatic feelings of community; the repudiation of the intellect; the family of man (under the parenthood of leaders)."{{sfnp|Sontag|1975}}<br />
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===Popular culture===<br />
{{Further|Art in Nazi Germany|Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda}}<br />
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S34639, Joseph Goebbels und Leni Riefenstahl crop.jpg|thumb|upright|Joseph Goebbels with film director [[Leni Riefenstahl]] in 1937]]<br />
In Italy, the Mussolini regime created the {{lang|it|Direzione Generale per la Cinematografi}} to encourage film studios to glorify fascism.<ref>{{cite web |date=5 July 2018 |title=How Cinecittà's Advanced Facilities Made History in Italian Cinema |url=https://italiantribune.com/the-history-of-the-italian-cinema-12/ |work=The Italian Tribune |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251007213201/https://italiantribune.com/the-history-of-the-italian-cinema-12/ |archive-date=7 October 2025}}</ref> Italian cinema flourished because the regime stopped the import of Hollywood films in 1938, subsidized domestic production, and kept ticket prices low. It encouraged international distribution to glorify its African empire and to oppose the accusation that Italy was backward.{{sfnp|Ben-Ghiat|2015|p=60}} The regime censored criticism and used the state-run Luce Institute film company to laud the Duce through newsreels, documentaries, and photographs.{{sfnp|Sorlin|2007|pp=111–112}} The regime promoted Italian opera and theatre as well, making sure that political enemies did not have a voice on stage.{{sfnp|Berezin|1991|pp=640–641}}<br />
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In Nazi Germany the new [[Reich Chamber of Culture]] was under the control of [[Joseph Goebbels]], Hitler's powerful Reich Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda.{{sfnp|Overy|2005|p=361}} The goal was to stimulate the [[Aryanization (Nazism)|Aryanization]] of German culture and to prohibit postmodern trends such as [[surrealism]] and [[cubism]].{{sfnp|Steinweis|1996|pp=159–160}}{{sfnp|Barr|1966|pp=17–18}}<br />
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==Criticism==<br />
Fascist parties were closely contested by [[anti-fascist]] movements from the [[political centre]] and [[left wing]] throughout the Interwar period. The defeat of the [[Axis powers]] in World War II and subsequent revelation of the [[crimes against humanity]] committed during the Holocaust by Germany have led to an almost universal condemnation of both past and present forms of fascism in the modern era. "Fascism" is today used across the political spectrum as a pejorative or byword for perceived authoritarianism and other forms of political evil.<br />
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===Anti-democratic and tyrannical===<br />
{{See also|Criticism of democracy}}<br />
[[File:Hitler and Franco at Hendaye (en.wiki).jpg|thumb|upright|Hitler and Spanish dictator [[Francisco Franco]] in the [[Meeting at Hendaye]], on 23 October 1940{{sfnp|Lowe|2006|p=250}}{{sfnp|Paxton|2004|p=149}}]]<br />
One of the most common and strongest criticisms of fascism is that it is a [[tyranny]].{{sfnp|Boesche|2010|p=11}} Fascism is deliberately and entirely non-democratic and anti-democratic.{{sfnmp|1a1=Clarke|1a2=Foweraker|1y=2001|1p=540|Pollard|1998|2p=121|Griffin|1991|3p=42}}<br />
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Fascism's extreme authoritarianism and nationalism often manifest as a belief in [[racial purity]] or a [[master race]], usually blended with some variant of [[racism]] or [[discrimination]] against a demonized "[[Other (philosophy)|Other]]", such as [[Jews]], [[homosexuals]], [[transgender people]], [[ethnic minorities]], or [[immigrants]].{{sfnp|Kallis|2020|pp=4–7}}{{sfnp|Haider|2021|p=6}} These ideas have motivated fascist regimes to commit [[massacre]]s, [[forced sterilizations]], [[deportation]]s, and [[genocide]]s.{{sfnmp|1a1=Kallis|1y=2011|1p=|2a1=Paxton|2y=1998|2p=|3a1=Lancaster|3y=2011|3pp=366–368}} During World War II, the genocidal and imperialist ambitions of the fascist Axis powers resulted in the murder of millions of people.{{sfnp|Kallis|2009|pp=219–220}}{{sfnp|Finchelstein|2008|p=320}} [[Federico Finchelstein]] wrote that fascism {{blockquote|...encompassed [[totalitarianism]], [[state terrorism]], imperialism, racism and, in the German case, the most radical genocide of the last century: the Holocaust. Fascism, in its many forms, did not hesitate to kill its own citizens as well as its colonial subjects in its search for ideological and political closure. Millions of civilians perished on a global scale during the apogee of fascist ideologies in Europe and beyond.{{sfnp|Finchelstein|2008|p=320}}}}<br />
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===Unprincipled opportunism===<br />
Some critics of Italian fascism have said that much of the ideology was merely a by-product of unprincipled [[opportunism]] by Mussolini and that he changed his political stances merely to bolster his personal ambitions while he disguised them as being purposeful to the public.{{sfnp|Schreiber|Stegemann|Vogel|1995|p=111}} [[Richard Washburn Child]], the American ambassador to Italy who worked with Mussolini and became his friend and admirer, defended Mussolini's opportunistic behaviour by writing: <blockquote>Opportunist is a term of reproach used to brand men who fit themselves to conditions for the reasons of self-interest. Mussolini, as I have learned to know him, is an opportunist in the sense that he believed that mankind itself must be fitted to changing conditions rather than to fixed theories, no matter how many hopes and prayers have been expended on theories and programmes.<ref>{{harvp|Mussolini|1998|p=ix}}. (Note: Mussolini wrote the second volume about his fall from power as head of government of the Kingdom of Italy in 1943, though he was restored to power in northern Italy by the German military.)</ref></blockquote> Child quoted Mussolini as saying: "The sanctity of an ism is not in the ism; it has no sanctity beyond its power to do, to work, to succeed in practice. It may have succeeded yesterday and fail to-morrow. Failed yesterday and succeed to-morrow. The machine, first of all, must run!"{{sfnp|Mussolini|1998|p=ix}}<br />
<br />
Some have criticized Mussolini's actions during the outbreak of World War I as opportunistic for seeming to suddenly abandon Marxist egalitarian internationalism for non-egalitarian nationalism and note, to that effect, that upon Mussolini endorsing Italy's intervention in the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary, he and the new fascist movement received financial support from Italian and foreign sources, such as [[Italian Ansaldo company|Ansaldo]] (an armaments firm) and other companies{{sfnp|Mack Smith|1997|p=284}} as well as the British Security Service [[MI5]].{{sfnp|Kington|2009}} Some, including Mussolini's socialist opponents at the time, have noted that regardless of the financial support he accepted for his pro-interventionist stance, Mussolini was free to write whatever he wished in his newspaper {{lang|it|Il Popolo d'Italia}} without prior sanctioning from his financial backers.{{sfnp|O'Brien|2014|p=37}} Furthermore, the major source of financial support that Mussolini and the fascist movement received in World War I was from France and is widely believed to have been French socialists who supported the French government's war against Germany and who sent support to Italian socialists who wanted Italian intervention on France's side.{{sfnp|Gregor|1979|p=200}}<br />
<br />
Mussolini’s transformation away from Marxism into what eventually became fascism began prior to World War I, as Mussolini had grown increasingly pessimistic about Marxism and egalitarianism while becoming increasingly supportive of figures who opposed egalitarianism, such as Friedrich Nietzsche.{{sfnp|Golomb|Wistrich|2002|p=249}} By 1902, Mussolini was studying Georges Sorel, Nietzsche and [[Vilfredo Pareto]].{{sfnp|Delzel|1970|p=96}} Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal democracy and capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, general strikes and [[Machiavelli|neo-Machiavellian]] appeals to emotion impressed Mussolini deeply.{{sfnp|Delzel|1970|p=3}} Mussolini's use of Nietzsche made him a highly unorthodox socialist, due to Nietzsche's promotion of elitism and anti-egalitarian views.{{sfnp|Golomb|Wistrich|2002|p=249}} Prior to World War I, Mussolini's writings over time indicated that he had abandoned the Marxism and egalitarianism that he had previously supported in favour of Nietzsche's {{lang|de|übermensch}} concept and anti-egalitarianism.{{sfnp|Golomb|Wistrich|2002|p=249}} In 1908, Mussolini wrote a short essay called "Philosophy of Strength" based on his Nietzschean influence, in which Mussolini openly spoke fondly of the ramifications of an impending war in Europe in challenging both religion and [[nihilism]]: "[A] new kind of free spirit will come, strengthened by the war, ... a spirit equipped with a kind of sublime perversity, ... a new free spirit will triumph over God and over Nothing."{{sfnp|Gori|2004|p=14}}<br />
<br />
===Ideological dishonesty===<br />
Fascism has been criticized for being ideologically dishonest. Major examples of ideological dishonesty have been identified in Italian fascism's changing relationship with German Nazism.{{sfnmp|Gillette|2001|1p=17|Pollard|1998|2p=129}} Fascist Italy's official foreign policy positions commonly used rhetorical ideological [[hyperbole]] to justify its actions, although during [[Dino Grandi]]'s tenure as Italy's foreign minister the country engaged in {{lang|de|[[realpolitik]]}} free of such fascist hyperbole.{{sfnp|Burgwyn|1997|p=58}} Italian fascism's stance towards German Nazism fluctuated from support from the late 1920s to 1934, when it celebrated Hitler's rise to power and Mussolini's first meeting with Hitler in 1934; to opposition from 1934 to 1936 after the assassination of Italy's allied leader in Austria, [[Engelbert Dollfuss]], by Austrian Nazis; and again back to support after 1936, when Germany was the only significant power that did not denounce [[Italy's invasion and occupation of Ethiopia]].{{sfnp|Strang|2000|p=74}}<br />
<br />
After antagonism exploded between Nazi Germany and [[Kingdom of Italy|Fascist Italy]] over the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss in 1934, Mussolini and Italian fascists denounced and ridiculed Nazism's racial theories, particularly by denouncing its [[Nordic race|Nordicism]], while promoting [[Mediterraneanism]].{{sfnp|Pollard|1998|p=129}} Mussolini himself responded to Nordicists' claims of Italy being divided into Nordic and Mediterranean racial areas due to Germanic invasions of Northern Italy by claiming that while Germanic tribes such as the [[Lombards]] took control of Italy after the [[fall of Ancient Rome]], they arrived in small numbers (about 8,000) and quickly assimilated into Roman culture and spoke the [[Vulgar Latin|Latin]] language within fifty years.{{sfnp|Gillette|2001|p=93}} Italian fascism was influenced by the tradition of [[Italian nationalists]] scornfully looking down upon Nordicists' claims and taking pride in comparing the age and sophistication of [[ancient Roman civilization]] as well as the classical revival in the [[Renaissance]] to that of Nordic societies that Italian nationalists described as "newcomers" to civilization in comparison.{{sfnp|Gillette|2001|p=17}} At the height of antagonism between the Nazis and Italian fascists over race, Mussolini claimed that the Germans themselves were not a pure race and noted with irony that the Nazi theory of German racial superiority was based on the theories of non-German foreigners, such as Frenchman Arthur de Gobineau.{{sfnp|Gillette|2001|p=45}} After the tension in [[German-Italian relations]] diminished during the late 1930s, Italian fascism sought to harmonize its ideology with German Nazism and combined Nordicist and Mediterranean racial theories, noting that Italians were members of the Aryan Race, composed of a mixed Nordic-Mediterranean subtype.{{sfnp|Pollard|1998|p=129}}<br />
<br />
In 1938, Mussolini declared upon Italy's adoption of antisemitic laws that Italian fascism had always been antisemitic.{{sfnp|Pollard|1998|p=129}} However, Italian fascism did not endorse [[antisemitism]] until the late 1930s when Mussolini feared alienating antisemitic Nazi Germany, whose power and influence were growing in Europe.{{sfnp|Zimmerman|2005|pp=62, 160}} Prior to that period, there had been notable [[Jewish Italians]] who had been senior Italian fascist officials, including [[Margherita Sarfatti]], who had also been Mussolini's mistress.{{sfnp|Pollard|1998|p=129}} Also contrary to Mussolini's claim in 1938, only a small number of Italian fascists were staunchly antisemitic (such as [[Roberto Farinacci]] and Giuseppe Preziosi), while others such as [[Italo Balbo]], who came from [[Ferrara]] which had one of Italy's largest Jewish communities, were disgusted by the antisemitic laws and opposed them.{{sfnp|Pollard|1998|p=129}} Fascism scholar Mark Neocleous notes that while Italian fascism did not have a clear commitment to antisemitism, there were occasional antisemitic statements issued prior to 1938, such as Mussolini in 1919 declaring that the Jewish bankers in London and New York were connected by race to the Russian Bolsheviks and that eight percent of the Russian Bolsheviks were Jews.{{sfnp|Neocleous|1997|pp=35–36}}<br />
<br />
===Anti-fascism===<br />
{{main|Anti-fascism}}<br />
<br />
[[File:01 partigiani a milano1.jpg|thumb|[[Italian resistance movement|Italian partisans]] in [[Milan]] during the final insurrection leading to the [[liberation of Italy]] in April 1945]]<br />
[[File:2013-04-25 Porta san Paolo Roma.jpg|thumb|Anti-fascist demonstration at [[Porta San Paolo]] in [[Rome]] on the occasion of Italy's [[Liberation Day (Italy)|Liberation Day]] on 25 April 2013]]<br />
<br />
Anti-fascism is a [[political movement]] in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II. During the war, the Axis powers were opposed by many countries forming the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], and by dozens of [[resistance movement]]s worldwide.{{sfnp|Rieber|2017|pp=38–40}} Anti-fascism has been an element of movements across the political spectrum and holding many different political positions such as [[anarchism]], communism, pacifism, republicanism, social democracy, socialism and syndicalism as well as [[centrist]], [[conservative]], [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[nationalist]] viewpoints.<ref>{{harvp|Conway III|Zubrod|Chan|McFarland|2023|p=}};{{pn|date=May 2025}} {{harvp|García|2016|p=567}}; {{harvp|Seidman|2020|p=}};{{pn|date=May 2025}} {{harvp|Seidman|2017|pp=2–8}}; {{harvp|Olechnowicz|2005|pp=636–637}}</ref><br />
<br />
Organization against fascism began around 1920. Fascism became the state ideology of Italy in 1922 and of Germany in 1933, spurring a large increase in anti-fascist action, including [[German resistance to Nazism]] and the [[Italian resistance movement]]. Anti-fascism was a major aspect of the Spanish Civil War, which foreshadowed World War II.{{sfnp|Seidman|2017|pp=3–4}}<br />
<br />
Before World War II, [[Western world|the West]] had not taken seriously the threat of fascism, and anti-fascism was sometimes associated with communism.{{sfnp|Copsey|2023|p=271}} However, the [[outbreak of World War II]] greatly changed Western perceptions, and fascism was seen as an existential threat by not only the communist Soviet Union but also by the [[liberal-democratic]] United States and United Kingdom.{{cn|date=May 2025}} The Axis Powers of World War II were generally fascist, and the fight against them was characterized in anti-fascist terms. [[Resistance during World War II]] to fascism occurred in every occupied country, and came from across the ideological spectrum. The defeat of the Axis powers generally ended fascism as a state ideology.{{sfnp|Lowe|2014|p=162}}<br />
<br />
After World War II, the [[Post–World War II anti-fascism|anti-fascist movement continued]] to be active in places where organized fascism continued or re-emerged.{{sfnp|Bogel-Burroughs|Garcia|2020}} Modern [[antifa movement in the United States|antifa politics in the United States]] and Britain can be traced to opposition to the infiltration of the American and British [[punk scene]]s by [[white power skinheads]] in the 1970s and 1980s.{{sfnp|Beinart|2017}} From the late 1980s, the [[squatter]] scene and [[autonomism]] movement in [[West Germany]] were important in an upswing of [[antifa in Germany]].{{sfnp|Balhorn|2017}} There was a further increase in antifascism following the increase in [[neo-Nazism]] in Germany after the [[fall of the Berlin Wall]].{{sfnp|Beinart|2017}} In the 21st century, this greatly increased in prominence as a response to the resurgence of the [[Radical right (United States)|radical right]], especially after the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 election of Donald Trump]].{{sfnp|Beinart|2017}}{{sfnp|Beauchamp|2020}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Politics|History}}<br />
{{div col}}<br />
* {{anl|Anti-fascism}}<br />
* {{anl|Authoritarianism}}<br />
* {{anl|Autocracy}}<br />
* {{anl|Dictatorship}}<br />
* {{anl|Far-right politics}}<br />
* {{anl|Nationalism}}<br />
* {{anl|Right-wing politics}}<br />
* {{anl|Totalitarianism}}<br />
* {{anl|Ultranationalism}}<br />
{{div-col-end}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
===Primary sources===<br />
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* {{cite book |last1=Camus |first1=Jean-Yves |author1-link=Jean-Yves Camus |last2=Lebourg |first2=Nicolas |author2-link=Nicolas Lebourg |date=20 March 2017 |title=Far-Right Politics in Europe |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-97153-0 |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_j5YDgAAQBAJ |access-date=9 May 2020 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cardoza |first=Anthony L. |year=2006 |title=Benito Mussolini: the First Fascist |publisher=[[Pearson Longman]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Carroll |first1=David |date=1998 |title=French Literary Fascism: Nationalism, Anti-Semitism, and the Ideology of Culture |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-05846-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XccGLKte38gC |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}} <!-- May be the wrong edition for the cited page --><br />
* {{cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.it/2012/12/20/dal-centrodestra-nazionale-ai-fratelli-ditalia_n_2339666.html |last=Cecchi de Rossi |first=Martina |date=20 December 2012 |title=Dal Centrodestra nazionale ai Fratelli d'Italia: Giorgia Meloni e Guido Crosetto vicini a Ignazio La Russa |trans-title=From the National Center-Right to the Brothers of Italy: Giorgia Meloni and Guido Crosetto are close to Ignazio La Russa. |work=[[HuffPost]] |language=it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204165817/https://www.huffingtonpost.it/2012/12/20/dal-centrodestra-nazionale-ai-fratelli-ditalia_n_2339666.html |archive-date=4 December 2024 |url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cesarani |first=David |author-link=David Cesarani |date=2016 |title=[[Final Solution: The Fate of the Jews 1933–1949]] |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |isbn=978-0-230-76891-8}}<br />
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* {{cite journal |last1=Ciccarelli |first1=Orazio |date=1990 |title=Fascism and Politics in Peru during the Benavides Regime, 1933-39: The Italian Perspective |journal=[[The Hispanic American Historical Review]] |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=405–432 |doi=10.2307/2516615 |jstor=2516615}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Paul Barry |last2=Foweraker |first2=Joe |year=2001 |title=Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought |publisher=[[Routledge]]}}<br />
* {{cite news |last=Coalson |first=Robert |date=9 April 2022 |title=Nasty, Repressive, Aggressive – Yes. But Is Russia Fascist? Experts Say 'No.' |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-repressive-aggressive-not-fascist/31794918.html |access-date=7 May 2022 |work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723061728/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-repressive-aggressive-not-fascist/31794918.html |archive-date=23 July 2023}}<br />
* {{cite magazine |last=Cole |first=Myke |date=1 August 2019 |title=The Sparta Fetish Is a Cultural Cancer |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/154563/sparta-myth-rise-fascism-trumpism |magazine=[[The New Republic]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250326190111/https://newrepublic.com/article/154563/sparta-myth-rise-fascism-trumpism |archive-date=26 March 2025}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Conway III |first1=Lucian Gideon |last2=Zubrod |first2=Alivia |last3=Chan |first3=Linus |last4=McFarland |first4=James D. |last5=Van de Vliert |first5=Evert |date=8 February 2023 |title=Is the myth of left-wing authoritarianism itself a myth? |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |volume=13 |issn=1664-1078 |pmid=36846476 |pmc=9944136 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1041391 |doi-access=free |article-number=1041391}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Copsey |first=Nigel |year=2008 |title=Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and the Quest for Legitimacy |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-230-57437-3 |edition=second |location=London and New York}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Copsey |first=Nigel |author-mask=3 |year=2023 |chapter=Afterword: "Are you a communist? No, I am an anti-fascist." |title=Anti-Fascism in European History: From the 1920s to Today |editor1-last=Pirjevec |editor1-first=Jože |editor2-last=Pelikan |editor2-first=Egon |editor3-last=Ramet |editor3-first=Sabrina P. |publisher=[[Central European University Press]] |isbn=978-963-386-658-0 |pages=269–280}}<br />
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Corni |first=Gustavo |date=26 August 2015 |title=Fascism and the Radical Right |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/fascism-and-the-radical-right/ |encyclopedia=International Encyclopedia of the First World War |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250401005815/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/fascism-and-the-radical-right/ |archive-date=1 April 2025}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Corvaja |first1=Santi |last2=Miller |first2=Robert L. |date=2008 |title=Hitler & Mussolini: The Secret Meetings |location=New York |publisher=Enigma Books |isbn=9781929631421}} <br />
* {{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Gabriel A. |last2=Sawyer |first2=Patrick |date=2021 |chapter=A Safe Space for the White Race: An Interrogation of White Nationalist Propaganda on College Campuses |title=Expression in Contested Public Spaces: Free Speech and Civic Engagement |editor-last=Jovanovic |editor-first=Spoma |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |isbn=978-1-7936-3094-0}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Cucchetti |first=Humberto |date=2012 |title=Lecturas e interpretaciones sobre los orígenes del peronismo: ¿nacional-populismo o adaptación fascista? |language=es |trans-title=Readings and interpretations on the origins of Peronism: national-populism or fascist adaptation? |url=https://gredos.usal.es/handle/10366/129373 |journal=Studia Historica. Contemporary History |volume=30 |issn=0213-2087 |publisher=[[Universidad de Salamanca]] |pages=151–171 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250310062241/https://gredos.usal.es/handle/10366/129373 |archive-date=10 March 2025}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Eugene |year=2004 |title=The Unmaking of Adolf Hitler |location=Columbia, Missouri |publisher=[[University of Missouri Press]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=De Grand |first=Alexander J. |year=1995 |title=Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=De Grand |first=Alexander |year=2000 |title=Italian Fascism: its Origins and Development |edition=3rd |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |author-mask=3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal |last=Deutsch |first=Sandra McGee |year=2009 |title=Fascism, Neo-Fascism, or Post-Fascism? Chile, 1945–1988 |journal=Diálogos-Revista do Departamento de História e do Programa de Pós-Graduação Em História |volume=13 |number=1 |pages=19–44}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Dierkes |first=Julian |title=Postwar Historical Education in Japan and the Germanies |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2010}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Durham |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Durham |date=25 June 1998 |title=Women and Fascism |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415122801}}<br />
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* {{cite news |editor-last=Early |editor-first=John |date=16 May 2018 |title=3 Militia Groups Connected to Unite the Right Rally Settle Lawsuits |url=https://www.nbc29.com/story/38204693/settlements-from-unite-the-right-05-16-2018 |work=nbc29.com |publisher=[[WVIR-TV]] |access-date=12 August 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214121756/https://www.nbc29.com/story/38204693/settlements-from-unite-the-right-05-16-2018 |archive-date=14 February 2019}} <br />
* {{cite book |last=Eatwell |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Eatwell |year=1996 |title=Fascism: A History |location=New York |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9147-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/fascismhistory00eatw |url-access=registration}}<br />
* {{cite news |last1=Ebel |first1=Francesca |date=27 February 2024 |title=Russian activist from Nobel-winning organization gets prison term |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/02/27/russia-orlov-memorial-prison-fascist/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240227142251/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/02/27/russia-orlov-memorial-prison-fascist/ |archive-date=27 February 2024}}<br />
* {{cite news |last=Eco |first=Umberto |author-link=Umberto Eco |date=22 June 1995 |title=Eternal Fascism |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/umberto-eco-ur-fascism |via=[[The Anarchist Library]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Elazar |first=Dahlia S. |year=2001 |title=The Making of Fascism: Class, State, and Counter-Revolution, Italy 1919–1922 |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=[[Praeger Publishers]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Richard J. |author-link=Richard J. Evans |year=2005 |title=The Third Reich in Power: 1933–1939 |url=https://archive.org/details/thirdreichinpowe00evan |url-access=registration |publisher=The Penguin Press HC |isbn=1-59420-074-2}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Falasca-Zamponi |first=Simonetta |title=Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Oakland, California |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-520-22677-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Ferrandi |first1=Maurizio |last2=Obermair |first2=Hannes |title=Camicie nere in Alto Adige (1921–1928) |trans-title=Blackshirts in South Tyrol (1921–1928) |year=2023 |publisher=Alphabeta |location=Merano |language=it |isbn=978-88-7223-419-8}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |author-link=Federico Finchelstein |date=20 August 2008 |title=On Fascist Ideology |journal=[[Constellations (journal)|Constellations]] |publisher=Wiley |volume=15 |issue=3 |issn=1351-0487 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8675.2008.00494.x |pages=320–331}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |author-link=Federico Finchelstein |year=2010 |title=Transatlantic Fascism: Ideology, Violence, and the Sacred in Argentina and Italy, 1919-1945 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780822391555/html |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-9155-5 |language=en |doi=10.1515/9780822391555 |url-access=subscription |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |author-link=Federico Finchelstein |date=April 2014 |chapter=Peronist Populism and Fascism |title=The Ideological Origins of the Dirty War: Fascism, Populism, and Dictatorship in Twentieth Century Argentina |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199930241 |pages=65–92 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199930241.003.0004 |access-date=13 November 2023 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/7298/chapter-abstract/152020225?redirectedFrom=fulltext |author-mask=3}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Galasso |first=Norberto |date=2003 |chapter=Peronismo y Liberación Nacional |trans-chapter=Peronism and National Liberation |title=Apuntes para otra historia |trans-title=Notes for another story |issn=1667-1635 |language=es}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Gallagher |first1=Tom |date=2005 |title=Theft of a Nation: Romania Since Communism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1zoXqTR_dAC |publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co. Publishers]] |isbn=9781850657163 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
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* {{cite journal |last1=García |first1=Hugo |date=November 2016 |title=Transnational History: A New Paradigm for Anti-Fascist Studies? |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/contemporary-european-history/article/abs/transnational-history-a-new-paradigm-for-antifascist-studies/EFD85E14B95ECF4C09512B9ECF1E2ED2 |journal=[[Contemporary European History]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=563–572 |doi=10.1017/S0960777316000382 |issn=0960-7773 |url-access=subscription}}<br />
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* {{cite news |last=Giuffrida |first=Angela |date=12 June 2023 |title=Berlusconi's death poses challenge for his party and for Meloni |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/12/berlusconis-death-poses-challenge-for-his-party-and-for-meloni |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115013927/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/12/berlusconis-death-poses-challenge-for-his-party-and-for-meloni |archive-date=15 January 2024}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Goldstein |first1=Erik |last2=Lukes |first2=Igor |year=1999 |title=The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II |place=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzeeAO54m7gC&q=polish+demands+21+september+1938&pg=PA60 |access-date=25 August 2019 |isbn=9781136328398}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Gregor |first=Anthony James |author-link=A. James Gregor |year=1979 |title=Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California; London |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-03799-1 |author-mask=3}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last1=Gregor |first1=Anthony James |author-link=A. James Gregor |date=27 March 2006 |chapter=5 - Black Nationalism and Neofascism: Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association |title=The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science |pages=111–136 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511617225.006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521859202 |author-mask=3}}<br />
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* {{Cite book |last=Griffin |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Griffin |date=1996 |chapter=Staging the Nation's Rebirth: The Politics and Aesthetics of Performance in the Context of Fascist Studies |title=Fascism and theater: comparative studies on the aesthetics and politics of performance in Europe, 1925–1945 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1571819017 |editor-last=Berghaus |editor-first=Günter |location=Providence, RI |pages=11–29 |access-date=7 October 2013 |chapter-url=https://www.libraryofsocialscience.com/ideologies/resources/griffin-staging-the-nations/ |via=Library of Social Science |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Griffin |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Griffin |year=2003 |url=http://ah.brookes.ac.uk/history/staff/griffin/coreoffascism.pdf |chapter=The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040729040842/http://ah.brookes.ac.uk/history/staff/griffin/coreoffascism.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2004 |editor-first=Alessandro |editor-last=Campi |title=Che cos'è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche |trans-title=What is fascism? Interpretations and research perspectives |language=it |publisher=Ideazione editrice |location=Rome |pages=97–122 |url-status=dead |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Griffin |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=Feldman |editor2-first=Matthew |editor1-link=Roger Griffin |editor2-link=Matthew Feldman (historian) |year=2004 |title=Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]}}<br />
** {{cite book |editor1-last=Griffin |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=Feldman |editor2-first=Matthew |editor1-link=Roger Griffin |editor2-link=Matthew Feldman (historian) |volume=1 |title=The nature of fascism |year=2004a |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |editor1-mask=3 |editor2-mask=3}}<br />
** {{cite book |editor1-last=Griffin |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=Feldman |editor2-first=Matthew |editor1-link=Roger Griffin |editor2-link=Matthew Feldman (historian) |title=Fascism and Culture |volume=3 |location=London and New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2004c |editor1-mask=3 |editor2-mask=3}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Walter |year=1967 |title=Small Wonder |publisher=[[Little, Brown & Company]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Pauley |first=Bruce F. |year=2003 |title=Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century Italy |location=Wheeling |publisher=Harlan Davidson, Inc.}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Paxton |first=Robert O. |author-link=Robert Paxton |year=1998 |title=The five stages of fascism |journal=[[Journal of Modern History]] |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1086/235001 |jstor=10.1086/235001 |s2cid=143862302}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Paxton |first=Robert O. |author-link=Robert Paxton |year=2004 |title=The Anatomy of Fascism |title-link=The Anatomy of Fascism |edition=First |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |isbn=978-1-4000-4094-0}}<br />
** {{cite book |last=Paxton |first=Robert O. |author-link=Robert Paxton |year=2005 |title=The Anatomy of Fascism |title-link=The Anatomy of Fascism |location=New York; Toronto |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-307-42812-7}}<br />
* {{Cite book |url=https://libro.uca.edu/payne2/payne25.htm |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |date=1973 |title=A History of Spain and Portugal |volume=2 |chapter=25 |edition=Print |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |via=Library of Iberian Resources Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304172047/https://libro.uca.edu/payne2/payne25.htm |archive-date=4 March 2025}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |year=1980 |title=Fascism: Comparison and Definition |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |isbn=978-0-299-08060-0 |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |year=1992 |chapter=Fascism |editor1-last=Hawkesworth |editor1-first=Mary |editor1-link=Mary Hawkesworth |editor2-last=Kogan |editor2-first=Maurice |title=Encyclopaedia of Government and Politics |volume=1 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-71288-7 |pages=167–178 |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |year=1975 |chapter=Spanish Fascism in Comparative Perspective |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=Henry Ashby |editor-link=Henry Ashby Turner |title=Reappraisals of Fascism |publisher=New Viewpoints |isbn=978-0531053720 |pages=142–169 |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |year=1995 |title=A History of Fascism, 1914–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_MeR06xqXAC |location=Madison, WI |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |isbn=978-0-299-14874-4 |author-mask=3}} [https://archive.org/details/historyoffascism00payn online]; also [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299148744 another copy].<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Payne |first1=Stanley G. |author1-link=Stanley G. Payne |last2=Palacios |first2=Jesús |author2-link=Jesús Palacios Tapias |year=2014 |title=Franco: A Personal and Political Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rn6aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |edition=4th |isbn=978-0299302146}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Peck |editor1-first=Abraham J. |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |editor2-link=Michael Berenbaum |date=2002 |title=The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zkZC6bp3upsC&pg=PA311 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-21529-1}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Pollard |first=John |year=1998 |title=The Fascist Experience in Italy |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415116329}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Porat |first1=Dina |last2=Stauber |first2=Roni |year=2002 |title=Antisemitism Worldwide 2000/1 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Proctor |first=Robert E. |year=1989 |title=Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis |url=https://archive.org/details/racialhygiene00robe |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |isbn=978-0-674-74578-0 |oclc=20760638}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last1=Quarantotto |first1=Claudio |title=Tutti fascisti! |trans-title=All fascists! |date=1976 |publisher=Edizioni del Borghese |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9BizAAAAIAAJ |language=it |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Quine |first1=Maria Sophia |date=1996 |title=Population Politics in Twentieth-century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-08069-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRR3pR1NbhcC |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Ramswell |first=Prebble Q. |year=2017 |title=Euroscepticism and the Rising Threat from the Left and Right: The Concept of Millennial Fascism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wNBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-4604-1 |access-date=8 March 2019 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Reich |first=Wilhelm |author-link=Wilhelm Reich |year=1970 |title=The Mass Psychology of Fascism |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-285-64701-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Rein |first=Raanan |date=2015 |title=Los muchachos judíos peronistas: Judeosargentinos y apoyo al Justicialismo |trans-title=The Peronist Jewish Boys: Judeo-sergeants and support for Justicialism |language=es |publisher=[[Penguin Random House|Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial Argentina]] |isbn=9789500753982}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Renton |first=David |author-link=David Renton |year=1999 |title=Fascism: Theory and Practice |location=London |publisher=[[Pluto Press]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Richardson |first=John E. |year=2017 |title=British Fascism: A Discourse-Historical Analysis |publisher=Ibidem Press |isbn=978-3-8382-6491-2 |location=Stuttgart}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Rieber |first=Alfred J. |date=2017 |chapter=Anti-Fascist Resistance Movements in Europe and Asia During World War II |editor1-last=Naimark |editor1-first=Norman |editor1-link=Norman Naimark |editor2-last=Pons |editor2-first=Silvio |editor3-last=Quinn-Judge |editor3-first=Sophie |title=The Cambridge History of Communism |volume=2: The Socialist Camp and World Power 1941–1960s |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=38–62 |isbn=9781316459850 |doi=10.1017/9781316459850}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Roche |first=Helen |date=2017 |chapter="Distant Models"? Italian Fascism, National Socialism, and the Lure of the Classics |title=Brill's Companion to the Classics, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |doi=10.1163/9789004299061_002 |isbn=9789004299061 |pages=3–28 |chapter-url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1633346}}<br />
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* {{Cite journal |last=Roel Reyes |first=Stefan |date=17 December 2019 |title=Antebellum Palingenetic Ultranationalism: The Case for including the United States in Comparative Fascist Studies |journal=Fascism |publisher=[[Brill (publisher)|Brill]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=307–330 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00802005 |issn=2211-6257 |doi-access=free}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Roel Reyes |first=Stefan |date=24 November 2021 |title='Christian Patriots': The Intersection Between Proto-fascism and Clerical Fascism in the Antebellum South |journal=International Journal for History, Culture and Modernity |volume=-1 |issue=aop |pages=82–110 |doi=10.1163/22130624-00219121 |s2cid=244746966 |issn=2213-0624 |doi-access=free |author-mask=3}}<br />
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* {{citation |last=Romero |first=Ricardo |date=2015 |title=Perón, Reformismo y nazi fascismo durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial |language=es |trans-title=Perón, Reformism and Nazi fascism during the Second War World |publisher=Departamento de Ciencias Sociales, Colegio nacional de Buenos Aires, UBA |url=https://iih.cnba.uba.ar/biblioteca_virtual_edith_lopez_del_carril/coleccion_propuestas/0602/7-14-2/Per%F3n,%20reformismo%20y%20nazifascismo.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407015709/http://iih.cnba.uba.ar/biblioteca_virtual_edith_lopez_del_carril/coleccion_propuestas/0602/7-14-2/Per%F3n,%20reformismo%20y%20nazifascismo.htm |archive-date=7 April 2016}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Alexander Reid |year=2017 |title=Against the Fascist Creep |publisher=[[AK Press]] |location=Chico, California |author-link=Alexander Reid Ross |isbn=978-1-84935-244-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Rothstein |first=Bo |author-link=Bo Rothstein |year=1996 |chapter=Political institutions: An Overview (Part II, Chapter 4) |title=A New Handbook of Political Science |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191521089 |editor1-last=Klingemann |editor1-first=Hans-Dieter |language=en |editor2-last=Goodin |editor2-first=Robert E. |editor2-link=Robert E. Goodin |pages=133–166}}<br />
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* {{cite web |last=Samaras |first=Georgios |date=26 November 2020 |title=The end of Golden Dawn: has Greece shown us how to deal with neo-Nazis? |url=https://theconversation.com/the-end-of-golden-dawn-has-greece-shown-us-how-to-deal-with-neo-nazis-150239 |work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202120220/https://theconversation.com/the-end-of-golden-dawn-has-greece-shown-us-how-to-deal-with-neo-nazis-150239 |archive-date=2 December 2020 |url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Schmitt |first=Carl |chapter=The Legal Basis of the Total State |title=Fascism |editor-last=Griffin |editor-first=Roger |editor-link=Roger Griffin |year=1995 |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Schori Liang |first=Christina |year=2013 |chapter='Nationalism Ensures Peaces': the Foreign and Security Policy of the German Populist Radical Left After Reunification |title=Europe for the Europeans: The Foreign and Security Policy of the Populist Radical Right |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7I_pDb1O2EQC&pg=PA139 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4094-9825-4 |access-date=17 March 2016 |archive-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515165049/https://books.google.com/books?id=7I_pDb1O2EQC&pg=PA139 |url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Schreiber |first1=Gerhard |author1-link=Gerhard Schreiber |last2=Stegemann |first2=Bernd |author2-link=Bernd Stegemann |last3=Vogel |first3=Detlef |author3-link=Detlef Vogel |year=1995 |title=Germany and the Second World War: Volume III: The Mediterranean, South-East Europe, and North Africa 1939–1941 (From Italy's Declaration of Non-Belligerence to the Entry of the United States into the War) |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Schweller |first=Randall L. |year=2006 |title=Unanswered Threats: Political Constraints on the Balance of Power |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400837854/html?lang=en |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-3785-4 |volume=125 |series=Princeton Studies in International History and Politics |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781400837854 |s2cid=266074243 |author-link=Randall Schweller |url-access=subscription}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Seidman |first1=Michael |date=2017 |title=Transatlantic Antifascisms: From the Spanish Civil War to the End of World War II |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9781108278386 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781108278386}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Seidman |first1=Michael |date=20 December 2020 |title=The Rise of Counterrevolutionary Anti-Fascism in the United States from the Munich Conference to the Fall of France |journal=Dictatorships & Democracies |pages=37–68 |doi=10.7238/dd.v0i7.3163 |url=https://raco.cat/index.php/Dictatorships-Democracies/article/download/373826/467382/539143 |doi-access=free |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Shaffer |first=Ryan |date=2018 |title=Pan-European thought in British fascism: the International Third Position and the Alliance for Peace and Freedom |journal=[[Patterns of Prejudice]] |volume=52 |number=1 |pages=78–99 |doi=10.1080/0031322X.2017.1417191}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Shenfield |first=Stephen |year=2016 |title=Russian Fascism: Traditions Tendencies Movements |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315500058/russian-fascism-stephen-shenfield |publisher=[[Routledge]] |edition=2nd |location=New York |orig-year=2001 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781315500058 |isbn=9781315500058 |url-access=subscription}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Shirer |first=William L. |author-link=William L. Shirer |year=1960 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |location=New York |lccn=60-6729 |title-link=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich}}<br />
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* {{cite magazine |last=Sontag |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Sontag |date=6 February 1975 |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1975/02/06/fascinating-fascism/ |title=Fascinating Fascism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718114505/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1975/02/06/fascinating-fascism/ |archive-date=18 July 2020 |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]] |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Sorlin |first=Pierre |date=2007 |title=A Mirror for Fascism. How Mussolini Used Cinema to Advertise his Person and Regime |journal=[[Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television]] |volume=27 |number=1 |pages=111–117 |doi=10.1080/01439680601177163 |s2cid=192025081}}<br />
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* {{cite thesis |last=Strang |first=G. Bruce |date=2000 |title=In Dubious Battle: Mussolini's Mentalité and Italian Foreign Policy, 1936–1939 |url=https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/13836/1/fulltext.pdf |type=PhD |publisher=[[McMaster University]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522112949/https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/13836/1/fulltext.pdf |archive-date=22 May 2025}}<br />
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* {{cite journal |last=Sternhell |first=Zeev |author-link=Zeev Sternhell |date=1976 |title=Anatomie d'un mouvement fasciste en France: le faisceau de Georges Valois |language=fr |trans-title=Anatomy of a fascist movement in France: the beam of Georges Valois |journal=[[Revue française de science politique]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=5–40 |doi=10.3406/rfsp.1976.393652}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Sternhell |first1=Zeev |last2=Sznajder |first2=Mario |last3=Ashéri |first3=Maia |author1-link=Zeev Sternhell |orig-date=1989 |year=1994 |title=The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution |translator-first=David |translator-last=Maisei |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=9780691044866}}<br />
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* {{Cite news |last=Tenorio |first=Rich |date=30 September 2023 |title=Fascism in America: a long history that predates Trump |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/sep/30/fascism-in-america-book-trump |access-date=26 February 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212220222/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/sep/30/fascism-in-america-book-trump |archive-date=12 February 2024}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Thomson |first=David |author-link=David Thomson (historian) |year=1966 |title=Europe Since Napoleon |publisher=Pelican |isbn=9780140135619}}<br />
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* {{cite book |editor-last=Toniolo |editor-first=Gianni |year=2013 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Valencia-García |first=Louie Dean |date=2018 |title=Antiauthoritarian Youth Culture in Francoist Spain: Clashing with Fascism |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-3500-3849-3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=von Lang |first=Jochen |year=1979 |title=The Secretary: Martin Bormann, The Man Who Manipulated Hitler |location=New York |publisher=[[Random House]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Weber |first=Eugen |author-link=Eugen Weber |orig-date=1964 |year=1982 |title=Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century |location=New York |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23jZAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-89874-444-6 |via=[[Google Books]]}} Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.<br />
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* {{cite book |last1=Weiss-Wendt |first1=Anton |author1-link=Anton Weiss-Wendt |last2=Krieken |first2=Robert |author2-link=Robert van Krieken |last3=Cave |first3=Alfred A. |author3-link=Alfred A. Cave |year=2008 |title=The Historiography of Genocide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NzIWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 |publisher=[[Springer (publisher)|Springer]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-230-29778-4 |access-date=12 April 2019 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Roger Lawrence |author-link=Roger Lawrence Williams |year=2015 |title=The Mortal Napoleon The Third |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]}}<br />
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* {{cite journal |last=Wistrich |first=Robert |author-link=Robert S. Wistrich |date=October 1976 |title=Leon Trotsky's Theory of Fascism |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |location=Thousand Oaks, California |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=157–184 |doi=10.1177/002200947601100409 |jstor=260195 |s2cid=140420352}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Wodak |first=Ruth |year=2020 |title=The Politics of Fear: The Shameless Normalization of Far-Right Discourse |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G2DfDwAAQBAJ&dq=Golden+Dawn+neo-nazi&pg=PT279 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-1-5264-9921-9 |location=United Kingdom |lccn=2020934796}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Woodley |first=Daniel |year=2010 |title=Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-47354-5 |location=London and New York}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=Stuart |author-link=Stuart Woolf |year=1981 |title=Fascism in Europe |publisher=Methuen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iaMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA18 |isbn=978-0-416-30240-0 |access-date=9 May 2020 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
** {{cite book |last=Woolf |first=Stuart Joseph |author-link=Stuart Woolf |year=1983 |title=Fascism in Europe |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite news |last=Wootson |first=Cleve R. Jr. |date=13 August 2017 |title=Here's what a neo-Nazi rally looks like in 2017 America |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/local/wp/2017/08/13/heres-what-a-neo-nazi-rally-looks-like-in-2017-america/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=12 August 2018 |url-access=limited |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719225420/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/local/wp/2017/08/13/heres-what-a-neo-nazi-rally-looks-like-in-2017-america/ |url-status=live}} <br />
* {{cite book |last=Woshinsky |first=Oliver |year=2008 |title=Explaining Politics: Culture, Institutions, and Political Behavior |location=Oxford, England; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415960786}}<br />
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* {{cite book |last=Zafirovski |first=Milan |year=2008 |title=Modern Free Society and Its Nemesis: Liberty Versus Conservatism in the New Millennium |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |isbn=978-0-7391-1516-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Oliver |year=2003 |title=Nationalism in Europe, 1890–1940 |series=Studies in European History |location=London |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave]] |doi=10.1007/978-1-4039-4388-0 |isbn=978-1-4039-4388-0 |url=https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA63917840}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Zimmerman |first=Joshua D. |date=27 June 2005 |title=Jews in Italy Under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/jewsitalyunderfa00zimm_502 |url-access=limited |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-84101-6}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
===Tertiary sources===<br />
{{refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Badie |first1=Bertrand |author1-link=Bertrand Badie |last2=Berg-Schlosser |first2=Dirk |author2-link=Dirk Berg-Schlosser |last3=Morlino |first3=Leonardo |author3-link=Leonardo Morlino |date=2011 |title=Fascism |encyclopedia=International Encyclopedia of Political Science |editor1-first=Bertrand |editor1-last=Badie |editor1-link=Bertrand Badie |editor2-first=Dirk |editor2-last=Berg-Schlosser |editor2-link=Dirk Berg-Schlosser |editor3-first=Leonardo |editor3-last=Morlino |editor3-link=Leonardo Morlino |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |doi=10.4135/9781412994163 |isbn=9781412959636}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Blamires |first=Cyprian |year=2006 |title=World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=1 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]], Inc.}}<br />
** {{harvc |last=Gellott |first=Laura |in1=Blamires |year=2006 |pp=67–71 |contribution=Austria}}<br />
** {{harvc |last=Umland |first=Andreas |in1=Blamires |year=2006 |pp=95–97 |contribution=Bolshevism}}<br />
** {{harvc |last=Griffin |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Griffin |in1=Blamires |year=2006 |pp=140–143 |contribution=Community}}<br />
** {{harvc |last=Pollard |first=John |in1=Blamires |year=2006 |pp=150–151 |contribution=Corporatism}}<br />
** {{harvc |last=Lowe |first=Sid |in1=Blamires |year=2006 |pp=249–250 |contribution=Franco y Bahamonde, General Francisco (1892–1975)}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Blamires |first=Cyprian |year=2006b |title=World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia |volume=2 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]], Inc.}}<br />
** {{harvc |last=Griffin |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Griffin |in1=Blamires |year=2006b |pp=451–453 |contribution=Nationalism}}<br />
** {{harvc |last=Gentile |first=Emilio |author-link=Emilio Gentile |in1=Blamires |year=2006b |pp=669–672 |contribution=Totalitarianism}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Fasces |url=https://Britannica.com/topic/fasces |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |access-date=17 April 2024 |date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250407221336/https://www.britannica.com/topic/fasces |archive-date=7 April 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fasces''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Fascism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/fascism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |date=8 January 2008 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130102103612/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202210/fascism |archive-date=2 January 2013 |ref={{sfnref|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fascism''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Fascism |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fascism |dictionary=[[Merriam-Webster Online]] |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822084905/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fascism |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|Merriam-Webster ''Fascism''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/The-Fascist-era |title=Italy: The Fascist Era |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007022510/https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/The-Fascist-era |archive-date=7 October 2017 |url-status=live |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=5 August 2021 |ref={{sfnref|Encyclopedia Britannica ''The fascist era''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Fiume question |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Fiume-question |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=8 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506193206/https://www.britannica.com/event/Fiume-question |archive-date=6 May 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Fiume question''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Franco's dictatorship |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francisco-Franco/Francos-dictatorship |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317035545/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francisco-Franco/Francos-dictatorship |archive-date=17 March 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Franco's dictatorship''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Volksgemeinschaft |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/fascism/Volksgemeinschaft#ref742146 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |year=2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331074936/https://www.britannica.com/topic/fascism/Volksgemeinschaft#ref742146 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|Encyclopedia Britannica ''Volksgemeinschaft''}}}}<br />
* {{cite web |url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/neofascismo/ |title=Neofascismo |trans-title=Neofascism |website=Treccani |publisher=Enciclopedia Italiana |language=it |date=31 October 2014 |access-date=31 October 2014 |archive-date=6 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106235833/http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/neofascismo/ |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|Enciclopedia Italiana ''Neofascismo''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Anti-Jewish Legislation in Prewar Germany |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/anti-jewish-legislation-in-prewar-germany |encyclopedia=[[Holocaust Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |access-date=13 May 2025 |archive-date=6 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506171144/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/anti-jewish-legislation-in-prewar-germany |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Anti-Jewish Legislation''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title="Degenerate" Art |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/degenerate-art-1 |access-date=10 May 2025 |encyclopedia=[[Holocaust Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426172635/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/degenerate-art-1 |archive-date=26 April 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''"Degenerate" Art''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Fascism |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/fascism-1 |access-date=7 August 2022 |encyclopedia=[[Holocaust Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328105921/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/fascism-1 |archive-date=28 March 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Fascism''}}}}<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Persecution of Homosexuals in the Third Reich |url=https://www.ushmm.org/exhibition/persecution-of-homosexuals/ |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |encyclopedia=[[Holocaust Encyclopedia]] |archive-date=6 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006104442/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?ModuleId=10005261 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|Holocaust Encyclopedia ''Persecution of Homosexuals''}}}}<br />
<!-- * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Oosterling |first=Henk |year=1997 |title=Fascism as the Looming Shadow of Democracy: A Critique of the Xenophobic Reason |encyclopedia=Philosophy and Democracy in Intercultural Perspective/Philosophie et démocratie en perspective interculturelle |editor1-first=H. |editor1-last=Kimmerle |editor2-first=F. M. |editor2-last=Wimmer |pages=235–252 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Rodopi]] |location=Amsterdam/Atlanta}} --><br />
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Staudenmaier |first=Peter |date=2004 |title=Fascism |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Environmental History |pages=517–521 |editor1-first=Shepard |editor1-last=Krech III |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=McNeill |editor3-first=Carolyn |editor3-last=Merchant |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-415-93733-7 |url=https://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1097&context=hist_fac}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
{{refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{Cite journal |last=Ahmed |first=Saladdin |date=July 2023 |title=Fascism as an Ideological Form: A Critical Theory |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362039222 |journal=Critical Sociology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=4–5 |pages=669–687 |doi=10.1177/08969205221109869 |issn=0896-9205}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Albright |first=Madeleine |author-link=Madeleine Albright |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzs2DwAAQBAJ |title=Fascism: a warning |date=2018 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-00-828227-1 |location=London |oclc=1031976003}}<br />
* {{Cite journal |last=Alcalde |first=Ángel |date=May 2020 |title=The Transnational Consensus: Fascism and Nazism in Current Research |journal=[[Contemporary European History]] |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1017/S0960777320000089 |issn=0960-7773 |s2cid=213889043}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Ben-Ghiat |first=Ruth |author-link=Ruth Ben-Ghiat |date=2020 |title=Strongmen: Mussolini to the Present |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |url= |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-324001546 |oclc=1192304012}}<br />
* {{Cite journal |last=Berezin |first=Mabel |date=30 July 2019 |title=Fascism and Populism: Are They Useful Categories for Comparative Sociological Analysis? |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |language=en |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=345–361 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022351 |issn=0360-0572 |doi-access=free}}<br />
* {{Cite magazine |last=Churchwell |first=Sarah |date=22 June 2020 |title=American Fascism: It Has Happened Here |url=http://termushistory.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/140610243/Fascism%20in%20America%20today%20-%20New%20York%20Review%20of%20Books.pdf |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]] |page=22 |issn=0028-7504}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=De Felice |first=Renzo |author-link=Renzo De Felice |year=1977 |url=https://archive.org/details/interpretationso00defe |title=Interpretations of Fascism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-45962-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=De Felice |first=Renzo |author-link=Renzo De Felice |year=1976 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia2BdNGHRYoC&pg=PP1 |title=Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice |publisher=Transaction Books |isbn=978-0-87855-619-9 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{Cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=Fernando |last2=Zentrum Für Zeithistorische Forschung Potsdam |date=August 2017 |title=Fascism – Concepts and Theories |url=https://docupedia.de/zg/Esposito_fascism_v1_en_2017 |journal=Docupedia-Zeitgeschichte |language=en |volume=31 |doi=10.14765/ZZF.DOK.2.1111.V1 |doi-access=free}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Finchelstein |first=Federico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4qdDwAAQBAJ |title=From Fascism to populism in history: with a new preface |date=2019 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-30935-7 |location=Oakland, California}}<br />
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoFTCgAAQBAJ |title=Rethinking antifascism: history, memory and political uses, 1922 to the present |date=2016 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1-78533-138-1 |location=New York (N.Y.)}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Hayes |first=Paul M. |author-link=Paul Hayes (historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoXxDwAAQBAJ |title=Fascism |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-138-93837-3 |series=Routledge library editions Racism and fascism |location=London}}<br />
* {{Cite web |last=Illing |first=Sean |date=19 September 2018 |title=How Fascism Works: A Yale philosopher on fascism, truth, and Donald Trump |url=https://www.vox.com/2018/9/19/17847110/how-fascism-works-donald-trump-jason-stanley |website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Joes |first1=Anthony James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKubDwAAQBAJ |title=Fascism in the contemporary world: ideology, evolution, resurgence |last2=Gregor |first2=A. James |date=2019 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-367-01749-1 |location=London; New York}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Kagan |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=es6gDwAAQBAJ |title=Ideals and ideologies: a reader |date=2020 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-367-23504-8 |editor-last=Ball |editor-first=Terence |edition=11th |location=New York |pages=369–371 |chapter=This is how fascism comes to America |editor-last2=Dagger |editor-first2=Richard |editor-last3=O'Neill |editor-first3=Daniel L |chapter-url=https://www.salidalibrary.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/How-Fascism-Comes-To-America-Bob-Kagan.pdf}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Kuklick |first=Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CwGWEAAAQBAJ |title=Fascism comes to America: a century of obsession in politics and culture |date=2022 |publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-82146-7 |location=Chicago; London}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Mattei |first=Clara E. |author-link=Clara Mattei |date=2022 |title=[[The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism]] |location= |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-81839-9}}<br />
* {{Cite journal |last=McGaughey |first=Ewan |date=30 December 2018 |title=Fascism-lite in America (or The Social Ideal of Donald Trump) |journal=[[British Journal of American Legal Studies]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=291–315 |doi=10.2478/bjals-2018-0012 |issn=2049-4092 |s2cid=195842347 |ssrn=2773217 |doi-access=free}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Riley |first=Dylan J. |author-link=Dylan John Riley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lc_KTSUOQPkC |title=The civic foundations of fascism in Europe: Italy, Spain, and Romania, 1870-1945 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8018-9427-5 |location=Baltimore |oclc=370387631}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Seldes |first=George |author-link=George Seldes |year=1935 |title=Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism |location=New York and London |publisher=Harper and Brothers}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Seldes |first=George |author-link=George Seldes |orig-date=1943 |year=2009 |title=Facts and Fascism |location=New York |publisher=In Fact |isbn=978-0-930852-43-6}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Stanley |first=Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oYsPEQAAQBAJ |title=Erasing history: how fascists rewrite the past to control the future |date=2024 |publisher=One Signal Publishers |isbn=978-1-6680-5691-2 |location=New York |oclc=on1450005012}}<br />
* {{Cite magazine |last=Wiskemann |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Wiskemann |date=December 1967 |title=The Origins of Fascism |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/origins-fascism |magazine=[[History Today]] |pages=812–818 |volume=17 |issue=12}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
===Primary sources===<br />
{{Refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Galeazzo |first=Ciano |author-link=Galeazzo Ciano |year=2001 |title=The Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943 |publisher=Simon Publications |isbn=978-1-931313-74-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Gentile |first=Giovanni |author-link=Giovanni Gentile |year=1932 |title=The Doctrine of Fascism |title-link=The Doctrine of Fascism}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Goebbels |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Goebbels |editor-last=Dalton |editor-first=Thomas |title=Goebbels on the Jews: The Complete Diary Entries – 1923 to 1945 |year=2019}}<br />
** {{cite book |editor-last=Taylor |editor-first=Fred |title=The Goebbels Diaries 1939–1941 |year=1983}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hitler |first=Adolf |author-link=Adolf Hitler |title=[[Mein Kampf]] |year=1925}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Mosely |first=Oswald |author-link=Oswald Mosley |year=1968 |title=My Life |title-link=My Life (Sir Oswald Mosley autobiography) |publisher=Nelson Publications}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=de Oliveira Salazar |first=António |author-link=António de Oliveira Salazar |year=1939 |title=Doctrine and Action: Internal and Foreign Policy of the New Portugal, 1928–1939 |publisher=Faber and Faber}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=de Rivera |first=José Antonio Primo |author-link=José Antonio Primo de Rivera |year=1971 |title=Textos de Doctrina Política |trans-title=Political Doctrine Texts |location=Madrid |publisher=Delegación Nacional de la Sección Femenina del Movimiento |language=es}}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
===Secondary sources===<br />
{{Refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=Ian |date=1993 |title=Political Ideology Today |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |location=Manchester, England |isbn=978-0-7190-6020-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Ball |first1=Terence |last2=Bellamy |first2=Richard |author2-link=Richard Bellamy (philosopher) |year=2003 |title=The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-56354-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1h4_NqTOFoC |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}} <!-- This may not be the correct edition; not specified in original citation --><br />
