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Suthi Velu

2026-05-08T10:47:23Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{Short description|Indian actor, comedian (1947–2012)}}
{{Other uses|Velu (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Suthi Velu
| image = Lokanadham nandikeswarao with Sutti velu and sutti veerabhadra rao.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1947|8|7}}
| birth_place = [[Bhogireddypalli]], [[Krishna district]], [[British India]] (present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], India)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2012|09|16|1947|8|7}}<ref name="timesofindia">{{cite web |title=Suthi Velu passes away |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/suthi-velu-passes-away/articleshow/16419124.cms |work=The Times of India|access-date=3 January 2024 |archive-date=21 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021081330/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/suthi-velu-passes-away/articleshow/16419124.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
| death_place = [[Chennai]], Tamil Nadu, India
| occupation = {{Hlist | Actor | comedian}}
| years_active = 1980–2012
| birth_name = Kurumaddali Lakshmi Narasimha Rao
| othername =
| website =
| spouse = Lakshmi Rajyam
}}

'''Kurumaddali Lakshmi Narasimha Rao''' (7 August 1947 – 16 September 2012), better known by his [[stage name]] '''Suthi Velu''', was an Indian actor and comedian known for his works in [[Telugu cinema]]. He has acted in more than 200 films, and won four state [[Nandi Awards]].<ref name="timesofindia"/>

==Early life==
Suthi Velu's father was a teacher. From an early age he was interested in drama and also developed an interest in acting. He then decided to take up acting seriously. At the age of 7, he had given a stage performance in his town. His father discouraged him and asked him not to show interest in acting. He started his film career with ''[[Mudda Mandaram]]'' (1981), and acted in many of Jandhyala's films, which made him famous.

==Career==
Suthivelu's comedy spanned from 1980 to 2000 in [[Cinema of Andhra Pradesh|Tollywood]]. He is famous for timing his dialogues and expressions, particularly in director [[Jandhyala]]'s comedy films. His collaboration with [[Suthi Veerabhadra Rao]] is very popular and the duo was nicknamed ''Suthi Janta''. During his childhood, he was very lean, so one of his neighbours Jaanakamba used to call him '''Velu''' (meaning finger in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]). His name in the film ''[[Nalugu Stambhalata (film)|Nalugu Stambhalata]]'' (1982) is Gurnadham. After the success of Nalugu Stambhalata, people started calling him '''Suthi Velu'''. He also acted in comedy serials such as ''Anandobrahma'' on Doordarshan and ''[[Lady Detective]]'' on ETV.

== Personal life ==
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2024}}
Suthi Velu was married to Lakshmi Rajyam, and have four children, three girls and a boy. He died of cardiac arrest at his residence on 16 September 2012.

==Awards==
;[[Nandi Awards]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |title=te:నంది అవార్డు విజేతల పరంపర (1964–2008) |trans-title=A series of Nandi Award Winners (1964–2008) |magazine=[[Andhra Pradesh (magazine)|Andhra Pradesh]] |publisher=Information & Public Relations of Andhra Pradesh |access-date=21 August 2020 |language=te |archive-date=23 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223135739/http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Nandi Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – ''[[Vande Mataram (1985 film)|Vande Mataram]]'' (1985)
* [[Nandi Award for Best Male Comedian|Best Male Comedian]] – ''Devalayam'' (1985)
* [[Nandi Award for Best Male Comedian|Best Male Comedian]] – ''[[Geethanjali (1989 film)|Geethanjali]]'' (1989)
* [[Nandi Award for Best Male Comedian|Best Male Comedian]] – ''[[Master Kapuram]]'' (1990)

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of film credits
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|1980
|''Bhola Shankarudu''
|
|
|-
| 1981
| ''[[Mudda Mandaram]]'' || Receptionist ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |1982
| ''[[Naa Desam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Nalugu Stambhalata (film)|Nalugu Stambhalata]]'' || Gumasta ||
|-
| ''[[Trisoolam]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="9" |1983
| ''[[Khaidi (1983 film)|Khaidi]]'' || Beggar ||
|-
| ''[[Lanke Bindelu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lanke Bindelu (1983) |url=https://indiancine.ma/XSI |access-date=2023-06-27 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627195937/https://indiancine.ma/XSI |url-status=live }}</ref> || Danaiah ||
|-
| ''[[Palletoori Monagadu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Durga Devi film|Durga Devi]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Durga Devi on Moviebuff.com |url=https://www.moviebuff.com/durga-devi-1983-telugu |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Moviebuff.com |archive-date=25 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925190807/https://www.moviebuff.com/durga-devi-1983-telugu |url-status=live }}</ref> || Lakshmipathi ||
|-
| ''[[Adavalle Aligithe|Adavallu Aligithe]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Raju Rani Jackie]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Raju Rani Jackie (1983) {{!}} V CINEMA – Movie, Review, Cast, Songs & Release Date |url=https://www.vcinema.com/movie/about:blank |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=www.vcinema.com |language=en |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707161434/https://www.vcinema.com/movie/about:blank |url-status=live }}</ref> || Kodandam ||
|-
| ''[[Amarajeevi (1983 film)|Amarajeevi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Puttadi Bomma]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rendu Jella Sita]]'' || Anasooya's husband ||
|-
| rowspan="12" | 1984
| ''[[Mahanagaramlo Mayagadu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Ravoo Gopala Ravoo''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ravoo Gopala Ravoo (1984) |url=https://indiancine.ma/ZCI |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=3 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103172454/https://indiancine.ma/ZCI |url-status=live }}</ref> ||Mental patient ||
|-
|''[[Babulugaadi Debba]]''
|
|
|-
|''Mukkopi''
|
|
|-
|''Srimathi Kavali''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Ananda Bhairavi (film)|Anandabhairavi]]'' || ||
|-
|''Daku''
|
|
|-
|''[[Rustum (1984 film)|Rustum]]''
|
|
|-
|''Ooha Sundari''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Goonda (film)|Goonda]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Srivariki Premalekha]]'' || Ananda Rao ||
|-
| ''[[Agni Gundam]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="18" | 1985
| ''[[Pratighatana]]'' || Police Constable ||
|-
| ''Manchi Manasulu''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manchi Manasulu (1986) |url=https://indiancine.ma/BGMW |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=29 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129101333/https://indiancine.ma/BGMW |url-status=live }}</ref> || ||
|-
|''[[Maha Manishi]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Bangaru Chilaka]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latest Telugu News, Movies, Celebrities, Images & Videos {{!}} V CINEMA |url=https://www.vcinema.com/movie/bangaru-chilaka-1985 |access-date=2024-09-22 |website=www.vcinema.com |language=en}}</ref>|| Subbulu||
|-
|''Aadapille Nayam''
|
|
|-
|''Musugu Donga''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Musugu Donga Cast and Crew |url=https://www.vcinema.com/movie/musugu-donga-1985}}</ref>
|Babji
|
|-
|''Dongallo Dora''
|
|
|-
|''Mayadari Maridi''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Surya Chandra]]'' || ||
|-
|''Maharaju''
|
|
|-
|''Lady James Bond''
|
|
|-
|''Deshamlo Dongalu Paddaru''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Chiranjeevi (1985 film)|Chiranjeevi]]'' || Chitti ||
|-
| ''Mogudu Pellalu''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indiancine.ma/AAAI | title=Mogudu Pellalu (1985) }}</ref> || ||
|-
| ''[[Vande Mataram (1985 film)|Vande Mataram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Raktha Sindhuram]]'' || Damodar Rao's Secretary ||
|-
| ''[[Devalayam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Babai Abbai]]'' || Vara Prasad Rao ||
|-
| rowspan="20" | 1986
| ''[[Chantabbai]]'' || Ganapati ||
|-
| ''[[Apoorva Sahodarulu]]'' || ||
|-
|''Maruthi''
|
|
|-
|''[[Dhairyavanthudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Pavitra (1986 film)|Pavitra]]''
|
|
|-
| ''Chadastapu Mogudu'' || ||
|-
|''[[Nippulanti Manishi (1986 film)|Nippulanti Manishi]]''
|
|
|-
|''Sravana Sandhya''
|
|
|-
|''[[Brahmastram (1986 film)|Brahmastram]]''
|
|
|-
|''Aruna Kiranam''
|
|
|-
|''Manavudu Danavudu''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Jailu Pakshi]]'' || ||
|-
|''Vetagallu''
|Narasimham
|
|-
| ''[[Aadi Dampatulu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vijrumbhana]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vijrumbana (1986) |url=https://indiancine.ma/BJLE |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=29 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429192624/https://indiancine.ma/BJLE |url-status=live }}</ref> || Shekhar ||
|-
| ''[[Karu Diddina Kapuram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Repati Pourulu]]'' ||(Vandemataram) ||
|-
|''[[Prathibhavanthudu]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Rendu Rella Aaru]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chanakya Sapatham]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chanakya Sapadam (1986) |url=https://indiancine.ma/AASV |access-date=2024-01-20 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=20 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120112647/https://indiancine.ma/AASV |url-status=live }}</ref>
|Yugandhar
|
|-
| rowspan="27" |1987
| ''[[Muddu Bidda (film)|Muddu Bidda]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chakravarthy (1987 film)|Chakravarthy]]'' || Simhachalam ||
|-
| ''[[Donga Mogudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Gundamma Gari Krishnulu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Bhale Mogudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Dharmapatni (1987 film)|Dharmapatni]]'' || ||
|-
|''Paga Sadistha''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Donga Garu Swagatham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Agni Putrudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ramu (1987 film)|Ramu]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Collector Gari Abbai]]''
|
|
|-
|''Raga Leela''
|
|
|-
|''[[Ajeyudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''Dayamayudu''
|
|
|-
|''Rowdy Police''
|
|
|-
|''[[Muddayi]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muddayi (1987) |url=https://indiancine.ma/ABZZ |access-date=2024-04-01 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Vadivelu
|
|-
| ''[[Kaboye Alludu]]'' || ||
|-
|''Ida Prapancham''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Majnu (1987 film)|Majnu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Dabbevariki Chedu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Padamati Sandhya Ragam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Srinivasa Kalyanam (1987 film)|Srinivasa Kalyanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Jebu Donga (1987 film)|Jebu Donga]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Maa Voori Magadu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maa Voori Magadu (1987) |url=https://indiancine.ma/ABYB |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>|| Simhachalam||
|-
| ''[[Bhargava Ramudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Manmadha Leela Kamaraju Gola]]'' || Sandeham ||
|-
|''Manavadostunnadu''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="28" | 1988
| ''[[Janaki Ramudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Yamudiki Mogudu (1988 film)|Yamudiki Mogudu]]'' || Vichitragupta ||
|-
|''Annapurnamma Gari Alludu''
|
|
|-
|''Sagatu Manishi''
|
|
|-
| ''Nyaniki Siksha'' || Chidambaram ||
|-
| ''[[Chikkadu Dorakadu (1988 film)|Chikkadu Dorakadu]]'' || ||
|-
|''Bhama Kalapam''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Choopulu Kalisina Shubhavela]]'' || Cameo as a Koya Dora ||
|-
|''Jeevana Ganga''
|
|
|-
|''[[Rao Gari Illu]]''
|
|
|-
|''Nava Bharatham''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Chinni Krishnudu]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Jhansi Rani (1988 film)|Jhansi Rani]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Brahma Puthrudu|Brahma Putrudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''Maa Inti Maharaju''
|
|
|-
|''Prema Kireetam''
|
|
|-
|''[[Station Master (1988 film)|Station Master]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Raktabhishekam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Yuddha Bhoomi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Manchi Donga]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sahasam Cheyara Dimbhaka]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aakhari Poratam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thodallullu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[O Bharya Katha]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latest Telugu News, Movies, Celebrities, Images & Videos {{!}} V CINEMA |url=https://www.vcinema.com/movie/o-bharya-katha-1988 |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=www.vcinema.com |language=en}}</ref>|| Manikyam||
|-
| ''[[Khaidi No.786]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Marana Mrudangam|Maranamrudangam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chinababu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Donga Pelli]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="18" |1989
| ''[[Jayammu Nischayammu Raa (1989 film)|Jayammu Nischayammu Raa]]'' || Jagannadham ||
|-
| ''[[Parthudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ajatha Satruvu]]'' || Ananda Rao ||
|-
|''Bharatha Nari''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Athaku Yamudu Ammayiki Mogudu]]'' || ||
|-
|''Bhooporatam''
|
|
|-
|''[[Vintha Dongalu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vinta Dongalu |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/vinta-dongalu/cast/2000145213/ |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=TVGuide.com |language=en}}</ref>
|Anjaneyulu
|
|-
| ''Gopala Rao Gari Abbayi'' || ||
|-
|''Mouna Poratam''
|
|
|-
|[[Vijay (1989 film)|''Vijay'']]
|
|
|-
|''[[Two Town Rowdy]]''
|
|
|-
|''Joo Lakataka''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Geethanjali (1989 film)|Geethanjali]]'' || ||
|-
| [[Bandhuvulostunnaru Jagratha|''Banduvulostunnaru Jagratha'']]|| Kistayya ||
|-
| ''Chinnari Sneham'' || ||
|-
|''[[Swathi Chinukulu]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Bamma Maata Bangaru Baata]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Hai Hai Nayaka]]'' || School Principal, Sarabhalingam Master ||
|-
| rowspan="11" | 1990
| ''[[Aayudham (1990 film)|Aayudham]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Neti Charitra]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neti Charitra (1990) |url=https://indiancine.ma/AFAY/info |access-date=2025-01-21 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|Zoology Lecturer, Brahmachari
|
|-
| ''[[E. V. V. Satyanarayana|Chevilo Puvvu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Irugillu Porugillu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Prema Zindabad]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mama Alludu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Master Kapuram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rambha Rambabu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Padmavathi Kalyanam'' || ||
|-
| ''Jayasimha'' || Kumbakonam Iyer ||
|-
| ''[[Prananiki Pranam]]'' || Santanam ||
|-
| rowspan="15" | 1991
| ''[[Stuvartpuram Dongalu]]'' || Padmini's father ||
|-
| ''[[Aditya 369]]'' || Police Constable ||
|-
| ''[[Chaitanya (film)|Chaitanya]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kalikaalam (1992 film)|Kalikaalam]]'' || ||
|-
|''Prema Entha Madhuram''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Kulamma Gunamma]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Viyyala Vari Vindhu'' || ||
|-
| ''Jeevana Chadarangam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vichitra Prema]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sarpayagam]]'' || ||
|-
|''Bhargav''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Brahmarshi Viswamitra]]'' || Nakshatraka ||
|-
| ''[[Srivari Chindulu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Edurinti Mogudu Pakkinti Pellam]]'' ||Subbayya Lingam||
|-
| ''[[Iddaru Pellala Muddula Police]]'' || Kantamma's Husband ||
|-
| rowspan="11" | 1992
| ''[[Samsarala Mechanic]]'' || Ramanadham ||
|-
| ''[[Babai Hotel]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Sukravaram Mahalakshmi'' || ||
|-
|''Samarpana''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Aapadbandhavudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Parvathalu Panakalu'' || ||
|-
| ''Repati Koduku'' || ||
|-
|''Prema Drohi''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Chillara Mogudu Allari Koduku]]'' || Lawyer ||
|-
| ''[[Appula Appa Rao]]'' || Ammaji's Husband ||
|-
| ''[[Killer (1991 film)|Killer]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="12" | 1993
| ''[[Ladies Special]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Prema Pusthakam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chirunavvula Varamistava]]'' || ||
|-
|''Pelli Gola''
|
|
|-
|''Asale Pellaina Vaani''
|
|
|-
|''[[Chittemma Mogudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''Donga Alludu''
|
|
|-
| ''Vintha Kodallu'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kalachakram 1993 film|Kalachakram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Allari Priyudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[One by Two (1993 film)|One By Two]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Enti Bava Marinu]]'' || Nakkalagudu Naga Bhupati ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 1994
| ''[[Kurradhi Kurradu]]'' || Babu Rao ||
|-
| ''[[Muddula Priyudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ammayi Kapuram]]'' || ||
|-
|''Raithu Bharatam''
|
|
|-
|''Sundara Vadana Subbulakshmi Moguda''
|
|
|-
| ''Nannagaru'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Anna (1994 film)|Anna]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="7" |1995
| ''[[Lingababu Love Story]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Badili'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aadaalla Majaka]]'' || ||
|-
|''Leader''
|
|
|-
|''Mayabazaar''
|
|
|-
|''Ooriki Monagadu''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Ketu Duplicate]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 1996
| ''[[Pavithra Bandham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Anaganaga Oka Roju]]'' || ||
|-
|''Oho Naa Pellanta''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Topi Raja Sweety Roja]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sahasa Veerudu Sagara Kanya]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Pelli Sandadi]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Sri Krishnarjuna Vijayam|Shri Krishnarjuna Vijayam]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="8" | 1997
| ''[[Rowdy Durbar]]'' || Sivayya ||
|-
| ''[[Mama Bagunnava]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pelli Chesukundam]]'' || ||
|-
|''Ilallu''
|
|
|-
|''[[Muddula Mogudu (1997 film)|Muddula Mogudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Annamayya (film)|Annamayya]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Chinnabbayi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[W/o V. Vara Prasad]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="6" |1998
| ''[[Allari Pellam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Suryudu]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Eshwar Alla]]''
|
|
|-
|''Subbaraju Gari Kutumbam''
|
|
|-
| ''Cheekati Suryulu'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pavitra Prema]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |1999
| ''[[Maanikyam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Krishna Babu]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Vichitram 1999|Vichitram]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vichitram |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/vichitram/cast/2030372853/ |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=TVGuide.com |language=en}}</ref>
|Peraiah
|
|-
|''Aavide Syamala''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2000 || ''[[Manasichanu]]'' || ||
|-
|''Adavi Chukka''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2001 || ''[[Deevinchandi]]'' || ||
|-
|''Narahari''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2002 || ''[[Vachina Vaadu Suryudu]]'' || || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mrg-vvs.html|title=Combining art with a cause|work=[[The Hindu]]|via=Idlebrain.com|access-date=27 March 2024|archive-date=17 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117184750/https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mrg-vvs.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Kondaveeti Simhasanam]]''
|
|
|-
|2003
|''Kabir Das''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2004
| ''[[Aa Naluguru]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Xtra (film)|Xtra]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |2005 || ''[[Modati Cinema]]'' || ||
|-
|''Slokam''
|
|
|-
|''Mutta Kireedam''
|
|
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Veerabhadra]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2007
| ''[[Andariki Vandanalu]]'' || ||
|-
|''Shridi''
|
|
|-
|''[[Allare Allari]]''
|
|
|-
|''Bangaru Kanda''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Maharathi (2007 film)|Maharadhi]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2008
| ''[[One (2008 film)|One]]'' || ||
|-
|''Indrajith''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Krishnarjuna]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2009
| ''[[Sasirekha Parinayam (film)|Sasirekha Parinayam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Boni (film)|Boni]]'' || ||
|-
|2010
|''Maa Aayana Bangaram''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2011
|''Lokame Kathaga''
|
|
|-
|''Kireetam''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2012 || ''[[All the Best (film)|All the Best]]'' || ||
|-
|''Gowri Kalyana Vaibhogame''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2013
|''[[Jagadguru Adi Shankara]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sukumarudu]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Ramachari]]'' || Ganapathi || Released posthumously
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|id=0892742|name=Suthi Velu}}

{{Nandi Award Best Male Comedian}}{{Nandi Award for Best Supporting Actor}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Telugu comedians]]
[[Category:2012 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Nandi Award winners]]
[[Category:Actors from Krishna district]]
[[Category:Male actors from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]

Dhing Assembly constituency

2026-05-08T09:27:31Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{Short description|Constituency of the Assam legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dhing
| constituency_no = 55
| type = SLA
| map_image = Dhing Assembly constituency map 2023.svg
| state = [[Assam]]
| latest_election_year =
| loksabha_cons = [[Nagaon Lok Sabha constituency|Nagaon]]
| district = [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]]
| established = 1957
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image =
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| electors =
}}
'''Dhing Assembly constituency''' is one of the 126 assembly constituencies of [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]. [[Dhing]] forms part of the [[Nagaon Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies of State of Assam|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date = 2025-11-28}}</ref><ref name=ceo>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceoassam.nic.in/information/pdf/2_PC%20wise%20LAC%20breakup.pdf |title=List of Assembly constituencies showing their Parliamentary constituences wise break-up |website=www.ceoassam.nic.in| access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=ceomap>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceoassam.nic.in/information/pdf/3_Assembly_HPC_wise_MapA1.pdf |title=Map of Assam showing District-wise assembly and Parliamentary constituencies |website=www.ceoassam.nic.in| access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>

==Details==

Following are details on Dhing Assembly constituency:

*Country: India.
* State: Assam.
* District: Nagaon district .
* Lok Sabha Constituency: Nagaon Lok Sabha constituency.
* Area Includes: Moirabari PT. Dev. Block, Dhing T.C., Batadraba Dev. Block(Part), Juria Dev. Block(Part).

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Election
!Member
!colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1957 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|[[Nurul Islam (Assam politician)|Nurul Islam]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=4|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1962 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Mvi. Md. Idrish
|-
|[[1967 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Mohammad Samsul Huda
|-
|[[1972 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Abul Hussain Mir
|-
|[[1978 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
|Mohammad Samsul Huda
|{{Full party name with color|Revolutionary Communist Party of India}}
|-
|[[1983 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
|Abu Nasir Ohid
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1985 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Shahidul Islam
|{{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[1991 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|Muzibar Rahman
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=3|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1996 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|Mustafa Shahidul Islam
|-
|[[2001 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|[[Idris Ali (politician)|Idris Ali]]
|-
|[[2006 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|[[Mobarak Ali Pathan]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=4|All India United Democratic Front}}
|-
|[[2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Aminul Islam (Assam politician)|Aminul Islam]]
|-
|[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
|-
|[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Dhing}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Mehboob Mukhtar|party=Raijor Dal|votes=1,31,182|percentage=59.6|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Matiur Rahman|party=AIUDF|votes=59,688|percentage=27.12|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Mukut Kumar Debnath|party=BJP|votes=19,572|percentage=8.89|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Hirak Jyoti Bora|party=Republican Party of India (Athawale)|votes=3,185|percentage=1.45|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Zakir Islam|party=Revolutionary Communist Party of India (Rasik Bhatt)|votes=3,088|percentage=1.40|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA|party=None of the above|votes=1,680|percentage=0.76|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=71,494 |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=2,20,106|percentage=93.47|change=}}
{{Election box rejected|votes=|percentage=}}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors =2,35,481 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Raijor Dal|loser=AIUDF |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2016 ===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Dhing<ref name=election2016>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4017-assam-general-legislative-election-2016/ |title=Assam General Legislative Election 2016 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=13 November 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|candidate = [[Aminul Islam (Indian politician, born 1972)|Aminul Islam]]
|votes = 82,786
|percentage = 47.78
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Anwar Hussain
|votes = 58,233
|percentage = 33.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Muzibur Rahman
|votes = 17,807
|percentage = 10.27
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Mukut Kumar Debnath
|votes = 8,958
|percentage = 5.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Mobarak Ali Pathan
|votes = 1,004
|percentage = 0.57
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Mainul Hoque
|votes = 843
|percentage = 0.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = JMBP
|candidate = Rajani Kanta Nath
|votes = 823
|percentage = 0.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = RCPI(RB)
|candidate = Jamanur Rahman
|votes = 737
|percentage = 0.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Jehirul Islam
|votes = 710
|percentage = 0.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 1,358
|percentage = 0.78
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 24,553
|percentage = 14.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,73,259
|percentage = 92.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors|
|reg. electors = 1,88,167
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = All India United Democratic Front
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:Nagaon district]]
[[Category:Politics of Assam]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Assam]]

Cartography of India

2026-05-04T09:38:53Z

NoellaXgt402: creating a post v1.

{{Short description|none}}
{{Science and technology in India}}
The '''cartography of India''' begins with early charts for navigation<ref name=Sircar3/> and constructional plans for buildings.<ref name=gole1990>Gole (1990)</ref> Indian traditions influenced [[Tibet]]an<ref name=sircar329quote>Sircar, 329</ref> and [[Geography in medieval Islam|Islamic traditions]],<ref name=Pinto06quote>Pinto (2006)</ref> and in turn, were influenced by the [[United Kingdom|British]] cartographers who solidified modern concepts into India's map making.<ref name=Fuechsel>Fuechsel (2008)</ref>

A prominent foreign [[geographer]] and [[Cartography|cartographer]] was [[Hellenistic geography|Hellenistic geographer]] [[Ptolemy]] (90–168) who researched at the library in [[Alexandria]] to produce a detailed eight-volume record of world geography.<ref name=Fuechsel/> During the Middle Ages, India sees some exploration by [[Chinese geography|Chinese]] and [[Muslim geography|Muslim]] geographers, while European maps of India remain very sketchy.
A prominent medieval cartographer was [[Geography in medieval Islam|Persian geographer]] [[Abu Rayhan Biruni]] (973–1048) who visited India and studied the country's geography extensively.<ref name=Biruni>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni}}</ref>

European maps become more accurate with the [[Age of Exploration]] and [[Portuguese India]] from the 16th century. The first modern maps were produced by the [[Survey of India]], established in 1767 by the [[British East India Company]]. The Survey of India remains in continued existence as the official mapping authority of the [[Republic of India]].

==Prehistory==
[[Joseph E. Schwartzberg]] (2008) proposes that the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] of the [[Bronze Age]] (c. 2500–1900 BCE) may have known "cartographic activity" based on a number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods and that the use of large scale constructional plans, cosmological drawings, and cartographic material was known in India with some regularity since the [[Vedic period]] (1st millennium BCE).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://pscst.punjab.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents/HistoryofSCInTECHInPb.pdf |title=History of Science and Technology in Punjab|access-date=May 20, 2024|language=en}}</ref><ref name=Schwartzberg1>Schwartzberg, 1301–1302</ref>
: 'Though not numerous, a number of map-like graffiti appear among the thousands of [[Stone Age]] [[Cave paintings in India|Indian cave paintings]]; and at least one complex Mesolithic diagram is believed to be a representation of the cosmos.'<ref name=Schwartzberg1301>Schwartzberg, 1301</ref>

Susan Gole (1990) comments on the cartographic traditions in early India:
{{Quote|The fact that towns as far apart as [[Mohenjodaro]] near the [[Indus]] and [[Lothal]] on the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] coast were built in the second millennium BCE with baked bricks of identical size on similar plans denotes a widespread recognition of the need for accuracy in planning and management. In the 8th century CE the [[Ellora Kailasanathar Temple|Kailas temple]] at [[Ellora]] in [[Maharashtra]] was carved down into mountain for 100 feet, with intricate sculptures lining pillared halls, no easy task even with an exact map to follow, impossible without. So if no maps have been found, it should not be assumed that the Indians did not know how to conceptualize in a cartographic manner.<ref name=gole1990/>}}

==Antiquity==
[[File:Ptolemy_Asia_detail.jpg|thumb|Southeast Asia in a Renaissance map constructed after [[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Ptolemy's Geography|Geography]]'', rediscovered by [[Maximus Planudes]] in [[Constantinople]] {{circa|lk=no|1300}}.]]
[[Cartography]] of [[Indian subcontinent|India]] as a part of the greater continent of [[Cartography of Asia|Asia]] developed in [[Classical Antiquity]].

In [[Greek cartography]], India appears as a remote land on the eastern fringe of Asia in the 5th century BCE ([[Hecataeus of Miletus]]). More detailed knowledge becomes available after the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], and the 3rd-century BCE geographer [[Eratosthenes]] had a clearer idea of the size and location of India. By the 1st century, at least the western coast of India was well known to [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] geography, with itineraries such as the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]. [[Marinus of Tyre|Marinus]] and [[Ptolemy]] had some knowledge of the [[Indian Ocean]] (which they considered [[Indian Sea|a sea]]) but their idea of the size of [[Taprobana]] ([[Sri Lanka]]) was vastly too large and the Indian peninsula much reduced. They also had little knowledge of the interior of the country.

Native Indian cartographic traditions before the Hellenistic period remain rudimentary. Early forms of cartography in [[India]] included legendary paintings; maps of locations described in Indian [[epic poetry]], for example the ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref name=Sircar1/> These works contained descriptions of legendary places, and often even described the nature of the mythological inhabitants of a particular location.<ref name=Sircar1>Sircar, page 327</ref> Early Indian cartography showed little knowledge of scale, the important parts of the map were shown to be larger than others (Gole 1990). Indian cartographic traditions also covered the locations of the [[Pole star]], and other constellations of use.<ref name=Sircar3/> These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the [[Common Era]] for purposes of navigation.<ref name=Sircar3/> Other early maps in India include the [[Udaygiri Caves|Udayagiri]] wall sculpture—made under the [[Gupta Empire]] in 400 CE—showing the meeting of the [[Ganges]] and the [[Yamuna]].<ref name=Schwartzberg1302>Schwartzberg, 1302</ref>

==Middle Ages==

The 8th-century poet and dramatist [[Bhavabhuti]], in Act 1 of the ''Uttararamacarita'', described paintings which indicated geographical regions.<ref name=Sircar2>Sircar, 328</ref> In the 20th century, over 200 medieval Indian maps were studied in the compilation of a history of cartography. Also considered in the study were copper-plate text inscriptions on which the boundaries of land, granted to the [[Brahman]] priests of India by their patrons, were described in detail.<ref name=gole1990/> The descriptions indicated good geographical knowledge and in one case over 75 details of the land granted have been found.<ref name=gole1990/> The [[China|Chinese]] records of the [[Tang dynasty]] show that a map of the neighboring Indian region was gifted to Wang Hiuen-tse by its king.<ref>Sircar, 326.</ref>

In the 9th century, [[Geography in medieval Islam|Islamic geographers]] under [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Caliph]] [[Al-Ma'mun]] improved on Ptolemy's work and depicted the [[Indian Ocean]] as an [[Ocean|open body of water]] instead of a land-locked [[sea]] as Ptolemy had done.<ref name=Covington>Covington (2007)</ref> The [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] geographers [[Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī]] and [[Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi]] set the [[Prime Meridian]] of their maps at [[Ujjain]], a centre of [[Indian astronomy]].<ref>Kennedy, 189</ref> In the early 11th century, the [[Persian people|Persian]] geographer [[Abu Rayhan Biruni]] visited India and studied the country's geography extensively.<ref name=Biruni/> He was considered the most skilled when it came to mapping [[City|cities]] and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the western [[Indian subcontinent]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} He also wrote extensively on the [[Geological history of India|geology of India]].<ref>Salam (1984)</ref> In 1154, the [[Arab]] geographer [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] included a section on the cartography and geography of India and its neighboring countries in his world atlas, ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]''.<ref>See {{Citation|first=S. Maqbul|last=Ahmad|title=Al-Sharif al-Idrisi: India and the Neighbouring Territories|year=1960}}</ref>

Italian scholar Francesco Lorenzo Pullè reproduced a number of Indian maps in his ''magnum opus'' ''La Cartografia Antica dell'India''.<ref name=Sircar2/> Out these maps two have been reproduced using a manuscript of ''Lokaprakasa''—originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra ([[Kashmir]], 11th century)—as a source.<ref name=Sircar2/> The other manuscript, used as a source by Francesco Pullè, is titled ''Samgrahani''.<ref name=Sircar2/> The early volumes of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' also described cartographic charts made by the [[Dravidian people]] of India.<ref name=Sircar3>Sircar, 330</ref><ref>See ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 14th edition, volume XIV, 840–841''.</ref>
[[File:Asia oceania anonymous c1550.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|16th century Portuguese navigational chart of the region]]

The cartographic tradition of India influenced the map making tradition of [[Tibet]], where maps of Indian origin have been discovered.<ref name=sircar329quote/> Islamic cartography was also influenced by the Indian tradition as a result of extensive contact.<ref name=Pinto06quote/>

The Portuguese explorer [[Vasco da Gama]] reached the subcontinent on 20 May 1498, anchoring off [[Calicut]], on Malabar Coast. He would, with other [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese]], navigate and chart much of the sub-continents coast line, within decades. These charts were rapidly reproduced, and appeared in say the 1502 [[Cantino planisphere]].