* {{cite book |last=Ben-Ami |first=Shlomo |author-link=Shlomo Ben-Ami |year=1983 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yvSEAAAAIAAJ |title=Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923–1930 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-822596-6 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Costa Pinto |first=António |author-link=António Costa Pinto |year=1995 |title=Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: Problems of Interpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8Y9AAAACAAJ |publisher=Social Science Monographs |isbn=978-0-88033-968-1 |via=[[Google Books]] |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor-last=Costa Pinto |editor-first=Antonio |editor-link=António Costa Pinto |year=2011 |title=Rethinking the Nature of Fascism: Comparative Perspectives |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]}} <!--287 pages--><br />
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Pinto |editor1-first=Antonio Costa |editor2-last=Eatwell |editor2-first=Roger |editor2-link=Roger Eatwell |editor3-last=Larsen |editor3-first=Stein Ugelvik |year=2014 |title=Charisma and Fascism in Interwar Europe |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1317834533}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Doordan |first=Dennis P. |title=In the Shadow of the Fasces: Political Design in Fascist Italy |publisher=The [[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-299-14874-4 |year=1995 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299148744}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Fritzsche |first=Peter |title=Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-19-505780-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Griffin |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Griffin |year=2000 |chapter=Revolution from the Right: Fascism" |editor-first=David |editor-last=Parker |title=Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1991 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Held |first=David |year=1980 |title=Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-04175-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Horne |first=John |date=2002 |title=State, Society and Mobilization in Europe During the First World War |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-52266-3}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Kallis |first=Aristotle A. |author-link=Aristotle Kallis |date=April 2003a |title=To Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland' |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |volume=38 |number=2 |pages=237–260 |doi=10.1177/0022009403038002132 |s2cid=159641856 |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Kertzer |first=David I. |author-link=David Kertzer |year=2014 |title=The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc3QAgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-19-871616-7 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Kitsikis |first=Dimitri |author-link=Dimitri Kitsikis |year=2005 |title=Pour une étude scientifique du fascisme |language=fr |trans-title=For a scientific study of fascism |publisher=Ars Magna Editions. |isbn=978-2-912164-11-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Kitsikis |first=Dimitri |author-link=Dimitri Kitsikis |year=2006 |title=Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les origines françaises du fascisme |language=fr |trans-title=Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the French origins of fascism |publisher=Ars Magna Editions. |isbn=978-2-912164-46-9 |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Knox |first=MacGregor |author-link=MacGregor Knox |year=1999 |title=Mussolini unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Laclau |first=Ernesto |author-link=Ernesto Laclau |date=1977 |title=Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism |publisher=[[Verso Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Paul H |year=2002 |title=Latin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar Regimes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3fgxOPSBb4C&q=Latin+Fascist+Elites |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-275-97880-8 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Millington |first=Chris |year=2019 |title=A History of Fascism in France: From the First World War to the National Front |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]]}} [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55594 online review].<br />
* {{cite book |last=Parkins |first=Wendy |year=2002 |title=Fashioning the Body Politic: Dress, Gender, Citizenship |publisher=Berg Publishers |isbn=978-1-85973-587-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |year=1987 |title=The Franco Regime, 1936–1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgDWLYcTYIAC&q=Francisco+Franco+payne |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |isbn=978-0-299-11070-3 |via=[[Google Books]] |author-mask=3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link=Stanley G. Payne |year=2003 |title=Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism |publisher=Textbook Publishers. |isbn=978-0-7581-3445-5 |author-mask=3}} [https://archive.org/details/falangehistoryof00payn online].<br />
* {{cite book |last=Rosas |first=Fernando |year=2019 |title=Salazar e os Fascismos: Ensaio Breve de História Comparada |trans-title=Salazar and the Fascisms: Brief Essay on Comparative History |publisher=Edições Tinta-da-China |language=pt |isbn=9789896714840}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Sauer |first=Wolfgang |date=December 1967 |title=National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism? |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=404–424 |doi=10.2307/1866167 |jstor=1866167}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Sohn-Rethel |first=Alfred |author-link=Alfred Sohn-Rethel |title=Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism |location=London |publisher=CSE Bks |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-906336-00-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Vatikiotis |first=Panayiotis J |year=1988 |title=Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936–1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis Metaxas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mT5DO_cVSfMC |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-7146-4869-9 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Webster's II New College Dictionary |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Reference Books |isbn=978-0-618-39601-6 |year=2005 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewcolle0000unse |ref={{sfnref|Websters}}}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Weiss |first=John |date=1967 |title=The Fascist Tradition: Radical Right-Wing Extremism in Modern Europe |publisher=[[Harper & Row]] |location=New York City |asin=B0014D2EN8}}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wiktionary|fascism}}<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
{{Commons category|Fascism}}<br />
* {{Britannica|202210}}<br />
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Fascism}}<br />
* [http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm ''The Doctrine of Fascism''] by Benito Mussolini (1932) {{in lang|en}}<br />
* [http://media.wix.com/ugd/927b40_c1ee26114a4d480cb048f5f96a4cc68f.pdf Authorized translation of Mussolini's "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism" (1933)] (PDF) on media.wix.com<br />
* [[:gutenberg:14058|Readings on Fascism and National Socialism by Various – Project Gutenberg]]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130930081524/http://www.themodernword.com/eco/eco_blackshirt.html "Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt"] – [[Umberto Eco]]'s list of 14 characteristics of Fascism, originally published 1995<br />
<br />
{{fascism}}<br />
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{{Continent topic| prefix= Fascism in | title = [[:Category: Fascism by continent]] }}<br />
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[[Category:Totalitarian ideologies]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jadavpur_University&diff=473268Jadavpur University2026-03-25T14:53:43Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: small fixed references per sources also</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Public technical and research university in Kolkata, India}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=May 2018}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox university<br />
| name = Jadavpur University<br />
| logo = Jadavpur University Logo.svg<br />
| logo_upright = 0.5<br />
| image = {{multiple image<br />
| border = infobox<br />
| total_width = 280<br />
| image_style =<br />
| perrow = 1/2/1<br />
| image1 = Jadavpur University Gate No. 4.jpg<br />
|caption1= Jadavpur University Main Gate (Gate-4)<br />
}}<br />
| caption = <br />
| latin_name = <br />
| former_names = {{collapsible list| {{bulleted list|Bengal Technical Institute (1906–1910)|Central National Institution (1910–1928)|College of Engineering and Technology, Bengal (1928–1955)}}}}<br />
| motto = To Know Is To Grow<br />
| type = [[Public university|Public]] [[research university]]<br />
| established = {{start date and age|df=y|1956|07|25}}<br />
| accreditation = {{hlist|[[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]]|[[National Board of Accreditation|NBA]]}}<br />
| academic_affiliations = {{hlist|[[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]|[[Association of Indian Universities|AIU]]| [[AICTE]]|[[Association of Commonwealth Universities|ACU]] |[[National Council for Teacher Education|NCTE]] |[[Council of Architecture|COA]] }}<ref name="jaduniv.edu.in">{{cite web | url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/templates/newpages/ju_glance.html | title=Welcome to Jadavpur University website }}</ref><br />
| budget = {{INRConvert|357.50|c}}<br />{{small|([[Fiscal year|FY]]2026–27 est.)}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://finance.wb.gov.in/writereaddata/Budget_Publication/2026_bp23_I.pdf|title=Detailed Demands for grants for 2026-27|publisher=[[Government of West Bengal]]|year=2026|pages=188|access-date=19 Feb 2026}}</ref><br />
| chancellor = [[Governor of West Bengal]]<br />
| vice_chancellor = Dr. Chiranjib Bhattacharjee <br />
| academic_staff = 934 ({{small|2025}})<ref name=nirf_stud/><br />
| students = 13,351 ({{small|2025}})<ref name=nirf_stud>{{cite web |title=NIRF 2025 |url=https://jadavpuruniversity.in/storage/2025/02/Jadavpur-University-overall.pdf|publisher=Jadavpur University}}</ref><br />
| undergrad = 7,472 ({{small|2025}})<ref name=nirf_stud/><br />
| postgrad = 3,344 ({{small|2025}})<ref name=nirf_stud/><br />
| doctoral = 2,535 ({{small|2025}})<ref name=nirf_stud/><br />
| city = [[Kolkata]]<br />
| state = [[West Bengal]]<br />
| country = India<br />
| coor = <br />
| mapframe-zoom = 11<br />
| campus = Multiple active campuses: {{bulleted list| 60 acre (Main campus at [[Jadavpur]])| 26 acre ([[Bidhannagar]] campus)|7.6 acre (West Annexe Campus at [[Jadavpur]])<ref name="The Times of India">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/ju-gets-possession-of-new-town-plot-to-develop-fourth-campus/articleshow/80220572.cms | title=Jadavpur University gets possession of New Town plot to develop fourth campus | newspaper=The Times of India | date=14 January 2021 }}</ref><ref name="jaduniv.edu.in"/>}}<br />
| website = {{Official URL}}<br />
|}}<br />
<br />
'''Jadavpur University''' ([[Abbreviation|abbr.]] '''JU''')<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/templates/newpages/Officers_JU.html|title=Welcome to Jadavpur University website|website=jaduniv.edu.in}}</ref> is a [[public university|public]] [[State university (India)|state funded]] [[Institute of technology|technical]] and [[research university]] with its main campus located at [[Jadavpur]], [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]. It was established on 25 July in 1906 as '''Bengal Technical Institute''' and was converted into '''Jadavpur University''' on 24 December in 1955.<ref name="Jadavpur University">{{Cite web|title=Jadavpur University Establishment|url=https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/State%20University/State%20University%2012(B).pdf|access-date=2021-06-22|website=ugc.ac.in|archive-date=16 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316093927/https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/State%20University/State%20University%2012(B).pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> As of the 2025 [[National Institutional Ranking Framework|NIRF]] rankings, Jadavpur University has been ranked 9th among universities, 1st among state public universities, 18th among engineering institutes, and 18th overall in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIRF 2024 |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/nirfpdfcdn/2024/pdf/Report/IR2024_Report.pdf}}</ref> Also [[Nature Index]] ranked Jadavpur University in 1st among universities in India and 22nd overall in India in terms of research output (2023–2024). The university has been recognized by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]] as an institute with "Potential for Excellence"<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ugc.gov.in/universitydetails/Universities_UPE | title=Welcome to UGC, New Delhi, India | access-date=13 April 2024 | archive-date=26 July 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726105433/https://www.ugc.gov.in/universitydetails/Universities_UPE | url-status=dead }}</ref> and accredited an "A+" grade by the [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council]] (NAAC).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/naac-awards-ju-a-grade/articleshow/113560312.cms#:~:text=JIMS%2C%20Sector%2D5%20Rohini%2C,with%20a%20score%20of%203.61.|title=NAAC awards JU A+ grade|publisher=Times of India|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=22 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325001508/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/naac-awards-ju-a-grade/articleshow/113560312.cms|archive-date=25 March 2025|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://jadavpuruniversity.in/institutional-achievement/|title=Institutional Achievements|publisher=Jadavpur University|website=jadavpuruniversity.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240617152125/https://jadavpuruniversity.in/institutional-achievement/|archive-date=17 June 2024|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Stamp of India - 2005 - Colnect 158884 - Jadavpur University.jpeg|thumb|Stamp featuring Jadavpur University]]<br />
On 25 July 1906, Bengal Technical Institute was founded by Society for the Promotion of Technical Education by at 92, Upper Circular Road. On 7 July 1910, the Society for the Promotion of Technical Education in Bengal was merged with the National Council of Education (NCE).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.juaam.com/history|title=History of NCE, Bengal and Jadavpur University|website=juaam.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=16 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216110840/http://www.juaam.com/history|url-status=live}}</ref> The institute became College of Engineering and Technology, Bengal looked after by NCE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About University {{!}} Jadavpur University|url=https://jadavpur.remotexs.in/about-jdu|access-date=2021-02-03|website=jadavpur.remotexs.in|archive-date=8 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208061239/https://jadavpur.remotexs.in/about-jdu|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://maharojgaar.com/jadavpur-university-report-not-satisfactory-centre-concerned-about-students-death-education-minister-4313096/ | title=जाधवपूर विद्यापीठाचा अहवाल समाधानकारक नाही, विद्यार्थ्याच्या मृत्यूबाबत केंद्र चिंतितः शिक्षणमंत्री – MahaRojgar | date=20 August 2023 }}</ref> After [[Independence of India|Independence]], on 24 December 1955, Jadavpur University was officially established by the [[Government of West Bengal]] with the concurrence of the Government of India.<ref name="Jadavpur University"/><br />
<br />
==Campuses==<br />
===Main campus===<br />
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Jadavpur University's main campus is at [[Jadavpur]], spread over 60 acres. The campus contains major engineering, arts, science and interdisciplinary departments. The 6 Acres sports complex have Badminton court, Tennis court, Kabaddi court and playground for other organising sports like cricket and football. Additionally the university has a six canteens, amenities center, and guest house, cafeteria, health centre, gymnasium, [[Persons with disabilities|Pwd]] centre and other facilities like banks, post office, book shops etc.<ref name="jaduniv.edu.in"/> Although every department/ school has its own hall or auditorium, the main campus have 7 auditoriums: Gandhi Bhavan, Triguna Sen Auditorium, K.P. Basu Memorial Hall, Vivekananda Hall, Anita Banerjee Memorial Hall and H.L. Roy Auditorium. The campus also has an Open Air Theatre with a seating capacity of around 3000.<br />
<br />
{{Multiple image<br />
| align = center<br />
| direction = horizontal <br />
| image1 = Aurobindo Bhavan.jpg<br />
| caption1 = Aurobindo Bhavan<br />
| image2 = Campus Road - Jadavpur University - Kolkata 2015-01-08 2394.JPG<br />
| caption2 = Inside JU Main Campus<br />
| image3 = Jadavpur University Multi Engineering Building.jpg<br />
| caption3 = University playground along with Aurobindo Bhavan in the back<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Multiple image<br />
| align = center<br />
| direction = horizontal <br />
| image1 = <br />
| caption1 = <br />
| image2 = Dr K P Basu Memorial Hall - Engineering Science Building - Jadavpur University - Kolkata 2015-01-08 2465.JPG<br />
| caption2 = KP Basu Memorial Hall<br />
| image3 = Gandhi Bhavan, Jadavpur University - Frontal view Image-1.JPG<br />
| caption3 = Gandhi Bhavan from outside<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Salt Lake campus===<br />
Jadavpur University has its second campus on 26 Acres area in [[Bidhannagar]] (Salt Lake) Sector-III. There are 5 departments in the campus namely Construction Engineering, Instrumentation Engineering, Printing Engineering, Information Technology and Power Engineering. The Eastern Regional Offices of the UGC and the Inter-University Consortium for Atomic Energy are also located on this campus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/campus_map.php|title=Welcome to Jadavpur University website|website=jaduniv.edu.in}}</ref> [[Jadavpur University Campus Ground]] is located in this campus.<br />
<br />
===West Annexe campus at Jadavpur===<br />
[[File:Jadavpur University National Instruments Campus.jpg|thumb|Erstwhile NIL campus, Jadavpur University]]<br />
<br />
On 1 January 2009, Jadavpur University took over National Instruments Limited, a former [[Public sector undertakings|PSU]] under Department of Heavy industries, [[Government of India|GOI]] on a 297-year lease.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/kolkata/drdos-research-centre-to-be-moved-to-nil-building-soon-405381|title=DRDO's research centre to be moved to NIL building soon|first=SOUMITRA|last=NANDI|date=15 March 2020|website=millenniumpost.in}}</ref> From 2014, the campus is used as a research hub of the university and known as West Annexe campus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jadavpuruniversity.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Annual-Report-2021-2022.pdf|title=Annual Report (April 2021-March 2022)|publisher=Jadavpur University|website=jadavpuruniversity.in}}</ref> Research institutes like [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|DRDO]] and [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research|CSIR]] also operate from the campus.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/jadavpur-university-to-develop-third-campus-as-research-hub/articleshow/29737002.cms|title=Jadavpur University to develop third campus as research hub|newspaper=The Times of India |date=2 February 2014}}</ref><br />
A portion of land and building of the campus is leased out to [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|DRDO]] for long term,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/portion-of-national-instruments-ltd-land-to-be-given-to-drdo/articleshow/47707913.cms | title=Portion of National Instruments Ltd land to be given to DRDO | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=11 July 2018 }}</ref> which is the 40 percent of the space. At that, the [[Jagadish Chandra Bose Centre for Advanced Technology]] (JCBCAT) is established by collaboration of JU and DRDO.<ref name="auto1"/><br />
<br />
The regional centre of "National Afforestaion & Eco-Development Board" is also located in the campus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rc-naeb-ju.org/|title=Home|website=RCNAEB}}</ref><br />
<br />
===New Town campus===<br />
In 2018, [[Government of West Bengal|state Government]] announced to provide 5 acre land parcel in [[New Town, Kolkata]] for creating another campus. In January 2021, the land was handed over to Jadavpur University.<ref name="The Times of India">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/ju-gets-possession-of-new-town-plot-to-develop-fourth-campus/articleshow/80220572.cms | title=Jadavpur University gets possession of New Town plot to develop fourth campus | newspaper=The Times of India | date=14 January 2021 }}</ref> In July 2024, a committee was formed and DPR preparation started. Funds were requested for its implementation. State-of-the-art facilities along with research laboratories, a convention centre, international hostel and AI laboratory are planned on the campus.<ref>{{Cite web | title=JU New Campus {{!}} Jadavpur University is seeking government funding for its planned third campus in Newtown dgtl - Anandabazar | url=https://www.anandabazar.com/education-career/jadavpur-university-is-seeking-government-funding-for-its-planned-third-campus-in-newtown-dgtl/cid/1531162 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717001125/https://www.anandabazar.com/education-career/jadavpur-university-is-seeking-government-funding-for-its-planned-third-campus-in-newtown-dgtl/cid/1531162 | access-date=2025-12-28 | archive-date=2024-07-17}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Administration==<br />
The administrative framework operates under a combination of statutory bodies, executive leadership, faculty councils, and various specialized cells. The university's top-level decision-making body is the Executive Council, which, along with the Court and the Faculty Councils, forms the legislative backbone of the university's governance. [[Governor of West Bengal]] is the Chancellor of the university. Rest administration includes Vice-Chancellor, Pro-Vice-Chancellors, registrar, Controller of Examinations, Chief University Engineer etc. Each academic department also maintains internal committees such as the Academic Audit Cell, Departmental Purchase Committees, and Program Quality Improvement Cells (PAQIC). Other administrative positions include dean of students, Director of Youth Welfare. Specialized offices and units include Placement and Training Office, Medical Superintendent and Health Unit, RTI Cell and Documentation Office, Internal Complaints Committee (ICC), Equal Opportunity Cell and SC/ST/OBC Cells, Entrepreneurship Development Cell.<ref>{{cite web | title=Administration - Jadavpur University | work=Jadavpur University | url=https://jadavpuruniversity.in/administration/ }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Affiliated institutes==<br />
In addition to being a unitary university, other institutes like the [[J. D. Birla Institute]], and the [[Institute of Business Management, Jadavpur University|Institute of Business Management]] are affiliated to it, which operate out of independent campuses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/affiliated_institutions.php|title=Affiliated Institutions|access-date=18 November 2016|archive-date=19 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119053438/http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/affiliated_institutions.php|url-status=live}}</ref> While these institutes have their own independent curriculum as well as examination systems, the final degree is awarded by Jadavpur University.<br />
Jadavpur University also offers Ph.D. degree to the following institutes: [[Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics]]; [[Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine|School of Tropical Medicine]], Kolkata; [[Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre|VECC]] (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre), Kolkata; [[Indian Institute of Chemical Biology]]; [[Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute]]; [[Bose Institute]]; Kolkata; [[National Institute of Natural Fibre Engineering and Technology|Jute Technological Research Laboratory]]; [[Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute|Chittaranjan National Cancer Research Centre]]; [[S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences]].<br />
<br />
==Academics==<br />
===Departments and schools===<br />
As of 2023, Jadavpur University has 37 Departments and 21 Schools of interdisciplinary studies.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://jadavpuruniversity.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/ANNUAL-REPORT-2022-2023.pdf|title=Annual Report (April 2022-March 2023)|publisher=Jadavpur University|website=jadavpuruniversity.in|date=24 December 2023|number=66|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220163755/https://jadavpuruniversity.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/ANNUAL-REPORT-2022-2023.pdf|archive-date=20 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+<br />
|-<br />
! Faculty <br />
! Departments<br />
! Campus<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2"| '''Faculty of Engineering & Technology'''<br />
| <br />
{| style="background: transparent; padding:3px; margin:0; margin:auto;" class=skin-invert <br />
|- style="font-size:90%;"<br />
| <br />
| {{bulleted list| [[Mechanical Engineering]]| [[Chemical Engineering]]| | [[Civil Engineering]] | [[Computer Science]] & [[Engineering]] | [[Metallurgical]] & [[Material Engineering]] }}<br />
| {{bulleted list| | [[Electrical Engineering]] | [[Architecture]] | [[Food Technology]] & Bio-Chemical Engineering | Pharmaceutical Technology | [[Electronics]] & [[Telecommunication Engineering]]| [[Production Engineering]] }}<br />
|}<br />
| style="font-size:90%;"| Main campus<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| <br />
{| style="background: transparent ;" class=skin-invert <br />
|- style="font-size:90%;"<br />
| <br />
| {{bulleted list| [[Information Technology]] | [[Instrumentation]] and [[Electronics Engineering]] | [[Power Engineering]] |[[Construction Engineering]] | Printing Engineering }}<br />
|}<br />
| style="font-size:90%;"| Salt lake campus<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| '''Faculty of Science'''<br />
|<br />
{| style="background: transparent; padding:3px; margin:0; margin:auto;" class=skin-invert <br />
|- style=" font-size:90%;"<br />
| <br />
| {{bulleted list|[[Mathematics]] | [[Physics]] | [[Geography]] }}<br />
| {{ bulleted list | [[Chemistry]]| [[Geological Sciences]] }}<br />
| {{bulleted list| Instrumentation Science | [[Life science]] & [[Bio-technology]] }}<br />
|}<br />
| rowspan="3" style="font-size:90%;"| Main campus<br />
|-<br />
| '''Faculty of Arts'''<br />
| <br />
{| style="background: transparent; padding:3px; margin:0; margin:auto;" class=skin-invert <br />
|- style="font-size:90%;"<br />
| <br />
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />
* [[Comparative Literature]] <br />
*[[Economics]] <br />
*[[Education]]<br />
*[[Sanskrit]]<br />
| <br />
*[[English language|English]] <br />
*[[Film Studies]] <br />
*[[History]] <br />
*[[International Relations]]<br />
*[[Sociology]]<br />
| <br />
*[[Library]] & [[Information Science]] <br />
*[[Philosophy]]<br />
*[[Physical Education]]<br />
|}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Law & Management'''<br />
| <br />
{| style="background: transparent;" class=skin-invert <br />
|- style=" font-size:90%;"<br />
| <br />
*Adult and Continuing Education & Extension<ref>https://jadavpuruniversity.in/academics/adult-and-continuing-education-extension/</ref><br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
To facilitate interdisciplinary learning and research in diverse fields, there are a number of schools.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|- <br />
! Faculty<br />
! Schools<br />
|-<br />
|'''Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Law & Management'''<br />
| <br />
{| style="background: transparent; margin:0; <br />
|- style="font-size:90%;"<br />
| <br />
|{{ bulleted list | School of Advanced Studies in Industrial Pollution Control|School of Automotive Engineering| School of Bio-Science and Engineering|School of Cognitive Science|School of Cultural Texts and Records|School of Education Technology|School of Energy Studies|School of Environmental Radiation and Archaeological Sciences|School of Environmental Studies|School of Illumination Science, Engineering and Design|School of International Relations and Strategic Studies (SIRSS)|School of Languages and Linguistics|School of Laser Science and Engineering|School of Materials Science and Nanotechnology|School of Media Communication & Culture|School of Mobile Computing and Communication|School of Natural Product Studies|School of Nuclear Studies and Application|School of Oceanographic Studies|School of Water Resource Engineering|School of Women's Studies}}<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Centre for Studies===<br />
To facilitate interdisciplinary learning and higher research in diverse fields, there are nearly fifty Centre for Studies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/htdocs/templates/newpages/centre_for_studies.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207061323/http://jaduniv.edu.in/htdocs/templates/newpages/centre_for_studies.html|archive-date=7 February 2015|title=Centre For Studies}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+<br />
|'''Centre for Studies'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jadavpuruniversity.in/department/centre-for-studies/|title=Centre For Studies|publisher=Jadavpur University|website=jadavpuruniversity.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250428060513/https://jadavpuruniversity.in/department/centre-for-studies/|archive-date=28 April 2025|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| {{bulleted list| Centre for African Literatures and Cultures<br />
|Centre for Ambedkar Studies<br />
|Centre for Canadian Studies<br />
|Bio Equivalence Centre<br />
|Centre for African Literatures and Culture<br />
|Centre for Studies in Islamicate Asia<br />
|Centre for Counselling Services and Studies in Self-Development<br />
|Centre for Theatre Studies<br />
|Centre For Advanced Study<br />
|Centre for Computer-Aided Design<br />
|Centre for Knowledge Based Systems<br />
|Centre for Distributed Computing<br />
|Centre for European Studies<br />
|Centre for Experiments in Social & Behavioral Sciences<br />
|Centre for Human Settlement Planning<br />
|Centre for Marxian Studies<br />
|Centre for Mathematical Biology and Ecology<br />
|Centre for Medicinal Food and Applied Nutrition<br />
|Centre for Microprocessor Applications for Training, Education and Research<br />
|Centre for Plasma Studies<br />
|Centre for Quality Construction<br />
|Centre for Quality Management System<br />
|Centre for Refugee Studies<br />
|Centre For Rural & Cryogenic Technologies<br />
|Centre for Sri Aurobindo Studies<br />
|Centre for Surface Science<br />
|Centre for The Study of Religion and Society<br />
|Centre for Translation of Indian Literatures<br />
|Centre for Victorian Studies<br />
|Centre of Indology<br />
|Condensed Matter Physics Research Centre<br />
Embedded System in Instrumentation<br />
|Hariprasanna Biswas Centre for India-China Cultural Studies<br />
|IC Design and Fabrication Centre<br />
|IMPACT Centre<br />
|Latin American Literature & Culture<br />
Language Studies<br />
|Nuclear and Particle Physics Research Centre<br />
|Rabindra Studies<br />
|Relativity and Cosmology Research Centre<br />
|Sir C V RAMAN Centre for Physics and Music<br />
|Swami Vivekananda Centre for Technical Manpower Development<br />
|Transportation Studies<br />
|V. Ravi Chandran Centre for Pharmaceutical Sciences <br />
|Welding Technology Centre<br />
|Yoga Centre<br />
|Centre For Disaster Preparedness & Management<br />
|Adult and Continuing Education & Extension Centre<br />
|Centre For Digital Library and Documentation}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Library===<br />
The Central Library at Jadavpur campus occupies {{convert|41500|ft2|m2}} and houses 6,46,296 books, 80,700 bound volumes of journals, and 13000 theses and dissertations, 37,000 items of non-book materials such as reports pamphlets, maps and micro-forms and 1159 print and 1448 online journals. The library also has access to around 3000 online journals more through INFLIBNET and INDEST Consortia. In total, the University Library has access to around 11000 Journals. The library subscribes to 30 databases which include Scopus, Econlit etc. and also about 10000+ E-books (as of 2018). The Salt Lake campus has a library with 65,00 sq. ft. of space.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/library.php | title=Welcome to Jadavpur University website }}</ref><br />
===Journals===<br />
Jadavpur University has multiple scholarly journals. The list of journals are given below.<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" <br />
|-<br />
! Journal name !! Department/ school !! Type !! First published !! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| Jadavpur Journal of Comparative Literature || Department of Comparative Literature || [[Peer review]]ed, annual ||1961 || First journal on Comparative Literature in India<ref>https://jadavpuruniversity.in/download-centre-categories/jjcl/</ref><br />
|-<br />
|Anviksa ||Department of Sanskrit || Peer reviewed, annual|| 1966<ref>https://jusanskritjournal.in/about-the-anviksa/</ref> || <br />
|-<br />
| Jadavpur University Essays and Studies || Department of English|| Peer reviewed, annual || 1972<ref>https://jadavpuruniversity.in/download-centre/vol-2-1972-ed-sisir-chatterjee/</ref> || <br />
|-<br />
| Jadavpur Journal of International Relations<ref>https://jadavpuruniversity.in/academics/international-relations/</ref> || Department of International Relations || Peer reviewed, bi-annual || 1996 || Collaboration with [[Sage Publishing|Sage Publications]]<br />
|- <br />
| Jadavpur Journal of Languages and Linguistics<ref>https://sites.google.com/jadavpuruniversity.in/jjll-sll-ju/journal-volumes</ref> || School of Languages and Linguistics || Peer reviewed, bi-annual, open access || 2017 || listed in UGC-CARE<br />
|-<br />
| Anushilan, Journal of Physical Education Yoga and Sports ||Department of Physical Education || Annual ||2020<ref>https://jadavpuruniversity.in/download-centre/anushilan-journal-of-the-dept-of-physical-education/</ref> ||<br />
|-<br />
| JU Journal for Communication, Society and Outreach || Department of Adult and Continuing Education & Extension|| Peer reviewed, bi-annual || 2024<ref>https://jadavpuruniversity.in/download-centre-categories/j-u-journal-for-communication-society-outreach-dept-of-acee/</ref> || <br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notable works and contributions==<br />
[[File:The President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam addressing the Golden Jubilee Celebrations of Jadavpur University, Kolkata on July 14, 2005.jpg|250px|thumb| Former [[President of India]] [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam|Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam]] acknowledged Jadavpur University's contributions and termed as "The future [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda]] of India" while addressing the Golden Jubilee Celebrations of the University on 14 July 2005.<ref name="auto2">https://www.presidentofindia.gov.in/abdulkalam/speeches/address-golden-jubilee-celebrations-jadavpur-university-kolkata {{dead link|date=April 2025}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
===Science and technology===<br />
Jadavpur University's High Energy Physics Group, Nuclear & Particle Physics Research Centre which comes under Department of <br />
Physics has been awarded the status of "Associate Membership" of '''ALICE – INDIA Collaboration''' and '''CERN ([[European Council for Nuclear Research]]) – ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) Collaboration''' <br />
and received a grant of Rs. 1.115 crores.<ref name="auto"/> In 2025, the group won "2025 Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics" along with $3 million.<ref>https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2131339#:~:text=The%202025%20Breakthrough%20Prize%20in,%2C%20CMS%2C%20ALICE%20and%20LHCb.</ref><ref>{{Cite web| title=India Celebrates Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics Awarded to Large Hadron Collider Experiments | url=https://jadavpuruniversity.in/storage/2025/05/PIB_Breakthrough-Prize.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251015012914/https://jadavpuruniversity.in/storage/2025/05/PIB_Breakthrough-Prize.pdf | archive-date=2025-10-15}}</ref><br />
<br />
Jadavpur University has multiple collaborations with [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) and [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]] (DRDO). In 2023, two professors from Jadavpur University were involved in a soft-landing project named "'''RESPOND'''" for a planetary mission sponsored by ISRO.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/how-two-jadavpur-university-professors-participated-in-the-chandrayaan-3-landing-2427693-2023-08-28|title=2 Jadavpur University professors involved in Isro's Chandrayaan-3 soft landing|website=India Today|date=28 August 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/jadavpur-university-is-playing-an-important-role-in-the-moon-landing-project-by-isro/cid/1382203 | title=চাঁদের মাটি ছুঁতে চায় ভারত, ইসরোর প্রকল্পে বড় ভূমিকা যাদবপুর বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের }}</ref> JU researchers have worked with DRDO for a long time with having involvement in DRDO's [[Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme]] and [[HAL Tejas|Tejas]] project. Some crucial equipments have been developed in JU. Jadavpur University also contributes to the satellite launch vehicle programme of ISRO and LCA programme of DRDO.<ref name="auto2"/> For furthermore research, [[Jagadish Chandra Bose Centre for Advanced Technology]] (JCBCAT) was established in 2016, which is now located in the West annex campus of JU.<ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/drdo-keen-to-start-advanced-research-at-jcbcat/articleshow/48127683.cms</ref><br />
<br />
'''The Global Change Programme''' at Jadavpur University (GCP-JU) is active at the '''[[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC)'''. It has also worked with [[Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change]] towards the preparation of NATCOM (National Communication) for [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC). A joint open energy modelling project was initiated <br />
by GCP-JU in collaboration with [[Indian Institute of Science]] (Bengaluru), and the <br />
[[Environmental Defense Fund]] (US). Since 2020, they are also collectively developing a comprehensive energy model and evaluate alternative decarbonization strategies and pathways for future India.<ref name="auto"/><br />
<br />
Some major research ventures undertaken by ''School of Environmental Studies'' are highlighting the presence of arsenic in groundwater in countries like India and Bangladesh and the development of the first alcohol based car by the School of Automobile Engineering.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jadavpur University|url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/htdocs/newindex.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017175614/http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/htdocs/newindex.htm|archive-date=17 October 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/htdocs/view_department.php?deptid=135 School Of Cultural Texts and Records] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513235355/http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/htdocs/view_department.php?deptid=135|date=13 May 2014}} ''jaduniv.edu.in''. Retrieved 5 August 2012</ref><br />
<br />
In March 2011, Indian American scientist [[Manick Sorcar]] assisted in the opening of a laser animation lab under the School of Illumination Science, Engineering and Design.<ref>[http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110321/jsp/calcutta/story_13740322.jsp "Wizard of light brings magic of laser to JU,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526141551/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110321/jsp/calcutta/story_13740322.jsp |date=26 May 2011 }} ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'', 2011</ref> The [https://sites.google.com/site/kunalroyindia/home/the-dtc-laboratory?authuser=0 DTC Laboratory] at Jadavpur University has been involved in [[Cheminformatics]]/[[Quantitative structure–activity relationship|QSAR]] research since 2002, and the [https://sites.google.com/site/kunalroyindia/home/lab-members?authuser=0 laboratory] has developed techniques like [[q-RASAR]], [[ARKA descriptors in QSAR]], ETA (a [[topological index]]) and many QSAR tools which are hosted in [https://teqip.jdvu.ac.in/QSAR_Tools/ DTC Lab Tools site] and [https://sites.google.com/jadavpuruniversity.in/dtc-lab-software/home DTC Lab Supplementary Tools] site.<br />
<br />
JU in collaboration with [[Indian Statistical Institute|ISI Kolkata]] developed the first second-generation digital computer of India, namely '''ISIJU-1''' in 1964. The project was headed by [[Samarendra Kumar Mitra]] of the Computing Machines and Electronics Laboratory of ISI and Prof. Jnan Saran Chatterjee, founder head of the Department of Tele-Communication Engineering (renamed as Department of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineering (ETCE) in 1964) of JU. Dr. Biswajit Nag, lecturer from ETCE department was responsible for the logic design and implementation of the main memory systems. A number of faculties and research scholers were also involved in the hardware team.<ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/indias-first-computer-is-lost/articleshow/1473117.cms</ref><ref>https://jadavpuruniversity.in/academics/computer-science-engineering/</ref><br />
<br />
===Industry===<br />
Jadavpur University's '''Innovation Council''' (IIC) was established in 2018 to promote innovations and startups in the campus. IIC arranges awareness programmes, seminars and workshops on innovation and entrepreneurship and organises visits to industries and start-ups for the first year students. The university hosted <br />
a HULT event. IIC participated in Bengal Global Business Summit (BGBS) 2022, Smart India Hackathon (SIH) 2022. Three <br />
alumni members from JU has successfully established their startups by enlisting in startup MSME venture. Four Memorandum of <br />
Understandings (MOUs) have been signed with companies like [[Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers]], [[Haldia Petrochemicals]] Limited, MCPI Private Limited and Nexgen Plasma Private Limited for student internships. Jadavpur University organised ''SERB-INAE Hackathon 2022'', in which nearly 100 students from all over India participated.<ref name="auto"/><br />
<br />
The university also has an '''Industry-Institute Partnership Cell''' (IIPC) in which consultancy and testing services are provided to industry, service sectors and other public or private organizations. During 2022–2023, the IIPC generated a revenue of Rs 13.5 crores. Up to 2023, the IIPC has worked with around 161 leading industries or organisations like [[Tata Steel]], [[RITES]], [[Airport Authority of India]], [[Kolkata Port Trust]], [[Bajaj Electricals]], [[Larsen & Toubro|L&T]], [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation|KMC]] and <br />
[[Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority|KMDA]], Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd., [[Central Pollution Control Board|CPCB]], [[CESC Limited|CESC]] etc.<ref name="auto"/><br />
<br />
==National and international rankings==<br />
{{Infobox India university ranking<br />
| type = University<br />
<!----------International----------><br />
| QS_W_2025 = 676<br />
| QS_A_2024 = 228<br />
| THE_W_2024 = 1001–1200<br />
| THES_A_2024 = 251–300<br />
| THES_E_2022 = 251–300<br />
<!----------General----------><br />
|NIRF_O_2024=18|NIRF_R_2024=23|NIRF_U_2024=9| OUTLOOK_U_2020 = 3<br />
|NIRF_E_2024=18|NIRF_P_2024=24}}<br />
<br />
The rankings of Jadavpur University by various National and International organisations are as follows:<br />
*'''Indian''':<br />
**'''[[National Institutional Ranking Framework|NIRF]]''':<br />
:::{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+<br />
| colspan="6" style="background:#C2DFFF;" | ''' NIRF Ranking comparison and improvements'''<br />
|-<br />
! Ranking <br />
!2025<br />
!2024<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 NIRF |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/nirfpdfcdn/2024/pdf/Report/IR2024_Report.pdf}}</ref>!!2023 !! 2022 !! 2021 <br />
|-<br />
| '''[[National Institutional Ranking Framework|NIRF]] (Overall)''' <br />
|'''18'''<br />
|17||13<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/OverallRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=6 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606070928/https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/OverallRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> ||12<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/OverallRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=20 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820073138/https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/OverallRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> ||14<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/OverallRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=9 September 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909140852/https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/OverallRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| '''[[National Institutional Ranking Framework|NIRF]] (University)'''<br />
|'''9'''<br />
|9|| 4<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/UniversityRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=6 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606070953/https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/UniversityRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> ||4<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/UniversityRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=12 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112070520/https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/UniversityRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> || 8<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/UniversityRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=9 September 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909133741/https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/UniversityRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| '''[[National Institutional Ranking Framework|NIRF]] (Engineering)''' <br />
|'''18'''<br />
|12||10<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/EngineeringRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=5 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605160637/https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/EngineeringRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> ||11<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/EngineeringRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=17 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817005626/https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/EngineeringRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> ||17<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/EngineeringRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=9 September 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909093421/https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/EngineeringRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| '''[[National Institutional Ranking Framework|NIRF]] (Research)''' <br />
|'''23'''<br />
|21||19 <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/ResearchRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=22 September 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922083018/https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/ResearchRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>||13<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/ResearchRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=6 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306081423/https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/ResearchRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>|| -<br />
|-<br />
|''' [[National Institutional Ranking Framework|NIRF]] (Pharmacy)'''<br />
|'''24'''<br />
|18||18 <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/PharmacyRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=6 June 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606111150/https://www.nirfindia.org/2023/PharmacyRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>||18<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/PharmacyRanking.html | title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) | access-date=29 October 2023 | archive-date=6 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306081423/https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/PharmacyRanking.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> || -<br />
|}<br />
**'''[[National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies|NISTADS]]''': National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies (NISTADS) of CSIR ranked Jadavpur University 4th among the top 50 Universities of the country based on h-index of publication.<ref name="jaduniv.edu.in"/><br />
*'''International''':<br />
**In the 2025 edition of the "'''List of top 2% global scientists'''" published by the [[Stanford University]], Jadavpur University has 51 scientists in the list, which is third highest number of faculties selected from any university in India.<ref>{{cite web | title=IIT Kharagpur and Jadavpur University faculty among world's top 2% scientists in global ranking by Stanford University 2025 | work=The Times of India | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/iit-kharagpur-and-jadavpur-university-faculty-among-worlds-top-2-scientists-in-global-ranking-by-stanford-university-2025/articleshow/124191997.cms }}</ref><br />
**'''[[Nature Index]]''' ranked Jadavpur University in 1st among universities in India and 22th overall in India (2023–2024).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/institution-outputs/generate/all/countries-India/all | title=Institution tables &#124; Nature Index }}</ref> Additionally, it is ranked 19th among all Indian institutes in the field of Physical Science taking into account publications in 82-select high-quality science journals (2020–2021).<ref name="auto"/><br />
**'''[[QS World University Rankings]]''': In 2023 QS World ranking, JU was placed in the 4th position among India's state universities. Within the broad discipline of "Arts and Humanities" JU is the only state university to find a place in this ranking with being 3rd in the "English Language and Literature" domain among all Indian institutes. In the first published list of QS Sustainability Ranking 2023, Jadavpur University has been featured as the only state university and one of the 15 Indian institutes.<ref name="auto"/><br />
**'''[[Nature Index]]''': In 2021–2022, The Nature Index ranked Jadavpur University in 19th in Physical Science, 23rd in Chemistry, 11th in Earth and Environmental Science and 24th overall among India's Higher Education Institutions.<ref name="auto"/><br />
**'''[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings|Times (THE)]]''': Jadavpur University was ranked 47th in the Times Higher Education-Thomson Reuters list of the 100 best universities in the BRICS and Emerging Economies, 2013.<ref name="jaduniv.edu.in"/><br />
**'''[[University Ranking by Academic Performance|URAP]]''': University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP) Research Laboratory ranked Jadavpur University 10th in India in its 2012–13 report considering academic indicators.<ref name="auto"/><br />
<br />
==Notable alumni and faculties==<br />
{{main|List of Jadavpur University people}}<br />
<br />
==Controversies and Criticism==<br />
<br />
===2014 Jadavpur University Protests===<br />
{{main|2014 Jadavpur University protests}}<br />
[[File:Students Rally against Vice Chancellor - Jadavpur University - Kolkata 2015-01-08 2457.JPG|thumb|Students rally against the vice-chancellor during the [[2014 Jadavpur University protests]]]]<br />
In 2014 a series of protests broke out in response to the alleged molestation of a female student and beating of a male student by 10 other students on 28 August 2014. Her family and ultimately the student body were unsatisfied by the response of the [[Vice Chancellor]] to the allegations. Protests began on 10 September.<ref name = "BBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-29307120|title=Jadavpur University boycott to continue despite inquiry|publisher=BBC News|access-date=22 September 2014|archive-date=22 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922202027/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-29307120|url-status=live}}</ref> On 16 September students [[gherao]]ed several officials in their offices, demanding that the Vice Chancellor make a statement on the status of a fair probe. Police were summoned, and later that night the police allegedly attacked and beat the student demonstrators. 30 to 40 students were injured; some had to be hospitalized. Reaction was nationwide, with supportive protests at multiple other cities including [[New Delhi]], [[Hyderabad]] and [[Bengaluru]]. On 20 September, Governor [[Keshari Nath Tripathi]], who is also the chancellor of the university, met with student representatives and promised to conduct an impartial inquiry.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/30000-march-in-rain-to-seek-Jadavpur-VCs-scalp/articleshow/43033605.cms|title=30,000 march in rain to seek Jadavpur VC's scalp|date=21 September 2014|work=The Times of India|access-date=22 September 2014|archive-date=23 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923080753/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/30000-march-in-rain-to-seek-Jadavpur-VCs-scalp/articleshow/43033605.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> However, students said they will continue to boycott classes until the Vice Chancellor resigns.<ref name = "BBC" /><br />
<br />
On 26 September, a State Government inquiry panel submitted its report, confirming that the female student had indeed been sexually abused on 28 August 2014.<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/2-Jadavpur-University-students-held-after-govt-panel-finds-molest-evidence/articleshow/43565358.cms|title=2 Jadavpur University students held after govt panel finds molest evidence|work=The Times of India|access-date=26 September 2014|archive-date=27 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927181701/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/2-Jadavpur-University-students-held-after-govt-panel-finds-molest-evidence/articleshow/43565358.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> On 26 September, police summoned two Jadavpur University students to come to the Lalbazar Police HQ for questioning at 4 pm on Friday. They were arrested at 6 pm. "The arrests were made after evidence was found, prima facie, against the duo. Further investigation is on," said joint CP-crime Pallab Kanti Ghosh.<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com"/> Mr Ghosh also stated, "(Two names) were arrested because we had enough evidence to prove that they were present at the spot and had carried out the crime as alleged in the victim's complaint."<ref name="telegraphindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140927/jsp/frontpage/story_18878106.jsp#.VCXtL2eSy-Y|title=Molest cuffs on two JU students|work=The Telegraph|access-date=26 September 2014|archive-date=27 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927001215/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140927/jsp/frontpage/story_18878106.jsp#.VCXtL2eSy-Y|url-status=dead}}</ref> The duo were booked under Sections of 354 (assault or use of criminal force on a woman with the intent to outrage her modesty), 342 (wrongful confinement), 323 (voluntarily causing hurt) and 114 (abettor present when offence is committed) of the IPC.<ref name="telegraphindia.com"/><br />
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===2018 Scrapping Entrance Tests===<br />
JU got embroiled in controversy on 4 July 2018, when the executive council announced its decision to scrap entrance tests for six humanities subjects which was met with protests from the Jadavpur University Teacher's Association and the student unions along with other academics and university students due speculations that state education ministry had influenced this decision.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/jadavpur-university-v-c-fails-to-cut-ice-with-students-on-day-4-of-hunger-strike-girl-taken-ill-1806455.html|title=Jadavpur University V–C Fails to Cut Ice With Students on Day 4 of Hunger Strike, Girl Taken to Hospital|date=9 July 2018|website=News18|access-date=19 July 2018|archive-date=19 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173359/https://www.news18.com/news/india/jadavpur-university-v-c-fails-to-cut-ice-with-students-on-day-4-of-hunger-strike-girl-taken-ill-1806455.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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===2023 ragging allegations===<br />
In August 2023, first-year undergraduate student Swapnadip Kundu died after falling from the Main Hostel balcony of Jadavpur University, in an incident linked to ragging. Police investigations indicated that he had been subjected to prolonged physical and mental harassment by senior students shortly before his death.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Student's Death: Jadavpur University Asks Boarders To Shift To New Hostel |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/students-death-jadavpur-university-asks-boarders-to-shift-to-new-hostel-4290107 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250318145134/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/students-death-jadavpur-university-asks-boarders-to-shift-to-new-hostel-4290107 |archive-date=2025-03-18 |access-date=2026-03-20 |work=www.ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref> Several current students and former students from Collective, WTI (We The Independent), FAS (Forum of Arts Students) and DSF (Democratic Students' Federation) were arrested in connection with the case, with allegations including confinement, verbal abuse, and intimidation. The incident triggered widespread public outrage and protests, drawing attention to persistent ragging practices despite legal prohibitions. Student organizations like [[Students' Federation of India|SFI (Students' Federation of India)]], [[All India Students' Association|AISA]], [[All India Democratic Students Organisation|DSO]] and others led student protests against the state government demanding greater campus democracy and student union elections, and against the university authority demanding stricter punishment for ragging and better hostel facilities. It also led to administrative actions within the university and renewed debates on campus safety, accountability, and institutional responsibility.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-08-13 |title=120 minutes of intense ragging in hostel room preceded Jadavpur University fresher's death: Cops |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/120-minutes-of-intense-ragging-in-hostel-room-preceded-ju-freshers-death-cops/articleshow/102688636.cms |access-date=2026-03-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=দে |first=অরিজিৎ |date=2023-08-22 |title=তিনি তখন কাশ্মীরে, এদিকে রেজিস্টারে সই! যাদবপুর হস্টেলে 'ভুতুড়ে' আলুর আনোগোনা |url=https://eisamay.com/west-bengal-news/kolkata-news/jadavpur-university-engineering-student-aritra-majumder-aka-alu-summoned-by-university-investigation-committee/102946082.cms |access-date=2026-03-20 |website=Eisamay Online |language=bn}}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
{{Portal bar|India|Education}}<br />
* [[List of Jadavpur University people]]<br />
* [[List of universities in India#West Bengal|List of universities in India]] <br />
* [[Universities and colleges in India]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
* {{Official website}}<br />
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{{Kolkata topics}}<br />
{{Universities in West Bengal}}<br />
{{Scientific Research in West Bengal}}<br />
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{{authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Jadavpur University}}<br />
[[Category:Jadavpur University]]<br />
[[Category:Research institutes in Kolkata]]<br />
[[Category:20th century in Kolkata]]<br />
[[Category:Academic institutions associated with the Bengal Renaissance]]<br />
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 1955]]<br />
[[Category:1955 establishments in West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Engineering colleges in West Bengal]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vijay_(1988_film)&diff=544364Vijay (1988 film)2026-03-23T01:35:32Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: </p>
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<div>{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Vijay<br />
| image = Vijay film.jpg<br />
| caption = Promotional Poster<br />
| writer = [[Sachin Bhowmick]]<br />[[Akhtar ul Iman]]<br />
| starring = [[Rajesh Khanna]]<br />[[Hema Malini]]<br />[[Rishi Kapoor]]<br />[[Anil Kapoor]]<br />[[Meenakshi Sheshadri]]<br />[[Sonam (actress)|Sonam]]<br >[[Saeed Jaffrey]]<br />[[Anupam Kher]]<br >[[Shakti Kapoor]]<br />
| director = [[Yash Chopra]]<br />
| producer = Yash Chopra<br />
| studio = [[Yash Raj Films]]<br />
| distributor = Yash Raj Films<br />
| released = {{Film date|1988|08|12|df=yes}}<br />
| runtime = 172 minutes<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Hindi<br />
| cinematography = [[Manmohan Singh (director)|Manmohan Singh]]<br />
| music = [[Shiv-Hari]]<br />
| budget = <br />
| gross = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Vijay''' (English: ''Victory'') is a 1988 Indian [[Hindi language|Hindi]]-language [[Action-drama|action drama]] film directed by [[Yash Chopra]]. It features an ensemble star cast consisting of [[Rajesh Khanna]], [[Hema Malini]], [[Rishi Kapoor]], [[Anil Kapoor]], [[Meenakshi Sheshadri]], [[Sonam (actress)|Sonam]], [[Anupam Kher]] in pivotal roles. [[Anupam Kher]] won the [[Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award]] for his performance.<br />
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The plot of the film was inspired by Chopra's previous film ''[[Trishul (film)|Trishul]]''. The film, released on 12 August 1988, to coincide with India's Independence Day weekend, was a commercial failure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/romantics-yash-chopra-talks-struggles-faced-releasing-chandni-one-distributor-refused-release-film-lot-messages-passed-another-flop-coming/|title=The Romantics: Yash Chopra talks about the STRUGGLES he faced while releasing Chandni: "One distributor refused to release the film. A lot of messages were passed that Another flop is coming. Dont give them theatres" : Bollywood News|date=15 February 2023|website=Bollywood Hungama}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
Widowed Lala Yodhraj Bhalla lives in a palatial house with his daughter, Suman, and son, Shashiraj. Both of his children are of marriageable age. He gets a shock when he finds out that Suman is in love with a lowly employee by the name of Ajit Bhardwaj, and refuses to give his consent for their marriage. Suman and Ajit get married in a simple ceremony, and Suman moves to Ajit's house, where she soon gets pregnant and gives birth to a son who they name Vikram, affectionately called Vicky. Yodhraj gets another shock when Shashiraj tells him that he would like to marry Rita, who comes from a poor family. Yodhraj asks Shashiraj to go for a trip out of town in his private air-plane. With Shashiraj out of the way, Yodhraj goes to a pregnant Rita and asks her never to see Shashiraj again and leaves a blank cheque with her. The very same day, Shashiraj is killed when his plane crashes; a guilt-ridden Suman moves back into her father's house along with Vikram, leaving Ajit alone and devastated; and a lone Rita gives birth to a young son named Arjun. Twenty five years later, Yodhraj still lives in his palatial house with Suman and Vikram. A grown-up Arjun lives with his adopted father Inder Sen and his family. He meets and befriends Vikram but is completely unaware that they are cousins.<br />
<br />
Sometime later, Inder tells Arjun about hiring an accomplished architect for their dream hotel, and that architect turns out to be Ajit, now alone and an alcoholic. He reluctantly agrees to work. Yodhraj is shocked to see him as Inder's company representative. He immediately leaves the meeting and meets up with Suresh Padampati owner of the Padampati Bankers, who also bears a grudge against Inder since his testimony resulted in his father committing suicide. They join hands, along with Inder's security officer Ujagar Singh who bears a grudge against Arjun for getting him arrested.<br />
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Situations worsen and it results in Arjun and Vikram becoming enemies, with it also creating a rift between their girlfriends Sapna and Nisha. Inder's company gets saddled with deep debt. In the middle of all of this Arjun gets to know that Rita is his biological mother and is still alive but sick, living in a convent. He goes to visit her. They have an emotional reunion but she dies in his arms thereafter. Inder tells him that Yodhraj is actually his grandfather, and apologises for making family members fight each other, but Arjun refuses to accept it, and pledges to take the fight forward. He, along with his friends, creates problems in Yodhraj and his family. Inder commits suicide due to the high pressure on him to pay the loan back, but Arjun succeeds in winning the elections and defeating Yodhraj. An enraged Vikram attacks Arjun with some hired goons and he is beaten up badly, but they flee when Ajit arrives on the spot. He takes him to the hospital. Ajit then goes to Suman and laments that Vikram had become like Yodhraj, someone who didn't care about humans. Vikram tells him to shut up, after which Suman slapped him. On the way out, Ajit is attacked by Suresh, who shoots him in the arm. Vikram suddenly gets angry and attacks him in retribution. He, along with Suman, both go to Ajit's house, where she tells him to quit drinking. Vikram laments that he grew up without his father around, and Ajit tells him that Yodhraj was the one responsible for their separation. After this, Vikram angrily lambasted Yodhraj for separating him from his father, and declares himself as Ajit's son. Arjun then calls Yodhraj and tells him that there is some other news which he himself will come to tell him. Yodhraj instructs Suresh to finish him off for good.<br />
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Sometime later, Arjun confronts Yodhraj and tells him that he is Shashiraj's son, and that he refuses to acknowledge him as his grandfather. He also invites him to the opening of his dream hotel. Arjun also meets a drunk Vikram and they become friends again. Yodhraj, shocked on hearing this, tries to stop Suresh from carrying out his plan, but fails to do so.<br />
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Suresh and his gang plant a bomb in the hotel, where the party is going on. By chance Nisha sees it and immediately informs Vikram and everyone, who start evacuating the place. Yodhraj too arrives, and tells Vikram that Arjun is his cousin. They, along with Ajit, begin searching for the bomb. They get a hold of Suresh and his gang, and a fight ensues. Arjun is successful in disarming the bomb.<br />
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Yodhraj asks Ajit and Arjun to forgive him for his wrongdoings. He realises that a person is known for his deeds, not by his family lineage. They live as a happy family forever.<br />
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==Cast==<br />
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}<br />
* [[Rajesh Khanna]] as Ajit Bharadwaj<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/anupam-kher-reminisces-the-days-of-shooting-with-hema-malini-rajesh-khanna-in-vijay-1834583-2021-07-30|title=Anupam Kher reminisces the days of shooting with Hema Malini, Rajesh Khanna in Vijay|website=India Today|date=30 July 2021 }}</ref><br />
* [[Hema Malini]] as Suman Bharadwaj<ref name="auto"/><br />
* [[Rishi Kapoor]] as Vikram Bharadwaj "Vicky"<ref name="auto1">{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/anupam-kher-gets-nostalgic-shares-rare-throwback-image-with-rishi-kapoor-anil-kapoor-hema-malini/articleshow/72348054.cms | title=Anupam Kher gets nostalgic, shares throwback pic with Rishi Kapoor, Anil Kapoor & Hema Malini | work=The Economic Times | date=3 December 2019 }}</ref><br />
**[[Neil Nitin Mukesh]] as young Vikram Bhardwaj<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/when-neil-nitin-mukesh-played-a-younger-govinda-as-a-child-actor-see-pic-101611982119582.html|title=When Neil Nitin Mukesh played a younger Govinda as a child actor. See pic|date=30 January 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><br />
* [[Anil Kapoor]] as Arjun Bhalla<ref name="auto1"/><br />
** Arjun Sablok as young Arjun Bhalla<br />
* [[Meenakshi Sheshadri]] as Sapna <br />
* [[Anupam Kher]] as Yodhraj Bhalla<ref name="auto"/><br />
* [[Raj Babbar]] as Shashiraj Bhalla (special appearance)<br />
* [[Moushumi Chatterjee]] as Rita Bhalla (special appearance)<br />
* [[Sonam (actress)|Sonam]] as Nisha Mehra <br />
* [[Saeed Jaffrey]] as Inder Gujral<br />
* [[Anjana Mumtaz]] as Mrs. Inder Gujral<br />
* [[Parikshit Sahni]] as Mr. Mehra <br />
* [[Shakti Kapoor]] as Suresh<br />
* [[Gulshan Grover]] as Ujaagar Singh<br />
* [[Anant Mahadevan]] as Bank Manager<br />
* [[Vikas Anand]] as Bank Manager <br />
* [[Manmohan Krishna]] as Judge<br />
* [[Bharat Bhushan]] as Church Pastor<br />
* [[Anju Mahendru]] as Bela<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
==Soundtrack==<br />
The music was composed by [[Shiv Kumar Sharma]] and [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]], known together as [[Shiv-Hari]]. The lyrics were written by [[Nida Fazli]].<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"<br />
! Song !! Singer<br />
|-<br />
| "Meri Aankhen Hain"<br />
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Badal Pe Chalke Aa, Sawan Mein Dhalke Aa"<br />
| Lata Mangeshkar, [[Suresh Wadkar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Zindagi Har Janam Pyar Ki Dastan, Kaisi Zameen, Kya Aasman, Tu Kahe To Badal Dun Jahan"<br />
| Lata Mangeshkar, [[Suresh Wadkar]], [[Vinod Rathod]] <br />
|-<br />
| "Tera Karam Hi" (Male) <br />
| [[Mahendra Kapoor]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Tera Karam Hi" (Female) <br />
| [[Asha Bhosle]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Rakhna Athanni Sambhalke"<br />
| Asha Bhosle<br />
|-<br />
| "Akkad Bakkad Bambe Bo, Assi Nabbay Poore Sau"<br />
| [[Anupam Kher]], [[Pooja Chopra]]<br />
|}<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
*{{IMDb title|id=0096390}}<br />
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{{Yash Chopra}}<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}<br />
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[[Category:1988 Hindi-language films]]<br />
[[Category:1988 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:1988 films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Yash Chopra]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Shiv-Hari]]<br />
[[Category:Indian aviation films]]<br />
[[Category:Yash Raj Films films]]<br />
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{{1980s-Hindi-film-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manathi_Ganesan&diff=515707Manathi Ganesan2026-03-12T00:12:27Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating a info - done</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian kabaddi player and Arjuna Award winner}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox sportsperson<br />
| name = P. Ganesan<br />
| image = P. Ganesan Arjun Award Winners of Kabaddi 1995.png<br />
| caption = P. Ganesan receiving the Arjuna Award (1995)<br />
| fullname = Perumal Ganesan<br />
| nationality = {{IND}}<br />
| birth_place = Manathi, [[Thoothukudi district]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India<br />
| country = {{IND}}<br />
| sport = [[Kabaddi]]<br />
| position = Raider<br />
| years_active = Late 1980s–1990s<br />
| show-medals = yes<br />
| medaltemplates =<br />
{{MedalSport|Men's [[kabaddi]]}}<br />
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Games]]}}<br />
{{MedalGold|[[1994 Asian Games]]|Team}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''P. Ganesan''', popularly known as '''Manathi Ganesan''', is an Indian former [[kabaddi]] player from Tamil Nadu who was part of the Indian men's team that won the gold medal at the [[1994 Asian Games]] in Hiroshima. He received the Arjuna Award in 1995 for his contributions to kabaddi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arjuna Award Winners – Kabaddi |url=https://www.indiankabaddi.org/award-winners.html |website=Amateur Kabaddi Federation of India |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Asian Games Medalists – Kabaddi, 1994 |url=https://www.olympiandatabase.com/index.php?id=316200&L=2 |website=Olympian Database |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Early life ==<br />
Ganesan was born in the village of Manathi in present-day [[Thoothukudi district]] of Tamil Nadu. He was initially active in local-level sports before taking up kabaddi seriously in the late 1980s. His powerful raiding style and village-based training earned him the nickname "Manathi Ganesan".<ref>{{cite news |script-title=ta:காளமாடன் வருகை... யார் இந்த மணத்தி கணேசன்? |trans-title=Here comes ''Kaalamaadan''… Who is this Manathi Ganesan? |url=https://www.dinamani.com/cinema/cinema-news/2025/Oct/14/manathi-p-kanesan |work=Dinamani |language=ta |date=14 October 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Playing career ==<br />
<br />
=== Domestic career ===<br />
Ganesan rose through district-level tournaments in southern Tamil Nadu, representing local clubs and departmental teams. He played for Sun Paper Mills, one of the strongest kabaddi sides in Tamil Nadu during the era, gaining visibility as a high-impact raider.<ref>{{cite news |script-title=ta:காளமாடன் வருகை... யார் இந்த மணத்தி கணேசன்? |trans-title=Who is this Manathi Ganesan? |url=https://www.dinamani.com/cinema/cinema-news/2025/Oct/14/manathi-p-kanesan |work=Dinamani |date=14 October 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><br />
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He later joined the sports quota of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (now TANGEDCO), continuing to play in state and national competitions representing departmental teams.<br />
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=== International career ===<br />
Ganesan was selected to the Indian national men's kabaddi team in the early 1990s. He competed at the '''1994 Asian Games''' in Hiroshima, where the Indian team won the gold medal in men's kabaddi, continuing India's dominance in the sport.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asian Games Kabaddi 1994 – Hiroshima (Archived) |url=http://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/C/ASIA/Sports/Result/eachgame/kabaddi.html |website=Wayback Machine |access-date=16 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970804231351/http://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/C/ASIA/Sports/Result/eachgame/kabaddi.html |archive-date=1997-08-04}}</ref><br />
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== Style of play ==<br />
Tamil-language media described Ganesan as a physically dominant player, known for forceful raids and powerful blocks that earned him the "Bison-like" reputation later used in portrayals of his life.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is “Bison Kaalamaadan” based on a true story? |url=https://newsit.live/news/68ee3e5427093cc50fed5c12 |website=NewsIT |date=14 October 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Awards and honours ==<br />
* '''Arjuna Award''' – 1995 (Kabaddi)<ref>{{cite web |title=Arjuna Award Winners – Kabaddi |url=https://www.indiankabaddi.org/award-winners.html |website=AKFI |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><br />
* '''Gold medal''' – Men's Kabaddi, '''1994 Asian Games'''<ref>{{cite web |title=Asian Games Kabaddi Results |url=https://www.olympiandatabase.com/index.php?id=316200&L=2 |website=Olympian Database}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Later life ==<br />
Following his playing career, Ganesan worked as a Senior Sports Officer in TANGEDCO and continued mentoring kabaddi athletes in Tamil Nadu. He has been a guest at several kabaddi events and is regarded as an important figure in the sport's development in the region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Manathi Ganesan on 'Bison': They have strived for the film like I did on field |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Oct/17/manathi-ganesan-on-bison |work=Cinema Express |date=17 October 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
== In popular culture ==<br />
In 2025, Tamil film-maker [[Mari Selvaraj]] released ''[[Bison Kaalamaadan]]'', which was widely reported as being inspired by the life of Manathi P. Ganesan. Actor Dhruv Vikram trained in kabaddi for the role, with Ganesan providing guidance to the production team.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bison: Mari Selvaraj reveals Rajinikanth's reaction |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/bison-mari-selvaraj-reveals-rajinikanths-reaction-says-his-appreciation-is-my-biggest-reward/articleshow/124758060.cms |work=The Times of India |date=23 October 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='Bison Kaalamaadan' trailer features Dhruv Vikram as Manathi Ganesan |url=https://www.moviecrow.com/News/35736/bison-trailer-dhruv-vikram-mari-selvaraj-manathi-p-ganesan |work=MovieCrow |date=13 October 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ganesan, Manathi}}<br />
[[Category:Indian kabaddi players]]<br />
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists for India]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]<br />
[[Category:Kabaddi players at the 1994 Asian Games]]<br />
[[Category:People from Thoothukudi district]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sister_Nivedita&diff=448433Sister Nivedita2026-03-11T07:00:36Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Content refined and expanded</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Irish social activist and disciple of Swami Vivekananda}}<br />
{{redirect|Margaret Noble|the artist|Margaret Noble (artist)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox Hindu leader<br />
| name = Sister Nivedita<br />
| image = Sœur Nivedita.jpg<br />
| alt = Image of Sister Nivedita, sitting!<br />
| caption = Sister Nivedita in [[India]]<br />
| religion = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Hinduism]] (at death)<br />
* [[Methodist]] (at birth)<br />
}}<br />
| birth_name = Margaret Elizabeth Noble<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1867|10|28}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Dungannon]], County Tyrone, Ireland<br />
| death_date = {{Death-date and age|13 October 1911|28 October 1867}}<br />
| death_place = [[Darjeeling]], [[Bengal Presidency]], British India<br />
| guru = [[Swami Vivekananda]]<br />
| disciple = &lt;!-- Prominent disciple(s) only --&gt;<br />
| founder = [[Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School]]<br />
| region = [[Indian philosophy]]<br />
| philosophy = [[Advaita Vedanta]]<br />
| influences = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Buddha]]<br />
* [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi|Pestalozzi]]<br />
* [[Friedrich Fröbel|Fröbel]]<br />
* [[Ramakrishna]]<br />
* [[Sarada Devi|Devi]]<br />
* [[Swami Vivekananda|Vivekananda]]<br />
}}<br />
| influenced = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[E. B. Havell|Havell]]<br />
* [[Abanindranath Tagore|Tagore]]<br />
* [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy]]<br />
* [[Nandalal Bose|Bose]]<br />
* [[Asit Kumar Haldar|Haldar]]<br />
* [[Subramania Bharati|Bharati]]<br />
}}<br />
| literary_works = [[Kali the Mother (book)|''Kali the Mother'']], ''[[The Web of Indian Life]]'', ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'', ''[[An Indian Study of Love and Death]]'', ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'', ''[[Notes of some wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda]]'', ''[[Select essays of Sister Nivedita]]'', ''[[Studies from an Eastern Home]]'', ''[[Myths of the Hindus &amp; Buddhists]]'', ''[[Footfalls of Indian History]]'', ''[[Religion and Dharma]]''<br />
}}<br />
{{Hindu philosophy}}<br />
'''Sister Nivedita''' ({{IPA|bn|bhagini nibedita}} {{Audio|Sister Nibedita.oga|listen}}; {{nee|'''Margaret Elizabeth Noble'''}}; 28 October 1867 – 13 October 1911)&lt;ref name="JonesRyan2007"&gt;{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&amp;pg=PA317|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|pages=316–317}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Hindus want national holiday on October 13 to mark Sister Nivedita's 100th death anniversary|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2254149551.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329154630/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2254149551.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 March 2015|publisher=Hindustan Times |access-date=9 June 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; was an Irish–Indian philosopher, educator, writer, social activist and disciple of [[Swami Vivekananda]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Barua |first=Ankur |date=January 2020 |title=The Hindu Cosmopolitanism of Sister Nivedita (Margaret Elizabeth Noble): An Irish Self in Imperial Currents |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/abs/hindu-cosmopolitanism-of-sister-nivedita-margaret-elizabeth-noble-an-irish-self-in-imperial-currents/E4CF78E99A4D134AC7BB1FA82810328F |journal=Harvard Theological Review |language=en |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1017/S0017816019000324 |s2cid=213668994 |issn=0017-8160|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="CoomaraswamyPerry2011"&gt;{{cite book|author1=Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy|author2=Whitall N. (INT) Perry|title=The Wisdom of Ananda Coomaraswamy: Reflections on Indian Art, Life, and Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXD_NsQycKYC&amp;pg=PA129|year=2011|publisher=World Wisdom, Inc|isbn=978-1-935493-95-2|pages=129–}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Hayes"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hayes |first1=Maurice |title=Noble, Margaret Elizabeth (Sister Nivedita) |url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/noble-margaret-elizabeth-sister-nivedita-a6218 |website=Dictionary of Irish Biography |publisher=Royal Irish Academy |access-date=5 January 2026 |location=Dublin |doi=10.3318/dib.006218.v2 |date=2009|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
Sister Nivedita met Swami Vivekananda in 1895 in London and travelled to Calcutta (present-day [[Kolkata]]), [[India]], in 1898. Swami Vivekananda gave her the name ''Nivedita'' (meaning "Dedicated to God") when he initiated her into the vow of ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' on 25 March 1898. In November 1898, she opened a girls' school in the [[Bagbazar]] area of North Calcutta. She wanted to educate girls who were deprived of even basic education. During the plague epidemic in Calcutta in 1899, Nivedita nursed and took care of the poor patients.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Nivedita |first=Sister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=06EFEAAAQBAJ&amp;dq=Sister+Nivedita+plague&amp;pg=PT3 |title=Kali the Mother |date=2021-01-01 |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
Nivedita had close associations with the newly established [[Ramakrishna Mission]]. Because of her active contribution in the field of [[Indian Nationalism|Indian nationalism]], she had to publicly dissociate herself from the activities of the Ramakrishna Mission under the then president, Swami Brahmananda. This had to be done in order to avoid their persecution at the hands of British authorities in India. She was very close to [[Sarada Devi]], the wife of [[Ramakrishna]] and one of the major influences behind Ramakrishna Mission, and also with all brother disciples of Swami Vivekananda. She died on 13 October 1911 in [[Darjeeling]]. Her epitaph reads, "Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India."&lt;ref name="Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India"&gt;{{cite book|author=Compiled|title=Awakening Indians to India (Paperback)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AIU4LzftaPAC&amp;pg=PA370|year=2008|publisher=Chinmaya Mission|isbn=978-81-7597-434-0|pages=370–}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
== Early life ==<br />
Margaret Elizabeth Noble was born on 28 October 1867{{efn|Also cited as 1866&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Margaret Elizabeth Noble [Birth Index] |journal=Quarterly Returns of Births in Ireland with Index to Births |date=1868 |volume=1 |page=617 |publisher=General Register Office |location=Dublin}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} in [[Dungannon]], County Tyrone to Samuel Richmond Noble, a [[linen]] [[draper]], and Mary Isabel Noble (née Hamilton).&lt;ref name="Hayes"/&gt; Named for her paternal grandmother, both of Nivedita's grandfathers actively supported [[Irish Home Rule movement|home-rule]].&lt;ref name="Dedicated: a biography of Nivedita." /&gt;&lt;ref name="Hayes"/&gt; Nivedita was the eldest of six siblings, of which 3 died in infancy.<br />
<br />
Nivedita's father later become a [[Methodist]] minister, and when Nivedita was four years old the family moved to [[Oldham]] before settling in [[Great Torrington]].&lt;ref name="Hayes"/&gt;&lt;ref name="JonesRyan2007"/&gt; Upon her father's death in 1877, the family returned to Ireland whilst Nivedita remained in Halifax and studied at The Crossley [[Orphan school|Orphan Home and School]].&lt;ref name="Hayes"/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=NOBLE, The Reverend Samuel Richmond |journal=Calendar of the Grants of Probate and Letters of Administration Made in the Probate Registries of the High Court of Justice in England |date=1877 |page=454 |publisher=Principal Probate Registry |location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="1881Census"&gt;{{cite journal |title=Margaret Noble |journal=Census Returns of England and Wales, 1881; Yorkshire; Skircoat; ALL; District the Crossley Orphan Home and School |date=1881 |page=3 |location=Kew, Richmond |publisher=The National Archives of the UK}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
At the age of seventeen in 1884, she first started a career in teaching at a school in [[Keswick, Cumbria|Keswick]]. In 1886, she went to [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]] to teach in an orphanage. A year later, she took up a post at the coal-mining area of [[Wrexham]] in [[North Wales]]. Here, she revived her spirit of service and love for the poor, which she had inherited from her father. At [[Wrexham]], Margaret became engaged to be married to a Welsh youth, who died soon after the engagement. In 1889, Margaret moved to [[Chester]]. By this time, her sister May and brother Richmond were living in [[Liverpool]]. Soon, their mother Mary joined them. Margaret was happy to be reunited with her family. Occasionally, she went to [[Liverpool]] to stay with them.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]], p. 3&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
Margaret resumed her studies in the field of education.&lt;ref&gt;"As a Teacher". Freeindia.org. Retrieved 12 June 2012.&lt;/ref&gt; She became acquainted with the ideas of the Swiss education reformer [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] and with the German [[Friedrich Fröbel]]. Both Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasised the importance of preschool education. They opined that education should begin by gratifying and cultivating the normal aptitude of the child for exercise, play, observation, imitation, and construction. A group of teachers in England was attracted to this novel method of teaching, and they tried to put it into practice. Thus, the 'New Education' was advocated and Margaret, too, became a part of it. Soon, she became a favourite writer and speaker at the Sunday Club and the Liverpool Science Club.&lt;ref name=a3&gt;[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]], pp. 3–4&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
In 1891, Margaret settled in [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] and helped, a Mrs. de Leeuw, to start a new school in London. The new experiment in teaching gave her great joy. After a year, in 1892, Margaret started her own independent school at Kingsleygate. At her school, there were no restrictive set methods and formal learning. Children learned through play. At this time, Margaret learned to be a critic of art from one of her staff teachers, [[Ebenezer Cooke (art education reformer)|Ebenezer Cooke]], a well-known art master and reformer of art education.&lt;ref name=a3/&gt;<br />
<br />
As she gained mastery as an educator, she also became a prolific writer in paper and periodicals and a popular speaker. Soon she became a name among the intellectuals of [[London]] and became acquainted with some of the most learned and influential people of her time. Among them were Lady Ripon and Lady Isabel Margesson. They were the founders of a literary coterie, which came to be known as the Sesame Club. ''[[The Times of London]]'' of 26 October 1911, wrote about Margaret, "A trained teacher of exceptional gifts, she was one of a group of educationists who in the early nineties founded the Sesame Club." Famous writers, such as [[W. B. Yeats|W.B. Yeats]], [[Bernard Shaw]] and [[Thomas Huxley]], were some of the regular speakers at the Sesame Club.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Sister Nivedita Heritage Museum &amp; Knowledge Centre|url=http://www.sisterniveditahouse.org/nivedita-life|access-date=2021-11-06|website=sisterniveditahouse.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Discussions were held here on literature, ethics, politics, and other similar subjects.&lt;ref name=a3/&gt;<br />
<br />
In 1892, when the [[Home Rule Bill]] for Ireland was before the Parliament, Margaret spoke fearlessly in favor of it.<br />
<br />
== Seeker of Truth ==<br />
Coming from a religious background, Margaret had learned [[Christianity|Christian]] religious doctrines from a young age. From childhood, she had learned to venerate all religious teachings. The infant [[Jesus]] was her object of adoration and worship. However, as she bloomed into womanhood, doubt in the Christian doctrines crept in. She found the teachings were incompatible with Truth. As these doubts became stronger, her faith in Christianity was shaken. For seven long years, Margaret was unable to settle her mind, and this led to unhappiness. She tried to absorb herself in church service. However, her troubled soul could not find satisfaction, and she longed for Truth.&lt;ref name=cw470&gt;''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. II, p. 470&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
Search for truth made Margaret take up the study of [[natural science]]. Later, in a lecture delivered at the Hindu Ladies' Social Club in [[Bombay]] in 1902, she said:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|During the seven years of wavering it occurred to me that in the study of natural science I should surely find the Truth I was seeking. So I began ardently to study how this world was created and all things in it and I discovered that in the laws of Nature at least there was consistency, but it made the doctrines of the Christian religion seem all the more inconsistent. Just then I happened to get a life of [[Buddha]] and in it I found that here also was a child who lived ever so many centuries before the Child Christ, but whose sacrifices were no less self-abnegating than those of the other. This dear child [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]] took a strong hold on me and for the next three years I plunged into the study of the religion of Buddha, and became more and more convinced that the salvation he preached was decidedly more consistent with the Truth than the preachings of the Christian religion.&lt;ref name=cw470/&gt;}}<br />
<br />
== Meeting with Swami Vivekananda ==<br />
[[File:Sister Nivedita image.jpg|thumb|150px|Sister Nivedita]]<br />
In November 1895, she met Swami Vivekananda for the first time, who had come from America to visit London and stayed there for three months.&lt;ref&gt;''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I&lt;/ref&gt; On a cold afternoon, Swami Vivekananda was explaining [[Vedanta Philosophy: An address before the Graduate Philosophical Society|Vedanta philosophy]] in the drawing room of an aristocratic family at 63 St George's Road, London. Lady Isabel Margesson, a friend of Margaret, invited [[Ebenezer Cooke (art education reformer)|Ebenezer Cooke]], who was part of the teaching staff at Margaret's 'Ruskin School', to this meeting. Margaret went with him, with much curiosity and interest. Margaret did not know this evening would change her life completely.&lt;ref name="Dedicated: a biography of Nivedita." /&gt; Margaret described her experience of the occasion. "A majestic personage, clad in a saffron gown and wearing a red waistband, sat there on the floor, cross-legged. As he spoke to the company, he recited Sanskrit verses in his deep, sonorous voice." Margaret had already delved deeply into the teachings of the East, and the novelty was not what she heard on this occasion, but the personality of Swamiji himself. She attended several other lectures by Swami Vivekananda. She asked a lot of questions, and his answers dispelled her doubts and established her faith and reverence for the speaker.<br />
<br />
Nivedita wrote in 1904 to a friend about her decision to follow Swami Vivekananda as a result of her meeting him in England in November 1895:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Suppose he had not come to London that time! Life would have been a headless dream, for I always knew that I was waiting for something. I always said that a call would come. And it did. But if I had known more of life, I doubt whether, when the time came, I should certainly have recognized it.<br />
&lt;p&gt;<br />
Fortunately, I knew little and was spared that torture&amp;nbsp;... Always I had this burning voice within, but nothing to utter. How often and often I sat down, pen in hand, to speak, and there was no speech! And now there is no end to it! As surely I am fitted to my world, so surely is my world in need of me, waiting – ready. The arrow has found its place in the bow. But if he had not come! If he had meditated, on the Himalayan peaks!&amp;nbsp;... I, for one, had never been here.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.vivekananda.net/PPlHeKnew/SVDisciples/Nivedita.html "The Swami and the people he knew," Sister Nivedita]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;}}<br />
<br />
She started taking interest in the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], and her discussions with Swami Vivekananda were an alternate source of peace and benediction. She wrote:<br />
{{blockquote|To not a few of us, the words of Swami Vivekananda came as living water to men perishing of thirst. Many of us had been conscious for years past of that growing uncertainty and despair with regard to Religion, which has beset the intellectual life of Europe for half a century. Belief in the dogmas of Christianity had become impossible to us, and we had no means, such as we now hold, by which to separate the doctrinal shell from the kernel of reality in our faith. To these the Vedanta has given intellectual confirmation and philosophical expression of their own mistrusted intuitions.&lt;ref&gt;''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. II, p. 399&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br />
<br />
Vivekananda's principles and teachings influenced her and this brought about a visible change in her. Seeing the fire and passion in her, Swami Vivekananda could foresee her future role in India. 25 March 1898, was the holiest and most unforgettable day of Nivedita's (Margaret) life. That was the day on which her guru dedicated her to God and to the service of India.<br />
<br />
Vivekananda had toured the [[Indian subcontinent]] extensively, acquiring first-hand knowledge of the conditions prevailing in British India. In his opinion, [[Education in India|education]] was the panacea for all evils plaguing contemporary Indian society,&lt;ref name="GoelGoel2005"&gt;{{cite book|author1=Aruna Goel|author2=S. L. Goel|title=Human Values and Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl4PNMb90mcC&amp;pg=PA243|year=2005|publisher=Deep &amp; Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7629-629-8|page=243}}&lt;/ref&gt; especially that of Indian women. Margaret was chosen for the role of educating Indian women. In his letter to Margaret, Vivekananda wrote, "Let me tell you frankly that I am now convinced that you have a great future in the work for India. What was wanted was not a man but a woman, a real lioness, to work for the Indians, women especially."&lt;ref&gt;[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]]&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
== Travel to India ==<br />
[[File:House of Sister Nivedita in Bagbazar 02.jpg|thumb |House of Sister Nivedita in Bagbazar, <br />
Kolkata (Old)]]<br />
Responding to Swami Vivekananda's call, Margaret travelled to India, leaving behind her friends and family, including her mother. ''Mombasa'', the ship bringing Margaret to India, reached Calcutta on 28 January 1898.&lt;ref name="Dedicated: a biography of Nivedita."&gt;{{cite book|title=Dedicated : a biography of Nivedita.|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/9375211/The-Dedicated-a-Biography-of-Nivedita|year=1999|publisher=Arcana Pub|location=[S.l.]|isbn=0910261164}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 22 February, Margaret visited [[Dakshineshwar]] temple, the place where Ramakrishna did his ''sadhana''.&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India."&gt;{{cite book|title=Nivedita of India|url=https://estudantedavedanta.net/Nivedita_of_India__-Ramakrishan_Mission_Institute_of_Culture.pdf|year=2002|publisher=Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|location=Kolkata|isbn=81-87332-20-4|edition=1st|page=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
Swami Vivekananda devoted the initial few days in teaching her about India and its people, and helping her develop the love for the people; he was broadening her character. He explained India's history, philosophy, literature, the life of the common mass, social traditions, and also the lives of great personalities, both ancient and modern, to her. A few weeks later, two of Swami Vivekananda's women disciples in America, [[Sara Chapman Bull|Sara C. Bull]], wife of famous Norwegian violinist and composer [[Ole Bull]] and [[Josephine MacLeod]] arrived in India. The three became lifelong friends. On 11 March 1898, Swami Vivekananda organised a public meeting at [[Star Theatre, Calcutta|Star Theatre]] to introduce Sister Nivedita to the people of Calcutta. In his speech, Swami Vivekananda said, "England has sent us another gift in Miss Margaret Noble." In this meeting, Margaret expressed her desire to serve India and its people.&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India."/&gt; On 17 March she met Sarada Devi who greeted Margaret affectionately as ''Khooki'' (i.e. little girl).&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India."/&gt;<br />
<br />
=== Brahmacharya ===<br />
On 25 March 1898, at Nilambar Mukherjee Garden,&lt;ref&gt;Hironmoy N. Mukherjee (2015) ''Swami Vivekananda's Spiritual Daughter: Sister Nivedita''. Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai. p. 19&lt;/ref&gt; Swami Vivekananda formally initiated Margaret in the vow of [[Brahmacharya]] (lifelong celibacy) and gave her the name of "Nivedita", the dedicated one.&lt;ref name="Sister's vow of lifelong Brahmacharya"&gt;{{cite book|author=M. G. Chitkara|title=Women &amp; Social Transformation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1chAq-ETv7oC&amp;pg=PA416|year=2001|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-251-6|pages=416–}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=The Life of Vivekananda and the Universal Gospel |last=Rolland |first=Romain |year=1965 |author-link=Romain Rolland |publisher=[[Advaita Ashrama]] |isbn=81-85301-01-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofvivekanand00roll/page/77 77] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofvivekanand00roll/page/77 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Swami Vivekananda said to her, "Go thou and follow Him, Who was born and gave His life for others five hundred times before He attained the vision of the Buddha."&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India."/&gt;<br />
<br />
Though Sister Nivedita expressed her desire to take the ultimate vow of Sannyasa, Swami Vivekananda did not approve of it. Later, after the demise of Swami Vivekananda, on 28 July 1902, Nivedita wrote to the Editor of the ''Statesman'' the following letter:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|... My own position towards this religious treasure is that of the humblest learner, merely a Brahmacharini, or novice, not a Sannyasini or fully professed religious, without any pretentions to Sanskrit learning, and set free by the great kindness of my superiors to pursue my social, literary and educational work and studies, entirely outside their direction and supervision.&lt;ref&gt;''Letters of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I, p. 530&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br />
<br />
Swami Vivekananda was anxious to mold Nivedita as a Hindu Brahmacharini. He wanted her to be a Hindu in thoughts and actions. He encouraged her to visit Hindu ladies to observe their way of life.&lt;ref&gt;Hironmoy N. Mukherjee (2015) ''Swami Vivekananda's Spiritual Daughter: Sister Nivedita''. Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai. p. 11&lt;/ref&gt; He told her:<br />
{{blockquote|You have to set yourself to Hinduize your thoughts, your needs, your conceptions and your habits. Your life, internal and external, has to become all that an orthodox Brahmana Brahmacharini's ought to be. The method will come to you, if only you desire it sufficiently. But you have to forget your own past and to cause it to be forgotten. You have to lose even its memory.&lt;ref&gt;"His Eastern and Western Disciples", in ''The Life of Swami Vivekananda'', 7th ed., Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2011, Vol.II, p. 323. {{ISBN|978-8175050440}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br />
<br />
== Relationship with Sarada Devi ==<br />
[[File:Sarada Devi and Sister Nivedita.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Sarada Devi (left) and Sister Nivedita|alt=Image of Sarada Devi and Sister Nivedita siting]]<br />
Within a few days of her arrival in India, on 17 March 1898, Margaret met [[Sarada Devi]], wife and spiritual consort of Ramakrishna, who, surpassing all language and cultural barriers, embraced her as "khooki" or "little girl" in Bengali.&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India." /&gt; It was [[Saint Patrick|St. Patrick]]'s Day, a very holy and special day in Margaret's life, and Nivedita recounted it as her "day of days."&lt;ref&gt;''Adhyatmasadhika Nivedita'', by Pravrajika Gyanadaprana&lt;/ref&gt; Until her death in 1911, Nivedita remained one of the closest associates of Sarada Devi. On 13 November 1898, the Holy Mother Sarada Devi came to open Nivedita's newly founded school. After worshiping Ramakrishna, she consecrated the school and blessed it, saying: ‘I pray that the blessings of the Divine Mother may be upon the school and the girls; and the girls trained from the school may become ideal girls.' Nivedita was delighted and recorded her feelings later as "I cannot imagine a grander omen than her blessings, spoken over the educated Hindu womanhood of the future."&lt;ref&gt;''Nivedita of India'', published by Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture&lt;/ref&gt; The first photograph of [[Sarada Devi]] was taken at Nivedita's house. Nivedita wrote in a letter to her friend Nell Hammond about Sarada Devi after her first few meetings with her, "She really is, under the simplest, most unassuming guise, one of the strongest and greatest of women."&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.vivekananda.net/LettersOfNivedita.html |title=Letters of Sister Nivedita – Frank Parlato Jr |publisher=Vivekananda.net |date=19 August 1999 |access-date=12 June 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; An excerpt is provided here from the Gospel of Holy Mother, where Sarada Devi's impressions about Nivedita are captured vividly:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Referring to Nivedita, she [Sarada Devi] said, "What sincere devotion Nivedita had! She never considered anything too much that she might do for me. She would often come to see me at night. Once seeing that light struck my eyes, she put a shade of paper on the lamp. She would prostrate herself before me and, with great tenderness, take the dust off my feet with her handkerchief. I felt that she not even hesitated to touch my feet." The thought of Nivedita opened the floodgate of her mind and she suddenly became grave... The Mother now and then expressed her feelings towards the Sister. She said at last, "The inner soul feels for a sincere devotee."&lt;ref&gt;[http://saradadevi.info/GHM_book/p-10.html Gospel of Holy Mother], p. 10&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br />
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== Travels ==<br />
Nivedita travelled to many places in India, including [[Kashmir Valley|Kashmir]], with Swami Vivekananda, [[Josephine MacLeod]], and [[Sara Chapman Bull|Sara Bull]]. This helped her in connecting to the Indian masses, Indian culture, and its history. She also went to the United States to raise awareness and get help for her cause. On 11 May 1898, she went with [[Swami Vivekananda]], Sara Bull, Josephine MacLeod, and [[Turiyananda|Swami Turiyananda]], on a journey to the Himalayas. From [[Nainital]], they travelled to [[Almora]]. On 5 June 1898, she wrote a letter to her friend Nell Hammond exclaiming, "''Oh Nell, Nell, India is indeed the Holy Land''."&lt;ref&gt;''Letters of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I&lt;/ref&gt; In Almora, she first learned the art of meditation. She wrote about this experience, "A mind must be brought to change its centre of gravity... again the open and disinterested state of mind welcomes truth."&lt;ref&gt;Complete Works of Sister Nivedita, volume 1, edited by Sankari Prasad Basu, Nababharat publication, Kolkata, 1992&lt;/ref&gt; She also started learning Bengali from [[Swami Swarupananda]]. From Almora, they went to Kashmir valley, where they stayed in [[houseboat]]s. In the summer of 1898, Nivedita travelled to [[Amarnath Temple|Amarnath]] with Swami Vivekananda.&lt;ref name="The Swami and the Sister"&gt;{{cite web|title=The Swami and the Sister|url=http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/32/RR_swami_and_the_sister.pdf/|publisher=IIAS|access-date=21 June 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later in 1899, she travelled to the United States with Swami Vivekananda&lt;ref name="Banhatti1995"&gt;{{cite book|author=G. S Banhatti|title=Life And Philosophy Of Swami Vivekananda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jK5862eV7_EC&amp;pg=PA39|year=1995|publisher=Atlantic Publishers &amp; Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-291-6|pages=39–}}&lt;/ref&gt; and stayed in Ridgely Manor in upstate New York.<br />
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She later recorded some of her tour and experiences with her master (guru) in the book ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'' and ''Notes on Some Wanderings with Swami Vivekananda''.<br />
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She often used to refer to Swami Vivekananda as "The King" and considered herself as his spiritual daughter (''Manaskanya'' in Bengali).&lt;ref&gt;''Letters of Sister Nivedita''&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
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== Swami Vivekananda's death ==<br />
{{See also|Swami Vivekananda#Death}}<br />
Sister Nivedita saw Swami Vivekananda for the last time on 2 July 1902 at [[Belur Math]].&lt;ref&gt;Linda Prugh (1999) ''Josephine MacLeod and Vivekananda's Mission'', Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai. p. 290&lt;/ref&gt; Vivekananda was observing the Ekadashi fasting on that day. However, when his disciples took their meal, he himself served them joyfully. After the meal, Vivekananda poured water over Nivedita's hands, and dried them with a towel. Nivedita recorded it in ''The Master As I Saw Him'' in the following words:<br />
{{blockquote|"It is I who should do these things for you, Swamiji! Not you, for me!" was the protest naturally offered. But his answer was startling in its solemnity – "[[Jesus]] washed the feet of His disciples!"<br />
Something checked the answer, "But that was the last time!" as it rose to the lips, and the words remained unuttered. This was well. For here also, the last time had come.&lt;ref&gt;''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I, p. 331&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br />
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Swami Vivekananda died at 9:10&amp;nbsp;p.m. on 4 July 1902. On that night, Nivedita dreamed [[Sri Ramakrishna]] was leaving his body a second time.&lt;ref name="Ramakrishna-Vivekananda p.139"&gt;[[#Atmaprana|Atmaprana]], p. 139&lt;/ref&gt; On the next morning, [[Saradananda|Swami Saradananda]] from Belur Math sent a monk with a letter to Sister Nivedita and conveying the message of Vivekananda's death. Instantly everything around Nivedita's eyes became blank. She immediately rushed to the ''Math'' and reached the place around 7{{nbsp}}a.m. and entered the room of Vivekananda. There she found Swamiji's body was laid on the floor. She sat near Vivekananda's head and fanned his body with a hand fan until his body was taken down at 2{{nbsp}}p.m. to the porch leading to the courtyard.&lt;ref name="Ramakrishna-Vivekananda p.139"/&gt;&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India." /&gt;{{rp|34}} In the afternoon of 5 July, Swami Vivekananda's body was taken for cremation. Vivekananda's body was wrapped in a saffron cloth. Nivedita wished to take a small portion of that cloth so that she could send it as a memento to [[Josephine MacLeod]]. Understanding the mind of Nivedita Swami Saradananda asked her to cut a small portion of the Swami's cloth. But, Nivedita was unsure whether the act would be proper or not and decided not to take it. When Vivekananda's body was being cremated, she sat all the while looking at the burning pyre. Around six o'clock in the evening, the burning flame was about to go out. Suddenly, Nivedita felt somebody had pulled her sleeve. She turned around and found a small piece of saffron cloth which had somehow come out of the pyre during cremation. Nivedita lifted and took the cloth, considering it as a message from the Swami. In her letter to Josephine MacLeod on 14 September 1902, Nivedita wrote:<br />
{{blockquote|...But your real message came at the burning pyre itself... At 6 o'clock... as if I were twitched by the sleeve, I looked down, and there, safe out of all that burning and blackness, there blew to my feet the very two or three inches I had desired out of the border of the cloth. I took it as a Letter from Him to you, from beyond the grave.&lt;ref&gt;''Letters of Sister Nivedita'', Vol. I, #207, pp. 504–506&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br />
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== Works of Sister Nivedita ==<br />
[[File:Sister Nivedita reading a book.png|right|thumb|Sister Nivedita, reading a book]]<br />
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=== Girls' school in Bagbazar ===<br />
{{See also|Ramakrishna Sarada Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School}}<br />
Nivedita was planning to open a school for girls who were deprived of even basic education.&lt;ref name="Chaudhuri1992"&gt;{{cite book|author=Nupur Chaudhuri|title=Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-jH6LEPVn80C&amp;pg=PA125|year=1992|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-20705-0|page=125}}&lt;/ref&gt; She toured England and America on a lecture tour designed to raise money to establish a girls' school.&lt;ref name="Rappaport2001 bio"/&gt;<br />
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The main reason why Swamiji invited Nivedita to India was to spread education to the women of the country. This is why, when Nivedita informed Vivekananda about her planning, he felt very excited. He organised a meeting at [[Balaram Bose]]'s house on this issue. Many lay devotees of Sri Ramakrishna, including [[Mahendranath Gupta]] (popularly known as Sri M., the chronicler of ''[[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]''), Suresh Dutta, Haramohan etc. attended this meeting. In this meeting, Nivedita explained her plan of the proposed school and requested everyone to send their girls to the school to study. During her speech, Vivekananda entered the room and took a seat behind everyone. Nivedita did not notice it. But, when Nivedita appealed to collect girl students for the school, she suddenly discovered Vivekananda in the room pushing others and prompting – "Ye, get up, get up! It's not good enough to just become girls' fathers. All of you must co-operate in the matter of their education as per national ideals. Stand up and commit. Reply to her appeal. Say, 'We all agree. We shall send our girls to you." But no one stood up to support Nivedita's proposal. Finally, Vivekananda forced Haramohan to agree to the proposal and behalf of Haramohan, Vivekananda promised to send his girls to the school.&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India." /&gt;{{rp|21–22}}<br />
[[File:Sister Nivedita home morum.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A memorial plaque in the house of Bagbazar where Sister Nivedita started her school]]<br />
On 13 November 1898, on the day of ''[[Kali Puja]]'', at 16 Bosepara Lane in the Bagbazar area of North Calcutta, she started the school.&lt;ref name="Restoration bid for Sister Nivedita's house faces hurdle"&gt;{{cite news|title=Restoration bid for Sister Nivedita's house faces hurdle|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-24/kolkata/29809572_1_elderly-couple-heritage-building-house|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911005138/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-24/kolkata/29809572_1_elderly-couple-heritage-building-house|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2011|access-date=5 October 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=24 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; The school was inaugurated by Sarada Devi, in the presence of Swami Vivekananda and some of the other disciples of Ramakrishna.&lt;ref name="The School's Ideals"&gt;{{cite web|title=The School's Ideals|url=https://sisterniveditagirlsschool.org/grandhistory_inside.html|publisher=RKSM Sister Nivedita Girls School|access-date=9 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sarada Devi blessed and prayed for the school saying – "I pray that the blessings of the Divine Mother may be upon the school and the girls; and the girls trained from the school may become ideal girls."&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India." /&gt;{{rp|22}}Nivedita went from home to home in educating girls, many of whom were in pitiable condition owing to the socio-economic condition of early 20th century India. In many cases, she encountered refusal from the male members of the girl's family. Nivedita had widows and adult women among her students. She taught sewing, elementary rules of hygiene, nursing, etc., apart from regular courses.<br />
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Collecting money for the school was not an easy task. She had to earn money from her writings and giving lectures, and later she spent all to meet the expenses of the school.&lt;ref name="Nivedita of India." /&gt;{{rp|14}}<br />
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She took part in altruistic activities. She worked to improve the lives of Indian women of all castes.<br />
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=== Work during plague epidemic ===<br />
During the outbreak of a [[Third plague pandemic#Political impact in colonial India|plague epidemic in Calcutta in 1899]], Nivedita nursed and took care of the patients,&lt;ref name=JonesRyan2007 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India" /&gt; cleaned rubbish from the area, and inspired and motivated many youths to render voluntary service. She inserted appeals for help in the English newspapers and requested for financial support for her plague relief activities.&lt;ref name="Rappaport2001 bio"&gt;{{cite book|author=Helen Rappaport|author-link=Helen Rappaport|title=Encyclopedia of Women Social Reformers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpuSzowmIkgC&amp;pg=PA651|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-101-4|pages=651–}}&lt;/ref&gt; She also organised the day-to-day activities, inspected the work and personally handed over the written instructions for the preventive measures by moving around.<br />
She was a friend to many intellectuals and artists in the [[Bengal]]i community, including [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], [[Abala Bose]], and [[Abanindranath Tagore]]. Later, she took up the cause of [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]]. [[Sri Aurobindo]] was one of her friends as well.&lt;ref name="Chaudhuri1992" /&gt;<br />
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=== Cultivation of Indian culture ===<br />
She took an active interest in promoting Indian history, culture, and science. She actively encouraged Dr. [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], the Indian scientist and philosopher, to pursue original scientific research and helped him financially as well in getting due recognition when he was faced with an indifferent attitude from the colonial government. Bose, whom she called "khoka" or the "little one" in Bengali, and his wife Abala Bose, were in very close terms with her. Keeping in view Nivedita's contribution to the scientific research work of Jagadish Chandra, Rabindranath Tagore said: "In the day of his success, Jagadish gained an invaluable energiser and helper in Sister Nivedita, and in any record of his life's work her name must be given a place of honour." Sister Nivedita was one of the important influences on Jagadish Chandra Bose. She supported him by organising the financial support and editing his manuscripts and made sure that Bose was able to continue with and share his work.<br />
<br />
&lt;ref name="Chatterjee1938"&gt;{{cite book|author=Ramananda Chatterjee|title=The Modern review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QAkFAAAAMAAJ2|year=1938|publisher=Prabasi Press Private, Ltd.|pages=78–79}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her identity as both a westerner by birth and a disciple of Swami Vivekananda enabled her to do several things that might have been difficult for Indians. For example, she promoted pan-Indian nationalism.&lt;ref name="Economic and political weekly"&gt;{{cite book|title=Economic and political weekly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veGwAAAAIAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Sameeksha Trust}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Krishnaraj2012"&gt;{{cite book|author=Maithreyi Krishnaraj|title=Motherhood in India: Glorification Without Empowerment?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFZkVq2vHtkC&amp;pg=PT240|date=23 April 2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-136-51779-2|page=240}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
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=== Contribution towards Indian nationalism ===<br />
{{See also|Aurobindo|Anushilan samiti}}<br />
Nivedita became a prolific writer and toured India extensively to deliver lectures, especially on Indian culture and religions. She appealed to the youth of India to work selflessly for the cause of their country along the ideals of Swami Vivekananda. Before coming to India, Nivedita expressed a positive view towards continued colonial rule in India, a prevailing sentiment amongst her contemporaries in Europe. However, during the course of her time in India, Nivedita grew disillusioned with colonial rule and grew to support the [[Indian independence movement|nascent independence movement]], concluding that it was necessary for India to gain independence to prosper. In February 1902, lawyer (and future leader of the independence movement) [[Mahatma Gandhi|Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] visited Nivedita in Calcutta.&lt;ref&gt;''The Life of Swami Vivekananda'', 7th ed., Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata, 2011, Vol. II, p. 615. {{ISBN|978-8175050440}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
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After Vivekananda's death, being acutely aware of the inconvenience of the newly formed Ramakrishna Mission on account of her political activities, she publicly dissociated herself from it. However, until her last days, she had a very cordial relationship with the brother disciples of Swami Vivekananda like Swami Brahmananda, [[Baburam Maharaj (Swami Premananda)]] and [[Swami Saradananda]], who helped her in her charitable and educational activities in every possible way; she was very close to the holy mother, [[Sarada Devi]].<br />
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Nivedita had initially worked with [[Okakura]] of [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] and [[Sarala Ghoshal]] who was related to the Tagore family.<br />
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She later started working on her own and maintained a direct relationship with many of the young revolutionaries of Bengal, including those of [[Anushilan Samity]], a secret organisation. She inspired many youths in taking up the cause of Indian independence through her lectures. She also attacked [[Lord Curzon]] after his speech at the University of Calcutta in 1905 where he mentioned that truth was given a higher place in the moral codes of the West, than in the East. Nivedita undertook her own research and made it public that in the book ''Problems of The Far East'' by Curzon, he had proudly described how he had given false statements about his age and marriage to the President of the Korean Foreign Office to win his favour. This statement when published in newspapers like ''[[Amrita Bazar Patrika]]'' and ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]'' caused a furore and forced Curzon to apologise.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}<br />
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In 1905, the colonial government, under the direction of Lord Curzon, initiated the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|partition of Bengal]] which proved to be a major turning point in the [[Indian independence movement]]. Nivedita played a pioneering role in organising the movement.&lt;ref name="Sister Nivedita partition of Bengal"&gt;{{cite book|author=Bonnie G. Smith|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFI7tr9XK6EC&amp;pg=RA3-PA52|date=23 January 2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-514890-9|pages=3–}}&lt;/ref&gt; She provided financial and logistical support and leveraged her contacts to get information from government agencies and forewarn independence activists. She met Indian artists like [[Abanindranath Tagore]], [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]] and [[E. B. Havell]] and inspired them to develop a pure Indian school of art. She always inspired and guided the talented students of the Calcutta Art School to move along the forgotten tracks of ancient Indian art like [[Nandalal Bose]], [[Asit Kumar Haldar]] and Surendranath Gangopadhyay. She exerted great influence on the famous Tamil poet, [[Subramania Bharati]], who met her only briefly in 1906. She influenced Bharati to work for the freedom of the women in the country, which he did all through his life. Nivedita had also designed a national flag for India with the thunderbolt as the emblem against a red background.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Margaret Noble to Sister Nivedita, from Wimbledon to Calcutta|url=https://wimbledonsociety.org.uk/museum/wimbledon-stories/margaret-noble/|access-date=2021-11-06|website=The Wimbledon Museum|language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nivedita tried her utmost to inculcate the nationalist spirit in the minds of her students through all their daily activities. She introduced singing of the song [[Vande Mataram]] in her school as a prayer. Nivedita provided guarded support to [[Annie Besant]] and was very close to [[Aurobindo Ghosh]] (later Sri Aurobindo), one of the major contributors towards the early nationalist movement. She edited ''Karma Yogin'', the nationalist newspaper of Aurobindo.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Sister Nivedita – Auroville Wiki|url=https://wiki.auroville.org.in/w/index.php?title=Sister_Nivedita#cite_note-9|access-date=2021-11-06|website=wiki.auroville.org.in}}&lt;/ref&gt; The following piece is from an editorial in ''Karma Yogin'', written by Nivedita, which depicts her intense respect for India:<br />
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{{blockquote|The whole history of the world shows that the Indian intellect is second to none. This must be proved by the performance of a task beyond the power of others, the seizing of the first place in the intellectual advance of the world. Is there any inherent weakness that would make it impossible for us to do this? Are the countrymen of [[Bhaskaracharya]] and [[Shankaracharya]] inferior to the countrymen of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]? We trust not. It is for us, by the power of our thought, to break down the iron walls of opposition that confront us, and to seize and enjoy the intellectual sovereignty of the world.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.srichinmoylibrary.com/books/0945/2/11 The Spiritual Daughter Of Swami Vivekananda]. srichinmoylibrary.com&lt;/ref&gt;}}<br />
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[[File:Blessings to Nivedita.jpg|thumb|Manuscript of "Blessings to Nivedita" a poem written by Swami Vivekananda in his own handwriting&lt;ref name="Swami Vivekananda, poetic visionary"&gt;{{cite book|last=Chakrabarti|first=Mohit|title=Swami Vivekananda, poetic visionary|year=1998|publisher=M.D. Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7533-075-9|page=80}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]<br />
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== Death ==<br />
Nivedita died on 13 October 1911, aged 43, at [[Roy Villa]], Darjeeling (present-day [[West Bengal]], India).&lt;ref name="Revamp plea for Sister Nivedita’s last abode" /&gt; Today, her memorial is located below the Railway station on the way to the Victoria Falls (of Darjeeling)&lt;ref name="Sister Nivedita's epitaph"&gt;{{cite web|title=Sister Nivedita's epitaph|url=http://darjeeling.gov.in/visitors.html|publisher=Darjeeling Government|access-date=9 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; with these words inscribed in her epitaph: "Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India".&lt;ref name="Here lies Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Revamp plea for Sister Nivedita’s last abode"&gt;{{cite news|title=Revamp plea for Sister Nivedita's last abode|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111028/jsp/siliguri/story_14675895.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031103934/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111028/jsp/siliguri/story_14675895.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 October 2011|access-date=5 October 2012|newspaper=Telegraph, Calcutta|date=28 October 2011|location=Calcutta, India|first=Avijit|last=Sinha}}&lt;/ref&gt; Swami Vivekananda wrote a poem to Sister Nivedita, ''A benediction to Sister Nivedita''. In this poem, Vivekananda condensed all his hopes, aspirations, and good wishes for his disciple,&lt;ref&gt;Sister Nivedita, 118&lt;/ref&gt; Nivedita as ''The mistress, servant, friend in one to India's future son'':&lt;ref name="Chakrabarti1998"&gt;{{cite book|author=Mohit Chakrabarti|title=Swami Vivekananda, Poetic Visionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvsRcML8Ki4C&amp;pg=PA80|date=1998|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-7533-075-7|pages=80–}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;poem&gt;<br />
The mother's heart, the hero's will<br />
The sweetness of the southern breeze,<br />
The sacred charm and strength that dwell<br />
On Aryan altars, flaming, free;<br />
All these be yours and many more<br />
No ancient soul could dream before-<br />
Be thou to India's future son<br />
The mistress, servant, friend in one.<br />
&lt;/poem&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;<br />
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== Influence ==<br />
[[File:BRKM Nivedita Bhawan name plaque.jpg|thumb|Name plaque of Nivedita Bhawan at [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]]]]<br />
Sister Nivedita remains one of the most influential female figures of India. Her book ''Kali, the Mother'' influenced [[Abanindranath Tagore]] who painted [[Bharat Mata]].&lt;ref name="Not Earth's Girl"&gt;{{cite news|title=Not Earth's Girl|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111023/jsp/opinion/story_14651226.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425064334/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111023/jsp/opinion/story_14651226.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 April 2014|access-date=5 October 2012|newspaper=Telegraph, Calcutta|date=23 October 2011|location=Calcutta, India|first=Arindam|last=Chakrabarti}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2010, the office of the board of [[West Bengal Board of Secondary Education]] in [[Salt Lake City, Kolkata|Salt Lake City]], Kolkata was named after Sister Nivedita.&lt;ref name="Madhyamik to breach million mark"&gt;{{cite news|title=Madhyamik to breach million mark|newspaper=Telegraph Calcutta|date=19 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Sister Nivedita Academy, an institution dedicated to her memory has been established in [[Chennai]], Tamil Nadu.&lt;ref name="Sister Nivedita Academy"&gt;{{cite web|title=Sister Nivedita Academy|url=https://sribharatamatamandir.org/word/?page_id=48|access-date=5 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several schools and colleges have been named after her. In 1968, the Indian Government issued a postal stamp in her memory. The Nivedita bridge near [[Dakshineswar]], Kolkata is named in her honour.&lt;ref name="Sister Nivedita commemorative stamp"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Color/Blue%20Green/SISTER%20NIVEDITA|title=Sister Nivedita commemorative stamp|publisher=Indian Post|access-date=12 October 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2015, a new Government Degree College at Hastings House, Alipur, Kolkata was named after Sister Nivedita.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title = Mamata Banerjee lays foundation for Soujanya|url = http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-07-16/news/64495421_1_mamata-banerjee-foundation-stone-hyderabad-house |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150929085608/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-07-16/news/64495421_1_mamata-banerjee-foundation-stone-hyderabad-house |url-status = dead |archive-date = 29 September 2015 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=12 September 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, the higher secondary section school building of [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]] at Kolkata was named after Sister Nivedita as "Nivedita Bhawan".&lt;ref name=NiveditaBhawan&gt;{{cite web|url=https://media.belurmath.org/inauguration-of-nivedita-bhavan-baranagar-may-2018-1900|title=Inauguration Of Nivedita Bhavan, Baranagar RKM|date=24 January 2020|access-date=17 August 2021|publisher=[[Belur Math]]|website=belurmath.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
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== Books ==<br />
[[File:Cradle Tales of Hinduism title page.jpg|thumb|Title page of Sister's 1913 book ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'']]<br />
Her works included ''[[The Web of Indian Life]]'', which sought to rectify many myths in the Western world about Indian culture and customs, ''[[Kali the Mother (book)|Kali the Mother]]'', ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'' on Swami Vivekananda, ''[[Notes of Some Wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda]]'' on her travels from Nainital, Almora and other places with Swamiji,&lt;ref name="Travel with Swami Vivekananda from Nainital to Almora"&gt;{{cite book|author=Adwaita P. Ganguly|title=Life and Times of Netaji Subhas: From Cuttack to Cambridge, 1897–1921|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbdgnHO6NgQC&amp;pg=PA35|date=1 December 2001|publisher=VRC Publications|isbn=978-81-87530-02-2|pages=35–}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'' on the stories from [[Puranas]], [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], ''[[Studies from an Eastern Home]]'', ''Civil Ideal and Indian Nationality, Hints on National Education in India'', ''Glimpses of Famine and Flood in East Bengal – 1906''.<br />
* [[Kali the Mother (book)|''Kali the Mother'']], Swan Sonnenschein &amp; Co.,. 1900.<br />
* ''[[The Web of Indian Life]]'', W. Heinemann 1904<br />
* ''[[Cradle Tales of Hinduism]]'', Longmans 1907<br />
* ''[[An Indian Study of Love and Death]]'', Longmans, Green &amp; Co.,<br />
* ''[[The Master as I Saw Him]]'', 1910<br />
* ''[[Select essays of Sister Nivedita]]'', 1911 Ganesh &amp; Co.,<br />
* ''[[Studies from an Eastern Home]]'', Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1913<br />
* ''[[Myths of the Hindus &amp; Buddhists]]'', London : George G. Harrap &amp; Co., 1913<br />
* ''[[Notes of some wanderings with the Swami Vivekananda]]'', 1913<br />
* ''[[Footfalls of Indian History]]'', Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1915<br />
* ''[[Religion and Dharma]]'', Longmans, Green, and Co., 1915<br />
* {{cite book | title=Civic &amp; national ideals. |publisher = Udbodhan Office |year=1929}}<br />
<br />
A newly annotated edition of ''The Ancient Abbey of Ajanta'', that was serialised in ''[[Modern Review (Calcutta)|The Modern Review]]'' during 1910 and 1911, was published in 2009 by Lalmati, Kolkata, with annotations, additions, and photographs by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul. Another collection of essays relating to Buddhism has been published by New Age Publishers of Kolkata titled ''Studies in Buddhism'', that has been compiled and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul.<br />
<br />
=== ''Biographies'' ===<br />
<br />
In 1952, Ramakrishna Mission Sister Nivedita Girls' School during its Golden Jubilee Celebration, decided to bring out a biography of Sister Nivedita in English and Bengali.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://archive.org/details/dedicatedabiogra006956mbp/page/n7/mode/2up |title= The Dedicated: A Biography of Nivedita' by Lizelle Reymond (online copy) |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date= |website= Oxford University Press |publisher= |access-date= September 22, 2025 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Though there were some biographies in English and Bengali before this, they lack in historical facts. The historical account of Sister Nivedita's life in Bengali was written by Pravrajika Muktiprana of Sri Sarada Math and was published in 1959.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0242.xml#:~:text=This%20is%20a%20work%20that,included%2C%20would%20have%20been%20useful |title= Sister Nivedita |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date= |website= Oxford University Press |publisher= |access-date= September 22, 2025 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The materials for the biographies were sourced from Sister Nivedita's own works, letters and diaries, references made to her by some of her contemporaries, and interviews with those who had worked with her and her own students. Later, in 1961, the English version of the book written by Pravrajika Atmaprana was published as ''Sister Nivedita of Ramakrishna-Vivekananda''. Since then, the books had seen several revisions.<br />
<br />
''Letters of Sister Nivedita'' were first published in two volumes in 1960. There were more than 800 letters, half of which were written to Miss [[Josephine MacLeod]]. These letters vibrant with her thoughts and feelings cast a lot of light on the versatile genius of Nivedita.<br />
<br />
In 1975, Barbara Fox published in London a biography of Sister Nivedita titled ''Long Journey Home''; this work attempts to gauge Nivedita's work from an English woman's point of view.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://www.vifindia.org/print/4826?via=Azure |title= Obituary: Pravrajika Atmaprana, Biographer of Sister Nivedita, Passes Away in Delhi |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date= |website= VIF India |publisher= |access-date= September 22, 2025 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt; <br />
<br />
''Nivedita Lokmata'' in Bengali was published in three volumes by [[Sankari Prasad Basu]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.18782/page/n7/mode/2up |title= "Letters of Sister Nivedita, Volume One" (online copy) |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date= 1960|website= Internet Archive |publisher= |access-date= September 22, 2025 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt; <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* ''[[Bhagini Nivedita (film)|Bhagini Nivedita]]'', 1962 Indian film directed by Bijoy Basu<br />
*[[Sister Nivedita University]]<br />
*[[Bhagini Nivedita College]]<br />
*[[Bhagini Nivedita Gramin Vigyan Niketan]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Cited sources==<br />
* {{cite book|ref=Atmaprana|author=Atmaprana, Pravrajika |year=1992|orig-year=1961|title=Sister Nivedita of Ramakrishna-Vivekananda|publisher=Sister Nivedita Girls' School, Calcutta }}<br />
* ''Letters of Sister Nivedita'' [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98907 Vol. 1] [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98908/page/n7 Vol. 2]. Basu, Sankari Prasad (Ed.). 1960. Nababharat Publishers.<br />
* ''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita''<br />
*: Volume 1: ''The Master as I Saw Him''; ''Notes of Some Wanderings''; Kedar Nath and Bhadri Narayan; ''Kali the Mother''. {{ISBN|978-81-8040-458-0}}<br />
*: Volume 2: ''The Web of Indian Life''; An Indian Study of Love and Death; ''Studies from an Eastern Home''; Lectures and Articles. {{ASIN|B003XGBYHG}}<br />
*: Volume 3: Indian Art; Cradle Tales of Hinduism; Religion and Dharma; Aggressive Hinduism. {{ISBN|978-1-177-78247-0}}<br />
*: Volume 4: ''Footfalls of Indian History''; Civic Ideal and Indian Nationality; Hints on National Education in India; Lambs Among Wolves. {{ASIN|B0010HSR48}}<br />
*: Volume 5: On Education; On Hindu Life, Thought and Religion; On Political, Economic and Social Problems; Biographical Sketches and Reviews. {{ASIN|B0000D5LXI}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* {{Cite book | last = Bakshi | first = S. R. | year = 2000 | title = Sister Nivedita: Pioneer in Missionaries Work | publisher = Om Publications | location = Faridabad, India | page = 286 | isbn = 978-81-86867-38-9}}<br />
* {{Cite book | editor-last = Basu | editor-first = Sankari Prasad | year = 1982 | title = Letters of Sister Nivedita | publisher = Nababharat Publishers | oclc = 12553314 | location = Calcutta, India}}<br />
* {{Cite book | last = Bhattacharya | first = Alak | year = 2010 | publisher = Northern Book Centre | location = New Delhi | page = 135 | isbn = 978-81-7211-286-8 | title = Nivedita: Synthesis of East and West}}<br />
* {{Cite book | last = Chakravarty | first = Basudha | year = 1975 | title = Sister Nivedita | publisher = [[National Book Trust of India]] | location = New Delhi | page = 84 | oclc = 2345534}}<br />
* {{Cite book | last = Ghosh | first = Biplab Ranjan | year = 2001 | title = Sister Nivedita and the Indian Renaissance | publisher = Progressive | location = Kolkata (Calcutta, India) | page = 120 | isbn = 978-81-86383-48-3}}<br />
* {{Cite book | last = Gupta | first = Indra | year = 2003 | title = India's 50 Most Illustrious Women | publisher = Icon Publications | location = New Delhi | isbn = 978-81-88086-03-0}} Chapter 23 "Sister Nivedita"<br />
* {{Cite book | editor-last = Pruthi| editor-first = Raj| editor2-last = Devi | editor2-first = Rameshwari | editor3-last = Pruthi | editor3-first = Romila | year = 2003 | title = Sister Nivedita: Social Revolutionary | publisher = Pointer | location = Jaipur, India | page = 262 | oclc = 55122190}}<br />
* {{Cite book | author = Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture | year =2002 | title = Nivedita of India | publisher = Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture | location = Kolkata (Calcutta, India) | page = 98 | isbn = 978-81-87332-20-6}}<br />
* {{Cite book | last = Reymond | first = Lizelle | year = 1953 | title = The Dedicated, A Biography of Nivedita | publisher = John Day Company | location = New York | oclc = 1513282}}<br />
* {{Cite book | last = Roy | first = Sohinee | year = 2007 | title = Sister Nivedita: A Passion for India | publisher = Rupa &amp; Co. | location = New Delhi | page = 61 | isbn = 978-81-291-1200-2}}<br />
* Som, Reba (2017). ''Margot: Sister Nivedita of Swami Vivekananda''. Penguin Random House India Private Limited. p.&amp;nbsp;336. {{ISBN|9386651572}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{sisterlinks|s=Author:Sister Nivedita|wikt=no|v=no|n=no|b=no}}<br />
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026210528/http://www.geocities.com/neovedanta/a76.html |date=26 October 2009 |title=Sister Nivedita and Vivekananda }}<br />
* [https://archive.org/details/The.Complete.Works.of.Sister.Nivedita ''The Complete Works of Sister Nivedita'' – 5 Volumes] (Free Download Pdf &amp; Djvu) at [[Archive.org]]<br />
* {{Librivox author |id=17401}}<br />
<br />
{{Sister Nivedita}}<br />
{{Swami Vivekananda}}<br />
{{Modern Hindu writers}}<br />
{{Indian Independence Movement}}<br />
{{Portal bar|Hinduism|India|Religion}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nivedita, Sister}}<br />