==Mughal era==
[[File:Map_of_the_Inhabited_Quarter.png|left|thumb|Map of the “Inhabited Quarter” by Sadiq Isfahani from [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]] c.1647. This was one of the only surviving Indian made maps. ]]
Maps from the 1590 [[Ain-e-Akbari]], a [[Mughal era|Mughal]] document detailing India's history and traditions, contain references to locations indicated in earlier Indian cartographic traditions.<ref name="Sircar2" />

Through the 16th century European explorers, and traders, such as [[Jan Huygen van Linschoten]] ventured into the interior, from the growing number or European trading posts, and expanded on and refined the previous navigational charts, with geographic detail. A series of geographies published under the title ''Itinerario'' (later published as an English edition as Discours of Voyages into Y East & West Indies), appeared in 1596, and graphically displayed for the first time in Europe detailed maps of voyages to the East Indies, particularly India.
[[File:AMH-6577-KB Bird's eye view of the city of Goa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Map of Goa, in Linschoten's Itineraries, ca.1590|left]]

The [[wikt:seamless|seamless]] hollow [[Celestial globe]] was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90), and twenty other such globes were later produced in [[Lahore]] and Kashmir during the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref name=Emilie/> Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any [[wiktionary:seam|seams]], even with modern technology.<ref name=Emilie/> These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of [[lost-wax casting]] in order to produce these globes.<ref name=Emilie>Savage-Smith (1985)</ref>

The scholar Sadiq Isfahani of [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]] compiled an [[atlas]] of the parts of the world which he held to be 'suitable for human life'.<ref name=Schwartzberg1302/> The 32 sheet atlas—with maps oriented towards the south as was the case with Islamic works of the era—is part of a larger scholarly work compiled by Isfahani during 1647.<ref name=Schwartzberg1302/> According to Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008): 'The largest known Indian map, depicting the former [[Rajput]] capital at [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]] in remarkable house-by-house detail, measures 661 × 645 cm. (260 × 254 in., or approximately 22 × 21 ft).'<ref name=Schwartzberg1303>Schwartzberg, 1303</ref>

==Colonial India==
[[File:NainSingh.gif|thumb|upright|For contributing to geographical knowledge about Asia, the [[pundit (explorer)]] and cartographer [[Nain Singh Rawat]] (19th century) received a [[Royal Geographical Society]] gold medal in 1876.]]
A map describing the [[kingdom of Nepal]], four feet in length and about two and a half feet in breadth, was presented to [[Warren Hastings]].<ref name=Sircar1>Sircar, page 327</ref> In this [[raised-relief map]] the mountains were elevated above the surface and several geographical elements were indicated in different colors.<ref name=Sircar1/> The Europeans used 'scale-bars' in their cartographic tradition.<ref name=gole1990/> Upon their arrival in India during the [[Middle Ages]], the indigenous Indian measures were reported back to Europe, and first published by Guillaume de I'Isle in 1722 as ''Carte des Costes de Malabar et de Coromandel''.<ref name=gole1990/>

With the establishment of the [[British Raj]] in India, modern European cartographic traditions were officially employed by the [[Survey of India|British Survey of India]] (1767). One British observer commented on the tradition of native Indian cartography:

{{Quote|Besides geographical tracts, the Hindus have also maps of the world according to the system of the [[Puranas|puranics]] and of the astronomers: the latter are very common. They also have maps of India and of particular districts, in which latitudes and longitudes are entirely out of question, and they never make use of scale of equal parts. The sea shores, rivers and ranges of mountains are represented by straight lines.<ref name="Sircar1"/>}}

The [[Great Trigonometric Survey]], a project of the [[Survey of India]] throughout most of the 19th century, was piloted in its initial stages by [[William Lambton]], and later by [[George Everest]]. To achieve the highest accuracy a number of corrections were applied to all distances calculated from simple trigonometry:
* [[Figure of the Earth|Curvature of the Earth]]
* The non spherical [[Figure of the Earth|nature of the curvature of the Earth]]
* [[Gravitation]]al influence of mountains on [[pendulum#Gravity|pendulum]]s
* [[Refraction]]
* [[Height above sea level]]

[[Thomas George Montgomerie]] organized several cartographic expeditions to map [[Tibet]], as well as [[China]].<ref name=Nagendra>Nagendra (1999)</ref> Mohamed-i-Hameed, [[Nain Singh]] and Mani Singh were among the agents employed by the British for their cartographic operations.<ref name=Nagendra/> Nain Singh, in particular, became famous for his geographical knowledge of Asia, and was awarded several honors for his expeditions.<ref name=Nagendra2>In 1876, his achievements were announced in the Geographical Magazine. The awards and recognition soon started flowing in. On his retirement, the [[British India|Indian Government]] honoured him with the grant of a village, and 1000 rupees in revenue. The crowning achievement came in 1876, when the [[Royal Geographical Society]] honoured him with a gold medal as the ‘man who has added a greater amount of positive knowledge to the map of Asia than any individual of our time—Nagendra 1999.</ref>

==Modern India (1947 to present)==
{{main|Survey of India}}

The modern map making techniques in India, like other parts of the world, employ [[digitization]], [[photograph|photographic survey]]s and [[printing]].<ref name=ie99/> [[Satellite imagery|Satellite imageries]], [[aerial photograph]]s and [[video|video surveying]] techniques are also used.<ref name=ie99>See [http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19990224/ige24144.html Indian Express (1999). ''Modern map-making techniques on display''. Indian Express Newspapers (Bombay) Ltd.]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Indian IRS-P5 ([[CARTOSAT-1]]) was equipped with high resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.<ref name=Burleson136/> IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.<ref name=Burleson136/> The [[CARTOSAT-2]] project, equipped with single panchromatic camera which supported scene specific on-spot images, succeed the CARTOSAT-1 project.<ref name=Burleson136>Burleson, D. (2005), "India", ''Space Programs Outside the United States: All Exploration and Research Efforts, Country by Country'', McFarland, 136–146, {{ISBN|0-7864-1852-4}}.</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[A Historical Atlas of South Asia]]''
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Great Trigonometrical Survey]]
* [[History of European exploration in Tibet]]
* [[Pundit (explorer)]]
* [[Sarat Chandra Das]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{commons|Atlas of India}}
* Covington, Richard (2007), ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'' (May–June 2007), pp. 17–21.
* Fuechsel, Charles F. (2008), "map", ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.
* {{cite journal|last1=Gole|first1=Susan|title=Size as a measure of importance in Indian cartography|journal=Imago Mundi|volume=42|issue=1|year=2008|pages=99–105|jstor=1151051|doi=10.1080/03085699008592695}}
* Kennedy, Edward S. (1996), "Mathematical Geography", ''Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science'' ('''1 & 3''') edited by Rushdī Rāshid & Régis Morelon, Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-12410-7}}.
* Nagendra, Harini (1999), [http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/sep10/articles5.htm ''Re-discovering Nain Singh''], Indian Institute of Science.
* Pinto, Karen (2006), "Cartography", ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'' edited by Josef W. Meri & Jere L. Bacharach, pp. 138–140, Taylor & Francis.
* Salam, Abdus (1984), "Islam and Science", ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam (2nd ed.)'' edited by C. H. Lai (1987), pp. 179–213, World Scientific.
* [[Savage-Smith, Emilie]] (1985), ''Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use'', Smithsonian Institution Press.
* Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008), "Maps and Mapmaking in India", ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)'' edited by [[Helaine Selin]], pp. 1301–1303, Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4020-4559-2}}.
* Sircar, D.C.C. (1990), ''Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India'', Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|81-208-0690-5}}.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070923050617/http://india.gov.in/maps/indiaindex.php ''Survey of India'' (2005), NIC.]
* [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1992), ''Historical Atlas of South Asia'', Digital South Asia Library.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110925213438/http://www.roadsofindia.com/ Local India Maps]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=QQR_tgAACAAJ Manosi Lahiri. "Mapping India" 2012]
* [https://www.amazon.in/Maps-Delhi-Pilar-Maria-Guerrieri/dp/9385285505 Guerrieri P. (2017), "Maps of Delhi", Niyogi Books.]

{{Cartography topics}}
{{Atlas}}
{{Asia topic|Cartography of}}
{{Science in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cartography Of India}}
[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:Cartography by country|India]]
[[Category:Maps of India]]

Involute Metal Powder Technologies LLP

2026-05-03T16:48:25Z

NoellaXgt402: created new post

{{Short description|Indian powder metallurgy technology company}}
'''Involute Metal Powder Technologies LLP''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|n|ˈ|v|ɒ|l|j|uː|t}}) is an [[India]]n [[company]] involved in the development of technologies related to [[powder metallurgy]] and [[metal powder]] production.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-28 |title=NIRI opens Turin-based AM Application Center with BLT-S400 |url=https://www.metal-am.com/niri-opens-turin-based-am-application-center-with-blt-s400/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=Metal Additive Manufacturing |language=en-GB}}</ref> The company works on process design and manufacturing solutions for ferrous and non-ferrous metal powders used in [[industrial]] [[applications]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-26 |title=Involute develops multipurpose tunnel furnace for sponge iron production - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/involute-develops-multipurpose-tunnel-furnace-for-sponge-iron-production-15788041.htm |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-20 |title=Volkmann introduces vPort powder handling for HP Metal Jet S100 |url=https://www.metal-am.com/volkmann-introduces-vport-powder-handling-for-hp-metal-jet-s100/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=Metal Additive Manufacturing |language=en-GB}}</ref> including the automotive and engineering sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Involute Metal Powders Develops Indigenous Technologies for Metal Powder Production |url=https://english.amarujaladigital.com/business/bonus/involute-metal-powders-develops-indigenous-technologies-for-metal-powder-production |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=English Amarujala |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=published |first=Etiido Uko |date=2026-04-26 |title=New metal 3D printer shrinks industrial tech down to workbench size with laser powder bed fusion system — aims to bring laser metal printing to workshops and labs for $9,600 |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/3d-printing/new-metal-3d-printer-shrinks-industrial-tech-down-to-workbench-size-with-laser-powder-bed-fusion-system-aims-to-bring-laser-metal-printing-to-workshops-and-labs-for-usd9-600 |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=Tom's Hardware |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-22 |title=SAE releases metal powder feedstock guidance for Additive Manufacturing |url=https://www.metal-am.com/sae-releases-metal-powder-feedstock-guidance-for-additive-manufacturing/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=Metal Additive Manufacturing |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-26 |title=Involute develops multipurpose tunnel furnace for sponge iron production - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/involute-develops-multipurpose-tunnel-furnace-for-sponge-iron-production-15788041.htm |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Powder metallurgy]]
* [[Sponge iron]]
* [[Make in India]]
* [[Startup India]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Manufacturing companies of India]]
[[Category:Metal companies of India]]
[[Category:Engineering companies of India]]
[[Category:Technology companies of India]]

{{India-company-stub}}

Okha –Bilaspur Superfast Express

2026-04-30T23:03:10Z

NoellaXgt402: put up a article.

{{short description|Train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Okha-Bilaspur Superfast Express
| image = Ministry of Railways India.svg
| image_width =
| caption =
| type = [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast]]
| locale = [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]] & [[Chhattisgarh]]
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2014|11|11}}
| last =
| operator = [[Western Railway zone|Western Railway]]
| ridership =
| start = {{rws|Okha}} (OKHA)
| stops = 25
| end = {{rws|Bilaspur}} (BSP)
| distance = {{convert|1868|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 31 hrs 55 mins
| frequency = Weekly.{{efn|Runs one day in a week for every direction.}}
| class = AC First Class, AC 2 Tier, AC 3 Tier, Sleeper Class, General Unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = On-board Catering, E-Catering
| observation = Large windows
| entertainment =
| baggage = No
| otherfacilities = Below the seats
| stock = [[LHB coach]]
| gauge = {{RailGauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}
| electrification =
| trainnumber = 22939 / 22940
| speed = {{convert|59|km/h|0|abbr=on}} average including halts.
| map = [[File:(Bilaspur - Hapa) Express route map.png|250px]]
| map_state =
}}

The 22939 / 22940 '''Okha-Bilaspur Superfast Express''' is a [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast express]] train belonging to [[Western Railway zone]] that runs between [[Okha railway station|Okha]] and [[Bilaspur Junction railway station|Bilaspur Junction]] in [[India]]. It is currently being operated with 22939/22940 train numbers on a weekly basis.<ref>[http://deshgujarat.com/2014/11/10/launching-of-four-new-trains-in-gujarat-this-week/ Launching of four new trains in Gujarat this week]</ref><ref>[http://www.cr.indianrailwamys.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&dcd=2330&id=0,4,268 INTRODUCTION OF 22939/22940 okha-BILASPUR EXPRESS ]</ref>

==Coach composition==

The train has LHB rakes with max speed of 130 kmph. The train consists of 23 coaches :

* 1 AC II Tier
* 5 AC III Tier
* 11 Sleeper
* 4 General Unreserved
* 2 Seating cum Luggage Rake

== Service==

The 22939/Hapa - Bilaspur Superfast Express has an average speed of 58 km/h and covers 1693 km in 29 hrs 05 mins.

The 22940/Bilaspur - Hapa Superfast Express has an average speed of 59 km/h and covers 1693 km in 28 hrs 45 mins.

== Route and halts ==

The important halts of the train are:

* {{rws|Hapa}}
* {{rws|Rajkot Junction}}
* {{rws|Surendranagar Junction}}
* {{rws|Ahmedabad Junction}}
* {{rws|Vadodara Junction}}
* {{rws|Surat}}
* {{rws|Nandurbar}}
* {{rws|Jalgaon Junction}}
* {{rws|Bhusaval Junction}}
* {{rws|Akola Junction}}
* {{rws|Badnera Junction}}
* {{rws|Nagpur Junction}}
* {{rws|Gondia Junction}}
* {{rws|Durg Junction}}
* {{rws|Raipur Junction}}
* {{rws|Bilaspur Junction}}

==Schedule==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Train number !! Station code !! Departure station !! Departure time !! Departure day !! Arrival station !! Arrival time !! Arrival day
|-
| 22907 || Okha || Okha || 21:55 PM || Saturday || Bilaspur || 03:00 AM || Monday
|-
| 22908 || BSP || Bilaspur || 10:45 AM || Monday || Okha || 15:30 PM || Tuesday
|}

== Traction==

Both trains are hauled by a [[Diesel Loco Shed, Vatva|Vadodara]] based [[WDM 3A|WAP5/WAP7 electric]] locomotive throughout the journey.

== Rake sharing ==

The train shares its rake with 19575/19576 [[Okha - Nathdwara Express]].

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== See also ==

* [[Hapa railway station]]
* [[Bilaspur Junction railway station]]
* [[Okha - Nathdwara Express]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/26351 22939/okha - Bilaspur Superfast Express]
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/26352 22940/Bilaspur - okha Superfast Express]

{{Railways in Western India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:okha - Bilaspur SF Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Jamnagar]]
[[Category:Transport in Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Superfast Express trains]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2014]]

{{India-express-train-stub}}

Aligarh Movement

2026-04-30T06:52:37Z

NoellaXgt402: Added a bio

{{Short description|Religious reforms of Muslims}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Aligarh Movement}}
The '''Aligarh Movement''' was a socioreligious movement in [[British Raj|British India]] aimed to establish a modern system of [[Education in the United Kingdom|Western-style]] [[scientific education]] for the [[Islam in India|Muslim]] population during the later decades of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/history/sir-syed-ahmed-khan-and-the-aligarh-movement/23145/|title=Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement|website=YourArticleLibrary.com: The Next Generation Library|date=4 January 2014 |language=en-US|access-date=2016-04-03}}</ref> The movement's name derives from the fact that its core and origins lay in the city of [[Aligarh]] in Central India and, in particular, with the foundation of the [[Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College]] in 1875.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/syed-ahmad-khan-and-aligarh-movement-1444624799-1|title=Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh Movement|website=Jagranjosh.com|date=12 October 2015 |access-date=2016-04-07}}</ref> The founder of the oriental college, and the other educational institutions that developed from it, was [[Sir Syed Ahmed Khan]]. He became the leading light of the wider Aligarh Movement.

The education reform established a base, and an impetus, for the wider Movement: a Pakistani Muslim renaissance that had profound implications for the religion, the politics, the culture and society of the [[Indian subcontinent]].

==History==
The failure of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] saw the end of the Mughal empire and the succession of the British. The Muslim society during the post mutiny period was in a deteriorating state. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan found the Muslim society to be educationally, socially and culturally backward. He blamed the prevailing education system for the degrading state of the Muslim society.<ref name="ScrollArticle">{{Cite web|last=Paracha|first=Nadeem F.|title=The forgotten past: Sir Syed and the birth of Muslim nationalism in South Asia|url=http://scroll.in/article/814074/the-forgotten-past-sir-syed-and-the-birth-of-muslim-nationalism-in-south-asia|access-date=2020-12-24|website=Scroll.in|date=21 August 2016 |language=en-US}}</ref> This led Sir Syed to initiate a movement for the intellectual, educational, social and cultural regeneration of the Muslim society. This movement came to be known as the Aligarh movement after Sir Syed established his school at Aligarh which later became the center of the movement.{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=6}}

==Institutes==
* In 1859, Sir Syed established Gulshan School at [[Moradabad]]. In 1862 he founded the Victoria School at [[Ghazipur]].{{sfn|Nizami|1966|p=41}}
* Sir Syed founded the ''Translation Society'' in [[Ghazipur]] in 1863 to translate major works in the field of sciences and modern arts into Urdu.{{sfn|Kidwai|2020|p=38}} It was later renamed as the [[Scientific Society of Aligarh|Scientific Society]] and moved to Aligarh. The Society released two journals – [[Aligarh Institute Gazette|The Aligarh Institute Gazette]] and the [[Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq]], known as the Mohammedan Social Reformer in English.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, for whom educational reform was a way of life|url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/sir-syed-ahmad-khan-for-whom-educational-reform-way-of-life/306520/|website=The Print|date=17 October 2019 }}</ref>
* In 1866 the ''British Indian Association'' was established at Aligarh with the intention of addressing the political needs of the people.<ref name=dawn/>
* The ''Bihar Scientific Society'' was established by Syed Imdad Ali in Muzaffarpur in 1868. The society also launched a fortnightly newspaper, ''Akhbarul Akhyar''.{{sfn|Raza|Kumar|2011}}
*The Bihar Scientific Society and Bhumihar Brahman Sabha together established a college in Muzaffarpur on 3 July 1899. This is now known as Langat Singh College.{{sfn|Sajjad|2014}}
* In 1875 Sir Syed and Moulvi Samiullah Khan established a madarsa ''Madrasatul Uloom Musalmanan-e-Hind'' in Aligarh in his bungalow.{{sfn|Hasan|2006|p=43}} The school had a primary section and a senior section known as [[Minto Circle|Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Collegiate School]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=STS School|url=https://amu.ac.in/schools/s-t-s-school|access-date=2021-01-11|website=Aligarh Muslim University|language=en}}</ref>
*Two years later, in 1877, the school was converted into the [[Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College]].{{sfn|Hasan|2006|p=44}}
* In 1877 the foundation of ''Lytton Library'' was laid by [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|Lord Lytton]] for the students of MAO College. It was renamed as the [[Maulana Azad Library]] after Independence.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About The Library – Maulana Azad Library {{!}} AMU|url=https://amu.ac.in/libraries/maulana-azad-library/about-the-library|access-date=2020-12-18|website=Aligarh Muslim University|language=en}}</ref>
* A debating club was founded at MAO College by Sir Syed in 1884. It was renamed [[Siddons Union Club]] after its first principal Henry George Siddons.{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=211}} It came to be known as ''Muslim University Union'' after the college became a university.<ref name="newslaundry_2017-09-12">{{Cite web|title=The Aligarh Muslim University's constitution is a bundle of contradictions|url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2017/09/12/aligarh-muslim-university-election-constitution|access-date=2020-12-18|website=Newslaundry|date=12 September 2017 }}</ref>
* In 1886 Sir Syed founded the ''Muhammedan Educational Congress'', an organisation to reform and educate Indian Muslims. Its name was changed to [[All India Muhammadan Educational Conference]] in 1890.{{sfn|Kidwai|2020|p=49}}
* Sir Syed founded the [[United Patriotic Association]] in 1888 along with [[Raja Sivaprasad]] of Beneras to promote political co-operation with the British and ensure Muslim participation in the British Indian Government.{{sfn|Lelyveld|1975|p=309}}{{sfn|Hasan|2006|p=91}}
* In 1889 Sahabzada Aftab Ahmad Khan established ''Duty Society or Anjuman-Al-Farz'' to support the poor and needy students of the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental (MAO) College.{{sfn|Lelyveld|1975|p=287}}
* In 1890 Mohsin-ul-Mulk founded Urdu ''Defence Central Committee'' later renamed to [[Urdu Defence Association]] for the advocacy of Urdu.<ref name=dawn>{{Cite web|date=2011-04-03|title=Anjuman Taraqqi-i-Urdu – the movement lives on|url=https://www.dawn.com/2011/04/03/anjuman-taraqqi-i-urdu-the-movement-lives-on/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=dawn.com|language=en}}{{dead link|date=April 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* To promote the political interests of the Muslims before the British Government, the ''Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental Defense Association'' was established in 1893.{{sfn|Lelyveld|1975|p=312}}
* In 1893 the Muhammedan Educational Conference established [[Anjuman-i Taraqqi-i Urdu]] for the promotion of Urdu. The first anjuman was held in Delhi with [[Thomas Walker Arnold]] as its president and [[Shibli Nomani]] its secretary.<ref name=dawn/>
* After the death of Sir Syed in 1899, the ''Old Boys Association'' was formed at Aligarh to generate support for the Aligarh Movement. Maulvi Bahadur Ali was the founding secretary of the association.{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=212}}
* ''Sir Syed Memorial Fund'' was established by Sahabzada Aftab Ahmad Khan in 1899 to raise MAO College to a university.{{sfn|Minault|Lelyveld|1974|p=147}}
* In 1901 ''Mohammadan Political Organisation'' was founded by Nawab [[Viqar-ul-Mulk|Waqar-ul-Mulk]] to present Muslim grievances before the government.{{sfn|Hasan|2006}}{{pn|date=December 2021}}
* Sheikh Abdullah launched the Urdu monthly magazine ''Khatoon'' in 1904 to promote education of girls.{{sfn|Samiuddin|Khanam|2002|p=288}}
* In 1906 the [[All-India Muslim League|All India Muslim League]] was founded to safeguard the rights of Indian Muslims.{{sfn|Lelyveld|1975|p=338}}
* In 1906 Sheikh Abdullah and his wife Wahid Jahan Begum established a small school for girls known as ''Aligarh Zenana Madarsa'' in Aligarh.{{sfn|Lambert-Hurley|2004}}
* In 1914 Begum Sultan Jahan founded the ''All India Muslim Ladies Conference'' at Aligarh. The Begum served as President of the Conference, while Nafis Dulhan Begum from Aligarh was its Secretary.<ref>{{Cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Deutsch|first=Karin Anne|date=1998-10-27|others=Apollo-University Of Cambridge Repository, Apollo-University Of Cambridge Repository|title=Muslim women in colonial North India circa 1920–1947 : politics, law and community identity|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/229605|language=en|page=90|doi=10.17863/CAM.16006}}</ref>
* On 29 October 1920 [[Jamia Millia Islamia]] was established at Aligarh. It was later moved to Delhi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzNnwUasQ3wC&q=nisar+ahmad+shervani+fida&pg=PA50|title=Dr. Zakir Hussain, Quest for Truth|last=Fārūqī|first=Z̤iāʼulḥasan|date=1999|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-056-7|language=en}}</ref>
* On 17 December 1920, MAO College was granted the status of university and [[Aligarh Muslim University]] was established. The Raja of Mahmudabad [[Mohammad Ali Mohammad Khan]] was appointed the vice-chancellor.<ref name=noorani>{{Cite web|last=Noorani|first=A. G.|title=History of Aligarh Muslim University|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/history-of-aligarh-muslim-university/article8523802.ece|access-date=2020-12-17|website=Frontline|date=27 April 2016 |language=en}}</ref>
* In 1929, Zenana Madarsa became an Intermediate College and In 1930 the girl's college was converted into a ''Women’s College'' under the affiliation of Aligarh Muslim University.<ref name=womenscollege>{{Cite web |title=Struggle for Women's Education and Establishment of Women's College|url=http://aligarhmovement.com/Institutions/womens_college|access-date=2020-12-17|website=aligarhmovement.com |first1=Afzal |last1=Usmani}}</ref>
* A new constitution was drafted for the Muslim University Union in 1952 and it came to be known as the [[Aligarh Muslim University Students' Union]]<ref name="newslaundry_2017-09-12"/>

==Members==
The prominent members involved with the movement have included.
* [[Syed Ahmad Khan|Sir Syed Ahmad Khan]], founder of [[Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College]] and [[Aligarh Muslim University]]{{sfn|Hasan|2006|p=43}}
* Moulvi Samiullah Khan, first President of ''Muhammadan Educational Conference''{{sfn|Hasan|2006|p=96}}
* [[Jai Kishan Das|Raja Jai Kishan Das]], secretary of ''Scientific Society'' and officiating editor of ''Aligarh Institute Gazette''{{sfn|Lelyveld|1975|p=79}}
* George Farquhar Irving Graham, member of "Scientific Society" and biographer of Sir Syed<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lieutenant Colonel George Farquhar Irving Graham|url=http://aligarhmovement.com/Lt_Col_Graham}}</ref>
* [[Zakaullah Dehlvi]], associate of Sir Syed and member of Scientific Society<ref name=cambridge>{{Cite book|last1=Saikia|first1=Yasmin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WLWQDwAAQBAJ&q=nawab+waqar-ul-mulk+biography&pg=PA91|title=The Cambridge Companion to Sayyid Ahmad Khan|last2=Rahman|first2=M. Raisur|date=2019-03-21|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-48387-2|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi]], associate of Sir Syed and member of Scientific Society<ref>{{Cite book|last=Russell|first=Ralph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w-NjAAAAMAAJ&q=deputy+nazir+ahmad+aligarh+movement+bijnor|title=The Pursuit of Urdu Literature: A Select History|date=1992|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-85649-029-0|language=en}}</ref>
* Maulvi Syed Zainul Abideen, associate of Sir Syed, donor of MAO College<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maulvi Syed Zainul Abideen|url=http://aligarhmovement.com/karwaan_e_aligarh/Maulvi_Syed_Zainul_Abideen|website=AligarhMovement.com}}</ref>
* [[Khwaja Muhammad Yusuf]], associate of Sir Syed{{sfn|Hasan|2006}}{{pn|date=December 2021}}
* Hemedullah Khan, son of Moulvi Samiullah Khan<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jung tells AMU students to take lead in "new Aligarh movement"|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-najeeb-jung-tells-amu-students-to-take-lead-in-new-aligarh-movement-2026999|website=DNA India}}</ref>
* [[Abdul Majeed Khwaja]], associate of Sir Syed<ref name=noorani />
* [[Mahendra Singh of Patiala]], donor of MAO College<ref>{{Cite book|last=Graham|first=George Farquhar Irving|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MIYIAAAAQAAJ&q=life+and+work+of+sir+syed+graham|title=The Life and Work of Syed Ahmed Khan|date=1885|page=272|publisher=Blackwood|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Henry George Impey Siddons|Henry Siddons]], first Principal of MAO College{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=201}}
* [[Theodore Beck]], second Principal of MAO College{{sfn|Hasan|2006|p=68}}
* [[Theodore Morison]], third Principal of MAO College{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=221}}
* William Archbold, fourth Principal of MAO College{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=223}}
* J.H. Towle, fifth Principal of MAO College{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=225}}{{sfn|Minault|Lelyveld|1974}}
* [[Mohammad Ali Mohammad Khan]], trustee of MAO College and founding Vice-chancellor of AMU{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=238}}
* [[Muhammad Muzammilullah Khan]], trustee of MAO College and later Vice-chancellor of AMU<ref>{{Cite web|last=Noorani|first=A. G.|title=A blot on India's secularism|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/a-blot-on-indias-secularism/article9721362.ece|access-date=2020-12-18|website=Frontline|date=7 June 2017 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Ross Masood]], trustee of MAO College and later Vice-chancellor of AMU{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=247}}
* [[Ziauddin Ahmad]], founding pro Vice-chancellor of AMU{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=237}}
* [[Raja Sivaprasad]], associate of Sir Syed and founder of ''United Patriotic Association''{{sfn|Lelyveld|1975|p=309}}{{sfn|Hasan|2006|p=91}}
* [[Chiragh Ali]], educationist and associate of Sir Syed<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chiragh Ali – Oxford Islamic Studies Online|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e429|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425141851/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e429|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 April 2017|access-date=2020-12-21|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com}}</ref>
* [[Mir Turab Ali Khan, Salar Jung I]], donor of MAO College<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Brief History of The Nizams of Hyderabad|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/traveller/ot-getaway-guides/the-nizams/|access-date=2020-12-21|website=Outlook Traveller|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk Kamboh]], honorary secretary of MAO College{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=187}}
* [[Mohsin-ul-Mulk|Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk]], secretary of MAO College{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=180}}
* [[Syed Mahmood]], Sir Syed's son and joint secretary of MAO College.{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=194}}
* [[Hasrat Mohani]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parekh|first=Rauf|date=2018-05-08|title=Literary Notes: Hasrat Mohani's political and literary world: a blend of old and new|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1406307|access-date=2020-12-18|website=dawn.com|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Shibli Nomani]], associate of Sir Syed and first secretary of ''Anjuman-i Taraqqi-i Urdu''{{sfn|Ansari|2001}}
* [[Altaf Hussain Hali]], member of the ''Muhammedan Educational Conference''{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=184}}
* [[Syed Ameer Ali]], member of the ''Muhammedan Educational Conference''{{sfn|Minault|Lelyveld|1974|p=149}}
* [[Tufail Ahmad Manglori]], member of the ''Muhammedan Educational Conference''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Syed Tufail Ahmad Manglori|url=https://www.milligazette.com/news/1-community-news/9629-syed-tufail-ahmad-manglori/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=The Milli Gazette — Indian Muslims Leading News Source|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Thomas Walker Arnold]], first president of ''Anjuman-i Taraqqi-i Urdu''
* [[Aga Khan III]], founding Pro-Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=239}}
* [[Sheikh Abdullah (educationalist)|Sheikh Abdullah]], founder of Women's College, Aligarh{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=190}}
* [[Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan]], associate of Sir Syed<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-08-30|title=Remembering Nawab Ismail Khan|url=https://nation.com.pk/30-Aug-2010/Remembering-Nawab-Ismail-Khan|access-date=2020-12-17|website=The Nation|language=en}}</ref>
* Kunwar Luft Ali Khan of Chhattari{{sfn|Hasan|2006}}{{pn|date=December 2021}}
* [[Zafar Ali Khan]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maulana Zafar Ali Khan (1873–1956) – Journalism Pakistan|url=http://www.journalismpakistan.com/hall-detail.php?hallid=32&pageid=famed|access-date=2020-12-17|website=www.journalismpakistan.com|language=en|archive-date=5 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705003934/http://www.journalismpakistan.com/hall-detail.php?hallid=32&pageid=famed|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Shaukat Ali (politician)|Shaukat Ali]]<ref name=originofpak>{{Cite web|date=2015-01-27|title=Mohammed Ali Jauhar (1878–1931) and the Origins of Pakistan|url=https://historyofislam.com/contents/the-modern-age/mohammed-ali-jauhar-1878-1931-and-the-origins-of-pakistan/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=History of Islam|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Mohammad Ali Jauhar]]<ref name=originofpak />
* [[Sahibzada Aftab Ahmad Khan]], founder of ''Anjuman al-Farz'' or ''Duty Society''{{sfn|Lelyveld|1975|p=287}}
* Abdur Rehman Bijnori<ref>{{Cite web|date=2001-11-08|title=Karachi: Connoisseurs remember Bijnori's contribution|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/5261/karachi-connoisseurs-remember-bijnori-s-contribution|access-date=2020-12-17|website=dawn.com|language=en}}</ref>
* Syed Ali Bilgrami{{sfn|Shan Muhammad|2002|p=74}}
* [[Syed Nabiullah]], member of ''Muhammedan Educational Conference''
* [[Sultan Jahan, Begum of Bhopal]], founding Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=239}}
* [[Abdul Haq (Urdu scholar)|Abdul Haq]], secretary of ''Anjuman-i Taraqqi-i Urdu''<ref name=dawn/>
* [[Syed Sajjad Haider Yaldram]], the founding Registrar of AMU{{sfn|Jaleel|2004|p=239}}
* [[Shah Muhammad Sulaiman]], member of Muhammedan Educational Conference and later Vice-chancellor of AMU<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muhammad|first=Shan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMeeAAAAMAAJ&q=Shah+Muhammad+Sulaiman+all+India+educational+conference|title=The All-India Muslims Educational Conference: Select Presidential Addresses, 1886–1947|date=2003|page=433|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|isbn=978-81-7648-457-2|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Khwaja Salimullah]], founding member of All India Muslim League{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* [[Mian Muhammad Shafi]], founding member of All India Muslim League<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ikram|first=S. M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7q9EubOYZmwC&q=mian+muhammad+shafi+all+india+educational+conference&pg=PA216|title=Indian Muslims and Partition of India|date=1995|page=216|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-374-6|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Khwaja Ghulam Saiyidain]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hasan|first=Mushirul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3ekDwAAQBAJ&q=Khwaja+Ghulam+Saiyidain+aligarh&pg=PT244|title=Legacy Of A Divided Nation: India's Muslims From Independence To Ayodhya|date=2019-03-13|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-72121-2|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]]<ref name=rafi>{{Cite web|title=Constitution of India|url=https://www.constitutionofindia.net/constituent_assembly_members/rafi_ahmed_kidwai|access-date=2020-12-18|website=www.constitutionofindia.net}}</ref>
* [[Hamid Ali Khan of Rampur]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvsKAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Shia+College%22|title=Islam and the Modern Age|date=1992|publisher=Islam and the Modern Age Society|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Badruddin Tyabji]], donor of MAO College{{sfn|Minault|Lelyveld|1974|p=149}}
* [[Adamjee Peerbhoy]], donor of MAO College and early member of ''All-India Muslim League''<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 December 2020|first1=Mohammed|last1=Wajihuddin|title=As AMU turns 100, Mumbai reflects on its historic bonds|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/as-amu-turns-100-mumbai-reflects-on-its-historic-bonds/articleshow/79833237.cms|access-date=2020-12-21|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

==Opposition==
{{Main|Deoband–Aligarh relations}}
The chief detractors of the Aligarh Movement were the conservative ''Ulemas'' of the time who blamed Sir Syed for promoting Western ethics and customs among the Muslims.<ref name="ScrollArticle" /> The [[Deobandi|Deoband school]] was also opposed to the Aligarh Movement.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qGACL5YJRjEC|title=Language Conflict and National Development: Group Politics and National Language Policy in India|last1=Dasgupta|first1=Jyotirindra|date=1970-01-01|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520015906|language=en}}</ref> Sir Syed and the movement was ridiculed in the [[Awadh Punch]] by his detractors like [[Ratan Nath Dhar Sarshar|Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar]], Munshi Sajjad Hussain and [[Akbar Allahabadi]]. He was also opposed by Pan-Islamist thinker and activist [[Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Man Who Became a Movement|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1363851|website=Dawn.com|date=15 October 2017 }}</ref>