[[Category:Sister Nivedita| ]]<br />
[[Category:1867 births]]<br />
[[Category:1911 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:People from County Tyrone]]<br />
[[Category:Irish people of Scottish descent]]<br />
[[Category:Converts to Hinduism from Catholicism]]<br />
[[Category:Irish Hindus]]<br />
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[[Category:20th-century Hindus]]<br />
[[Category:Irish women writers]]<br />
[[Category:Founders of Indian schools and colleges]]<br />
[[Category:Disciples and friends of Swami Vivekananda]]<br />
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[[Category:20th-century Indian nuns]]<br />
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[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]<br />
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[[Category:Writers from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Monastic disciples of Swami Vivekananda]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Indian educational theorists]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Indian women educational theorists]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian educational theorists]]<br />
[[Category:Women writers from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Women educators from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Social workers from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Women mystics]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Indian women educators]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Indian educators]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian women educators]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian educators]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Indian nuns]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minoti_Vaishnav&diff=517750Minoti Vaishnav2026-03-09T04:56:55Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating new entry - done</p>
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<div>{{short description|American songwriter}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Minoti Vaishnav<br />
| image = MinotiVaishnavPhoto.jpg<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_place = [[Bombay]], [[Maharashtra]], India<br />
| years_active = 2008–Present<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Minoti Vaishnav''' is an Indian–born American screenwriter, songwriter, and entertainment producer.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|last1=IMDB|title=Minoti Vaishnav on IMDB|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm5359205/|website=IMDB}}</ref> Born in [[Mumbai]], she moved to [[Los Angeles]] at the age of 19, leaving her family back in India. At 22 she produced her first album "The Fictional Truth", with her first single "Psychologist" getting several thousands of downloads online. In 2012 she graduated from [[California State University Northridge]] and released her second album "Secret Garden" in 2013. In 2018, she attended [[University of Oxford]] where she earned a Masters degree in Creative Writing.<br />
<br />
In spite of not being signed to a label, the music video for her single "So Will You" went semi-viral on YouTube with over 100,000 views (a significant number for the time) <ref>{{cite web|last1=Thompson|first1=Stephen Manoj|title=Minoti Vaishnav|url=http://openbeast.com/5143|website=Open Beast Magazine}}</ref> and her songs have played on radio stations across the U.S, U.K, Canada, Singapore and Denmark.<ref name=":0" /> In 2015, she released her third album "Mix It Up".<br />
<br />
On the film and television front, Minoti worked for the International Documentary Association and on [[HBO]]'s [[Emmy]] nominated documentary ''American Winter'' (2013). She wrote and produced projects such as ''3 Orbs of Light'' (2011) and ''Being Independent'' (2015).<ref name=":1">{{cite web|last1=Films|first1=Prophecy Girl|title=Prophecy Girl Films|url=http://www.prophecygirlfilms.com|website=Prophecy Girl Films|publisher=PGF}}</ref> Minoti has also developed and composed music for [[Alexis Krasilovsky]]'s Award-winning documentary ''Let Them Eat Cake'' (2014), and has worked in production and development at various production companies.<ref name=":1"/> In 2020, she was hired as a staff writer on [[The Equalizer (2021 TV series)]] starring Queen Latifah.<ref name="directories.wga.org">{{cite web |last1=WGA |title=Writers Guild of America, Minoti Vaishnav |url=https://directories.wga.org/member/f8e6bcf8-bf6e-4612-85b8-2e3953232c21/ |website=WGA Directory}}</ref> In 2022 and 2023, Minoti was a writer on [[True Lies (TV series)]]<ref name="directories.wga.org"/>. In 2024 she produced Someone is Killing the Wolfhounds<ref>{{Cite web |title=Someone Is Killing The Wolfhounds |url=https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/someone-is-killing-the-wolfhounds/id1745176184 |access-date=2026-02-22 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref>, a limited podcast series for Voyage Media. The series went to #1 on the Apple Fiction Podcast Charts. In 2025, she wrote all 8 episodes of season 1 of The Mind Doctor<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mind Doctor |url=https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/the-mind-doctor/id1827341560 |access-date=2026-02-22 |website=Apple Podcasts |language=en-US}}</ref>, a scripted medial procedural series. The series went to #2 on the Apple Drama Podcast Charts. As of 2026, Minoti is developing television, film and podcast projects for various studios and platforms. She also has two short fiction pieces slated for publication in 2026 and early 2027.<br />
<br />
==Music career==<br />
<br />
Minoti began writing songs at 11 years old and recorded her first professional demo at age 13. She learned how to play the guitar by ear,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Riteman|first1=Tamara|title=A New Star To Watch|url=https://indiescenemag.wordpress.com/2013/04/13/a-new-singersongwriter-to-watch/|website=Indie Scene Magazine|date=13 April 2013|publisher=Wordpress}}</ref> and at 16, she bought a keyboard and started taking professional vocal training as well as theory and ear training classes. With much help from her father, she started recording demos at home. Her first unofficial CD included the songs "Keep Track", "Promises" and "This is How I Feel" which were minor hits on Indie Artist website stereofame.com in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Radio|first1=Sean|title=SeanRadioLive|url=http://seanradio.com/pop/minoti/|website=Sean Radio|accessdate=June 23, 2015}}</ref> [[File:MinotiPromoPhoto.png|thumb|Promo Photo from "Mix It Up"]]<br />
<br />
In 2010, Minoti released her first album, "The Fictional Truth" and dropped her last name as an artist. The album is a raw indie-pop album with mostly live, acoustic songs. The album was released on August 1, 2010. Minoti wrote and composed every single song on the album, with writing help from her cousins Farah Sheth and Vivek Vaishnav on the songs "Coffee" and "Tin Man".<ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=Music|url=http://www.minotimusic.com/#!media/c1e6o|website=Minoti Music|publisher=PGF}}</ref> Seven out of eight of the songs were recorded in a home studio and were released with virtually no sound tweaking or editing.<ref name=":2"/> The only studio-produced track on the album, Psychologist, was an instant hit on Stereofame.com, which was one of the biggest platforms for indie artists at the time.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lam|first1=Hannah|title=Former OCC Student Makes Her Move in the Music Industry|publisher=Coast Report|date=September 12, 2012}}</ref><br />
<br />
Minoti crowdfunded her second album on [[Kickstarter]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shortall|first1=Andrew|title=Funding the dream|agency=Huntington Beach Independent|publisher=Huntington Beach Independent|date=December 12, 2012}}</ref> The album, "Secret Garden", is also raw indie-pop album, but includes a 90's alternative vibe. The album was released on March 4, 2013. Songs from the album – particularly "So Will You", "Nothing Inside" and "Secret Garden" have been played on radio stations all over the world – from the U.K to Singapore.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|title=About Minoti|url=http://www.minotimusic.com/#!about/c1p5v|website=Minoti Music|publisher=PGF}}</ref> The music video for the first single, "So Will You", received over 100,000 video views in its first few weeks of release.<ref>{{cite web|title=YouTube – Minoti – So Will You|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fh1egHX2TaU|website=YouTube}}</ref> Indie critical reception was favorable. Music blog RippleMusic called "Secret Garden" "as catchy as the ebola virus" and stated that "Minoti's voice is understated and the music moves with a clever coolness".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Severin|first1=T|title=The Ripple Effect Reviews|url=http://ripplemusic.blogspot.com/2013/08/single-life-touch-of-pop-featuring.html|website=The Ripple Effect|publisher=Blogger}}</ref> The album entered the Top 10 on Gashouse Radio in the #9 spot, and was featured on [[KALX]] Berkeley's "Next Big Thing".<br />
<br />
On September 8, 2015, Minoti released "Mix It Up". The album garnered over 100,000 streams, a high number for an unknown indie artist in the pre-Instagram and TikTok world. Minoti left the music world behind for a film & television career soon after the release of this album. <ref>{{cite web|last1=Vaishnav|first1=Minoti|title=Announcing My Third Album! Mix It Up Will Be Available Online September 8th 2015|url=http://www.minotimusic.com/#!ANNOUNCING-MY-THIRD-ALBUM-MIX-IT-UP-WILL-BE-AVAILABLE-ONLINE-SEPT-8TH-2015/c12ss/55bd05e30cf267673a8033a6|website=Official Website Blog}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Discography===<br />
<br />
{{Discography list<br />
| Type = Album<br />
| Name = Mix It Up<br />
| Released = September 8, 2015<br />
| Tracks = 10<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Discography list<br />
| Type = Album<br />
| Name = Secret Garden<br />
| Released = March 4, 2013<br />
| Tracks = 10<br />
| Singles = "So Will You"<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Discography list<br />
| Type = Album<br />
| Name = The Fictional Truth<br />
| Released = August 1, 2010<br />
| Tracks = 8<br />
| Singles = "Psychologist"<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Film and television career==<br />
[[File:MinotiMixItUp.jpg|thumb|left|Minoti in a 2015 promo photo]]<br />
<br />
In 2013, Minoti started Prophecy Girl Films, a company that is "a hybrid between a marketing company and a production company".<ref name="Prophecy Girl Films">{{cite web|title=Prophecy Girl Films|url=http://www.prophecygirlfilms.com|website=Prophecy Girl Films|publisher=PGF}}</ref> Company services include script development, marketing, social media, public relations and on-site production for film, television, books, and music.<ref name="Prophecy Girl Films"/><br />
<br />
Minoti's television work as a producer includes [[Hunting Hitler]] (History Channel), [[JFK Declassified: Tracking Oswald]] (History Channel), [[Legends of the Lost with Megan Fox]] (Travel Channel), [[Rise of Empires: Ottoman]] (Netflix) and many others.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
Minoti is a member of the [[Writers Guild of America West]], [[The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]], [[Broadcast Music Inc.]] and the [[Phi Beta Delta (honor society)|Phi Beta Delta]] International Honor Society. She is represented by TFC Management.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*{{IMDb name|5359205}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaishnav, Minoti}}<br />
[[Category:1987 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Writers from Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Musicians from Los Angeles]]<br />
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Jai Hind College alumni]]<br />
[[Category:California State University, Northridge alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford]]<br />
[[Category:American women songwriters]]<br />
[[Category:American women screenwriters]]<br />
[[Category:American expatriates in India]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century American women]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Choona&diff=494430Choona2026-03-04T15:44:21Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Created New Stub...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|2023 netflix Heist comedy series}}<br />
{{About|the television series|the chemical|calcium hydroxide}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox television<br />
| image = Choona TV series poster.jpg<br />
| genre = [[Heist film|Heist]] [[comedy]]<br>[[Thriller film|Thriller]]<br />
| creator = Pushpendra Nath Misra<br />
| writer = <br />
| narrator = [[Arshad Warsi]]<br />
| screenplay = <br />
| story = <br />
| director = Pushpendra Nath Misra<br />
| starring = [[Jimmy Shergill]]<br>[[Aashim Gulati]]<br>Vikram Kochhar<br>[[Namit Das]]<br>[[Chandan Roy]]<br>Gyanendra Tripathi<br>Monika Panwar<br>Niharika Lyra Dutt<br />
| music = [[Dhruv Ghanekar]]<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Hindi<br />
| producer = <br />
| executive_producer = Sonali Bhatia<br />Pushpendra Nath Misra<br />
| cinematography = Will Humphris<br>Aditya Kapur<br />
| editor = [[Aarti Bajaj]]<br />
| num_seasons = 1<br />
| num_episodes = 8<br />
| runtime = 34–52 minutes<br />
| company = Flying Saucer<br />
| network = [[Netflix]]<br />
| released = {{Start date|2023|09|29|df=y}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Choona''''' is an Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[Heist film|heist]] [[comedy]] [[Thriller film|thriller]] television series streaming on [[Netflix]]. Created, written and directed by Pushpendra Nath Misra and produced by Flying Saucer, the series stars [[Jimmy Shergill]], [[Aashim Gulati]], Vikram Kochhar, [[Namit Das]], [[Chandan Roy]], Gyanendra Tripathi, Monika Panwar and Niharika Lyra Dutt.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-11 |title=Jimmy Sheirgill-led heist comedy-drama Choona to premiere on Netflix on August 3, 2023|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/jimmy-sheirgill-led-heist-comedy-drama-choona-premiere-netflix-august-3-2023/|access-date=2023-07-12 |website=Bollywood Hungama|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=jimmy-shergills choona to release on netflix on this date|url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/news/jimmy-shergills-choona-to-release-on-netflix-on-this-date|website=Film Companion|date=11 July 2023 }}</ref><br />
<br />
The series premiered on 29 September 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Choona': Jimmy Shergill-starrer series gets new release date|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/ott/choona-jimmy-shergill-starrer-series-gets-new-release-date-know-more-2023-09-01-890128|website=India TV|date=1 September 2023 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Premise ==<br />
When an unlikely group of misfits discover a common enemy in the form of the ruthless yet superstitious politician, Avinash Shukla, they plot a heist to exact revenge.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-07-12|title=Jimmy Shergill's heist comedy 'Choona' to premier on Netflix in August|language=en-IN |work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/jimmy-shergills-heist-comedy-choona-to-premier-on-netflix-in-august/articleshow/101682152.cms|access-date=2023-07-12}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
* [[Jimmy Shergill]] as Avinash Shukla, President of "Swacch Samaj Party"<br />
* [[Aashim Gulati]] as Yakub Ansari Sheikh<br />
* [[Vikram Kochhar]] as Contractor JP<br />
* Monika Panwar as Bela<br />
* [[Namit Das]] as Triloki<br />
* [[Chandan Roy]] as Bishnu<br />
* Gyanendra Tripathi as Baankey<br />
* Niharika Lyra Dutt as Jhumpa<br />
* Kishor Chandra as Shrivastav <br />
* Atul Srivastava as Pandit Upadhyay<br />
* Harpreet Bindra as Madan Singh<ref>{{Cite web |title=Choona Webseries: Review and Story |url=https://kissu.in/choona-webseries-review-and-story/ |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=Kissu |date=4 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref><br />
* Amit Sinha as Asthana<br />
* Dheerendra Dwivedi as Sameer Kushwaha alias Mintu Grenade alias Mintu Bhai<br />
* Vaibhav Mehta as Arunoday<br />
* Jay Mukunda as Kishor Chaurasiya<br />
* [[Arshad Warsi]] as The Narrator<br />
<br />
== Production ==<br />
<br />
=== Development ===<br />
The series was officially announced in 2021 by Netflix media press release.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jimmy Shergill says 'ab sabko lagega Choona' as he announces heist comedy drama series release date<br />
|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/entertainment/jimmy-shergill-says-ab-sabko-lagega-choona-as-he-announces-heist-comedy-drama-series-release-date-524781|access-date=2023-07-12 |website=The Tribune |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Release ==<br />
The series was premiered on 29 September 2023 on Netflix.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Will He Get The Girl In This?', Fans React As Jimmy Shergill Announces His Next Series Choona|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/entertainment/binge/will-he-get-the-girl-in-this-fans-react-as-jimmy-shergill-announces-his-next-series-choona-608764.html|access-date=2023-07-12 |website=India Times |date=12 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jimmy Shergill headlines Netflix's new heist drama Choona will premiere on Netflix on August 3, 2023.|website=OTT Play|url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/choona-announcement-jimmy-shergill-headlines-netflixs-new-heist-drama/209886c730956|access-date=2023-07-12|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-12 |title=New Web Series Choona: सबको 'चूना' लगाएंगे जिमी शेरगिल, 3 अगस्त को इस OTT प्लेटफॉर्म पर रिलीज होगी वेब सीरीज|website=Navbharat Times|url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/entertainment/web-series/latest/jimmy-shergill-announces-his-new-web-series-choona-to-stream-on-netflix-on-august-3-watch-video/articleshow/101664259.cms|access-date=2023-07-12|language=hi}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Reception==<br />
"Choona" received mixed responses from the critics. Pratikshya Mishra from [[The Quint]] wrote in her review that "The underlying quirkiness of Choona occasionally detracts from the lengthy explication. I was unsure if the constant introduction of new characters would become old, but amazingly, it doesn't. In the great scheme of things, every narrative unfolds like a distinct set piece and is presented effectively. Choona is a programme whose setting is far more attractive than its finale".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/choona-netflix-full-series-review-jimmy-sheirgill-political-drama-satire|title='Choona' Review: A Magnificent Cast Lifts a Show That's Unaware of Its Own Merit|first=Prarikshya|last= Mishra|date=29 September 2023 |publisher=[[The Quint]]|access-date=30 September 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
Rahul Desai of [[Film Companion]] opined, "Choona takes the intriguing premise of a two-hour heist comedy and stretches it into an eight-episode drama on Netflix. This ambitious format shift offers both opportunities and challenges for storytelling".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/streaming-reviews/choona-review-a-two-hour-heist-comedy-stretched-into-an-eight-episode-drama-netflix|title=<br />
Choona Review: A Two-hour Heist Comedy Stretched Into an Eight-Episode Drama|first=Rahul|last=Desai|date=29 September 2023 |publisher=[[Film Companion]]|access-date=30 September 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|28336217}}<br />
<br />
{{Netflix original upcoming series}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Choona}}<br />
[[Category:Indian crime television series]]<br />
[[Category:Indian thriller television series]]<br />
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]<br />
[[Category:Netflix original programming]]<br />
[[Category:Indian television series distributed by Netflix]]<br />
[[Category:2023 Indian television series debuts]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Murari_(2015_film)&diff=519149Murari (2015 film)2026-03-04T04:37:30Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating new pg - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian action drama film}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Murari<br />
| image = Murari (2015 film).jpg<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = Official poster<br />
| native_name = <!-- {{Infobox name module|language|title}} or {{Infobox name module|title}} --><br />
| director = H. Vasu<br />
| writer = R. S. Gowda<br />
| screenplay = <br />
| story = <br />
| based_on = <!-- {{Based on|title of the original work|creator of the original work|additional creator(s), if necessary}} --><br />
| producer = Kumar Gowda<br />R. S. Gowda<br />
| starring = [[Sriimurali]]<br />[[Rashmi (actress)|Rashmi]]<br />[[Madhuri Itagi]]<br />[[Sharath Lohitashwa]] <br />
| narrator = <br />
| cinematography = Cinetech Soori<br />
| editing = M. S. Raj<br />
| music = [[V. Manohar]]<br />
| studio = <!-- or: | production_companies = --><br />
| distributor = <!-- or: | distributors = --><br />
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2015|5|22}}<br />
| runtime = <br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Kannada<br />
| budget = <br />
| gross = <br />
}}<br />
'''''Murari''''' is a 2015 Indian Kannada-language action drama film directed by H. Vasu and starring [[Sriimurali]], [[Rashmi (actress)|Rashmi]], [[Madhuri Itagi]] and [[Sharath Lohitashwa]] .<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
{{Cast listing|<br />
*[[Sriimurali]] as Murari<br />
*[[Rashmi (actress)|Rashmi]] as Kavya<br />
*[[Madhuri Itagi]]<br />
*[[Sharath Lohitashwa]] as police officer<br />
*Prasanna <br />
*[[Sathish Ninasam]] as Kavya's lover<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Production ==<br />
The film was launched in 2008 but did not release for unknown reasons.<ref name="TOI">{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/muraari/movie-review/47396279.cms|title=Muraari Movie Review|date=14 May 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|first=Sunayana|last=Suresh|access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=6 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106024642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/muraari/movie-review/47396279.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="DC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140530/entertainment-sandalwood/article/after-14-flops-sri-murli-finally-got-success|title=After 14 flops, Sri Murli finally got success|date=31 May 2014|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=12 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012093052/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140530/entertainment-sandalwood/article/after-14-flops-sri-murli-finally-got-success|url-status=live}}</ref> After [[Sriimurali]] found success with ''[[Ugramm]]'' (2014) after consecutive flops, the makers decided to release the film to cash in on the film's success.<ref name="DC"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chitraloka.com/news/4698-producers-to-release-old-films-to-encash-stars-success.html|title=PRODUCERS TO RELEASE OLD FILMS TO ENCASH STARS SUCCESS|work=Chitraloka|date=16 March 2014|access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=10 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210105514/https://www.chitraloka.com/news/4698-producers-to-release-old-films-to-encash-stars-success.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The film was initially scheduled to release on 25 July 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chitraloka.com/news/5214-murali-s-murari-to-release-on-25th-july.html|title=MURALI'S MURARI TO RELEASE ON 25TH JULY|date=17 July 2014|work=Chitraloka|access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=10 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210105514/https://www.chitraloka.com/news/5214-murali-s-murari-to-release-on-25th-july.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://daijiworld.com/index.php/news/newsDisplay?newsID=249316|title=Murali's film 'Murari' to release on July 25|date=17 July 2014|work=[[Daijiworld]]|access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=10 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210105517/https://daijiworld.com/index.php/news/newsDisplay?newsID=249316|url-status=live}}</ref> The film was later scheduled to release on 1 May 2015 before being postponed to 22 May 2015.<ref name="BM">{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/ugramm-sri-murali-sri-murali-rashmi-sharat-lohitashva-prasanna/articleshow/47388103.cms|title=Movie Review: Murari|date=22 May 2015|work=[[Bangalore Mirror]]|last=S.|first=Shyam Prasad|access-date=10 December 2022|archive-date=11 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011221556/https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/ugramm-sri-murali-sri-murali-rashmi-sharat-lohitashva-prasanna/articleshow/47388103.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Soundtrack ==<br />
The music was composed by [[V. Manohar]], who also penned the lyrics.<ref>{{cite web |title=Murari Songs by V.Manohar |url=https://gaana.com/album/murari-kannada |website=[[Gaana (music streaming service)|Gaana]] |language=en |date=15 July 2014}}</ref><br />
{{track listing<br />
| headline = Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| title1 = Aana Jaana Gaana Bhajana<br />
| length1 = 4:23<br />
| extra1 = [[Rajesh Krishnan]]<br />
| title2 = Yedeyolege Hrudayave Illa<br />
| length2 = 4:59<br />
| extra2 = Rajesh Krishnan, [[Nanditha (singer)|Nanditha]]<br />
| title3 = Navile Nallidaade<br />
| length3 = 2:43<br />
| extra3 = Nanditha<br />
| title4 = Ee Premigande Banda<br />
| length4 = 5:02<br />
| extra4 = Vinyachandra, [[Anuradha Bhat]]<br />
| title5 = Baaduva Lathege<br />
| length5 = 4:18<br />
| extra5 = Vinaychandra<br />
| total_length = 21:25<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
A critic from ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' wrote that "Overall ''Murari'' is not the worst film of Sri Murali but it has absolutely nothing special".<ref name="BM"/> A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' opined that the film has "A hackneyed plot that has come a few years too late".<ref name="TOI"/><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{IMDb title|15834254}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]<br />
[[Category:2015 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:2015 Kannada-language films]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pratikar&diff=456570Pratikar2026-03-03T23:41:15Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: quick reworked page for clarity further</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Pratikar<br> प्रतिकार<br />
| image = Pratikar.jpg<br />
| alt = <!-- see WP:ALT --><br />
| caption = DVD cover<br />
| director = [[T. Rama Rao]]<br />
| producer = Firoz Nadiadwala<br />
| writer = Anwar Khan (dialogues)<br />
| screenplay = [[Paruchuri Brothers]]<br />
| story = Prabhat Roy<br />
| based_on = ''[[Raktha Tilakam]]''<br />
| starring = [[Raakhee]]<br />[[Anil Kapoor]]<br />[[Madhuri Dixit]]<br />
| music = [[Bappi Lahiri]]<br />
| cinematography = V. Durgaprasad<br />
| editing = I. M. Kunu<br />
| studio = A. G. Films<br />
| distributor = <br />
| released = {{Film date|1991|08|16|df=yes}}<br />
| runtime = <br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Hindi<br />
| budget = <br />
| gross = <br />
}}<br />
'''''Pratikar''''' is a 1991 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[action drama film]] directed by [[T. Rama Rao]]. It stars [[Raakhee]], [[Anil Kapoor]], [[Madhuri Dixit]], with [[Mohsin Khan (Pakistani cricketer)|Mohsin Khan]], [[Sonu Walia]] in other roles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Watch Pratikar Full Movie Online, Release Date, Trailer, Cast and Songs {{!}} Bollywood Film |url=https://www.digit.in/digit-binge/movies/pratikar-745118.html |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=www.digit.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pratikaar (1991) - Review, Star Cast, News, Photos |url=https://www.cinestaan.com/movies/pratikaar-7167 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811155842/https://www.cinestaan.com/movies/pratikaar-7167 |url-status=live |archive-date=11 August 2020 |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=Cinestaan}}</ref> The film is a remake of 1987 [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali film]] ''[[Pratikaar]]'', which was also remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Raktha Tilakam]]'' and in Tamil as ''[[Thaimel Aanai]]''.<br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
After the court judgment, Narayan Shrivastav was very happy, but he was unaware that his greedy and evil brother, Sajjan, wanted to kill him for his entire property. While they are travelling back to their home, Sajjan kills Narayan. After returning home, he sheds crocodile tears, but Krishna, knowing that his uncle Sajjan is not a good person, doesn't want to stay with him and says that he wants to stay with his late mother's friend and his school teacher, Saraswati. At midnight, Sajjan sends a goon to kill Krishna, but by mistake, the goon takes the child of Saraswati and throws him in the river. Luckily, the inspector arrives there looking for some drug dealers and sees a goon throwing something in the river. When he goes to check, he finds an unconscious child, so he takes him to the hospital. Meanwhile, Saraswati, thinking his son Suraj is dead, leaves for another city with her daughter Jyoti and Krishna. Now Saraswati looks after Krishna and Jyoti. Time flies, and now Krishna, who is a college student, falls in love with his college mate Madhu. Sajjan's son Raghu turns out to be a local goon, protected by his dad through bribing the local police. Jyoti is raped and murdered by Raghu and his pals; they also run over Saraswati, rendering her crippled. Both Krishna and Saraswati swear to avenge Jyoti's death. Then Suraj re-enters their lives, as a police inspector, and is bent on arresting Krishna by hook or by crook, casting doubts whether he is or not on the payroll of Sajjan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MX Player |url=https://www.mxplayer.in/movie/watch-pratikar-hindi-movie-online-e01439fede9e18a0da5c8916aba43531 |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=www.mxplayer.in}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}<br />
* [[Raakhee]] as Saraswati<br />
* [[Anil Kapoor]] as Krishna Shrivastav<br />
* [[Madhuri Dixit]] as Madhu<br />
* [[Mohsin Khan (Pakistani cricketer)|Mohsin Khan]] as Suraj Singh<br />
* [[Sonu Walia]] as Uma Singh<br />
* [[Paresh Rawal]] as Sajjan Shrivastav<br />
* [[Satyendra Kapoor]] as Narayan Shrivastav<br />
* [[Chandrashekhar (actor)|Chandrashekhar]] as Bihari<br />
* [[Satish Shah]] as Inspector Das<br />
* [[Om Prakash]] as Shankar Prasad<br />
* [[Nirupa Roy]] as Parvati Prasad<br />
* [[Aruna Irani]] as Mrs. Diwani<br />
* [[Asrani (actor)|Asrani]] as Mr. Diwani<br />
* [[Amita Nangia]] as Jyoti<br />
* [[Laxmikant Berde]] as Bat Shastri<br />
* [[Tej Sapru]] as Raghu Shrivastav<br />
* [[Mahesh Anand]] as Naag<br />
* [[Manik Irani]] as Billa<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
==Music==<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
! Song !! Singer<br />
|-<br />
| "Hungama Ho Jaye Hungama" <br />
| [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Bappi Lahiri]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Kaali Zulfen Gore Gaal Tirchhi Topi Bikhre Baal"<br />
| [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Mohammed Aziz]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Chitthi Mujhe Likhna"<br />
| Asha Bhosle, [[Amit Kumar]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Baahar Saare Mele Andar Hum Akele"<br />
| [[Anuradha Paudwal]], [[Sudesh Bhosle]]<br />
|-<br />
| "Log Mujhe Kehte Hain"<br />
| [[Parvati Khan]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|0105161|Pratikar}}<br />
{{T. Rama Rao}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1991 films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by T. Rama Rao]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Bappi Lahiri]]<br />
[[Category:1991 Hindi-language films]]<br />
[[Category:1991 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Telugu films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]<br />
[[Category:Indian rape and revenge films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sahodarara_Savaal&diff=467891Sahodarara Savaal2026-03-03T22:23:48Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: brief improved intro as per guidelines and cleaned formatting</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Sahodarara Savaal<br />
| image = Sahodarara Savaal.jpg<br />
| caption = CD cover<br />
| director = [[K. S. R. Das]]<br />
| screenplay = M. D. Sundar<br />
| producer = A. R. Raju<br />
| starring = [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]]<br />[[Rajinikanth]]<br />
| cinematography = S. S. Lal<br />
| editing = K. S. R. Das<br />Venkateshwara Rao<br />
| music = [[Satyam (composer)|Satyam]]<br />
| studio = Ajantha Combines<br />
| released = {{Film date|1977|09|16|df=yes}}<br />
| runtime = 158 minutes<br />
| language = Kannada<br />
| country = India<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Sahodarara Savaal''''' ({{audio|Kn-ಸಹೋದರರ ಸವಾಲ್.ogg|pronunciation}} {{Translation|Challenge of the brothers}}) is a 1977 Indian [[Kannada]]-language film directed by [[K. S. R. Das]]. It stars [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] and [[Rajinikanth]].<ref name="TOI">{{Cite web |date=12 December 2020 |title=Rajinikanth's Kannada movies one must watch on his birthday, today |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/rajinikanths-kannada-movies-one-must-watch-on-his-birthday-today/photostory/79695157.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120225656/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/rajinikanths-kannada-movies-one-must-watch-on-his-birthday-today/photostory/79695157.cms |archive-date=20 November 2021 |access-date=21 November 2021 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The film was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Annadammula Savaal]]'' (1978).{{sfn|Ramachandran|2014|p=74}} It was released on 16 September 1977.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 September 2014 |title=Kannada classics make glorious comeback |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/kannada-classics-make-glorious-comeback/articleshow/42593755.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005050909/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/kannada-classics-make-glorious-comeback/articleshow/42593755.cms |archive-date=5 October 2022 |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sahodarara Savaal (1977) Kannada movie: Cast & Crew |url=https://chiloka.com/movie/sahodarara-savaal-1977 |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=chiloka.com}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
{{No plot|date=October 2022}}<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
{{cast listing|<br />
* [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] as Kiran{{sfn|Ramachandran|2014|p=68}}<br />
* [[Rajinikanth]] as Somashekhar{{sfn|Ramachandran|2014|p=68}}<br />
* [[Kavitha (actress)|Kavitha]] as Jyothi<br />
* [[Bhavani (actress)|Bhavani]] as Lakshmi<br />
* [[Leelavathi (actress)|Leelavathi]] as Jyothi's mother<br />
* [[M. Jayashree]] as Kiran and Shekhar's mother<br />
* [[Balakrishna (Kannada actor)|Balakrishna]] as Krishnappa<br />
* [[Dwarakish]] as Raja<br />
* [[Tiger Prabhakar]] as Kalappa<br />
* [[Shakti Prasad]] as Ranga<br />
* [[Pramila Joshai]] as Putti<br />
* [[Jayamalini]] as Parvati<br />
* Halam as dancer<br />
* [[Chethan Ramarao]]<br />
* [[Rathnakar (actor)|Rathnakar]] as Tukaram Rao<br />
* Master Guruprasad<br />
* Master Ramesh<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Soundtrack ==<br />
The music of ''Sahodarara Savaal'' was composed by [[Satyam (composer)|Satyam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 December 1977 |title=Sahodarara Savaal (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) – EP |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/sahodarara-savaal-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1328748613 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005050509/https://music.apple.com/us/album/sahodarara-savaal-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1328748613 |archive-date=5 October 2022 |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref> The song "Hey Nanagaagiye" became popular.<ref name="TOI" /> It went on to be retained in the Telugu version as "Naakosame Neevunnadhi".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=YoMVofT65jo&feature=youtu.be | title=Annadammula Savaal Movie Songs - Naakosame Neevunnadhi Song - Krishna - Rajinikanth - Jayachitra | website=[[YouTube]] | date=28 September 2013 }}</ref><br />
<br />
{{track listing<br />
| headline = Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| title1 = O Nallane Savi Mathonda<br />
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[P. Susheela]]<br />
| length1 = 3:17<br />
| title2 = Yeke Noduve Haage<br />
| extra2 = S.P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[S. Janaki]]<br />
| length2 = 3:26<br />
| title3 = Maathonda<br />
| extra3 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. Janaki<br />
| length3 = 3:07<br />
| title4 = Hey Nanagaagiye<br />
| extra4 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam<br />
| length4 = 3:08<br />
| total_length = 12:58<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |title=Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography |title-link=Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-14-342111-5 |location=New Delhi |author-link=Naman Ramachandran |orig-date=2012}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|1346701}}<br />
<br />
{{K. S. R. Das}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1977 Kannada-language films]]<br />
[[Category:1977 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:1977 films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by K. S. R. Das]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Satyam (composer)]]<br />
[[Category:Kannada films remade in other languages]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Varsha_(film)&diff=543676Varsha (film)2026-03-03T21:48:44Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Made a entry!</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Varsha<br />
| image = Varsha (2005 film).jpg<br />
| caption = DVD cover<br />
| director = [[S. Narayan]]<br />
| producer = [[Rockline Venkatesh]]<br />
| writer = S. Narayan (dialogues)<br />
| screenplay = S. Narayan<br />
| story = Siddique - Lal<br />
| based_on = {{Based on|''[[Hitler (1996 film)|Hitler]]''|[[Siddique (director)|Siddique]]}}<br />
| starring = {{plainlist|<br />
*[[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]]<br />
*[[Ramesh Aravind]]<br />
*[[Manya (actress)|Manya]]<br />
*[[Komal (actor)|Komal]]<br />
*[[Doddanna]]<br />
*[[Hemashree]]}}<br />
| music = [[S. A. Rajkumar]]<br />
| cinematography = P. K. H. Das<br />
| editing = P. R. Soundar Raj<br />
| released = {{Film date|2005|04|22|df=yes}}<br />
| runtime = 153 minutes<br />
| studio = Rockline Productions<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Kannada<br />
| budget = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Varsha''''' is a 2005 Indian [[Kannada|Kannada-language]] comedy-drama film written and directed by [[S. Narayan]], produced by Rockline Venkatesh under the banner of [[Rockline Productions]]. It stars [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] in the lead role with [[Ramesh Aravind]], [[Anu Prabhakar]] and [[Manya (actress)|Manya]] in supporting roles. The film is the remake of the 1996 blockbuster [[Malayalam|Malayalam-language]] film ''[[Hitler (1996 film)|Hitler]]''. The story centers around the life of Satyamurthy (Vishnuvardhan), known for his tough character, domineering personality, and uncontrolled rage at the youngsters of the area, for stalking his five young sisters. The film features songs composed by [[S. A. Rajkumar]]. The film was a blockbuster, running for 200 days in multiple centers across [[Karnataka]], thus becoming the highest-grossing Kannada film of the year.<br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
Sathya has come up in life the hard way, as he lost his mother when he was a small boy, and his father was framed and arrested on criminal charges. Sathya, unaware of his father's innocence, takes custody of his five young sisters. Sathya's father, Bhadra, was cheated by his brother-in-law, who poisoned his sister's mind to leave her husband, but she committed suicide later, and her son Sathya is left with his five sisters. Sathya takes care of his sisters well and educates them, but they are under his strict control, and anyone who plays foul with them faces his wrath. He finds himself in trouble because of this tough character. Meanwhile, Sathya's father is released from prison and now wants to take revenge on his brother-in-law, but the latter joins hands with some villains who want to settle scores with Bhadra and his son. They hatch a plan to create a rift in Sathya's family, which, surprisingly, everyone succeeds in. Will Sathya reunite with his family again and prove his father's innocence?<br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
{{cast listing|<br />
* [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] as Satyamurthy alias Satya (Hitler)<br />
* [[Ramesh Aravind]] as Ravi<br />
* [[Manya (actress)|Manya]] as Veena<br />
* [[Anu Prabhakar]] as Roopa, Sathya's second sister and Ravi's wife<br />
* [[Komal (actor)|Komal]] <br />
* [[Doddanna]]<br />
* [[Srinivasa Murthy]] as Satya and sisters' father<br />
* [[Shobaraj]]<br />
* [[Ramesh Bhat]] as Professor Shankar <br />
* Lakshman Rao <br />
* [[Kazan Khan]]<br />
* [[Ashok (Kannada actor)|Ashok]] as LIC Vishwanath<br />
* Master Chandan <br />
* [[Sunil Raoh]]<br />
* [[Mandeep Roy]]<br />
* Mandya Jayaram <br />
* Nanda Kishore <br />
* Sarika Raje Urs <br />
* K. V. Manjayya <br />
* [[Pramila Joshai]]<br />
* Sindhu Chethan <br />
* Roopa <br />
* Asharani<br />
* Padmini Prakash<br />
* [[Shwetha Chengappa]] as Gayathri <br />
* [[Tennis Krishna]]<br />
* [[M. N. Lakshmi Devi]]<br />
* [[Hemashree]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Hemashri {{!}} Appu {{!}} Surendra Babu {{!}} Kannada Seriel Actress {{!}} ಹೇಮಾಶ್ರೀ ಅಸಹಜ ಸಾವು: ಕೊಲೆಯೋ, ಆತ್ಮಹತ್ಯೆಯೋ? |url=http://m.kannada.webdunia.com/kannada-cinema-news/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%80-%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%9C-%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%81-%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B-%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8B-112101100031_1.htm?amp=1 |website=m.kannada.webdunia.com |access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref><br />
*Master Goutham<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Soundtrack==<br />
{{Infobox album<br />
| name = Varsha<br />
| type = Soundtrack<br />
| artist = [[S. A. Rajkumar]]<br />
| cover = <br />
| border = yes<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = Soundtrack cover<br />
| released = 24 March 2005<br />
| recorded = <br />
| venue = <br />
| studio = <br />
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]<br />
| length = 28:25<br />
| label = Jhankar Music<br />
| producer = <br />
| prev_title = <br />
| prev_year = <br />
| next_title = <br />
| next_year = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[S. A. Rajkumar]] composed the film's background score and music for its soundtrack, with the lyrics written by [[S. Narayan]]. The soundtrack album consists of six tracks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Varsha (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - EP|url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/varsha-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/669416232|website=iTunes|date=24 March 2005 |access-date=23 July 2015}}</ref> The song "Thanana Thanana" is based on "Kila Kila Navve" from the Telugu film ''Suryavamsam''.<br />
<br />
{{tracklist<br />
| headline = Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| total_length = 28:25<br />
| title1 = Goli Maaro<br />
| extra1 = [[Mathangi Jagdish]]<br />
| length1 = 4:33<br />
| title2 = Ikku Maga<br />
| extra2 = [[S. A. Rajkumar]]<br />
| length2 = 4:08<br />
| title3 = Kanneerige Kanneerenu<br />
| extra3 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chithra|Chithra]]<br />
| length3 = 4:55<br />
| title4 = Idenidu Badukina Vesha<br />
| extra4 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam<br />
| length4 = 4:56<br />
| title5 = Thananana Thananana<br />
| extra5 = [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]]<br />
| length5 = 4:45<br />
| title6 = Vaasanthi Vaasanthi<br />
| extra6 = Hariharan, Shreya Ghoshal<br />
| length6 = 5:08<br />
}}<br />
==Reception==<br />
''Rediff'' wrote, "Both Vishnuvardhan and S Narayan had huge hits like Aaptha Mithra and Mourya respectively to their credit before they came together for Varsha. Thankfully, Varsha does not belie the expectations it had raised. The film has everything in the right proportion -- emotions, comedy and action. And the product is supported well by its technicians and cast".<ref>{{cite web|title=Varsha lives up to its expectations!|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2005/apr/22varsha.htm|work=rediff.com|access-date=2013-10-18|date=22 April 2005}}</ref> S. N. Deepak of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' wrote "The story moves smoothly in the first half with comedy episodes and later sentiments and action scenes take over the second half. Vishnu as the “elder brother” suits his role. Ditto for Anu Prabhakar. Srinivasamurthy, Komal and Doddanna steal the show. Sunil’s character though a small one, brings the lead characters together in the climax."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/apr242005/movies1527552005423.asp|date=24 April 2005|access-date=1 March 2025|title=Varsha|first=S. N.|last=Deepak|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050424052127/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/apr242005/movies1527552005423.asp|archive-date=24 April 2005|website=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{S. Narayan}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2005 films]]<br />
[[Category:2005 Kannada-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian action films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by S. Narayan]]<br />
[[Category:Kannada remakes of Malayalam films]]<br />
[[Category:Rockline Entertainments films]]<br />
[[Category:2005 action films]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raja_Ramesh&diff=528331Raja Ramesh2026-03-03T21:45:54Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: starting initial data more to come</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Raja Ramesh<br />
| image = Raja Ramesh.jpg<br />
<br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| director = [[V. Madhusudhana Rao]]<br />
| writer = [[Acharya Aatreya]] {{small|(dialogues)}}<br />
| screenplay = V. Madhusudhana Rao<br />
| based_on = {{based on|''[[Sanyasi Raja]]''|Ashim Kumar Sarkar}}<br />
| producer = M. Seshagiri Rao<br />
| starring = [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]]<br />[[Vanisri]]<br />
| cinematography = P. S. Selvaraj<br />
| editing = A. Sanjeevi<br />
| music = [[K. V. Mahadevan]]<br />
| studio = Suguna Pictures<br />
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1977|7|21}}<br />
| runtime = 135 minutes<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Telugu<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Raja Ramesh''''' is a 1977 Indian [[Telugu-language]] [[thriller film]] directed and co-written by [[V. Madhusudhana Rao]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dharap |first=B. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AckHAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Raja%20Ramesh%22 |title=Indian Films |publisher=Motion Picture Enterprises |year=1977 |pages=162}}</ref> The film stars [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] and [[Vanisri]]. The music was composed by [[K. V. Mahadevan]]. It is a remake of the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] film ''[[Sanyasi Raja]]'' (1975), which was based on the [[Bhawal case]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2018 |title=On Uttam Kumar's 38th death anniversary, a look at his iconic films, from Antony Firingee to Nayak |url=https://www.firstpost.com/photos/on-uttam-kumars-38th-death-anniversary-a-look-at-his-iconic-films-from-antony-firingee-to-nayak-4805651.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824044959/https://www.firstpost.com/photos/on-uttam-kumars-38th-death-anniversary-a-look-at-his-iconic-films-from-antony-firingee-to-nayak-4805651.html |archive-date=24 August 2021 |access-date=25 August 2021 |website=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chatterji |first=Shoma |author-link=Shoma Chatterji |date=23 September 2018 |title=The Bhawal Sanyasi Case, Now a Highly Anticipated Film |url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/9/15073/The-Bhawal-Sanyasi-Case-Now-a-Highly-Anticipated-Film |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923105258/https://www.thecitizen.in//index.php/en/newsdetail/index/9/15073/the-bhawal-sanyasi-case-now-a-highly-anticipated-film |archive-date=23 September 2018 |access-date=25 August 2021 |website=The Citizen}}</ref> The film was released on 21 July 1977.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 July 1977 |title=రాజా రమేష్ |language=te |pages=6 |work=[[Andhra Prabha]] |url=https://pressacademy.ap.gov.in/archives/Vetapalem%20Library/ANDHRA%20PRABHA/806091_ANDHRAPRABHA_21_07_1977_Volume_No_42_Issue_No_296/00000006.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=13 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813102816/https://pressacademy.ap.gov.in/archives/Vetapalem%20Library/ANDHRA%20PRABHA/806091_ANDHRAPRABHA_21_07_1977_Volume_No_42_Issue_No_296/00000006.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
Raja Rameshchandra Bhupathi is a territory ruler, and the public adores him as a deity. However, his wife, Rani Indumathi Devi, is on edge due to Raja's ignorance as he enjoys frolicking in life. Meanwhile, Dr. Seshagiri, motivated by malice towards Raja, is appointed as his Doctor. He harbors lust for Rani and molests her under sedation. After that, Doctor ploys by addicting Raja to slow poison, then slyly shifts him to the beach house, where Doctor slays him. Plus, by menacing Rani, he silently performs cremation. Due to its heavy rainfall, the corpse drives away. Astoundingly, he is alive and safeguarded by a bunch of saints but under amnesia. Parallelly, the Doctor clutches the authority by muting Rani and creates mayhem in the estate. On the Saint's guidance, Raja lands at his estate. Ergo, the Doctor, edicts to slay him when he retrieves his memory. Here, his ailing forces are blissful. They pledge to retrieve his honor and call for the Enquiry Commission. During the trial, the Doctor intimidates Rani, but Raja is on the verge of triumph when Rani speaks out. The Doctor fires while Rani is wounded guarding Raja. At last, the public stamps out Doctor, and Rani leaves her breath in her husband's lap. Finally, the movie ends with Raja Ramesh passing on his journey as a saint, entrusting his totality to his men.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
*[[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] as Raja Ramesh Chandra Bhupathi<br />
*[[Vanisri]] as Rani Indumathi Devi<br />
*[[Jaggayya]] as Dr. Seshagiri<br />
*[[Sreedhar|Sridhar]] as Lawyer<br />
*[[Mikkilineni (actor)|Mikkilineni]] as Vaikuntham<br />
*[[P. J. Sarma]] as Diwanji<br />
*[[Sarathi (comedian)|Sarathi]] as Kaasi<br />
*K. V. Chalam<br />
*[[Valluri Balakrishna|Balakrishna]]<br />
*[[P. L. Narayana]] as Thamos<br />
*[[Kanchana (actress)|Kanchana]] as Padmaja<br />
*[[Vijaya Lalitha]] as Vilasini<br />
*[[Jayamalini]] as [[item number]]<br />
*Halam as item number<br />
*Sasirekha as Ratnabala<br />
<br />
== Soundtrack ==<br />
The music was composed by [[K. V. Mahadevan]]. Lyrics were written by [[Acharya Aatreya]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Raja Ramesh (1977)-Song_Booklet |url=https://indiancine.ma/documents/DIX/info |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250212025234/https://indiancine.ma/documents/DIX/info |archive-date=12 February 2025 |access-date=25 August 2021 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Raja Ramesh Telugu Film EP Vinyl Record by K.V.Mahadevan |url=https://mossymart.com/product/raja-ramesh-telugu-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-k-v-mahadevan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825083154/https://mossymart.com/product/raja-ramesh-telugu-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-k-v-mahadevan/ |archive-date=25 August 2021 |access-date=25 August 2021 |website=Mossymart}}</ref><br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
!Song title !!Singers !!length<br />
|-<br />
|"Entho Rasikudu Devudu"<br />
|[[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]<br />
|2:21<br />
|-<br />
|"Nelameedhi Jaabili"<br />
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[P. Susheela]]<br />
|3:26<br />
|-<br />
|"Nellooru Nerajaana"<br />
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela<br />
|3:49<br />
|-<br />
|"Chandrudu Kanabadaledani"<br />
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela<br />
|4:04<br />
|-<br />
|"Entho Rasikudu Devudu"<br />
|P. Susheela<br />
|2:17<br />
|-<br />
|"Vayinchu Aadi Talam"<br />
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam<br />
|3:55<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title}}<br />
{{V. Madhusudhana Rao}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1977 Telugu-language films]]<br />
[[Category:1977 thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by V. Madhusudhana Rao]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by K. V. Mahadevan]]<br />
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Telugu remakes of Bengali films]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bommala_Koluvu_(film)&diff=492160Bommala Koluvu (film)2026-03-03T09:16:06Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Created A Details...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Bommala Koluvu<br />
| image = Bommala Koluvu (film).jpg<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| native_name = <!-- {{Infobox name module|language|title}} or {{Infobox name module|title}} --><br />
| director = Subbu Vedula<br />
| writer = <br />
| screenplay = <br />
| story = <br />
| based_on = <!-- {{Based on|title of the original work|creator of the original work|additional creator(s), if necessary}} --><br />
| producer = A. V. R. Swamy M. S. C. (A.G.)<br />
| starring = [[Hrishikesh (actor)|Hrishikesh]]<br />Priyanka Sharma<br />Malavika Satheesan<br />Subbu Vedula<br />Shivam Malhotra<br />
| narrator = <br />
| cinematography = Ishwar<br />
| editing = M. R. Varmaa<br />
| music = Pravin Lakkaraju<br />
| studio = Pruthvi Creations<br />Kickass Storytellers<br />
| distributor = <br />
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2022|4|22}} <br />
| runtime = <br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Telugu<br />
| budget = <br />
| gross = <br />
}}<br />
'''''Bommala Koluvu''''' ({{Translation|[[Golu (festival)|Court of toys]]}}) is a 2022 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language thriller film directed by Subbu Vedula of ''[[Raahu]]'' fame and starring himself, [[Hrishikesh (actor)|Hrishikesh]] in his Telugu debut, Priyanka Sharma, Malavika Satheesan and Shivam Malhotra. The film was released to negative reviews with the music considered as the film's saving grace.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
*[[Hrishikesh (actor)|Hrishikesh]] as Rudra <br />
* Priyanka Sharma as Mithila<br />
* Malavika Satheesan as Raaga<br />
*Subbu Vedula as Irfan<br />
*Shivam Malhotra as Guna Shekhar<br />
<br />
==Soundtrack==<br />
The music was composed by Pravin Lakkaraju.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/bommala-koluvu-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1620073164|title=Bommala Koluvu (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by Praveen Lakkaraju on Apple Music|date=15 April 2022|work=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Track listing<br />
| headline = Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| title1 = Mudhiche Na Sukumari <br />
| lyrics1 = Srinivasa Mouli<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpgyj8E1T_g|title=Mudhiche Na Sukumari - Bommala Koluvu Song&#124;Anirudh Ravichander&#124;Pravin Lakkaraju&#124;Hrishikesh&#124;Malavika|work=[[Aditya Music]]|date=19 August 2021 |via=YouTube}}</ref><br />
| extra1 = [[Anirudh Ravichander]]<br />
| length1 = 2:55<br />
| title2 = Modhalavudham Modhalavudham<br />
| lyrics2 = Parimala Srinivasa Mouli Patri <br />
| extra2 = Pravin Lakkaraju<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yE0VNxV7-MI|title=Modhalavudham Modhalavudham - Full Video &#124; Bommala Koluvu &#124; Pravin Lakkaraju &#124; Hrishikesh &#124; Malavika|work=[[Aditya Music]]|date=28 March 2022 |via=YouTube}}</ref><br />
|length2 = 2:19<br />
| title3 = I Know What You Want <br />
| lyrics3 = Zeeshaan Wasim Hakeem<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uVEWY3BvmSs|title=I Know What You Want - Full Song &#124; Bommala Koluvu &#124; Pravin Lakkaraju &#124; Hrishikesh &#124; Subbu Vedula|work=[[Aditya Music]]|date=14 April 2022 |via=YouTube}}</ref><br />
| extra3 = Zeeshaan Wasim Hakeem<br />
| length3 = 2:17<br />
| total_length = 7:31<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
A critic from ''[[The Times of India|The Times of India Samayam]]'' rated the film two-and-a-half out of five stars and wrote that "The brand new storyline..[is] an unimpressive one".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://telugu.samayam.com/telugu-movies/movie-review/hrishikesh-and-priyanka-sharma-starrer-bommala-koluvu-movie-review-and-rating/moviereview/91000496.cms|title=బొమ్మల కొలువు|language=te|first=తుమ్మల|last=మోహన్|work=[[The Times of India|The Times of India Samayam]]|access-date=12 April 2024}}</ref> A critic from ''[[NTV (India)|NTV]]'' wrote that "There are many such crime thrillers in Telugu. But weaving a story based on Corona has novelty. Also, turning people into mannequins into cloth showrooms and selling them to auction to foreigners is somewhat different But none of these are things that thrill the audience".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ntvtelugu.com/reviews/bommala-koluvu-movie-review-158656.html|title=Bommala Koluvu Movie Review: బొమ్మల కొలువు|date=22 April 2022|website=[[NTV (India)|NTV Telugu]]|language=te}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links ==<br />
*{{IMDb title|15210874}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:2022 Telugu-language films]]<br />
[[Category:2022 Indian films]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acharya_(2022_film)&diff=484466Acharya (2022 film)2026-03-03T09:15:58Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: entry</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|2022 film directed by Koratala Siva }}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Acharya<br />
| image = Acharya Telugu.jpg<br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| director = [[Koratala Siva]]<br />
| producer = [[S. Niranjan Reddy|Niranjan Reddy]]<br />Anvesh Reddy<br />
| writer = Koratala Siva<br />
| story = <br />
| starring = {{plainlist|<br />
<!--Order as per the cast list in the film's trailer, see description at youtube.com/watch?v=m09a8jWgUNk--><br />
* [[Chiranjeevi]]<br />
* [[Ram Charan]] <br />
* [[Pooja Hegde]] <br />
* [[Sonu Sood]]<br />
* [[Jisshu Sengupta]]<br />
}}<br />
| music = [[Mani Sharma]]<br />
| cinematography = [[Tirru]]<br />
| editing = [[Naveen Nooli]]<br />
| studio = [[Konidela Production Company]]<br />Matinee Entertainment<br />
| distributor = <!--Must be attributed to a reliable source--><br />
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2022|04|29}}<br />
| runtime = 154 minutes{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}} <br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Telugu<br />
| budget = {{INR|140}} crore<ref name="budget" /><br />
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INR|78}} crore{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}} <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Acharya''''' ({{translation|Teacher)}} is a 2022 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[action drama film]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Chiranjeevi's 'Acharya' to release worldwide on May 13, check out the teaser!|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2021/jan/30/chiranjeevis-acharya-to-release-worldwide-on-may-13-check-out-the-teaser-2257086.html|date=30 January 2021|website=The New Indian Express|access-date=14 February 2021|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406100017/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2021/jan/30/chiranjeevis-acharya-to-release-worldwide-on-may-13-check-out-the-teaser-2257086.html|url-status=live}}</ref> written and directed by [[Koratala Siva]]. Produced by [[Konidela Production Company]] and Matinee Entertainment, the film stars [[Chiranjeevi]] as the [[titular character]] alongside [[Ram Charan]], [[Pooja Hegde]], [[Sonu Sood]], and [[Jisshu Sengupta]] in supporting roles. The music was composed by [[Mani Sharma]], cinematography by [[Tirru]], and editing by [[Naveen Nooli]].<br />
<br />
The film was launched in October 2019. [[Principal photography]] began in January 2020 and suffered delays due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. ''Acharya'' was released theatrically on 29 April 2022 and opened to highly negative reviews, criticizing the story, outdated screenplay, VFX, weak direction, and editing, but praising the performances of Chiranjeevi and Ram Charan.<!--Any changes to overall critical reception must be sourced independently, avoid WP:SYNTH--> It was a [[Box-office bomb]], grossing {{INR|78}} crore against a budget of {{INR|140}} crore.<ref name="ie" /><br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
Dharmasthali and the adjoining hamlet of Padaghattam are [[Hindu temple|Temple towns]] which are surrounded by the Siddhavanam forest. The two towns are interlinked by their values and faith to the goddess Gattamma. Dharmasthali operates under the tyrannical rule of Basava, the local municipal chairman who intends to give the lands of Dharmasthali and Padaghattam to Rathod and his brother Vikram for mining purposes. The people of Padaghattam, who are known for their expertise in [[Ayurvedic]] medicine, start visiting Dharmasthali less frequently due to Basava's cruel regime.<br />
<br />
Acharya, a [[Naxalite|naxal]], arrives in Dharmasthali in the guise of a carpenter. He starts retaliating for the atrocities committed by Basava to the villagers. It is revealed that Acharya came to Dharmasthali to fulfill his best friend Siddha's promise. He reveals about Siddha's past and origin to Dharmasthali villagers. Siddha is a disciple of the local [[Gurukul]] and a strong advocate for [[Dharma]]. Apart from him, Basava and the other men of the village study with him in the Gurukul. Basava hatches a plan with Vikram and his friend to destroy the village's Gattamma Temple, under the guise of flooding from torrential rain to start mining. Siddha discovers Basava's plan and attacks the trio on the night they plan to destroy the temple. He is gravely injured in the ensuing chaos.<br />
<br />
Acharya's squad arrives to his rescue and takes him away to the nearby Siddhavanam forest and heals him. Siddha wakes up, and Acharya's comrade Bose reveals his origins. Siddha was born to Comrade Shankar, Acharya's naxal squadron leader. In a shootout with the local law enforcement, Siddha's parents are both killed. Before dying, Shankar makes a young Acharya promise to raise Siddha with awareness about their fight for Dharma.<br />
<br />
To protect him, Acharya hands the newborn Siddha over to Adanna to be brought up in Dharmasthali. However, Acharya watches and protects Siddha from afar as he grows up. Siddha learns of his origins and is willingly initiated into Acharya's naxal squad. During a mission in rescuing the children of Adivasis who were forcibly taken away by Rathod's men for child labor in his mines, Siddha comes across a map of lands to be blasted for mining purposes, which includes the lands around Padaghattam and Dharmasthali. When Siddha goes back to his village to stop the mining, he comes across Rathod's henchmen heading to kill Acharya's squad. While trying to finish them with Acharya, Siddha is shot and killed by Rathod's henchman Khilla. Before dying, Acharya promises to Siddha that he will protect the village and stop the illegal mining planned by Basava and Rathod.<br />
<br />
After the reveal of Siddha's past, Acharya is arrested by the local police, while Basava and Rathod hatch a plan to wipe out the entire village during Gattamma's festival. Meanwhile, Acharya's squad manages to break him out of the police convoy while he is being taken away. He then kills each and every one of Rathod's henchmen, including Vikram and Khilla before killing both Rathod and Basava, thus avenging Siddha's death. After coming to terms with Siddha's demise, Acharya bids his farewell to Padaghattam and Dharmasthali and goes back to the forest with his squad to continue Siddha's legacy of upholding Dharma and their fight.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
{{Cast listing|<!--As per the film's on-screen credits--><br />
* [[Chiranjeevi]] as [[Comrade]] Acharya<br />
* [[Ram Charan]] as [[Comrade]] Siddha<br />
* [[Pooja Hegde]] as Neelambari<br />
* [[Sonu Sood]] as Basava, (voice dubbed by [[P. Ravi Shankar]])<br />
* [[Jisshu Sengupta]] as Rathod, (voice dubbed by [[Vedala Hemachandra]])<br />
* [[Saurav Lokesh]] as Vikram, Rathod's brother<ref name="Bhajarangi-fame Loki makes his Telugu debut with Chiranjeevi's Acharya">{{cite news |last1=The New Indian Express |title=Bhajarangi-fame Loki makes his Telugu debut with Chiranjeevi's Acharya |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/jan/20/bhajarangi-fame-loki-makes-his-telugu-debut-with-chiranjeevis-acharya-22368.html |access-date=20 May 2022 |date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520085415/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/jan/20/bhajarangi-fame-loki-makes-his-telugu-debut-with-chiranjeevis-acharya-22368.html |archive-date=20 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
* [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] as Basava's aide<br />
* [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] as Adanna<br />
* [[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]] as Vedanna<br />
* [[Tanikella Bharani]] as Priest<br />
* [[Vennela Kishore]] as Acharya's disciple<br />
* [[Banerjee (actor)|Banerjee]] as Comrade Bose<br />
* [[Shatru (actor)|Shatru]] as Khilla<br />
* [[Raghu Babu]] as Drug Supplier (Basava's henchman)<br />
* [[Raja Ravindra]] as Basava's henchman <br />
* [[Ravi Prakash]] as Comrade Sivudu<br />
* [[Pawan (actor)|Pawan]] as Obulu, Basava's henchman <br />
* [[C. V. L. Narasimha Rao]]<br />
* [[Ravi Kale]]<br />
* [[Chammak Chandra]]<br />
* [[Getup Srinu]]<br />
* Josh Ravi<br />
* Sanjay Raichur<br />
* [[Satyadev (actor)|Satyadev]] as [[Comrade]] Shankar, Siddha's late father<br />
* [[Sangeetha Krish]] as a dancer in the song "Laahe Laahe"<br />
* [[Regena Cassandrra]] as Mandakini, a [[bar dancer]] in the [[item song]] "Saana Kastam"<br />
* [[Mahesh Babu]] as Narrator (voice - over)<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Production ==<br />
<br />
=== Development ===<br />
The film was launched on 8 October 2019 with the working title of ''Mega152'' on [[Vijayadashami]] festival, being the first collaboration of [[Koratala Siva]] and [[Chiranjeevi]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-09|title=Chiru 152: After Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy, Chiranjeevi joins cast of Koratala Siva's next film|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/chiru-152-after-sye-raa-narasimha-reddy-chiranjeevi-joins-cast-of-koratala-sivas-next-film-7473431.html|access-date=2020-06-10|website=Firstpost|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407124543/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/chiru-152-after-sye-raa-narasimha-reddy-chiranjeevi-joins-cast-of-koratala-sivas-next-film-7473431.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-08|title=Chiranjeevi launches new film with Koratala Siva in presence of son Ram Charan, mother Anjana Devi. See pics|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/chiranjeevi-launches-new-film-with-koratala-siva-in-presence-of-son-ram-charan-mother-anjana-devi-see-pics/story-z7YT7tgmDUhiT2RmcZpYPP.html|access-date=2020-06-10|website=Hindustan Times|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406162321/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/chiranjeevi-launches-new-film-with-koratala-siva-in-presence-of-son-ram-charan-mother-anjana-devi-see-pics/story-z7YT7tgmDUhiT2RmcZpYPP.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Chiranjeevi accidentally revealed the title as ''Acharya'' during audio launch of the film ''[[O Pitta Katha]]'' in March 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|title=#Chiru152 titled as "Acharya": Megastar Chiranjeevi reveals the title accidentally|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/chiru152-titled-as-acharya-megastar-chiranjeevi-reveals-the-title-accidentally/articleshow/74436655.cms|access-date=2020-06-10|website=The Times of India|archive-date=14 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214034924/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/chiru152-titled-as-acharya-megastar-chiranjeevi-reveals-the-title-accidentally/articleshow/74436655.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-02|title=Chiranjeevi's next titled Acharya, actor accidentally reveals film's title|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/chiranjeevi-s-next-titled-acharya-actor-accidentally-reveals-film-s-title/story-vm9mFU8stiFeSOHLLBGPGO.html|access-date=2020-06-10|website=Hindustan Times|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406162321/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/chiranjeevi-s-next-titled-acharya-actor-accidentally-reveals-film-s-title/story-vm9mFU8stiFeSOHLLBGPGO.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Mani Sharma]] is the music composer. [[Cinematography]] and [[Film editing|editing]] is performed respectively by [[Tirru]] and [[Naveen Nooli]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Acharya Teaser: Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan, Kajal Aggarwal starrer's first glimpse to release on this date|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/acharya-teaser-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-kajal-aggarwal-starrers-first-glimpse-to-release-on-this-date/articleshow/80474383.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-03|website=The Times of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127050453/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/acharya-teaser-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-kajal-aggarwal-starrers-first-glimpse-to-release-on-this-date/articleshow/80474383.cms |archive-date=27 January 2021 }}</ref> [[Suresh Selvarajan]] is the art director.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hymavathi|first=Ravali|date=2021-01-09|title='Megastar' Chiranjeevi shares glimpse of temple set from 'Acharya'|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/megastar-chiranjeevi-shares-glimpse-of-temple-set-from-acharya-666142|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-03|website=[[The Hans India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107041921/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/megastar-chiranjeevi-shares-glimpse-of-temple-set-from-acharya-666142 |archive-date=7 January 2022 }}</ref><br />