==Impact==
The Aligarh Movement has made a weighty and lasting contribution to the political emancipation of Indian Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zmo.de/dietrich/Reetz%201988.pdf|title=Enlightenment and Islam: Sayyid Ahmad Khan's Plea to Indian Muslims for Reason|website=ZMO|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024073555/http://www.zmo.de/Dietrich/Reetz|archive-date=24 October 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The movement had a profound impact on the Indian society, particularly on the Muslim society compared to the other powerful but less adaptable movements of the 19th century. It influenced a number of other contemporary movements to a great extent that it caused the emergence of other socio-religious movements during the 19th century. The impact of Aligarh Movement was not confined to the [[North India|Northern India]] only, but its expansion could be seen on the other regions of the Indian sub-continent during the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/60812/15/15_chapter%208.pdf|title=shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in|website=shodhganga|publisher=UGC}}</ref> The annual Educational Conferences held in different parts of the country played an effective role in the promotion of education among Muslims and directly or indirectly influenced the growth of institutes like Aligarh Muslim University, [[Osmania University]], [[Dacca University]], Anjuman-i-Tarqqi Urdu, Jamia Millia Islamia, Dar-ul-Uloom Nadva, Lucknow, and Dar-ul-Musannfafin, Azamgarh.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=The educational movement of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, 1858–1898.|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29491/|publisher=SOAS University of London|date=1959|degree=phd|doi=10.25501/soas.00029491|language=en|first=Rahmani B. M. R.|last=Hassaan}}</ref> By the early 1900 Aligarh Movement became the progenitor to a number of socio-religious movements like the [[Urdu movement]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-03-11|title=URDU CONTROVERSY- is dividing the nation further.|url=http://www.saag.org/papers7/paper675.html|access-date=2020-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311170443/http://www.saag.org/papers7/paper675.html|archive-date=11 March 2007}}</ref> the [[Khilafat Movement]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=United Colours of Khilafat Movement|url=https://www.news18.com/news/opinion/opinion-united-colours-of-khilafat-movement-2708169.html|website=www.news18.com|date=9 July 2020 }}</ref> and the [[Pakistan Movement]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Burki |first=Shahid Javed |author-link=Shahid Javed Burki |year=1999 |orig-year=First published in 1986 |title=Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nationhood |edition=3rd |location=Boulder, CO |publisher=Westview Press |page=4 |isbn=978-0-8133-3621-3 |quote=The university that [Sir Sayyid] founded in the town of Aligarh ... not only provided the Pakistan movement with its leadership but, later, also provided the new country of Pakistan with its first ruling elite ... Aligarh College made it possible for the Muslims to discover a new political identity: Being a Muslim came to have a political connotation-a connotation that was to lead this Indian Muslim community inexorably toward acceptance of the 'two-nation theory'}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Cited sources==
* {{Cite book|last=Ansari|first=Asloob Ahmad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l5GtlbWU8uwC&q=shibli+nomani+aligarh+movement&pg=PA490|title=Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: A Centenary Tribute|date=2001|publisher=Adam Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-7435-276-7|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hasan|first=Tariq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3B1uAAAAMAAJ&q=aligarh+movement+tariq|title=The Aligarh Movement and the Making of the Indian Muslim Mind, 1857–2002|date=2006|publisher=Rupa & Company|isbn=978-81-291-0847-0|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kidwai|first=Shafey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HLIHEAAAQBAJ&q=kidwai+sir+syed+reason|title=Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Reason, Religion and Nation|date=2020|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-000-29773-7|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lelyveld|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foLLGwAACAAJ|title=Aligarh's First Generation: Muslim Solidarity and English Education in Northern India, 1875–1900|date=1975|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of History|language=en}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Minault|first1=Gail|last2=Lelyveld|first2=David|date=1974|title=The Campaign for a Muslim University, 1898–1920|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/311636|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=8|issue=2|pages=145–189|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00005448|jstor=311636|issn=0026-749X|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book|last=Nizami|first=Khaliq Ahmad|url=http://archive.org/details/sayyidahmadkhan00niza|title=Sayyid Ahmad Khan|date=1966|isbn= 978-8123025131|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India|others=Public Resource|author-link=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami}}
* {{Cite thesis|last=Jaleel|first=Shahid|date=2004|title=The Aligarh movement, a chapter in the history of Indian education|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/handle/10603/52780|degree=phd|publisher=Aligarh Muslim University|language=English}}
* {{Cite book|last=Shan Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7BCcgC0kvsC&q=syed+bilgrami+aligarh+1851+1911&pg=PA74|title=Education and Politics: From Sir Syed to the Present Day : the Aligarh School|date=2002|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-275-2|language=en}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Lambert-Hurley|first=Siobhan|date=2004|title=Fostering Sisterhood: Muslim Women and the All-India Ladies' Association|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_womens_history/v016/16.2lambert_hurley.html|journal=Journal of Women's History|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=40–65|doi=10.1353/jowh.2004.0047|s2cid=144662758|issn=1527-2036|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Samiuddin|first1=Abida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NA5Y5eAS6c4C&dq=Muslim+Feminism+and+Feminist+Movement:+India&pg=PA138|title=Muslim Feminism and Feminist Movement: India|last2=Khanam|first2=Rashida|date=2002|publisher=Global Vision Publishing House|isbn=978-81-87746-30-0|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Sajjad|first=Mohammad|title=Contesting Colonialism and Separatism: Muslims of Muzaffarpur since 1857|publisher=Primus/Ratnasagar|year=2014|isbn=978-9384082048|location=Delhi|pages=}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Raza|first1=Syed|last2=Kumar|first2=Subodh|date=2011|title=The Muslim Elite of Bihar and their Responses to the modern education (from the mid of the 19th Century to the beginning of the 20th century)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44146779|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=72|pages=884–891|jstor=44146779|issn=2249-1937}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite thesis|title=A Critical Study of the Reformist Trends in the Indian Muslim Society During the Nineteenth Century|url=http://ir.amu.ac.in/1295/|publisher=Aligarh Muslim University|date=2007|degree=phd|language=en|first=Nighat|last=Rasheed|page= |hdl=10603/52379|pages=282–296}}
*Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava, The Aligarh movement; its origin and development, 1858–1906 by Ema. Esa Jaina( Book )
*Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava, Study on the movement of Indian Muslim regeneration established at Aligarh, India

{{Aligarh Muslim University}}
{{Pakistan Movement}}

[[Category:Aligarh Muslim University]]
[[Category:Pakistan Movement]]
[[Category:Aligarh Movement]]

Attari–Wagah border ceremony

2026-04-30T02:25:59Z

NoellaXgt402: Added a info

{{Short description|Daily military border ceremony involving India and Pakistan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox recurring event
| logo = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 280
| image_gap = 20
| caption_align = center
| image1 = The SAARC Car Rally 2007 being welcomed by traditional Drummers at the Wagah Border on March 28, 2007.jpg
| caption1 = [[Attari]]-[[Wagah]] border, [[Pakistan]] side
| perrow = 2
| align = center
}}
| image = File:Amritsar 20180906 161613.jpg
| caption = [[Attari]]-[[Wagah]] border, [[India]] side
| location = [[India–Pakistan border]], more specifically, [[Attari]] and [[Wagah]]
| years_active = Since {{Start date and age|1959|paren=yes}}
| founded = [[Border Security Force]] and [[Pakistan Rangers]]
| founders = [[Major General]] [[Mohinder Singh Chopra]] and [[Brigadier]] Nazir Ahmed
| dates = Every day
| genre = Military display
| coordinates = {{coord|31.60464|74.57310|format=dms|type:event|display=inline,title}}
| attendance =
| budget =
| patron =
| website =
}}

The ceremony at the [[Attari]]–[[Wagah]] border is a daily ceremony that the security forces of [[India]] ([[Border Security Force]]) and [[Pakistan]] ([[Pakistan Rangers]]) have jointly followed since 1959.<ref name="guardian">{{cite news |last=Khaleeli |first=Homa |title=Goodbye to the ceremony of silly walks between India and Pakistan |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/01/india-pakistan-border-showdown-toned-down |access-date=14 November 2011 |work=The Guardian |date=1 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103050321/https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/01/india-pakistan-border-showdown-toned-down |archive-date=3 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> The drill is characterized by elaborate and rapid dance-like manoeuvres and raising legs as high as possible.<ref name="guardian" /> It is symbolic of the brotherhood as well as the rivalry that these two nations share.<ref name=":0" /> The border troops exchange sweets with the opposing side during the Muslim holidays of [[Muslim holidays|Eid]] and Hindu holiday of [[Diwali]].<ref name=peac2/>

The flag lowering ceremony at the village of Wagah is held each evening immediately before sunset.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/01/india-pakistan-border-showdown-toned-down|title=Goodbye to the ceremony of silly walks between India and Pakistan|last=Khaleeli|first=Homa|date=2010-11-01|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-19|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The ceremony begins with battle calls from both sides in the form of loud screaming by the border guards. This is followed by a series of organized high kicks, stomps, and dance moves during which the opposing forces stare each other down.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20150429-indias-bizarre-border-ritual|title=India and Pakistan's beautiful border ritual|last=Clark|first=Tawny|website=www.bbc.com|language=en|access-date=2019-04-20}}</ref> The event ends with a handshake of good faith being exchanged by the head guards along with the lowering of the flags.<ref name=":0" />

It has been a peaceful gathering with the exception of the [[2014 Wagah border suicide attack]] claimed by three outlawed rival Islamist groups<ref name=peac1>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/world/world-others/pakistan-at-least-30-killed-in-explosion-at-wagah-border-crossing/|title=Pakistan Blast kills 48 - The Indian Express|work=The Indian Express|date=3 November 2014|access-date=17 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1142006/jundullah-claims-suicide-attack-near-wagah-border-45-dead|title=TTP splinter groups claim Wagah attack; 60 dead|date=2 November 2014|access-date=17 November 2014}}</ref> in which 60 people were killed and over 110 people were left injured.<ref name=peac2>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29871077|title=Pakistan border bombing kills dozens|date=2014-11-03|access-date=2019-04-20|language=en-GB}}</ref> It has also been cancelled on occasion such as when Pakistan returned Wing Commander [[Abhinandan Varthaman]] back to India after his plane was shot down by the [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) during the [[2019 India–Pakistan standoff]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/daily-retreat-ceremony-along-attari-wagah-border-cancelled-bsf/articleshow/68217133.cms|title=Daily Retreat ceremony along Attari-Wagah border cancelled: BSF|date=2019-03-01|work=The Economic Times|access-date=2019-04-20}}</ref> It was also stalled for several days from 8 May 2025 due to the [[2025 Pahalgam attack|2025 Pahalgam terrorist attack]] which killed 26 civilians.<ref name=stall2025>{{Cite news |date=2025-05-08 |title=Beating retreat at Attari-Wagah border stalled indefinitely |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/beating-retreat-at-attari-stalled-indefinitely/articleshow/120976964.cms |access-date=2025-05-08 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

[[File:Flag of India.jpg|thumb|right]]

Similar [[India–Pakistan border#Border ceremonies|India–Pakistan border ceremonies]] are also organised at several other places, such as the [[Mahavir/Sadqi International Parade Ground|Mahavir/Sadqi border]] near [[Fazilka]] in Punjab, the [[Hussainiwala National Martyrs Memorial|Hussainiwala]]/[[Ganda Singh Wala]] border near [[Firozpur]] in Punjab, and [[Munabao#Ceremony|Munabao–Khokhrapar border ceremony]] in [[Barmer district]] in Rajasthan.<ref name="cer1" /> India's border with other nations, such as [[Bangladesh–India border#Barrier|Bangladesh]] and [[Line of Actual Control|China]], also has [[Borders of India#Beating retreat#Border ceremonies|similar ceremonies]].

== History ==
The ceremony was founded by Brigadier (later Major General) [[Mohinder Singh Chopra]] and Brigadier Nazir Ahmed on 11 October 1947. It was marked by three drums, a chalk line on the Grand Trunk Road and a check post.<ref name=":0a">{{Cite web |title=Rediff On The NeT: 1947, A Soldier's Story |url=https://m.rediff.com/news/oct/28waga.htm |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=m.rediff.com}}</ref> Some tents were pitched both sides, two sentry boxes painted in the national colours of each country and a gate to regulate traffic for the refugees.<ref name=":0a" /> Two flag masts were also put up on either side and a brass plate commemorating the historic event was installed with both their names below the flags.<ref name=":0" />

==Overview==
[[File:Wagah Border2014.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Attari–Wagah border ceremony at the border crossing]]
[[File:Wagha Marching.jpg|thumb|Marching by Indian [[Border Security Force]] soldiers at the Attari border crossing]]

[[File:Women personnel of India's Border Security Force.jpg|thumb|Women personnel of [[Border Security Force]] taking part in the ceremonial retreat at the India–Pakistan border at the Attari border crossing, 2010.]]
[[File:Pakistani border rangers at Wagah border near Lahore 5.jpg|thumb|[[Pakistani Rangers]] at the Wagah border crossing]]
[[File:Flag Ceremony at Wagah Border.jpg|thumb|Indian crowd watching the ceremony at Attari border]]
[[File:Wagah border ceremony1.jpg|thumb|Pakistani crowd watching the ceremony at Wagah border]]
This ceremony takes place at the Attari–Wagah border, which is part of the [[Grand Trunk Road]]. Prior to the opening of the Aman Setu in [[Kashmir]] in 1999, it was the only road link between these two countries. It is called a [[Beating Retreat]] border ceremony on the international level.

The ceremony starts every evening immediately before sunset with a blustering parade by the soldiers from both sides, and ends with the perfectly coordinated lowering of the two nations' flags.<ref name="NYT">{{cite web|title=Peacocks at Sunset|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/peacocks-at-sunset/|work=Opinionator: Borderlines|publisher=The New York Times|access-date=15 July 2012|first=Frank | last=Jacobs|date=3 July 2012}}</ref> One [[infantryman]] stands at attention on each side of the gate. As the sun sets, the iron gates at the border are opened and the two flags are lowered simultaneously. The flags are then folded, and the ceremony ends with a retreat that involves a brusque handshake between soldiers from either side, followed by the closing of the gates again. The spectacle of the ceremony attracts many visitors from both sides of the border, as well as international tourists.<ref name="NYT" /> In 2010, the ceremony was made less hostile by both sides; the ceremony now includes a handshake and a smile.<ref name="NPR2010">{{cite web|title=India, Pakistan To Ratchet Down Aggressive Border Ceremony|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2010/07/22/128696789/india-pakistan-to-ratchet-down-aggressive-border-ceremony|work=NPR|publisher=NPR|access-date=4 January 2024|first=Scott | last=Neuman|date=22 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="BBC2010">{{cite web|title=Wagah border ceremony aggression toned down|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-10722514|work=BBC|publisher=BBC|access-date=4 January 2024|author=BBC|date=22 July 2010}}</ref> In October 2010, Major General Yaqub Ali Khan of the Pakistan Rangers decided that the aggressive aspect of the ceremonial theatrics should be toned down. The soldiers of this ceremony are specially appointed and trained for this ceremony.
[[File:India Pakistan Border Wagha (15027737723).jpg|thumb|Pakistani and Indian soldiers shaking hands]]

== Incidents ==
=== 2014 suicide attack ===
{{Main|2014 Wagah border suicide attack}}

On 2 November 2014, approximately 60 people were killed and at least 110 people were injured in a suicide attack on the Pakistan side of Attari–Wagah border. A [[suicide bomber]] detonated a {{convert|25|kg|abbr=on}} explosive in his vest {{convert|600|metres}} from the crossing point in the evening after the ceremony ended.<ref>{{cite web |title= Pakistan blast 'kills 45' at Wagah border with India |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29871077 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2 November 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kassim |first1=Aliza |title=Suicide bomber kills dozens at Pakistan border parade, police say |url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/11/02/world/asia/pakistan-lahore-parade-border-explosion/index.html |website=CNN World |publisher=CNN |access-date=30 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226121941/https://www.cnn.com/2014/11/02/world/asia/pakistan-lahore-parade-border-explosion/index.html |archive-date=26 February 2021 |date=3 November 2014}}</ref> The attack was claimed by three rival islamist militant groups.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21631112-nawaz-sharif-weakening-and-looks-unable-improve-relations-india-wearing-thin Wearing thin: Nawaz Sharif is weakening, and looks unable to improve relations with India], economist.com.</ref>

=== 2016 tensions ===
After the [[2016 Indian Line of Control strike|India–Pakistan military confrontation on 29 September 2016]], the border closing ceremony continued, but on the Indian side public attendance was denied on the evenings between 29 September and 8 October 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title=Attari-Wagah post echoes with patriotic chants again |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/attari-wagah-post-echoes-with-patriotic-chants-again/story-0c64r9bdI7B3HUeKNqkXkJ.html |work=[[hindustantimes]] |date=9 October 2016 |access-date=6 November 2016}}</ref> As a sign of the increased tensions, the BSF did not exchange sweets and greetings with Pakistani Rangers on Diwali that year, despite a long tradition of doing so on major religious festivals like [[Eid al-Adha|Bakr-Eid]] and [[Diwali]], and also during Independence Days of both countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=BSF refuses to exchange Diwali sweets at Wagah as Indo-Pak tension increases |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/bsf-refuses-to-exchange-diwali-sweets-at-wagah-as-indo-pak-tension-increases/articleshow/55141786.cms |work=[[The Economic Times]] |date=30 October 2016 |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-date=27 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227183058/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/bsf-refuses-to-exchange-diwali-sweets-at-wagah-as-indo-pak-tension-increases/articleshow/55141786.cms |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== 2025 tensions ===
Amid skirmishes between Indian and Pakistani forces following the [[2025 Pahalgam attack|Pahalgam Terror Attack]] and [[2025 India–Pakistan conflict|Operation Sindoor]], the Beating Retreat was indefinitely paused on 8 May 2025.<ref name="stall2025" />

The ceremony resumed in a limited capacity on 20 May 2025, without the usual handshakes and distribution of sweets.<ref>{{cite news |title=No Handshake, No Sweets: Low-Key Beating Retreat Ceremony Resumes At Attari |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/no-handshake-no-sweets-low-key-beating-retreat-ceremony-resumes-at-attari-8464816 |access-date=28 February 2026 |work=NDTV |date=20 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== Other places ==
{{see also | Borders of India#Border ceremonies }}
[[File:Ganda Singh border kasur.jpg|thumb|190px|Border ceremony at Ganda Singh Wala–Hussainiwala border]]

[[File:Ceremony time parade.jpg|thumb|190px|Benapole–Petrapole border ceremony]]

[[File:Indian BSF at Petrapole Border.jpg|thumb|190px|BSF at Petrapole Border in Ceremonial Dress]]

Similar border ceremonies are also carried out at other India–Pakistan border posts, including at [[Ganda Singh Wala]], [[Kasur District|Kasur district]] (Pakistani side) / [[Hussainiwala]], [[Firozpur district]] (Indian side),<ref name=cer1>[https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/indo-pak-border-839044-2016-10-10 5 crossing points in India: All you need to know], India Today, 10 October 2016.</ref><ref name=cer2>[https://changing-guard.com/changing-guard-worldwide/wagah-india.html Beating Retreat Wagah India], Changing Guards, accessed 8 July 2021.</ref> and at [[Sulemanki Headworks|Sulemanki]], [[Okara District|Okara district]] (Pakistani side) / [[Mahavir/Sadqi International Parade Ground|Sadqi]], [[Fazilka district]] (Indian side).<ref name=cer1/><ref name=cer2/><ref name=Mahavir1>[https://fazilka.nic.in/tourist-place/sadqi-retreat-ceremony/ Sadqi retreat ceremony], nic.in, accessed 8 July 2021.</ref><ref name=Mahavir2>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/punjab-sadiqi-border-in-fazilka-will-be-another-wagah/story-seJrYctRLdv5jI3KdHBuzJ.html Second Wagah: India, Pak agree to new ceremony, beating retreat on Punjab border], Hindustan Times, 201 April 2017.</ref><ref name=Mahavir3>[https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/punjab/at-sadiqi-border-strained-indo-pak-ties-dampen-spirits-818449 At Sadiqi border, strained Indo-Pak ties dampen spirits], The Tribune, 17 April 2019.</ref>

As at the Attari–Wagah border, border soldiers from both sides intimidate each other by throwing high kicks and staring, and the ceremonies are concluded by a simultaneous [[beating retreat|flag or beating retreat]]. These ceremonies occur in smaller settings, and spectators tend to be local [[Punjabis]] rather than tourists from other regions in India, Pakistan, and other countries. The method of drill and parade is also quite different compared to that in the Wagah–Attari border.{{fact|date=December 2024}}

== See also ==
* [[Benapole–Petrapole border ceremony]]

[[File:Wagah Border Ceremony from Pakistani Side.webm|thumb|Wagah–Attari border ceremony from Pakistani side, 2013]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Wagah Border}}
* [[Michael Palin]] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n9y2qtaopbE at the India–Pakistan border ceremony on the Pakistani side] (from ''[[Himalaya with Michael Palin]]''). BBCWorldwide video on YouTube.
* [[Sanjeev Bhaskar]] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NC9NeJh1NhI at the India–Pakistan border ceremony on the Indian side]. BBCWorldwide video on YouTube.

[[Category:India–Pakistan relations]]
[[Category:Ceremonies in India]]
[[Category:Ceremonies in Pakistan]]
[[Category:India–Pakistan border]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Amritsar]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Lahore]]
[[Category:Daily events]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:1959 establishments in East Punjab]]
[[Category:1959 establishments in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Punjab Rangers]]
[[Category:Recurring events established in 1959]]

[[fr:Wagah#Cérémonie de fermeture de la frontière]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Attari-Wagah border ceremony}}

Vaibhav Sooryavanshi

2026-04-29T13:03:38Z

NoellaXgt402: creating page

{{Short description|Indian cricketer (born 2011)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Vaibhav Sooryavanshi
| birth_date = {{birth date and age |2011|3|27|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Samastipur district|Samastipur]], Bihar, India
| batting = Left-handed
| bowling = [[Slow left-arm orthodox]]
| role = [[Batting order (cricket)#Top order|Top-order batter]]
| club1 = [[Bihar cricket team|Bihar]]
| year1 = {{nowrap|2023/24–present}}
| club2 = [[Rajasthan Royals]]
| year2 = {{nowrap|2025–present}}
| columns = 3
| column1 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches1 = 8
| runs1 = 207
| bat avg1 = 17.25
| 100s/50s1 = 0/1
| top score1 = 93
| deliveries1 = 84
| wickets1 = 2
| bowl avg1 = 28.50
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 1/7
| catches/stumpings1 = 2/–
| column2 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches2 = 8
| runs2 = 353
| bat avg2 = 44.12
| 100s/50s2 = 1/1
| top score2 = 190
| deliveries2 = 60
| wickets2 = 0
| bowl avg2 = –
| fivefor2 = –
| tenfor2 = –
| best bowling2 = –
| catches/stumpings2 = 3/–
| column3 = [[Twenty20|T20]]
| matches3 = 26
| runs3 = 1058
| bat avg3 = 42.32
| 100s/50s3 = 4/3
| top score3 = 144
| deliveries3 = 17
| wickets3 = 0
| bowl avg3 = –
| fivefor3 = –
| tenfor3 = –
| best bowling3 = –
| catches/stumpings3 = 2/–

| source = https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/vaibhav-suryavanshi-1408688 ESPNcricinfo
| date = 25 April
| year = 2026
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport|Men's [[cricket]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Under-19 Men's Cricket World Cup|ICC U19 World Cup]]}}
{{Medal|W|[[2026 Under-19 Men's Cricket World Cup|2026 Zimbabwe & Namibia]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Under-19 Men's Asia Cup|ACC U19 Asia Cup]]}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2024 ACC Under-19 Asia Cup|2024 UAE]]}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2025 ACC Under-19 Asia Cup|2025 UAE]]}}
|caption=Sooryavanshi in 2025}}

'''Vaibhav Sooryavanshi''' (born 27 March 2011), alternatively spelled '''Suryavanshi''', is an Indian [[cricket]]er who plays for [[Bihar cricket team|Bihar]] in domestic cricket and [[Rajasthan Royals]] in the [[Indian Premier League]]. As a left-handed [[Batting (cricket)|batsman]], he made his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] debut in January 2024. He is the youngest Indian [[List A cricket|List A]] debutant and the youngest to debut in the Indian Premier League at just the age of 13.<ref>{{cite web|website=BBC Sport|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/articles/cx2lznqkezro|date=25 November 2024|accessdate=25 November 2024|title= Anderson, 42, fails to earn IPL deal but 13-year-old signed}}</ref>

==Early life==
Vaibhav Sooryavanshi was born on 27 March 2011 in Tajpur, a town in the [[Samastipur district]] of the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]] of [[Bihar]].<ref name="bihar">{{cite web|title= Vaibhav Suryavanshi - The 12-Year-Old Who Broke Sachin Tendulkar And Yuvraj Singh's Record|first=Amit|last=Kumar|date=Jan 29, 2024|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/exclusive-vaibhav-suryavanshi-the-12-year-old-who-broke-sachin-tendulkar-and-yuvraj-singhs-record/articleshow/107229054.cms|website=Times of India|accessdate=1 October 2024}}</ref> His father Sanjiv, who was an aspiring cricketer, played a key role in shaping his career.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi's family: How the father and mother of RR's 14-year-old prodigy fueled his cricket dream |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshis-family-parents-how-the-father-and-mother-of-rrs-14-year-old-prodigy-fueled-his-cricket-dream-101745862006323.html |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> Vaibhav began his cricket training at the age of four in his hometown. Recognising his talent, his father enrolled him at Manish Ojha's ''GenNex Cricket Academy'' in [[Patna]] when he was eight years old. Vaibhav and his father used to travel approximately 100 km from Samastipur to Patna on alternate days for his training sessions. His childhood coach Ojha has described him as a quick learner.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-05 |title=Suryavanshi far from a one-dimension player: Coach Ojha |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/suryavanshi-far-from-a-one-dimension-player-coach-ojha-101754414188271.html |access-date=2025-12-09 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref name="cricket-com-overview">{{Cite web |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi Overview |work=cricket.com |access-date=28 April 2025 |url= https://www.cricket.com/players/vaibhav-suryavanshi-114349 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250428164802/https://www.cricket.com/players/vaibhav-suryavanshi-114349 |archive-date=28 April 2025 }}</ref> He is a fan of the West Indian batting great [[Brian Lara]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=B |first=Venkata Krishna |date=2024-11-25 |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi becomes youngest ever at 13 years 188 days, to score international century |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshi-13-fastest-hundred-u19-tests-ind-vs-aus-9597390/ |access-date=2025-12-13 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

==Youth career==
Vaibhav played as a 12-year-old the [[Vinoo Mankad Trophy]] for Bihar's under-19 side.<ref>{{cite web|first=Syad|last=Hussain|date=6 January 2024|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ranji-trophy-vaibhav-suryavanshi-makes-first-class-debut-aged-12-two-bihar-squads-named-for-opener-1415801|title=A 12-year-old makes his first-class debut as two Bihar squads are named for Ranji game in crumbling stadium |website=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref><ref name="economic"/>

In 2023, he played for the India B under-19 side in a quadrangular series, scoring 177 runs in six innings, including two half-centuries.<ref name="economic">{{cite web|url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/sports/vaibhav-suryavanshi-a-12-year-old-bihar-cricketer-makes-his-first-class-debut-in-the-ranji-trophy/articleshow/106599509.cms |website=Economic Times|accessdate=1 October 2024|date=6 January 2024|title= Vaibhav Suryavanshi, a 12-year-old Bihar cricketer, makes his first-class debut in the Ranji Trophy}}</ref>

In September 2024, he made his debut for [[India national under-19 cricket team|India under-19]] against [[Australia national under-19 cricket team|Australia under-19s.]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/sports/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshi-smashes-fastest-hundred-for-india-u19-in-unofficial-youth-test-vs-australia-u19-2024-10-01-954855|first=Sumeet|last=Kathvale|title=13-year-old Vaibhav Suryavanshi smashes fastest hundred for India U19 in Youth Test vs Australia|website=India TV news|date=1 October 2024|accessdate=1 October 2024}}</ref> He scored a 58-ball century on his under-19 Test debut, the fastest for an Indian under-19 player, before being run out for 104.<ref>{{cite web|title= IND vs AUS: 13-year-old Vaibhav Suryavanshi hits 58-ball hundred in youth Test|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/vaibhav-suryavanshi-fastest-u19-test-hundred-india-vs-australia-youth-chennai-2609169-2024-10-01 |date=1 October 2024|website=India Today|accessdate=1 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 October 2024 |title=Highlights: 13-year-old India opener Vaibhav Suryavanshi smashes 58-ball 100 vs Australia U19 |url=https://www.wisden.com/cricket-news/highlights-13-year-old-india-opener-vaibhav-suryavanshi-smashes-58-ball-100-vs-australia-u19 |accessdate=14 April 2025 |website=Wisden.com}}</ref> This was the second-fastest century in under-19 international cricket.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshi-13-fastest-hundred-u19-tests-ind-vs-aus-9597390/lite/|website=Indian Express|accessdate=1 October 2024|title= 13-year-old Vaibhav Suryavanshi scores fastest hundred in U19 Tests, second quickest overall|date=1 October 2024}}</ref>

At the [[2024 ACC Under-19 Asia Cup]], Vaibhav scored 76 off 46 balls against UAE under-19s,<ref>{{cite news |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi hits 46-ball 76 vs UAE in ACC Under-19 Asia Cup; India beats UAE by 10 wickets |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshi-batting-score-u19-asia-cup-score-rr-rajasthan-royals-ipl-auction/article68946275.ece |access-date=8 December 2024 |work=Sportstar |date=4 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref> followed by 67 runs from 36 balls in the semi-final against [[Sri Lanka national under-19 cricket team|Sri Lanka under-19s]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi stars as India beat Sri Lanka to make U19 Asia Cup final |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/vaibhav-suryavanshi-stars-as-india-beat-sri-lanka-to-make-u19-asia-cup-final/articleshow/116046555.cms |access-date=8 December 2024 |work=The Times of India |date=6 December 2024}}</ref>

In November 2025, he scored 144 runs off just 42 balls playing for [[India A cricket team|India A]] against the [[United Arab Emirates national cricket team|United Arab Emirates]] in the [[Asia Cup Rising Stars]] T20 match. He scored his century off just 32 balls.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-14 |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi hits astonishing century in India A victory |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/articles/c7v84dvm6dmo |access-date=2025-11-15 |website=BBC Sport |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In the final of the [[2026 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup]], Vaibhav scored 175 runs off 80 balls against England, smashing 15 fours & 15 sixes in a record-breaking knock.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-06 |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi: India teenager, 14, makes 175 from 80 balls in Under-19 World Cup final against England |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/articles/c4grglkyxjjo |access-date=2026-02-09 |website=BBC Sport |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Domestic career==
Vaibhav made his [[First-class cricket|first-class]] debut for [[Bihar cricket team|Bihar]] against [[Mumbai cricket team|Mumbai]] at the age of 12 years and 284 days old in January 2024.<ref>{{cite web |last=Waris |first=Sarah |date=Jan 5, 2024 |title=Cricketer with age listed as 12 years old makes Ranji Trophy debut |url=https://www.wisden.com/cricket-news/cricketer-with-age-listed-as-12-years-old-makes-ranji-trophy-debut |accessdate=14 April 2025 |website=Wisden.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Cric Tracker|title= 13-year-old Vaibhav Suryavanshi slams fastest century for India in U-19 Tests, second quickest overall|url= https://www.crictracker.com/cricket-news/13-year-old-vaibhav-suryavanshi-slams-fastest-century-for-india-in-u-19-tests-second-quickest-overall/ |accessdate=1 October 2024|date=1 October 2024}}</ref> In doing so, he became the second youngest cricketer to play in the [[Ranji Trophy]] for Bihar, and the fourth youngest overall.<ref>{{cite web|first=Dev|last=Sharma|title=13-year-old Vaibhav Suryavanshi sets a record for the fastest century by an Indian in Under-19 Tests|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/cricket/news-13-year-old-vaibhav-suryavanshi-sets-record-fastest-century-indian-under-19-tests#google_vignette|website=SportsKeeda|accessdate=1 October 2024|date=1 October 2024}}</ref> He became the youngest player in the modern era, beating the record of [[Yuvraj Singh]] (15 years and 57 days), with [[Alimuddin (cricketer)|Alimuddin]] holding the overall record for the youngest Indian first-class debutant at just 12 years and 73 days old in the 1942–43 season for Rajputana.<ref name="bihar"/>

In November 2024, he became the youngest player to debut in [[T20 cricket]] at the age of 13 years and 241 days, appearing for Bihar against Rajasthan in the [[2024–25 Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/youngest-players-305268|title=Youngest players in T20s|work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/syed-mushtaq-ali-trophy-2024-25-1445827/bihar-vs-rajasthan-group-a-1445974/full-scorecard|title=Rajasthan vs Bihar, Group A at Rajkot, SMAT, Nov 23 2024 - Full Scorecard|work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>

In December 2024, he became the youngest Indian player to play [[List A cricket]], during his debut for Bihar in the [[2024–25 Vijay Hazare Trophy]] against [[Madhya Pradesh]] at the age of 13 years and 269 days.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshi-rajasthan-royals-13-year-old-crorepati-creates-new-record-in-list-a-cricket-101734840726116.html|website=Hindustan Times|accessdate=22 December 2024|title= Vaibhav Suryavanshi, Rajasthan Royals' 13-year-old crorepati, creates new record in List-A cricket|date=22 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi sets all-time record in Vijay Hazare Trophy |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/vaibhav-suryavanshi-sets-all-time-record-in-vijay-hazare-trophy/articleshow/116541864.cms |access-date=19 April 2025 |work=The Times of India |date=9 January 2025}}</ref>

In December 2025, during the [[2025–26 Vijay Hazare Trophy]], Vaibhav scored a 36-ball century against [[Arunachal Pradesh cricket team|Arunachal Pradesh]], becoming the youngest player in the world to score a hundred in List A cricket at the age of 14 years and 272 days. In the same match, he broke [[AB de Villiers]]' record for the fastest 150 in List A cricket in just 59 balls, eventually scoring 190 off 84 balls, with 16 fours and 15 sixes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kishore |first=Shashank |date= |title=VHT: Suryavanshi slams 36-ball ton for Bihar, becomes the youngest List A centurion |url=https://www.espn.in/cricket/story/_/id/47404287/vijay-hazare-trophy-vaibhav-suryavanshi-slams-36-ball-century-bihar |access-date=24 December 2025 |website=ESPN |language=en}}</ref>

== Franchise career ==
In November 2024, Sooryavanshi became the youngest player to sign an [[Indian Premier League]] (IPL) contract when he was picked by the Rajasthan Royals at 13 years old for {{INRconvert|1.1|c|lk=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|website=BBC Sport|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/articles/cx2lznqkezro|date=25 November 2024|accessdate=25 November 2024|title= Anderson, 42, fails to earn IPL deal but 13-year-old signed}}</ref>

On 19 April 2025, Sooryavanshi made his IPL debut for Rajasthan Royals against the [[Lucknow Super Giants]] at the age of 14 years and 23 days, becoming the youngest debutant in IPL history.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shetty |first1=Varun |title=IPL's youngest debutants: Vaibhav Suryavanshi makes history |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/vaibhav-suryavanshi-tops-list-of-youngest-ipl-debutants-1481989 |access-date=19 April 2025 |work=ESPNcricinfo |date=19 April 2025}}</ref> He is notably the first IPL player born after the league's inception in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |title=RR vs LSG: Vaibhav Suryavanshi, 14, becomes youngest player to make IPL debut |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/rr-vs-lsg-vaibhav-suryavanshi-14-becomes-youngest-player-to-make-ipl-debut-2711534-2025-04-19 |access-date=19 April 2025 |work=India Today |date=19 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref> In his debut IPL match, he scored 34 runs in 20 balls, including a first-ball six.<ref>{{cite news |title=14-year old Vaibhav Suryavanshi kicks off IPL career with first-ball six |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-youngest-debutant-vaibhav-suryavanshi-hits-first-ball-six-off-shardul-thakur-1482123 |access-date=19 April 2025 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>

On 28 April 2025, Sooryavanshi became the youngest player to score a century in the IPL, at 14 years and 32 days old,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Malik |first=Varun |date=2025-04-28 |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi creates history in IPL 2025, surpasses Jos Buttler in major Rajasthan Royals record |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/sports/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshi-creates-history-in-ipl-2025-surpasses-jos-buttler-in-major-rajasthan-royals-record-2025-04-28-987740 |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=India TV News |language=en}}</ref> when he scored 101 off 38 balls in a match against [[Gujarat Titans]]. He reached his century in just 35 balls, making it the second-fastest century in IPL history behind [[Chris Gayle]] (30 balls), and the fastest by an Indian.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-04-28 |title=14-year-old Vaibhav Suryavanshi smashes his maiden half-century in just 17 balls |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/sports/14-year-old-vaibhav-suryavanshi-smashes-his-maiden-half-century-in-just-17-balls/articleshow/120703826.cms |access-date=2025-04-28 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> During the innings, he also became the youngest player with a 50+ score in all T20s and equalled the record for most sixes in an IPL innings by an Indian (11), set by [[Murali Vijay]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-28 |title=Stats - Vaibhav Suryavanshi rewrites men's T20 records |url=https://africa.espn.com/cricket/story/_/id/44904261/vaibhav-suryavanshi-rewrites-mens-t20-records-ipl-2025-outing |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=ESPN.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Age dispute ==
Doubts have been raised over the authenticity of Sooryavanshi's official date of birth.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 October 2024 |title=Explained: Why there is confusion around the age of Vaibhav Suryavanshi, India U19's 13-year-old opener |url=https://www.wisden.com/cricket-news/explained-why-there-is-confusion-around-the-age-of-vaibhav-suryavanshi-india-u19s-13-year-old-opener |accessdate=14 April 2025 |website=Wisden}}</ref> In a 2023 interview, Sooryavanshi stated that he would turn 14 on 27 September 2023, implying that he is about a year and a half older than his official age.<ref>{{cite web |date=6 April 2023 |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi 14 Years Old Cricketer Interview to BNN News Benipattiin Benipatti High School BPL 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFIBWZlUijA |accessdate=30 April 2025 |website=Youtube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/who-is-vaibhav-suryavanshi-13-year-old-indian-prodigy-who-smoked-australia-u19-attack-for-58-ball-century-in-youth-test-101727844782102.html|title=Who is Vaibhav Suryavanshi? 13-year-old Indian prodigy who smoked Australia U19 attack for 58-ball century in youth Test|website=Hindustan Times|date=2 October 2024|accessdate=7 October 2024}}</ref> In November 2024, his father Sanjiv Sooryavanshi insisted that his official date of birth was accurate and that he had undergone a [[bone age|bone density test]] conducted by the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] when he was eight and a half years old.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Javaid |first1=Arfa |title=How Old Is Vaibhav Suryavanshi Bought By RR For Rs 1 Cr At IPL Auction? What's The Controversy? |url=https://www.news18.com/viral/how-old-is-vaibhav-suryavanshi-bought-by-rr-for-rs-1-cr-at-ipl-auction-whats-the-controversy-9134316.html |access-date=3 May 2025 |work=News18 |date=26 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref> He also stated that Vaibhav has consistently cleared BCCI-mandated bone tests, which are crucial for age verification.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-02 |title=Cricketer Vaibhav Suryavanshi age controversy explained |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/sport/559648/cricketer-vaibhav-suryavanshi-age-controversy-explained |access-date=2026-03-31 |website=RNZ |language=en-nz}}</ref>

Questions arose when he showed immense power-hitting skills, with former Pakistani cricketer [[Junaid Khan (cricketer)|Junaid Khan]] questioning if a 13-year-old could hit such long sixes.<ref>{{Cite news |title=India's 13-Year-Old Sensation Vaibhav Suryavanshi Accused Of Age Fraud By Ex-Pakistan Cricketer |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/ex-pakistan-star-reignites-age-fraud-row-over-indias-13-year-old-sensation-vaibhav-suryavanshi-7208337 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20251010193953/https://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/ex-pakistan-star-reignites-age-fraud-row-over-indias-13-year-old-sensation-vaibhav-suryavanshi-7208337 |archive-date=2025-10-10 |access-date=2026-03-31 |work=NDTV Sports}}</ref>

==Honours==
===National honours===
* 2025 – [[Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar|Rashtriya Bal Puraskar]], highest civilian honour for children <ref>{{cite news |last1=Pavithran |first1=Lekshmy |title=Vaibhav Suryavanshi's stellar year: India’s 14-year-old cricket star to receive top civilian award |url=https://gulfnews.com/sport/cricket/vaibhav-suryavanshis-stellar-year-indias-14-year-old-cricket-star-to-receive-top-civilian-award-1.500390844 |access-date=31 December 2025 |work=[[Gulf News]] |date=26 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Cricket prodigy Vaibhav Suryavanshi conferred with Rashtriya Bal Puraskar |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/cricket-prodigy-vaibhav-suryavanshi-conferred-with-rashtriya-bal-puraskar/article70442582.ece |access-date=31 December 2025 |work=[[The Hindu]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India]] |date=27 December 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

===Sporting honours===
* [[Under-19 Men's Cricket World Cup|ICC U19 World Cup]] – Player of the tournament: [[2026 Under-19 Men's Cricket World Cup|2026]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Rajasthan Royals squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sooryavanshi, Vaibhav}}
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Bihar cricketers]]
[[Category:Rajasthan Royals cricketers]]
[[Category:2011 births]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Bihar]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Samastipur]]

United Christian Forum for Human Rights

2026-04-26T18:34:57Z

NoellaXgt402: creating new info

{{Short description|Organization}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox organization
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The '''United Christian Forum for Human Rights''' (UCFHR) is a coalition of Christian organizations in India that was formed in 2014 with the aim of advocating for the rights of Christians and other religious minorities in the country.

The UCFHR plays an important role in advocating for the rights of Christians and other religious minorities in India. The organization has worked to improve access to justice, provide legal support, and raise awareness about the situation of religious minorities in the country.

== Objectives ==
The main objectives of the UCFHR include:

* Advocating for the rights of religious minorities: The UCFHR aims to promote and defend the rights of Christians and other religious minorities in India. This includes speaking out against incidents of violence, discrimination, and persecution, and working to raise awareness about these issues.

* Providing legal support: The UCFHR provides legal support to victims of religious discrimination and persecution, including by filing cases in court on their behalf. The organization works to improve access to justice for religious minorities by providing legal aid clinics and other support services.

* Building alliances: The UCFHR works to build alliances with other civil society organizations, human rights groups, and government agencies to promote the rights of religious minorities. The organization engages with international organizations and governments to raise awareness about the situation of Christians in India.

* Monitoring and reporting: The UCFHR monitors and reports on incidents of religious discrimination and persecution against Christians in India. The organization produces reports documenting incidents of violence, harassment, and discrimination, which are used to raise awareness about the issue both nationally and internationally.

==Leaders==

===Alan Basil de Lastic===

[[Alan Basil de Lastic]], formerly [[Archbishop of Delhi]], was instrumental in bringing members of most Christian denominations into the organization, and served as President.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.evangelicalcouncil.org/stains_award2.html
|publisher=International Council of Evangelical Churches
|title=Alan Basil
|accessdate=2012-03-14
|archive-date=30 August 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830152621/http://www.evangelicalcouncil.org/stains_award2.html
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
de Lastic announced a National Protest Day on 4 December 1998 to draw attention to the continued attacks on the Christian community.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.angelfire.com/pe/indianchristians/violence.html
|title=Church releases data to show that anti Christian violence in India this year has been the highest ever in the history of independent India
|publisher=National Christian Forum for Human Rights
|date=24 November 1998
|access-date=2012-03-14}}</ref>
In September 1999 Archbishop Alan de Lastic and UCFHR National Convenor [[John Dayal]] protested to Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] over an ongoing terror campaign against the [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] Christian community after Roman Catholic Priest Arul Doss had been brutally killed.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.rghr.net/mainfile.php/1999/14/
|title=CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY SHOCKED AT MURDER OF CATHOLIC PRIEST TODAY IN THE REGION WHERE GRAHAM STAINES AND HIS SONS WERE BURNT ALIVE IN JANUARY 1999
|date=2 September 1999
|publisher=United Christian Forum for Human Rights
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>

===John Dayal===

John Dayal also played a key role in formation of the UCFHR and was National Convenor.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.evangelicalcouncil.org/stains_award3.html
|publisher = International Council of Evangelical Churches
|title = John Dayal
|accessdate = 2012-03-14
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110830131241/http://www.evangelicalcouncil.org/stains_award3.html
|archive-date = 2011-08-30
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
In September 1999 [[Human Rights Watch]] quoted Dayal as saying of the attacks "Dalits and tribals are used as instruments. They are paid, drugged, alcoholized, they are in a stupor".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,459d17822,45b61f562,3ae6a84b4,0.html
|title=Politics by Other Means: Attacks Against Christians in India
|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]
|date=1 September 1999
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>
In September 2000 U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] welcomed Indian Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] to the [[White House]].
In New York John Dayal and [[Bernard Chand]], president of the International Council of Evangelical Churches, held a briefing hosted by [[Human Rights Watch]] on religious persecution of India’s Christian minority.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=82631&page=1#.T2D0jMUgezI
|title=Clinton Welcomes Indian Prime Minister
|author=Leela Jacinto
|website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]
|date=15 Sep 2000
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>

==Activities==

In June 2000 the New Delhi-based UCFHR said it had identified 129 attacks in the past year against Christian churches, schools and individuals. Officials of the Indian government denied any involvement in the attacks.<ref>{{cite book
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cT1BOgQ2Ys8C&pg=PA11580
|chapter=Christians in India Seek International Help
|date=20 June 2000
|title=Congressional Record
|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-073251-5
}}</ref>
After a renewed surge of violence against Muslims and Christians in June 2005 John Dayal asked that a proposed constitutional review should consider the increased violence against minorities who are living in "an atmosphere of hatred".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.towardfreedom.com/asia/207-indias-holy-wars-800
|work=Toward Freedom
|title=India's Holy Wars
|date=30 May 2005
|author=DIAN MUELLER
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>
In 2009 the [[Gujarat]] United Christian Forum for Human Rights challenged the state's Freedom of Religion Act 2003 on the basis that it violated the constitutional right of individuals to choose their religion. The act had required a person who had decided to convert to a different religion to seek prior permission from a [[district magistrate]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/christian-forum-challenges-gujarat-freedom-of-religion-act_100160157.html
|work=Thaindian News
|title=Christian forum challenges Gujarat freedom of religion act
|date=26 Feb 2009
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>

The Karnataka United Christian Forum for Human Rights (KUCFHR) was formed in September 2008 after attacks were launched on Christian Churches across Karnataka.
In December 2009 priests and pastors from several Christian denominations participated at an ecumenical meeting organized by KUCFHR at St. Marks Cathedral in [[Bangalore]].
Attendees discussed recent allegations of forced conversions to Christianity, and an attempt by the government to introduce an anti-conversion bill.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cbcisite.com/cbcinews4139.htm
|publisher=[[Catholic Bishops' Conference of India]]
|title="Conversion Allegations Against Christians Are For Political Gain": Karnataka Christian Forum
|date=1 Dec 2009
|author=Adolf Washington
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
After the attacks of 2008 and 2009, the KUCFHR began making representations to the Government every time incidents were reported from anywhere in the state.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/karnataka/article2851347.ece
|work=[[The Hindu]]
|date=2 February 2012
|title='State Government failed to protect Christians'
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>

In February 2011 the Karnataka United Christian Forum for Human Rights and the Karnataka Region Catholic Bishops' Council staged a sit-in protest over the findings from an investigation of a series of attack in September 2008 on Christian targets in southern Karnataka state. The report had failed to identify the attackers in 57 incidents involving Christian churches and other sites.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.catholicherald.co.uk/news/2011/02/21/indian-bishops-protest-against-whitewash-of-attacks-on-christians/
|title=Indian bishops protest against 'whitewash' of attacks on Christians
|date=21 February 2011
|work=[[Catholic Herald]]
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>
Speaking at the KUCFHR meeting Rev. Bernad Moras said: "Let us not be intimidated by any threats or attacks, let us boldly profess, practise and propagate our faith".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/article1479064.ece
|work=The Hindu
|date=22 February 2011
|title=Christians protest against Somasekhara panel report
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>
In August 2011 Fr Ronnie Prabhu, general secretary of the Karnataka United Christian Forum for Human Rights, reported that police had been calling on local clergymen saying they must register their prayer houses at the local police station. They were told that if they did not do so their meetings would be illegal and the police would not protect them.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Hindu-radicals-threaten-more-anti-Christian-pogroms-in-Karnataka-22455.html
|date=2011-08-25
|work=Asia News
|title=Hindu radicals threaten more anti-Christian pogroms in Karnataka
|accessdate=2012-03-14}}</ref>

In February 2023, The United Christian Forum for Human Rights has written to the [[President of India]] to request that the constitutional rights of the Christian community be protected. In a document expressing deep concern over 597 incidents of violence committed against Christians in 21 states in India, it petitioned the President to ask both the Union and State governments to safeguard the rights and freedom of the Christian community to practice its faith, run its educational facilities, and live with respect throughout India, as its safety has come under severe threat.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=CWM Communications |date=2023-02-22 |title=United Christian Forum (UCF) issues memorandum on targeted violence against the Christian community in India - Council for World Mission |url=https://www.cwmission.org/united-christian-forum-ucf-issues-memorandum-on-targeted-violence-against-the-christian-community-in-india/,%20https://www.cwmission.org/united-christian-forum-ucf-issues-memorandum-on-targeted-violence-against-the-christian-community-in-india/ |access-date=2023-04-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Christian organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Human rights organisations based in India]]

Bahauddin Farooqi

2026-04-18T23:02:54Z

NoellaXgt402: Added a entry

{{Short description|Kashmiri lawyer, jurist and political figure (1927-2014)}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2009}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Bahauddin Farooqi
| birth_name =
| caption =
| image =
| birth_date = 1927
| birth_place =
| death_date = 5 July 2014
| death_place = [[Srinagar]]
| office = 12th Chief Justice of High Court of Jammu and Kashmir
| constituency =
| term_start = 7 March 1983
| term_end = 23 August 1983
| predecessor =
| successor =
| office1 =
| constituency1 =
| term_start1 =
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 =
| constituency2 =
| term_start2 =
| predecessor2 =
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| party =
| education = [[Aligarh Muslim University]]
| other_party =
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| website =
| footnotes =
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}}
'''Bahauddin Farooqi''' (1927 – 5 July 2014) was a Kashmiri lawyer, jurist and political figure who served as the 12th Chief Justice of the [[High Court of Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Former Chief Justice Farooqi passes away|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/former-chief-justice-farooqi-passes-away/articleshow/37843170.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2020-12-16}}</ref>

==Education and career==
Farooqi pursued Law at [[Aligarh Muslim University]] after which he started practice at District Court Anantnag.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jammu and Kashmir's Justice Farooqi passes away {{!}} Pakistan Today|url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/07/06/jammu-and-kashmirs-justice-farooqi-passes-away/|access-date=2020-12-20|website=www.pakistantoday.com.pk}}</ref> He then joined judicial service and started his career as munsif in the subordinate judiciary and later served as law secretary to the government during the regime of Ghulam Muhammad Sadiq.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justice Mufti Bahauddin Farooqi|url=https://www.milligazette.com/news/1-community-news/10757-justice-mufti-bahauddin-farooqi/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=The Milli Gazette — Indian Muslims Leading News Source|language=en}}</ref> He then became [[Srinagar district]] and sessions judge and was elevated as high court judge in 1971. During his tenure, he authored a number of landmark judgments and his judgment regarding anti-defection was the first to be passed by any high court of the country. The judgment became the basis for anti-defection law ratified by the Indian Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jammu and Kashmir's Justice Farooqi passes away {{!}} Pakistan Today|url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/07/06/jammu-and-kashmirs-justice-farooqi-passes-away/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=www.pakistantoday.com.pk}}</ref>

He served as Chief Justice from 7 March 1983, to 23 August 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Former Judges of Jammu and Kashmir High Court|url=http://www.jkhighcourt.nic.in/former.html|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> Farooqi resigned in 1983 as Jammu and Kashmir HC CJ, when he was transferred to Sikkim High Court, on the ground that the [[Government of India]] had no jurisdiction to transfer a Jammu and Kashmir HC judge to any part of the country as the state had a special status under Article 370 of the Indian constitution.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jammu and Kashmir's Justice Farooqi passes away {{!}} Pakistan Today|url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/07/06/jammu-and-kashmirs-justice-farooqi-passes-away/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=www.pakistantoday.com.pk}}</ref>

He also served as Chairman of the People Basic Rights Commission, an independent organization dedicated to investigating human rights violations committed by [[Indian Armed Forces]] in Kashmir, and seeking prosecution.<ref>{{Cite book|last=India|first=Press Council of|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jD2nq_QulwC&dq=mufti+bahauddin+chairman&pg=PA229|title=Crisis and Credibility: Report of the Press Council of India, January and July 1991|date=1991|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=978-81-7062-152-2|language=en}}</ref> Farooqi wrote to expose the Indian Government's tyrannical abuses of power against Kashmirs:

<blockquote>"That, nearly forty-two years back, India annexed the Jammu and Kashmir State by manipulation, fraud and force against the declared wishes of the people of the State. The people of the State scented mischief and continued the freedom struggle with added determination... That soon after the Indian Army landed in Kashmir, it mounted a powerful offensive on freedom fighters and imposed a reign of terror in the State. The Indian Government worked on the plan to weaken and dismember Pakistan and to maintain hegemony on Kashmir through sheer might."[https://books.google.com/books?id=CWjLtfi-ssIC&dq=Mufti+baha-ud-din+farooqi&pg=PA127] - ["''My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir'',"'' 7th Edition,'' by [[Jagmohan]], page 127-128].</blockquote>

He died on 5 July 2014, at his residence at Srinagar at the age of 87.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Former Chief Justice Farooqi passes away|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/former-chief-justice-farooqi-passes-away/articleshow/37843170.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2020-12-16}}</ref>

==Media coverage==
On 15 June 1990, [[Barbara Crossette]],[http://members.authorsguild.net/bcrossette/] a former [[New York Times]] correspondent and current member of the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], reported on the work of Justice Farooqi in the years following the deployment of "thousands of Indian troops and paramilitary forces" in Kashmir:

<blockquote>"In Srinagar, Mufti Bahauddin Farooqi, a former chief justice of the Jammu and Kashmir High Court, and his son, [Mufti] Showkat Ahmed Farooqi, a lawyer, have begun documenting allegations of human and civil rights violations against Kashmiris.

Talking about their work in an interview at Justice Farooqi's home, they say they focus on both the state administration and on the array of federal forces deployed here: the Indian Army, the paramilitary [[Central Reserve Police Force]], the [[Border Security Force]], the Indo-Tibetan Border Patrol, National Security Guards and various intelligence agencies.

Troops in Srinagar alone have commandeered at least 15 hotels as well as guest houses and private homes.

Justice Farooqi said the armed forces were sent to Kashmir in contravention of Jammu and Kashmir's special status in the Indian Constitution".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE2D6103CF936A25755C0A966958260 | title=In Kashmir Valley, Alienation Turns Deadly | first=Barbara | last=Crossette | date=15 June 1990 | newspaper=The New York Times | accessdate=10 December 2022}}</ref></blockquote>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Farooqi, Mufti Baha-Ud-Din}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:Chief justices of the Jammu and Kashmir High Court]]
[[Category:1927 births]]
[[Category:2014 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Aligarh Muslim University alumni]]

Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation

2026-04-17T03:04:39Z

NoellaXgt402: creating new stub

{{Short description|Non-Profit Organisation based in India}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo = Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation.png
| type = Nonprofit organisation
| name = Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation
| founded = December 2018
| founder = Nalla Suresh Reddy
| location = [[Telangana]], [[India]]
| region_served = India
| focus = [[Education]]
| website = {{URL|https://shyamalagopalanfoundation.org/}}
}}

'''Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation''' is an India-based non-profit organization focused on [[education]], [[cultural preservation]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-08-08 |title=From Ruins to Reverence: Nalla Suresh Reddy Revives Kakatiya-Era Temple in Tribute to Dr. Shyamala Gopalan Harris |url=https://www.thehindu.com/brandhub/from-ruins-to-reverence-nalla-suresh-reddy-revives-kakatiya-era-temple-in-tribute-to-dr-shyamala-gopalan-harris/article69910240.ece |access-date=2025-08-11 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-12 |title=కాకతీయుల శిల్ప వైభవానికి పూర్వ కళ.. నల్ల సురేష్ రెడ్డి ఆధ్వర్యంలో పునర్నిర్మాణం |url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/telangana/sri-venkateswara-temple-renovation-kamala-harris-inauguration-details-here-slb-ws-l-2873387.html |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=telugu.news18.com |language=te}}</ref> [[women's empowerment]], and [[social equality]]. The foundation is named after [[Shyamala Gopalan]], an Indian-born [[biomedical scientist]] and [[women's rights activist]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-04 |title=Times Kamala Harris remembered the beacon of strength and hope, her mom Shyamala Gopalan Harris |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/parenting/moments/times-kamala-harris-remembered-her-mom-shyamala-gopalan-harris-the-beacon-of-strength-and-hope/articleshow/114934450.cms |access-date=2025-08-11 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title="Star Of My Life": All About Kamala Harris' Mother, Shyamala Gopalan |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/star-of-my-life-all-about-kamala-harris-mother-shyamala-gopalan-6398652 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=NDTV |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramaswamy |first=Swapna Venugopal |title=Her mother's daughter: What Shyamala Gopalan's legacy means to Kamala Harris |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2024/08/22/kamala-harriss-mother-shyamala-gopalan/74774514007/ |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> Nalla Suresh Reddy established it and operates primarily in Telangana, India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ANI |date=2024-07-23 |title=Telangana: Shyamala Gopalan Education Foundation celebrates Biden's endorsement of Kamala Harris as Democratic Party's presidential nominee |url=https://theprint.in/world/telangana-shyamala-gopalan-education-foundation-celebrates-bidens-endorsement-of-kamala-harris-as-democratic-partys-presidential-nominee/2186504/ |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Online {{!}} |first=E. T. |date=2024-10-30 |title=US Presidential Elections: Indians in Telangana perform 11-day 'Maha Yagna' for Kamala Harris' victory |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/us-presidential-elections-indians-in-telangana-perform-11-day-maha-yagna-for-kamala-harris-victory/videoshow/114761685.cms |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=The Economic Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Author |first=The |date=2024-07-25 |title=Shyamala Gopalan Education Foundation Celebrates Kamala |url=https://indiawest.com/shyamala-gopalan-education-foundation-celebrates-kamala/ |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=IndiaWest Journal News |language=en-US}}</ref>

== History ==
Shyamala Gopalan Foundation was founded in 2018 by Nalla Suresh Reddy,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2024-10-28 |title=Telangana man performs yagam for Kamala Harris victory in US polls |url=https://telanganatoday.com/telangana-man-performs-yagam-for-kamala-harris-victory-in-us-polls |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-08-08 |title=From Ruins to Reverence: Nalla Suresh Reddy Revives Kakatiya-Era Temple in Tribute to Dr. Shyamala Gopalan Harris |url=https://www.thehindu.com/brandhub/from-ruins-to-reverence-nalla-suresh-reddy-revives-kakatiya-era-temple-in-tribute-to-dr-shyamala-gopalan-harris/article69910240.ece |access-date=2025-08-11 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=News |date=2024-11-04 |title=US elections: Delhi, Telangana prayers for success of Trump, Kamala |url=https://www.siasat.com/us-elections-delhi-telangana-prayers-for-success-of-trump-kamala-3125768/ |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=The Siasat Daily |language=en}}</ref> a philanthropist and Industrialist from [[Telangana]], with the stated aim of promoting educational access, restoring cultural heritage,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-12 |title=Suresh Reddy: తెలంగాణ వ్యక్తి సురేశ్ రెడ్డికి అమెరికాలో అరుదైన గౌరవం.. |url=https://zeenews.india.com/telugu/telangana/nalla-suresh-reddy-revives-kakatiya-era-temple-in-palvancha-telangana-tribute-to-shyamal-gopalan-ta-242303 |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=Zee News Telugu |language=te}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=K |first=Naresh |date=2025-08-12 |title=చరిత్రకు శ్రీకారం.. ధ్వంసమైన ఆలయాలకు పునరుజ్జీవం |url=https://telugu.oneindia.com/nri/nri-philanthropist-restores-13th-century-temple-in-palvancha-447575.html |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=telugu.oneindia.com |language=te}}</ref> and empowering marginalized communities. Reddy has described his inspiration as stemming from Dr. Shyamala Gopalan's life and work in [[science]] and social advocacy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2023-11-23 |title=Telangana's Suresh Reddy invited by US VP for Holiday Reception |url=https://telanganatoday.com/telanganas-suresh-reddy-invited-by-us-vp-for-holiday-reception |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Mission ==
Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation honors the legacy of Shyamala Gopalan, a visionary Indian-origin scientist and mentor. The Foundation is set up with a mission to transform India's educational landscape by delivering international-standard education to a broad segment of the population, ensuring excellence is accessible to all. Beyond [[education]], the Foundation is involved in [[health]], [[environmental sustainability]], and [[Social services|social service]] initiatives, with a strong focus on empowering underserved communities and nurturing young minds to thrive in a rapidly changing world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SGEF founder Suresh Reddy performs 41-day homam for Kamala Harris' victory in Telangana's Khammam |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/sgef-founder-suresh-reddy-performs-41-day-homam-for-kamala-harris-victory-in-telanganas-khammam20240729222737/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730055956/https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/sgef-founder-suresh-reddy-performs-41-day-homam-for-kamala-harris-victory-in-telanganas-khammam20240729222737/ |archive-date=2024-07-30 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=ANI News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2022-07-02 |title=US delegation visits Shyamala Gopalan Foundation office in Kothagudem |url=https://telanganatoday.com/us-delegation-visits-shyamala-gopalan-foundation-office-in-kothagudem |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-07 |title=Shyamala Gopalan birth anniversary: SGEF foundation provides Rs 5 lakh life cover to 500 families |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/shyamala-gopalan-birth-anniversary-sgef-foundation-provides-rs-5-lakh-life-cover-to-500-families-article-96063390 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>

== Work ==
Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation (SGEF) is an Indian non-profit organization engaged in education, healthcare, environmental conservation, and community development.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2025-01-13 |title=SGEF founder presented BSA's Abdul Kalam national award |url=https://telanganatoday.com/sgef-founder-presented-bsas-abdul-kalam-national-award |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2025-08-12 |title=Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation adopts government junior college in Kothagudem |url=https://telanganatoday.com/shyamala-gopalan-educational-foundation-adopts-government-junior-college-in-kothagudem |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Satyanarayana |first=P. V. |date=2025-08-12 |title=Shyamala Gopalan Educational Foundation transforms govt junior college with generous donations |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/telangana/sgef-transforms-govt-junior-college-with-generous-donations-996288 |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref> Its Tribal Health Care programme works to eliminate avoidable [[Visual impairment|blindness]] in [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district|Bhadradri Kothagudem]] district of [[Telangana]], providing [[Cataract surgery|cataract surgeries]] and conducting free medical and [[blood donation]] camps. The Tree for Life initiative promotes [[afforestation]], with thousands of saplings planted towards a one-million-tree target. Community welfare projects include distributing food grains, ration kits, and implementing an ''Insurance for All'' scheme offering life cover to families of small transport operators.<ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=The Hans |date=2022-06-08 |title=Pondicherry CM lauds Gopalan foundation's services |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/telangana/pondicherry-cm-lauds-gopalan-foundations-services-747418 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2024-08-26 |title=Kothagudem: Minister Ponguleti inaugurates press club at Paloncha |url=https://telanganatoday.com/kothagudem-minister-ponguleti-inaugurates-press-club-at-paloncha |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://shyamalagopalanfoundation.org/}}
{{Indian non-profit}}

[[Category:Organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Educational organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Educational organizations established in 2018]]
[[Category:Foundations based in India]]
[[Category:2018 establishments in India]]

Nadaur Assembly constituency

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{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Sootea
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 75
| map_image = Sootea Assembly constituency map.svg
| state = [[Assam]]
| district = [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Tezpur Lok Sabha constituency|Tezpur]]
| established = 1962
| electors =
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image = File:Padmahazarika.jpg
| mla = [[Padma Hazarika]]
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| latest_election_year = [[2021 elections in India#Assam|2021]]
| abolished =
}}
{{Pie chart|caption=Most Successful parties from Sootea Vidhan Sabha|color1={{party color|Indian National Congress}}|label1=[[Indian National Congress|'''INC''' (5 Times)]]|value1=41|color2={{party color|Asom Gana Parishad}}|label2=[[Asom Gana Parishad|'''AGP''' (3 Times)]]|value2=25|color3={{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|label3=[[Bharatiya Janata Party|'''BJP''' (2 Times)]]|value3=16|color4={{party color|Janata Party}}|label4=[[Janata Party|'''JP''' (1 Time)]]|value4=8|color5={{party color|Independent}}|label5=[[Independent politician|'''Ind''' (1 Time)]]|value5=8}}
'''Sootea Assembly constituency''' was one of the 126 assembly constituencies of [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]. Sootea formed part of the [[Tezpur Lok Sabha constituency]]. This constituency was renamed to '''Nadaur''' in 2023.<ref>https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf{{Dead link | date=December 2025 | fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Election
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1962 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|[[Bijoy Chandra Bhagavati]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=3|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1967 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Narayan Chandra Bhuyan
|-
|[[1972 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Swarna Probha Mahanta
|-
|[[1978 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
|Golak Kakati
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1985 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Robin Saikia
|{{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[1991 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|Kushal Sahu
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1996 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|[[Padma Hazarika]]
|{{Full party name with color|Asom Gana Parishad}}
|-
|[[2001 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|Praneswar Basumatari
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2006 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Padma Hazarika]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=2|Asom Gana Parishad}}
|-
|[[2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|-
|[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=2|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Nadaur}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Padma Hazarika]]|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= Sunil Chetry|party=Indian National Congress |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= |party=All India United Democratic Front|votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Ranjeet Boro |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box turnout |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box rejected|votes=|percentage= }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=|loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Sootea}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Padma Hazarika]]
|votes = 84,807
|percentage = 56.50
|change = +1.06
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Praneswar Basumatary
|votes = 60,432
|percentage = 40.26
|change = -4.25
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 2,411
|percentage = 1.61
|change = +0.14
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 24,375
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,50,091
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors|
|reg. electors =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Sootea}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Padma Hazarika]]
|votes = 60,440
|percentage = 45.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Praneswar Basumatary
|votes = 58,622
|percentage = 44.51
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Khemraj Chetry
|votes = 4,914
|percentage = 3.73
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Jyoti Subba
|votes = 2,484
|percentage = 1.88
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Mahendra Urang
|votes = 2,112
|percentage = 1.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Arun Nath
|votes = 1,189
|percentage = 0.90
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 1,941
|percentage = 1.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,818
|percentage = 1.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,31,702
|percentage = 82.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors|
|reg. electors = 1,58,765
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Asom Gana Parishad
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Sootea]]
* [[Tezpur]]
* [[List of constituencies of Assam Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Assam Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/67-assam/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}
{{coord|26.74|93.04|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:Politics of Assam]]
[[Category:Sonitpur district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1962]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Assam]]

Shivbara State

2026-04-15T11:58:38Z

NoellaXgt402: creating entry

{{Short description|Princely state}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox former subdivision
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name =Shivbara State
|common_name =Shivbara
|nation = [[British India]]
|subdivision = [[Princely State]]
|era =
|year_start =
|date_start =
|event_start=
|year_end = 1948
|date_end =
|event_end= [[Independence of India|Accession to the Union of India]]
|event1 =
|date_event1 =
|p1 =
|s1 = India
|flag_p1 =
|flag_s1 = Flag of India.svg
|image_flag =
|image_coat =
|image_map = Surat Agency with all princely states with labels British India 1880-1933.svg
|image_map_caption = Location of Shivbara in the Dang region
|stat_area1 =12.924
|stat_year1 =1931
|stat_pop1 =499
|footnotes =
}}
'''Shivbara State''' was a minor [[princely state]] during the [[British Raj]] in what is today [[Gujarat State]] India. It was initially administered by the [[Surat Agency]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Calcutta Government Of India Central Publication Branch |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275346/page/n311/mode/2up |title=Memoranda On The Indian States 1930}}</ref> and then by the [[Western India States Agency]]. The State had a population of 499 and an area of 4.99 sq miles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manager Of Publications Delhi |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275347/page/n113/mode/2up |title=Memoranda On The Indian States 1935}}</ref>

It was more specifically classified as one of the 14 minor princely states of the Dangs, in the [[Dang district, India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lethbridge |first=Roper |url=https://archive.org/details/goldenbookofindi00lethrich/page/40/mode/2up |title=The golden book of India; a genealogical and biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles, and other personages, titled or decorated, of the Indian empire, with an appendix for Ceylon |date=1900 |publisher=London, S. Low, Marston & Co. |others=University of California Libraries}}</ref>

== History ==

The area of Khandesh became a British possession in 1818 following the defeat of [[Peshwa]] [[Baji Rao II]] during the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]. The neieghbouring Dang principalities were seen as separate states and conducted routine raids into the Khandesh territories. In 1825 the [[Gaekwar]] of [[Baroda]] sent a force of 10 000 men to subdue the Dangs but were defeated, the Dang states omly subjugated in 1839. In 1842 parts of the Dang teak forests, surrounding 446 villages, were leased by the Government in Bombay, the lease extended in perpetuity and to the whole territory in 1862. Some time after 1842 the tribute demanded of the Dang states by the Desmukh of Mulher lead to heavy disturbances, which resulted in the British Government deducting the Desmukh's tribute from the sum paid to the Dang chiefs for leasing their forests.<ref>Reorganization scheme for the establishment of direct political relations between the govt. and India and states in the Bombay presidency, 1931, p. 25-26 https://www.abhilekh-patal.in/Category/ItemDetails/ItemDetails?itemId=e9609138-b62c-4dea-a28d-ffabfa4480ee</ref>

In 1880 the state had a yearly revenue of ca. 43 £ (430 Rupees) <ref>BK 353 -Gazetteer Of Bombay Presidency Vol 12 Khandesh, 597, 605-606 https://archive.org/details/1880GazetteerOfBombayPresidencyVol12Khandesh353D/page/626/mode/2up</ref>