<br />
In January 2022, ''[[Asianet News]]'' reported that the film's storyline is based on [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency|the Naxalite movement]] in [[Srikakulam district]], led by poet and cultural activist [[Subbarao Panigrahi]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=zedrjy1 |title=Acharya:ఆ పుస్తకం ఆధారంగా 'ఆచార్య'?ఆశ్చర్యంలో అభిమానులు |url=https://telugu.asianetnews.com/gossips/acharya-story-based-on-subbarao-panigrahi-book-r5gynv |access-date=2022-02-28 |website=Asianet News Network Pvt Ltd |language=te |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407024807/https://telugu.asianetnews.com/gossips/acharya-story-based-on-subbarao-panigrahi-book-r5gynv |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Casting ===<br />
[[Trisha (actress)|Trisha]] was cast as the lead but exited later, citing creative differences, and eventually was replaced by [[Kajal Aggarwal]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-14|title=Trisha opts out of Chiranjeevi's Telugu film 'Acharya'|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/140320/trisha-opts-out-of-chiranjeevis-telugu-film-acharya.html|access-date=2020-06-10|website=Deccan Chronicle|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170318/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/140320/trisha-opts-out-of-chiranjeevis-telugu-film-acharya.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Confirmed: Kajal Aggarwal to romance Chiranjeevi in Acharya|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/confirmed-kajal-aggarwal-to-romance-chiranjeevi-in-acharya/articleshow/74770062.cms|access-date=2020-06-10|website=The Times of India|archive-date=4 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604153203/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/confirmed-kajal-aggarwal-to-romance-chiranjeevi-in-acharya/articleshow/74770062.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Reportedly, [[Mahesh Babu]] was offered the cameo role in the film.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Mahesh Babu to play a student leader in Chiru 152?|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2020/feb/26/mahesh-babu-to-play-a-student-leader-in-chiru-152-2108451.html|access-date=2020-06-10|website=The New Indian Express|date=26 February 2020|archive-date=30 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530103239/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2020/feb/26/mahesh-babu-to-play-a-student-leader-in-chiru-152-2108451.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, Chiranjeevi later confirmed his son [[Ram Charan]] for the role; Koratala adjusted the role to make it full-fledged.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chiranjeevi votes for Ram Charan over Mahesh Babu over cameo in Acharya|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2020/mar/14/chiranjeevi-votes-for-ram-charan-over-mahesh-babu-over-cameo-in-acharya-2116469.html|access-date=2020-06-10|website=The New Indian Express|date=14 March 2020|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022075747/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2020/mar/14/chiranjeevi-votes-for-ram-charan-over-mahesh-babu-over-cameo-in-acharya-2116469.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-28|title=Acharya: Ram Charan shines in Siddha's saga teaser|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/acharya%e2%80%8b-ram-charan-shines-in-siddhas-saga-teaser-chiranjeevi-7645853/|access-date=2021-11-28|website=The Indian Express|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407054300/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/acharya%e2%80%8b-ram-charan-shines-in-siddhas-saga-teaser-chiranjeevi-7645853/|url-status=live}}</ref> In an interview with [[Variety (magazine)|''Variety'']], Charan who plays Sidhha, said “It’s a 40-minute role, it’s pretty much the whole of the second half."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |date=2021-11-30 |title=India's Ram Charan on Working With Chiranjeevi, S.S. Rajamouli and Shankar (EXCLUSIVE) |url=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/ram-charan-chiranjeevi-rajamouli-shankar-rrr-1235121819/ |website=Variety |access-date=30 March 2022 |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603091329/https://variety.com/2021/film/news/ram-charan-chiranjeevi-rajamouli-shankar-rrr-1235121819/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="siddha" /><br />
<br />
[[Pooja Hegde]] was cast as Neelambari opposite Charan, has an extended cameo.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-12|title=Pooja Hegde to star opposite Ram Charan in 'Acharya', shooting to start this week|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/pooja-hegde-star-opposite-ram-charan-acharya-shooting-start-week-143293|access-date=2021-03-03|website=The News Minute|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223091942/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/pooja-hegde-star-opposite-ram-charan-acharya-shooting-start-week-143293|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Regina Cassandra]] was signed for a special song in March 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-11|title=Regina Cassandra matches steps with Chiranjeevi for a celebration song in Acharya|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/regina-cassandra-matches-steps-with-chiranjeevi-for-a-celebration-song-in-acharya/story-d53qGsrN2VAEpcCOsQyOLO.html|url-status=live|website=Hindustan Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311144234/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/regina-cassandra-matches-steps-with-chiranjeevi-for-a-celebration-song-in-acharya/story-d53qGsrN2VAEpcCOsQyOLO.html |archive-date=11 March 2020 }}</ref> [[Mahesh Babu]] has given narration for this film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-22 |title=Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan thank Mahesh Babu for narrating Acharya: 'You made it even more special' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/chiranjeevi-ram-charan-thank-mahesh-babu-for-becoming-narrator-for-acharya-you-made-acharya-even-more-special-7881534/ |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423072134/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/chiranjeevi-ram-charan-thank-mahesh-babu-for-becoming-narrator-for-acharya-you-made-acharya-even-more-special-7881534/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nair |first=Nivedita |date=2022-04-25 |title=Kajal Aggarwal's scenes removed from Chiranjeevi's Acharya |url=https://theprimetime.in/kajal-aggarwals-scenes-removed-from-chiranjeevis-acharya/ |access-date=2022-05-27 |website=The PrimeTime News |language=en-US |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524165331/https://theprimetime.in/kajal-aggarwals-scenes-removed-from-chiranjeevis-acharya/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Filming ===<br />
Principal photography began in January 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-03|title='Chiru 152' kicks-off|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/chiru-152-kicks-off-594860|access-date=2020-06-10|website=www.thehansindia.com|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407121714/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/chiru-152-kicks-off-594860|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Chiranjeevi begins shoot for Koratala Siva's #Chiru152|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/chiranjeevi-begins-shoot-for-koratala-sivas-chiru152/articleshow/73071607.cms|access-date=2020-06-10|website=The Times of India|last1=Nyayapati|first1=Neeshita|archive-date=14 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414065259/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/chiranjeevi-begins-shoot-for-koratala-sivas-chiru152/articleshow/73071607.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Important portions were shot with Chiranjeevi and others at [[Ramoji Film City]].<ref name=":0" /> The filming was going at a brisk pace until suspension in March 2020 due to [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-15|title=Chiranjeevi suspends 'Acharya' shoot due to coronavirus threat|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/chiranjeevi-suspends-acharya-shoot-due-to-coronavirus-threat-814019.html|access-date=2020-06-10|website=Deccan Herald|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170318/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/chiranjeevi-suspends-acharya-shoot-due-to-coronavirus-threat-814019.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Filming was resumed in November 2020, and Aggarwal joined the sets in December 2020 in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-12|title=Acharya shooting resumes without Chiranjeevi as he tests positive for Covid-19|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/acharya-shooting-resumes-without-chiranjeevi-as-he-tests-positive-for-covid-19/story-hO8bY9OwcqfUYLhQ9oZ1fI.html|access-date=2021-01-07|website=Hindustan Times|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406212102/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/acharya-shooting-resumes-without-chiranjeevi-as-he-tests-positive-for-covid-19/story-hO8bY9OwcqfUYLhQ9oZ1fI.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2020-12-15|title=Kajal Aggarwal joins Acharya shoot with Gautam Kitchlu. Chiranjeevi welcomes couple|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/kajal-aggarwal-joins-acharya-shoot-with-gautam-kitchlu-chiranjeevi-welcomes-couple-1749678-2020-12-15|website=IndiaToday|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170318/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/kajal-aggarwal-joins-acharya-shoot-with-gautam-kitchlu-chiranjeevi-welcomes-couple-1749678-2020-12-15|url-status=live}}</ref> A temple town set spanning 20 acres was built for the film.<ref name="budget">{{Cite web|date=2021-01-06|title=Watch: Makers of Chiranjeevi's 'Acharya' erect massive temple town set|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/watch-makers-chiranjeevis-acharya-erect-massive-temple-town-set-140955|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The News Minute|archive-date=12 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712120350/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/watch-makers-chiranjeevis-acharya-erect-massive-temple-town-set-140955|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
Charan joined the production in January 2021.<ref name="siddha">{{Cite web|date=2021-01-17|title=Ram Charan joins Chiranjeevi's Acharya|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/ram-charan-joins-chiranjeevi-acharya-7150225/|access-date=2021-01-18|website=The Indian Express|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407070327/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/ram-charan-joins-chiranjeevi-acharya-7150225/|url-status=live}}</ref> The film team reached [[Rajahmundry]] the same month.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 22, 2021|first=Janani|last=K.|title=Chiranjeevi gets thunderous welcome in Rajahmundry ahead of Acharya shoot. Viral pics|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/chiranjeevi-gets-thunderous-welcome-in-rajahmundry-ahead-of-acharya-shoot-viral-pics-1771773-2021-02-22|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-11|website=[[India Today]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222080823/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/chiranjeevi-gets-thunderous-welcome-in-rajahmundry-ahead-of-acharya-shoot-viral-pics-1771773-2021-02-22 |archive-date=22 February 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Team of Chiranjeevi and Kajal Aggarwal starrer Acharya shoot in Rajahmundry|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/team-of-chiranjeevi-and-kajal-aggarwal-starrer-acharya-shoot-in-rajahmundry/articleshow/81329076.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-11|website=[[The Times of India]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304150131/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/team-of-chiranjeevi-and-kajal-aggarwal-starrer-acharya-shoot-in-rajahmundry/articleshow/81329076.cms |archive-date=4 March 2021 }}</ref> In March 2021, Pooja Hegde shot her portions with a montage song at a specially-constructed set in [[Maredumilli]]. A schedule took place at [[Singareni]] coal mines, [[Yellandu]] later that month.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pooja Hegde resumes Acharya shoot with a montage song|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/mar/03/pooja-hegde-resumes-acharya-shoot-with-a-montage-song-23115.html|access-date=2021-03-03|website=[[Cinema Express]]|date=3 March 2021|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170320/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/mar/03/pooja-hegde-resumes-acharya-shoot-with-a-montage-song-23115.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Owing to the second wave of [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the filming was paused again and later resumed in July 2021 at a village set in Hyderabad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-07|title=Tollywood buzz: Chiranjeevi resumes Acharya shoot, RAPO19 to begin on July 12 and more|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/tollywood-buzz-chiranjeevi-resumes-acharya-shoot-rapo19-to-begin-on-july-12-and-more-7393231/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-11|website=[[The Indian Express]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707112751/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/tollywood-buzz-chiranjeevi-resumes-acharya-shoot-rapo19-to-begin-on-july-12-and-more-7393231/ |archive-date=7 July 2021 }}</ref> Both Ram Charan and Chiranjeevi resumed shooting their portions that month.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-10|title=Ram Charan resumes shoot of Acharya|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/ram-charan-resumes-shoot-of-acharya-7398481/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-11|website=[[The Indian Express]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710141514/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/ram-charan-resumes-shoot-of-acharya-7398481/ |archive-date=10 July 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-11|title=Ram Charan resumes shooting for Chiranjeevi's 'Acharya'|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ram-charan-resumes-shooting-chiranjeevi-s-acharya-152126|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-11|website=[[The News Minute]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711065124/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ram-charan-resumes-shooting-chiranjeevi-s-acharya-152126 |archive-date=11 July 2021 }}</ref> Except for two songs, the rest of shoot was finished in August 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-04|title=Chiranjeevi-Ram Charan's Acharya shoot over, two songs left to be completed|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/chiranjeevi-ram-charan-acharya-completes-talkie-portion-7438230/|url-status=live|website=The Indian Express|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804151037/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/chiranjeevi-ram-charan-acharya-completes-talkie-portion-7438230/ |archive-date=4 August 2021 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Following her pregnancy in September 2021, Aggarwal requested the makers to complete her portions at the earliest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=K. |first=Janani |date=16 September 2021 |title=Are Kajal Aggarwal and husband Gautam Kitchlu expecting their first child? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/are-kajal-aggarwal-and-husband-gautham-kitchlu-expecting-their-first-child-1853559-2021-09-16 |website=[[India Today]] |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406100013/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/are-kajal-aggarwal-and-husband-gautham-kitchlu-expecting-their-first-child-1853559-2021-09-16 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is reported she subsequently opted out of the project owing to the delays in shoot and has not re-joined the production since.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-14 |title=Did the makers of 'Acharya' chop-off Kajal Aggarwal's role from the film? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/did-the-makers-of-acharya-chop-off-kajal-aggarwals-role-from-the-film/articleshow/90838680.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413054417/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/did-the-makers-of-acharya-chop-off-kajal-aggarwals-role-from-the-film/articleshow/90838680.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-19 |title=ఆచార్య నుంచి కాజల్ సీన్స్ డిలీట్? అదే కారణమా? |url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/kajal-aggarwal-scenes-are-deleted-acharya-movie-1449931 |access-date= |website=[[Sakshi (newspaper)|Sakshi]] |language=te |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170318/https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/kajal-aggarwal-scenes-are-deleted-acharya-movie-1449931 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, in April 2022, Koratala stated that Aggarwal's scenes were cut from the final draft of the film as he felt that the role she played could not match her stature.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-25 |title=Director Koratala Siva reveals why Kajal's role was scrapped from Acharya |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/director-koratala-siva-reveals-why-kajal-s-role-was-scrapped-acharya-163257 |website=The News Minute |access-date=27 April 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407034727/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/director-koratala-siva-reveals-why-kajal-s-role-was-scrapped-acharya-163257 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Legal issues ===<br />
In August 2020, writer Rajesh Manduri alleged that ''Acharya'' was plagiarized from his script.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Writer claims Chiranjeevi's Acharya is plagiarized from his script|url=https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/telugu-cinema/article/writer-claims-chiranjeevis-acharya-is-plagiarized-from-his-script-details-inside/643512|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-03|website=www.zoomtventertainment.com|date=27 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107041922/https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/telugu-cinema/article/writer-claims-chiranjeevis-acharya-is-plagiarized-from-his-script-details-inside/643512 |archive-date=7 January 2022 }}</ref> He supposedly narrated the story to production house [[Mythri Movie Makers]] a few years ago which did not materialize. Mythri Movie Makers refuted the allegation, calling it a "gimmick."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-29|title=Makers of Chiranjeevi's 'Acharya' refute plagiarism allegations|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/makers-chiranjeevi-s-acharya-refute-plagiarism-allegations-131894|access-date=2021-03-03|website=The News Minute|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407012749/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/makers-chiranjeevi-s-acharya-refute-plagiarism-allegations-131894|url-status=live}}</ref> Matinee Entertainment stated that any such claims were baseless, iterating that the story of Acharya belongs to Koratala.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Acharya's producer refutes plagiarism charges|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2020/aug/29/acharyas-producer-refutes-plagiarism-charges-2189647.html|access-date=2021-03-03|website=The New Indian Express|date=29 August 2020|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406101803/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2020/aug/29/acharyas-producer-refutes-plagiarism-charges-2189647.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Koratala responded that his story had no resemblance to Manduri's.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Vyas|date=2020-08-28|title=Koratala Siva issues clarity on Acharya controversy|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/koratala-siva-issues-clarity-on-acharya-controversy-642276|access-date=2021-03-03|website=[[The Hans India]]|archive-date=22 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922015718/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/koratala-siva-issues-clarity-on-acharya-controversy-642276|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Music==<br />
{{Infobox album<br />
| name = Acharya<br />
| type = [[Soundtrack]]<br />
| artist = [[Mani Sharma]]<br />
| cover = <br />
| alt = <br />
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2022|05|20}}<br />
| recorded = 2020–2021<br />
| studio = <br />
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]<br />
| length = {{Duration|m=24|s=10}}<br />
| language = Telugu<br />
| label = [[Aditya Music]]<br />
| producer = [[Mani Sharma]]<br />
| prev_title = [[Republic (film)|Republic]]<br />
| prev_year = 2021<br />
| next_title = [[Shaakuntalam]]<br />
| next_year = 2022<br />
| misc = {{Singles<br />
| name = Acharya<br />
| type = soundtrack<br />
| single1 = Laahe Laahe<br />
| single1date = 31 March 2021<br />
| single2 = Neelambari<br />
| single2date = 5 November 2021<br />
| single3 = Saana Kastam<br />
| single3date = 3 January 2022<br />
| single4 = Bhale Bhale Banjara<br />
| single4date = 18 April 2022<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The film's soundtrack album is composed by [[Mani Sharma]] in his eleventh collaboration with Chiranjeevi, third with Charan, and first with Koratala.<br />
{{Track listing<br />
| headline = Track listing<br />
| total_length = 24:10<br />
| all_writing = <br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| title1 = Laahe Laahe<br />
| lyrics1 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]<br />
| extra1 = Harika Narayan, Sahithi Chaganti<br />
| length1 = 4:07<br />
| title2 = Neelambari<br />
| lyrics2 = [[Ananta Sriram]]<br />
| extra2 = [[Anurag Kulkarni]], [[Ramya Behara]]<br />
| length2 = 4:14<br />
| title3 = Saana Kastam<br />
| extra3 = [[L. V. Revanth|Revanth]], [[Geetha Madhuri]]<br />
| lyrics3 = [[Bhaskarabhatla]]<br />
| length3 = 4:04<br />
| title4 = Bhale Bhale Banjara<br />
| lyrics4 = Ramajogayya Sastry<br />
| extra4 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Rahul Sipligunj]]<br />
| title5 = Putuka Thone<br />
| length5 = 4:03<br />
| lyrics5 = Ramajogayya Sastry<br />
| extra5 = Anurag Kulkarni<br />
| title6 = Acharya Slokam<br />
| length6 = 3:20<br />
| lyrics6 = Kalyan Chakravarthy<br />
| extra6 = M.L. Sruthi<br />
| length4 = 4:19<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Release==<br />
=== Theatrical ===<br />
''Acharya'' was released theatrically on 29 April 2022. Earlier, it was scheduled to release on 13 May 2021, but was pushed back due to production delays and the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Acharya postponed indefinitely due to Covid-19 spike|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/apr/27/acharya-postponed-indefinitely-due-to-covid-19-spike-24184.html|access-date=2021-04-27|website=[[Cinema Express]]|date=27 April 2021|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170318/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/apr/27/acharya-postponed-indefinitely-due-to-covid-19-spike-24184.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2021, it was announced that the film would release 4 February 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2021 |title=Acharya: 'చిరు' అభిమానులకు గుడ్ న్యూస్.. 'ఆచార్య' రిలీజ్ డేట్ ఫిక్స్ |trans-title=Acharya: Good news for 'Chiru' fans .. 'Acharya release date is fixed |url=https://www.eenadu.net/latestnews/acharya-movie-release-date-fix/1600/121207969 |access-date=9 October 2021 |website=Eenadu |language=te |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009163350/https://www.eenadu.net/latestnews/acharya-movie-release-date-fix/1600/121207969 |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2022, it was then pushed to 1 April 2022 due to the increasing number of [[COVID-19]] cases, fuelled by the [[SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Chiranjeevi-starrer 'Acharya' postponed due to surge in COVID-19 cases! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/chiranjeevi-starrer-acharya-postponed-due-to-surge-in-covid-19-cases/articleshow/88915278.cms |access-date=2022-04-28 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413104613/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/chiranjeevi-starrer-acharya-postponed-due-to-surge-in-covid-19-cases/articleshow/88915278.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Later that month, it was pushed back to 29 April 2022 in order to avoid a clash with Charan's other film ''[[RRR (film)|RRR]].''<ref>{{Cite news|title=Acharya: Chiranjeevi and Ram Charan starrer set to arrive in theatres on April 29|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/acharya-chiranjeevi-and-ram-charan-starrer-set-to-arrive-in-theatres-on-april-29/articleshow/89251618.cms|access-date=2022-02-01|website=The Times of India|archive-date=13 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413072812/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/acharya-chiranjeevi-and-ram-charan-starrer-set-to-arrive-in-theatres-on-april-29/articleshow/89251618.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Home media ===<br />
The satellite rights were acquired by [[Gemini TV]] while the digital distribution rights were acquired by [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-29 |title=Megastar Chiranjeevi's Acharya movie OTT Streaming Platform fixed |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/megastar-chiranjeevis-acharya-movie-ott-streaming-platform-fixed-740326 |access-date=2022-04-30 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407131724/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/megastar-chiranjeevis-acharya-movie-ott-streaming-platform-fixed-740326 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 29, 2022 |title=Chiranjeevi and Ram Charan's Acharya to arrive on THIS OTT platform |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/chiranjeevi-and-ram-charan-s-acharya-to-arrive-on-this-ott-platform-1943330-2022-04-29 |access-date=2022-04-30 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406100013/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/chiranjeevi-and-ram-charan-s-acharya-to-arrive-on-this-ott-platform-1943330-2022-04-29 |url-status=live }}</ref> The film premiered on [[Amazon Prime Video]] on 20 May 2022 in Telugu along with dubbed versions in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Malayalam]] and [[Kannada]] languages.<ref>{{cite tweet|number=1525081149030400001|user=sri50|title=#Chiranjeevi and @AlwaysRamCharan starrer #Acharya to have global digital premiere on @PrimevideoIN on 20 May…|date=13 May 2022}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[Hindi]] version was later released on [[ZEE5]].<ref>{{cite tweet|number=1525076191396663296|user=PrimeVideoIN|title=they call him Acharya because he always teaches them a lesson💥#AcharyaOnPrime, May 20|date=13 May 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
===Box office===<br />
On its opening day, ''Acharya'' grossed {{INR|52}} crore worldwide with a distributor's share of {{INR|35}} crore.<ref name="d1">{{cite web |title='కేజీయఫ్ 2' @1000కోట్లు.. 'ఆచార్య' తొలి రోజు వసూళ్లు ఎంతంటే? |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/telugu/telangana/entertainment/movie/kgf2-movie-and-acharya-collections/na20220430121740833833066 |website=[[ETV (India)|ETV Bharat]] |language=te |date=30 April 2022 |access-date=30 April 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407024812/https://www.etvbharat.com/telugu/telangana/entertainment/movie/kgf2-movie-and-acharya-collections/na20220430121740833833066 |url-status=live }}</ref> In three days, the film grossed {{INR|70.35}} crore, taking its distributor's share to {{INR|45}} crore.<ref name="3d">{{cite web|title=Acharya: ఆచార్య 3 రోజుల కలెక్షన్స్.. ఎంతో తెలుసా?|url=https://10tv.in/movies/acharya-3-days-worldwide-collections-419361.html|website=[[10TV]]|date=2 May 2022|language=te|access-date=2 May 2022|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407024810/https://10tv.in/movies/acharya-3-days-worldwide-collections-419361.html|url-status=live}}</ref> By the end of its theatrical run, the film collected {{INR|76}} crore gross worldwide with a distributor's share of {{INR|48.36}} crore. ''[[News18 Telugu]]'' estimated that the losses of the film amount to {{INR|84.14}} crore from its theatrical business,<ref name="ww gross">{{cite web|title=Acharya Closing Collections : ఆచార్య క్లోజింగ్ కలెక్షన్స్.. ఎన్ని కోట్లా నష్టమో తెలుసా|url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/chiranjeevi-ram-charan-acharya-closing-collections-becomes-all-time-epic-disaster-sr-1300952.html|website=[[News18 Telugu]]|language=te|date=13 May 2022|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=15 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515121310/https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/chiranjeevi-ram-charan-acharya-closing-collections-becomes-all-time-epic-disaster-sr-1300952.html|url-status=live}}</ref> making it a [[box-office bomb|commercial failure]].<ref name="ie">{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/acharya-box-office-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-set-to-become-a-commercial-disaster-7899272/|title=Acharya box office: Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan film set to become a commercial disaster|website=[[The Indian Express]]|date=3 May 2022|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407124320/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/acharya-box-office-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-set-to-become-a-commercial-disaster-7899272/|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Critical response===<br />
''Acharya'' received negative reviews from critics, with strong criticism for the story, outdated screenplay, VFX, weak direction, and editing but praise for the lead cast's performances.<ref>{{cite web|title=Despite Negative Reviews, Acharya's Day 1 Collection Likely to Reach Rs 25 Crore|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/despite-negative-reviews-acharyas-day-1-collection-likely-to-reach-rs-25-crore-5080609.html|website=[[News 18]]|date=29 April 2022|access-date=29 April 2022|quote=the film got mixed to unfavourable reviews from critics|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409012042/https://www.news18.com/amp/news/movies/despite-negative-reviews-acharyas-day-1-collection-likely-to-reach-rs-25-crore-5080609.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='Acharya' box office prediction: What's expected from Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan's film on the opening day; find out here!|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/acharya-box-office-prediction-whats-expected-from-chiranjeevi-ram-charans-film-on-the-opening-day-find-out-here/articleshow/91184727.cms|website=[[The Times Of India]]|date=29 April 2022|access-date=29 April 2022|quote=the film has received mixed responses from critics, criticising the weak narrative and unreal screenplay.|archive-date=29 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429142506/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/acharya-box-office-prediction-whats-expected-from-chiranjeevi-ram-charans-film-on-the-opening-day-find-out-here/articleshow/91184727.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
Neeshita Nyayapati of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "Acharya lacks the soul it needed to pull off a tale that banks too much on people connecting to the concept of dharma".<ref>{{cite news|title=Acharya Movie Review : An outdated and lackluster drama|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/acharya/movie-review/91173570.cms|website=[[The Times Of India]]|access-date=29 April 2022|archive-date=7 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407194234/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/acharya/movie-review/91173570.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Janani K of ''[[India Today]]'' gave the film a rating of 2.5/5 and wrote "Acharya is an outdated story that talks about dharma, illegal mining and the importance of our roots. The father-son duo tried their best to keep things interesting".<ref>{{cite web|title=Acharya Movie Review: Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan father-son duo is the only thing working for it|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/acharya-movie-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-father-son-duo-is-the-only-thing-working-for-it-1943265-2022-04-29|website=[[India Today]]|date=29 April 2022|access-date=29 April 2022|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170318/https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/movies/regional-cinema/story/acharya-movie-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-father-son-duo-is-the-only-thing-working-for-it-1943265-2022-04-29|url-status=live}}</ref> A reviewer from ''[[The Hans India]]'' gave the film a rating of 2.25/5 and wrote "‘Acharya’ movie is an outdated story and is further ruined by an unimpressive narration from Koratala Siva".<ref>{{cite web|title=Acharya review: An out-dated mega drama|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/movie-reviews/acharya-review-an-out-dated-mega-drama-78775|website=[[The Hans India]]|access-date=29 April 2022|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409181113/https://www.thehansindia.com/amp/movie-reviews/acharya-review-an-out-dated-mega-drama-78775|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
Medabayani Balakrishna of ''[[News 18]]'' gave the film a rating of 1.5/5 and wrote "The sloppy play with the routine scenes, the boring treatment and the weak sequences are the minus points for this movie.<ref>{{cite web|title=Acharya Movie Review: Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan Movie Disappoints Fans of Megastar With Boring Treatment!|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/acharya-movie-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-movie-disappoints-fans-of-megastar-with-boring-treatment-5077639.html|website=[[News 18]]|date=29 April 2022|access-date=29 April 2022|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170318/https://www.news18.com/amp/news/movies/acharya-movie-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-movie-disappoints-fans-of-megastar-with-boring-treatment-5077639.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Manoj Kumar R of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave the film a rating of 1/5 and wrote "The writing is so poor that even the two actors' massive stardom feels inadequate to lift this movie. It's a snooze fest".<ref>{{cite web|title=Acharya movie review: Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan seem inadequate to save this spiritless film|url=https://www.indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/acharya-movie-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-7893549/lite/|website=[[The Indian Express]]|date=29 April 2022|access-date=29 April 2022|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405170319/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/acharya-movie-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-7893549/lite/|url-status=live}}</ref> Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of ''[[The Hindu]]'' stated "The playoffs between Chiranjeevi and Ram Charan are endearing, but the film is utterly boring".<ref>{{cite news |title='Acharya' movie review: A dated narrative that never takes off |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/acharya-movie-review-an-outdated-narrative-that-never-takes-off/article65362922.ece/ |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=29 April 2022 |access-date=29 April 2022 |last1=Dundoo |first1=Sangeetha Devi |archive-date=9 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230809081134/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/acharya-movie-review-an-outdated-narrative-that-never-takes-off/article65362922.ece/amp/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Sowmya Rajendran of ''[[The News Minute]]'' gave the film a rating of 1/5 and wrote "It is puzzling how director Koratala Siva managed to achieve this casting coup with such a tedious storyline".<ref>{{cite web|title=Acharya review: Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan film is a mega mess|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/acharya-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-film-mega-mess-163410|website=[[The News Minute]]|date=29 April 2022|access-date=29 April 2022|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406223435/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/acharya-review-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-film-mega-mess-163410|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
=== Accolades ===<br />
{{Expand section|October 2025|date=October 2025}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|11563070}}<br />
<br />
{{Koratala Siva}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2022 action drama films]]<br />
[[Category:2022 Telugu-language films]]<br />
[[Category:2022 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:Film productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic]]<br />
[[Category:Films about corruption in India]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Koratala Siva]]<br />
[[Category:Films involved in plagiarism controversies]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Mani Sharma]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot at Ramoji Film City]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Rajahmundry]]<br />
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Indian intellectual property law]]<br />
[[Category:2022 controversies]]<br />
[[Category:Films about Naxalism]]<br />
[[Category:Medical-themed films]]<br />
[[Category:Films about Hinduism]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in forests]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mettupatti_Mirasu&diff=517509Mettupatti Mirasu2026-03-03T04:54:49Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Creating a data</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| image = Mettupatti Mirasu.jpg<br />
| caption = Poster<br />
| director = [[Anu Mohan (Tamil actor)|Anu Mohan]]<br />
| writer = Anu Mohan<br />
| producer = Bharathi Appusamy<br />
| starring = {{ubl|[[Sivakumar]]|[[Arjun Sarja|Arjun]]|[[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]|[[Suman Ranganathan]]}}<br />
| cinematography = Rajarajan<br />
| editing = Srinivas Krishna<br />
| music = M. S. Sriraj<br />
| studio = Sharmila Movies<br />
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1994|07|15}}<br />
| runtime = 150 minutes<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Tamil<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Mettupatti Mirasu''''' ({{translation|Landlord of Mettupatti}}) is a 1994 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] written and directed by [[Anu Mohan (Tamil actor)|Anu Mohan]]. The film stars [[Sivakumar]], [[Arjun Sarja|Arjun]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]] and [[Suman Ranganathan]], with [[Goundamani]], [[Senthil]], [[S. S. Chandran]], [[Sangeeta (Telugu actress)|Sangeeta]] and [[Sathyapriya]] playing supporting roles. It was released on 15 July 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mettuppatti Mirasu ( 1994 ) |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/allCast.cgi?id=1802 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041129071944/http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/allCast.cgi?id=1802 |archive-date=29 November 2004 |access-date=15 November 2016 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
<br />
Pazhanisamy, also known as Mettupatti Mirasu, is a rich and respected village elder, he is married to the arrogant Deivanai. They have a son, Siva, and a niece, Radha. Siva is going to marry the village belle Meenakshi, who is from another village. The day of the wedding, the bus in which Meenakshi and her family are travelling is stopped by thieves. Chinnadurai rescues them and saves the passengers. Afterwards, Siva and Meenakshi marry in time as planned.<br />
<br />
Karmegam is Pazhanisamy's accountant for many years, he has an eye on Pazhanisamy's wealth. He wants his son to marry Pazhanisamy's niece Radha.<br />
<br />
Chinnadurai is the newly appointed physical education teacher at the village's school. He lives with his widow mother and the villagers make fun of his late mentally ill father. Thereafter, Chinnadurai and Radha fall in love with each other. When Siva learns of their love affair, he wants to arrange Radha's marriage as soon as possible with a man with equal prestige. Pazhanisamy calms his son and he promises to find a better solution at his [[Shashthipurti]] ceremony: that Pazhanisamy will have to marry his wife Deivanai a second time. The day of the ceremony, Siva sends henchmen to beat up Chinnadurai. Chinnadurai fights the henchmen and stops the Shashthipurti ceremony. To everyone's complete surprise, Pazhanisamy ties the [[mangala sutra]] around Valliammai's neck (synonym of marriage).<br />
<br />
In the past, Valliammai worked as a maid in Pazhanisamy's home, she was still unmarried. One day, Deivanai left the home with her son Siva for a ceremony in the neighbouring village but they stayed there for more than a week. In the meantime, Pazhanisamy becomes sick, and Valliammai stayed with him, they had intercourse. A few weeks later, Valliammai became pregnant. When villages elders asked about the father's identity, she showed a mentally ill man to save Pazhanisamy's prestige.<br />
<br />
Thereafter, Siva turns against his father Pazhanisamy under the guidance of the stingy Karmegam. Pazhanisamy then passes away, before his death Meenakshi promises him to solve the feud between Siva and Chinnadurai. What transpires next forms the rest of the story.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
{{cast listing|<br />
*[[Sivakumar]] as Pazhanisamy (Mettupatti Mirasu) and Siva<br />
*[[Arjun Sarja|Arjun]] as Chinnadurai<br />
*[[S. S. Chandran]] as Karmegam<br />
*[[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]] as Meenakshi<br />
*[[Suman Ranganathan]] as Radha<br />
*[[Goundamani]] as Gounder<br />
*[[Senthil]]<br />
*[[Sangeeta (Telugu actress)|Sangeeta]] as Valliammai, Durai's mother<br />
*[[Sathyapriya]] as Deivanai<br />
*[[Vichu Viswanath]]<br />
*[[Kovai Senthil]]<br />
*Krishnamoorthy<br />
*Manager Subramaniam<br />
*M. R. Sulakshana<br />
*Madurai Jayanthi<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Soundtrack ==<br />
The soundtrack was composed by M. S. Sriraj, with lyrics written by [[Pulamaipithan]], [[Kamakodiyan]], [[Piraisoodan]], Muthurasan and Komagan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 November 1994 |title=Mettupatti Mirasu |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/mettupatti-mirasu/EdaXW8BKwfc_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124103837/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/mettupatti-mirasu/EdaXW8BKwfc_ |archive-date=24 January 2024 |access-date=24 January 2024 |website=[[JioSaavn]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mettupatti Mirasu Tamil Film Audio Cassette by Murari |url=https://mossymart.com/product/mettupatti-mirasu-tamil-film-audio-cassette-by-murari/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124102619/https://mossymart.com/product/mettupatti-mirasu-tamil-film-audio-cassette-by-murari/ |archive-date=24 January 2024 |access-date=24 January 2024 |website=Mossymart |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"<br />
! Song !! Singer(s) !! Duration<br />
|-<br />
| "Mangalam Mangalamae" || [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[K. S. Chithra]], [[Uma Ramanan]] || 4:35<br />
|-<br />
| "Raagam Engae" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] || 4:41<br />
|-<br />
| "Chinna Chinna" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[S. P. Sailaja]] || 4:30<br />
|-<br />
| "Thottathunalae" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. P. Sailaja || 4:49<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
{{Expand section|date=February 2024}}<br />
Malini Mannath of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' described the film as "cliched but enjoyable".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=15 July 1994 |title=Cliched but enjoyable |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19940715&printsec=frontpage |access-date=15 November 2015 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=7 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> K. Vijiyan of ''[[New Straits Times]]'' said the film was only "midly satisfying", and was critical of the cinematography.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vijiyan |first=K. |date=31 October 1994 |title=Only a mildly satisfying movie |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Dv9OAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ZiEEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4203%2C4513908 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603040838/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Dv9OAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ZiEEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4203%2C4513908 |archive-date=3 June 2024 |access-date=27 February 2024 |work=[[New Straits Times]] |pages=30 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*{{IMDb title}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1994 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:1994 Tamil-language films]]<br />
[[Category:1994 drama films]]<br />
[[Category:1994 films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian drama films]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agastya_(film)&diff=465972Agastya (film)2026-03-03T02:33:18Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: cleanup</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{infobox film<br />
| name = Agastya<br />
| image = Agastya_movie_poster.jpg<br />
| caption = Poster of ''Agastya''<br />
| director = K Muralikrishna<br />
| producer = Akshya Kumar Parija<br />
| story = [[Prashanta Neel|Prashanth Neel]]<br />
| starring = [[Anubhav Mohanty]] <br/> [[Minaketan Das]] <br/> [[Jhilik Bhattacharya]] <br/> [[Akash Dasnayak]]<br/>[[Mihir Das]]<br />
| music = [[Prem Anand]]<br />
| cinematography = <br />
| editing = Chandrasekhar Mishra<br />
| studio = Akshay Parija production house<br />
| distributor = AA films<br />
| released = {{film date|2016|6|12|df=yes}}<br />
| runtime = 160 mins<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = [[Odia language|Odia]]<br />
| budget = ₹1 crores<br />
| gross = ₹2.39 crores<!--Must cite a reliable published source with a reputation for fact-checking. No blogs, no IMDb. no fan-sites.--><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Agastya''''' is a 2016 Indian [[Odia language|Odia]] [[Action film|action]] [[Thriller (genre)|thriller film]] directed by K Muralikrishna and produced under Akshya Parija Productions. It was released on 12 June 2016 at [[Raja (festival)|Rajo Festival]]. {{citation needed|date=December 2016}} Being a remake of the 2014 Kannada film ''[[Ugramm]]'', it was one of the best Odia movies in 2016. [[Anubhav Mohanty]],<ref>{{cite web|title= Ollywood Filmography: Anubhav Mohanty (Complete List)|url =https://www.odiaportal.in/2016/01/Anubhab-Mohanty-Filmography.html|accessdate=}}</ref> [[Akash Dasnayak|Akash]], and Jhillik play lead roles.<ref>{{cite web|title= Upcoming movie of Ollywood Superstar Anubhav Mohanty|url= http://www.odiasantabanta.in/2015/07/agastya-odia-film-original-songs-video.html?m=1|accessdate= |archive-date= 17 August 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160817044542/http://www.odiasantabanta.in/2015/07/agastya-odia-film-original-songs-video.html?m=1|url-status= dead}}</ref> The music was released by [[Amara Muzik]]. <br />
It was a Superhit movie in the Odia film industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mycitylinks.in/2016-neither-memorable-nor-a-forgettable-year-for-ollywood/|title=2016: Neither Memorable nor a Forgettable Year for Ollywood|date=17 January 2003}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Cast ==<br />
* [[Anubhav Mohanty]] as Agastya<br />
* [[Akash Das Nayak]] as Suraj<br />
* [[Jhilik Bhattacharya]] as Neha<br />
* [[Mihir Das]] as Rudra Pratap <br />
* [[Minaketan Das]]<br />
* [[Manoj Mishra]]<br />
* [[Prithviraj Patanaik]] as Neha's Father<br />
* Aswin Tripathy<br />
* [[Agastya Asthana]]<br />
* Kalicharan<br />
* Pragnya Khatua<br />
* Shankar <br />
* Kumar<br />
* Priyanka Patanaik (Agastya's Mother)<br />
<br />
==Soundtrack==<br />
{{Infobox album<br />
| name = Agastya<br />
| type = [[Soundtrack]]<br />
| artist = [[Prem Anand]]<br />
| cover =<br />
| border = <br />
| alt = <br />
| released = 12 June 2016<br />
| recorded = 2016<br />
| venue =<br />
| studio =<br />
| genre = [[Soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]<br />
| length = {{Duration|m=18|s=14}}<br />
| language = [[Odia language|Odia]]<br />
| label =<br />
| director = K.Murali Krishna<br />
| producer =<br />
| prev_title =<br />
| prev_year =<br />
| next_title =<br />
| next_year =<br />
}}<br />
The complete soundtrack album was released on 27 September 2017.<br />
<br />
{{Track listing<br />
| all_writing = <br />
| all_music = [[Prem Anand]]<br />
| headline = Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| total_length = 18:14<br />
| title1 = Agastya(Title Track)<br />
| length1 = 4:50<br />
| extra1 = [[Ananya Nanda]], [[Humane Sagar]]<br />
| lyrics1 = Subrata Swain<br />
| title2 = Dhire Dhire Bhala Pai Gali<br />
| length2 = 3:33<br />
| extra2 = [[Ananya Nanda]], [[Humane Sagar]]<br />
| lyrics2 = Subrata Swain<br />
| title3 = Rama Rama-e-Jhia Ta<br />
| length3 = 3:30<br />
| extra3 = Pragyan Hota<br/>Aryan Das<br/>Ashutosh Mohanty<br/>[[Humane Sagar]]<br />
| lyrics3 = Arun Mantri<br />
| title4 = Tipi Tipi Barsha Topa<br />
| length4 = 5:00<br />
| extra4 = [[Ananya Nanda]]<br />
| lyrics4 = Subrata Swain<br />
| title5 = Dhire Dhire (Sad Version)<br />
| length5 = 2:31<br />
| extra5 = [[Ananya Nanda]], [[Humane Sagar]]<br />
| lyrics5 = Subrata Swain<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Satellite rights ==<br />
Sarthak TV purchased the film's satellite rights for {{INR}}4 crores, which was a record amount for an [[Cinema of Odisha|Ollywood]] film.<ref>https://increadibleorissa.com/odia-film-agastya-tv-rights-record-ollywood/amp/{{Dead link|date=June 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IMDb title|tt5889478}}<br />
*[https://www.odiaportal.in/2016/03/Agastya-Odia-Action-Movie-of-Anubhab-Mohanty.html Ollywood: New Odia Action Movie *AGASTYA* of Anubhab Mohanty]<br />
<br />
[[Category:2016 action thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Odia remakes of Kannada films]]<br />
[[Category:2010s Odia-language films]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{2010s-action-film-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bhaktivinoda_Thakur&diff=448644Bhaktivinoda Thakur2026-02-23T09:57:59Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Page updated with additional details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian spiritual leader (1838–1914)}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=July 2014}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox Hindu leader<br />
| name = Bhaktivinoda Thakur<br />
| image = Bhaktivinoda Thakur ca.1910.jpg<br />
| alt = A close-up portrait of an old man with grey hair and thick wooden necklace beads<br />
| caption = Bhaktivinoda Thakur, {{Circa|1910}}<br />
| religion = [[Hinduism]]<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1838|09|02}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Birnagar]], [[Company rule in India|India]]<br />
| birth_name = Kedarnath Datta<br />
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1914|06|23|1838|09|02}}<br />
| death_place = [[Calcutta]], [[British Raj|India]]<br />
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]<br />
| spouse = {{plainlist|<br />
*{{marriage|Shaymani Devi|1849|1861}}<br />
*{{marriage|Bhagavati Devi|1861|1914}}}}<br />
| children = [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]], Lalita Prasad,12 other children<br />
| relatives = [[Narottama Dasa]] (distant ancestor), [[Kashiprasad Ghosh]] (maternal uncle)<br />
| guru = Bipin Bihari Goswami, Srila Jagannath Dasa Babaji Maharaj<br />
| order = <br />
| sect = [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]]<br />
| philosophy = [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]]<br />
| honors = Bhaktivinoda, "the seventh goswami"<br />
| literary_works = ''Krishna-samhita'', ''Caitanya-siksamrita'', ''Jaiva-dharma'', ''[[Svalikhita-jivani]]''. See [[Bhaktivinoda Thakur bibliography|bibliography]]<br />
| influenced = [[Gaurakisora Dasa Babaji]], [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]], [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami]]<br />
| module = {{Listen<br />
|filename= Yasomati-nandana (Sri Nama-kirtana).ogg<br />
|title=Yasomati-nandana (Sri Nama-kirtana)<br />
|description=A [[Bengali language|Bengali]] ''[[bhajan]]'' by Bhaktivinoda Thakur from ''Gitavali'' (1893).{{sfn|Svami|2000|p=58}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=13, 288, 290}} Music and singing by [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami]] (ca.1970). (11:41)<br />
|image = none<br />
| embed = yes<br />
}}<br />
| footnotes = <br />
| signature = Bhaktivinoda signature.svg<br />
| signature_alt = Close-up on Bengali words handwritten with angular, jaunty letters<br />
| background = Orange<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Bhaktivinoda Thakur''' ({{IAST3|Bhakti-vinoda Ṭhākura}}, {{IPA|bn|bʱɔktibinodo tʰakur|-|Bn-ভক্তিবিনোদ ঠাকুর.wav}}) (2 September 1838 – 23 June 1914), born '''Kedarnath Datta''' ({{IAST|Kedāra-nātha Datta}}, {{IPA|bn|kedɔrnɔtʰ dɔtto|lang}}), was an Indian [[Hindu]] philosopher, [[guru]] and spiritual reformer of [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]]{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=iv, 3, 90, 102}} who effected its resurgence in India in late 19th and early 20th century{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}}{{sfn|Gupta|2014|p=2}} and was called by contemporary scholars as a Gaudiya Vaishnava leader of his time.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=6}} He, along with his son [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]], is also credited with initiating the propagation of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in the West and its global spread.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=7, 254–255}}<br />
<br />
He tackled the task of reconciling Western reason and traditional belief, by accommodating both modern critical analysis and Hindu mysticism in his writings. Kedarnath's spiritual quest led him at the age of 29 to become a follower of [[Caitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1533). He dedicated himself to the study and practice of Chaitanya's teachings, emerging as a leader within the [[Caitanya Vaishnavism|Chaitanya Vaishnava]] movement in Bengal.{{sfn|Gupta|2014|p=2}}<br />
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In his later years Bhaktivinoda founded and conducted ''nama-hatta'' – a travelling preaching program that spread theology and practice of Chaitanya throughout rural and urban Bengal, by means of discourses, printed materials and Bengali songs of his own composition. He also opposed what he saw as ''apasampradayas'', or numerous distortions of the original Chaitanya teachings. He is credited with the rediscovery of the lost site of Chaitanya's birth, in [[Mayapur]] near [[Nabadwip]], which he commemorated with a prominent temple.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=108}}<br />
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Bhaktivinoda Thakur led the spread of Chaitanya's teachings in the West,{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}} in 1880 sending copies of his works to [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] in the United States and to [[Reinhold Rost]] in Europe.<br />
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The revival of Gaudiya Vaishnavism effected by Bhaktivinoda spawned one of India's preaching missions of the early 20th century, the [[Gaudiya Matha]], headed by his son and spiritual heir, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|pp=176, 182}} Bhaktisiddhanta's disciple [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami]] (1896–1977) continued his ''[[guru]]''{{'s}} Western mission when in 1966 in the United States he founded [[ISKCON]], or the [[Hare Krishna movement]], which then spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism globally.<br />
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==Bengali Renaissance and the ''bhadralok''==<br />
Kedarnath Datta belonged to the ''[[kayastha]]'' community of Bengali intellectual gentry that lived during the Bengal Renaissance and attempted to rationalise their traditional Hindu beliefs and customs.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}}<br />
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Kedarnath's birth in 1838 occurred during the period of the history of Bengal marked by the emergence and influence of the ''[[bhadralok]]'' community.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=15}} The ''bhadralok'', refers to "gentle or respectable people",{{sfn|Sardella2013b|p=17}} was a class of Bengalis (Hindus), who served the [[British Raj|British administration]] in occupations requiring Western education and proficiency in English and other languages.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp=17–18}} Exposed to and influenced by the Western values of the British, including the latter's condescending attitude towards cultural and religious traditions of India, the ''bhadralok'' started calling into question and reassessing the tenets of their own religion and customs.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p=19}} Their attempts to rationalise and modernise Hinduism in order to reconcile it with the Western outlook gave rise to a historical period called the [[Bengali Renaissance]].{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=175}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p=6}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013a|p=415}}<br />
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This trend led to a perception, both in India and in the West, of modern Hinduism as being equivalent to [[Advaita Vedanta]], a conception of the divine as devoid of form and individuality that was hailed by its proponents as the "perennial philosophy"{{sfn|Ward|1998|pp=35–36}} and "the mother of religions".{{sfn|Ward|1998|p=10}} As a result, the other schools of Hinduism, including ''[[Bhakti movement|bhakti]]'', were gradually relegated in the minds of the Bengali Hindu middle-class to obscurity, and seen as a "reactionary and fossilized jumble of empty rituals and idolatrous practices."{{sfn|Sardella|2013a|p=415}}{{sfn|Ward|1998|p=10}}<br />
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==Early period (1838–1858): student==<br />
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===Birth and childhood===<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align = right<br />
| perrow = 1/2<br />
| total_width = 300<br />
| image1 = BVT_birthsite.JPG<br />
| caption1 = Bhaktivinoda Thakur's memorial at his birthplace in [[Birnagar]], West Bengal<br />
| caption2 = A shrine at the actual site of birth<br />
| alt1 = A gazebo-like stone structure pyramidal roof and a small dome<br />
| width1 = 300<br />
| image2 = BVT birthsite shrine.jpg<br />
| alt2 = A tomb-like structure covered in while tiles with Bengali script at the entrance<br />
| width2 = 155<br />
| image3 = BVT maternal house entrance.JPG<br />
| width3 = 145<br />
| alt3 = A brown domed structure with bamboo scaffolding<br />
| caption3 = The entrance to Kedamath Datta's matemal home in [[Birnagar|Birnagar (Ula)]], West Bengal under renovation. 2014<br />
}}<br />
Kedarnath was born on 2 September 1838 in the village of [[Birnagar|Ula (presently Birnagar)]] in Bengal, some {{convert|100|km|miles}} north of modern-day Kolkata.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=33}} Both his father, Ananda Chandra Dutta, and mother, Jagat Mohini Devi, hailed from ''[[kayastha]]'' families.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=34–36}}<br />
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After a village schooling, he continued his education at [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Hindu College in Calcutta]], where he acquainted himself with contemporary Western philosophy and theology. There he became a close associate of literary and intellectual figures of the [[Bengali Renaissance]], such as [[Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar]], [[Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay]], and [[Sisir Kumar Ghosh]].' In his youth he spent time researching and comparing various religious and philosophical systems, both Indian and Western, with a view of finding among them a comprehensive, authentic and intellectually satisfying path. At 18, he began a teaching career in rural areas of Bengal and Orissa until he became an employee with the British Raj in the Judicial Service, from which he retired in 1894 as [[District Magistrate]].<br />
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From the time of [[Caitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1533), the paternal Datta lineage were [[Vaishnava]]s and counted among their ranks [[Krishnananda Dutta Chaudhury|Krishnananda]], an associate of [[Nityananda Prabhu]]. Kedarnath's mother, Jagan Mohini Devi (born Mitra), was a descendant of Rameshwar Mitra, a ''[[zamindar]]'' (landowner) of the 18th century.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=35}} Kedarnath's great-grandfather (along with many other 18th century Dattas), Ramtanu Datta, converted to [[Shaktism]] and [[Durga]]-[[Kali]] worship.{{Sfn|Dasa|1999|p=35-36, 61-62}} Kedaranath in his autobiography ''[[Svalikhita-jivani]]'' refers to his father, Anand Chandra Dutta, as a "straightforward, clean, religious man"{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=36}} and describes his mother as "a sober woman possessed of many unique qualities".{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=37}}<br />
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Kedarnath was the third of six children of Anand Chandra and Jagat Mohini, preceded by older brothers Abhaykali (died before Kedarnath's birth) and Kaliprasanna and followed by three younger siblings: sister Hemlata and brothers Haridas and Gauridas.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=36}} Kedarnath evoked affection of his mother, who prayed for his survival.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=33}}<br />
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Prior to his birth, financial circumstances had forced his parents to relocate from Calcutta to Ula, where he was born and grew up in the palace of his maternal grandfather, Ishwar Chandra Mustauphi, a landowner known for his generosity.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=36}}<br />
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From the age of five, Kedarnath attended the village school in Ula. Later, when an English school opened there, he showed interest in the English language, attending the classes during lunch, that the headmaster of the school convinced Anand Chandra to let the boy study there.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=39}} At the age of seven Kadarnath was transferred to another English school in [[Krishnanagar, Nadia|Krishnanagar]].{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=39}}<br />
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In the following years Kedarnath's family faced a series of calamities. All three of his brothers died of [[cholera]], soon followed by their father, Anand Chandra. The financial situation of his widowed mother worsened as his maternal grandfather, Ishwar Chandra, incurred huge debts due to the oppressive [[Permanent Settlement|Permanent Settlement Act]] and ended up bankrupt.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=40–41}} In 1850, when Kedarnath was 12, in accordance with the upper-class Hindu customs Jagat Mohini married him to a five-year-old Shaymani Mitra of [[Ranaghat]], hoping to sever Kedarnath's connection with the ill fate of his own family and replace it with the good ''[[karma]]'' of the in-laws.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=44}} Soon after the wedding Ishwar Chandra died, leaving the responsibility for his troubled estate on the widow with two young children.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=45}} Kedarnath recalls:<br />
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{{blockquote|Everybody thought that my mother had a lot of money and jewelry, so no one would help. All her wealth was lost except for a few properties. There was so much debt and I was full of anxiety. I was unqualified to look after the affairs of the estate. My grandfather's house was huge. The guards were few and I was afraid of thieves at night so I had to give the guards bamboo sticks to carry.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=45}}}}<br />
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These hardships made Kedarnath question the meaning of life and ponder over reasons for human sufferings. He felt unconvinced by conventional explanations and started doubting the reality of the many [[Hindu]] gods and goddesses worshiped in village temples. Exposed to contradictory views ranging from religious beliefs to tantric practices, exorcism, superstitions and atheism, Kedarnath found himself in a state of disappointment and philosophical confusion. It was at that time that an encounter with an old woman who advised him to chant the name of [[Rama]] made an impact on him, planting the seed of the Vaishnava faith that he maintained throughout his life.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=42-43}}<br />
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New challenges and responsibilities caused Kedarnath to visit Calcutta for the first time. The trip, further developed his curiosity for European life and customs. Back in Ula he continued struggling to maintain the property inherited from his grandfather. This took a toll on his education. Finally, in 1852 his maternal uncle, [[Kashiprasad Ghosh]], a famous poet and newspaper editor, visited Ula and, impressed with the talented boy, convinced Jagat Mohini to send Kedarnath to Calcutta to further his studies. In November 1852, leaving his mother and sister behind in Ula, Kedarnath moved to Ghosh's house on [[Beadon Street]] in the middle of Calcutta.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=46}}<br />
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===Education in Calcutta===<br />
Calcutta was a multicultural city, different from Kedarnath's experience.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=46, 48}} His maternal uncle Kashiprasad Ghosh, a graduate of the [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Hindu College]] of Calcutta, was a champion of Westernisation, the editor of the English-language ''Hindu Intelligencer'', a journal which propagated the ideas of the ''bhadralok'', and a patriotic poet praised even by the British.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=47}}<br />
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Kedarnath stayed with Kashiprasad Ghosh until 1858 and became steeped in the lifestyle of the ''bhadralok'' and immersed in studying a range of Western philosophical, poetic, political, and religious texts.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=48}} Kadarnath studied at the Hindu Charitable Institute{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}} between 1852 and 1856. There he met one of the ''bhadralok'' Hindu intellectuals of the time, [[Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar]] (1820–1891), who became his tutor, his mentor, and a lifelong friend.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=48–49}}<br />
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While excelling in his studies, especially in the English language and writing, Kedarnath started writing his own poems and articles.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=49}} Exposed to and influenced by the views of the acquaintances of Kashiprasad who frequented his home, [[Kristo Das Pal]], Shambhu Mukhopadhyay, Baneshwar Vidyalankar, and others – Kedarnath started regularly contributing to the ''Hindu Intelligencer'', critiquing contemporary social and political issues from a ''bhadralok'' viewpoint.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=52–53}} Eventually, Kedarnath felt confident enough in his studies and in 1856 enrolled in the [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Hindu College]] (Calcutta) where for the next two years he continued his studies under Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in the company of remarkable classmates such as [[Keshub Chandra Sen]], [[Nabagopal Mitra]], and the elder brothers of [[Rabindranath Tagore]]: [[Satyendranath Tagore|Satyendranath]] and [[Ganendranath Tagore|Ganendranath]].{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=53}} Becoming involved in the intellectual values of the ''bhadralok'' community, Kedarnath along with his classmates started taking public-speaking lessons from the British parliamentarian and abolitionist [[George Thompson (abolitionist)|George Thompson]] (1804–1878).{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=53}} At the same time, Kedarnath published his first major literary work, a two-volume historical poem titled ''The Poriade'', which earned him both a name as a poet and some income.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=54–55}}<br />
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Kedarnath's health deteriorated due to poor drinking water and the challenging environment of Calcutta. He made regular visits to his mother and sister in Ula for recovery and convalescence.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=49–51}} He was treated by a ''fakir'' physician of the leather worker caste who belonged to the heterodox [[Kartabhaja|Kartābhajā]] sect of Chaitanyite Vaishnavism. Kedarnath soon took initiation from the ''fakīr''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s guru who gave Kedarnath a Krishna mantra and encouraged him to become a vegetarian; later in life Kedarnath theologically criticised the Kartabhajas but acknowledged their influence in moving him towards Gaudiya Vaishnavism. However, when in 1856{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=76}}{{efn|Other sources give 1857 as the year of the epidemic, but that contradicts the age of 17 cited by Bhaktivinoda in ''[[Svalikhita-jivani]]''}} an outbreak of cholera wiped out the whole village of Ula, killing his sister Hemlata and sparing his mother, Kedarnath took her along with his grandmother to Calcutta for good.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=55–56}} The devastation of Ula marked a turning point in Kedarnath's attitude to life. He writes:<br />