== Rulers ==

The rulers held the title of Naik <ref>{{Cite book |last=Not Available |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35376/page/n39/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Memoranda On The Indian States 1940 |date=1940}}</ref> The Dang Chiefs held the power to settle criminal and civil disputes, including being able to issue fines, have witches sentenced to be burnt alive and other capital offenders being killed by being shot by arrows.<ref>BK 353 -Gazetteer Of Bombay Presidency Vol 12 Khandesh, p. 603, https://archive.org/details/1880GazetteerOfBombayPresidencyVol12Khandesh353D/page/622/mode/2up</ref>

* Naik Daolia walad Dharma Badal, fl. 1893 <ref>{{Cite book |last=Lethbridge |first=Roper |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.529478/page/n525/mode/2up |title=Golden Book Of India |date=1893}}</ref>
* Naik Rangu walad Sukria (b. October 18, 1884) 1897-fl. 1930 <ref>{{Cite book |last=Not Available |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35687/page/n255/mode/2up |title=Memoranda On Native States In Indian 1915 |date=1916}}</ref>
* Naik Jiwalla Rangu (b. 1914) November 17, 1930-fl. 1939 <ref>{{Cite book |last=Manager Of Publications Delhi |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35598/page/n35/mode/2up |title=Memoranda On The Indian States 1939}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Gujarat}}

[[Category:Princely states of Gujarat]]
[[Category:1948 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1948]]

Tiruchirappalli – II Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:37:50Z

NoellaXgt402: creating data

{{other uses|Tiruchirappalli (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| map_image = Constitution-Tiruchirappalli (East).svg
| established = 1951
| abolished = 2008
| district = [[Tiruchirapalli district|Tiruchirappalli]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Tiruchirappalli (Lok Sabha constituency)|Tiruchirappalli]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| party = [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]
| mla = [[K. N. Nehru]]
| latest_election_year = 2006
| name = Tiruchirappalli - II
| electors =
| reservation = None
}}
'''Tiruchirapalli-II''' is a state assembly constituency in [[Tamil Nadu]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Winner
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
|style="text-align: center;" colspan="4"|'''Madras State'''
|-
| [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| [[M. Kalyanasundaram]]
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
| [[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| M. Kalyanasundaram
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
| [[1962 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| M. Kalyanasundaram
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
| 1967
| R. Nagasundaram
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
|style="text-align: center;" colspan="4"|'''Tamil Nadu'''
|-
| [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
| [[Anbil P. Dharmalingam]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| [[K. Soundararajan]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| K. Soundararajan
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1984]]
| N. Nallusamy
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| [[Anbil Poyyamozhi]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
| G. R. Mala Selvi
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| Anbil Poyyamozhi
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| 2000 by-election
| [[Anbil Periyasamy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
| Anbil Periyasamy
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
| [[K. N. Nehru]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}

|}

==Election results==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#2006|2006]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|49.37}}
{{bar percent|[[#2001|2001]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|52.06}}
{{bar percent|[[#1996|1996]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|68.24}}
{{bar percent|[[#1991|1991]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|57.18}}
{{bar percent|[[#1989|1989]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|39.93}}
{{bar percent|[[#1984|1984]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|51.63}}
{{bar percent|[[#1980|1980]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|55.52}}
{{bar percent|[[#1977|1977]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|36.37}}
{{bar percent|[[#1971|1971]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|55.74}}
{{bar percent|[[#1967|1967]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|46.08}}
{{bar percent|[[#1962|1962]]|{{party color|Communist Party of India}}|55.71}}
{{bar percent|[[#1957|1957]]|{{party color|Communist Party of India}}|43.28}}
{{bar percent|[[#1952|1952]]|{{party color|Communist Party of India}}|58.86}}
}}

===2006===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. N. Nehru]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=74,026 |percentage=49.37% |change=-2.69% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[M. Mariam Pichai]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=57,394 |percentage=38.28% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Sendhureswaran A. D. |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=14,027 |percentage=9.36% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Mathiarasan M. |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,413 |percentage=1.61% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Elangovan R. |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=642 |percentage=0.43% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Raja Mohamed A. |party=Independent politician |votes=536 |percentage=0.36% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Ravichandran M. |party=Independent politician |votes=289 |percentage=0.19% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Balakrishnan K. |party= |votes=184 |percentage=0.12% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Mohan D. |party=Independent politician |votes=154 |percentage=0.10% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Murugan T. |party=Independent politician |votes=154 |percentage=0.10% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Muralidharan S. |party=Independent politician |votes=112 |percentage=0.07% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=16,632 |percentage=11.09% |change=-1.73% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,49,931 |percentage=70.98% |change= 17.07% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,11,217 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -2.69% }}
{{Election box end}}

===2001===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]<ref name=election2001>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3338-tamil-nadu-2001/ |title=Tamil Nadu General Legislative Election 2001 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in|access-date=11 May 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Anbil Periyasamy]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=56,598 |percentage=52.06% |change=-16.18% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Selvaraj P. C. |party=Indian National Congress |votes=42,654 |percentage=39.23% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Kannaiyan |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=7,289 |percentage=6.70% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Ramanan . S |party=Independent politician |votes=789 |percentage=0.73% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Varatharaj . L |party=Janata Party |votes=510 |percentage=0.47% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate|candidate=Maruthamuthu . T |party=GMK |votes=508 |percentage=0.47% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Selvaraj . A |party=Independent politician |votes=367 |percentage=0.34% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,944 |percentage=12.83% |change=-30.23% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,08,715 |percentage=53.92% |change= -5.24% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,04,762 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -16.18% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1996===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Anbil Poyyamozhi]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=71,058 |percentage=68.24% |change=32.55% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Selvaraj P. |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=26,229 |percentage=25.19% |change=-31.99% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Vijayalakshmi G. |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=3,849 |percentage=3.70% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Sriram K. |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,724 |percentage=1.66% |change=0.34% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Nagendran P. |party=Independent politician |votes=134 |percentage=0.13% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Iliyasraja |party=Independent politician |votes=115 |percentage=0.11% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Ajisdeen Basha J. |party=Independent politician |votes=106 |percentage=0.10% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Venkataraman K. |party=Independent politician |votes=90 |percentage=0.09% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Selvaraj S. |party=Independent politician |votes=89 |percentage=0.09% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Chidambaram P. |party=Independent politician |votes=89 |percentage=0.09% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Veerasami S. |party=Independent politician |votes=84 |percentage=0.08% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=44,829 |percentage=43.05% |change=21.56% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,04,123 |percentage=59.16% |change= 4.70% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,80,447 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 11.06% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1991===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli – II Assembly constituency|Tiruchirappalli II]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=Mala Selvi G. R. |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=54,664 |percentage=57.18% |change=47.90% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Anbil Poyyamozhi]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=34,120 |percentage=35.69% |change=-4.24% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. M. Kader Mohideen]]|party=Indian Union Muslim League |votes=4,240 |percentage=4.44% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Dev Ananth K. S. |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,259 |percentage=1.32% |change=0.11% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Velusamy E. |party=Janata Party |votes=591 |percentage=0.62% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Masthan |party=Independent politician |votes=213 |percentage=0.22% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Karuppiah M. |party=Independent politician |votes=104 |percentage=0.11% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Andul Rahman M. |party=Independent politician |votes=64 |percentage=0.07% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Nadarajan V. |party=Tharasu Makkal Mandram |votes=63 |percentage=0.07% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Sirajudeen N. |party=Independent politician |votes=59 |percentage=0.06% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Murugaiah Pillai |party=Independent politician |votes=56 |percentage=0.06% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=20,544 |percentage=21.49% |change=11.81% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=95,597 |percentage=54.46% |change= -12.24% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,80,072 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 17.25% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1989===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Anbil Poyyamozhi]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=40,386 |percentage=39.93% |change=-6.51% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. M. Kader Mohideen]]|party=Independent politician |votes=30,593 |percentage=30.25% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Velusamy E. M |party=Independent politician |votes=18,324 |percentage=18.12% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. Soundararajan]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=9,383 |percentage=9.28% |change=-42.35% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Venkatachari K. K. M |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,218 |percentage=1.20% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Tajudeen E. M. M |party=Independent politician |votes=144 |percentage=0.14% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Murlidharan V. M |party=Independent politician |votes=127 |percentage=0.13% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Selvaraj G. M |party=Independent politician |votes=121 |percentage=0.12% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Radhakrishnan P. M |party=Independent politician |votes=121 |percentage=0.12% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Kalibhullah V. M |party=Independent politician |votes=114 |percentage=0.11% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Ramamoorthy V. M |party=Independent politician |votes=109 |percentage=0.11% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,793 |percentage=9.68% |change=4.50% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,01,137 |percentage=66.69% |change= -4.00% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,54,172 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -11.70% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1984===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]<ref name=election1984>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3331-tamil-nadu-1984/ |title=Tamil Nadu General Legislative Election 1984 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in|access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=N. Nallusamy |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=46,589 |percentage=51.63% |change=-3.90% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Anbil P. Dharmalingam]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=41,908 |percentage=46.44% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. G. L. Irudayaraj |party=Independent politician |votes=625 |percentage=0.69% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Balu |party=Independent politician |votes=356 |percentage=0.39% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. J. Selvanathan |party=Independent politician |votes=183 |percentage=0.20% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. A. Jeganathan |party=Independent politician |votes=153 |percentage=0.17% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. K. Shanmugam |party=Independent politician |votes=130 |percentage=0.14% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Ravi |party=Independent politician |votes=128 |percentage=0.14% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Periyasamy |party=Independent politician |votes=108 |percentage=0.12% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Ponnusamy |party=Independent politician |votes=61 |percentage=0.07% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,681 |percentage=5.19% |change=-5.86% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=90,241 |percentage=70.70% |change= 8.45% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,31,240 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -3.90% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1980===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. Soundararajan]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=43,029 |percentage=55.52% |change=19.15% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. M. Kader Mohideen]]|party=Independent politician |votes=34,467 |percentage=44.48% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,562 |percentage=11.05% |change=-0.24% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=77,496 |percentage=62.24% |change= 5.56% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,25,957 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 19.15% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1977===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]] : [[Tiruchirappalli II]]<ref name=election1977>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3327-tamil-nadu-1977/ |title=Tamil Nadu General Legislative Election 1977 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in|access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. Soundararajan]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=25,405 |percentage=36.37% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M.S. Venkatachalam |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=17,523 |percentage=25.09% |change=-30.65% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Krishnan |party=Janata Party |votes=16,841 |percentage=24.11% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Ganam |party=Communist Party of India |votes=9,681 |percentage=13.86% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Rathinam |party=Independent politician |votes=400 |percentage=0.57% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,882 |percentage=11.28% |change=-1.48% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=69,850 |percentage=56.68% |change= -10.18% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,24,230 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -19.37% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1971===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]<ref name=election1971>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3326-tamil-nadu-1971/ |title=Tamil Nadu General Legislative Election 1971 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in|access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Anbil P. Dharmalingam]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=40,593 |percentage=55.74% |change=9.66% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Subramanian |party=Indian National Congress |votes=31,295 |percentage=42.97% |change=9.64% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Abass S. M. M. |party=Independent politician |votes=586 |percentage=0.80% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Sheriff Rowther |party=Independent politician |votes=355 |percentage=0.49% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,298 |percentage=12.77% |change=0.02% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=72,829 |percentage=66.86% |change= -4.30% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,12,812 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 9.66% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1967===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=R. Nagasundaram |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=26,048 |percentage=46.08% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. K. M. A. Salam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=18,842 |percentage=33.33% |change=-10.96% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[M. Kalyanasundaram]] |party=Communist Party of India |votes=11,638 |percentage=20.59% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,206 |percentage=12.75% |change=1.33% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=56,528 |percentage=71.16% |change= -1.66% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 83,269 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Communist Party of India |swing= -9.63% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1962===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1962 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Tiruchirappalli II]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[M. Kalyanasundaram]] |party=Communist Party of India |votes=38,281 |percentage=55.71% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. N. Rajendran |party=Indian National Congress |votes=30,436 |percentage=44.29% |change=8.38% }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,845 |percentage=11.42% |change=4.04% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=68,717 |percentage=72.82% |change= 24.07% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 96,249 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Communist Party of India |loser=Communist Party of India |swing= 12.42% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1957===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Tiruchirappalli Ii<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2015-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127200447/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf |archive-date=27 Jan 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[M. Kalyanasundaram]] |party=Communist Party of India |votes=19,026 |percentage=43.28% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Subburethinam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=15,784 |percentage=35.91% |change=2.34% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. Kamatchi |party=Independent politician |votes=9,147 |percentage=20.81% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,242 |percentage=7.38% |change=-17.92% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=43,957 |percentage=48.75% |change= -16.08% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 90,160 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Communist Party of India |loser=Communist Party of India |swing= -15.58% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1952===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Tiruchirappalli II<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2014-10-14 |archive-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[M. Kalyanasundaram]] |party=Communist Party of India |votes=31,508 |percentage=58.86% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=G. Ramaswami |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,969 |percentage=33.57% |change=33.57% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Iruthasami |party=Independent politician |votes=2,729 |percentage=5.10% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Natarajan |party=Independent politician |votes=406 |percentage=0.76% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Balasubramanian |party=Independent politician |votes=367 |percentage=0.69% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. R. Ramaswamy |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=320 |percentage=0.60% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Usman |party=Independent politician |votes=233 |percentage=0.44% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,539 |percentage=25.29% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=53,532 |percentage=64.83% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 82,573 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Communist Party of India |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== Post delimitation ==
'''Tiruchirappalli – II''' (State Assembly Constituency) has been renamed as '''[[Tiruchirappalli East (State Assembly Constituency)|Tiruchirappalli East]]''' after the constituency delimitations 2008.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Constituencies, Post-Delimitation 2008|url=http://www.elections.tn.nic.in/forms/int3.pdf|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Tamil Nadu|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515102633/http://elections.tn.nic.in/forms/int3.pdf|archivedate=2012-05-15}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web|url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp|title= Statistical reports of assembly elections|accessdate= 8 July 2010|publisher= Election Commission of India|url-status= dead|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp|archivedate= 5 October 2010}}

{{Defunct assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}
{{Tiruchirappalli}}
{{coord|10.754|78.693|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tiruchirappalli - II (State Assembly Constituency)}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Government of Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Madras State]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

Barshi Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:17:13Z

NoellaXgt402: Added pg

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Barshi
| map_image = 246-Barshi.svg
| map_caption = Dilip sopal, present MLA of Barshi
| mla = [[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]]
| party = {{Party index link|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Maha Vikas Aghadi}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| district = [[Solapur district|Solapur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Osmanabad (Lok Sabha constituency)|Osmanabad]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 246
| electors = 338,062
}}

'''Barshi Assembly constituency''' is one of the 288 [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) [[List of constituencies of Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|constituencies]] of [[Maharashtra]] state, western India. This constituency is located in [[Solapur district]].<ref name="ECI-20081126" />

==Geographical scope==
The constituency comprises [[Barshi taluka]].<ref name="ECI-20081126">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=2008-11-26|publisher=Election Commission of India|pages=262|accessdate=2015-08-13}}</ref>

==Representatives==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref>{{Cite web |title=Barshi Vidhan Sabha Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/maharashtra/assembly-constituencies/barshi.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
|[[Tulsidas Jadhav]]
|rowspan=2 style="background-color: {{party color|Peasants and Workers Party of India}}" |
| rowspan=2|[[Peasants and Workers Party of India|Peasants and Workers Party]]
|-
|Narsing Deshmukh
|-
|[[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Shivaji Arya
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=5|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| rowspan="2" |Prabhatai Zadbuke
|-
|[[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|-
|[[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Shailaja Shitole
|-
|[[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
|Krishnarao Deshmukh
|-
|[[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Baburao Narke
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal|Dilip Sopal]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian Congress (Socialist)|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|{{party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|{{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
|[[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|[[Rajendra Raut]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|-
|[[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal|Dilip Sopal]]
|{{party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|{{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
|[[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
|[[Rajendra Raut]]
|{{party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal|Dilip Sopal]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)}}" |
|[[Shiv Sena (UBT)]]
|}

==Election results==
===Assembly Election 2024===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref name="Maharastra Assembly Election Results 2024 - Barshi">{{cite news |title=Maharastra Assembly Election Results 2024 - Barshi |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/candidateswise-S13246.htm |access-date=13 January 2025 |date=23 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113052230/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/candidateswise-S13246.htm |archive-date=13 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="Barshi Constituency Election Results 2024">{{cite news |title=Barshi Constituency Election Results 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/maharashtra/constituency-show/barshi |access-date=13 January 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=23 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113052238/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/maharashtra/constituency-show/barshi |archive-date=13 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="election2019">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Shiv Sena (UBT) |votes = 1,22,694 |percentage = 49.21% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rajendra Raut]]|party=Shiv Sena |votes = 1,16,222 |percentage = 46.61% |change={{increase}}5.18 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vinod Vikram Jadhav |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,752 |percentage = 0.70% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Anand Naganath Yadav |party=Maharashtra Rajya Samiti |votes = 1,741 |percentage = 0.70% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes = 697 |percentage = 0.28% |change={{decrease}}0.28 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 6,472 |percentage = 2.60% |change= {{increase}}1.22 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 2,50,044 |percentage = 73.96% |change= {{increase}}0.98 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 2,49,347}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 3,38,062|ref = |change= {{increase}}10.30 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Shiv Sena (UBT) |loser = Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}6.40 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2019===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.results.eci.gov.in/ACOCT2019/partywiseresult-S13.htm?st=S13|title=General Election to Vidhan Sabha Trends & Results Oct-2019|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=28 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121065754/http://results.eci.gov.in/ACOCT2019/partywiseresult-S13.htm?st=S13|archive-date=21 November 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rajendra Raut]] |party=Independent politician |votes = 95,482 |percentage = 42.81% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 92,406 |percentage = 41.43% |change={{decrease}}2.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Niranjan Prakash Bhumkar|party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 16,119 |percentage = 7.23% |change={{decrease}}38.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vishal Bahubali Kalaskar |party=Independent politician |votes = 11,427 |percentage = 5.12% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Nagnath Abhimanu Chavan |party=Maharashtra Navnirman Sena |votes = 2,718 |percentage = 1.22% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes = 1,255 |percentage = 0.56% |change={{decrease}}0.12 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,076 |percentage = 1.38% |change= {{decrease}}1.03 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 2,24,399 |percentage = 73.21% |change= {{increase}}0.31 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 2,23,061}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 3,06,507|ref = |change= {{increase}}4.75 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Nationalist Congress Party |swing= {{decrease}}3.25 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2014===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref name="election2014">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2014/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 97,655 |percentage = 46.05% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rajendra Raut]]|party=Shiv Sena |votes = 92,544 |percentage = 43.64% |change={{increase}}34.44 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Rajendra Sukhdev Mirgane|party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 16,506 |percentage = 7.78% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate= Ganesh Suresh Shinde|party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,752 |percentage = 0.83% |change={{decrease}}0.17 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sudhir Vishwambhar Gadhave |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 1,654 |percentage = 0.78% |change={{decrease}}40.16 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes = 1,444 |percentage = 0.68% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,111 |percentage = 2.41% |change= {{decrease}}2.79 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 2,13,503 |percentage = 72.96% |change= {{decrease}}0.50 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 2,12,050}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,92,613|ref = |change= {{increase}}8.82 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Nationalist Congress Party |loser = Independent politician |swing= {{decrease}}0.09 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2009===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher= Chief Eletoral Officer, [[Maharashtra]]|title=General Elections to State Legislative Assembly 2009 |url=https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-url= http://web.archive.org/web/20240708005931/https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-date=8 July 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Independent politician |votes = 90,523 |percentage = 46.14% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rajendra Raut]]|party=Indian National Congress |votes = 80,314 |percentage = 40.94% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate= Vishwas Arjunrao Barbole|party=Shiv Sena |votes = 18,051 |percentage = 9.20% |change={{decrease}}41.19 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate= Ajit Bhaskar Kamble|party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,955 |percentage = 1.00% |change={{increase}}0.21 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ravindra Sahebrao Patil|party=Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 1,407 |percentage = 0.72% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,209 |percentage = 5.20% |change= {{increase}}1.62 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,96,251 |percentage = 72.98% |change= {{decrease}}6.56 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,96,193}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,68,894|ref = |change= {{increase}}46.80 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Shiv Sena |swing= {{decrease}}4.25 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2004===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rajendra Raut]] |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 73,401 |percentage = 50.39% |change={{increase}}5.66 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 68,181 |percentage = 46.81% |change={{increase}}1.75 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shaikh Vahid Harun |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,588 |percentage = 1.09% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Riyasoddin Ehateshamoddin Inamdar |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,353 |percentage = 0.93% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dhavare Shashikant Devendera |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,147 |percentage = 0.79% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,220 |percentage = 3.58% |change= {{increase}}3.26 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,45,748 |percentage = 79.57% |change= {{increase}}9.38 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,45,670}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,83,176|ref = |change= {{increase}}21.80 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Nationalist Congress Party |swing= {{increase}}5.34 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1999===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117044316/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 47,527 |percentage = 45.05% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rajendra Raut]] |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 47,188 |percentage = 44.73% |change={{increase}}24.90 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shaikh Abbas Vajir |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 9,708 |percentage = 9.20% |change={{decrease}}22.53 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Inamdar Biyasoddin Yehtehshamuddin |party=Akhil Bharatiya Sena |votes = 861 |percentage = 0.82% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 339 |percentage = 0.32% |change= {{decrease}}4.37 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,09,315 |percentage = 72.69% |change= {{decrease}}10.00 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,05,495}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,50,394|ref = |change= {{increase}}3.20 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Nationalist Congress Party |loser = Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}8.62 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1995===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1995 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121534/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Independent politician |votes = 42,545 |percentage = 36.43% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Prabhavati Shankarrao Zadbuke |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 37,061 |percentage = 31.73% |change={{decrease}}18.02 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate= Shashikant Shahu Pawar|party=Shiv Sena |votes = 23,156 |percentage = 19.83% |change={{increase}}7.70 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shaikh Abbas Vajir |party=Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 12,610 |percentage = 10.80% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,484 |percentage = 4.70% |change= {{decrease}}17.01 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,19,256 |percentage = 81.83% |change= {{increase}}16.75 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,16,794}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,45,735|ref = |change= {{increase}}2.21 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}13.33 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1990===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117080722/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 44,974 |percentage = 49.76% |change={{increase}}6.95 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Deshmukh Krishanarao Nanasaheb |party=Independent politician |votes = 25,356 |percentage = 28.05% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sutre Shrikant Dattatrey |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 10,960 |percentage = 12.13% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Gajabhar Chandrashekhar Revansidha |party=Janata Dal |votes = 3,349 |percentage = 3.71% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Thombare Tanaji Annasaheb |party=Independent politician |votes = 2,379 |percentage = 2.63% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vibhute Nagsen Shivingh |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,332 |percentage = 1.47% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 19,618 |percentage = 21.70% |change= {{increase}}8.91 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 92,366 |percentage = 64.78% |change= {{decrease}}3.80 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 90,389}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,42,588|ref = |change= {{increase}}24.39 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian Congress (Socialist) |swing= {{decrease}}5.84 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1985===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117075119/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Dilip Gangadhar Sopal]] |party=Indian Congress (Socialist) |votes = 42,822 |percentage = 55.59% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Patil Baburao Shankarrao (Gadegaonkar) |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 32,969 |percentage = 42.80% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 9,853 |percentage = 12.79% |change= {{increase}}9.41 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 78,359 |percentage = 68.36% |change= {{increase}}4.31 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 77,027}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,14,634|ref = |change= {{increase}}7.97 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian Congress (Socialist) |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing= {{increase}}6.98 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1980===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1980 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117083555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Narake Baburao Mahadev |party=Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 32,455 |percentage = 48.61% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Barbole Arjun Ambrushi |party=Indian National Congress (U) |votes = 30,195 |percentage = 45.23% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Lohe Gokuldas Madanlal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 3,358 |percentage = 5.03% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Pawar Rambhau Aba |party=Independent politician |votes = 541 |percentage = 0.81% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,260 |percentage = 3.38% |change= {{decrease}}5.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 68,476 |percentage = 64.49% |change= {{decrease}}11.39 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 66,766}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,06,175|ref = |change= {{increase}}14.45 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}1.98 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1978===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629182050/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-date=29 June 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Deshmukh Krishanarao Nanasaheb |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 34,859 |percentage = 50.59% |change={{decrease}}1.15 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Surana Pannalal Premraj |party=Janata Party |votes = 29,067 |percentage = 42.19% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Patil Dnyaneshwar Tatyaba |party=Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 3,499 |percentage = 5.08% |change={{decrease}}40.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Pawar Rambhau Aba |party=Independent politician |votes = 772 |percentage = 1.12% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Nalwade Bajrang Tatyaba |party=Independent politician |votes = 704 |percentage = 1.02% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,792 |percentage = 8.41% |change= {{increase}}1.98 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 70,667 |percentage = 76.17% |change= {{increase}}6.29 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 68,901}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 92,771|ref = |change= {{increase}}6.15 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}1.15 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1972===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519183024/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Shailaja Shitole |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 30,743 |percentage = 51.74% |change={{decrease}}1.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Patil Dnyaneshwar Tatyaba |party=Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 26,926 |percentage = 45.32% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Pawar Rambhau Aba |party=Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha |votes = 951 |percentage = 1.60% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Alatmadhukar Nagnath |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 793 |percentage = 1.33% |change={{increase}}0.08 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,817 |percentage = 6.42% |change= {{decrease}}5.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 61,016 |percentage = 69.82% |change= {{increase}}2.34 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 59,413}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 87,394|ref = |change= {{increase}}13.37 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}1.93 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1967===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926233227/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Prabhatai Shankarrao Zadbuke |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 27,161 |percentage = 53.67% |change={{decrease}}11.26 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=P. P. Surana |party=Sanghata Socialist Party |votes = 21,369 |percentage = 42.23% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bajarang Tatyaba Nalwade |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,439 |percentage = 2.84% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=V. D. Kulkarni |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 634 |percentage = 1.25% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,792 |percentage = 11.45% |change= {{decrease}}38.95 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 55,785 |percentage = 72.36% |change= {{decrease}}2.63 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 50,603}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 77,089|ref = |change= {{increase}}4.33 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}11.26 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1962===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085627/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Prabhatai Shankarrao Zadbuke |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 32,757 |percentage = 64.93% |change={{increase}}16.7 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Narshing Tatya Deshmukh |party=Independent politician |votes = 7,332 |percentage = 14.53% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ramchandra Genuji Khandale |party=Republican Party of India |votes = 5,112 |percentage = 10.13% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chandmal Amarchand Gugale |party=Independent politician |votes = 3,021 |percentage = 5.99% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Krishna Bandu Damare |party=Independent politician |votes = 970 |percentage = 1.92% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bajarang Tatyaba Nalwade |party=Independent politician |votes = 949 |percentage = 1.88% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 25,425 |percentage = 50.40% |change= {{increase}}38.20 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 53,583 |percentage = 72.52% |change= {{increase}}19.23 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 50,448}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 73,889|ref = |change= {{increase}}14.81 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}16.70 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1957===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Barshi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114093455/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Arya Shivaji Parshuram |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 15,224 |percentage = 48.23% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Buragute Govind Bhau |party=Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 11,374 |percentage = 36.03% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dambare Krishna Bandu |party=Independent politician |votes = 4,966 |percentage = 15.73% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,850 |percentage = 12.20% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 31,564 |percentage = 49.04% |change= }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 31,564}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 64,358|ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|18.24|75.69|display=title}}

{{Solapur district topics}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Solapur district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Politics of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Solapur district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Bombay State]]

Sheeba Akashdeep Sabir

2026-04-11T10:21:55Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Sheeba Akashdeep Sabir
| image = Sheeba Akashdeep, 2012.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Sheeba at Mondo Casa launch 2012
| birth_name = Sheeba Agarwal
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1990–present
| spouse = {{marriage|Akashdeep Sabir|1996}}
| known_for =
}}

'''Sheeba Akashdeep Sabir''' is an Indian actress who predominantly works in [[Hindi]] language films.

==Personal life and career==
Sheeba born in a [[Agrawal]] [[Bania (caste)|Bania]] family.
She married filmmaker Akashdeep Sabir in 1996;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indicine.com/photogallery/bollywood/actress/sheeba/80835-31-small.jpg.html |title=Arinjay with unknown person |work=Indicine |accessdate=25 April 2014 |archive-date=26 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201944/http://www.indicine.com/photogallery/bollywood/actress/sheeba/80835-31-small.jpg.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> he directed her in films like ''[[Ghaath (2000 film)|Ghaath]]'' and ''[[Miss 420]]''. She and her husband Akashdeep made a comeback as producers in the TV show ''[[Bhoot Aaya]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://freepressjournal.in/akashdeep-and-sheeba-sabir-make-a-comeback/ |title=Akashdeep and Sheeba Sabir make a comeback |publisher=FreePressJournal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224000948/https://www.freepressjournal.in/akashdeep-and-sheeba-sabir-make-a-comeback/ |archive-date=24 February 2016 |date=11 October 2013}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Language
! Notes
|-
|1990
|''[[Athisaya Piravi]]''
|
|Tamil
|Debut Film
|-
|1991
|''[[Yeh Aag Kab Bujhegi]]''
|Pooja
|Hindi
|
|-
|1991
|''Nachnewale Gaanewale''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|1991
|''[[Pyaar Ka Saaya]]''
|Pooja Saxena
|Hindi
|
|-
|1992
|''[[Mr. Bond (film)|Mr. Bond]]''
|Sunita
|Hindi
|
|-
|1992
|[[Suryavanshi (film)|''Suryavanshi'']]
|Sonia
|Hindi
|
|-
|1992
|''[[Aasmaan Se Gira]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|1993
|''Boyfriend''
|Rani
|Hindi
|
|-
|1993
|''[[Hum Hain Kamaal Ke]]''
|Shallu
|Hindi
|
|-
|1993
|''Baarish''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|1994
|''[[Pyar Ka Rog]]''
|Reema Sharma
|Hindi
|
|-
|1994
|''[[Teesra Kaun]]''
|
|Hindi
|Item Dancer
|-
|1994
|''[[Zaalim]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|1995
|''[[Surakshaa (1995 film)|Surakshaa]]''
|Diana
|Hindi
|
|-
|1995
|''[[Ravan Raaj: A True Story]]''
|Shilpa
|Hindi
|
|-
|1996
|''King Soloman''
|Aswathy
|Malayalam
|
|-
|1997
|[[Lahu Ke Do Rang (1997 film)|''Lahu Ke Do Rang'']]
|
|Hindi
|Item Dancer
|-
|1997
|[[Share Bazaar (film)|''Share Bazaar'']]
|Inspector Kiran
|Hindi
|
|-
|1997
|''[[Kaalia (1997 film)|Kaalia]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|1997
|''[[Jeeo Shaan Se]]''
|Anamika
|Hindi
|
|-
|1998
|''[[Ajnabi Saaya]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|1998
|''[[Miss 420]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|1999
|''[[Kaala Samrajya]]''
|Chandni
|Hindi
|
|-
|1999
|''Pratidav''
|
|Marathi
|
|-
|2000
|[[Jwalamukhi (2000 film)|''Jwalamukhi'']]
|
|Hindi
|Item Dancer
|-
|2000
|[[Ghaath (2000 film)|''Ghaath'']]
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|2000
|''Bhootni''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|2003
|[[Dum (2003 Hindi film)|''Dum'']]
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|2009
|''[[Sanam Teri Kasam (2009 film)|Sanam Teri Kasam]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|2023
|''[[Rocky Aur Rani Kii Prem Kahaani]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|2024
|''[[Jigra]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|2025
|[[Fateh (2025 film)|''Fateh'']]
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|2025
|''[[Baaghi 4]]''
|
|Hindi
|
|-
|}

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Serial
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 2002
| '' [[Kutumb (TV series) |Kutumb]]''
| Kamini Aditya Maan
| Season 2
|-
| 2003–2004
| ''[[Karishma - The Miracles of Destiny]]''
| Amrita
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[SauBhagyalaxmi]]''
| Bhairavi Birla
|
|-
| 2017–2018
| ''[[Haasil (Indian TV series)|Haasil]]''
| Sarika Jatin Raichand
|
|-
| 2022–2023
| '' [[Naagin (2015 TV series) |Naagin 6]]''
| Manjeet Kaur
|
|-
| 2023–2024
| ''[[Baatein Kuch Ankahee Si]]''
| Pammi Sood
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-sheeba-akashdeep-on-her-character-pammi-in-baatein-kuch-ankahee-si-being-loved-i-am-truly-overwhelmed-by-the-reactions/articleshow/104364225.cms|title=Exclusive - Sheeba Akashdeep on her character Pammi in Baatein Kuch Ankahee Si being loved: I am truly overwhelmed by the reactions|work=The Times of India |date=12 October 2023|via=The Economic Times - The Times of India}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|id=0790554}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Akashdeep, Sheeba}}
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Female models from Mumbai]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-film-actor-stub}}

John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth

2026-03-29T22:52:46Z

NoellaXgt402: created a biography

{{short description|Governor-General of India}}
{{redirect|John Shore|the inventor of the tuning fork|John Shore (trumpeter)|other people|John Shore (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name = The Lord Teignmouth
| honorific_suffix =
| image = JohnShore.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Watercolour by [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]], 1832
| office = [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William]]
| term_start = October 1793
| term_end = March 1798
| monarch1 = [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
| predecessor1 = [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|The Earl Cornwallis]]
| successor1 = [[Alured Clarke|Sir Alured Clarke]] {{small|(Acting Governor-General)}}
| birth_date = {{birth-date|5 October 1751}}
| birth_place = [[St James's]], London
| death_date = {{death-date and age|14 February 1834|5 October 1751}}
| death_place = [[Portman Square]], London
| resting_place = [[St Marylebone Parish Church]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Charlotte Cornish |1786}}
| children = 9, including [[Charles Shore, 2nd Baron Teignmouth|Charles John]]
| education = [[Harrow School]]
}}

'''John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth''' (5 October 1751 – 14 February 1834) was a British official of the [[East India Company]] who served as [[Governor-General of Bengal]] from 1793 to 1798. In 1798 he was created '''Baron Teignmouth''' in the [[Peerage of Ireland]]. Shore was the first president of the [[British and Foreign Bible Society]].<ref name="ODNB">{{ODNBweb|id=25452|title=Shore, John|first=Ainslie T.|last=Embree| authorlink=Ainslie Embree}}</ref> A close friend of the orientalist [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]] (1746–1794), Shore edited a memoir of Jones's life in 1804, containing many of Jones's letters.

==Early life==
Born in [[St. James's Street, Piccadilly]], on 5 October 1751, he was the elder son of Thomas Shore of Melton Place, near [[Romford]], an East India Company employee, by his wife Dorothy, daughter of Captain Shepherd of the company's naval service. At the age of fourteen Shore was sent to [[Harrow School]].<ref name="DNB">{{cite DNB|wstitle=Shore, John}}</ref> In his seventeenth year Shore was moved to a commercial school at [[Hoxton]] for the purpose of learning bookkeeping, to take up an opportunity made for him by the merchant Frederick Pigou, a family friend.<ref name="ODNB"/> Towards the close of 1768 he sailed for India as a writer in the East India Company's service.<ref name="DNB"/>

Soon after his arrival in Kolkata, then called Calcutta, in May 1769 Shore was appointed to the secret political department, in which he remained for about twelve months. In September 1770 he was nominated assistant to the board of revenue at [[Murshidabad]]. Shore at the age of 19 suddenly found himself invested with the civil and fiscal jurisdiction of a large district; he also studied languages.<ref name="DNB"/>

In 1772 Shore went to [[Rajshahi]] as first assistant to the resident of the province. In the following year he acted temporarily as Persian translator and secretary to the board at Murshidabad. In June 1775 he was appointed a member of the revenue council at Calcutta. He continued to hold that post until the dissolution of the council at the close of 1780. Though he revised one of the bitter philippics launched by [[Philip Francis (politician)|Philip Francis]] against [[Warren Hastings]], and is said to have written one of the memorials against the supreme court and [[Sir Elijah Impey]], he was appointed by the governor-general to a seat in the committee of revenue at Calcutta, which took the place of the provincial council.<ref name="DNB"/>

==Revenue official==
Shore gained the confidence of Hastings by attention to his duties. Besides superintending the collection of the revenues, he devoted much of his time to the adjudication of exchequer cases. He acted as revenue commissioner in Dacca and Behar, and he drew up plans for judicial and financial reforms. Deploring the lavish profusion of the governor-general, Shore communicated his views of the financial situation to [[Sir John Macpherson, 1st Baronet|John Macpherson]], who, instead of privately imparting them to Hastings, inserted them as a minute into the records of the Supreme Council. As a result of what was seen as a breach of confidence, Shore resigned his seat on the board.<ref name="DNB"/>

In January 1785 Shore returned to England in the company of Hastings. While in England, on 14 February 1786 he married Charlotte, the only daughter of James Cornish, a medical practitioner at Teignmouth.<ref name="DNB"/>

Having been appointed by the Court of Directors to a seat on the Supreme Council, Shore returned to India, and on 21 January 1787 he took his seat as a member of the government of Bengal. Many of the reforms instituted by [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]] were attributable to Shore's influence in the council. In the summer of 1789, Shore completed the ten-yearly settlement of the revenues of Bengal, [[Bihar]], and [[Odisha]]. Though Shore recommended caution and further inquiry, and protested against rigidity, his decision in favour of the proprietary rights of the [[zamindar]]s was ratified by Cornwallis and formed the basis of the much discussed [[Permanent Settlement]].<ref name="DNB"/>

In December 1789, Shore embarked for England, where he arrived in April 1790. He is said to have refused the offer of a baronetcy on the ground of "the incompatibility of poverty and titles". On 2 June 1790 he was examined as a witness in the [[trial of Warren Hastings]] with regard to the transactions of the committee of revenue at Calcutta, and he testified to his friend's popularity among the Indians.<ref name="DNB"/>

==Governor-general==
Shore was appointed by the court of directors governor-general of India in succession to Cornwallis on 19 September 1792, and was created a [[baronet]] on 2 October following;<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=13463 |date=29 September 1792 |page=765}}</ref> [[Edmund Burke]] protested vainly. Shore embarked for India at the end of the month. On 10 March 1793 he arrived at Calcutta, where he remained without official employment or responsibility until the departure of Cornwallis. He succeeded to the government on 28 October 1793.<ref name="DNB"/>

The period of Shore's rule as governor-general was comparatively uneventful. His policy was attacked as temporising and timid. He acquiesced in the invasion by the [[Mahrattas|Marathas]] of the dominions of [[Ali Khan Asaf Jah II]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]]; he permitted the growth of a French subsidiary force in the service of more than one native power; he thwarted [[Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire|Lord Hobart]]'s efforts for extending the sphere of British influence; and he looked on while [[Tipu Sahib]] was preparing for war. In these matters Shore faithfully obeyed his instructions.<ref name="DNB"/>

Though he showed weakness in dealing with the mutiny of the officers of the Bengal army, he boldly settled the question of the [[Oudh]] succession, when he substituted [[Saadat Ali Khan II]] for [[Wazir Ali Khan]], albeit at the cost of the [[Massacre of Benares]]. As a reward for his services Shore was created '''Baron Teignmouth''', of Teignmouth in the [[peerage of Ireland]] by letters patent executed at Dublin on 3 March 1798.<ref name="DNB"/><ref>{{London Gazette |issue=14064 |date=11 November 1797 |page=1081}}</ref>

==Later life==
Resigning the government into the hands of [[Sir Alured Clarke]], Teignmouth left India in March 1798. On 4 April 1807 he was appointed a member of the [[India Board|board of control]], an office to which no salary was attached, and four days afterwards was sworn a member of the privy council. He occasionally transacted business at the board of control, or at the Cockpit, where as a privy councillor he sometimes decided Indian appeals with [[Sir William Grant]] and [[Sir John Nicholl]]. But he occupied the most of his time in religious and philanthropic matters, though he nominally remained a member of the board until February 1828.<ref name="DNB"/>

Teignmouth never took his seat in the Irish House of Lords, nor was he elected a representative peer after the union. He was twice examined before the House of Commons on Indian affairs, on 18 June 1806 and on 30 March 1813. In consequence of the order of the House of Commons for Teignmouth's attendance on the first occasion, the House of Lords on 19 July 1806 passed a resolution maintaining the privilege of peerage as apart from the privilege of parliament. This resolution, however, was not communicated to the Commons; and on the second occasion the order of the Commons for Teignmouth's attendance was not questioned by the Lords.<ref name="DNB"/>

Shore became a prominent member of the [[Clapham sect]]: from 1802 to 1808 he lived at Clapham. He then moved to London, where he passed the remainder of his days. He was elected the first president of the [[British and Foreign Bible Society]] on 14 May 1804, and held that office until the end of his life. He took an active part in the various controversies in the Society, and gave his decision in favour of the exclusion of the apocryphal books from all editions of the Bible issued by the society. He died at his house in Portman Square on 14 February 1834, aged 82, and was buried in Marylebone parish church, where a monument was erected to his memory.<ref name="DNB"/>

Teignmouth was elected president of the Royal Society of Literature, but declined the office in favour of Bishop Burgess.<ref name="DNB"/>

==Works==
Teignmouth was a close friend of Sir William Jones, whom he succeeded as president of the Asiatic Society of Bengal on 22 May 1794. On that occasion he delivered an address on the 'Literary History' of his predecessor (London, 1795), which was frequently reprinted, and has been translated into Italian. Three of his contributions to the society are printed in 'Asiatick Researches' (ii. 307–22, 383–7, iv. 331– 350). He translated in three manuscript volumes the Persian version of an abridgment of the 'Jôg Bashurst,' but later destroyed them in consequence of the little encouragement which his translations of Persian versions of Hindu authors received. He wrote a number of articles for the ''[[Christian Observer]]'', and the earlier annual reports of the Bible Society were written by him. He was also the author of some mediocre verse. He published:<ref name="DNB"/>

* ‘Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Correspondence of Sir William Jones,’ London, 1804. This passed through several editions, and formed vols. i. and ii. of ‘The Works of Sir William Jones,’ which were edited by Lady Jones (London, 1807, 13 vols.)
* ‘Considerations on the Practicability, Policy, and Obligation of communicating to the Natives of India the Knowledge of Christianity. With Observations on he “Prefatory Remarks” to a pamphlet published by Major Scott Waring. By a late Resident in Bengal,’ London, 1808. Reply to [[John Scott-Waring]].
* 'A Letter to the Rev. Christopher Wordsworth, D.D., in reply to his Strictures on the British and Foreign Bible Society,' London, 1810.
* 'Thoughts on the Providence of God,' London, 1834 (anon.)

A portrait of Teignmouth was painted by [[Arthur William Devis]].<ref name="DNB"/>

==Family==
Teignmouth had three sons and six daughters by his wife, who died on 13 July 1834. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son, [[Charles John Shore]].<ref name="DNB"/> His second son, [[Frederick John Shore|Frederick John]], married Charlotte Mary Cornish of Devonshire in 1830.<ref>''La Belle Assemblee'' London, February 1830.</ref> His second daughter, Anna Maria, married [[Thomas Noel Hill|Sir Thomas Hill]].<ref>{{ODNBweb|id=13312|title=Hill, Sir Thomas Noel|first=James|last=Falkner}}</ref> Another daughter, Caroline Dorothea, married Rev. Robert Anderson (their eldest daughter, Florence Caroline, married [[Lord Alwyne Compton (bishop)|Lord Alwyne Compton]]).<ref>{{ODNBweb|id=32523|title=Compton, Lord Alwyne|first=V. H.|last=Stanton}}</ref> Shore was great-uncle to the poet [[Louisa Catherine Shore]].<ref>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Shore, Louisa Catherine}}</ref>
{{Infobox COA wide
|image = Teignmouth Achievement.png
|escutcheon = Argent a chevron Sable between three holly leaves Vert.
|crest = A stork regardant with a stone in its dexter claw Proper.
|supporters = Two storks regardant Proper.
|motto = Perimus Licitis (We Die In A Good Cause) <ref>{{cite book|title=Debrett's Peerage |date=1838}}</ref>
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

;Attribution
{{DNB|wstitle=Shore, John|ref=none}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=Charles John Shore Baron Teignmouth|title=Memoir of the Life and Correspondence of John Lord Teignmouth|url=https://archive.org/details/memoirlifeandco01teiggoog|year=1843|publisher=Hatchard and Son}}
* {{cite book|author=Birendra Bahadur Srivastava|title=Sir John Shore's policy towards the Indian states|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkQhAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Chugh}}gjjn

==External links==
*{{Rayment|external links=y|date=February 2012}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-gov}}
{{succession box | before=[[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|The Marquess Cornwallis]] | title=[[Governor-General of India]] | years=1793–1798 | after=[[Alured Clarke|Sir Alured Clarke]], ''acting''}}
{{s-reg|ie}}
{{s-new|creation}}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Baron Teignmouth]]| years=1798–1834}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Charles John Shore, 2nd Baron Teignmouth|Charles Shore]] }}
{{s-reg|gb-bt}}
{{s-new|Creation}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Baron Teignmouth|Baronet]] '''(of Heathcote)''' | years=1792–1834}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Charles John Shore, 2nd Baron Teignmouth|Charles Shore]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Teignmouth, John Shore, 1st Baron}}
[[Category:1751 births]]
[[Category:1834 deaths]]
[[Category:People educated at Harrow School]]
[[Category:Governors-general of India|Shore, Sir John]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of Ireland]]
[[Category:Peers of Ireland created by George III]]
[[Category:Clapham Sect]]
[[Category:People from the City of Westminster]]
[[Category:Presidents of The Asiatic Society]]

Hindi

2026-03-27T21:43:35Z

NoellaXgt402: adjust layout per standard format and updated info

{{Short description|Indo-Aryan language}}
{{About|Modern Standard Hindi}}
{{Distinguish|Hindus{{!}}Hindu|Sindhi (disambiguation){{!}}Sindhi}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Hindi
| altname = Modern Standard Hindi
| nativename = {{lang|hi|हिन्दी}}, {{translit|hi|ISO|Hindī}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|hi|ˈɦɪndiː|}}
| states = [[India]]
| ethnicity =
| region = originally [[Delhi]], north [[Western Uttar Pradesh]], south [[Uttarakhand]]
| speakers_label = Speakers
| speakers = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|345.365030|3}} million{{efn|speakers of Hindi and various related languages who reported their language as 'Hindi'}} 
| date = 2011 census
| speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|263.760000|3}} million (2020)<ref name="e28|hin">{{e28|hin}}</ref> Total: {{sigfig|609.125030|2}} million (2011–2020)<ref name="e28|hin">{{e28|hin}}</ref>
| ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |date=29 June 2018}}</ref><ref name="e28|hin">{{e28|hin}}</ref>
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4 = [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central Indo-Aryan]]
| fam5 = [[Western Hindi languages|Western Hindi]]<ref name=ELL2/>
| fam6 = [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]<ref name=ELL2>{{ELL2|Hindustani}}</ref>
| ancestor = [[Shauraseni Prakrit]]
| ancestor2 = [[Apabhraṃśa]]
| ancestor3 = [[Old Hindi]]
| ancestor4 = [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
| ancestor5 = [[Rekhta]]
| script = *[[Devanagari]] (official)
*[[Kaithi]] (historical)
*[[Mahajani]] (historical)
*[[Laṇḍā scripts|Laṇḍā]] (historical)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gangopadhyay|first=Avik|title=Glimpses of Indian Languages|publisher=Evincepub publishing|year=2020|isbn=978-93-90197-82-8|page=43}}</ref>
*[[Devanagari Braille]]
| nation = *India
** [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
** [[Bihar]]
** [[Chandigarh]]
** [[Chhattisgarh]]
** [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]]
** [[Delhi]]
** [[Gujarat]]
** [[Haryana]]
** [[Himachal Pradesh]]
** [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
** [[Jharkhand]]
** [[Ladakh]]
** [[Madhya Pradesh]]
** [[Maharashtra]] (additional)
** [[Rajasthan]]
** [[Uttar Pradesh]]
** [[Uttarakhand]]
** [[West Bengal]] (additional)
*[[Fiji]]
| minority = {{bulleted list
| [[South Africa]] (protected language)<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions|website=www.gov.za|access-date=6 December 2014}}</ref>
|[[United Arab Emirates]] (official court language)<ref name="thehindu.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/abu-dhabi-includes-hindi-as-third-official-court-language/article26229023.ece|title=Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language|newspaper=The Hindu|date=10 February 2019|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>
|[[Mauritius]] (as a cultural language)<ref>{{ cite web| title = Hindi Speaking Union Act |url=https://culture.govmu.org/Pages/Legislations/The%20Hindi%20Speaking%20Union%20%20Act%201994.pdf|website=www.culture.govmu.org}}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Central Hindi Directorate]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/english/aboutus/aboutus.html |title= About Us |website=Central Hindi Directorate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504043836/http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/english/aboutus/aboutus.html |archive-date=4 May 2012 |access-date=18 February 2014}}</ref>
| iso1 = hi
| iso2 = hin
| iso3 = hin
| lingua = 59-AAF-qf
| image = Hindi.svg
| image_class = skin-invert-image
| imagescale = 1.2
| imagecaption = The word "Hindi" in [[Devanagari]] script
| map = Hindi 2011 Indian Census by district.svg
| mapcaption = Distribution of L1 self-reported speakers of Hindi in India as per the 2011 Census
| notice = Indic
| sign = [[Indian Signing System]]
| glotto = hind1269
| glottorefname = Hindi
}}
{{Hindustani_language}}

'''Modern Standard Hindi''' ({{langx|hi|आधुनिक मानक हिन्दी|Ādhunik Mānak Hindī|translit-std=ISO}}),<ref>Singh, Rajendra, and Rama Kant Agnihotri. Hindi morphology: A word-based description. Vol. 9. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1997.</ref> commonly referred to as '''Hindi''', is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] written in the [[Devanagari script]]. It is an [[official language of India|official language]] of the [[government of India]], and is the ''[[lingua franca]]'' for most of the northern half of India.<ref>Hindi is used as a lingua franca for the northern, central, western, eastern, and parts of northeast.</ref>

Hindi is an [[Languages with official status in India|official language]] in ten states ([[Bihar]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]]), and six [[Union territory|union territories]] ([[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[Delhi]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]], [[Ladakh]] and [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]) and an additional official language in the states of [[West Bengal]] and [[Maharashtra]]. <ref> {{cite web| url =https://indiankanoon.org/doc/154716602/ |title = Maharashtra official languages act}} </ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Saravanan |first=Depak |date=9 October 2018 |title=Hindi and the North-South divide |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/perspective/hindi-and-north-south-divide-696931.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123052133/https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/perspective/hindi-and-north-south-divide-696931.html |archive-date=23 November 2022 |website=Deccan Herald}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Pillalamarri |first=Akhilesh |title=India's Evolving Linguistic Landscape |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/07/indias-evolving-linguistic-landscape/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601181209/https://thediplomat.com/2018/07/indias-evolving-linguistic-landscape/ |archive-date=1 June 2019 |access-date=22 December 2019 |website=The Diplomat}}</ref> Hindi is also one of the 22 [[Languages with official status in India|scheduled languages of the Republic of India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=PART A Languages specified in the Eighth Schedule (Scheduled Languages) |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190612/http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm |archive-date=29 October 2013 |website=Census of India}}</ref>

Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, Modern Standard Hindi is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with standard [[Urdu]].<ref name="GubeGao2019">{{cite book |last1=Gube |first1=Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YkWHDwAAQBAJ |title=Education, Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context |last2=Gao |first2=Fang |date=2019 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |isbn=978-981-13-3125-1 |language=en |quote=The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology and grammar (Lust et al. 2000).}}</ref><ref name="ChatterjiSiṃhaPadikkal1997">{{cite book |last1=Chatterji |first1=Suniti Kumar |title=Suniti Kumar Chatterji: a centenary tribute |last2=Siṃha |first2=Udaẏa Nārāẏana |last3=Padikkal |first3=Shivarama |date=1997 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-0353-2 |language=en |quote=High Hindi written in Devanagari, having identical grammar with Urdu, employing the native Hindi or Hindustani (Prakrit) elements to the fullest, but for words of high culture, going to Sanskrit. Hindustani proper that represents the basic Khari Boli with vocabulary holding a balance between Urdu and High Hindi.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Primary Language Impact on Second Language and Literacy Learning |date=15 January 2023 |publisher=Lexington Books |editor1-last=Yoon |editor1-first=Bogum |page=198 |language=English |quote=In terms of cross-linguistic relations, Urdu's combinations of Arabic-Persian orthography and Sanskrit linguistic roots provides interesting theoretical as well as practical comparisons demonstrated in table 12.1. |editor2-last=Pratt |editor2-first=Kristen L.}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed2024">{{cite web |date=12 March 2024 |title=Ties between Urdu & Sanskrit deeply rooted: Scholar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ties-between-urdu-sanskrit-deeply-rooted-scholar/articleshow/108415962.cms |access-date=8 May 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]] |quote=The linguistic and cultural ties between Sanskrit and Urdu are deeply rooted and significant, said Ishtiaque Ahmed, registrar, Maula Azad National Urdu University during a two-day workshop titled "Introduction to Sanskrit for Urdu medium students". Ahmed said a substantial portion of Urdu's vocabulary and cultural capital, as well as its syntactic structure, is derived from Sanskrit.}}</ref> The common base of the two languages is sometimes referred to as ''Hindi–Urdu'' or [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], and Hindi is considered a [[Sanskritisation (linguistics)|Sanskritised]] [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]<ref name="Constitution of India">{{cite web |title=The Constitution of India |url=http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402064301/http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm |archive-date=2 April 2012 |access-date=21 March 2012 |website=lawmin.nic.in}}</ref> of Hindustani.<ref name="NCSU-Hindustani">{{Cite web |url=http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm |title=About Hindi-Urdu |publisher=[[North Carolina State University]] |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815023328/http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm |archive-date=15 August 2009 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Hindi is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] or [[Haflong Hindi]]).<ref name="fulllangdatacensus 2011">{{cite news |last=Kawoosa |first=Vijdan Mohammad |date=22 November 2018 |title=How languages intersect in India |url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-languagesintersect-in-india/story-g3nzNwFppYV7XvCumRzlYL.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015014438/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-languagesintersect-in-india/story-g3nzNwFppYV7XvCumRzlYL.html |archive-date=15 October 2022 |work= Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=How many Indians can you talk to? |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/static/iframes/language_probability_interactive/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216113014/https://www.hindustantimes.com/static/iframes/language_probability_interactive/index.html |archive-date=16 December 2019 |access-date=22 December 2019 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as "Hindi" but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other nearby languages, such as [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] and [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]].<ref>{{cite web |date=14 September 2018 |title=How Hindi travelled to these five countries from India |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-2018-hindi-travelled-to-these-five-countries-from-india/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229020952/https://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-2018-hindi-travelled-to-these-five-countries-from-india/ |archive-date=29 December 2022 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref> Examples of this are Bhojpuri-Hindustani, which is spoken in [[South Africa]] and [[Mauritius]]; [[Fiji Hindi]], spoken in Fiji; and [[Caribbean Hindustani]], spoken in [[Suriname]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], and [[Guyana]].<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Sequence of events with reference to official language of the Union |url=http://rajbhasha.nic.in/IIContent.aspx?t=enevents8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802071514/http://rajbhasha.nic.in/IIContent.aspx?t=enevents |archive-date=2 August 2011 |website=Department of Official Language}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=रिपब्लिक ऑफ फीजी का संविधान (Constitution of the Republic of Fiji, the Hindi version) |url=http://www.fiji.gov.fj/getattachment/5912a2ce-0260-4df5-98b9-955360cd3aad/Click-here-to-download-the-Fiji-Constitution-(Hind.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101180254/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/getattachment/5912a2ce-0260-4df5-98b9-955360cd3aad/Click-here-to-download-the-Fiji-Constitution-(Hind.aspx |archive-date=1 November 2013 |website=Fiji Government}}</ref><ref name="uniw">{{cite web|url=http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/41235/Caribbean%20Heritage%20Ferreira%202012.pdf?sequence=1|title=Caribbean Languages and Caribbean Linguistics|format=PDF|access-date=16 July 2016|publisher=[[University of the West Indies Press]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220080555/http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/41235/Caribbean%20Heritage%20Ferreira%202012.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=20 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Mau">{{cite journal|title=The cultural significance of Hindi in Mauritius|date=8 May 2007|author=Richard K. Barz|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|doi=10.1080/00856408008722995|volume=3|pages=1–13}}</ref>

Hindi is the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|fourth-most-spoken first language]] in the world, after [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[English language|English]].<ref name="Nationalencyklopedin">Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in ''[[Nationalencyklopedin]]''. Asterisks mark the [http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 2010 estimates] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111051518/http://www.ne.se/spr%C3%A5k/v%C3%A4rldens-100-st%C3%B6rsta-spr%C3%A5k-2010 |date=11 November 2012 }} for the top dozen languages.</ref> When counted together with the mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.<ref name="Gambhir1995">{{cite book |last1=Gambhir |first1=Vijay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mB7TQc_OpdcC |title=The Teaching and Acquisition of South Asian Languages |date=1995 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |isbn=978-0-8122-3328-5 |language=en |quote=The position of Hindi-Urdu among the languages of the world is anomalous. The number of its proficient speakers, over three hundred million, places it in third of fourth place after Mandarin, English, and perhaps Spanish.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/language-linguistics-and-literary-terms/language-and-linguistics/hindustani|title=Hindustani|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|via=encyclopedia.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729004822/http://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/language-linguistics-and-literary-terms/language-and-linguistics/hindustani|archive-date=29 July 2017}}</ref> According to reports of ''Ethnologue'' (2025), Hindi is the [[List of languages by total number of speakers#Ethnologue (2022, 25th edition)|third most-spoken language]] in the world when including [[first language|first]] and [[second language]] speakers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages? |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |access-date=31 March 2023 |website=Ethnologue (Free All)}}</ref>

Hindi is the fastest-growing [[Languages of India|language of India]], followed by [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]], according to the [[2011 census of India]].<ref>—{{Cite news |last=R |first=Aishwaryaa |date=6 June 2019 |title=What census data reveals about use of Indian languages |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/what-census-data-reveals-about-use-of-indian-languages-738340.html |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |access-date=16 November 2023}} —{{Cite news |last=Pallapothu |first=Sravan |date=28 June 2018 |title=Hindi Added 100Mn Speakers In A Decade; Kashmiri 2nd Fast Growing Language |url=https://www.indiaspend.com/hindi-added-100mn-speakers-in-a-decade-kashmiri-2nd-fast-growing-language-93096/ |website=Indiaspend.com |access-date=16 November 2023}} —{{Cite news |last=IndiaSpend |date=2 July 2018 |title=Hindi fastest growing language in India, finds 100 million new speakers |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/hindi-fastest-growing-language-in-india-finds-100-million-new-speakers-118070200029_1.html |work=Business Standard |access-date=16 November 2023}} —{{cite magazine |last1=Mishra |first1=Mayank |last2=Aggarwal |first2=Piyush |date=11 April 2022 |title=Hindi grew rapidly in non-Hindi states even without official mandate |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/diu/story/hindi-grows-in-non-hindi-states-without-official-mandate-1936196-2022-04-11 |magazine=India Today |access-date=16 November 2023}}</ref>

==Terminology==
The term ''Hindī'' was originally used to refer to inhabitants of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. It was borrowed from [[Persian language#Classical Persian|Classical Persian]] {{lang|fa|هندی}} ''Hindī'' ([[Iranian Persian]] pronunciation: ''Hendi''), meaning {{gloss|of or belonging to ''[[Hindustan|Hind]]'' (India)}} (hence, {{gloss|Indian}}).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Steingass|first1=Francis Joseph|title=A comprehensive Persian-English dictionary|date=1892|publisher=Routledge & K. Paul |location=London|page=1514|url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:6823.steingass|access-date=13 February 2018|archive-date=21 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621060529/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.7:1:6823.steingass}}</ref>

Another name ''Hindavī'' (ہندوی/{{lang|hi|हिन्दवी}}) ({{ety|fa|هندوی|of or belonging to the Indian people}}) was often used in the past, for example, by [[Amir Khusrau]] in his poetry.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Khan|first1=Rajak|title=Indo-Persian Literature and Amir Khusro|url=http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=11660|publisher=[[Delhi University]]|access-date=17 February 2018}}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yexgmTQIYhUC|title=In the Bazaar of Love: The Selected Poetry of Amir Khusrau|first=Paul E.|last=Losensky|date=15 July 2013|publisher=Penguin UK|via=Google Books|isbn=978-81-8475-522-0}}</ref>

The terms ''Hindi'' and ''Hindu'' trace back to Old Persian, which derived these names from the [[Sanskrit]] name ''Sindhu'' ({{lang|sa|सिन्धु}}), referring to the [[Indus River]]. The Greek cognates of the same terms are ''Indus'' (for the river) and ''India'' (for the land of the river).<ref name="Bose2006">{{cite book|author=Mihir Bose|title=The Magic of Indian Cricket: Cricket and Society in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gyAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|date=18 April 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-24924-4|pages=1–3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/india|title=India|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref>

The term ''Modern Standard Hindi'' is commonly used to specifically refer to the modern literary Hindi language, as opposed to colloquial and regional varieties that are also referred to as [[Hindi belt|''Hindi'' in a wider sense]].<ref name="kachru"/>

==History==
{{further|History of Hindustani}}

===Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi===
Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] (not to be confused with the later variety of [[Classical Sanskrit]]). This early variety transitioned in [[medieval India]] into [[Shauraseni Prakrit]] and [[Apabhraṃśa|Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa]] (from Sanskrit ''apabhraṃśa'' "corrupt"), which emerged in the 7th century CE.<ref name="de">{{cite web|url=http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/english/hindi_orgin/briefhistory.html|work=Central Hindi Directorate|title=Brief History of Hindi|access-date=21 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306085510/http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/english/hindi_orgin/briefhistory.html|archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref>

The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:<ref>Masica, pp. 187–211</ref>
* [[Compensatory lengthening]] of vowels preceding [[geminate]] consonants, sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation: Skt. ''hasta'' "hand" > Pkt. ''hattha'' > ''hāth''
* Loss of all word-final vowels: ''rātri'' "night" > ''rattī'' > ''rāt''
* Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-): ''bandha'' "bond" > ''bā̃dh''
* Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected in [[schwa deletion]]): ''susthira'' "firm" > ''sutthira'' > ''suthrā''
* Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus: ''apara'' "other" > ''avara'' > ''aur''
* Final ''-m'' to ''-ṽ'': ''grāma'' "village" > ''gāma'' > ''gāṽ''
* Intervocalic ''-ḍ-'' to ''-ṛ-'' or ''-l-'': ''taḍāga'' "pond" > ''talāv'', ''naḍa'' "reed" > ''nal''.
* ''v'' > ''b'': ''vivāha'' "marriage" > ''byāh''

===Hindustani===
During the period of [[Delhi Sultanate]] in [[medieval India]], which covered most of today's north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh<ref>Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106–134.</ref> and which resulted in the [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb|contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures]], the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Prakrit]] base of [[Old Hindi]] became enriched with loanwords from [[Persian language|Persian]], evolving into the present form of Hindustani.<ref name="Rekhta2020">{{cite web |title=Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture – Rekhta Foundation |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/women-of-the-indian-sub-continent-makings-of-a-culture-rekhta-foundation/dwJy7qboNi3fIg?hl=en |publisher=[[Google Arts & Culture]] |access-date=25 February 2020 |language=en |quote=The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.}}</ref><ref name="MatthewsShackleHusain1985">{{cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=David John |last2=Shackle |first2=C. |last3=Husain |first3=Shahanara |title=Urdu literature |date=1985 |publisher=Urdu Markaz; Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies |isbn=978-0-907962-30-4 |language=en |quote=But with the establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi, it was the Old Hindi of this area which came to form the major partner with Persian. This variety of Hindi is called Khari Boli, 'the upright speech'.}}</ref><ref name="Dhulipala2000">{{cite book |last1=Dhulipala |first1=Venkat |title=The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |page=27 |language=en |quote=Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.}}</ref><ref name="IJSW1943">{{cite book |title=Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4 |date=1943 |publisher=[[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] |page=264 |language=en |quote=... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.}}</ref><ref name="Mody2008">{{cite book |last1=Mody |first1=Sujata Sudhakar |title=Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900–1920 |date=2008 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |page=7 |language=en |quote=...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).}}</ref><ref name="Kesavan1997">{{cite book |last1=Kesavan |first1=B. S. |title=History Of Printing And Publishing In India |date=1997 |publisher=National Book Trust, India |isbn=978-81-237-2120-0 |page=31 |language=en |quote=It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.}}</ref> Hindi achieved prominence in India after it became the official language of the [[Government of the Mughal Empire|imperial court]] during the reign of [[Shah Jahan]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Uday|last=Kumar|title=Status of Hindi in India|publisher=Readworthy |isbn=978-93-5018-149-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5QlWmycTKh0C|quote="During the period of Mughal Empire, Hindi was used as an additional official language" (Kansal 1991:48).}}</ref> It is recorded that Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] spoke in [[Hindustani language|Hindvi]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xOGJAAAAMAAJ&q=aurangzeb+hindi+language |title= Language Problem in India |page= 138 |publisher= Institute of Objective Studies |date= 1997 |isbn= 978-81-85220-41-3 }}</ref> The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the [[Indian independence movement|Indian Independence movement]],<ref name="Hock1991">{{cite book |author1=Hans Henrich Hock |title=Principles of Historical Linguistics |date=1991 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-012962-5 |page=475 |language=en |quote=During the time of British rule, Hindi (in its religiously neutral, 'Hindustani' variety) increasingly came to be the symbol of national unity over against the English of the foreign oppressor. And Hindustani was learned widely throughout India, even in Bengal and the Dravidian south. ... Independence had been accompanied by the division of former British India into two countries, Pakistan and India. The former had been established as a Muslim state and had made Urdu, the Muslim variety of Hindi–Urdu or Hindustani, its national language.|author1-link=Hans Henrich Hock }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&q=masica|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|last=Masica|first=Colin P.|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29944-2|pages=430 (Appendix I)|language=en|quote=Hindustani - term referring to common colloquial base of HINDI and URDU and to its function as lingua franca over much of India, much in vogue during Independence movement as expression of national unity; after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86–98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it their mother tongue (the majority of HINDI speakers and many URDU speakers had done so in previous censuses); trend continued in subsequent censuses: only 11,053 returned it in 1971...mostly from S India; [see Khubchandani 1983: 90–1].}}</ref> and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,<ref name="Ashmore1961">{{cite book |last1=Ashmore |first1=Harry S. |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 11 |date=1961 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |page=579 |language=en |quote=The everyday speech of well over 50,000,000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language, Hindustani.}}</ref> which is reflected in the [[Hindustani vocabulary]] of [[Bollywood]] films and songs.<ref name="Tunstall2008">{{cite book |last1=Tunstall |first1=Jeremy |title=The media were American: U.S. mass media in decline |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518146-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mediawereamerica0000tuns/page/160 160] |language=en |quote=The Hindi film industry used the most popular street level version of Hindi, namely Hindustani, which included a lot of Urdu and Persian words. |url=https://archive.org/details/mediawereamerica0000tuns/page/160 }}</ref><ref name="Hiro2015">{{cite book |last1=Hiro |first1=Dilip |title=The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan |date=2015 |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-56858-503-1 |page=398 |language=en|quote=Spoken Hindi is akin to spoken Urdu, and that language is often called Hindustani. Bollywood's screenplays are written in Hindustani.}}</ref>

Standard Hindi is based on the [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]] dialect, spoken in the [[Western Uttar Pradesh|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] ([[Delhi]], [[Meerut]], and [[Saharanpur]]);<ref name="de"/><ref name="Britannica2000">{{cite book |title=Students' Britannica India |date=2000 |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |page=299 |language=en |quote=Hindustani developed as lingua franca in the medieval ages in and around Delhi, Meerut and Saharanpur because of the interaction between the speakers of ''Khariboli'' (a dialect developed in this region out of Shauraseni Prakrit) and the speakers of Persian, Turkish, and various dialects of Arabic who migrated to North India. Initially it was known by various names such as ''Rekhta'' (mixed), ''Urdu'' (language of the camp) and ''Hindvi'' or ''Hindustani'' (language of Hindustan). Though ''Khariboli'' supplied its basic vocabulary and grammar, it borrowed quite a lot of words from Persian and Arabic}}</ref> the vernacular of [[Delhi]] and the surrounding region gradually replaced earlier prestige languages such as [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] and [[Braj]]. Standard Hindi was developed by supplanting foreign loanwords from the Hindustani language and replacing them with [[Sanskrit]] words, though Standard Hindi does continue to possess several Persian loanwords.<ref name="JainCardona2007"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael C. Shapiro|title=A PRIMER OF MODERN STANDARD HINDI|work=South Asia Center |url=https://jsis.washington.edu/southasia/publication/a-primer-of-modern-standard-hindi/}}</ref><ref name="Gumperz1971">{{cite book|author=John Joseph Gumperz|title=Language in Social Groups|url=https://archive.org/details/languageinsocial0000gump|url-access=registration|access-date=26 June 2012|year=1971|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-0798-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/languageinsocial0000gump/page/53 53]}}</ref> Modern Hindi became a literary language in the 19th century. Earliest examples could be found as ''Prēm Sāgar'' by [[Lallu Lal]], ''Batiyāl Pachīsī'' of Sadal Misra, and ''Rānī Kētakī Kī Kahānī'' of [[Insha Allah Khan]] which were published in [[Devanagari|Devanagari script]] during the early 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=RAHMAN |first=TARIQ |title=From Hindi to Urdu A Social and Political History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |location=Karachi, Pakistan. |page=41 |language=en}}</ref>