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{{blockquote|At that time I was seventeen years old and I had to face terrible hardships. There was no money. I could hardly speak to anyone. Everyone thought that my mother had a ''lakh'' [100,000] of rupees, no one believed that we were poor. I saw no hope. My mind became apathetic, the house was empty. I had no strength and my heart was dying of pain.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=56}}}}[[File:Bhaktivinoda Thakur in suit.jpg|thumb|Kedarnath Datta as a student ca. 1858]]Finding himself disoriented, he sought shelter in his friendship with the Tagore brothers. There he overcame his crisis and started moving towards a religious rather than social and political outlook on life. Along with Dvijendranath Tagore, Kedarnath started studying [[Sanskrit]] and the theological writings of such authors as [[Kant]], [[Goethe]], [[Hegel]], [[Swedenborg]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Voltaire]], and [[Schopenhauer]]; for a time he was attracted to the [[Brahmo Samaj]] and its monotheism before it eventually lost its appeal.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=56-57}} At the same time, Kedarnath daily met with Charles Dall, a [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian]] minister from the [[American Unitarian Association]] of [[Boston]] posted to Calcutta for propagating Unitarian ideas among the educated Bengalis. Under Dall's guidance, Kedarnath studied the Bible and the Unitarian writings of [[William Ellery Channing|Channing]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]], [[Theodore Parker|Parker]], and others.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=57–58}} While developing a faith in [[Jesus]] and a fascination for the liberalism and syncretism of Unitarian religious teachings, the young Kedarnath also studied [[George Sale]]'s translation of the [[Qur'an]].{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=58}}<br />
Dire financial strain and obligations to maintain his young wife and aging mother caused Kedarnath to look for employment.{{sfn|Bhatia|2008|p=130}} Finding a well-paid job in Calcutta – especially a job compatible with his high ethical values{{efn|Biographers cite an instance when Kedarnath quit a well-paid job that involved bargain due to feeling discomfort with having to "cheat the whole seller for profit".{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=59}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=78}}}} – was nearly impossible.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=78}} After a few unsuccessful stints as a teacher and after incurring a debt, Kedarnath along with his mother and wife accepted the invitation of Rajballabh, his paternal grandfather in [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], and in the spring of 1858 left for the Orissan village of Chutimangal.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=59}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=78–79}}<br />
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==Middle period (1858–1874): working years==<br />
<br />
===Teaching in Orissa (1858–1866)===<br />
In Chutimangal, Kedarnath Datta was able to begin his career as an English teacher – first at the local village school, and then, after passing a qualifying examination, at a school in [[Cuttack]].{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=79}} From 1862 until 1865 he served as the first headmaster of Bhadrak High School (currently Zilla School) in [[Bhadrak]].{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=79}} His finances improved, allowing him to dedicate more time to studying, writing, and lecturing.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=79}} This established Kedarnath as an intellectual and cultural voice of the local ''bhadralok'' community, and soon a following of his own formed, consisting of students attracted by his discourses and personal tutorship on religious and philosophical topics.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=79–81, 83–84}}<br />
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In August 1860 his first son, Annada Datta, was born. His birth was followed by the death of Kedarnath's wife ten months later.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=80–81}} Widowed and with an infant on his hands at twenty-three, Kedarnath married Bhagavati Devi, a daughter of Gangamoy Roy of Jakpore. She would become his companion and the mother of his other thirteen children.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=65, 84, 300}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=82}}{{efn|Kedarnath Datta's fourteen children are:&lt;br /&gt; with Shaymani: (1) Annada Prasad, son (1860);&lt;br /&gt; with Bhagavati Devi: (1) Saudamani, daughter (1864); (2) Kadambani, daughter (1867); (3) son died early, name unknown (1868); (4) Radhika Prasad, son (1870); (5) Kamala Prasad, son (1872); (6) [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati|Bimala Prasad]], son (1874); (7) Barada Prasad, son (1877); (8) Biraja Prasad, son (1878); (9) [[Lalita Prasad]], son (1880); (10) Krishna Vinodini, daughter (1884); (11) Shyam Sarojini, daughter (1886); (12) Hari Pramodini, daughter (1888); (13) Shailaja Prasad, son (1891).{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p=55}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=300}}{{sfn|Swami|2009|p=6}}}} After a short tenure at a lucrative position as the head clerk at the [[Bardhaman]] revenue collector's office, Kedarnath felt morally compromised as well as insecure with the position of a rent collector and settled for a less profitable but more agreeable occupation as a clerk elsewhere.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=82}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=66}}<br />
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These external events as well as the internal conflict between morality and need moved Kedarnath towards introspection in search for a more appealing concept of God, as accepted in Christianity (towards which he leaned) and Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=177}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=64–67}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=80–81, 83–84}} A meeting with a ''jāti'' Vaishnava in Midnapore exposed Kedarnath to Chaitanya and Vaishnavism. Kedarnath tried to acquire a copy of ''[[Caitanya Caritamrita|Chaitanya Caritamrita]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', principal scriptures for Gaudiya Vaishnavas, but failed. The death of his wife greatly affected him, and he struggled to reconcile his intellectual leanings towards the formlessness of God and his emotional prayers to a personal deity.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=177}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=64–65}}<br />
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This period was also marked with Kedarnath's budding literary gift. Taking advantage of the tranquility of his new clerical job, he composed the Bengali poems ''Vijanagrama'' and ''Sannyasi'', lauded for their poetic meter, which incorporated the style of [[John Milton|Milton]] and [[Lord Byron|Byron]] into Bengali verse.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=66}} He also authored an article on Vaishnavism as well as a book, ''Our Wants''.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=83}}<br />
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As Bhagavati Devi gave birth to Kedarnath's second child, daughter Saudhamani (1864), the need to secure a more stable income for his growing family made Kedarnath seek a job with the British government.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=91}}<br />
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===Government service (1866–1893)===<br />
[[File:Bhaktivinoda Thakur young.jpg|thumb|Kedarnath Datta as a teacher ca. 1870s]]<br />
In February 1866 Kedarnath Datta received, with a friend's help, a position with the [[General Register Office|Registrar]]'s office as a "Special Deputy Registrar of Assurances with Powers of a Deputy [[District Magistrate|Magistrate]] and Deputy [[District collector|Collector]]" in [[Chhapra]] in the [[Saran district]] of [[Bihar]].{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=67–68}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=84–85}} In [[British Raj|colonial Bengal]] a job at the [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|executive government service]], staffed by the ''bhadralok'' (except for the top management tier, occupied by the British), was the coveted achievement. It ensured one's financial security, social status, and protected retirement.{{sfn|Marvin|1996|pp=93–94}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=84–85}} During the next twenty-eight years, Kedarnath rose through the ranks of civil service from sixth grade to second grade, which entailed authority.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=69}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=91}}{{efn|Kedarnath Datta in ''Svalikhita-jivani'' confesses to the discomfort of holding the position of authority that made his subordinates ingratiate themselves to him, out of fear and intimidation, by gifts and singing.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=91}}}} Kedarnath gradually established himself with the British authorities as a responsible and efficient officer and a man of integrity.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=71}} The course of his government service took him and his growing family to twenty different locations in Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=296–299}}{{sfn|Marvin|1996|pp=334–337}} This allowed him to study different cultures, languages, and religions. He also showed himself a linguistic savant, within a short time learning [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]], required for his government duties.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=85}} He also mastered [[Sanskrit]] for his Vaishnava pursuits, enough to be able to read the ''Bhagavata Purana'' with traditional commentaries and to write his own Sanskrit poetry.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=90}}<br />
<br />
When Kedarnath suffered from prolonged bouts of fever and [[colitis]],{{efn|In ''Svalikhita-jivani'' Kedarnath attributes his chronic intestinal disorders to his non-vegetarian diet up until his initiation in 1880, even while already practising Vaishnavism that strictly prohibits meat-eating.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=85}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=71}}}} he took advantage of the paid sick leave to visit [[Mathura]] and [[Vrindavana]] – sacred places for Gaudiya Vaishnavas.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=72}}[[File:Bhaktivinoda Thakur in Magistrate dress.jpg|thumb|alt=An Indian man in mid-50s dressed in an official-looking overcoat and cap|Kedarnath Datta in official magistrate dress, late 1880s]]In 1868, Kedarnath became Deputy Magistrate in [[Dinajpur]], a city with a strong Vaishnava community. After an eight-year search, in 1868 he found a copy of Chaitanya's biography ''Chaitanya Caritamrita'' by [[Krishnadasa Kaviraja]] and a translation of the ''Bhagavata Purana''.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=87}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=73}} He became appreciative of Chaitanya's teaching but struggled to reconcile it with the Christian and Unitarian-influenced ''bhadraloka'' perception of [[Krishna]], Chaitanya's God described in the ''Bhagavata Purana'', as "basically a wrong-doer."{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=87}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=73}} He concluded that both faith and reason have their respective, complementary places in religious experience, and neither can be ousted from it altogether.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=177}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=87}} Kedarnath describes the transformation he went through while reading the long sought-after scripture:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|My first reading of ''Caitanya Caritamrita'' created some faith in Caitanya. On the second reading I understood that Caitanya was unequalled, but l doubted how such a good scholar with so high a level of ''[[Prem (Hinduism)|prema]]'' could recommend the worship of Krishna, who had such a questionable character. I was amazed, and I thought about this in detail. Afterwards, I humbly prayed to God, "O Lord, please give me the understanding to know the secret of this matter." The mercy of God is without limit and so I soon understood. From then on I believed that Caitanya was God. I often spoke with many ''vairagis'' to understand Vaishnava dharma. From childhood the seeds of faith for Vaishnava dharma had been planted within my heart and now they had sprouted. I experienced ''anuraga'' (spiritual yearning) and day and night I read and thought about Krishna.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=73}}}}<br />
Accepting Chaitanya as the final goal of his intellectual and spiritual quest, Kedarnath started delivering public lectures on his teachings, culminating in his speech ''[[:File:The Bhagavata by BVT.pdf|The Bhagavat: Its Philosophy, Ethics and Theology]]'' – his first public announcement of his newly found religious allegiance.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=177}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=74}} In ''The Bhagavat'', delivered in English but directed at both the Western cultural conquest and the ''bhadralok'' that conquest influenced,{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=177}}{{sfn|Gupta|2014|pp=19–20}} Kedarantha attempted to reconcile modern thought and Vaishnava orthodoxy and to restore the ''Bhagavata'' to its preeminent position in Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=177}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=74}} His newfound inspiration in the teachings of Chaitanya and the ''Bhagavata'' made Kedarnath receive his next job transfer to [[Puri|Jagannath Puri]] as a blessing – Puri was Chaitanya's residence for most of his life, and the shelter of the principal Vaishnava shrine, the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Temple of Jagannath]].{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=74–75}}<br />
<br />
===Service in Puri (1870–1875)===<br />
[[File:Kedarnatha Datta ca. 1870.jpg|thumb|Kedarnatha Datta ca. 1870]]<br />
Following the annexation of the state of [[Odisha|Orissa]] by Britain in 1803, the British force commander in India, [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Marquess Wellesley]], ordered by decree "the utmost degree of accuracy and vigilance" in protecting the security of the Jagannath temple and in respecting religious sentiments of its worshipers.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=75–76}} The policy was followed to the point that the British army escorted Hindu religious processions.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=76}} However, under the pressure of Christian missionaries both in India and in Britain, in 1863 this policy was lifted and the temple management entrusted to the care of the local ''[[brahmana| brahmanas]]'', which soon led to its deterioration.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=76}}<br />
<br />
When Kedarnath was posted to Puri in 1870, he was given the charge to oversee law and order in the pilgrimage site, as well as to provide pilgrims with food, accommodation, and medical assistance on festival occasions.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=77}} The government also deputed Kedarnath as a law enforcement officer to thwart the Atibadis, a [[heterodox]] Vaishnava sect that conspired to overthrow the British and was led by a self-proclaimed ''[[avatar]]'', Bishkishan, a task that Kedarnath accomplished.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=79–80}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=88–90}}<br />
<br />
However, while busy with governmental assignments, Kedarnath dedicated his off-duty time to nurturing his newly acquired inspiration for Gaudiya Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=78}} He started mastering Sanskrit under the tutelage of local ''[[pandit]]s'' and absorbed himself in intense study of ''Chaitanya Caritamrita'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'' with the commentary of Sridhara Svami, and the seminal philosophical treatises of the Gaudiya Vaishnava canon such as the ''[[Sat Sandarbhas]]'' by [[Jiva Goswami]] (c.1513–1598), ''[[Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu]]'' by [[Rupa Goswami]] (1489–1564), and the ''[[Govinda Bhashya]]'' commentary by [[Baladeva Vidyabhushana]] (?−1768) on the ''[[Brahma Sutra]]s''.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=177}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=88, 90}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=78}} Kedarnath also started searching for Gaudiya Vaishnava manuscripts and writing on the subject of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, authoring and publishing ''Datta-kaustubha'' and a number of Sanskrit verses, and commenced a major literary work, ''Krishna-samhita''.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=78}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Bhaktisiddhanta child.jpg|right|thumb|alt=A young Bengali boy looking forward|Kedarnath Datta's seventh child [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati|Bimala Prasad, age 7]] (1881)]]<br />
Soon Kedarnath formed a society called ''Bhagavat Samsad,'' consisting of the local ''bhadralok'' who were eager listen to his exposition of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=78}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=90}} This brought him at odds with some pandits of the [[Mukti Mandapa|Mukti Maṇḍapa]], who criticised him for lecturing on the ''[[Bhāgavata Purāṇa]]'' and other Vaishnava topics while lacking a proper Vaishnava initiation, or ''[[diksha]]'', the [[tilak]] markings, and other devotional insignia.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=90–91}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=78–79}}{{efn|Kedarnath accepts this criticism as fair in his autobiography.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=78–79}}}} Even though Kedarnath was following Gaudiya Vaishnava spiritual discipline like ''[[japa|harinama-japa]]'', or chanting the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna mantra]] on beads,{{efn|with the only exception of his still non-vegetarian diet that he admits to following until his initiation in 1880}} their opposition prompted Kedarnath to aspire to find a ''[[Diksa guru|diksha-guru]]'' and take initiation from him.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=90–91}}<br />
<br />
While Kedarnath Datta was able to influence many ''bhadraloks'' towards the Gaudiya Vaishnavism taught by Chaitanya, he felt in need of assistance.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p=62}} When his wife gave birth to a new child, Kedarnath linked the event to a divinatory dream and named his son Bimala Prasad ('"the mercy of Bimala Devi").{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p = 81}} The same account mentions that at his birth, the child's [[umbilical cord]] was looped around his body like a [[upanayana|sacred brahmana thread (''upavita'')]] that left a permanent mark on the skin, as if foretelling his future role as religious leader.{{sfn|Swami|2009|p = 1}} <br />
<br />
In the 1880s, Kedarnath Datta, out of desire to foster the child's interest in spirituality, initiated him into ''harinama-japa''. At the age of nine Bimala Prasad memorised the seven hundred [[shloka|verses]] of the'' [[Bhagavad Gita]]'' in Sanskrit.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p = 64}} From his childhood Bimala Prasad demonstrated a sense of moral behavior, intelligence, and an [[eidetic memory]].{{sfn|Swami|2009|p = 10}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p = 65}} He gained a reputation for remembering passages from a book on a single reading, and learned enough to compose his own poetry in Sanskrit.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp = 64–65}} Bhaktisiddhanta's biographers write that even up to his last days Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati could verbatim recall passages from books that he had read in his childhood, earning the epithet "living encyclopedia".{{sfn|Swami|2009|pp = 9–10}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p = 65}} Bimala Prasad later became known as Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati.<br />
<br />
By the end Kedarnath's tenure in Puri his family had seven children, and his oldest daughter, Saudamani, 10, had to be married – which, according to upper-class Hindu customs, had to take place in Bengal.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=83}} Kedarnath took a three-month privileged leave from his duties and in November 1874 went with his family to Bengal.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=83}}<br />
<br />
{| class="collapsible collapsed wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" rowspan="1" |Extract of the work record of Kedarnath Datta. Corrected to 27 November 1893.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=296–299}}{{sfn|Marvin|1996|pp=334–337}}<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" |Taken from ''History of Services of Officers Holding Gazetted Appointments under the Government of Bengal'' (corrected to 1 July 1894) Chapter 9: Sub-executive officers, pp.&amp;nbsp;603–4<br />
|-<br />
! '''Station''' !! '''Substantive appointment''' !!'''Date'''<br />
|-<br />
| [[Saran district|Saran]]|| Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, 7th grade ||16 February 1866<br />
|-<br />
|[[Kishanganj]] in [[Purnia division|Purneah]] || Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, 7th grade || 2 November 1867<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dinajpur]] || {{center|ditto}} || 7 May 1868<br />
|-<br />
| [[Champaran]] || {{center|ditto}} || 15 November 1869<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" | {{center|Leave without pay for 4&amp;nbsp;days from 10 April 1870}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Puri]] || {{center|ditto}} || 14 April 1870<br />
|-<br />
| Puri || Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, 6th grade ||25 November 1870<br />
|-<br />
| [[Araria]] in [[Purnia division|Purneah]] || {{center|ditto}} || 12 April 1875<br />
|-<br />
| Araria in Purneah || Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, 5th grade || 9 December 1876<br />
|-<br />
| Mohesrekhar in [[Howrah]] || {{center|ditto}} || 11 December 1877<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bhadrak]] in [[Balasore district|Balasore]] || {{center|ditto}} || 26 February 1878<br />
|-<br />
| [[Narail]] in [[Jessore District|Jessore]] || {{center|ditto}} || 14 October 1878&lt;br /&gt;17 Oct 1881<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" | {{center|Leave of medical certificate for 4&amp;nbsp;months and 7&amp;nbsp;days from 10 January 1882}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Barasat]] in [[North 24 Parganas district|24 Parganas]] || {{center|ditto}} || 17 May 1882<br />
|-<br />
| Barasat in 24 Parganas || Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, 4th grade || 20 May 1883<br />
|-<br />
| [[Serampore]] in [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]] || {{center|ditto}} || 17 April 1874<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" | {{center|Privilege leave for 1&amp;nbsp;month from 7 October 1874; for 1&amp;nbsp;month and 7&amp;nbsp;days from 8 May 1885; and for 1&amp;nbsp;month and 24&amp;nbsp;days from 20 May 1886}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Nadia district|Nadia]] || {{center|ditto}} || 6 December 1887<br />
|-<br />
| Nadia || Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, 3rd grade || 29 January 1889<br />
|-<br />
| [[Netrakona District|Netrakona]] in [[Mymensingh District|Mymensingh]] || {{center|ditto}} || 20 February 1889<br />
|-<br />
| [[Tangail]] || {{center|ditto}} || 27 May 1889 – 5 September 1889<br />
|-<br />
| Kalra ||{{center|ditto}} || 17 June 1890<br />
|-<br />
| [[Bardhaman|Burdwan]] || {{center|ditto}} || 29 October 1890<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dinajpur]] || {{center|ditto}} || 26 November 1890<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" rowspan="1" | {{center|Furlough for 1&amp;nbsp;year, 7&amp;nbsp;months and 13&amp;nbsp;days from 20 August 1891 }}<br />
|-<br />
| On furlough || Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, 2nd grade ||1 January 1892<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sasaram]] in Bhahabad || {{center|ditto}} || 2 April 1893<br />
|-<br />
| Nadia || {{center|ditto}} || 27 November 1893<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Later period (1874–1914): Writing and preaching==<br />
[[File:Bhaktisiddhanta with Bhaktivinoda and family.jpg|400px|thumb|alt=A group photograph of a large Indian family seated in rows around an old grey-haired man.|<br />
{{hidden<br />
|Kedarnath Datta's family ca.1900{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=84}}<br />
|{{center|From left to right:}}'''Back row:''' [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati|Bimala Prasad]], Barada Prasad, Kedarnath Datta, Krishna Vinodini, Kadambini, and Bhagavati Devi (seated).&lt;br /&gt;'''Second row:''' Kamala Prasad, Shailaja Prasad, unknown grandchild, and Hari Pramodini.&lt;br /&gt;'''Front row:''' two unknown grandchildren.<br />
|headerstyle=background:#ccccff<br />
|style=text-align:center;<br />
}}]]<br />
After leaving Puri for Bengal, Kedarnath Datta decided to establish his family in Calcutta at a permanent home, which he called "Bhakti Bhavan." This afforded him more freedom for his traveling, studies and writing.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=85, 117}}<br />
<br />
In 1880, Kedarnath and his wife accepted ''diksha ''(initiation) into Gaudiya Vaishnavism from Bipin Bihari Goswami (1848–1919), a ''jāti gosāñī'' and a descendant from one of Chaitanya's associates, Vamsivadana Thakur. This formalised Kedarnath's commitment to the Gaudiya Vaishnava ''[[sampradaya]]''; Bipin Bihari Goswami's family were the founders of the Bāghnāpāḍā Vaiṣṇava sect whose theology centered on the idea of ''rasa-rāja'' to which Kedarnath was attracted''.''{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=92–93}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=184}} Later he developed a connection with the Gaudiya Vaishnava ascetic Jagannatha Dasa Babaji (1776–1894), who became his principal spiritual mentor.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=96, 109}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=135, 257}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=180}}<br />
<br />
In 1885, Kedarnath Datta formed the Vishva Vaishnava Raj Sabha ("Royal World Vaishnava Association") composed of leading Bengali Vaishnavas and established at his own house the Vaishnava Depository, a library and a printing press for systematically presenting Gaudiya Vaishnavism by publishing canonical devotional texts, often with his translations and commentaries, as well as his own original writing.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=181}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013a|p=416}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=97, 100}} In his endeavors to restore the purity and influence of Gaudiya Vaishnavism,{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=176}} in 1881 Bhaktivinoda began a monthly magazine in Bengali, ''Sajjana-toshani'' ("The source of pleasure for devotees"), in which he serialised many of his books and published essays of the history and philosophy of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, along with book reviews, poetry, and novels.{{sfn|Sardella|2013a|p = 416}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=96–99}} In January 1886, in recognition of Kedarnath's significant Vaishanva literary and preaching achievements, the Bāghnāpāḍā Vaiṣṇava ''gosvāmī''s, including his ''guru ''Bipin Bihari Goswami, conferred upon him the honorific title Bhaktivinoda; from that time on he was known as Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda, or Bhakivinoda Thakur.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=95–97, 101–102}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p=56}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013a|p=416}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=180}}<br />
<br />
On 4 October 1894, at the age of 56, Bhaktivinoda Thakur retired from government service and moved with his family to Mayapur to focus on his devotional practice, writing and preaching.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=69, 111}} In 1908 Bhaktivinoda formally adopted the lifestyle and practice of a ''babaji'' (Vaishnava recluse) at his house in Calcutta, absorbed in chanting the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna mantra]] until his death on 23 June 1914. His remains in a silver urn were interred at his house in Surabhi-kunj.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=117}}{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=6}}<br />
===Major works===<br />
{{see also|Bhaktivinoda Thakur bibliography}}<br />
<br />
From 1874 till his departure in 1914 Bhaktivinoda wrote, both philosophical works in Sanskrit and English that appealed to the ''bhadralok'' [[intelligentsia]], and devotional songs (''[[bhajans]]'') in simple Bengali that conveyed the same message to the masses.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=283–294}} His bibliography counts over one hundred works, including his translations of canonical Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, often with his own commentaries, as well as poems, devotional song books, and essays{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=3}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=283–294}} – an achievement his biographers attribute in large part to his industrious and organised nature.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=179}}{{efn|Bhaktivinoda would go to sleep at 19:30–20:00 but would rise at 22:00pm, light his oil lamp and write for six hours until 4:00 in the morning. He would then take a 30-minute nap, get up at 4:30 and chanted ''[[japa|harinama-japa]]'' of the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna mantra]] on beads. From 7:00 until 9:30 in the morning he would deal correspondence, study and receive visitors. From 10:00 until 17:00, with a break between 13:00–14:00 he would sit in court, hearing up to fifty cases a day and writing a detailed judgment for each. He would then get home, bathe, take a mean or rice, bread and milk, rest at 19:30–20:00 and resume his writing routine at 22:00.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=179}}}}<br />
<br />
''Krishna-samhita,'' published in 1879, was Bhaktivinoda's first major work.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=87}}{{sfn|Gupta|2014|p=20}} Composed in Sanskrit and Bengali, the book was intended as a response to criticism of Krishna by Christian missionaries, [[Brahmo Samaj]], and Westernised ''bhadralok'' for what they saw as his immoral, licentious behavior incompatible with his divine status in Hinduism.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=87}} The critics drew upon the perceived moral lapses in Krishna's character to further their propaganda against Hinduism and Vaishnavism, challenging their very ethical foundation.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=87}} In defense of the tenets of Vaishnavism, Bhaktivinoda's ''Krishna-samhita'' employed the same rational tools of its opponents, complete with contemporary archeological and historical data and theological thought, to establish Krishna's pastimes as transcendent ({{transliteration|bn|aprakrita}}) manifestations of morality.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=88}} In particular, he applied what he termed ''adhunika-vada'' ("contemporary thinking") – his methodology of correlating the phenomenal discourse of the scripture with the observable reality.{{sfn|Gupta|2014|pp=19–20}} The book evoked an intense and polarised response, with some praising its intellectual novelty and traditionalism while others condemned it for what they saw as deviations from the orthodox Vaishnava [[hermeneutics]].{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=87–89}} Bhaktivinoda recalls:<br />
<br />
{{blockquote|Some thought the book was a new point of view. Some said it was good. The younger educated people said the book was nice, but no one fully understood the essence of the work, which was to show that Krishna was transcendent (''aprakrita''). Some thought that my interpretations were strictly psychological (''adhyatmika''). But they were incorrect. There is a subtle difference between what is transcendent and what is psychological, which few understood. The reason behind this mistake is that no one had any understanding of transcendence (''aprakrita'').{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=88}}}}<br />
<br />
Undaunted by the criticism, Bhaktivinoda saw ''Krishna-samhita'' as an adequate presentation of the Gaudiya Vaishnava thought even for a Western mind and in 1880 sent copies of the book to leading intellectuals of Europe and America.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=89}} Soon Bhaktivinoda received a favorable response from an eminent Sanskrit scholar in London, [[Reinhold Rost]], and a courteous acknowledgement of the gift from [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]].{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=89–90}} This became the first foray of Chaitanya's theology into the Western world.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=89}}<br />
<br />
In 1886 Bhaktivinoda published another important work'', Chaitanya-siksamrita'', which summarises the teachings of Chaitanya and includes Bhaktivinoda's own socio-religious analysis.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=100}}{{sfn|Bhatia|2008|pp=134, 137}} Along with it came his own Bengali translation of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]] ''with commentaries by [[Visvanatha Chakravarti]] (ca.1626–1708). He also published ''Amnaya-sutra,'' ''Vaishnava-siddhanta-mala, Prema-pradipa, ''his own Sanskrit commentaries on the ''Chaitanya-upanisad ''and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's ''[[Siksastaka]]m,'' and two parts of ''Chaitanya-caritamrita'' with his own commentary, entitled ''Amrita-pravaha-bhashya'' ("A commentary that showers nectar")''.''{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p = 100}} ''Tattva-viveka'', his concise masterpiece designed to awaken higher intelligence in the individual, was published in 1893.&lt;ref&gt;Bhaktivinode Thankura (author), Vaishnava Foundation (translator), ''Tattva-viveka: Awakened Intelligence in AbsoluteTruth'', 2nd ed.; Vaishnava Foundation: 2019&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| direction = horizontal<br />
| align = right<br />
| image1 = Svalikhita-jivani,_title_page.jpg<br />
| footer = ''(left)'' Bhaktivinoda Thakur's photo with autograph and ''(right)'' the first page of his original ''[[Svalikhita-jivani]]''. (1896)<br />
| alt1 = A faded sepia photograph of an old man with neck beads on a deteriorated paper page.<br />
| width1 = 150<br />
| image2 = Svalikhita-jivani,_page_1.jpg<br />
| alt2 = A page with angular Bengali handwriting and a square diagram.<br />
| width2 = 150<br />
}}<br />
<br />
In ''Jaiva-dharma'', another key work, published in 1896,{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=161}} Bhaktivinoda employs the fictional style of a novel to create an ideal, even utopian Vaishnava realm that serves as a backdrop to philosophical and esoteric truths unfolding in a series of conversations between the book's characters and guiding their devotional transformations.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=185–199}} ''Jaiva-dharma'' is considered one of the important books in the Gaudiya Vaishnava lineage of Bhaktivinoda. It has been translated into many languages and printed in thousands of copies.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=185}}<br />
<br />
At the request of his son Lalita Prasad, in 1896 Bhaktivinoda wrote a detailed autobiography called ''[[Svalikhita-jivani]]'' that covered 56 years of his life, from birth up until that time. The work described a life full of financial struggle, health issues, internal doubts and insecurity, and introspection that gradually led him, sometimes in convoluted ways, to the deliberate and mature decision of accepting Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's teachings as his final goal.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=42}} Bhaktivinoda did not display much concern for how this account would reflect on his status as an established Gaudiya Vaishnava spiritual leader. It is telling that he never refers to himself as feeling or displaying any special spiritual acumen, saintlihood, powers, or charisma – anything worthy of veneration.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=42-43}} The honest, almost self-deprecating narrative portrays him as a genuine, exceptionally humble and modest man, serving as the best exemplar and foundation of the teaching he dedicated his later life to spreading.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=43–44}} The book was published by Lalita Prasad in 1916, after Bhaktivinoda's death.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=9}}<br />
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He edited and published over 100 books on Vaishnavism, including major theological treatises such as ''Krishna-samhita'' (1880), ''Chaitanya-sikshamrita'' (1886), ''Jaiva-dharma'' (1893), ''Tattva-sutra'' (1893), ''Tattva-viveka'' (1893), and ''Hari-nama-cintamani'' (1900). Between 1881 and 1909, Kedarnath also published a monthly journal in Bengali entitled ''Sajjana-toshani'' ("The source of pleasure for devotees"), which he used as the prime means for propagating Chaitanya's teachings among the ''bhadralok''.{{sfn|Gupta|2014|pp=19–20}} In 1886, in recognition of his theological, philosophical and literary contributions, the local Gaudiya Vaishnava community conferred upon Kedarnath Datta the honorific title of ''Bhaktivinoda''.{{sfn|Gupta|2014|p=2}}<br />
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In 1896 another publication of Bhaktivinoda's, a book in English entitled ''Srimad-Gaurangalila-Smaranamangala, or Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, His life and Precepts'', was sent to several academics and libraries in Canada, Britain and Australia.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=181}}<br />
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In February 2023, a new Bengali edition of the [[Svalikhita-jivani|Svalikhita-Jivani]], edited by Dr. Santanu Dey, was published jointly by the Bhaktivedanta Research Center and Dey's Publishing.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=27 February 2023 |title="Svalikhita Jivani" – Autobiography of Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura, published after a century by Bhaktivedanta Research Center |url=https://iskcondesiretree.com/profiles/blogs/svalikhita-jivani-autobiography-of-srila-bhaktivinoda-thakura-pub |access-date=11 May 2023 |website=ISKCON Desire Tree {{!}} IDT}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=29 April 2023 |title=প্রকাশিত হলো ভক্তিবিনোদ ঠাকুরের স্বরচিত জীবনী গ্রন্থ - India's No1 News |url=https://shilpaneernewspaper.com/2023/04/29/bhaktibinod/ |access-date=11 May 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511081327/https://shilpaneernewspaper.com/2023/04/29/bhaktibinod/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Svalikhita Jivani – Bhaktivedanta Research Center |url=https://brcindia.com/svalikhita-jivani/ |access-date=11 May 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511111152/https://brcindia.com/svalikhita-jivani/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
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Bhaktivinoda also contributed to the development of Vaishnava music and song in the 19th century.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=13}} He composed many devotional songs, or ''[[bhajans]]'', in Bengali and occasionally in Sanskrit, that were compiled into collections, such as ''Kalyana-kalpataru'' (1881), ''Saranagati'' (1893), and ''Gitavali'' (1893).{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=13, 288, 290}} Conveying the essence of Gaudiya Vaishnava teachings in simple language, many of his songs are to this day known Bengal and across the world.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=286}}{{sfn|Svami|2000|pp=35–64}}<br />
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Bhaktivinoda combined the rationalism of 19th century ''bhadraloka'' society with the older Hindu religiosity using a technique he called ''ādhunika-vāda'' ("the modern approach"). In the ''Kr̥ṣṇa-Saṁhitā'' he considers history to be an evolutionary process, with Hindu and Vaishnava religion culminating in the avatara of Krishna and ''mādhurya-rasa'' being the peak form of worship. Bhaktivinoda categorised spiritual seekers into three kinds: ''komala-śraddha''s, ''madhyamādhikārī''s, and ''uttamādhikārī''s or ''sāragrāhī''s. The ''komala-śraddha''s are primitive believers who have simple faith in supernatural stories and promises of reward and punishment; Bhaktivinoda considers most pre-modern Hindu religion to cater to this group. Above them are the ''madhyamādhikārī''s, people driven by logic and rationalism who often fall into disbelief; Bhaktivinoda considered the ''bhadraloka'' to fall in this category, and oriented his works to them using the techniques of ''ādhunika-vāda'', i.e. rational modern scholarship. The highest group of seekers are the ''uttamādhikārī''s or ''sāragrāhī''s, who can appreciate other theological and philosophical views without losing faith in their own; Bhaktivinoda considered himself and Western scholars like [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and [[Reinhold Rost|Reinhold Holst]] in this category. Bhaktivinoda's ''ādhunika-vāda'' rejected many ideas of Hindu orthodoxy as he considered all phenomenal knowledge (''artha-prada'') to be subject to scrutiny, while transcendental knowledge (''paramārtha-prada'') to be sacrosanct; to this end he rejected traditional claims regarding the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s date of composition, authorship, and infallibility. Bhaktivinoda distinguished belief and faith; while not believing the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' was as old as traditionally claimed, he nevertheless had faith in its spiritual tenets.{{Sfn|Dasa|1999|p=119-151}}<br />
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Bhaktivinoda developed a concept called ''sahaja-samādhi'' ("natural intuition"), derived from his experiences with Unitarianism and Transcendentalism. It refers to the pure soul's ability to directly perceive and infer divine knowledge beyond the limitations imposed by the mortal body. In the highest form of cognition (''nitānta-sahaja-samādhi''), a soul devoid of any doubt who rests on faith alone attains "the adoration of Śrī Kr̥ṣṇa in sweetness". Bhaktivinoda considered the direct personal experience of ''sahaja-samādhi'' as higher than Hindu religious scripture (''śāstra''). Due to influence from Unitarian thought, Bhaktivinoda considered the knowledge of scripture to be constrained by historical context, personal bias of its composer and listener, and the limitations of human language. In Bhaktivinoda's theory of religious symbolism, the description of Krishna lila is full of spiritual facsimilies and indicators of spiritual truth, while at the same time being a real historical (and eternal) event. Bhaktivinoda considered material objects in the world to be ''vikāra''s or imperfect modification of the perfect world of consciousness. According to Bhaktivinoda, there are three divine energies which combine with secondary energies in order to create the spiritual, soul, and material realities.{{Sfn|Dasa|1999|p=153-183}}<br />
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According to Bhaktivinoda, Krishna lila can be perceived by listeners on many levels depending on one's level of spiritual knowledge. People with the lowest level will perceive only the mundane, material aspects while those with greater ability can detect the inherent divine truths of eternal lila. Due to Christian missionary influence on the ''bhadraloka'', there was a strong impulse against image worship; Bhaktivinoda in response asserted the importance of ''śrī-mūrti'' ("sacred image") by stating the mind cannot conceive of a formless deity, thus it is acceptable if not better to worship God in a material form using one's senses in order to elicit the greatest love for the divine. Bhaktivinoda affirmed the importance of reciting the names of Krishna, stating that the level of fruits of hearing and reciting those names depend on the spiritual capacity of the listener or speaker.{{Sfn|Dasa|1999|p=184-201}}<br />
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Bhaktivinoda, like the Unitarians, believed faith in God to be the natural state of humankind which then becomes obscured by the development of reason and civilisation. Bhaktivinoda stated the best way to cultivate devotion to God was to engage in "hearing, remembrance, and glorification" of divinity as stated in the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa''. Bhaktivinoda states devotional practices (''sādhana bhakti'') are best taken place in the context of ''vaijñānika-varṇadharmāśrama'' ("scientific ''varṇadharmāśrama''"). Bhaktivinoda claimed [[Vedic society]] was organised along scientific principles where people belonged to certain [[Varna (Hinduism)|''varṇa''s]] and [[Āśrama (stage)|''āśrama''s]] based on their individual merits and qualifications; according to Bhaktivinoda this ''vaijñānika-varṇadharmāśrama'' system then degraded into the present-day hereditary [[caste system in India]] promoted by the [[Smarta tradition]]. Bhaktivinoda follows post-Rūpa Gosvāmī theologians in the practice of ''rāgānugā-bhakti-sādhana''; the devotional practice of spontaneity. In ''rāgānugā-bhakti-sādhana'', a devotee assumes an internal identity or ''siddha deha'' ("pure body") of a figure in Krishna lila and approximates his or her devotional feelings based on that figure. The practice of ''rāgānugā-bhakti-sādhana'' almost always takes place in the form of ''mañjarī-sādhana'', where a devotee assumes a named identity of a ten-to-sixteen year-old cowherd girl in Vraja who abandons her husband to serve and be protected by a specific chief cowherd girl in Krishna lila. Bhaktivinoda differs from traditional methods in allowing the devotee to empirically decide with the guru the appropriate ''siddha-deha''. The devotee then practices ''aṣṭa-kāliya-līlā-smaraṇa'', the recollection and self-participation in the activities of Krishna lila during the eight fixed periods of the day.{{Sfn|Dasa|1999|p=203-238}}<br />
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===Claimed discovery of Chaitanya's birthplace===<br />
{{See also|Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Mayapur}}<br />
[[File:Yogapith, Mayapur.jpg|thumb|alt=A white ornate structure with a pyramidal pointed dome standing on the bank of a pond and surrounded by trees|Yogapith, the temple at [[Caitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]'s birthsite in [[Mayapur]] established by Bhaktivinoda Thakur.]]<br />
In 1886 Bhaktivinoda attempted to retire from his government service and move to [[Vrindavan]] to pursue his devotional life. However, he saw a dream in which Chaitanya ordered him to go to [[Nabadwip]] instead.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=100-101}} After some difficulty, in 1887 Bhaktivinoda obtained a transfer to [[Krishnanagar, Nadia|Krishnanagar]], a district centre {{convert|25|km|mi}} away from Nabadwip, famous as the birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=102–103}} Despite poor health, Bhaktivinoda began to regularly visit Nabadwip to research places connected with Chaitanya.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=103–105}} Soon he concluded that the site purported by the locals of Navadwip to be Chaitanya's birthplace could not possibly be genuine.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=104}} Determined to find the actual place but frustrated by the lack of reliable evidence and clues, one night he saw a mystical vision:{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=209}}<br />
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{{blockquote|By 10 o'clock the night was very dark and cloudy. Across the Ganges in a northern direction I suddenly saw a large building flooded with golden light. I asked Bimala if he could see the building and he said that he could. But my friend Kerani Babu could see nothing. I was amazed. What could it be? In the morning I went back to the roof and looked carefully back across the Ganges. I saw that in the place where I had seen the building was a stand of palm trees. Inquiring about this area I was told that it was the remains of Lakshman Sen's fort at Ballaldighi.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=104}}}}<br />
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Taking this as a clue, Bhaktivinoda conducted an investigation of the site by consulting old maps and matching them against scriptural and verbal accounts. He concluded that the village of Ballaldighi was formerly known as Mayapur, confirmed in ''Bhakti-ratnakara'' to be the birth site of Chaitanya. Residents of Navadwip angrily rejected Bhaktivinoda's claims and argued that Navadwip was Chaitanya's true birthplace; it is still contested which is the true site.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=105-109}} He soon acquired a property in Surabhi-kunj near Mayapur to oversee construction of a temple at Chaitanya's birthplace.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=108}} For this purpose he organised, via ''Sajjana-tosani'' and special festivals, as well as personal acquaintances, a successful fundraising effort.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=243–250}} Noted Bengali journalist [[Sisir Kumar Ghosh]] (1840–1911) commended Bhaktivinoda for the discovery and hailed him as "the seventh goswami" – a reference to the [[Six Goswamis of Vrindavana|Six Goswamis]], medieval Gaudiya Vaishnava [[asceticism|ascetics]] closely associated with Chaitanya who had authored many of the school's theological texts and discovered places of Krishna's pastimes in Vrindavan.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=106–107}}<br />
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===Nama-hatta===<br />
[[File:Bhaktivinoda's house.JPG|thumb|250px|right|alt=A two-storey pink-and-yellow building with a sign in Bengali and English| Bhaktivinoda Thakur's house at Surabhi-kunj (Mayapur) that served as the headquarters of his ''nama-hatta'' preaching.]]<br />
Kedarnath started a travelling preaching program in Bengali and Orissan villages that he called ''nama-hatta'', or "the market-place of the name [of Krishna]".{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=86–87}} Modelled after the [[circuit court]] system, his ''nama-hatta'' groups included ''[[kirtana]]'' parties, distribution of ''[[prasada]]'' (food offered to Krishna), and lecturers on the teachings of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, travelling from village to village as far as Vrindavan in an organised and systematic way.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=86–87, 109–110}} The program was a big success, widely popularising the teachings of Chaitanya among the masses as well as attracting a following of high-class patrons.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=288–314}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|pp=113–115}} By the beginning of the 20th century Bhaktivinoda had established over five hundred ''nama-hattas'' across Bengal.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=115}}<br />
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===Opposing Vaishnava heterodoxy===<br />
Prior to Bhaktivinoda's literary and preaching endeavours, an organised Gaudiya Vaishnava ''sampradaya'' (lineage) was nonexistent, as was a single, overarching Gaudiya Vaishnava canon in a codified form. In the absence of such theological and organisational commonality, claims of affiliation with Gaudiya Vaishnavism by individuals and groups were either tenuous, superficial, or unverifiable. Bhaktivinoda Thakur attempted to restore the Chaitanya movement from the motley assortment of sects that it came to be towards the end of the 19th century. He chose his ''Sajjjana-tosani'' magazine as the means for this task. Through his articles dealing with the process of [[Diksha|initiation]] and ''[[sadhana]]'', through translations of Vaishnava scriptures, and through his commentaries on contemporary issues from a Vaishnava perspective, Bhaktivinoda was gradually establishing, both in the minds of his large audience and in writing,{{efn|Many Bhaktivinoda's books appeared first serialized in ''Sajjana-tosani'' before being printed in single volumes.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|p=134}}}} the foundation for Gaudiya Vaishnava [[orthodoxy]] and [[orthopraxy]], or what a Vaishnava is and isn't.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=133-134}}<br />
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Gradually Bhaktivinoda directed criticism at various heterodox Vaishnava groups abounding in Bengal that he identified and termed "a-Vaishnava" (non-Vaishnava) and ''apasampradayas'' ("deviant lineages"): Aul, [[Baul]], Saina, Darvesa, [[Vaishnava Sahajiya|Sahajiya]], [[Smarta Tradition|''smarta brahmanas'']], etc.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=136–138}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|pp=181–182}} Of them, the Vaishnava spin-off groups that presented sexual promiscuity to be a spiritual practice became the target of choice for Bhaktivinoda's especially pointed attacks.{{sfn|Fuller|2005|pp=136–137}} Despite the erotic aspects of ''rāgānugā-bhakti'', Bhaktivinoda vehemently argued against the mundane sexual interpretation of the relationship between Krishna and the gopis as promoted by [[Vaishnava Sahajiya]], which he claimed was totally non-Vaishnava and tarnishing the reputation of Chaitanya Vaishnavism.{{Sfn|Dasa|1999|p=239-251}}<br />
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A more tacit but nothing short of uncompromising philosophical assault was directed at the influential ''jati-gosais'' (caste goswamis) or ''mantrācārya''s (initiating gurus) and ''smarta brahmanas'' who claimed exclusive right to conduct initiations into Gaudiya Vaishnavism on the basis of their hereditary affiliation with Chaitanya's original followers and denied eligibility to do so to non-''brahmana'' Vaishnavas.{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|pp=181–182}} Bhaktivinoda claimed that they were negligent gurus who failed to maintain the conduct of their disciples and the disciples themselves failed to assess the worthiness of their guru. Bhaktivinoda believed that ''varṇa'' should not be based on birth but instead be determined in childhood by a village committee by looking at the child's temperament and qualifications and then reviewing the ''varṇa'' decision after a two-year trial period. While Bhaktivinoda complained against the current caste system in his writing, he never took action against it during his lifetime, likely due to his preferred focus on ''mañjarī-sādhana'' and his social status as a government magistrate and family-man. In 1911, Bhaktivinoda asked his son Bhaktisiddhanta to represent him at the [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati#Brahmanas vs. Vaishnavas|''Brāhmaṇa o Vaiṣṇava'' (Brahmana and Vaishnava) debate]] in Balighai, [[Midnapore district|Midnapore]], where Bhaktisiddhanta argued that, according to Vaishnava texts, spiritual qualification is based on initiation and practice rather than caste birth.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p = 83}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp=82–86}}{{Sfn|Dasa|1999|p=239-251}}<br />
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==Reaching out to the West==<br />
{{See also|Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati|Gaudiya Math|A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|International Society for Krishna Consciousness}}<br />
[[File:Gauranga-lila by BVT.jpg|thumb|alt=A black-and-white title page of an English book|[[wikisource:File:Srimad-Gaurangalila-smaranamangal by Kedarnath Dutt (Bhaktivinoda Thakur) 1896.pdf|Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: His Life and Precepts]], the book Bhaktivinoda Thakur sent to the West in 1896.]]<br />
Although his ''Krishna-samhita'' made it into the hands of some leading intellectuals of the West, a book in Sanskrit had very few readers there.{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=91}} Despite this obstacle, in 1882 Bhaktivinoda stated in his ''Sajjana-toshani'' magazine a coveted vision of universalism and brotherhood across borders and races:<br />
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{{blockquote|When in England, France, Russia, Prussia, and America all fortunate persons by taking up ''kholas'' [drums] and ''karatalas'' [cymbals] will take the name of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu again and again in their own countries, and raise the waves of ''sankirtana'' [congregational singing of Krishna's names], when will that day come! Oh! When will the day come when the white-skinned British people will speak the glory of Shachinandana [another name of Chaitanya] on one side and on the other and with this call spread their arms to embrace devotees from other countries in brotherhood, when will that day come! The day when they will say "Oh, Aryan Brothers! We have taken refuge at the feet of Chaitanya Deva in an ocean of love, now kindly embrace us," when will that day come!{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=184}}}}<br />
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Bhaktivinoda did not stop short of making practical efforts to implement his vision. In 1896 he published and sent to several academic addressees in the West a book entitled [[s:File:Srimad-Gaurangalila-smaranamangal by Kedarnath Dutt (Bhaktivinoda Thakur) 1896.pdf|''Gaurangalila-Smaranamangala, or Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, His life and Precepts,'']]{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=181}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=91-92}}{{efn|The book was also published under slightly varied titles, such as '' Chaitanya, His Life and Precepts''.}} which portrayed Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as a champion of "universal brotherhood and intellectual freedom":<br />
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{{blockquote|Caitanya preaches equality of men ...universal fraternity amongst men and special brotherhood amongst Vaishnavas, who are according to him, the best pioneers of spiritual improvement. He preaches that human thought should never be allowed to be shackled with sectarian views....The religion preached by Mahaprabhu is universal and not exclusive. The most learned and the most ignorant are both entitled to embrace it. . . . The principle of ''kirtana'' invites, as the future church of the world, all classes of men without distinction of caste or clan to the highest cultivation of the spirit.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp=94–96}}}}<br />
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Bhaktivinoda adapted his message to the Western mind by borrowing popular Christian expressions such as "universal fraternity", "cultivation of the spirit", "preach", and "church" and deliberately using them in a Hindu context.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp=94–95}} Copies of '' Chaitanya, His Life and Precepts'' were sent to Western scholars across the [[British Empire]], and landed, among others, in academic libraries at [[McGill University]] in Montreal, at the [[University of Sydney]] in Australia and at the [[Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|Royal Asiatic Society]] of London. The book also made its way to prominent scholars such as [[Oxford University|Oxford]] Sanskritist [[Monier Monier-Williams]] and earned a favorable review in the ''[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]]''.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp=94–96}}{{sfn|Dasa|1999|p=91-92}}<br />
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[[File:Bhaktisiddhanta.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A black-and-white photo of a man with pen in hand looking pensively|[[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati]] editing an article. ca.1930s]]<br />
Bhaktivinoda's son, who by that time came to be known as Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, inherited the vision of spreading the message of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in the West from his father. This inspiration was bequeathed to Bhaktisiddhanta in a letter that he received from Bhaktivinoda in 1910:<br />
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{{blockquote|Sarasvati! ...Because pure devotional conclusions are not being preached, all kinds of superstitions and bad concepts are being called devotion by such pseudo-sampradayas as sahajiya and atibari. Please always crush these anti-devotional concepts by preaching pure devotional conclusions and by setting an example through your personal conduct. ...Please try very hard to make sure that the service to Mayapur will become a permanent thing and will become brighter and brighter every day. The real service to Mayapur can be done by acquiring printing presses, distributing devotional books, and sankirtan – preaching. Please do not neglect to serve Mayapur or to preach for the sake of your own reclusive bhajan. ...I had a special desire to preach the significance of such books as Srimad Bhagavatam, Sat Sandarbha, and Vedanta Darshan. You have to accept that responsibility. Mayapur will prosper if you establish an educational institution there. Never make any effort to collect knowledge or money for your own enjoyment. Only to serve the Lord will you collect these things. Never engage in bad association, either for money or for some self-interest.{{sfn|Murphy|Goff|1997|p=18}}{{efn|The original letter was never recovered; however, Bhaktisiddhanta quoted these instructions by Bhaktivinoda, apparently considering them as seminal for his mission, in a 1926 letter.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|p=87}}}}}}<br />
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In the 1930s, the Gaudiya Math founded by Bhaktisiddhanta sent its missionaries to Europe, but remained largely unsuccessful in its Western outreach efforts, until in 1966 Bhaktisiddhanta's disciple [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami]] (1896–1977) founded in New York City the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON).{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|p=182}}{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp=246–249}} Modeled after the original Gaudiya Math and emulating its emphasis on dynamic mission and spiritual practice, ISKCON popularised Chaitanya Vaishnavism on a global scale, becoming the world's leading proponent of Hindu ''bhakti'' personalism.{{sfn|Sardella|2013b|pp=246–249}}{{sfn|Ward|1998|p=36}}{{sfn|Hopkins|1984|pp=182–183}}<br />
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==Legacy==<br />
In 2023 the Bhaktivedanta Research Centre established an endowment to the Department of Sociology, [[Presidency University, Kolkata]], in honour of Bhaktivinod Thakur, who was a student of [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Hindu College]] in 1853.&lt;ref name="Telegraph India 2023 t376"&gt;{{cite web | title=Adieu to Vishwakarma &amp; Ganesh and more news from Kolkata in pictures | website=Telegraph India | date=20 September 2023 | url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/news/adieu-to-vishwakarma-ganesh-and-more-news-from-kolkata-in-pictures-photogallery/cid/1967666 | access-date=24 September 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; The scholarship aims to support academic endeavors related to the study of religion within the department.&lt;ref name="Aajkaal d057"&gt;{{cite web | title=Presidency University: ভক্তি বিনোদ ঠাকুরের নামে ছাত্র বৃত্তি প্রেসিডেন্সিতে | website=Aajkaal | url=https://aajkaal.in/news/kolkata/bhakti-vinod-tagore-scholarship-at-presidency-7eti | language=bn | access-date=24 September 2023 | archive-date=1 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001130752/https://aajkaal.in/news/kolkata/bhakti-vinod-tagore-scholarship-at-presidency-7eti | url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
An archive has been compiled containing records of Hindu/Presidency College (Now [[Presidency University, Kolkata]]), developed through collaboration with the [[British Library]] and the [[University of Chicago]]. Among the documents found in this archive is an attendance register from [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Hindu College]] bearing the name of Kedarnath Dutta.&lt;ref name="bartamanpatrika.com 2023 w346"&gt;{{cite web | title=ভক্তিবিনোদ ঠাকুরের নামে বৃত্তি চালু হচ্ছে প্রেসিডেন্সি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ে | website=bartamanpatrika.com | date=24 September 2023 | url=https://bartamanpatrika.com/home?cid=12&amp;id=489103 | access-date=24 September 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="গতি 2023 v205"&gt;{{cite web | last=গতি | first=নতুন | title=ভক্তি বিনোদ ঠাকুরের স্মারক ছাত্র -বৃত্তি চালু হচ্ছে প্রেসিডেন্সি বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ে | website=নতুন গতি | date=20 September 2023 | url=https://www.natungati.in/bhakti-binodon-thakurer-smrank-chatro/ | access-date=24 September 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
Bhaktivinoda wrote an autobiographical account titled ''[[Svalikhita-jivani]]'' that spanned the period from his birth in 1838 until retirement in 1894. He died in Calcutta on 23 June 1914 at age 75. His remains were interred near Mayapur, West Bengal.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Notelist|2}}<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{reflist|20em}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite thesis<br />
|last = Bhatia |first = Varuni<br />
|title = Devotional Traditions and National Culture: Recovering Gaudiya Vaishnavism in Colonial Bengal<br />
|type = PhD<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=d9szpwAACAAJ<br />
|year = 2008<br />
|publisher = University of Columbia <br />
|access-date = 8 June 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|editor1-last = Bryant |editor1-first = Edwin F.<br />
|editor1-link = Edwin Bryant (author)<br />
|editor2-last = Ekstrand |editor2-first = Maria L.<br />
|title = The Hare Krishna movement: The postcharismatic fate of a religious transplant<br />
|year = 2004<br />
|publisher = Columbia University Press<br />
|place = New York, NY<br />
|isbn = 978-0231122566<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC<br />
|edition = [Online-Ausg.].<br />
|access-date = 15 January 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|last = Dasa |first = Shukavak N.<br />
|title = Hindu Encounter with Modernity: Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda, Vaiṣṇava Theologian<br />
|year = 1999<br />
|publisher = Sanskrit Religions Institute<br />
|place = Los Angeles, CA<br />
|isbn = 1-889756-30-X<br />
|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=KHvXAAAAMAAJ<br />
|edition = revised, illustrated<br />
|access-date = 31 January 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite thesis<br />
|last = Fuller |first = Jason Dale<br />
|title = Bhaktivinode Thakur and the transformation of religious authority among the Gauḍīya Vaisṣṇavas in nineteenth-century Bengal<br />
|type = PhD<br />
|url = http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI3179733/<br />
|year = 2005<br />
|publisher = University of Pennsylvania<br />
|access-date = 8 June 2014<br />
|id = UMI Microform 3179733<br />
}}<br />
*{{citation<br />
|editor-last=Gupta |editor-first = Ravi M.<br />
|author-last = Gupta|author-first = Ravi M.<br />
|author-link = Radhika Ramana Dasa<br />
|title = Caitanya Vaiṣṇava philosophy : tradition, reason and devotion<br />
|year = 2014<br />
|publisher = Ashgate<br />
|place=Burlington, VT<br />
|isbn=978-0-7546-6177-1<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Kqz8AgAAQBAJ<br />
|access-date=22 June 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|editor1-last = Utz |editor1-first = David A.<br />
|editor2-last = Gaeffke |editor2-first = Peter<br />
|last = Hopkins |first = Thomas J.<br />
|title = Identity and division in cults and sects in South Asia: Proceedings of the South Asia seminar<br />
|volume = 1<br />
|year = 1984<br />
|publisher = Dept. of South Asia Regional Studies, University of Virginia<br />
|isbn = 9780936115009<br />
|place = Philadelphia, PA<br />
|oclc = 15365193<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-sAoAAAAYAAJ<br />
|access-date = 20 June 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite thesis<br />
|last = Marvin |first = Brian D. (Shukavak Dasa)<br />
|title = The Life and Thought of Kedarnath Dutta Bhaktivinode: A Hindu Encounter with Modernity<br />
|type = PhD<br />
|url = http://webcatplus.nii.ac.jp/webcatplus/details/book/7822395.html<br />
|year = 1996<br />
|publisher = University of Toronto<br />
|access-date = 8 June 2014<br />
|id = UMI Microform 0318<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|editor1-last = Murphy|editor1-first = Phillip<br />
|editor2-last = Goff|editor2-first = Raoul<br />
|title = Prabhupada Sarasvati Thakur: The Life and Precepts of Srila Bhaktisidhanta Sarasvati<br />
|year = 1997<br />
|publisher = Mandala Publishing<br />
|location = Eugene, OR<br />
|isbn = 978-0945475101<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VWTfAAAACAAJ<br />
|edition = 1st limited<br />
|access-date = 6 February 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|editor-last = Jacobsen |editor-first = Knut A.<br />
|title = Brill's encyclopedia of Hinduism<br />
|year=2013a<br />
|publisher = Brill<br />
|place = Leiden, NL; Boston, US<br />
|isbn = 978-90-04-17896-0<br />
|pages= 415–423<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=P269ZwEACAAJ<br />
|last = Sardella|first = Ferdinando<br />
|edition=Volume 5<br />
|author-link=Ferdinando Sardella<br />
|access-date=19 January 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|last = Sardella |first = Ferdinando<br />
|author-link = Ferdinando Sardella<br />
|title = Modern Hindu Personalism: The History, Life, and Thought of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati<br />
|edition = reprint<br />
|year = 2013b<br />
|publisher = Oxford University Press<br />
|place = New York, NY<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rYSXPg9GUpwC<br />
|isbn = 978-0199865901<br />
|access-date = 6 February 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|last = Svami|first = Acyutananda<br />
|title = Songs of the Vaishnava Acaryas: Hymns and Mantras for the glorification of Radha and Krishna<br />
|year = 2000<br />
|type = trans. ed.<br />
|publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust<br />
|place = Mumbai, India<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3V-btgAACAAJ<br />
|edition = 3rd<br />
|access-date = 21 June 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|last = Swami |first = Bhakti Vikasa<br />
|title = Śrī Bhaktisiddhānta Vaibhava: The grandeur and glory of Śrīla Bhaktisiddhānta Sarasvatī Ṭhākura<br />
|year = 2009<br />
|volume = 1<br />
|publisher = Bhakti Vikas Trust<br />
|edition = in three volumes<br />
|place = Surat, IN<br />
|isbn = 978-81-908292-0-5<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jRgiygAACAAJ<br />
|access-date = 15 January 2014<br />
}}<br />
* {{citation<br />
|last = Ward |first=Keith<br />
|author-link = Keith Ward<br />
|title = Religion and human nature<br />
|year = 1998<br />
|publisher = Oxford University Press<br />
|location = Oxford, UK<br />
|isbn = 0-19-826965-X<br />
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8ay8kb63yLAC<br />
|edition = Reprinted<br />
|access-date=2 February 2014<br />
}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commons category|Bhaktivinoda Thakur}}<br />
* [https://bhaktivinodainstitute.org/ Bhaktivinoda Institute - Repository of works by Bhaktivinoda Thakura]<br />
* {{Internet Archive author}}<br />
* [http://gaudiyahistory.iskcondesiretree.com/srila-bhaktivinoda-thakura-biography/ Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura – Biography] at Gaudiya History <br />