[[John Gilchrist (linguist)|John Gilchrist]] was principally known for his study of the [[Hindustani language]], which was adopted as the [[lingua franca]] of northern India (including what is now present-day [[Pakistan]]) by Britons and Indians alike. He compiled and authored ''An English-Hindustani Dictionary'', ''A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language'', ''The Oriental Linguist'', and many more. His [[lexicon]] of Hindustani was published in the [[Perso-Arabic script]], [[Nāgarī script]], and in [[Romanisation|Roman transliteration]]. In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form. In 1881, [[Bihar]] accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.<ref>Parthasarathy, Kumar, p.120</ref> However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Bihar: The language tussle – Indiascope News – Issue Date: Jul 31, 19…
| url = https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19800731-decision-to-make-urdu-second-official-language-in-bihar-provokes-furore-from-maithil-brahmins-821314-2014-01-17
| date = 16 June 2022
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20220616083954/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19800731-decision-to-make-urdu-second-official-language-in-bihar-provokes-furore-from-maithil-brahmins-821314-2014-01-17
| archive-date = 16 June 2022 }}</ref>

===Independent India===

On 14 September 1949, the [[Constituent Assembly of India]] adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the [[Official languages of Union govt of India|official language of the Republic of India]] replacing the previous usage of Hindustani in the Perso-Arabic script in the [[British Indian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ieMgAAAAQBAJ|title=Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations|last=Clyne|first=Michael|date=24 May 2012|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-088814-0|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QuEmDAAAQBAJ|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution|last1=Choudhry|first1=Sujit|last2=Khosla|first2=Madhav|last3=Mehta|first3=Pratap Bhanu|date=12 May 2016|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-105861-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew|url-access=registration|title=The Sikhs of the Punjab|last=Grewal|first=J. S.|date=8 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63764-0|language=en}}</ref> To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably [[:hi:व्यौहार राजेन्द्र सिंह|Beohar Rajendra Simha]] along with [[Hazari Prasad Dwivedi]], [[Kaka Kalelkar]], [[Maithili Sharan Gupt]] and [[Seth Govind Das]] who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patrika.com/news/jabalpur/know-hindi-had-the-status-of-national-language-1398330|title=हिन्दी दिवस विशेष: इनके प्रयास से मिला था हिन्दी को राजभाषा का दर्जा|work=Patrika News |date=8 September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911204803/https://www.patrika.com/news/jabalpur/know-hindi-had-the-status-of-national-language-1398330/|archive-date=11 September 2017}}</ref> Now, it is celebrated as [[Hindi Day]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-celebration-how-it-all-began/|work=[[The Indian Express]]|title=Hindi Diwas celebration: How it all began|date=14 September 2016|access-date=7 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208134226/http://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindi-diwas-celebration-how-it-all-began/|archive-date=8 February 2017}}</ref>

==Official status==

===India===
Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Union. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:

<blockquote>(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.<ref name="auto" /> 
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.<ref name="NIC2008">{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf |title=The Constitution of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909230437/http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref></blockquote>

It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351),<ref name=eighthschedule>{{cite web|url=http://india.gov.in/govt/documents/hindi/PARTXVII.pdf |title=Rajbhasha |publisher=india.gov.in |language=hi, en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131084820/http://www.india.gov.in/govt/documents/hindi/PARTXVII.pdf |archive-date=31 January 2012 }}</ref> with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the [[imposition of Hindi]] on non-native speakers, especially in [[South India]] (such as [[anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu|those in Tamil Nadu]]) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/en/official-languages-act-1963|title=The Official Languages Act, 1963 (as Amended, 1967) (Act No. 19 of 1963)|website=Department of Official Language|access-date=9 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216142842/http://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/en/official-languages-act-1963|archive-date=16 December 2016}}</ref>

[[s:Constitution of India/Part XVII|Article 344 (2b)]] stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for the progressive use of Hindi language and impose restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: [[Bihar]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Uttarakhand]].<ref name="langoff">{{cite web|url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |title=Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 50th report (July 2012 to June 2013) |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |access-date=26 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |archive-date= 8 July 2016}}</ref> Hindi is an official language of [[Gujarat]], along with [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]].<ref name="Benedikter2009">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA89|title=Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India|last=Benedikter|first=Thomas|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|year=2009|isbn=978-3-643-10231-7|page=89|access-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425230812/https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA89|archive-date=25 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> It acts as an additional official language of [[West Bengal]] in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Roy|first1=Anirban|title=West Bengal to have six more languages for official use |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/east/story/west-bengal-mamata-banerjee-recognizes-six-non-bengali-languages-134507-2011-05-27 |access-date=10 January 2020 |work=India Today |date=27 May 2011 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=Indiatoday:1>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/kamtapuri-rajbanshi-make-it-to-list-of-official-languages-in-1179890-2018-02-28 |title=Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi make it to list of official languages in |last=Roy |first=Anirban |date=28 February 2018 |magazine=[[India Today]] |access-date=16 March 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330143710/https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/kamtapuri-rajbanshi-make-it-to-list-of-official-languages-in-1179890-2018-02-28 |archive-date=30 March 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-the-first-choice-of-people-in-only-12-states/article27459774.ece|title=Hindi the first choice of people in only 12 States|newspaper=The Hindu|date=4 June 2019|last1=Sen|first1=Sumant}}</ref> Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following [[Union Territories]]: [[Delhi]], [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] and [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]].

Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Choudhury |first1=Sushmita |last2=Sharma |first2=Rajesh |date=15 September 2021 |title=70 years on, India is still fighting over a national language |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/70-years-on-india-is-still-fighting-over-a-national-language/articleshow/86196740.cms |access-date=19 March 2022 |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Swaddle |first=The |date=12 June 2021 |title=Hindi Isn't India's National Language. Why Does the Myth Continue? |url=https://theswaddle.com/hindi-isnt-indias-national-language-why-does-the-myth-continue/ |access-date=19 March 2022 |website=The Swaddle |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/why-hindi-isnt-the-national-language-6733241.html|title=Why Hindi isn't the national language|date=31 May 2019 |work=Firstpost |access-date=19 March 2022}}</ref> In 2010, the [[Gujarat High Court]] clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.<ref name="National TOI">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court|last=Khan|first=Saeed|date=25 January 2010|location=Ahmedabad|access-date=5 May 2014|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318040319/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|archive-date=18 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="National PTI">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ece|title=Hindi, not a national language: Court|date=25 January 2010|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Ahmedabad|publisher=[[Press Trust of India]]|access-date=23 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704084339/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ece|archive-date=4 July 2014}}</ref>

===Fiji===
Hindi is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997, 2012 and 2013 constitution's of Fiji. Two dialects of Hindi are spoken in Fiji, Standard Hindi and [[Fiji Hindi]]. The latter dialect traces its origins to [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], an eastern Hindi dialect. However, Standard Hindi is the official variant of Hindi recognized by the constitution and used in all official purposes, education, media and businesses due to Fiji Hindi's lack of standardisation.<ref name="ethnologue.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/hif/|title=Hindi, Fiji|work=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=17 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211075826/http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/hif/|archive-date=11 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/fijihindi.htm|title=Fiji Hindi alphabet, pronunciation and language|website=www.omniglot.com|access-date=22 June 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608100818/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/fijihindi.htm|archive-date=8 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fj00000_.html |title=Section 4 of Fiji Constitution |publisher=servat.unibe.ch |access-date=3 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609110318/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fj00000_.html |archive-date=9 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiji.gov.fj/govt--publications/constitution.aspx|title=Constitution of Fiji|work=Official site of the Fijian Government|access-date=14 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011085543/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/govt--publications/constitution.aspx|archive-date=11 October 2016}}</ref> Hindi is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.<ref name="ethnologue.com"/>

===Nepal===
Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in [[Nepal]] according to the [[2011 Nepal census]], and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Vol. 2 |year=2014 |place=Kathmandu |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref> A Hindi proponent, Indian-born [[Paramananda Jha]], was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies, and there was a general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept "inactive" as vice-president. An "angry" Jha said, "I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nalankilli |first1=Thanjai |title=Hindi in Nepal – An Analysis |url=http://www.tamiltribune.com/11/0901.html |website=Tamiltribune.com |access-date=17 December 2022 |archive-date=18 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318051111/http://www.tamiltribune.com/11/0901.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

===South Africa===
Hindi is a protected language in [[South Africa]]. According to the [[Constitution of South Africa]], the [[Pan South African Language Board]] must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.<ref name="auto1"/> According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them – of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Mesthrie |first1=Rajend |title=A history of the Bhojpuri (or "Hindi") language in South Africa |url=https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/19511 |website=[[University of Cape Town]] |year=1985 |access-date=17 December 2022|type=Doctoral Thesis }}</ref>

===United Arab Emirates===
Hindi was adopted as the third official court language in the [[Emirate of Abu Dhabi]].<ref name="thehindu.com"/> As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue.<ref>{{cite news |title=UAE introduces Hindi as third official language |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/uae-introduces-hindi-as-third-official-language-119021200048_1.html |newspaper=Business Standard India |date=12 February 2019 |access-date=17 December 2022}}</ref>

==Geographical distribution==
{{Main|Hindustani-speaking world}}

Hindi is the [[lingua franca]] of [[northern India]] (which contains the [[Hindi Belt]]), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English.<ref name="NIC2008"/>

In [[Northeast India]] a pidgin known as [[Haflong Hindi]] has developed as a ''lingua franca'' for the people living in [[Haflong]], [[Assam]] who speak other languages natively.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Kothari|editor1-first=Ria|title=Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish|date=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341639-5|page=128}}</ref> In [[Arunachal Pradesh]], Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/675419/how-hindi-became-the-language-of-choice-in-arunachal-pradesh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211120138/http://scroll.in/article/675419/how-hindi-became-the-language-of-choice-in-arunachal-pradesh|title=How Hindi became the language of choice in Arunachal Pradesh|first=Abhimanyu|last=Chandra|archive-date=11 December 2016|website=Scroll.in |date=22 August 2014 }}</ref>

Hindi is quite easy to understand for many [[Pakistan]]is, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.<ref name="Gandapur2012">{{cite news |last1=Gandapur |first1=Khalid Amir Khan |title=Has Hindi become our national language? |url=https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/13807/has-hindi-become-our-national-language |newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]] |access-date=24 January 2020 |language=en |date=19 September 2012 |archive-date=31 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731213305/https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/13807/has-hindi-become-our-national-language/ }}</ref>

A sizeable population in [[Afghanistan]], especially in [[Kabul]], can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of [[Bollywood]] films, songs and actors in the region.<ref name="Hakala2012">{{cite magazine|url=http://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf|title=Languages as a Key to Understanding Afghanistan's Cultures|last=Hakala|first=Walter N.|year=2012|magazine=[[National Geographic]]|language=en|access-date=13 March 2018|quote=In the 1980s and '90s, at least three million Afghans—mostly Pashtun—fled to Pakistan, where a substantial number spent several years being exposed to Hindi- and Urdu-language media, especially Bollywood films and songs, and being educated in Urdu-language schools, both of which contributed to the decline of Dari, even among urban Pashtuns.|archive-date=14 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314042412/http://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/asia_8.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurthy2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.gatewayhouse.in/kabul-diary-discovering-the-indian-connection/|title=Kabul Diary: Discovering the Indian connection|last=Krishnamurthy|first=Rajeshwari|date=28 June 2013|publisher=Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations|language=en|access-date=13 March 2018|quote=Most Afghans in Kabul understand and/or speak Hindi, thanks to the popularity of Indian cinema in the country.}}</ref>

Hindi is also spoken by a large population of [[Madheshi]]s (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of [[Nepal]]. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large [[Indian diaspora]] which hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt" of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the [[United States of America]], the United Kingdom, the [[United Arab Emirates]], Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and [[Mauritius]], where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities.

Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in [[Nepal]]; 863,077 in the [[United States|United States of America]];<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/hindi-most-spoken-indian-language-in-us-telugu-speakers-up-86-in-8-years/articleshow/65893224.cms|title=Hindi most spoken Indian language in US, Telugu speakers up 86% in 8 years |website=The Times of India|date=21 September 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/us|title=United States- Languages|work=Ethnologue|access-date=17 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211075837/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/us|archive-date=11 February 2017}}</ref> 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji;<ref name="ethnologue.com"/> 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname;<ref name="bookcitation">Frawley, p. 481</ref> 100,000 in [[Uganda]]; 45,800 in the United Kingdom;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/GB|title=United Kingdom- Languages|work=Ethnologue|access-date=17 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201044623/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/GB|archive-date=1 February 2017}}</ref> 20,000 in [[New Zealand]]; 20,000 in [[Germany]]; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago;<ref name="bookcitation"/> 3,000 in [[Singapore]].

== Comparison with Standard Urdu ==
{{Main|Hindi–Urdu controversy|Hindustani phonology|Hindustani grammar}}

[[Linguistics|Linguistically]], Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.<ref name="Daniyal2016">{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/809102/the-death-of-urdu-in-india-is-greatly-exaggerated-the-language-is-actually-thriving|title=Hindi and Urdu are classified as literary registers of the same language|date=June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602104222/http://scroll.in/article/809102/the-death-of-urdu-in-india-is-greatly-exaggerated-the-language-is-actually-thriving|archive-date=2 June 2016|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> Both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.<ref name="GubeGao2019"/><ref name="Kuiper2010">{{cite book |last1=Kuiper |first1=Kathleen |title=The Culture of India |date=2010 |publisher=[[Rosen Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-61530-149-2 |language=en |quote=Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language.}}</ref><ref name="ChatterjiSiṃhaPadikkal1997"/> However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more direct ''tatsama'' [[Sanskrit]]-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the [[Perso-Arabic]] script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.<ref name="JainCardona2007">{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Danesh |last2=Cardona |first2=George |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9 |language=en |quote=The primary sources of non-IA loans into MSH are Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Turkic and English. Conversational registers of Hindi/Urdu (not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu) employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords, although in Sanskritized registers many of these words are replaced by ''tatsama'' forms from Sanskrit. The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India. Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi/Urdu, in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another. The Arabic (and also Turkic) lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian, as a result of which a thorough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place, as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words. Moreover, although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian, and thence into Hindi/Urdu, examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi/Urdu.}}</ref> Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar,<ref name="PeterDass2019">{{cite book |last1=Peter-Dass |first1=Rakesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxmvDwAAQBAJ |title=Hindi Christian Literature in Contemporary India |date=2019 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-00-070224-8 |language=en |quote=Two forms of the same language, Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi (Urdu) had identical grammar, shared common words and roots, and employed different scripts.}}</ref><ref name="GubeGao2019"/><ref name="Kuiper2010"/> a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language, [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] or Hindi-Urdu.<ref name="Daniyal2016"/><ref name="PeterDass2019"/><ref name="GubeGao2019"/><ref name="Basu2017">{{cite book |last1=Basu |first1=Manisha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E7gtDQAAQBAJ |title=The Rhetoric of Hindutva |date=2017 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-14987-8 |language=en |quote=Urdu, like Hindi, was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Delhi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals.}}</ref> Hindi is the most commonly used scheduled language in India and is [[Official languages of india|one of the two official languages of the union]],<ref>{{cite web |title=THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE POLICY OF THE UNION |url=https://rajbhasha.nic.in/en/official-language-policy-union |website=Department of Official Language - Governemtn of India |access-date=7 November 2023}}</ref> the other being English. Urdu is the [[Languages of Pakistan#Major regional languages|national language]] and ''lingua franca'' of [[Pakistan]] and is [[Scheduled languages of India|one of 22 scheduled languages of India]], also having official status in [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Delhi]], [[Telangana]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/list-of-official-languages-of-indian-states-and-union-territories-1624022980-1 |title=List of Official Languages of Indian States and Union Territories |first=Arfa |last=Javaid |orig-date=18 June 2021 |date=23 June 2021 |website=jagranjosh.com |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127162819/https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/amp/list-of-official-languages-of-indian-states-and-union-territories-1624022980-1 }}</ref> [[Andhra Pradesh]]<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=23 March 2022 |title=Bill recognising Urdu as second official language passed |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/bill-recognising-urdu-as-second-official-languagepassed/article65252966.ece |access-date=4 March 2023 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> and [[Bihar]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ahmed |first1=Farzand |title=Decision to make Urdu second official language in Bihar provokes furore from Maithil Brahmins |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19800731-decision-to-make-urdu-second-official-language-in-bihar-provokes-furore-from-maithil-brahmins-821314-2014-01-17 |website=India Today |date=17 January 2014 |access-date=17 December 2022}}</ref>

==Script==
{{Main|Devanagari}}

Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an [[abugida]]. Devanagari consists of 11 [[Devanagari script#Vowels|vowels]] and 33 [[Devanagari script#Consonants|consonants]] and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages|schwa deletion]] in spoken Standard Hindi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhatia|first1=Tej K.|title=A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition: Hindi-Hindustani Grammar, Grammarians, History and Problems|date=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07924-3}}</ref>

===Romanisation===
{{main|Devanagari transliteration}}

The [[Government of India]] uses [[Hunterian transliteration]] as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as [[IAST]], [[ITRANS]] and [[ISO 15919]].

[[Romanised Hindi]], also called [[Hinglish]], is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of [[YouTube]] comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanised Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in [[Devanagari]] Hindi.<ref name="Palakodety">{{cite book |last1=Palakodety |first1=Shriphani |date=2021 |chapter=Low Resource Machine Translation |title=Low Resource Social Media Text Mining |pages=7–9 |location=Singapore |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-16-5624-8 |last2=KhudaBukhsh |first2=Ashiqur R. |last3=Jayachandran |first3=Guha |doi=10.1007/978-981-16-5625-5_5 |s2cid=244313560}}</ref>

== Phonology ==
{{Main|Hindustani phonology}}

{|
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em; text-align: center;"
! colspan="6" | [[Consonant]]s
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! colspan="3" | Examples
! rowspan="2" | Devanagari representation
! rowspan="2" | English approximation
|-
! [[Devanagari|Hindi]]
! [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]]
! [[ISO 15919]]
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|k}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|कमज़ोर}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|کمزور}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''k'''amzor}}
|क्
|s'''c'''ab
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|kʰ}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|खाल}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|کھال}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''kh'''āl}}
|ख्
|'''c'''ab
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɡ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|गोल}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|گول}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''g'''ol}}
|ग्
|a'''g'''o
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɡʱ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|घर}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|گھر}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''gh'''ar}}
|घ्
| lo'''gh'''ouse
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ŋ}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|रंग}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|رن٘گ}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|ra'''ṅ'''g}}
|ङ्
|ba'''ng'''
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|tʃ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|चोर}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|چور}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''c'''or}}
|च्
| ca'''tch'''
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|tʃʰ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|छोड़ना}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|چھوڑنا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''ch'''oṛnā}}
|छ्
| a'''ch'''oo
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|dʒ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|जान}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|جان}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''j'''ān}}
|ज्
| bu'''dg'''ing
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|dʒʱ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|झड़ना}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|جھڑنا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''jh'''aṛnā}}
|झ्
|he'''dgeh'''og
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ʈ}}</big><ref name="coronal">Hindi and Urdu contrast dental {{IPAblink|t̪|t}} and {{IPAblink|d̪|d}} with apical postalveolar {{IPAblink|ʈ}} and {{IPAblink|ɖ}} (as well as aspirated variants). Both sets sound like {{IPAc-en|t}} and {{IPAc-en|d}} to most English speakers although the dental [t] and [d] are used in place of the English {{IPAc-en|θ}} and {{IPAc-en|ð}} for some speakers with [[th-stopping]].</ref>
|{{lang|hi|टमाटर}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|ٹماٹر}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''ṭ'''amā'''ṭ'''ar}}
|‌‌‌ट्
|s'''t'''ub (but retroflex)
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ʈʰ}}</big><ref name="coronal" />
|{{lang|hi|ठंड}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|ٹھنڈ}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''ṭh'''anḍ}}
|ठ्
|'''t'''ub (but retroflex)
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɖ}}</big><ref name=coronal/>
| {{lang|hi|डालना}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|ڈالنا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''ḍ'''ālnā}}
|ड्
|[[American English|American]] bir'''d'''
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɖʱ}}</big><ref name=coronal/>
| {{lang|hi|ढक्कन}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|ڈھکّن}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''ḍh'''akkan}}
|ढ्
|American bir'''dh'''ouse
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ɳ}}</big><ref name="Hindi">Mainly phonemes of Hindi. Urdu speakers usually replace [ɳ] and [ʂ] with [n] and [ʃ] respectively.</ref>
|{{lang|hi|किरण}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|کرن}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|kira'''ṇ'''}}
|ण्
|American bur'''n'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |<big>{{IPA link|t̪|t}}</big><ref name="coronal" />
|{{lang|hi|तालाब}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|تالاب}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''t'''ālāb}}
| rowspan="2" |त्
| rowspan="2" |similar to ou'''t'''think, Spanish '''t'''omar
|-
|लतीफ़ा
|{{Nq|لطیفہ}}
|''la'''t̤'''īfā''
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|tʰ}}</big><ref name="coronal" />
| {{lang|hi|थैला}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|تھیلا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''th'''ailā}}
|थ्
|'''t'''ub (but dental)
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|d̪|d}}</big><ref name="coronal" />
| {{lang|hi|दाल}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|دال}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''d'''āl}}
|द्
|'''th'''e
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|dʱ}}</big><ref name="coronal" />
| {{lang|hi|धूप}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|دھوپ}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''dh'''ūp}}
|ध्
|a'''dh'''ere (but dental)
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|n}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|नहीं}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|نہیں}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''n'''ahī̃}}
|न्
|pa'''n'''ther
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|p}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|पल}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|پل}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''p'''al}}
|प्
|s'''p'''ot
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|pʰ}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|फल}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|پھل}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''ph'''al}}
|फ्
|'''p'''ot
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|b}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|बीस}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|بیس}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''b'''īs}}
|ब्
|ca'''bb'''ie
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|bʱ}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|भालू}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|بھالو}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''bh'''ālū}}
|भ्
|clu'''bh'''ouse
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|m}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|मगर}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|مگر}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''m'''agar}}
|म्
|'''m'''uch
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|j}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|याद}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|یاد}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''y'''ād}}
|य्
|'''y'''uck
|-
| rowspan="2" |<big>{{IPA link|r}}</big><ref name="rhotic">{{IPA|/ɾ/}} can surface as a trill {{IPA|[r]}} in word-initial and syllable-final positions. Geminate {{IPA|/ɾː/}} is always a trill.</ref>
|{{lang|hi|रस}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|رس}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''r'''as}}
| rowspan="3" |र्
| rowspan="2" |Trilled '''r'''ing
|-
|{{lang|hi|ज़र्रा}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|ذرّہ}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|za'''rr'''a}}
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ɾ}}</big><ref name="rhotic" />
|{{lang|hi|ज़रा}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|ذرا}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|za'''r'''ā}}
|American a'''t'''om
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|l}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|लब}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|لب}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''l'''ab}}
|ल्
|'''l'''eaf
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ʋ}}</big><ref name="V">{{IPA|[w]}} occurs as an allophone of {{IPA|[ʋ]}} when /{{lang|hi|व}} {{lang|ur|{{nastaliq|و}}}}/ is in an onglide position between an onset consonant and a following vowel while {{IPA|[ʋ]}}, which may phonetically be {{IPAblink|v}}, occurs otherwise.</ref>
|{{lang|hi|वर्ज़िश}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|ورزش}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''v'''arziś}}
| rowspan="2" |व्
|'''v'''at
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|w}}</big><ref name="V" />
|{{lang|hi|पकवान}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|پكوان}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|pak'''v'''ān}}
|'''w'''ell
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ʃ}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|काश}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|کاش}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|kā'''ś'''}}
|श्
|'''sh'''oe
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ʂ}}</big><ref name="Hindi" />
|{{lang|hi|नष्ट}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|نشٹ}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|na'''ṣ'''ṭ}}
|ष्
|'''shr'''ew
|-
| rowspan="3" |<big>{{IPA link|s}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|सब}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|سب}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''s'''ab}}
| rowspan="3" |स्
| rowspan="3" |'''s'''un
|-
|{{lang|hi|साफ़}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|صاف}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''s̤'''āf}}
|-
|{{lang|hi|साबित}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|ثابت}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''s̱'''ābit}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | <big>{{IPA link|ɦ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|हम}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|ہم}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''h'''am}}
| rowspan="2" |ह्
| rowspan="2" | a'''h'''ead
|-
|{{lang|hi|हुक्म}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|حکم}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''h̤'''ukm}}
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|q}}</big><ref name="Urdu">Mainly phonemes of Urdu. Hindi speakers may replace [x], [z], [ʒ], [ɣ] and [q] with [kʰ], [dʒ], [dʒʱ], [g] and [k] respectively.</ref>
| {{lang|hi|क़रीब}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|قریب}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''q'''arīb}}
|‌‌‌क़्
|somewhat like '''c'''aught
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|x}}</big><ref name="Urdu" />
|{{lang|hi|ख़राब}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|خراب}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''k͟h'''arāb}}
|ख़्
|[[Scottish English|Scottish]] lo'''ch'''
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ɣ}}</big><ref name="Urdu" />
|{{lang|hi|बाग़}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|باغ}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|bā'''ġ'''}}
|ग़्
|Similar to the French R
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|z}}<ref name="Urdu" /></big>
| {{lang|hi|काग़ज़}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|کاغذ}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|kāġa'''z'''}}
|ज़्
|'''z'''oo
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ʒ}}</big><ref name="Urdu" /><ref name="Morelli2019">{{cite book |last1=Morelli |first1=Sarah |title=A Guru's Journey: Pandit Chitresh Das and Indian Classical Dance in Diaspora |date=20 December 2019 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-05172-2 |language=en |quote=Hindi has a nasal sound roughly equivalent to the ''n'' in the English sa''n''g, transliterated here as ''ṅ'' or ''ṁ'', and has two slightly differing ''sh'' sounds, transliterated as ''ś'' and ''ṣ''. ... A few words contain consonants…from Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, and English: क़ (ق) is transliterated as q, ख़ (خ) as kh, ग़ (غ) as g, ज़ (ظ ,ز, or ض) as z, झ़ (ژ) as zh, and फ़ (ف) as f.}}</ref>
| {{lang|hi|अझ़दहा}}<ref name="Rekhta2023">{{cite web |date=2023 |title=Meaning of azhdaha in English |url=https://www.rekhtadictionary.com/meaning-of-azhdahaa?lang=en |access-date=12 December 2023 |publisher=[[Rekhta Dictionary]] |language=en}}</ref>
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|اژدہا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|a'''ž'''dahā}}
|झ़्
|plea'''s'''ure<ref name="PandeyMondalAgrawalBangalore2013">{{Cite book |last1=Pandey |first1=Dipti |title=2013 International Conference Oriental COCOSDA held jointly with 2013 Conference on Asian Spoken Language Research and Evaluation (O-COCOSDA/CASLRE) |last2=Mondal |first2=Tapabrata |last3=Agrawal |first3=S. S. |last4=Bangalore |first4=Srinivas |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-4799-2378-6 |page=3 |chapter=Development and suitability of Indian languages speech database for building watson based ASR system |doi=10.1109/ICSDA.2013.6709861 |quote=Only in Hindi 10 Phonemes व /v/ क़ /q/ ञ /ɲ/ य /j/ ष /ʂ/ ख़ /x/ ग़ /ɣ/ ज़ /z/ झ़ /ʒ/ फ़ /f/ |s2cid=26461938}}</ref>
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɽ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|लड़ना}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|لڑنا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|la'''ṛ'''nā}}
|ड़
|American ga'''rt'''er
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɽʱ}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|पढ़ाई}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|پڑھائی}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|pa'''ṛh'''āī}}
|ढ़
|no English equivalent
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|f}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|ख़िलाफ़}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|خلاف}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|k͟hilā'''f'''}}
|फ़्
|'''f'''uss
|-
|<big>{{IPA link|ʔ}}</big>
|{{lang|hi|एतबार}}
|{{lang|ur|{{nq|اعتبار}}}}
|{{transliteration|inc|ISO|iʻtibār}}
|
|The pause in ''"uh-oh!"'', bu'''tt'''er "bu'er" ([[T-glottalization|t-glottalizing dialects]])
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em 2em; text-align: center;"
! colspan="6" | [[Vowel]]s
|-
! rowspan="2"| [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! colspan="3" | Examples
! rowspan="2" | Devanagari representation
! rowspan="2" | English approximation
|-
! [[Devanagari|Hindi]]
! [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]]
! [[ISO 15919]]
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ə}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|कल}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|کَل}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|k'''a'''l}}
| rowspan="2" |अ
|'''a'''bout
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɛ}}</big><ref>{{IPA|[ɛ]}} occurs as an allophone of {{IPA|/ə/}} near an {{IPA|/ɦ/}} that is surrounded on both sides by schwas. Usually, the second schwa becomes silent, which results in an {{IPA|[ɛ]}} preceding an {{IPA|/ɦ/}}.</ref>
| {{lang|hi|रहना}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|رہنا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|r'''ê'''hnā}}
|p'''e'''n
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|äː|aː}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|काम}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|کام}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|k'''ā'''m}}
|आ or ा
|f'''a'''ther
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|i}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|जितना}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|جِتنا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|j'''i'''tnā}}
|इ or ि
|s'''i'''t
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|iː}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|जीतना}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|جیتنا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|j'''ī'''tnā}}
|ई or ी
|s'''ea'''t
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|u}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|उन}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|اُن}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''u'''n}}
|उ or ु
|b'''oo'''k
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|uː}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|ऊन}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|اُون}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|'''ū'''n}}
|ऊ or ू
|m'''oo'''n
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|eː}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|जेब}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|جیب}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|j'''e'''b}}
|ए or े
|m'''ai'''l
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɛː}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|कैसा}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|کیسا}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|k'''ai'''sā}}
|ऐ or ै
|f'''ai'''ry
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|oː}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|बोलो}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|بولو}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|b'''o'''l'''o'''}}
|ओ or ो
|gr'''ow'''
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ɔː}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|कौन}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|کَون}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|k'''au'''n}}
|औ or ौ
|j'''o'''b
|-
| rowspan="2" | <big>{{IPA link|◌̃}}</big>
| {{lang|hi|हँस}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|ہن٘س}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|ha'''m̐'''s}}
| rowspan="2" |ँ
| rowspan="2" | nasal vowel fa'''un''' ({{IPA|[ãː, õː]}}, etc.)
|-
| {{lang|hi|मैं}}
| {{lang|ur|{{nq|مَیں}}}}
| {{transliteration|inc|ISO|ma'''ī̃'''}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em 2em; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | [[Suprasegmental]]s
|-
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! Example
! Notes
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ˈ|ˈ◌}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ˈbaːɦər]}}
| style="text-align: left;" | stress (placed before stressed syllable)
|-
| <big>{{IPA link|ː|◌ː}}</big>
| {{IPA|[ˈʊtːəɾ pɾəˈdeːʃ]}}
| style="text-align: left;" | doubled consonant (placed after doubled consonant)
|}
|}

==Vocabulary==
{{further|Hindustani etymology|List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi}}
Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:

* '''[[Tatsama|Tatsam]]''' ({{lang|hi|तत्सम}} {{Translation|"same as that"}}) words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence of final case inflections).<ref name="sirysq">Masica, p. 65</ref> They include words inherited from Sanskrit via [[Prakrit]] which have survived without modification (e.g. Hindi {{lang|hi|नाम}} ''nām'' / Sanskrit {{lang|sa|नाम}} ''nāma'', "name",<ref>Masica, p. 66</ref> as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g. {{lang|hi|प्रार्थना}} ''prārthanā'', "prayer").<ref>Masica, p. 67</ref> Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit. Amongst nouns, the ''tatsam'' word could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
* '''Ardhatatsam''' ({{lang|hi|अर्धतत्सम}} {{Translation|"semi-tatsama"}}) words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed. (e.g. Hindi {{lang|hi|सूरज}} ''sūraj'' from Sanskrit {{lang|sa|सूर्य}} ''sūrya'')
* '''[[Tadbhava|Tadbhav]]''' ({{lang|hi|तद्भव}} {{Translation|"born of that"}}) words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g. Sanskrit {{lang|sa|कर्म}} ''karma'', "deed" becomes [[Shauraseni Prakrit]] {{lang|psu-Deva|कम्म}} ''kamma'', and eventually Hindi {{lang|hi|काम}} ''kām'', "work") and are spelled differently from Sanskrit.<ref name = "sirysq"/>
* '''Deshaj''' ({{lang|hi|देशज}} {{Translation|"of the country"}}) words: These are words that were not borrowings from non-indigenous languages but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are [[onomatopoetic]] words or ones borrowed from local non-[[Indo-Aryan languages]].
* '''Videshī''' ({{lang|hi|विदेशी}} {{Translation|"foreign"}}) words: These include all [[loanwords]] from non-indigenous languages. The most frequent source languages in this category are [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic]], [[English language|English]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. Examples are {{lang|hi|क़िला}} ''qila'' "fort" from Persian, {{lang|hi|कमेटी}} ''kameṭī'' from English ''committee''.

===Prakrit===
Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from [[Shauraseni Prakrit]], in the form of ''tadbhava'' words.<ref name="ChatterjiSiṃhaPadikkal1997"/> This process usually involves [[compensatory lengthening]] of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit ''tīkṣṇa'' > Prakrit ''tikkha'' > Hindi ''tīkhā''.

===Sanskrit===
Much of Standard Hindi's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as ''tatsam'' borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by [[neologism]]s compounding ''tatsam'' words, is called ''Śuddh Hindi'' (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.