* [https://www.stephen-knapp.com/srila_bhaktivinoda_thakura.htm Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura and His Great Accomplishments]<br />
* [https://www.thegaudiyatreasuresofbengal.com/2018/01/09/remembering-srila-bhaktivinoda-thakura-svananda-sukhada-kunja-surabhi-kunja-navadvipa-godrumadvipa/ Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura- His life and vision :The Gaudiya Treasures of Bengal]<br />
{{Navboxes|title=Bhaktivinoda Thakur Navigational boxes<br />
| titlestyle = background:#A4D8ED;<br />
|list= <br />
{{Krishna}}<br />
{{Caitanya sampradaya}}<br />
{{Modern Gaudiya Vaishnavas}}<br />
{{Modern Hindu writers}}<br />
{{Hindu reform movements}}<br />
{{philosophy of religion}}<br />
{{Indian Philosophy}}<br />
{{Bengal Renaissance}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Portal bar|Biography|Philosophy|Hinduism|India|Religion}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Thakur, Bhaktivinoda}}<br />
[[Category:1838 births]]<br />
[[Category:1914 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Hindu philosophers and theologians]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Hindu philosophers and theologians]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]<br />
[[Category:Bhakti movement]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali spiritual writers]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Bengali people]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali philosophers]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali Hindu saints]]<br />
[[Category:Devotees of Krishna]]<br />
[[Category:Devotees of Jagannath]]<br />
[[Category:Gaudiya religious leaders]]<br />
[[Category:Hindu revivalists]]<br />
[[Category:Hindu reformers]]<br />
[[Category:Indian theologians]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Hindu monks]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Hindu spiritual teachers]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Hindu missionaries]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Vaishnavites]]<br />
[[Category:People from Nadia district]]<br />
[[Category:People from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Vaishnava saints]]<br />
[[Category:Indian religious writers]]<br />
[[Category:19th-century Indian biographers]]<br />
[[Category:Bengali-language writers]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karuchola&diff=508726Karuchola2026-02-21T16:03:03Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: started a data basic info</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Village in Andhra Pradesh, India}}<br />
{{more citations needed|date=November 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Karuchola<br />
| settlement_type = Village<br />
| image_skyline =<br />
| image_caption = Convention Hall<br />
| mapframe = yes<br />
| mapframe-zoom = 14<br />
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh<br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India<br />
| pushpin_label = <!-- only necessary if "name" or "official_name" are too long --><br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|16|09|06|N|80|15|41|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| coordinates_footnotes = <!-- for references: use<ref>tags --><br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = [[India]]<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Palnadu district|Palnadu]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Mandal]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Edlapadu]] [[mandal]]<br />
| government_footnotes = <ref name="panchayat">{{cite web |title=Gram Panchayat Identification Codes |url=http://saaksharbharat.nic.in/saaksharbharat/forms/gp_code.pdf |website=Saakshar Bharat Mission |publisher=National Informatics Centre |accessdate=7 May 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818173131/http://saaksharbharat.nic.in/saaksharbharat/forms/gp_code.pdf |archivedate=18 August 2017 |page=101 | url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
| government_type = [[Panchayati raj (India)|Panchayati raj]]<br />
| governing_body = Karuchola [[gram panchayat]]<br />
| leader_title = [[Sarpanch]]<br />
| leader_name = Smt. Jajula Narayanamma<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <ref name="census">{{cite web |title=District Census Hand Book : Guntur (Part B) |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2817_PART_B_DCHB_GUNTUR.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825164001/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2817_PART_B_DCHB_GUNTUR.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 August 2015 |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Andhra Pradesh |accessdate=2 June 2019 |pages=14,366 |date=2011}}</ref><br />
| area_total_km2 = .1057<br />
| area_total_ha = 10.57<br />
| population_total = 3424<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_footnotes = <ref name="population">{{cite web |title=Population |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=668465 |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |accessdate=9 May 2019}}{{Dead link|date=November 2024}}</ref><br />
| population_density_km2 = 318<br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 522233<br />
| area_code = +91–8644<br />
| area_code_type = <!-- defaults to: Area code(s) --><br />
| registration_plate = AP<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]<br />
| registration_plate_type = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Karuchola''' is a village in [[Edlapadu]] [[Tehsil|madalam]], [[Palnadu district]] of the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villages {{!}} Palnadu District, Government of Andhra Pradesh {{!}} India |url=https://palnadu.ap.gov.in/village-panchayats/ |access-date=2025-01-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> Its headquarters are in Karuchola [[Panchayati raj in India|Panchayati]] in Edlapadu ''mandalam'' under [[Narasaraopet revenue division]].<br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
Its mandal headquarters [[Edlapadu]] is located 4&nbsp;km and district headquarters [[Narasaraopet]] is 36&nbsp;km away via [[Chilakaluripet]] highway. [[Prathipadu, Guntur district|Prathipadu]] (9.2km), Chilakaluripet (16km), [[Pedanandipadu]] (17km) and [[Guntur]] (28km)<ref>https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/590204-karuchola-andhra-pradesh.html</ref><ref>https://indiamapia.com/Guntur/Karuchola.html</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Governance ==<br />
Karuchola [[Gram panchayat]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sachivalayams.com/karuchola/|title=Karuchola (Code: 10790330) Sachivalayam Details &#124; Edlapadu Mandal (Rural) Area &#124; Guntur (District) &#124; Andhra Pradesh|date=3 January 2021|website=Sachivalayam'S}}</ref> is the [[Local self-government in India|local self-government]] of the village.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saak Sharbharat |url=http://saaksharbharat.nic.in/saaksharbharat/forms/gp_code.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818173131/http://saaksharbharat.nic.in/saaksharbharat/forms/gp_code.pdf |archive-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> It is divided into wards and each ward is represented by a ward member. The village forms a part of [[Andhra Pradesh Capital Region]] and is under the [[Andhra Pradesh Capital Region Development Authority]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Capital region expands as CRDA redraws boundaries |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/capital-region-expands-as-crda-redraws-boundaries/article7680051.ece/|date=17 August 2025|website=The Hindu}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Education ==<br />
As per the Schools Information,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Schools Information Guntur|url=https://schools.org.in/guntur/28173701102/mpps-u-karuchola.html/|date=18 August 2025|website=Schools Information}}</ref> Karuchola had three Schools including one Urdu school. All schools are under the [[local self-government]].<br />
<br />
== Cultural Festival ==<br />
[[File:1992 Sri Vigneswara Swamy Karuchola.jpg|thumb|Sri Vigneswara Swamy on the Bank of Canal<br />
(Kaluva Katta)]]<br />
Karuchola had Sri Vigneswara Swamy Tirunala<ref>{{cite web | title=Karuchola Tirunala in Guntur District - Edlapadu Mandalam, Andhra Pradesh, India | website=[[YouTube]] | url=https://www.youtube.com/shorts/9BWiWMS44Wc }}</ref> '''commonly known''' as ''Karuchola-Guttavaripalem Tirunala'', celebrated at Ganesh Temple on the village outskirts, exactly on the bank of small canal of Nagarjuna Sagar. It is used on auspicious days associated with religious or cultural celebration, particularly dedicated to [[Lord Ganesh]]. During Tirunala, various rituals, prayers and festivities are conducted to honor the divine.<br />
<br />
===About Sri Vigneswara Swamy Tirunala===<br />
It celebrates annually on the 7th day after [[Maha Shivaratri]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mahashivratri|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/soul-search/mahashivratri-date-timings-and-fasting-rules/featureshow/118173623.cms/|date=18 August 2025|website=Times of India}}</ref><ref>https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2024/Mar/04/40-palnadu-villages-gear-up-for-maha-shivaratri</ref><ref>https://palnadu.ap.gov.in/village-panchayats/</ref> The Tirunala was started on 9 March 1992 in the presence of Karuchola - Guttavaripalem villagers. Thereafter, It is being celebrated as the villagers common festival.<br />
[[File:1992_Ganesh_Inauguration.jpg|thumb|Sri Vigneswara Swamy Idol Inauguration, 1992]]<br />
● ''Timing'': It is celebrated annually on the seventh night after Maha Shivarathri.<br />
<br />
● ''Features'': A significant aspect of the festival is the "Electric Prabhas" (also referred to as "Currentu Prabhalu"), which are large, decorated structures.<br />
<br />
● ''Devotional Aspect'': The festival honors the divine, including Lord Ganesh, and involves rituals, prayers, and festivities.<br />
<br />
● ''Location'': Karuchola-Guttavaripalem Village, [[Edlapadu|Edlapadu Mandal]], [[Palnadu district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
[[File:Currentu_Prabhalu.jpg|thumb|Currentu Prabhalu, Karuchola - Guttavaripalem in February 2023]]<br />
<br />
==Places of worship==<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! Name !! Religion<br />
|-<br />
| Sri Kodanda Ram Temple || [[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
| Sri Sivalayam Temple || [[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
| Sri Anjaneya Swamy Temple || [[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
| Sri Chennakesava Swamy Temple || [[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
| Sri Brahmmam Gari Temple || [[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
| Sri Vigneswara Swamy Temple || [[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
| Smt Nagarappamma Temple || [[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
|Smt Poleramma Temple<br />
|[[Hinduism]]<br />
|-<br />
| Masjid || [[Islam]]<br />
|-<br />
| Christ Luthern Church || [[Christianity]]<br />
|-<br />
| RCM Church || [[Christianity]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Villages in Palnadu district]]<br />
[[Category:Geography of Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Villages in Andhra Pradesh Capital Region]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jayesh_Desai&diff=505993Jayesh Desai2026-02-16T18:46:17Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: started basic info added tags</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description |Indian businessman}}<br />
{{orphan|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Jayesh Desai<br />
| image = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_date = c. {{birth year and age |1972}}<br />
| birth_place = Paravdi in [[Bhavnagar district]], [[India]]<br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| education = <br />
| occupation = [[Entrepreneur]], [[businessman]]<br />
| years_active = <br />
| known_for = Founder of business conglomerate Rajhans Group<br />
| notable_works = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Jayesh Desai''' is an Indian entrepreneur and the founder of the Rajhans Group, a business conglomerate based in Surat, Gujarat. Since the mid-1990s, Desai has led the group's operations in sectors including edible oil processing, real estate, cinema exhibition, and confectionery manufacturing.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Bhuva |first=Rajiv |date=2018-01-15 |title=Playing to a capacity crowd |url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/enterprise/playing-to-a-capacity-crowd/101451 |access-date=2026-01-10 |website=Fortune India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite news |date=2019-11-10 |title=Sweeter returns from darker shades |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/sweeter-returns-from-darker-shades/articleshow/71989175.cms |access-date=2026-01-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Early Life and background ==<br />
Desai was born in the village of Paravdi in [[Bhavnagar district]], Gujarat. After completing his primary education, he moved to Mumbai, where he worked in an entry-level role at a ball-bearing shop. In 1989, he returned to his hometown to assist in his father’s grocery business.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Tyagi |first=Amit |date=17 January 2022 |title=Success Story: 300 रुपये महीने की नौकरी से लेकर 3000 करोड़ के कारोबार तक, जयेश देसाई ने किस तरह बनाया राजहंस ग्रुप |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/business/business-news/rajhans-group-success-story-how-a-business-started-from-300-rs-reached-3000-crores/articleshow/88948966.cms |access-date=2026-01-10 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Career ==<br />
Desai founded the Rajhans Group in 1994 with a small oil-processing unit producing filtered groundnut and cottonseed oil. By the late 1990s, the company had expanded its distribution network across [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], and [[Maharashtra]].<ref name=":12" /> During the 2000s and 2010s, Desai expanded the group's operations into other industries. He later founded Rajhans Cinemas,<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 6, 2025 |title=Retail India News: Rajhans Cinemas Raises the Bar with Surat's First IMAX |url=https://www.indianretailer.com/news/retail-india-news-rajhans-cinemas-raises-bar-surats-first-imax |work=indianretailer.com}}</ref> a multiplex chain that operates more than 160 screens across India.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Rajhans Cinemas expands with IMAX in Surat; 65 more screens planned across India by mid-2026 |url=https://retail.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/food-entertainment/entertainment/rajhans-cinemas-expands-with-imax-in-surat-65-more-screens-planned-across-india-by-mid-2026/123164281 |access-date=2026-01-10 |website=The Economic Times |language=en}}</ref> In 2014, the group entered the chocolate manufacturing market under the brands Schmitten and Hoppits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Amin |first=Ruhail |date=May 29, 2025 |title=Rajhans Group Sets Sights on National Footprint with Ambitious Multi-Sector Expansion |url=https://www.businessworld.in/article/rajhans-group-sets-sights-on-national-footprint-with-ambitious-multi-sector-expansion-558223 |access-date=2026-01-10 |website=BW Businessworld |language=en}}</ref> A manufacturing facility was established in Surat with production technology sourced from several European countries.<ref name=":02" /> The company utilized brand endorsements from [[Priyanka Chopra]] and [[Sidharth Malhotra]] for its market entry.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ganguly |first=Shramana |date=2015-04-06 |title=Surat-based Rajhans Group ropes in Priyanka Chopra to promote premium chocolate Schmitten |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/advertising/surat-based-rajhans-group-ropes-in-priyanka-chopra-to-promote-premium-chocolate-schmitten/articleshow/46818779.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-10 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref name=":22" /> In 2005, the group entered the textile dyeing and processing sector through Rajhans Poly-Prints and Rajhans Silk Mills.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
=== Shareconomy ===<br />
In 2017, Desai launched Shareconomy, a business-to-business (B2B) digital platform designed to facilitate the sharing of industrial manufacturing capacity between owners and third-party users.<ref name=":22" /><br />
<br />
== Public profile ==<br />
In 2011, Desai received national media coverage for his purchase of a [[Ferrari 360|Ferrari 360 Modena]] from cricketer [[Sachin Tendulkar]]. The vehicle had originally been presented to Tendulkar by [[Michael Schumacher]] in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahurkar |first=Uday |date=2011-07-02 |title=Sachin Tendulkar's Ferrari makes its new owner Jayesh Desai famous |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20110711-sachin-tendulkar-ferrari-makes-its-new-owner-jayesh-desai-famous-746713-2011-07-02 |access-date=2026-01-10 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Surat builder is new owner of Sachin Tendulkar's red Ferrari |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-surat-builder-is-new-owner-of-sachin-tendulkar-s-red-ferrari-1558626 |access-date=2026-01-10 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhatt |first=Himansshu |date=2011-06-24 |title=Sachin Tendulkar sells his Ferrari to Surat businessman |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/new-zealand-in-india-2016/top-stories/sachin-tendulkar-sells-his-ferrari-to-surat-businessman/articleshow/8964225.cms |access-date=2026-01-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Recognition ==<br />
In 2021, Desai was named among The Economic Times’ Leaders of Change.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 December 2021 |title=Economic Times Leaders of Change 2021 - Times Ascent |url=https://timesascent.com/articles/working-professionals-prioritise-health-are-less-likely-to-quit-job-if-employer-is-supportive/154100 |access-date=2026-01-10 |website=Times Ascent}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Desai, Jayesh}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Businesspeople from Gujarat]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahawar_Vaishya&diff=471616Mahawar Vaishya2026-02-14T19:05:37Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: added layout for accuracy and corrected details</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Category of Marwari Bania caste of the Hindu religion}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}<br />
'''Mahawar Vaishya'''<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/Rajasthans-castes-were-first-classified-by-British/articleshow/24272494.cms|title=Rajasthan's castes were first classified by British - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-05-25}}</ref> is a category of Marwari Bania caste of the [[Hindu]] religion. They are general category and mostly based in [[Alwar district|Alwar]], [[Gurugram]],<br />
[[Jaipur]], [[Mathura]], [[Mandi Gobindgarh|Mandi Govind Garh]], [[Rewari]], [[Agra]], [[Firozabad]], [[Aligarh]], [[Hasanpur]] and also across India and abroad. They believe in Hinduism, [[Vaishnav]] and [[Sanatan Dharma]] and are called [[Vaishnav]] [[Bania (caste)|Bania]]. They are not devotees of a single god but believe in multiple gods. They are usually vegetarian and avoid consuming alcohol.<br />
<br />
The term "Mahawar" has historical significance and its origins are deeply rooted in the ancient practices and traditions of the community. The Mahawar also known as Mahor Vaishya community has a long-standing reputation for their charitable contributions and their prominent role in trade and commerce.<br />
<br />
Dr. K. N. Mahawar's book, "Mahawar Vaishya Ka Itihaas," offers a comprehensive and well-researched exploration of the Mahawar Vaishya community, tracing its roots, origins, development, and contributions to the history of India, both before and after independence. Every detail is meticulously supported by primary and secondary sources, and field verification. This book is highly recommended for anyone wishing to gain a thorough and factual understanding of the Mahawar Vaishya community.<br />
<br />
== Origin of the Term Mahawar ==<br />
The Mahawar Vaishya community, a prominent sub-caste within the [[Bania (caste)|Bania]] . community, prides itself on being one of the foremost business classes. According to this community, the term "Mahawar" originates from the combination of two Sanskrit words: "Maha" meaning "great" and "war" meaning "businessman." Thus, "Mahawar" translates to "Great Businessman." This etymology underscores the community's esteemed reputation as skilled and prominent traders and entrepreneurs.<br />
<br />
They are also known as Mahor vaishya, Mahavar vaishya, Mahawar vaishya but Mahajan It is worth noting that occasionally, the term Mahajan is also used by Brahmins, indicating the diverse use of the term across different communities.<br />
<br />
== Surnames of the Mahavar Vaishya Community ==<br />
Members of the Mahavar Vaishya community commonly use the surname "Gupta." Other surnames associated with this community include "Mahajan", "Mahor" and "Mahavar." These surnames reflect their heritage and esteemed status within the business classes.<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
Mahawars has history as old as Lord Krishna, as there are many historic evidence exists for the existence of Mahawars during Lord Krishna's time both while in Mathura UP and in Dwarika Gujarat.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mumbaimahawarvaish.com/Index_HistoryOfBania.php|title=Mumbai Mahavar Samaj - Home Page|website=www.mumbaimahawarvaish.com|access-date=2017-05-25}}</ref><br />
<br />
Mostly based in:<br />
* [[Alwar district|Alwar]] and [[Jaipur]] District of [[Rajasthan]]<br />
* [[Mathura district|Mathura District]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
* [[Sitapur district|Sitapur District]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] <br />
* [[Budaun district|Budaun District]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] <br />
* [[Farrukhabad district|Farrukhabad District]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] <br />
* [[Pilibhit district|Pilibhit District]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] <br />
* [[Etah district|Etah District]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
* [[Mandi Gobindgarh|Mandi Govind Garh], [Jalandhar]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]<br />
* [[Gurugram]], [[Rewari]] of [[Haryana]]<br />
* [[Haldaur]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
* Also across India and abroad<br />
<br />
== Disambiguation ==<br />
There is another community which also used surname as Mahawar and known as Mahawar Koli. The [[Mahawar Koli]] are mainly found in Rajasthan in cities like: Ajmer, Jaipur, Kota, Sawaimadhopur, Dausa, Alwar, Kaurali, and Bharatpur.<br />
<br />
== Notable Figures in the Mahavar Vaishya Community ==<br />
{{alumni|residents|date=November 2024}}<br />
Among the notable figures claimed by the Mahavar Vaishya community is the great philanthropist (जन हितैषी ) [[Bhamashah]] . According to the community's traditions, [[Bhamashah]] is celebrated for his remarkable generosity. During the [[Battle of Haldighati]], when [[Maharana Pratap]] was defeated and wandering in the forests with his family, [[Bhamashah]] offered his entire accumulated wealth to the Maharana. This substantial financial support revitalized [[Maharana Pratap]], enabling him to rebuild his army and continue his struggle against the [[Mughals]]. With the resources provided by Bhamashah, Maharana Pratap successfully reclaimed significant territories from Mughal control.<br />
<br />
Bhamashah is immortalized in history for his selfless contribution and unwavering dedication to his motherland. His legacy is a testament to his exceptional generosity and patriotism. Not only was he a financier and supporter of Maharana Pratap, but he also served as a statesman and advisor, playing a crucial role in the administration and military campaigns of Mewar. Bhamashah's contributions significantly influenced the course of Rajput resistance against Mughal dominance, earning him a revered place in Indian history.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[[Category:Vaishya community]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Rajasthan]]<br />
[[Category:Bania communities]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalyanananda&diff=507852Kalyanananda2026-02-07T23:20:02Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: started the entry w/ infobox</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Monastic disciple of Vivekananda (1874–1937)}}<br />
{{religious text primary|date=May 2014}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| honorific_prefix = Swami<br />
| name = Kalyanananda<br />
| honorific_suffix = <br />
| native_name = Kalyan Maharaj <br />
| image = Kalyanananda1.jpg<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = Kalyanananda, a direct monastic disciples of Vivekananda and founder of Ramakrishna Mission Sevashrama, Kankhal <br />
| birth_name = Dakshinaranjan Guha<br />
| birth_date =<br />
| birth_place = [[Barishal]], [[Bengal]]<br />
| death_date = {{Death date|df=yes|1937|10|20|}} <br />
| death_place = [[Mussoorie]]<br />
| other_names = Kalyanananda, Kalyan Maharaj<br />
| education = <br />
| alma_mater = <br />
| occupation = monk<br />
| years_active = <br />
| notable_works = Service as religion, serving famine affected in Kishangarh, serving old and sick monks and poor in Kankhal, establishing the Ramakrishna Mission in Kankhal and Rishikesh<br />
| style = <br />
| spouse = <br />
| children = <br />
| awards = <br />
}}<br />
'''Kalyanananda''' (1874&ndash;1937) was a direct monastic disciple of [[Vivekananda]], who had set up the [[Ramakrishna Mission Sevashrama, Kankhal]], near Haridwar. As a monk of the Ramakrishna Order, he took up service to humanity as the most important philosophy in his life and practiced it for the benefit of the local population and the pilgrims. He spent thirty six-years in [[Ramakrishna Mission Sevashrama Kankhal]] to serve the poor and afflicted. He was one of the pioneers to set up a hospital in a remote location for the poor, needy and the itinerant monks who did not have access to healthcare.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demise of Swami Sarvagatananda|url=http://www.vedantaprov.org/SarvaReminsc.html|publisher=Vedanta Society Providence|access-date=5 February 2014|archive-date=23 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223093131/http://www.vedantaprov.org/SarvaReminsc.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Pre-monastic life==<br />
Kalyanananda was born as Dakshinaranjan Guha in the year 1874 in Hanua village near Vazirpur town in [[Barishal]] district of [[East Bengal]] province (now [[Bangladesh]]). His father's name was Umesh Chandra Guha. He lost his father at an early age and was educated under the guardianship of his uncle. Extreme poverty compelled him to give up a formal education.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda">{{cite book|last=Abjajananda|first=Swami|title=Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda|year=2003|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|location=Mayavati|isbn=9788175052468|page=231}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Monastic life==<br />
Dakshinaranjan was inspired by the ideals of Vivekananda of leading a selfless life and service to poor and needy by looking upon them as manifestation of God. In 1898, he joined the newly established monastery of [[Ramakrishna Order]], the [[Belur Math]]. He was initiated by Vivekananda and took his monastic vows under the name Kalyanananda.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda"/> He served an ailing [[Swami Yogananda|Yogananda]], another direct disciple of [[Ramakrishna]], in his deathbed. [[File:Kalyanananda2.jpg|thumb|right|Kalyanananda, a direct monastic disciple of Vivekananda]]<br />
In 1899 when Vivekananda left for West a second time, Kalyanananda went for pilgrimage and for practicing austerities. In [[Benares]] he met Kedarnath Moulik who would later become famous as [[Achalananda]], another monastic disciple of Vivekananda and the founder of [[Ramakrishna Mission Home of Service]] Benares. Together they were involved in serving the poor and needy in Benares and Kalyanananda developed initial exposure to Vivekananda's vision of practical Vedanta through this.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda"/> From Benares, he went to Allahabad and got engaged in service activities. At Kishangarh in Jaipur, together with [[Swarupananda]], another brother disciple, he got busy in providing relief to the local population affected by a famine. They fed about 300 people every day, which helped in alleviating the impact of the famine.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda"/> In 1901, he returned to Belur Math to meet Vivekananda, who had come back from the West. Vivekananda had requested him to work for the sick and ailing monks around the Rishikesh-Haridwar region as he himself was the witness to the plight of the people there in absence of any healthcare facility.<ref>[http://www.rkmkankhal.org/genesis.html Genesis of Ramakrishna Mission Sevashrama, Kankhal]</ref> Vivekananda apparently told Kalyanananda, ''Kalyan, you will be a Paramhansa.'' [[Sarvagatananda]] of Vedanta Centre Providence, who as Brahmachari Narayan served Kalyanananda in Kankhal, used this statement as the title of the book on his reminiscences about Kalyanananda.<ref>Reminiscences of Swami Kalyanananda, by Swami Sarvagatananda, publisher Vedanta Press, USA, {{ISBN|81-7505-271-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
With the help of Swarupananda, Kalyanananda was able to raise some funds for beginning the work of the Sevashrama in Kankhal near Haridwar in a rented premise consisting of two rooms in 1901. He also met Vivekananda and served him before the latter's death. Once, he bought 20&nbsp;kg of ice by walking over a distance of 8&nbsp;km for Vivekananda. Vivekananda had told him the essence of practical [[Vedanta]] was service to the humanity, with spirituality as the mainstay.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda"/> Kalyanananda followed this philosophy in practice by serving the patients as Gods or living manifestations of the divinity.<ref name="American Vedantist">{{cite web|url=http://americanvedantist.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Vol_15_No_2.pdf|title=In Memoriam Swami Sarvagatananda|last=Tathagatananda|first=Swami|authorlink=Swami Tathagatananda|work=American Vedantist|publisher=vedanta west communications inc|volume=15|issue=2}}</ref><br />
<br />
Later he was joined in his work by another disciple of Vivekananda, [[Nischayananda]]. The two monks received enthusiastic support from [[Dhanraj Giri]], the head of Kailash Ashrama monastery in Rishikesh, who had a good relationship with Vivekananda and [[Abhedananda]]. Because of the effort of Dhanraj Giri, the local monks began accepting the two disciples of Vivekananda as part of the fraternity. Along with service to the poor patients, the two swamis followed strict austere practices like begging their food from a satra or alms house so that they did not have to spend the funds available for personal expenses like food and clothing.<br />
Many monks of the Ramakrishna Order, including [[Disciples of Ramakrishna#Swami Brahmananda|Brahmananda]], [[Turiyananda]] and [[Shivananda]], as well as householder disciples of [[Ramakrishna]] like [[Mahendranath Gupta]], better known as "M", visited the Kankhal Sevashrama.<br />
Kalyanananda's daily routine consisted in personally visiting every patient in the hospital and get to know about the condition, sitting by their side and talking to them, visiting the kitchen, the wards, the garden, the cowshed, the library and the temple shrine.<ref name="You will be a Paramahamsa p.13">{{cite book | title=You will be a Paramahamsa | publisher=Advaita Ashrama | author=Sarvagatananda, Swami | year=2005 | location=Kolkata | isbn=8175052716}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Later life and death==<br />
The last fifteen years of his life was spent in a shattered health owing to the strain of the excessive work.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda"/> He suffered from diabetes. In 1932, he traveled to [[Advaita Ashrama]] in Mayavati and also went to Mussoorie in 1937. He died on 20 October 1937 in Dehra Dun.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}<br />
<br />
==Contribution==<br />
[[File:RKM Sevashrama Kankhal.jpg|thumb|Old building of Ramakrishna Sevashrama, Kankhal.]]<br />
In June 1901, Kalyanananda started the Sevashrama in rented huts at Kankhal with a few phials of medicine himself donned multiple roles as doctor, nurse, accountant and all. In 1903, the Mission was provided with funds for the purchase of a plot of land, along with a well for water supply, and in 1905, two permanent buildings were constructed on this land by the funds sponsored by Babus Bhajanlal Lohia and Harshima, Sukdevdas of Calcutta.<ref>The First General Report of Ramakrishna Mission in 1912, published by Saradananda, Secretary</ref><br />
<br />
The Sevashrama, which started modestly, over the years developed into a full-fledged hospital with many different sections and departments. During the initial stages, Kalyanananda and Nischayananda had to do everything, from picking up patients from the roadside and bringing them to the hospital to serving them in every possible way. Because of financial constraints, they had to do even the menial work of cleaning the hospital and patients and for this they were looked down upon by the local monks.<ref name="Abiswasya (Incredible) Vivekananda">{{cite book|last=Mukherjee|first=Mani Sankar (Sankar)|title=Abiswasya Vivekananda (Bengali)|year=2010|publisher=Sahityam|location=Kolkata|isbn=978-8172670481|page=271}}</ref> However this was eradicated through the efforts of Dhanraj Giri, the influential head of Kailash Ashrama, who knew Vivekananda and had great respect for him.<br />
<br />
In 1902, Kalyanananda opened a branch centre of the sevashrama in Rishikesh. He set up a small dispensary there were poor local people and pilgrims used to come for treatment.<ref>[http://www.vivekananda.net/ReminiscenesOnSwami/SwamiBodhananda.html Reminiscences of Swami Vivekananda by Swami Bodhananda]</ref><br />
<br />
The two disciples of Vivekananda also provided service to the pilgrims during [[Haridwar Kumbh Mela|Kumbha Mela in Haridwar]] in 1903, 1915, and 1927. Kalyanananda also started a library for the public in 1905 for providing education to labourers and their children.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda"/> He started a school in the colony of the scavengers and other backward classes. He also provided drinking water to people who lived nearby and personally gave monetary and pecuniary help to poor and needy.<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Swami Vivekananda"/> Vivekananda had asked Kalyanananda never to return to Bengal. Therefore, he never went back to Belur Math despite repeated summonses.<ref name="Abiswasya (Incredible) Vivekananda"/><br />
<br />
Kalyanananda's philosophy was to look upon the hospital as a place of worship and the patients as God. He would often wake up at night and, accompanied by a faithful dog, went to pay a visit to the in-patient ward to check if anybody needed any service.<ref name="Abiswasya (Incredible) Vivekananda"/> He planted 150 mango trees in the premises of the hospitals, and he used to feed the monks and poor with the produce.<ref name="Abiswasya (Incredible) Vivekananda"/> At least one person was known to have received regular monetary help from him. He himself used to sew the pillow covers and bedsheets of the patients in order to ensure an excellent quality of linen to them.<ref name="Abiswasya (Incredible) Vivekananda"/> He used to keep every affairs of the hospitals, esp. pertaining to the services delivered to the patients under minute observations and sometimes used to do all tasks himself, including cleaning, when his staff were not present.<ref name="Abiswasya (Incredible) Vivekananda"/><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Swami Vivekananda}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kalyanananda, Swami}}<br />
[[Category:20th-century Hindu religious leaders]]<br />
[[Category:Swami Vivekananda]]<br />
[[Category:1874 births]]<br />
[[Category:1937 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Monastic disciples of Swami Vivekananda]]<br />
[[Category:Rishis]]<br />
[[Category:Vedanta]]<br />
[[Category:Monks of the Ramakrishna Mission]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kunal_Verma&diff=511141Kunal Verma2026-02-06T21:42:21Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: started new article with sources</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian actor}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Kunal Verma<br />
| image = <br />
| imagesize = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption =<br />
| birth_name = <br />
| birth_date = <br />
| birth_place = <br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| othername = <br />
| occupation = Actor<br />
| years_active = 2008–present<br />
| known_for = {{ubl|''[[Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna (2008 TV series)|Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna]]''|''[[Havan (TV series)|Havan]]''|''[[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev]]''|''[[Dream Girl – Ek Ladki Deewani Si]]''}}<br />
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Puja Banerjee]]|2020}}<br />
| children = 1<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Kunal Verma''' is an Indian actor who primarily works in [[Bollywood|Hindi]] television. Verma is best known for his portrayal of Yugandhar in ''[[Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna (2008 TV series)|Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna]]'', which marked his acting debut. He has also portrayed Atharva in ''[[Havan (TV series)|Havan]]'', [[Lakshmana]] in ''[[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev]]'' and Karan Roy in ''[[Dream Girl – Ek Ladki Deewani Si]]''.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/kunal-verma-celebrates-14-years-on-tv-with-his-debut-show-tujh-sang-preet-lagai-sajna/articleshow/102562436.cms | title=Kunal Verma celebrates 14 years on TV with his debut show Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna | website=The Times of India |accessdate=16 September 2024}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Personal life==<br />
Verma married his ''[[Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna (2008 TV series)|Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna]]'' co-star [[Puja Banerjee]] in April 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/kunal-verma-shares-details-of-his-engagement-with-puja-banerjee-says-he-was-commitment-phobic-earlier/articleshow/60062709.cms |title=Kunal Verma shares details of his engagement with Puja Banerjee, says he was commitment phobic earlier |publisher=[[Times of India]] |date=14 August 2017 |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028150049/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/kunal-verma-shares-details-of-his-engagement-with-puja-banerjee-says-he-was-commitment-phobic-earlier/articleshow/60062709.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/kunal-verma-after-our-break-up-i-realised-that-puja-banerjee-was-the-one-for-me/articleshow/59847703.cms |title=Kunal Verma: After our break-up I realised that Puja Banerje was the one for me |website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=20 October 2018|archive-date=20 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020061526/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/kunal-verma-after-our-break-up-i-realised-that-puja-banerjee-was-the-one-for-me/articleshow/59847703.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/what-s-hot/story/actress-puja-banerjee-gets-engaged-to-beau-kunal-verma-see-pics-lifetv-1030007-2017-08-17 |title=Actress Puja Banerjee gets engaged to beau Kunal Verma; see pics |website=India Today|access-date=1 February 2024|archive-date=28 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128152100/https://www.indiatoday.in/television/what-s-hot/story/actress-puja-banerjee-gets-engaged-to-beau-kunal-verma-see-pics-lifetv-1030007-2017-08-17|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=16 April 2020 |title=Puja Banerjee-Kunal Verma Are Already MARRIED; TV Couple Kept Their Court Wedding As A Secret For 45 Days |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/puja-banerjee-tv-couple-kept-their-court-wedding-as-a-secret-for-45-days-1199065 |website=ABP |access-date=23 May 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523172731/https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/puja-banerjee-tv-couple-kept-their-court-wedding-as-a-secret-for-45-days-1199065 |url-status=live}}</ref> Verma and Banerjee are parents to a son.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 October 2020 |title=Puja Banerjee and Kunal Verma blessed with a baby boy |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/celebrity/story/puja-banerjee-and-kunal-verma-blessed-with-a-baby-boy-1730244-2020-10-10 |website=[[India Today]] |access-date=23 May 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523172730/https://www.indiatoday.in/television/celebrity/story/puja-banerjee-and-kunal-verma-blessed-with-a-baby-boy-1730244-2020-10-10 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/puja-banerjees-heartwarming-note-on-embracing-motherhood-recalls-when-she-could-not-see-her-baby-for-three-days-post-delivery/articleshow/78665980.cms |title=Puja Banerjee's heartwarming note on embracing motherhood; recalls when she could not see her baby for three days post delivery |newspaper=The Times of India |date=14 October 2020 |access-date=23 May 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104200814/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/puja-banerjees-heartwarming-note-on-embracing-motherhood-recalls-when-she-could-not-see-her-baby-for-three-days-post-delivery/articleshow/78665980.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
===Films===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Year<br />
! scope="col" | Title<br />
! scope="col" | Role<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref.<br />
|-<br />
| 2015<br />
| ''End Topic''<br />
| Khan<br />
| Short film<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| 2016<br />
| ''Unlimited Tamaashaa''<br />
| Pyare<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| 2021<br />
| ''[[Bob Biswas]]''<br />
| Rahul<br />
|<br />
|<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Sharma |first=Devesh |date=6 December 2021 |title=Bob Biswas Movie Review |url=https://www.filmfare.com/reviews/bollywood-movies/bob-biswas-movie-review-51696.html |magazine=[[Filmfare]] |access-date=6 April 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406105417/https://www.filmfare.com/reviews/bollywood-movies/bob-biswas-movie-review-51696.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Television===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Year<br />
! scope="col" | Title<br />
! scope="col" | Role<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref.<br />
|-<br />
| 2008–2010<br />
| ''[[Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna (2008 TV series)|Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna]]''<br />
| Yugandhar "Yug"<br />
|<br />
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Change has come to our TV screens|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/change-has-come-to-our-tv-screens/383963/1|website=The Indian Express|accessdate=21 September 2012}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2010–2011<br />
| ''[[Tera Mujhse Hai Pehle Ka Naata Koi]]''<br />
| Rohan<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2"| 2011<br />
| ''[[Havan (TV series)|Havan]]''<br />
| Atharva<br />
|<br />
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/will-atharva-aastha-unite/articleshow/10739027.cms|title=Will Atharva & Aastha unite?|website=Times of India|date=16 November 2011 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| ''[[Surya – The Super Cop]]''<br />
| Veer<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|''[[C.I.D. (Indian TV series)|C.I.D.]]''<br />
|Arnav<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| 2013-2014<br />
| ''[[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev]]''<br />
| [[Lakshmana]]<br />
|<br />
|<ref>{{cite news|last=Wadhwa|first=Akash|date=6 March 2013|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Indian-TV-gets-bigger-with-better-budgets/articleshow/18813405.cms|title=Indian TV gets bigger with better budgets|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=20 August 2021|archive-date=31 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231231342/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/indian-tv-gets-bigger-with-better-budgets/articleshow/18813405.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2014<br />
| ''[[Ek Mutthi Aasmaan (TV series)|Ek Mutthi Aasmaan]]''<br />
| Aryan<br />
|<br />
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Kunal-Verma-is-Aasha-Negis-new-love-in-Ek-Mutthi-Aasman/articleshow/40052927.cms|title=Kunal Verma is Aasha Negi's new love in Ek Mutthi Aasman |website=The Times of India|date=11 August 2014 |language=en|access-date=2019-07-27}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2015–2016<br />
| ''[[Dream Girl – Ek Ladki Deewani Si]]''<br />
| Karan Roy<br />
|<br />
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mid-day.com/articles/dream-girl-highlights-small-towners-starry-dreams/16034182 |title='Dream Girl' highlights small-towner's starry dreams |work=Mid Day |date=4 March 2015 |access-date=19 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402132254/http://www.mid-day.com/articles/dream-girl-highlights-small-towners-starry-dreams/16034182 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2017<br />
| ''[[Dil Se Dil Tak]]''<br />
| Aman Patel<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| 2025<br />
| ''[[Jhanak]]''<br />
| Dr. Vihaan Parekh<br />
| <br />
|<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-kunal-verma-enters-jhanak-as-dr-vihaan-says-i-am-hoping-the-fans-will-love-the-character/articleshow/116910240.cms | title=Kunal Verma enters Jhanak as Dr Vihaan; says 'I am hoping the fans will love the character' | website=The Times of India |accessdate=10 January 2025}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Web series===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Year<br />
! scope="col" | Title<br />
! scope="col" | Role<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref.<br />
|-<br />
| 2020<br />
| ''The Bull of Dalal Street''<br />
| Kunal<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| 2023<br />
| ''[[Dear Ishq]]''<br />
| Rizwan Khan<br />
| <br />
|<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/hindi/dear-ishq/season-1/seasonreview/97254637.cms | title=Dear Ishq Season 1 Review: Performances and gloss save this predictable love/hate story | website=The Times of India|accessdate=28 January 2023}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2026<br />
|''Hasratein 3''<br />
|Suleiman<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Music videos===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Year<br />
! scope="col" | Title<br />
! scope="col" | Singer(s)<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref.<br />
|-<br />
| 2020<br />
| ''Waise Toh Teri Yaad''<br />
| Swarat Chakraborty<br />
|<ref>{{cite news | url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=dIVxHwEVJVo | title=Waise Toh Teri Yaad: Official Music Video ft. Sahar Afsa and Kunal Verma | website=Zee Music – YouTube |accessdate=24 February 2021}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IMDb name|6538222}}<br />
* {{Instagram|kunalrverma}}<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Verma, Kunal}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]<br />
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baraily_tehsil&diff=489758Baraily tehsil2026-02-06T13:57:59Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: done...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = baraily tehsil<br />
|native_name =<br />
|native_name_lang =<br />
|settlement_type = [[Tehsil]]<br />
|image_skyline =<br />
|imagesize =<br />
|image_alt =<br />
|image_caption = <br />
| image =<br />
<!-- maps and coordinates --><br />
|pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India<br />
|pushpin_label_position = right<br />
|pushpin_map_alt =<br />
|pushpin_mapsize =<br />
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Madhya Pradesh]]<br />
|coordinates = {{coord|23.006389|N|78.230000|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
|coordinates_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --><br />
|subdivision_type = Country<br />
|subdivision_name = {{flagcountry|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = Madhya Pradesh<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Raisen district]]<br />
|government_type = [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|Janpad Panchayat]]<br />
|governing_body = [[Council]]<br />
<!-- area --><br />
|area_footnotes = <br />
| area_total_km2 = <br />
|area_rural_footnotes = <br />
| area_rural_km2 =<br />
|area_rank =<br />
| area_blank1_title =<br />
| area_blank1_km2 =<br />
|area_note =<br />
|width_mi =<br />
|elevation_min_rank =<br />
<!-- population --><br />
|population_as_of = <br />
|population_footnotes = <br />
|population_total =<br />
<br />
| population_density_km2 =<br />
|population_density_sq_mi=<br />
|population_urban_footnotes =<br />
|population_urban =<br />
| population_density_urban_km2 =<br />
|population_density_urban_sq_mi =<br />
|population_rural_footnotes =<br />
|population_rural =<br />
| population_density_rural_km2 =<br />
|population_density_rural_sq_mi =<br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]<br />
<!-- time zone(s) --><br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
<!-- postal codes, area code --><br />
|postal_code_type = Postal code (PIN)<br />
|postal_code = 464668<br />
|area_code_type = <!-- defaults to: Area code(s) --><br />
|area_code = <br />
| geocode =<br />
|registration_plate = <br />
<!-- blank fields (section 1) --><br />
| blank_name_sec1 = <br />
| blank_info_sec1 = <br />
| blank1_name_sec1 =<br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = <br />
<!-- blank fields (section 2) --><br />
| blank_name_sec2 =<br />
| blank_info_sec2 =<br />
<!-- website, footnotes --><br />
| website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} --><br />
|iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|MP-IN]]<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Baraily tehsil''' is a tehsil in Raisen district,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2022-07-10|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Madhya Pradesh, India. It is also a subdivision of the administrative and revenue division of [[raisen district]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. Assembly constituency is silwani.<br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
<br />
{{Empty section|date=August 2022}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Khargone, Raisen|Khargone]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Tehsils of Madhya Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Raisen district]]<br />
<br />
{{Bhopal-geo-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doi_(clan)&diff=497508Doi (clan)2026-02-06T12:34:05Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Created New Info...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Doi clan of the Gujjar ethnic group found in Pakistan, Afghanistan and India}}<br />
{{Other uses|DOI (disambiguation){{!}}DOI}}<br />
{{Infobox tribe<br />
| name = Doi<br />
| local name = Doi<br />
| ethnicity = [[Gujjar]]<br />
| location = [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Afghanistan]]<br />
| descended = [[Khatana]]<br />
| language = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Hindko]], [[Urdu]], [[Hindi]], [[Gujjari]], [[Pahari language|Pahari]], [[Koshur]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Doi''' is a Punjabi sub-clan of the [[Gurjar|Gujjar]] ethnic group of [[Pakistan]], Afghanistan and [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=K. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iKsqzB4P1ioC&dq=Gujar+clan+Doi&pg=PA406 |title=Rajasthan (Part ll) |date=1998 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-766-1 |pages=406 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rahi |first=Javaid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQ52EAAAQBAJ&dq=Doi+gujjars&pg=PA316 |title=The Gujjars Vol:05 Edited by Dr. Javaid Rahi -Book Series on Gujjar History and Culture |publisher=Jammu and Kashmir Acacademy of Art, Culture, Languages, Jammu |pages=316 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khatana |first=Ram Parshad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SBuAAAAMAAJ&q=Gujjar+clans+doi |title=Tribal Migration in Himalayan Frontiers: Study of Gujjar Bakarwal Transhumance Economy |date=1992 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-81-85326-46-7 |pages=335 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LPsvytmN3mUC&dq=Gujar+clan+Doi&pg=PA313 |title=A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province: A.-K |date=1997 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-85297-69-9 |pages=313 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
Families related to this clan speak many local languages (including [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]) and this clan is found in [[Punjab]], Azad Kashmir, [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] and Islamabad regions of Pakistan. In India they are found in [[Rajasthan]], Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and [[Delhi]]. They are a sub-clan of the [[Khatana]] Gurjars.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bharadwaj |first=A. N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UApuAAAAMAAJ&q=offshoots+of+khatanas |title=History and Culture of Himalayan Gujjars |date=1994 |publisher=Jay Kay Book House |pages=74 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Gurjar clans}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Gurjar clans of India]]<br />
[[Category:Gurjar clans of Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Punjab, Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Punjab, India]]<br />
<br />
{{India-ethno-stub}}<br />
{{Pakistan-ethno-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valanjanganam_Falls&diff=543415Valanjanganam Falls2026-01-31T14:03:47Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Made post</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox waterfall<br />
| name = Valanjanganam Falls<br />
| alt_name = വളഞ്ഞാങ്കാനം വെളളച്ചാട്ടം<br />Ninnumullippara<br />
| photo = Waterfall ,Kumily,Kerala 11-9-2024.jpg<br />
| photo_width = <br />
| photo_caption = <br />
| map = Kerala<br />
| map_width =<br />
| map_caption = Location of Valanjanganam Falls in Kerala<br />
| coordinates = {{Coord|9|33|46|N|76|58|39|E|type:waterbody_region:Kuttikkanam_scale:50000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}<br />
| coords_ref = <br />
| location = [[Peermade]], [[Idukki district]], [[Kerala]], [[India]]<ref>[https://indiamaps.gov.in/mapViewer Survey of India]</ref><br />
| type = Waterfall<br />
| elevation = 22.86<br />
| height = <br />
| height_longest = <br />
| number_drops = 1<br />
| width = <br />
| average_width = <br />
| watercourse = <br />
| average_flow = <br />
| world_rank = <br />
}}<br />
'''Valanjanganam Falls''', locally known as Valanjanganam Vellachaattam is a scenic waterfall located in [[Peermade]] in [[Idukki district]], [[Kerala]] state. It lies on the [[National Highway 183 (India)|National Highway 183]] ([[Kottayam]]-[[Kumily]] Road), about 1 km from Murinjapuzha and 5&nbsp;km from [[Kuttikkanam]]. Tourists usually stop here for a tea and enjoy the falls. Its an ideal spot to stop and take a quick stretch and relax during tiring journeys.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71rwblpCwDk/|title=Valanjanganam Falls (വളഞ്ഞങ്കാനം വെളളച്ചാട്ടം)|website=trackthetrails.com|date=2021-05-07}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of waterfalls]]<br />
* [[List of waterfalls in India]]<br />
* [[Kuttikkanam]]<br />
* [[Peermade]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{Commonscat}}<br />
{{Idukki-geo-stub}}<br />
{{waterfall-stub}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Waterfalls of Kerala]]<br />
[[Category:Geography of Idukki district]]<br />
[[Category:Kuttikkanam]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Devarshi_Shah&diff=496432Devarshi Shah2026-01-22T13:37:03Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Created A Post...</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian actor (born 1996)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Devarshi Shah <br />
| image = Devarshi Shah at premier of Bachu Ni Benpani (cropped).jpg<br />
| caption = in 2025<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1993|08|07}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Ahmedabad]], [[Gujarat]], India<br />
| nationality = <br />
| alma_mater = <br />
| occupation = Actor<br />
| years_active = 2016–present|<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Devarshi Shah''' (born 07 August 1993) is an Indian actor from [[Gujarat]], [[India]]. He is known for his role in [[Gujarati cinema|Gujarati film]] [[Hardik Abhinandan]] (2016). He later starred in films like ''[[Bau Na Vichar]]'' (2019)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gujjumovies.com/movie/bau-na-vichaar/|title=Bau Na Vichaar - Review, Cast, News, Release Date, Photos and More- GujjuMovies|language=en-US|access-date=2022-09-01|archive-date=6 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806033340/https://gujjumovies.com/movie/bau-na-vichaar/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.comentertainment/gujarati/movies/news/gujarati-film-bau-na-vichaars-shoot-begins-today/articleshow/66379577.cms|title=Gujarati film Bau Na Vichaar's shoot begins today - Times of India|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2022-09-01}}{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/regional/gujarati/devarshi-shah-and-janki-bodiwala-is-all-set-to-promote-their-upcoming-film-bau-na-vichaar/videoshow/69083457.cms|title=Devarshi Shah and Janki Bodiwala is all set to promote their upcoming film Bau Na Vichaar {{!}} Gujarati Movie News - Times of India|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|language=en|access-date=2022-09-01}}</ref> and ''[[Raado]]'' (2022). He also appeared in TV serials ''[[Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai]]'' and [[Rishton Ka Chakravyuh|''Rishton Ka Chakravyuh'']].<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Devarshi debuted in [[Gujarati cinema]] in 2016 with ''[[Hardik Abhinandan]]'' directed by Dev Keshwala.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/it-has-been-a-year-full-of-different-experiences-devarshi-shah/articleshow/73033904.cms?from=mdr#_ga=2.99894494.1544217533.1661972064-amp-JAgg_vc9A0xvEo1BRerWYziiRvltuO_8Gght_fo4Ky_Sj7TadW12OK7IaeywaLn0 |title=It has been a year full of different experiences: Devarshi Shah|newspaper=The Times of India India Times|language=en|access-date=2022-09-01|date=13 January 2017}}</ref> Later, he acted in ''[[Bau Na Vichar]]'' (2019)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/gujarati/entertainment/upcoming-gujarati-film-of-tarak-mehta-ka-ulta-chasma-fame-tappu-bau-na-vichar-trailer-launched-42883|title=ગુજરાતી ફિલ્મ બઉ ના વિચારનું ટ્રેલર થયું લોન્ચ, લીડ રોલમાં જોવા મળશે તારક મેહતાનો ટપ્પુ|date=2019-04-12|website=Zee News Gujarati|language=en|access-date=2022-09-01}}</ref> and ''[[Raado]]'' (2022).<ref>{{cite news|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/devarshi-shah-looks-suave-and-dapper-in-his-latest-post-see-pic/articleshow/90389940.cms|title=Devarshi Shah looks suave and dapper in his latest post; See pic – Times of India |newspaper=The Times of India |date=23 March 2022 |publisher=}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|- <br />
! Year <br />
! Film<br />
! Role<br />
!Language<br />
|-<br />
| 2016 || ''[[Hardik Abhinandan]]'' || Hardik Mochi<br />
|Gujarati<br />
|-<br />
| 2019 || ''[[Bau Na Vichar]]'' || Arun<br />
|Gujarati<br />
|-<br />
| 2022 || ''[[Raado]]'' <ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movie-details/raado/movieshow/92202521.cms |title=Raado Movie: Showtimes, Review, Songs, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos {{!}} eTimes |access-date=2026-01-22 |via=timesofindia.indiatimes.com}}</ref>|| Neel<br />
|Gujarati<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 2023 || ''Jaishree Krishh'' || TBA<br />
|Gujarati<br />
|-<br />
| ''[[Kho Gaye Hum Kahan]]'' || Ashish<br />
|Hindi<br />
|-<br />
| 2024 || ''[[The Great Gujarati Matrimony]]'' || Ved<br />
|Gujarati<br />
|-<br />
|2025<br />
|''[[Bachu Ni Benpani]]''<br />
|Vicky<br />
|Gujarati<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* {{IMDb name|nm8390427}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male actors in Gujarati-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Gujarati theatre]]<br />
[[Category:Gujarati actors]]<br />
[[Category:Male actors from Ahmedabad]]<br />
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]<br />
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]<br />
[[Category:1993 births]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santhal_Pargana_division&diff=445894Santhal Pargana division2026-01-07T10:20:40Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: revise</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Division of Jharkhand, India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Santal Pargana division<br />
| image_map = Santhal Pargana Division.png<br />
| map_caption = Location of Santhal Pargana in Jharkhand<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|24|30|N|87|30|E|region:IN_type:adm2nd|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = State<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Jharkhand]]<br />
| established_title = Established<br />
| established_date = 1983<br />
| seat_type = Headquarters<br />
| seat = [[Dumka]]<br />
| parts_type = Districts<br />
| parts_style = para<br />
| leader_title = [[Divisional commissioner|Commissioner]]<br />
| leader_name = Shri Lalchand Dadel ([[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]])<br />
| leader_title1 = [[Deputy inspector general of police|DIG]]<br />
| leader_name1 = Shri Amber Lakra ([[Indian Police Service|IPS]]) <br />
| area_total_km2 = 12,601<br />
| population_total = 69,69,097<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| website = <br />
| type = Division of [[Jharkhand]]<br />
| p1 = [[Godda district|Godda]]<br />
| p2 = [[Deoghar district|Deoghar]]<br />
| p3 = [[Dumka district|Dumka]]<br />
| p4 = [[Jamtara district|Jamtara]]<br />
| p5 = [[Sahibganj district|Sahibganj]]<br />
| p6 = [[Pakur district|Pakur]]<br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Santhal Pargana division''' is an administrative division of the [[India|Indian]] state of [[Jharkhand]]. The division comprises six districts and serves as a key administrative unit of the state. It is overseen by a [[Divisional commissioner|Divisional Commissioner]], while law and order is managed by the [[Deputy inspector general of police|Deputy Inspector General of Police]] (DIG).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who's Who {{!}} District Dumka, Government of Jharkhand {{!}} India |url=https://dumka.nic.in/about-district/whos-who/ |access-date=2026-01-07 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2025-05-20 |title=कैसे हो जनता का काम, जब संथाल परगना प्रमंडलीय कार्यालय में एक-एक अधिकारी संभाल रहे कई-कई पद। |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hi/!state/shortage-of-officers-in-santhal-pargana-divisional-office-of-jharkhand-jharkhand-news-jhs25052005924 |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-01 |title=सेवानिवृत्त प्रमंडलीय आयुक्त को दी विदाई |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/jharkhand/deogarh/story-retirement-of-santhal-pargana-commissioner-lalchand-dadel-after-two-and-a-half-years-201761938308909.html |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.livehindustan.com |language=hi}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Origin of name==<br />
Santal Pargana derives its name from two words: "[[Santhal people|Santal]]", a major inhabited tribe in the region and [[Pargana]], a unit of administration in Persian language used mostly by medieval rulers.<br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
Santal Pargana is one of the divisions of [[Jharkhand]]. Its headquarters is at [[Dumka]]. Presently, this administrative division comprises six districts: [[Godda district|Godda]], [[Deoghar district|Deoghar]], [[Dumka district|Dumka]], [[Jamtara district|Jamtara]], [[Sahebganj district|Sahibganj]] and [[Pakur district|Pakur]].<br />
[[File:Santal_Parganas.jpg|thumb|Boundary map (1905)]]<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
This region is mentioned as [[Kajangala]] in different ancient literatures specially in Buddhist literatures. <br />
It is mentioned that the Chinese monk-traveller [[Xuanzang]] (Hiuen Tsang) travelled from Champa (recent [[Bhagalpur]]) to Kajangala and then proceeded to [[Pundravardhana]] (recent [[Bangladesh]]) in the 7th century AD. He says that the northern limit of its territory (means [[Sahebganj]]) was not very far from the [[Ganges]]. The forests to the south had plenty of [[elephant]]s. The people were straight forward, talented and devoted to education.<ref name = "Roy">Roy, Niharranjan, ''Bangalir Itihas, Adi Parba'', {{in lang|bn}}, first published 1972, reprint 2005, pp. 99–100, 81–93, Dey’s Publishing, 13 Bankim Chatterjee Street, Kolkata, {{ISBN|81-7079-270-3}}</ref><br />
<br />
In the system of [[Permanent Settlement]], British encourage [[Sauria Paharia people|paharia]] of [[Rajmahal hills]] to practice settled agriculture but they refused to cut trees. Then British officials attracted attention to Santals who were ready to clear the forests for settled agriculture. In 1832, a large number of area demarcated as [[Damin-i-koh]]. Santal from [[Cuttack]], [[Dhalbhum]], [[Birbhum]], [[Manbhum]], [[Hazaribagh]] migrated, clear forest tracts and started cultivating these lands as peasants. British collected tax from Santals as revenue. The imposition of taxes, exploitation by [[Zamindar]] and money lenders sparked Santal rebellion. The [[Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu]], two brothers organized and led Santal inhabitants for the [[Santal Revolt]] (Santal Hul) against the Britishers but were defeated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jha|first=Amar Nath|title=Locating the Ancient History of Santal Parganas|date=2009|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=70|pages=185–196|issn=2249-1937|jstor=44147668}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9T3zYvKVF98C&q=santhal&pg=PA57|title=This is Our Homeland: A Collection of Essays on the Betrayal of Adivasi|year=2007|access-date= 26 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMg-DAAAQBAJ&q=santhal+revolt&pg=PA329|title=History of India|isbn=9788173354984|access-date=26 August 2019|last1=Malik|first1=Dr Malti|year=1943 |publisher=New Saraswati House India Pvt }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://sahibganj.nic.in/en/History.html |title=History, Sahibganj, Jharkhand. |website=sahibganj.nic.in |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927165128/http://sahibganj.nic.in/en/History.html |archive-date=2011-09-27}} </ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wesanthals.tripod.com/id50.html|title = Freedom Struggle}}</ref> Their other siblings namely Chand Murmu, Bhairo Murmu, Phulo Murmu, Jhano Murmu also followed elder brothers leadership for fighting against injustice.<br />
[[File:Attack by 600 Santhals upon a party of 50 sepoys, 40th regiment native infantry.jpg|thumb|Attack by 600 Santhals upon a party of 50 sepoys, 40th regiment native infantry]]<br />
[[File:1907-bengal-sikkim3.jpg|thumb|The [[Santal Parganas]] in a 1907 map of the Bengal area]]<br />
In 1855, during [[British India]], Santal Parganas was created as a district, and was a part of the [[Bengal Presidency]]. Santal Parganas was a district, in undivided [[Bihar]] state, upgraded to a division in 1983.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Santhal pargana |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/jharkhand/story-santal-pargana-was-formed-as-a-district-during-the-british-rule-7524113.html }}</ref> As a consequence of Santal uprising, the British passed the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act ,1876 which offered some protection for the tribals against exploitation. It prohibits the sale of Adivasi land to non-Adivasis in the Santal Pargana region along present day Jharkhand's border with West Bengal. After Independence of India, the Santal Pargana Tenancy Act, 1949 is the first codified law of tenancy in Santal Pargana division of Jharkhand. When enacted, it supplemented existing British-era tenancy laws and codified some of the customary laws related to tribal land.<br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
===Languages===<br />
{{pie chart<br />
|thumb=right<br />
|caption=Languages in Santhal Parganas division (2011)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in}}</ref><br />
|label1 = [[Khortha language|Khortha]]|value1 = 29.11 |color1 = red<br />
|label2 = [[Santali language|Santali]] |value2 = 24.25 |color2 = blue<br />
|label3 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value3 = 16.11 |color3 = gold<br />
|label4 = [[Angika]] |value4 = 10.40 |color4 = moccasin<br />
|label5 = [[Hindi]] |value5 = 8.69 |color5 = orange<br />
|label6 = [[Urdu]] |value6 = 5.06 |color6 = green<br />
|label7 = [[Malto language|Malto]] |value7 = 2.15 |color7 = magenta<br />
|label8 = [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] |value8 = 1.99 |color8 = lightsalmon<br />
|label9 = Others |value9 =2.24 |color9 = gray<br />
}}<br />
It has a population of 6,969,097. [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and [[Hindi]] are mostly spoken national languages, followed by regional dialect Khorta.<br />
<br />
===Religion===<br />
{{ pie chart<br />
|thumb=right<br />
|caption=Religions in Santhal Parganas 2011 census <br />
|label1 = [[Hindus]] |value1 = 67.95 |color1 = darkorange <br />
|label2 = [[Muslims]] |value2 = 22.73 |color2 = green<br />
|label3 = [[Christians]] |value3 = 4.21|color3 = blue<br />
|label4 = [[Sarna (religion)|Sarna]] and [[Sari Dharam]] |value4 = 4.84|color4 = red <br />
|label5 = Others |value5 = 0.27|color5 = Grey <br />
}}<br />
The majority of the population follows [[Hinduism]]. [[Sari Dharam]] is followed by the [[Santal]] [[tribe]] residents and [[Sarna (religion)|Sarna]] by other tribes.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Santhal Pargana Division topics}}<br />
{{Santhal Parganas Division}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Divisions of Jharkhand]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Jharkhand-geo-stub}}<br />
[[Category:Anga]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Aliwal&diff=458803Battle of Aliwal2025-12-17T14:52:28Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: expand citations as per guidelines and corrected details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Part of the First Anglo-Sikh War (1846)}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=May 2011}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}<br />
{{more footnotes|date=January 2011}}<br />
{{Infobox military conflict<br />
| conflict = Battle of Aliwal<br />
| partof = the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]]<br />
| image = Bataille d'Aliwal 1.jpg<br />
| image_size = 300<br />
| caption = Charge of the British 16th Lancers against Sikh [[Fauj-i-Ain]] infantry and artillery<br />
| date = 28 January 1846<br />
| place = near the [[Sutlej]] river<br />
| map_type = India Punjab#India<br />
| map_relief = yes<br />
| latitude = <br />
| longitude = <br />
| map_size = <br />
| map_marksize = <br />
| map_caption = Location within [[Punjab]]<br />
| map_label = Aliwal<br />
| result = British victory<br />
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|25px]] [[East India Company]]<br />
| combatant2 = [[File:Sikh Empire flag.jpg|25px]] [[Sikh Empire]]<br />
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|25px]] Sir [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Harry Smith]]<br />
| commander2 = [[File:Sikh Empire flag.jpg|25px]] [[Sardar]] [[Ranjodh Singh Majithia]]<br />
| strength1 = 10,000<br>28–32 guns<ref>Hernon, p. 564</ref><ref name=Tucker1174>{{cite book| last=Tucker| first=Spencer C.| title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ...| year=2009| page=1174}}</ref><br />
| strength2 = 15,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Aliwal, 28 January 1846 {{!}} Online Collection {{!}} National Army Museum, London |url=https://collection.nam.ac.uk/detail.php?acc=1971-02-33-505-6 |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=collection.nam.ac.uk}}</ref><br>69–70 guns<ref name=Cassell104>Cassell, p. 104</ref><ref name=Tucker1174/><br />
| casualties1 = 589-850<ref name=Tucker1174/><br />
| casualties2 = 2,000<ref name=Tucker1174/><br>67 guns<ref name=Perrett104>Perrett, p. 104</ref>|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox First Anglo-Sikh War}}<br />
<br />
The '''Battle of Aliwal''' was fought on 28 January 1846 between the [[East India Company|British]] and [[Sikh Empire|Sikh]] forces in northern India (now [[Punjab, India]]).<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Sidhu |first=Amarpal Singh |title=The Second Anglo-Sikh War |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |others=John Chapple |year=2016 |isbn=9781445650241 |edition=1st |location=United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland |chapter=Chronology}}</ref> The British were led by Sir [[Sir Harry Smith, 1st Baronet|Harry Smith]],<ref>Smith, Sir Harry. ‘'The Autobiography of Lieutenant-General Sir Harry Smith Baronet of Aliwal on the Sutlej.'’ Publisher: John Murray, Albemarke Street, 1903 [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/57094/57094-h/57094-h.htm]</ref> while the Sikhs were led by [[Ranjodh Singh Majithia]]. Britain's victory in the battle is sometimes regarded as the turning point in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]].<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
The First Anglo-Sikh War began six years after the death of [[Ranjit Singh]], who had established the [[Sikh Empire]] in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. The Punjab became increasingly disordered, while the British increased their military forces on their border with the Punjab. Eventually, the increasingly turbulent [[Sikh Khalsa Army]] crossed the [[Sutlej River]] and invaded British territory under leaders who were distrustful of their own troops.<br />
<br />
On 21 December and 22 December 1845, the army of the [[British East India Company]] commanded by Sir [[Hugh Gough, 1st Viscount Gough|Hugh Gough]] and the Governor-General of Bengal, Sir [[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|Henry Hardinge]], fought the bloody [[Battle of Ferozeshah]]. The Sikh armies under [[Vizier]] Lal Singh and Commander in Chief Tej Singh eventually retreated, but the British army was shaken by its heavy losses. They did not renew hostilities for some weeks, and Hardinge sought to relieve Gough of his command, blaming his tactics for the heavy casualties.<br />
<br />
The Sikhs too were temporarily disheartened by the retreats ordered by their commanders. However, they were reinforced by troops who had not yet seen action and moved back across the Sutlej to occupy a bridgehead at Sobraon, while a detachment under Ranjodh Singh Majithia (sometimes transcribed as "Runjoor Singh"), with 7,000 men and 20 guns, crossed higher up the Sutlej to besiege the British-held fortress of [[Ludhiana]] and menace Gough's and Hardinge's supply lines. The British commanders detached a division under Sir Harry Smith to clear this threat to their rear.<br />
<br />
==Campaign==<br />
On 16 January 1846, Smith recovered two outposts which the Sikhs had seized at [[Fatehgarh Sahib|Fategarh]] and [[Dharamkot, Moga|Dharmkot]]. Although Runjodh Singh's irregular cavalry had raided over a wide area and set fire to part of the British cantonments at Ludhiana, his main body was advancing only slowly on Ludhiana.<br />
<br />
Harry Smith first intended to attack Runjodh Singh's army at [[Buddowal]]. However, on learning of the Sikh strength, and receiving further orders from Gough, he instead force-marched his troops via [[Jagraon]], collecting a British regiment there, to reach Ludhiana ahead of the Sikh main body. On 21 January, as he left Buddowal, the Sikh irregular cavalry (the ''Gorchurras'') continually attacked his rearguards. They captured most of Smith's baggage animals (mules, bullocks and elephants), and cut down any straggling troops. Nevertheless, Smith succeeded in reaching Ludhiana, with his troops exhausted. A brigade of troops from [[Delhi]], including two [[Gurkha]] battalions, reinforced him.<br />
<br />
After resting his troops, Smith once again advanced to Buddowal. The Sikhs had withdrawn to [[Aliwal, Taran Taran|Aliwal]] on the Sutlej, awaiting reinforcements. On 28 January, Smith advanced against them, cautiously at first.<br />
<br />
==Battle==<br />
[[File:16th Lancers, Battle of Aliwal, 28 January 1846.jpg|thumb|16th Lancers, Battle of Aliwal, 28 January 1846]]<br />
<br />
The Sikhs had occupied a position {{convert|4|mi|km}} long, which ran along a ridge between the villages of Aliwal, on the Sutlej, and Bhundri. The Sutlej ran close to their rear for the entire length of their line, making it difficult for them to manoeuvre and also potentially disastrous if they were forced to retreat. Facing them Smith had about 10,000 men and 28 guns.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Burton |first=Reginald |title=The First and Second Sikh Wars |publisher=Government Central Branch Press |year=1911 |edition=1st |location=Simla |pages=138 |language=English}}</ref><br />
<br />
After the initial artillery salvoes, Smith determined that Aliwal was the Sikh weak point. He sent two of his four infantry brigades to capture the village, from where they could [[Enfilade and defilade|enfilade]] the Sikh centre. They seized the village, and began pressing forwards to threaten the fords across the Sutlej.<br />
<br />
As the Sikhs tried to swing back their left, pivoting on Bhundri, some of their cavalry presented a threat to the open British left flank. A British and Indian cavalry brigade, led by the [[16th The Queen's Lancers|16th Lancers]], charged and dispersed them. The 16th Lancers then attacked a large body of Sikh infantry. These were battalions organised and trained in contemporary European fashion by [[Naples|Neapolitan]] [[mercenary]], [[Paolo Di Avitabile]]. They formed square to establish a strong front against a cavalry charge, as most European armies did. Nevertheless, the 16th Lancers broke the square. Both forces suffered heavy casualties.<br />
<br />
The infantry in the Sikh centre tried to defend a ''[[nullah]]'' (dry stream bed), but were enfiladed and forced into the open by a Bengal infantry regiment and then cut down by fire from Smith's batteries of Bengal Horse Artillery.<br />
<br />
[[File:Aliwal (BM 1943,0726.1).jpg|thumb|Captain Fyler, centre, leading cavalry charge into Sikh infantry; casualties in foreground. Chromolithograph, 1849.]]<br />
<br />
Unlike most of the battles of both Anglo-Sikh Wars, when the Sikhs at Aliwal began to retreat, the retreat quickly turned into a disorderly rout. When the Sikh soldiers fled across the fords, they abandoned most of their guns, either on the river bank or in the fords, along with all baggage, tents and supplies. They lost 2,000 men and 67 guns.<br />
<br />
==Aftermath==<br />
Smith wrote afterwards:<br />
<br />
{{cquote|I have gained one of the most glorious battles ever fought in India ... Never was victory more complete, and never was one fought under more happy circumstances, literally with the pomp of a field day; and right well did all behave.}}<br />
<br />
Many commentators referred to Smith's victory as the "Battle without a mistake".<ref name=Perrett104/> Except for the 16th Lancers, who lost 144 men out of about 300, few of Smith's units had heavy casualties. Total British casualties numbered 589, of which 151 were killed.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Order of battle==<br />
<br />
===British regiments===<br />
*[[16th The Queen's Lancers]]<br />
*[[31st Foot]]<br />
*[[50th Foot]]<br />
*[[53rd Foot]]<br />
<br />
===Indian regiments===<br />
*[[Governor General’s Bodyguard]]<br />
*[[1st Bengal Native Cavalry]]<br />
*[[3rd Bengal Native Cavalry]]<br />
*[[5th Bengal Native Cavalry]]<br />
*[[4th Irregular Cavalry]]<br />
*[[Shekawati Cavalry]]<br />
*3 Batteries of Horse Artillery<br />
*2 Field Batteries of Artillery<br />
*[[24th Bengal Native Infantry]]<br />
*[[36th Bengal Native Infantry]]<br />
*[[47th Bengal Native Infantry]]<br />
*[[48th Bengal Native Infantry]]<br />
*[[Nasiri Gurkha Battalion]]<br />
*[[Sirmoor Gurkha Battalion]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* {{cite book|last=Perrett|first=Bryan|title=British Military History for Dummies|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2007|isbn=978-0-470-03213-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5Wn5WKi39EC&q=battle+of+aliwal+sikh+loss+3000&pg=PA184}}<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Cassell|first1=John|last2=Howitt|first2=William|title=Cassell's Illustrated history of England|volume=8|publisher=W. Kent and Co.|year=1864|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2GgOAAAAQAAJ&q=battle+of+aliwal+sikh+army+20%2C000&pg=PA104}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Hernon|first=Ian|title=Britain's forgotten wars|publisher=Sutton Publishing|year=2003|isbn=0-7509-3162-0}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Farwell|first=Byron|author-link=Byron Farwell|title=Queen Victoria's little wars|publisher=Wordsworth Military Library|year=1999|isbn=1-84022-216-6}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070225063643/http://www.britishbattles.com/first-sikh-war/aliwal.htm BritishBattles.com]<br />
*[http://www.sikhphilosophy.net/history-of-sikhism/25278-battle-of-aliwal.html SikhPhilosophy.Net] – history of Sikhism<br />
<br />
{{Sikh Empire}}<br />
<br />
{{coord|30.9452|75.6142|display=title|}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aliwal, Battle of}}<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Anglo-Sikh wars]]<br />
[[Category:Battles involving the British East India Company]]<br />
[[Category:Conflicts in 1846]]<br />
[[Category:1846 in India]]<br />
[[Category:January 1846]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Alappuzha&diff=487369Architecture of Alappuzha2025-12-11T14:39:35Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: stub...</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Architecture in Kerala, India}}<br />
{{Orphan|date=May 2025}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Alleppey beach.jpg|thumb|Pier at Alappuzha beach]]<br />
<br />
The '''architecture''' in [[Alappuzha]] (formerly known as Alleppey, a port town in [[Kerala]], [[India]]) is influenced by a combination of regional styles, particularly of the [[Travancore]] kingdom, as well as by the role of the town itself as a centre of trade. The town is built along two parallel canals (the Commercial canal and the Vadai Canal) that were used to transport goods. The nature of the town as a port but also a melting pot of culture created a syncretic architecture style that was unique to each of the communities who came to settle in the area.<ref name="The Alleppey Story">{{cite book |title=The Alleppey Story |date=2024 |publisher=Preserve Alleppey Society |location=India |isbn=978-93-340-3744-9 |url=https://www.viakerala.com/products/the-alleppey-story-a-coffee-table-book-on-alleppey-s-rich-history-and-culture}}</ref><br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
[[Raja Kesavadas|Raja Kesava Das]], the Diwan for Travancore at the time, was the one who developed Alleppey port in 1762.<ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite web |last1=A |first1=Sam Paul |title=Alappuzha Heritage Project in limbo |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/alappuzha-heritage-project-in-limbo/article65635597.ece |website=The Hindu |language=en-IN |date=14 July 2022}}</ref> The town was meant to function as the centre of trade for the Kingdom, ensuring that Travancore needn’t depend on any other means of import/export. <br />
[[File:Raja Kesava Das Statue in Alleppey - Changanassery Road @ Changananassery Junction.jpg|thumb|Raja Kesava Das Statue in Alleppey]]<br />
<br />
In his efforts to build Alappuzha, Raja Kesava Das invited people from various places in the subcontinent, for their expertise in what he thought necessary to make Alappuzha a success. He brought in communities like Baniyas and Marwaris, who were well known for their capabilities in trade, as well as several Gujarati families, for example – his efforts were fruitful in that Alappuzha became somewhat cosmopolitan in its design. Each of these communities were allotted places to live, which resulted in certain areas in Alleppey, such as the ‘Gujarati Street’, having a distinct style in its construction.<ref name="The Alleppey Story"/><br />
<br />
Alappuzha by nature of its trade-centric conception, is an incredibly architecturally diverse town as the communities who came to settle in Alleppey also brought along with them the styles and construction that they were used to. These then adapted to the locally available materials and styles, creating [[Syncretism|syncretic]] architecture.<br />
<br />
== Factors influencing architecture ==<br />
''For more information, see the page on the [[Architecture of Kerala]]''<br />
<br />
[[File:Padmanabhapuram 4a.JPG|thumb|Traditional features of Kerala architecture with prominent roofs and woodwork]]The region experiences monsoons and high temperatures, resulting in a climate that is humid, with heavy rains. The architecture indigenous to the region is primarily influenced by the weather, as well as resources that are available in the area itself.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Choorapulakkal |first1=Afeef Abdurahman |last2=Madandola |first2=Muhammed Gbolahan |last3=Al-Kandari |first3=Amina |last4=Furlan |first4=Raffaello |last5=Bayram |first5=Goze |last6=Mohamed |first6=Hassan Abdelgadir Ahmed |title=The Resilience of the Built Environment to Flooding: The Case of Alappuzha District in the South Indian State of Kerala |journal=Sustainability |date=January 2024 |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5142 |doi=10.3390/su16125142 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5142C }}</ref> The construction of most buildings was done with these local resources – wood, for example, is a common material used in both temple architecture and in homes.<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |last1=Kramrisch |first1=Stella |title=Drāvida and Kerala: In the Art of Travancore |journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum |date=1953 |volume=11 |pages=1–51 |doi=10.2307/1522577 |jstor=1522577 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1522577 |issn=1423-0526|url-access=subscription }}</ref><br />
<br />
In terms of architecture following the needs of the regions, roofs are prominent feature of the state’s architecture, predominantly gabled, and are a result of the need for houses to be resilient against the rains that come during the monsoon.<ref name="jstor.org"/> [[File:Padmanabhapuram Palace, roof works.jpg|thumb|The gabled roof and ceiling are a prime feature of the Kerala architectural style.|alt=The gabled roof and ceiling are a prime feature of the Kerala architectural style.]] In Alappuzha, some buildings that are otherwise not deriving from the local architecture style will still have the gabled Kerala-style roof, indicating that the practicality of the roof took priority over typical construction.<br />
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== Prominent Examples ==<br />
=== The Canals ===<br />
The Canals in Alleppey are its most iconic feature, and part of the reason why it has the moniker “the Venice of the East”. The town has two parallel canals running through it, with over 34 bridges. The Vadai canal was the first to be constructed, and was intended to be a moat, while the Commercial canal was built explicitly for the use of trade, for transporting goods from the port towards various warehouses along them.<ref name="The Alleppey Story"/> Several initiatives are being undertaken to ensure the canals are being cleaned, focusing on waste cleaning as well as clearing out invasive plant species that have choked the canals for many years.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bureau. |first1=The Hindu |title=Canals in Alappuzha to get a facelift |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/canals-in-alappuzha-to-get-a-facelift/article68592871.ece |website=The Hindu |language=en-IN |date=1 September 2024}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Mosques in Alappuzha ===<br />
There are several mosques in Alappuzha, of which the most well-known are the [[Saukar Masjid]] and the [[Maqam Masjid]]. The Maqam Juma Masjid is a well-known Muslim Pilgrimage site in Kerala, as well as being one of the oldest in the region. It draws on both [[Islamic architecture]] and the local traditional styles, with the roofs in particular emerging as a defining feature of the Mosque, as it is a departure from the style of constructing one.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maqam Masjid {{!}} Benny Kuriakose and Associates |url=https://www.bennykuriakose.com/alappuzha-heritage-project-1/maqam-masjid |website=bennykuriakose |language=en}}</ref> Saukar Masjid, similarly, uses a combination of styles and was built by the Halayi Momens from [[Gujarat]], who were given the plot of land by Raja Kesava Das. This mosque sits on the banks of the Commercial Canal, and used to be painted a bright blue, before the being repainted white as part of the restoration efforts from the Alappuzha Heritage Project.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saukar Masjid {{!}} Benny Kuriakose and Associates |url=https://www.bennykuriakose.com/alappuzha-heritage-project-1/saukar-masjid |website=bennykuriakose |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Gujarati Street ===<br />
A street that is located near the Commercial Canal, this area is where the Gujarati community of Alappuzha has lived since the town’s start as a port. It is home to the [[Jain temple, Alappuzha|Swetambar Jain Temple]], which is considered to have helped in the spread of [[Jainism]] in South India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Swetamber Jain Temple, Gujarati Street {{!}} DTPC |url=https://www.dtpcalappuzha.com/destination/swetamber-jain-temple-gujarati-street |website=DTPC alappuzha |language=en}}</ref><br />
[[File:Jain-temple-alleppey.jpg|thumb|Jain-temple-alleppey]]<br />
<br />
The structures here have Gujarati motifs decorating doors and rafters, setting the buildings apart from other areas in the town. Efforts are being made to preserve the street’s architecture by the Government of Kerala, along with plans to create a heritage museum.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala: Alappuzha Gujarati Street to beckon tourists |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/kerala-alappuzha-gujarati-street-to-beckon-tourists/articleshow/60458933.cms |website=The Times of India |date=11 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gujarati Street of 'Vietnam Colony' fame to get a makeover |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2020/Dec/06/gujarati-street-of-vietnam-colony-fame-to-get-a-makeover-2232399.html |website=The New Indian Express |language=en |date=6 December 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Conservation and the Alappuzha Heritage Project ==<br />
In 2020, the [[Left Democratic Front]] (LDF) government announced that a project would be undertaken in Alappuzha to conserve the city’s architecture by creating museums and by doing renovations and upkeep on several of the iconic structures. The Chief Minister, [[Pinarayi Vijayan]], is quoted saying “Alappuzha lost its glory owing to lack of civic sense” and that the project aims to return Alappuzha to its previous glory.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |author=Staff Reporter |title=9 initiatives under Alappuzha Heritage Project |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/9-initiatives-under-alappuzha-heritage-project/article33016859.ece |website=The Hindu |language=en-IN |date=3 November 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
The government invested over ₹200 [[crore]] in the project, with intentions to foster Alleppey as a centre for [[cultural tourism]]. It aims to work on 20 museums, 11 memorials and 5 public places, through renovations and restorations. This includes work done to clean out the canals.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
The project, however, has been slow moving – only a few of the promised renovations have been executed, and residents have been left in the dark as well. As of 2022, work has only been done on Saukar Masjid, a Miyawaki forest, Phase 1 of canal rejuvenation and the port museum building, some of which were originally completed in 2020.<ref name="thehindu.com"/><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Architecture in India by city|Alappuzha]]<br />
[[Category:Alappuzha]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bathukamma&diff=454806Bathukamma2025-11-25T05:36:51Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: minor improved page to improve readability and updated info</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Flower festival in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}<br />
{{More citations needed|date=October 2020}}{{Infobox holiday<br />
| holiday_name = Bathukamma<br />
| type = Floral(flower) Festival of [[Parvati|Gauri]]<br />
| image = బతుకమ్మ.jpg<br />
| caption = Bathukamma<br />
| official_name = Batukamma<br />
| nickname = <br />
| begins = Pitru Amavasya<br />
| ends = <br />
| date = <br />
| date2006 = <br />
| date2007 = <br />
| date2023 = 14 Oct (Sat) – 22 Oct (Sun)<br />
| celebrations = 9 days<br />
| observances = {{bulleted list<br />
|[[Telangana]]<br />
|[[Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
}}<br />
| duration = 9 days<br />
| frequency = Annual<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Bathukamma''' is a flower-festival celebrated by [[Telugu people|Telugu]] [[Hindus|Hindu]] women of [[Telangana]] and some parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-and-current-affairs/story/bathukamma-festival-267898-2015-10-13 |title=Bathukamma festival begins in Telangana |access-date=12 July 2016 |archive-date=16 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216192750/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/education/story/bathukamma-festival/1/497520.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/chinese-guests-to-savour-telanganas-flavour-this-bathukamma/article8771530.ece Chinese guests to serve Telangana’s flavour this Bathukamma].</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/bathukamma-2017-know-how-the-festival-is-celebrated-in-telangana-andhra-pradesh/863649/|title=Bathukamma 2017: Know how the festival is celebrated in Telangana, Maharashtra and Karnataka|date=2017-09-20|work=The Financial Express|access-date=2018-10-17|language=en-US}}</ref> Every year this festival is celebrated as per the [[Shaka era|Sathavahana]] calendar for nine days starting on Pitru Amavasya, which usually coincides with the months September–October of the Gregorian calendar. Bathukamma is celebrated for nine days and corresponds to the festivals of [[Navaratri|Sharad Navratri]] and [[Durga Puja]]. It starts on the day of Mahalaya Amavasya and the 9-day festivities culminate on "Saddula Bathukamma" or "Pedda Bathukamma." Bathukamma is followed by ''Boddemma'', which is a 7-day festival. The Boddemma festival that marks the ending of Varsha Ruthu whereas Bathukamma marks the beginning of Sarad or Sharath Ruthu.<br />
<br />
In Telugu, ‘Bathukamma' means ‘Mother Goddess come Alive’. <br />
Bathukamma is a beautiful flower stack, arranged with different unique seasonal flowers most of them with medicinal values, in seven concentric layers in the shape of a temple [[gopuram]]. It is usually brothers who bring flowers to their mother and sisters to arrange bathukamma.<br />
<br />
Historically, Bathukamma meant "the festival of life". It also marks the celebration of femininity in the Deccan region, during which women of Telangana dress up in traditional saris, with jewels and other accessories. Teenage Girls wear Langa-Oni/[[Langa voni|Half-Sarees/]]Lehenga Choli with jewels in order to bring out the traditional grace of the attire.<br />
<br />
'''9 Nights of Bathukamma'''<br />
<br />
* Day 1: Engili pula Bathukamma<ref>{{cite news |last1=Velugu |first1=V6 |title=Significance Of Engili Pula Bathukamma |url=https://www.v6velugu.com/significance-of-engili-pula-bathukamma |work=V6 Velugu |date=28 September 2019 |language=te}}</ref><br />
* Day 2: Atukula Bathukamma<br />
* Day 3: Muddapappu Bathukamma<br />
* Day 4: Nanabiyyam Bathukamma<br />
* Day 5: Atla Bathukamma<br />
* Day 6: Aligina Bathukamma or (Alaka bhathukamma)<br />
* Day 7: Vepakayala Bathukamma<br />
* Day 8: Vennela muddala Bathukamma<br />
* Day 9: Saddhula Bathukamma<br />
<br />
Bathukamma represents cultural spirit of Telangana. It, along with the festivals of [[Bonalu]], [[Sammakka Saralamma Jatara]] gained increased significance during the [[Telangana movement]] as a marker of the region's separate cultural identity from Andhra Pradesh, and its celebration has become much more prominent with the [[Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014|secession of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh in 2014]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Inukonda |first=Sumanth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40qxDwAAQBAJ&dq=bathukamma+telangana+identity&pg=PT82 |title=Media, Nationalism and Globalization: The Telangana Movement and Indian Politics |date=2019-09-23 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-429-53564-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Prasad |first=Krishna |date=26 September 2017 |title=Like Tilak, we'll promote culture to cement our Telangana identity |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/like-tilak-well-promote-culture-to-cement-our-telangana-identity/articleshow/60837439.cms |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bathukamma Essence |url=http://telanganatourism.gov.in/bathukamma/essence-of-bathuku.html |archive-url=http://telanganatourism.gov.in/bathukamma/essence-of-bathukamma.html |archive-date=2017-09-19 |access-date=2017-09-19 |website=telanganatourism.gov.in}}</ref><br />
[[File:AM2A7443.jpg|thumb|Cheneta Bathukamma Celebrations 2025 were held in London under Telangana Association of United Kingdom.]]<br />
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== Chalukyas of Vemulavada ==<br />
<br />
[[Chalukyas of Vemulavada]], based in [[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulawada]] were feudatories of [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] kings. In the wars between Chola kings and Rashtrakutas these Chalukyas sided the Rashtrakutas. <br />
At 973 AD, Rashtrakuta feudal Chalukya lord [[Tailapa II]] defeated the last king [[Karka II|Karka-II]] of Rashtrakuta kings and established independent Kalyani Chalukya kingdom. After the death of [[Tailapa II]] in AD 997 his son [[Satyashraya]] became the king. In the erstwhile kingdom of Vemulavaada (present [[Rajanna Sircilla]] District), [[Raja Rajeswara Temple, Vemulawada|Sri Raja Rajeshwara Temple]] is popular. Chola king, [[Parantaka Chola II|Parantaka Sundara Chola]] was in trouble while defending the attack from Rashtrakuta king. Learning that Rajarajeshwara will help those in troubles Parantaka Chola turned as his devotee.<br />
Also, he named his son as Raja Raja. This is evident from Arikesari epigraph. [[Rajaraja I|Raja Raja Chola I]] ruled between AD 985 and 1014. His son [[Rajendra Chola I]] attacked as the Chief of Army and stood victorious on [[Satyashraya|Satyasraya]], the Western Chalukya king. As a sign of his victory he destroyed Rajeshwara's temple and took the Bruhat (huge) Shiva linga to his father as a gift. In 1006 AD, Raja Raja Chola had started building a temple to this huge Shivalinga (Brihadeswara). In 1010 AD, he installed this Linga in [[Brihadisvara Temple]]. Chola kings also announced in Tamil epigraphs that this Brihadeswara temple is built from the wealth looted in the attack on Vemulavaada Chalukya kingdom.<br />
<br />
Even now the similarities between the Shivalinga of Vemulavaada Bheemeshwaralayam and Shivalinga of Brihadeeswaralayam <ref>{{Citation |title=Brihadisvara Temple |date=2025-04-15 |work=Bharatpedia |url=https://en.Bharatpedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple |access-date=2025-05-23 |language=en}}</ref>of Tanjavuru can be seen. Taking away the Shivalinga from Vemulavaada to Tanjavuru downhearted people of the Kingdom. After leaving the Kingdom, in the form of Linga, along with an attempt to console Paarvathi (Bruhadamma) in the temple here and to inform sorrowfulness to Cholas, Batukamma is arranged with flowers like Meru mountain. On its top Gouramma made with turmeric is placed and is recounted with sing and play for nine days. Dispatching her in water and calling her back took a shape of a festival.<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
<br />
Men in the house gather flowers Bathukamma flowers from the wild plains like Celosia, Senna, Marigold, Chrysanthemum, Indian Lotus, Cucurbita leaves & flowers, Cucumis Sativus leaves & flowers, [[Memecylon edule]], Tridax procumbens, Trachyspermum ammi, Katla, Teku Flowers, etc., which bloom in this season in various vibrant colors all across the uncultivated and barren plains of the region.<br />
<br />
Preparing a Bathukamma is a folk art. Women start preparing Bathukamma from the afternoon. They cut the flowers leaving the little length base, some dip Gunugu ([[Celosia]]) flowers in various vibrant colours, some scented and arrange them on a wide plate called ''Thambalam''.<br />
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The songs are to invoke the blessings of various goddesses.<br />
<br />
[[File:Batukamma2-1.JPG|thumb|right|260px|Telangana Women Celebrating Bathukamma]]<br />
[[File:Bathukamma Immersion in Hyderabad, India.jpg|260px|thumb|Bathukamma immersion in [[Hyderabad]]]]<br />
Each day has a name mainly signifying the type of "naivedyam" (food offering) offered. Most of the naivedyam offered are very simple to prepare, and usually young children or young girls are mainly involved in the preparation of the offerings for the first eight days of the festival. The last day, called saddula Bathukamma is when all the women take part in the preparation. Following is the list of names for each day and the naivedyam offered on that day.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/bathukamma-festival-267898-2015-10-13 | title=Bathukamma festival begins in Telangana: All you need to know | date=13 October 2015 | work=India Today | access-date=20 February 2020 }}</ref><br />
<br />
* Engili pula Bathukamma- The first day of the festival falls on Mahalaya Amavasya, also known as Pethara Amavasya in Telangana region.<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: Nuvvulu (Sesame seeds) with biyyampindi (rice flour) or nookalu (coarsely ground wet rice).<br />
* Atkula Bathukamma: The second day is called Atkula bathukamma, falls on the Padyami (first day) of Ashwayuja masam.<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: Sappidi pappu (Bland boiled lentils), bellam (jaggery), and atkulu (flattened parboiled rice)<br />
* Muddapappu Bathukamma: The third day of Bathukamma falls on Vidiya/second day of Ashwayuja masam.<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: muddapappu (softened boiled lentils), milk and bellam (jaggery)<br />
* Nanabiyyam Bathukamma: The fourth day falls on thidiya/third day of Ashwayuja masam.<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: nananesina biyyam (wet rice), milk, and bellam (jaggery)<br />
* Atla Bathukamma: The fifth day falls on the chaturthi/fourth day of Ashwayuja masam.<br />
<br />
[[File:Batukammain AP.png|thumb|264x264px|Women celebrating Batukamma in [[Prakasam district|Prakasam]] District of Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: uppidi pindi atlu (pan cakes made from wheatlets), or Dosa<br />
* Aligina Bathukamma: The sixth day falls on the panchami/fifth day of Ashwayuja masam.<br />
No food offering is made.<br />
* Vepakayala Bathukamma: The seventh day falls on the shashti/sixth day of Ashwayuja masam.<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: rice flour shaped into the fruits of neem tree is deepfried.<br />
* Vennamuddala Bathukamma: The eight day falls on sapthami/seventh day of Ashwayuja masam.<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: nuvvulu (sesame), Venna (Butter) or ghee (clarified butter), and bellam (jaggery)<br />
* Saddula Bathukamma: The ninth day of bathukamma is celebrated on ashtami/eight day of Ashwayuja masam, and coincides with Durgashtami.<br />
Food offering/Naivedyam: Five types of cooked rice dishes: perugannam saddi (curd rice), chinthapandu pulihora saddi (tamarind rice), nimmakaya saddi (lemon rice), kobbara saddi (coconut rice) and nuvvula saddi (sesame rice)<br />
<br />
===Saddula Bathukamma===<br />
This festival is celebrated for nine days and concludes on ''[[Durgashtami]]''. The last day of the festival is called ''Saddula Bathukamma''. On this final day immersion of Bathukamma (Bathukamma Visarjan) in water bodies is celebrated with utmost devotion and enthusiasm with rhythmic drum beats throughout Telangana. The evening offers a beautiful, calming and a peaceful visual treat. <br />
Gauramma (a symbolic idol of Goddess [[Parvati]] made of turmeric) is taken back from Bathukamma before immersion and every married woman applies a paste of this, on her [[Mangala sutra]] that marks the solemnization of her marriage and also her husband is protected from all evils and ill fate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=India |first1=The Hans |title=Bruhathamma Brathukamma Bathukamma |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hyderabad-Tab/2015-10-17/Bruhathamma-Brathukamma-Bathukamma/181367 |work=www.thehansindia.com |date=18 October 2015 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Maleeda.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Maleeda]]<br />
For 9 days of festival each day a ''Nivedyam'' or a special dish [[sattu]] is prepared and offered to the goddess. General ingredients of the dishes are Corn (మొక్క జొన్నలు), Sorghum (జొన్నలు), Bajra (సజ్జలు), Black Gram (మినుములు), Bengal Gram (శనగలు), Green Gram (పెసర్లు), Ground Nuts (పల్లి), Sesame (నువ్వులు), Wheat (గోధుమలు), Rice (బియ్యము), Cashew Nut (Kaju), Jaggery (బెల్లం), Milk (పాలు) etc.<br />
Maleeda - a combination of [[Roti]] and [[Jaggery]], is prepared on this day and distributed at the end of the event.<br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
{{Hinduism}}<br />
Bathukamma means ‘Oh Mother, Please come back to life’ and it is asking for Goddess [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]] to return. Legend has it that Sati reincarnated as Goddess Parvati and therefore the festival is also dedicated to Goddess Parvati.<ref>[http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Big-Story/2017-09-20/Bathukamma---Telanganas-Floral-Festival-is-here-/327865 Bathukamma - Telangana's Floral Festival is here]</ref><br />
Mahisasura was a buffalo demon.He prayed to [[Brahma]] that he should have knowledge of all mantras.The sages could not chant the hymns to appease the gods and the gods also lost most of their strength.It became like a drought, and people started drinking their own blood.The gods put all their strength into creating Goddess [[Durga]].According to one legend, she cried for nine days on seeing the plight of the people.On the tenth day [[Vijayadashami]] she kills Mahisasura.Bathukamma is celebrated to commemorate the nine days of [[Durga]] which she spent crying<br />
<br />
There are many myths behind this festival. According to the popular legend, Goddess [[Durga]] killed a demon named Mahishasura after a fierce fight that lasted for 9 days. After this act, she went to sleep on the 'Ashwayuja Padyami' day, due to fatigue. The devotees prayed to her to wake up, and she woke up on the tenth day which is now celebrated as [[Vijayadashami|Vijaya Dashami]] or [[Vijayadashami|Dasara]]. {{citation needed|date=October 2024}}<br />
<br />
The other is Bathukamma, the daughter of the Chola King Dharmangada and Satyavati. The king and queen lost their 100 sons on the battlefield and prayed to Goddess [[Lakshmi]] to be born in their house, as their child. Goddess Lakshmi heard their sincere prayers and chose to help them.She asked Satyavati to pluck fruits from a tree surrounded by snakes.Satyavati plucked many fruits, but while climbing down they all fell, except for one. When Lakshmi was born in the royal palace, all the sages came to bless her and blessed her with immortality "Bathukamma or Live Forever". Since then, young girls in Telangana have celebrated the Bathukamma festival. The purpose of this festival is to pray to the Goddess in the belief that the young girls would get husbands as per their wish, to teach the young girls how to take care of their in-laws, their husbands, be great women who respect elders, love people around them, be guides to their younger ones. Further, married women celebrate the festival to pray to the Goddess for the good health and prosperity of their families.<br />
<br />
Goddess Gowri, according to one legend, is a lover of flowers. Flowers are arranged on a square wooden plank or a square bamboo frame with the size of frames tapering off to form a pinnacle on top. They resemble the shape of a temple tower ([[Gopuram|Gopura]]). Gauramma (a symbolic idol of Gowri made of turmeric) is placed on top of the flowers. This little floral mountain is worshipped as Goddess Bathukamma.<br />
<br />
This festival is celebrated with joy and gaiety. During these celebrations, there are dance performances, music, dramas and a variety of entertainment as thousands of tourists and locals too, flock to witness the happenings. 'Jataras'<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-02-15 |title=Jataras, a getaway from daily grind |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/jataras-a-getaway-from-daily-grind/article8242805.ece |access-date=2024-10-02 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> are also held during this month long celebrations.<br />
==Guinness World Records==<br />
Bathukamma Festival organised by the state Government, have set two new Guinness World Records on 29 September 2025. The two world records for its largest Bathukamma floral decoration consist of about seven tonnes of flowers and of 63.11 feet high, 11 feet wide. The second record for the highly synchronized performance by a large number of women of 1354.<ref name="Telangana’s 63-foot Bathukamma bursts into Guinness glory">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Telangana’s 63-foot Bathukamma bursts into Guinness glory |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/telanganas-bathukamma-bursts-into-guinness-glory/article70109855.ece |access-date=1 October 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=29 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251001163335/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/telanganas-bathukamma-bursts-into-guinness-glory/article70109855.ece |archive-date=1 October 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref> Guinness World Records officials declared the performance as a world record and presented certificates to ministers [[Jupally Krishna Rao]] Rao and [[Seethakka]]. Miss World 2025 [[Suchata Chuangsri]], Hyderabad Mayor Gadwal Vijayalaxmi and [[Vimalakka]] also graced the celebrations.<ref name="Bathukamma celebrations set a Guinness World Record">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Bathukamma celebrations set a Guinness World Record |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2025/Sep/30/bathukamma-celebrations-set-a-guinness-world-record |access-date=1 October 2025 |publisher=The New Indian Express |date=30 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251001163420/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2025/Sep/30/bathukamma-celebrations-set-a-guinness-world-record |archive-date=1 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
===Notes===<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
===Sources===<br />
* http://www.telangana.org/Bathukamma/Bathukamma_BayArea.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006032809/http://www.telangana.org/Bathukamma/Bathukamma_BayArea.htm |date=6 October 2022 }}<br />
* A journey through change (http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2005/02/22/stories/2005022200770300.htm). The Hindu, 22 February 2005. Retrieved 6 October 2011.<br />
* Savouring Telangana flavour in the US http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/Savouring-Telangana-flavour-in-the-US/article14849697.ece<br />
* Joys of cooking (https://web.archive.org/web/20131015105412/http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/Food/article799015.ece), The Hindu, 27 September 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2011.<br />
* "Goddess Gauri" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071216181412/http://www.csuohio.edu/hindu/Gauri.htm%29.<br />
* Grand finale to Bathukamma (http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/19/stories/2007101958130300.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507044155/http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/19/stories/2007101958130300.htm |date=7 May 2013 }}), The Hindu, 19 October 2007. Retrieved 6 October 2011.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|Bathukamma}}<br />
* [http://bathukamma.telangana.gov.in/ Bathukamma Official site]<br />
* [http://www.telangana.org/Bathukamma/Batukamma.htm The festival of Flowers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006032808/http://www.telangana.org/Bathukamma/Batukamma.htm |date=6 October 2022 }}<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041112181337/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/10/21/stories/2004102100970100.htm ''The Hindu'' feature]<br />
<br />
<!--Please do not remove this category until this article is sorted into the proper calendar category.--><br />
<br />
[[Category:Hindu festivals]]<br />
[[Category:Festivals in Telangana]]<br />
[[Category:Flower festivals in India]]<br />
[[Category:Religious festivals in India]]<br />
[[Category:September observances]]<br />
[[Category:October observances]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Panapakkam,_Cuddalore&diff=524039Panapakkam, Cuddalore2025-10-16T19:46:41Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: starting the info w/ refs</p>
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<div>{{Orphan|date=November 2022}}<br />
<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}<br />
<br />
{{Infobox settlement <!-- See [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Indian cities]] for details --><br />
| name = Panapakkam <br />
| nickname = PPM<br />
| settlement_type = Village<br />
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu#India<br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_alt =<br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|11|48|33|N|79|32|10|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Cuddalore district|Cuddalore]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date =<br />
| founder =<br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = Democracy<br />
| governing_body = Village Panjayat<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes =<br />
| area_rank =<br />
| area_total_km2 =<br />
| elevation_footnotes =<br />
| elevation_m = <br />
| population_total = 3122<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_rank =<br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym =<br />
| population_footnotes =<br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 607108<br />
| area_code_type = Telephone code<br />
| area_code = 04142<br />
| registration_plate = TN-31<br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Panapakkam''' Village (607108) is a [[Gram panchayat|village panchayat]] in [[Panruti taluk|Panruti Taluk]] of [[Cuddalore district|Cuddalore District]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].<ref name=census>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=733948 |title=Census of India Search Details |publisher=2011 Census of India}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[2011 Census of India]] determined that there were 3122 residents, 1568 male and 1554 female, in 650 households.<ref name=census/><br />
<br />
[[Agriculture]] is the major occupation, along with [[dairy farming]]. [[Sugarcane]], [[tapioca]], [[casuarina]], [[Paddy (unmilled rice)|paddy]], [[guava]] (L49 variety), [[coconut]], ''[[Borassus]]'' (palmyra palm), [[mango]], [[maize]] corn, ''[[Eleusine coracana]]'' (Ragi), and ''[[Moringa oleifera]]'' (drumstick tree) are some of the crops cultivated here. As per 1972 revenue survey, the village has a total land area of 470 hectares and 17 ares. The major source of water is ground water through bore wells; there are also many ponds and a major lake (55 acres), part of which is under the Tamil Nadu Forest Department.<br />
<br />
The village is under [[Puthupet|Pudupet/Puthupet]] Post Office jurisdiction.<br />
<br />
Nearby main bus stand and railway station (PRT) are in [[Panruti]], whilst Thiruthuraiyur (TUY) railway station is the nearest station where some passenger trains stop by in Villupuram as well as Cuddalore routes of mainline.<br />
<br />
[[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] are the common languages here, with Tamil speakers being in the majority.<br />
<br />
Road connecting Panapakkam to Pudupettai, Thorapadi was newly laid in August, 2025 and is in good condition. Village road connecting Panapakkam with nearby Kanisapakkam was laid somewhere in 2018/19 and is now in bad shape. Panapakkam to Varinjipakkam road is also in good shape. The one connecting Panapakkam-VKT NH road is somehow better with very few potholes. Most of the streets have cement road facility as well.{{clarify|date=January 2020}} Major transportation consists of private vehicles, and a minibus service to [[Panruti]] operates throughout the day. Panruti, [[Cuddalore]], [[Viluppuram|Villupuram]], [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]], and [[Neyveli]] are the nearest towns. The village of Kanisapakkam and Panapakkam are managed by same VAO.{{clarify|date=January 2020}}<br />
<br />
Thirukameswaran ([http://www.dinakaran.com/Aanmeegam_Detail.asp?Nid=23163 திருக்காமேஸ்வரர் கோயில்]) temple is a famous [[Shiva]] temple here.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dinakaran.com/Aanmeegam_Detail.asp?Nid=23163|title=திருமண யோகம் தரும் திருக்காமேஸ்வரர்|website=www.dinakaran.com|access-date=2019-10-08}}</ref> [https://temple.dinamalar.com/new.php?id=2328 Kaniswarar] temple is another nearby famous temple.<br />
<br />
This village received electrification in 1960.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Panapakkam]], Vellore district, Tamil Nadu<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<!-- Inline citations added to your article will automatically display here. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --><br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Villages in Cuddalore district]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eparchy_of_Adilabad&diff=498565Eparchy of Adilabad2025-09-29T14:42:26Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: </p>
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<div>{{Short description|Eastern Catholic eparchy in Telangana, India}}<br />
{{Coord|display=title}}<br />
{{moresources|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox diocese<br />
| jurisdiction = Eparchy<br />
| name = Adilabad <br />
| local = आदिलाबाद के सूबा<br />
| image =Adilabad_diocese.png <br />
| image_size = <br />
| image_alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
<!---- Locations ----><br />
| country = {{flag|India}}<br />
| territory = <br />
| metropolitan = <br />
| province = [[Archeparchy of Shamshabad]] <br />
| archdeaconries = <br />
| deaneries = <br />
| subdivisions = <br />
| coordinates = <br />
<!---- Statistics ----><br />
| area_km2 = 16,210 <br />
| area_sqmi = <!-- Area in square miles, automatically converted --><br />
| area_footnotes = <br />
| population = 2,741,239<br />
| population_as_of = 2015<br />
| catholics = 16,403<br />
| catholics_percent = 0.6<br />
| parishes = 36<br />
| churches = <!-- Number of churches in the diocese --><br />
| congregations = <!-- Number of congregations in the diocese --><br />
| schools = <!-- Number of church supported schools in the diocese --><br />
| members = <!-- Number of members in the diocese --><br />
<!---- Information ----><br />
| denomination = [[Syro-Malabar Church]]<br />
| rite = [[East Syriac Rite]] <br />
| established = 23 June 1999<br />
| cathedral = Holy Family Cathedral in [[Adilabad]]<br />
| cocathedral = <br />
| patron =St.Kuriakose Elias <br />
Chavara <br />
| patron_title = <!-- Use to override the default label "Patron saint" --><br />
| priests = 35<br />
| pope = Mar {{Incumbent pope}} <!-- DO NOT CHANGE. This will update the Popes Automatically as they change --><br />
| patriarch = <br />
| major_archbishop = Mar [[Raphael Thattil]]<br />
| bishop = Mar [[Joseph Thachaparambath]] CMI<br />
| bishop_title = <!-- Type of ordinary: i.e. Bishop or Archbishop. Default is Bishop --><br />
| metro_archbishop = Mar [[Antony Prince Panengaden]]<br />
| coadjutor = <br />
| suffragans = <!-- List most senior first (usually reckoned by date of consecration); use | suffragan = for one --><br />
| auxiliary_bishops = <!-- List most senior first (usually reckoned by date of consecration) --><br />
| apostolic_admin =<br />
| vicar_general = <br />
| episcopal_vicar =<br />
| archdeacons = <!-- List most senior first (usually reckoned by date of first collation); use | archdeacon = for one--><br />
| emeritus_bishops = [[Joseph Kunnath]]<br />
<!---- Map ----><br />
| map = Map of Syro-Malabar Catholic Eparchy of Adilabad.png<br />
| map_size = <br />
| map_alt = <br />
| map_caption = <br />
<!---- Website ----><br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
|latin=|coat=|flag=|headquarters=|sui_iuris_church=|founded=|dissolved=|language=}}<br />
<br />
'''Syro-Malabar Catholic Eparchy of Adilabad''' was created by [[Pope John Paul II]] on 23 July 1999. The first bishop, Mar [[Joseph Kunnath]] [[Carmelites of Mary Immaculate|CMI]], was ordained bishop on 6 October 1999 at which time the diocese also was inaugurated.<br />
==Ordinaries==<br />
'''Bishop's'''<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Sl.No<br />
! style="background: #ffdead;" | Ordinary<br />
! style="background: #ffdead;" | Designation<br />
! style="background: #ffdead;" | Year of appointment<br />
! style="background: #ffdead;" | Last year of service<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| [[Joseph Kunnath CMI]]<br />
| align="center" | Bishop<br />
| align="center" | 6th October 1999 <br />
| align="center" | 6th August 2015 <br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| [[Antony Prince Panengaden]]<br />
| align="center" | Bishop<br />
| align="center" | 6th August 2015 <br />
| align="center" | 30th August 2024<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| [[Joseph Lukose Thachaparambath, C.M.I]]<br />
| align="center" | Bishop<br />
| align="center" | 28th August 2025<br />
| align="center" | ''present''<br />
|}<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dadsm.html Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Adilabad at Catholic-Hierarchy]<br />
<br />
{{Syro-Malabar Catholic Church Hierarchy|state=collapsed}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adilabad}}<br />
[[Category:Syro-Malabar Catholic dioceses]]<br />
[[Category:Christian organizations established in 1999]]<br />
[[Category:Christianity in Telangana]]<br />
[[Category:1999 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{SyroMalabar-diocese-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurze,_Palghar&diff=511297Kurze, Palghar2025-09-20T08:08:30Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: started a post w/ infobox</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Kurze<br />
| native_name =<br />
| native_name_lang =<br />
| settlement_type = village<br />
| image_skyline =<br />
| image_alt =<br />
| image_caption =<br />
| etymology =<br />
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India<br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|20.1110426|N|72.9519622|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| coordinates_footnotes =<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = [[India]]<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Palghar district|Palghar]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Taluka]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Talasari]]<br />
| established_title =<br />
| established_date =<br />
| founder =<br />
| seat_type = [[Panchayat]]<br />
| seat =<br />
| leader_party =<br />
| leader_title =<br />
| leader_name =<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_total_km2 =<br />
| elevation_m = 64<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_total = 5546<br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym =<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = <!-- [[Postal Index Number|PIN]] --><br />
| postal_code =<br />
| area_code_type = <!-- [[Telephone numbers in India|STD Code]] --><br />
| area_code =<br />
| blank_name_sec1 = [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]] code<br />
| blank_info_sec1 = 551572<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Kurze''' is a village in the [[Palghar district]] of [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]. It is located in the [[Talasari]] [[taluka]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |title=Maharashtra villages |publisher=Land Records Information Systems Division, NIC |accessdate=2015-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095320/http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
<br />
According to the [[2011 census of India]], Kurze has 997 households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 55.48%.<ref name="census_2011"/><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+ Demographics (2011 Census)<ref name="census_2011">{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-2721-F-Census.xlsx |title=District census data |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |accessdate=2015-08-17 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002001310/http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-2721-F-Census.xlsx |archivedate=2015-10-02 }}</ref><br />
! !! Total !! Male !! Female<br />
|-<br />
| Population || 5546 || 2664 || 2882<br />
|-<br />
| Children aged below 6 years || 890 || 432 || 458<br />
|-<br />
| [[Scheduled caste]] || 102 || 46 || 56<br />
|-<br />
| [[Scheduled tribe]] || 5398 || 2590 || 2808<br />
|-<br />
| Literates || 2583 || 1562 || 1021<br />
|-<br />
| Workers (all) || 2372 || 1282 || 1090<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers (total) || 1632 || 981 || 651<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Cultivators || 374 || 214 || 160<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Agricultural labourers || 736 || 388 || 348<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Household industry workers || 22 || 14 || 8<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Other || 500 || 365 || 135<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers (total) || 740 || 301 || 439<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Cultivators || 215 || 48 || 167<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Agricultural labourers || 313 || 104 || 209<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Household industry workers || 9 || 3 || 6<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Others || 203 || 146 || 57<br />
|-<br />
| Non-workers || 3174 || 1382 || 1792<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Talasari taluka}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Villages in Talasari taluka]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charodi_(community)&diff=474974Charodi (community)2025-09-17T13:46:55Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: minor enhance page per standard format and cleaned formatting</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Community found in Karnataka, India}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}<br />
'''Charodi Mesta''' are a community from [[Karnataka]] state in India.<ref>{{cite book|title=Identity, ecology, social organization, economy, linkages and development process: a quantitative profile by Kumar Suresh Singh|year=1996|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|page=113,144|isbn=978-0-19-563353-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L3YMAQAAMAAJ&q=Charodi+}}</ref> They are known as Konkan A''char/Acharya'' or ''Charodi'' in North Canara & Malenadu Karnataka, Also known as Chari in Goa, and ''Nayak''/''Mesta/Mestha'' in North/South Canara, Karnataka.<ref name="b">{{cite book|title=Karnataka State gazetteer, Volume 13|year=1973|publisher=Printed by the Director of Print, Stationery and Publications at the Govt. Press|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbO1AAAAIAAJ&q=Charodi+}}</ref><br />
Their traditional work is [[carpentry]].<ref name="b" /> (They are also known as Vishwa Brahmin, Shaivagayatri Brahmins/Shiva Brahman).<br />
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As per their tales, they migrated from Goa via a sea route to coastal Karnataka during Portuguese rule.<ref name="b" /><br />
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==History and religion==<br />
During the [[British Raj]] they were included among the "[[Denotified Tribes]]" of India.<ref name=c>{{cite book|title=A socio-history of ex-criminal communities OBCs by Shyam Singh Shashi, P. S. Varma|year=1991|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan| page=188 |isbn=9788185067698 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irXkAAAAMAAJ&q=Charodi+community}}</ref><br />
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They are followers of [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Sringeri Matha]].<ref name=b/> Mestas are followers of Shiva, which is locally known as Ravalnath and Sringeri Matha – Sringeri Sharadamma. Ravalnath is a Kuladevata (tutelary deity) of all the Mestas, and Kuladevata still resides in Goa. While they migrated from Goa, they left their god (Kuldevata) back in Goa. Mesta samaj has its temples in Goa, Mangalore, Kundapur, Shiroor, Honnavar, Sirsi, Karwar, Sagar, and Shimoga. Many of the Mestas still reside in Goa.<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Karnataka]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]<br />
[[Category:Denotified tribes of India]]<br />
[[Category:Other Backward Classes]]<br />
[[Category:Hindu communities]]<br />
[[Category:Other Backward Classes of Karnataka]]<br />
[[Category:South Indian communities]]<br />
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{{Karnataka-stub}}<br />
{{india-ethno-stub}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borsuri&diff=492241Borsuri2025-08-17T00:41:22Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: Created A Pg</p>
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<div>{{short description|Village in Latur, Maharashtra}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Borsuri<br />
| other_name = <br />
| settlement_type = Village<br />
| image_skyline = <br />
| image_alt = <br />
| image_caption = <br />
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India<br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|18.01|N|76.85|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|..Maharashtra Flag(INDIA).png}} [[Maharashtra]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Latur district]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = <br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = <br />
| governing_body = <br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <br />
| area_rank = <br />
| area_total_km2 = <br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = <br />
| population_total4416 = <br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_rank = <br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 413522 <br />
| registration_plate = <br />
| blank1_name_sec1 = <br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = <br />
| blank2_name_sec1 = Nearest city<br />
| blank2_info_sec1 = <br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
| subdivision_type3 = Taluka<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Nilanga Taluka|Nilanga]]<br />
| population_total = <br />
}}<br />
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'''Borsuri''' is a village in the [[Nilanga Taluka|Nilanga taluka]] of [[Latur district]] located in [[Maharashtra]] State, [[India]].<br />
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==Farming==<br />
[[Borsuri Tur Dal]] is a local variety of [[pigeon pea]] cultivated in this village that is white in color. Borsuri is known for its cultivation belt of tur dal, which boasts a distinct nutritional profile and is in high demand, particularly in [[Delhi]] and [[Mumbai]].<ref name=":7">{{cite news |title=6 items from M'wada, Pen's Ganesh idols get GI tag |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/6-items-from-mwada-pens-ganesh-idols-get-gi-tag/articleshow/105741715.cms |access-date=11 January 2025 |work=The Times of India |date=5 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Latur's patadi chinch, Borsuri tur dal, Kasti coriander get GI tags |url=https://theprint.in/india/laturs-patadi-chinch-borsuri-tur-dal-kasti-coriander-get-gi-tags/1878511/ |access-date=11 January 2025 |work=ThePrint |date=8 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Latur pattern turns Kolhapuri Type weirs into barrages |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/new-latur-pattern-turns-kt-weirs-into-barrages/articleshow/58847140.cms |access-date=12 January 2025 |work=The Times of India |date=26 May 2017}}</ref> The medium black soil in these river basins is highly fertile and suitable for Tur cultivation, resulting in high yields.<ref>{{cite news |title=राज्याला नऊ भौगोलिक मानांकने; तुळजापूरची कवडी, जालन्याची ज्वारी,कास्तीच्या कोथिंबिरीचा समावेश |url=https://www.loksatta.com/maharashtra/nine-products-from-maharashtra-get-geographical-indication-tag-zws-70-4086465/ |access-date=11 January 2025 |work=Loksatta |date=7 December 2023 |language=mr}}</ref><br />
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==Notable dish==<br />
Borsuri Varan/ Bhokari Varan (Lentil curry or stew) is a spicy and popular [[Marathwada]] dish made with a mix of lentils, including Borsuri tur dal, [[Masoor dal]], and green [[Moong dal]], along with spices and other ingredients.<ref name=":11">{{cite news |title=महाराष्ट्राच्या नऊ पदार्थांना GI टॅग; तूळजापूरच्या कवडीच्या माळेसह मराठवाड्यातील ६ पदार्थांचा समावेश |url=https://marathi.indiatimes.com/maharashtra/latur/gi-rating-9-products-from-maharashtra/articleshow/105818186.cms |access-date=11 January 2025 |work=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref><br />
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==Geographical indication==<br />
[[Borsuri Tur Dal]] was awarded the [[List of geographical indications in India|Geographical Indication]] (GI) status tag from the [[Geographical Indication Registry (India)|Geographical Indications Registry]], under the [[Government of India|Union Government of India]], on 30 March 2024 and is valid until 6 February 2032.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maharashtra raisins |url=https://search.ipindia.gov.in/GIRPublic/Application/Details/826 |website=Intellectual Property India |access-date=11 January 2025}}</ref><br />
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Borsuri Turdal Utpadak Sangh from Borsuri, proposed the GI registration of 'Borsuri Tur Dal'.<ref>{{cite news |title=कोथिंबीर, चिंच, डाळीला जीआय मानांकन |url=https://www.lokmat.com/agriculture/farming-ideas/gi-rating-of-coriander-tamarind-dal-a-a973/ |access-date=11 January 2025 |work=Lokmat |date=6 December 2023 |language=mr}}</ref> After filing the application in February 2022, the Tur Dal was granted the GI tag in 2024 by the Geographical Indication Registry in [[Chennai]], making the name "'Borsuri Tur Dal" exclusive to the Tur Dal cultivated in the region.<ref name=":7" /> It thus became the second pigeon pea variety from Maharashtra after [[Navapur Tur Dal]] and the 45th type of goods from Maharashtra to earn the GI tag.<br />
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The GI tag protects the Tur Dal from illegal selling and marketing, and gives it legal protection and a unique identity.<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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[[Category:Villages in Nilanga taluka]]<br />
[[Category:Villages in Latur district]]</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinanthode&diff=470577Pinanthode2025-07-21T10:35:25Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: </p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}<br />
{{refimprove|date=May 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Pinanthode<br />
| native_name = <br />
| native_name_lang = <br />
| other_name = <br />
| nickname = <br />
| settlement_type = village<br />
| image_skyline = <br />
| image_alt = <br />
| image_caption = <br />
| pushpin_map = <!--India Tamil Nadu--><br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India<br />
| coordinates = <br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = <br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = <br />
| governing_body = <br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <br />
| area_rank = <br />
| area_total_km2 = <br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = <br />
| population_total = <br />
| population_as_of = <br />
| population_rank = <br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| population_footnotes = <br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = Tamil, Malayalam<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = <!-- [[Postal Index Number|PIN]] --><br />
| postal_code = <br />
| registration_plate = <br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
'''Pinanthode''' is a village near Thirparappu in the [[India]]n state of [[Tamil Nadu]],<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=2011 |title=Basic Population Figures of India, States, Districts, Sub-District and Village, 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] |access-date=May 17, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711042331/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=2022-07-11}}</ref> which is near the Thirparappu waterfalls.<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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{{coord missing|Tamil Nadu}}<br />
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[[Category:Cities and towns in Kanyakumari district]]<br />
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{{Kanniyakumari-geo-stub}}<br />
{{Kanyakumari district}}</div>NorrisKruttschnihttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memunda&diff=458777Memunda2025-07-14T20:01:59Z<p>NorrisKruttschni: slightly adjust information and updated info</p>
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<div>{{More citations needed|date=November 2024}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Memunda<br />
| other_name = <br />
| nickname = <br />
| settlement_type = Village|<br />
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India <br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|11|36|2|N|75|38|2|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = <br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = <br />
| governing_body = <br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <br />
| area_rank = <br />
| area_total_km2 = <br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = <br />
| population_total = 10960 (2001)<br />
| population_as_of = <br />
| population_rank = <br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| population_footnotes = <br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 673104<br />
| area_code_type = Telephone code<br />
| area_code = 496252<br />
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#KL.E2.80.94Kerala|KL]]-18<br />
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city<br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = Calicut<br />
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]<br />
| blank2_info_sec1 = 3.2 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]<br />
| blank3_name_sec1 = Literacy<br />
| blank3_info_sec1 = 81.3,%<br />
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency<br />
| blank4_info_sec1 = Vatakara<br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
'''Memunda''' is a village near [[Vatakara]] town in [[Kozhikode district]] of [[Kerala]], [[south India]]. The [[Lokanarkavu Temple]] is located at Memunda.<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 November 2018 |title=Yatra in Kozhikode to uphold renaissance values |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2134678579 |access-date=2024-11-17 |work=[[The Hindu]] |id={{ProQuest|2134678579}} }}</ref><br />
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==Geography ==<br />
Memunda is located on the east coast(6&nbsp;km away) of Arabian Sea. It is surrounded by two hills, Muthappan hill and Valiya Mala.<br />
==History==<br />
The story of [[Thacholi Othenan]] is related to Memunda. Many exploits of Thacholi Othenan, the hero of the ballads of north malabar (Vadakkan Pattukal) were held in is the Lokanarkavu, in Memunda. Annual ceremonies are conducted in memory of "Othenan" whose birthplace is Manikoth, Meppayil near Memunda. <br />
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==Tourism==<br />
The main attraction in Memunda is the 'Lokanarkavu Utsavam' (festival) during the months of [[Vrishchikam]] (November–December) and [[Meenam]] (March–April). The village has three rock-cut caves. The majority of the residents of Memunda are [[day labor]]ers although there also reside many architects, teachers, and [[remote work]]ers. There is also ''Kunnoth Para Quarry'', a rock quarry in Memunda.<br />
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==Constituent villages of Memunda==<br />
*Memunda<br />
*Keezhal<br />
*Kavil<br />
*Kuttoth<br />
*Arakulngara<br />
*Bankroad<br />
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==Transportation==<br />
Memunda is connected to other parts of India through [[Vatakara]] city in the west and [[Kuttiady]] in the east. [[National Highway 66 (India)|National Highway 66]] passes through [[Vatakara]] and the northern stretch connects to [[Mangalore]], [[Goa]] and [[Mumbai]]. The southern stretch connects to [[Cochin]] and [[Trivandrum]]. The eastern Highway going through [[Kuttiady]] connects to [[Mananthavady]], [[Mysore]] and [[Bangalore]]. The nearest airports are at [[Kannur Airport|Kannur]] and [[Kozhikode Airport|Kozhikode]]. The nearest railway station is at Vatakara.<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{Kozhikode district}}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* [https://www.india9.com/i9show/Memunda-57465.htm Memunda on india9]<br />
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[[Category:Vatakara area]]</div>NorrisKruttschni