Excessive use of ''tatsam'' words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in Hindustani, causing difficulties in pronunciation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ohala|first1=Manjari|title=Aspects of Hindi Phonology|date=1983|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-0-89581-670-2|page=38}}</ref>

As a part of the process of [[Sanskritisation]], new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are [[calque]]s of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as ''dūrbhāṣ'' "telephone", literally "far-speech" and ''dūrdarśan'' "television", literally "far-sight" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings ''(ṭeli)fon'' and ''ṭīvī''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arnold|first1=David|last2=Robb|first2=Peter|title=Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-10234-9|page=82}}</ref>

===Persian===
Hindi also features significant [[Persian language|Persian]] influence, standardised from spoken [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]].<ref name="JainCardona2007"/><ref name="kachru">{{cite book|last1=Kachru|first1=Yamuna|title=Hindi|date=2006|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-3812-2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2016}} Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to [[Islam]] (e.g. ''Muhammad'', ''Islām'') and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Mughal Empire]], Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the [[izafat]], were assimilated into Hindi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhatia|first1=Tej K.|last2=Ritchie|first2=William C.|title=The Handbook of Bilingualism|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookbilingua00bhat_489|url-access=limited|date=2006|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-631-22735-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookbilingua00bhat_489/page/n797 789]}}</ref>

The status of Persian language then and thus its influence, is also visible in Hindi [[proverb]]s:

{{Verse transliteration-translation
|lang=hi
|हाथ कंगन को आरसी क्या,
पढ़े लिखे को फ़ारसी क्या।
|Hāth kaṅgan ko ārsī kyā,
Paṛhe likhe ko Fārsī kyā.
|What is mirror to a hand with bangles,
What is Persian to a literate.
}}

The emergence of Modern Standard Hindi in the 19th century went along with the Sanskritisation of its vocabulary,<ref>King, Christopher R. (1994). ''One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.</ref> leading to a marginalisation of Persian vocabulary in Hindi, which continued after [[Partition of India|Partition]] when the Indian government co-opted the policy of Sanskritisation. However, many Persian words (e.g. ''bas'' "enough", ''khud'' "self") have remained entrenched in Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in [[Urdu poetry]] written in the Devanagari script. Many words borrowed from Persian in turn were loanwords from Arabic (e.g. ''muśkil'' "difficult", ''havā'' "air", ''x(a)yāl'' "thought", ''kitāb'' "book").

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Loanwords from Persian derived from Arabic<ref>{{cite web |last1=Khalife |first1=Leyal |date=25 December 2016 |title=9 Hindi words that sound just like Arabic |url=https://stepfeed.com/9-hindi-words-that-sound-just-like-arabic-6921 |access-date=16 December 2022 |website=Stepfeed.com}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2023}}
|-
! Perso-Arabic word !! Hindi word !! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ar|وقت}} {{transliteration|ar|waqt}} || {{lang|hi|वक़्त}} {{transliteration|hi|vaqt}} || time
|-
| {{lang|ar|قميص}} {{transliteration|ar|qamīṣ}} || {{lang|hi|क़मीज़}} {{transliteration|hi|qamīz}} ||shirt{{Refn|group=Footnote|name=first|ultimately comes from the Latin "camisia" pronunciation reinforced by Portuguese "camisa".}}
|-
| {{lang|ar|كتاب}} {{transliteration|ar|kitāb}} || {{lang|hi|किताब}} {{transliteration|hi|kitāb}} || book
|-
| {{lang|ar|نصيب}} {{transliteration|ar|naṣīb}} || {{lang|hi|नसीब}} {{transliteration|hi|nasīb}} || destiny
|-
| {{lang|ar|كرسي}} {{transliteration|ar|kursiyy}} || {{lang|hi|कुर्सी}} {{transliteration|hi|kursī}} || chair
|-
| {{lang|ar|حساب}} {{transliteration|ar|ḥisāb}} || {{lang|hi|हिसाब}} {{transliteration|hi|hisāb}} || calculation
|-
| {{lang|ar|قانون}} {{transliteration|ar|qānūn}} || {{lang|hi|क़ानून}} {{transliteration|hi|qānūn}} || law{{Refn|group=Footnote|name=second|ultimately comes from the Greek κανών (kanōn)}}
|-
| {{lang|ar|خبر}} {{transliteration|ar|ḵabar}} || {{lang|hi|ख़बर}} {{transliteration|hi|xabar}} || news
|-
| {{lang|ar|دنيا}} {{transliteration|ar|dunyā}} || {{lang|hi|दुनिया}} {{transliteration|hi|duniyā}} || world
|}

=== English ===
{{See also|Englishisation#South Asia}}
Hindi also makes extensive use of [[loan translation]] ([[calqueing]]) and occasionally [[phono-semantic matching]] of [[English language|English]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tN0rBgAAQBAJ |title=Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader |last2=Robb |first2=Peter |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-10234-9 |page=79}}</ref>

===Portuguese===
{{unref section|date=January 2026}}
Many Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Hindi !! Meaning !! Portuguese
|-
| ''anānās'' (अनानास) || pineapple || ananás
|-
| ''pādrī'' (पाद्री) || priest || padre
|-
| ''bālṭī'' (बाल्टी) || bucket || balde
|-
| ''čābī'' (चाबी) || key || chave
|-
| ''girjā'' (गिर्जा) || church || igreja
|-
| ''almārī'' (अलमारी) || cupboard || armário
|-
| ''botal'' (बोतल) || bottle || botelha
|-
| ''aspatāl'' (अस्पताल) || hospital || hospital
|-
| ''olandez'' (ओलंदेज़) || Dutch || holandês
|-
|}

==Media==

===Literature===
{{Main|Hindi literature}}

Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being ''[[Bhakti]]'' (devotional – [[Kabirdas|Kabir]], [[Raskhan]]); ''Śṛṇgār'' (beauty – [[Keshav]], [[Bihari (poet)|Bihari]]); ''Vīgāthā'' (epic); and ''Ādhunik'' (modern).

Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of [[Bhakti movement]] and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other [[Hindi languages|varieties of Hindi]], particularly [[Avadhi]] and [[Braj Bhasha]], but to a degree also in [[Dehlavi dialect|Dehlavi]], the basis for Standard Hindi. During the [[British Raj]], Hindustani became the prestige dialect.

[[Chandrakanta (novel)|''Chandrakanta'']], written by [[Devaki Nandan Khatri]] in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/756105/stop-outraging-over-marathi-hindi-and-english-chauvinism-is-much-worse-in-india|title=Stop outraging over Marathi – Hindi and English chauvinism is much worse in India|date=18 September 2015 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919230723/http://scroll.in/article/756105/stop-outraging-over-marathi-hindi-and-english-chauvinism-is-much-worse-in-india|archive-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature was [[Munshi Premchand]], who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, or ''Sāhityik'', Hindi was popularised by the writings of [[Swami Dayananda Saraswati]], [[Bhartendu Harishchandra]] and others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

The ''Dvivedī Yug'' ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after [[Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi]], who played a major role in establishing Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as ''[[Chhayavaad|Chāyāvād]]'' (''shadow-ism'') and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as ''Chāyāvādī''. [[Jaishankar Prasad]], [[Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala']], [[Mahadevi Varma]] and [[Sumitranandan Pant]], are the four major ''Chāyāvādī'' poets.

''Uttar Ādhunik'' is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the ''Chāyāvādī'' movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.

===Internet===
Hindi literature, [[music]], and [[Bollywood|film]] have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hindi content consumption on internet growing at 94%: Google|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/hindi-content-consumption-on-internet-growing-at-94-google/articleshow/48528347.cms|access-date=14 February 2018|agency=The Economic Times|date=18 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215085102/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/hindi-content-consumption-on-internet-growing-at-94-google/articleshow/48528347.cms|archive-date=15 February 2018}}</ref> Many Hindi [[newspaper]]s also offer digital editions.

==Sample text==
{{see also|Urdu#Sample text}}{{unref section|date=January 2026}}
The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (by the United Nations):
;Hindi in Devanagari Script
:
:{{Langx|hi|अनुच्छेद १(एक): सभी मनुष्य जन्म से स्वतन्त्र तथा मर्यादा और अधिकारों में समान होते हैं। वे तर्क और विवेक से सम्पन्न हैं तथा उन्हें भ्रातृत्व की भावना से परस्पर के प्रति कार्य करना चाहिए।|label=none}}
;;Transliteration ([[ISO 15919|ISO]]):
:{{transliteration|hi|ISO|Anucchēd 1 (ēk): Sabhī manuṣya janma sē svatantra tathā maryādā aur adhikārō̃ mē̃ samān hōtē haĩ. Vē tark aur vivēk sē sampanna haĩ tathā unhē̃ bhrātr̥tva kī bhāvanā sē paraspar kē pratī kārya karnā cāhiē.}}
;Transcription ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]):
:{{IPA|[ənʊtːʃʰeːd eːk {{!}} səbʰiː mənʊʂjə dʒənmə seː sʋət̪ənt̪ɾə t̪ətʰaː məɾjaːd̪aː ɔːɾ əd̪ʰɪkaːɾõː mẽː səmaːn hoːteː hɛ̃ː‖ ʋeː t̪əɾk ɔːɾ ʋɪʋeːk seː səmpənːə hɛ̃ː t̪ətʰaː ʊnʰẽː bʰɾaːtɾɪt̪ʋə kiː bʰaːʋənaː seː pəɾəspəɾ keː pɾət̪iː kaːɾjə kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː‖]}}
;Gloss (word-to-word):
:Article 1 (one) ''–'' All humans birth from independent and dignity and rights in equal are. They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.
;Translation (grammatical):
:Article 1 ''–'' All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity.

==See also==

*[[Hindi Belt]]
*[[Bengali Language Movement (Manbhum)]]
*[[Hindi Divas]] – the official day to celebrate Hindi as a language.
*[[Languages of India]]
*[[Languages with official status in India]]
* [[Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages]]
*[[List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin]]
*[[List of Hindi channels in Europe]] (by type)
*[[List of languages by number of native speakers in India]]
*[[List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi]]
*[[World Hindi Secretariat]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Footnote}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite book|last=Bhatia|first=Tej K.|title=Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7chEAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT6|access-date=19 July 2014|date=11 September 2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-134-83534-8}}
* [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson, G. A.]] [[Linguistic Survey of India|''Linguistic Survey of India'' Vol I-XI]], Calcutta, 1928, {{ISBN|81-85395-27-6}} [http://joao-roiz.jp/LSI/ (searchable database)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509170342/https://www.joao-roiz.jp/LSI/ |date=9 May 2023 }}.
* {{cite book|last1=Koul|first1=Omkar N.|author-link1=Omkar N. Koul|title=Modern Hindi grammar|date=2008|publisher=Dunwoody Press|location=Springfield, VA|isbn=978-1-931546-06-5|url=http://v2winners.com/Ebooks/spoeng/Spoken%20English/ModernHindiGrammar.pdf|access-date=19 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726150424/http://v2winners.com/Ebooks/spoeng/Spoken%20English/ModernHindiGrammar.pdf|archive-date=26 July 2014}}
* {{cite book|last1=McGregor|first1=R.S.|author-link=R. S. McGregor|title=Outline of Hindi grammar: With exercises|date=1995|publisher=Clarendon Pr.|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-870008-1|edition=3.|url=https://archive.org/details/OutlineOfHindiGrammar|access-date=19 July 2014}}
* {{cite book|last=Frawley|first=William|author-link=William Frawley|year=2003|title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: AAVE-Esparanto. Vol.1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC|isbn=978-0-195-13977-8|page=481|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book|last1=Parthasarathy|first1=R.|last2=Kumar|first2=Swargesh|year=2012|title=Bihar Tourism: Retrospect and Prospect|page=120|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSZ987-0Fb8C|isbn=978-8-180-69799-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Masica|first=Colin|author-link=Colin Masica|year=1991|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29944-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC}}
* {{cite book|first=Manjari|last=Ohala|chapter=Hindi|editor=[[International Phonetic Association]]|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: a Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|pages=100–103|publisher=Cambridge University Press|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA100|isbn=978-0-521-63751-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Sadana|first=Rashmi|year=2012|title=English Heart, Hindi Heartland: the Political Life of Literature in India|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2WNfFpT14IC|access-date=19 July 2014|isbn=978-0-520-26957-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Shapiro|first=Michael C.|year=2001|chapter=Hindi|editor1-last=Garry|editor1-first=Jane|editor2-last=Rubino|editor2-first=Carl|title=An encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present|publisher=New England Publishing Associates|pages=305–309}}
* {{cite book|last=Shapiro|first=Michael C.|year=2003|chapter=Hindi|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT311|editor1-last=Cardona|editor1-first=George|editor2-last=Jain|editor2-first=Dhanesh|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-77294-5|pages=250–285}}
* {{cite book|last1=Snell|first1=Rupert|last2=Weightman|first2=Simon|year=1989|title=Teach Yourself Hindi|publisher=McGraw-Hill|edition=2003|isbn=978-0-07-142012-9|title-link=Teach Yourself}}
* {{cite book|last=Taj|first=Afroz|year=2002|url=http://taj.chass.ncsu.edu/|title=A door into Hindi|access-date=8 November 2005}}
* {{cite book|last=Tiwari|first=Bholanath|year=2004|orig-date=1966|title=हिन्दी भाषा|trans-title=Hindī Bhasha|publisher=Kitab Pustika|location=Allahabad|isbn=81-225-0017-X}}

===Dictionaries===
* {{Citation
| last= McGregor
| first= R.S.
| year= 1993
| title= Oxford Hindi–English Dictionary
| publisher= Oxford University Press, USA
| edition= 2004
}}.
* {{Citation|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/bahri/|title=Learners' Hindi-English dictionary|author=Hardev Bahri|year=1989|publisher=Rajapala|location=Delhi}}
* {{Citation|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/caturvedi/|title=A practical Hindi-English dictionary|author=Mahendra Caturvedi|year=1970|publisher=National Publishing House|location=Delhi}}
* Academic Room Hindi Dictionary Mobile App developed in the Harvard Innovation Lab (iOS, Android and Blackberry)
* {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDtbAAAAQAAJ|title=A dictionary of Urdū, classical Hindī, and English|author=John Thompson Platts|year=1884|publisher=H. Milford|edition=reprint|location=LONDON|page=1259|access-date=6 July 2011}}

{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{EI3 |last=Bangha |first=Imre |year=2018 |title=Hindi |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/hindi-COM_30475?s.num=4&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=dynasty+india}}
* Bhatia, Tej K. (1987). ''A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition''. Leiden, Netherlands & New YorkY: E.J. Brill. {{ISBN|90-04-07924-6}}.

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=hi}}
{{Wiktionary|Category:Hindi language}}
{{Wikivoyage|Hindi phrasebook|Hindi|a phrasebook}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140308231234/http://knowindia.gov.in/knowindia/profile.php?id=33 The Union: Official Language]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140901145421/http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Official Unicode Chart for Devanagari (PDF)]

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Milkha Singh

2026-03-27T17:43:05Z

NoellaXgt402: rework page also and updated info to improve readability

{{Short description|Indian athlete (1929–2021)}}
{{For|the Indian Test cricketer|A. G. Milkha Singh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Milkha Singh
| honorific_suffix = [[OLY]]
| image = Milkha Singh.jpg
| caption = Singh in 2012
| ethnicity =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1929|11|20}}
| birth_place = [[Govindpura, Pakistan|Govindpura]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[British Raj|British India]] {{small|(now [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]])}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|2021|06|18|1929|11|20|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Chandigarh]], [[India]]
| residence =
| nationality = {{IND}}n
| occupation = runner
| nickname = The Flying Sikh
| employer = Retired; formerly of the [[Indian Army]] and [[Government of Punjab, India]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Nirmal Saini]]|1963|2021|reason=died}}
| sport = [[Track and field]]
| event = [[Sprint (running)|Sprinting]]
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport | Men's [[Track and field athletics|Athletics]] }}[[File:Athletics pictogram.svg|30px]]
{{MedalCountry | {{IND}} }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[British Empire and Commonwealth Games|Commonwealth Games]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1958 Cardiff]] | [[Athletics at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|440 yards]] }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Asian Games]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[1958 Asian Games|1958 Tokyo]] | [[Athletics at the 1958 Asian Games|200 m]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[1958 Asian Games|1958 Tokyo]] | [[Athletics at the 1958 Asian Games|400 m]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[1962 Asian Games|1962 Jakarta]] | [[Athletics at the 1962 Asian Games|400 m]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[1962 Asian Games|1962 Jakarta]] | [[Athletics at the 1962 Asian Games|4 × 400 m relay]] }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[National Games of India]] }}
{{MedalGold | 1958 [[Cuttack]] | 200 m}}
{{MedalGold | 1958 [[Cuttack]] | 400 m}}
{{MedalSilver | 1964 [[Calcutta]] | 400 m }}
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| allegiance = {{Flag|India}}
| branch = {{Army|India}}
| serviceyears = 1951–1964
| rank = [[File:Captain of the Indian Army.svg|25px]] [[Captain|Honorary Captain]]
| unit =
| awards = [[File:Padma Shri Ribbon.svg|30px|Padma Shri riband]] [[Padma Shri]]
}}
}}

'''Milkha Singh''' (20 November 1929 {{endash}} 18 June 2021),{{efn|There are different records for his birth date. Records in Pakistan note it as 20 November 1929. Other records note it as 17 October 1935 and 20 November 1932. The birth date on his passport is 20 November 1932.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bhagat|first=Shalini Venugopal|date=2021-06-23|title=Milkha Singh, Track Star of Post-Colonial India, Is Dead|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/23/sports/milkha-singh-dead.html|access-date=2021-12-27|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> 20 November 1929 has been used as per sources published following his death.}}<ref>{{cite web|date=19 June 2021|title=Milkha Singh passes away after long battle with Covid|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/athletics/milkha-singh-passes-away-after-long-battle-with-covid/articleshow/83650257.cms|work=The Times of India|accessdate=19 June 2021}}</ref> also known as "'''The Flying Sikh'''", was an Indian track and field [[sprint (running)|sprinter]] who was introduced to the sport while serving in the [[Indian Army]]. He is the athlete to win gold at [[400 metres]] at the [[Asian Games]] as well as the [[Commonwealth Games]]. He has won gold medals in the 1958 and [[1962 Asian Games]]. He represented India in the [[1956 Summer Olympics]] in [[Melbourne]], the [[1960 Summer Olympics]] in Rome and the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in Tokyo. Singh was awarded the [[Padma Shri]] in 1959, India's fourth-highest civilian honour, in recognition of his sporting achievements.

The race for which Singh was best remembered is his fourth-place finish in the 400 metres final at the 1960 Olympic Games, which he had entered as one of the favourites. He led the race till the 200 m mark before easing off, allowing others to pass him. Various records were broken in the race, which required a [[photo-finish]] and saw American [[Otis Davis]] being declared the winner by one-hundredth of a second over German [[Carl Kaufmann]]. Singh's fourth-place time of 45.73 seconds was the [[List of Indian records in athletics|Indian national record]] for almost 40 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://olympics.com/en/news/milkha-singh-record-commonwealth-gold-asian-games-olympics-indian-athletics|title=Milkha Singh records: Rome history only a small page in Flying Sikh's folklore}}</ref>

From beginnings that saw him orphaned and [[displaced person|displaced]] during the [[Partition of India]], Singh has become a sporting icon in his country. In 2008, journalist Rohit Brijnath described Singh as "the finest athlete India has ever produced".<ref name="brijnath">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7532626.stm |title=The 'Flying Sikh' remembers |first=Rohit |last=Brijnath |date=30 July 2008 |access-date=12 July 2013 |work=BBC News |archive-date=24 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724132936/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7532626.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Singh died from complications of [[COVID-19]] on 18 June 2021, at the age of 91, five days after his wife, [[Nirmal Saini]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-06-19|title=Milkha Singh: India's 'Flying Sikh' dies from Covid|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57523457|access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 Jun 2021|title=Milkha Singh, India's 'Flying Sikh', dies of COVID|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/19/india-mourns-as-flying-sikh-milkha-singh-dies-of-covid-aged-91|access-date=2021-06-20|website=Al Jazeera}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Milkha Singh was born on 20 November 1929, into a [[Sikh]] [[Rathore (Rajput clan)|Rathore Rajput]] family.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Exclusive Interview: Milkha Singh – The making of a legend|url=https://www.sify.com/sports/exclusive-interview-milkha-singh---the-making-of-a-legend-imagegallery-others-nhmmDTdfeaasi.html|access-date=24 August 2020|website=[[Sify]]|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902013749/https://www.sify.com/sports/exclusive-interview-milkha-singh---the-making-of-a-legend-imagegallery-others-nhmmDTdfeaasi.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> His birthplace was [[Govindpura, Pakistan|Govindpura]],<ref name="Dsouza" /> a village {{convert|10|km|mi}} from [[Muzaffargarh]] city in [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], [[British India]] (now [[Kot Addu District|Kot Adu district]], [[Pakistan]]). He was one of 15 siblings, eight of whom died before the [[Partition of India]]. He was orphaned during the Partition when his parents, a brother and two sisters were killed in the violence that ensued. He witnessed these killings.<ref name="brijnath" /><ref name="Dsouza" /><ref name="koshie">{{cite news |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/if-milkha-singh-was-born-in-present-times-no-one-would-be-able-to-break-his-record-in-100-yrs/1135643/ |work=The Indian Express |date=30 June 2013 |first=Nihal |last=Koshie |title=If Milkha Singh was born in present times, no one would be able to break his record in 100 yrs |access-date=14 July 2013 |archive-date=31 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131052152/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/if-milkha-singh-was-born-in-present-times-no-one-would-be-able-to-break-his-record-in-100-yrs/1135643 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="bs">{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/india-s-first-celebrity-athlete-113070500965_1.html |title=India's first celebrity athlete |work=Business Standard |first=Aabhas |last=Sharma |date=5 July 2013 |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-date=10 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130710193849/http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/india-s-first-celebrity-athlete-113070500965_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Escaping the troubles in Punjab, where killings were continuing,<ref name="koshie" /> by moving to Delhi, India, in 1947, Singh lived for a short time with the family of his married sister<ref name="Dsouza" /> and was briefly imprisoned at [[Tihar jail]] for travelling on a train without a ticket. His sister, Ishvar, sold some jewellery to obtain his release.<ref name="bs" /><ref name="ezekiel">{{cite web |url=http://hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20050730006407000.htm&date=tss2831/&prd=tss& |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130710115229/http://hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20050730006407000.htm&date=tss2831/&prd=tss& |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 July 2013 |title=The Flying Sikh's Exploits |first=Gulu |last=Ezekiel |work=The Hindu |date=30 July 2005 |access-date=13 July 2013 }}</ref> He spent some time at a [[refugee camp]] in [[Purana Qila]] and at a resettlement colony in [[Shahdara district|Shahdara]], both in Delhi.<ref name="Dsouza" />

Milkha became disenchanted with his life and considered becoming a [[dacoit]]{{efn|[[Paan Singh Tomar]], one of Singh's contemporaries in the Indian Army and as an athlete, did become infamous as a dacoit.<ref name="Dsouza" />}} but was instead persuaded by one of his brothers, Malkhan, to attempt recruitment to the Indian Army. He successfully gained entrance on his fourth attempt, in 1951, and while stationed at the Electrical Mechanical Engineering Centre<ref name="masih" /> in [[Secunderabad]] and he was introduced to athletics. He had run the 10{{nbsp}}km distance to and from school as a child and was selected by the army for special training in athletics after finishing sixth in a compulsory [[Cross country running|cross-country run]] for new recruits.<ref name="koshie" /><ref name="bs" /> Singh has acknowledged how the army introduced him to sport, saying that "I came from a remote village, I didn't know what running was, or the Olympics".<ref name="brijnath" /><ref name="koshie" />

==International career==
Milkha represented India in the 200 m and 400 m competitions of the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games.<ref>{{cite web |pages=287, 290 |title=The XVI Olympiad Melbourne 1956 – The Official Report of the Organizing Committee |publisher=Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVI Olympiad |url=http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1956/OR1956.pdf |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-date=30 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630112727/http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1956/OR1956.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> His inexperience meant that he did not progress from the heat stages but a meeting with the eventual 400 m champion at those Games, [[Charles Jenkins Sr.|Charles Jenkins]], both inspired him to greater things and provided him with information about training methods.<ref name="brijnath" />

In 1958, Singh set records for the 200 m and 400 m in the [[National Games of India]], held at [[Cuttack]],<ref name="masih" /> and also won gold medals in the same events at the Asian Games. He then won a gold medal in the 400 m (440 yards at this time) competition at the [[1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games]] with a time of 46.6 seconds.<ref name="ezekiel" /> This latter achievement made him the first gold medalist at the Commonwealth Games from independent India.<ref name="bs" /> Before [[Vikas Gowda]] won the gold in 2014, Milkha was the only Indian male to have won an individual athletics gold medal at those Games.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vikas Gowda is first Indian man to clinch athletics gold in 56 years |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/story/vikas-gowda-shot-put-is-first-indian-male-to-clinch-athletics-gold-in-56-yrs-202434-2014-08-01 |access-date=11 September 2015 |work=India Today |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402201158/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/vikas-gowda-shot-put-is-first-indian-male-to-clinch-athletics-gold-in-56-yrs/1/375051.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Singh won the British [[AAA Championships]] title at the [[1960 AAA Championships]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nuts.org.uk/Champs/AAA/index.htm |title=AAA, WAAA and National Championships Medallists |website=National Union of Track Statisticians |access-date=4 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gbrathletics.com/bc/aaa.htm |title=AAA Championships (men) |website=GBR Athletics |access-date=4 May 2025}}</ref> Singh was persuaded by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to set aside his memories of the Partition era to race successfully in 1960 against [[Abdul Khaliq (athlete)|Abdul Khaliq]] in Pakistan, where a post-race comment by the then General [[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]] led to him acquiring the nickname of The Flying Sikh.{{efn|On Singh's 1960 victory over Abdul Khaliq in Pakistan, Ayub Khan, then President of Pakistan, told Singh that "You didn't run today, you flew".<ref name="koshie" />}} Some sources say that he set a world record of 45.8 seconds in France,<ref name="masih" /> shortly before the Rome Olympics in the same year but the official report of the Games lists the record holder as [[Lou Jones (athlete)|Lou Jones]], who ran 45.2 at Los Angeles in 1956.<ref name="XVIIofficial" /> At those Olympics, he was involved in a close-run final race in the 400 m competition, where he was placed fourth.<ref name="koshie" /><ref name="bs" /> Singh had beaten all the leading contenders other than Otis Davis, and a medal had been anticipated because of his good form. However, he made an error when leading the race at 250 m, slowing down in the belief that his pace could not be sustained and looking round at his fellow competitors. Singh believes that these errors caused him to lose his medal opportunity and they are his "worst memory".<ref name="masih" /> Davis, Carl Kaufmann and [[Malcolm Spence (South African athlete)|Malcolm Spence]] all passed him, and a photo-finish resulted. Davis and Kaufman were both timed at a world-record breaking 44.9 seconds, while Spence and Singh went under the pre-Games Olympic record of 45.9 seconds, set in 1952 by [[George Rhoden]] and [[Herb McKenley]], with times of 45.5 and 45.6 seconds, respectively.<ref name="XVIIofficial" /><ref name="ezekiel" /> ''[[The Age]]'' noted in 2006 that "Milkha Singh is the only Indian to have broken an Olympic track record. Unfortunately he was the fourth man to do so in the same race"<ref>{{cite news |work=The Age |url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/sport/great-sporting-sikhs/2006/08/12/1154803143471.html |title=Great sporting Sikhs |first=Michael |last=Coulter |date=12 August 2006 |access-date=14 July 2013 |archive-date=7 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207084936/http://www.theage.com.au/news/sport/great-sporting-sikhs/2006/08/12/1154803143471.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but the official Olympic report notes that Davis had already equalled the Rhoden/McKenley Olympic record in the quarter-finals and surpassed it with a time of 45.5 seconds in the semi-finals.<ref name="XVIIofficial" />

At the 1962 Asian Games, held in [[Jakarta]], Singh won gold in the 400 m<ref name="ezekiel" /> and in the [[4 × 400 m relay]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://hindu.com/2002/01/23/stories/2002012305581600.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722164223/http://hindu.com/2002/01/23/stories/2002012305581600.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 July 2013 |title=Makhan Singh dead |date=23 January 2002 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=13 July 2013}}</ref> He attended the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo, where he was entered to compete in the 400 m, the [[4 × 100 m relay]] and the 4 × 400 m relay.<ref name="XVIIIofficial">{{cite web |page=596 |title=The XVIII Olympiad Tokyo 1964 – The Official Report of the Organizing Committee |publisher=Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVIII Olympiad |volume=1 |url=http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/or1964v1.pdf |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830061319/http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/orw1964.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He did not take part in either the 400 m<ref>{{cite web |pages=25–26 |title=The XVIII Olympiad Tokyo 1964 – The Official Report of the Organizing Committee |publisher=Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVIII Olympiad |volume=2 |url=http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/or1964v2.pdf |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729012305/http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/or1964v2.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> or the 4 × 100 m relay{{efn|The Indian 4 × 100 m relay competitors at the 1964 Olympic Games were Anthony Coutinho, Makhan Singh, Kenneth Powell and Rajasekaran Pichaya in both the heats and semi-final, where they were eliminated from the competition.<ref>{{cite web |pages=48, 50 |title=The XVIII Olympiad Tokyo 1964 – The Official Report of the Organizing Committee |publisher=Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVIII Olympiad |volume=2 |url=http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/or1964v2.pdf |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729012305/http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/or1964v2.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} and the Indian team of Milkha Singh, [[Makhan Singh (sprinter)|Makhan Singh]], Amrit Pal and [[Ajmer Singh (athlete)|Ajmer Singh]] were eliminated when they finished fourth in the heat stages of the 4 × 400 m.<ref>{{cite web |page=51 |title=The XVIII Olympiad Tokyo 1964 – The Official Report of the Organizing Committee |publisher=Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVIII Olympiad |volume=2 |url=http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/or1964v2.pdf |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729012305/http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1964/or1964v2.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

There have been claims that Singh won 77 of his 80 races,<ref name="masih" /> but these are spurious. The number of races in which he participated is not verified, nor is the number of victories, but he lost a 400 m race at the 1964 National Games in [[Calcutta]] to Makhan Singh<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020122/sports.htm#10 |work=The Tribune |date=21 January 2002 |access-date=13 July 2013 |title=Makhan Singh dead |first=Amardeep |last=Bhattal |archive-date=16 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716050106/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020122/sports.htm#10 |url-status=live }}</ref> and he did not finish first in any of his four races at the 1960 Olympic Games<ref name="XVIIofficial">{{cite web |pages=76–80 |title=The XVII Olympiad Rome 1960 – The Official Report of the Organizing Committee |publisher=Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVII Olympiad |volume=2 |url=http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1960/OR1960v2.pdf |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825204001/http://library.la84.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1960/OR1960v2.pdf |archive-date=25 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> or the aforementioned qualification races at the 1956 Olympics.<ref name="SR">{{cite web |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1956/ATH/mens-200-metres.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417174400/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1956/ATH/mens-200-metres.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 April 2020 |title=Athletics at the 1956 Melbourne Summer Games: Men's 200 metres |access-date=10 July 2017 |work=Sports Reference}}</ref>

Singh's time in the 1960 Olympics 400 m final, which was run on a [[cinder track]], set a national record that stood until 1998 when [[Paramjit Singh (athlete)|Paramjit Singh]] exceeded it on a [[all-weather running track|synthetic track]] and with [[fully automatic timing]] that recorded 45.70 seconds. Although Singh's Olympic result of 45.6 seconds had been hand-timed, an electronic system at those Games had determined his record to be 45.73.<ref name="iaaf">{{cite web |url=http://www.iaaf.org/news/news/38-year-old-indian-national-record-falls |title=38 Year Old Indian Record Falls |first=Norris |last=Pritam |publisher=IAAF |date=6 November 1998 |access-date=17 July 2013 |archive-date=8 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108052956/http://www.iaaf.org/news/news/38-year-old-indian-national-record-falls |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Personal life==
{{As of|2012}}, Singh lived in Chandigarh.<ref name="mid-day">{{cite web |title=Milkha Singh gives his 1960 Olympics shoes for charity |publisher=Mid-Day |date=23 January 2012 |url=http://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/184418-milkha-singh-gives-his-1960-olympics-shoes-for-charity |access-date=15 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715074619/http://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/184418-milkha-singh-gives-his-1960-olympics-shoes-for-charity |archive-date=15 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He met [[Nirmal Saini]], a former captain of the Indian women's volleyball team in [[Ceylon]] in 1955; they married in 1962<ref name="Dsouza">{{cite news|work=The Financial Express |title=Will over matter |first=Dipti Nagpaul |last=D'Souza |date=23 June 2013 |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/will-over-matter/1132543/0 |access-date=15 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724040331/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/will-over-matter/1132543/0 |archive-date=24 July 2013 }}</ref> and had three daughters and a son, the golfer [[Jeev Milkha Singh]]. In 1999, they adopted the seven-year-old son of Havildar Bikram Singh, who had died in the [[Battle of Tiger Hill]].<ref name="masih" />

==Later life ==
[[File:The Vice President, Shri M. Venkaiah Naidu presenting the Punjab University Khel Rattan Award to Padma Shree Milkha Singh, at the 67th Convocation of Panjab University, in Chandigarh on March 04, 2018.jpg|thumb|The Vice President, Shri [[Venkaiah Naidu|M. Venkaiah Naidu]] presenting the [[Panjab University|Punjab University]] Khel Rattan Award to Singh (2018)]]
Singh was promoted from the rank of [[sepoy]] to [[junior commissioned officer]] in recognition of his successes in the 1958 Asian Games.<ref name="kahol">{{cite news |title=Milkha Singh backs promotion for silver medallist armyman |first=Vikas |last=Kahol |work=India Today |date=9 August 2012 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/olympics-2012/story/milkha-singh-backs-promotion-for-silver-medallist-armyman-112888-2012-08-08 |access-date=14 July 2013 |archive-date=1 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101181059/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/milkha-singh-backs-promotion-for-silver-medallist-armyman/1/212542.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|Promotion in recognition of bringing glory to the nation continues today. Some [[cricketer]]s attain the rank of honorary colonel and in 2012 Singh was outspoken in his desire to see promotion for [[Vijay Kumar (sport shooter)|Vijay Kumar]], who had won a silver medal at the [[2012 London Olympics]].<ref name="kahol" />}} He subsequently became Director of Sports in [[Government of Punjab, India|Punjab Ministry of Education]],<ref name="masih">{{cite news |url=http://www.rediff.com/sports/2000/sep/08milka.htm |publisher=Rediff |first=Archana |last=Masih |title=Milkha Singh … on the race of his life |access-date=13 July 2013 |date=September 2000 |archive-date=16 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716004411/http://www.rediff.com/sports/2000/sep/08milka.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> a post he retired from in 1998.<ref name="iaaf" /> Also in 1958, he was awarded the Padma Shri, India's fourth-highest civilian award, following his success in 1958.<ref name="tribune"/>

In 2001, he turned down an offer of the [[Arjuna Award]] from the Indian government, arguing that it was intended to recognise young sports people and not those such as him. He also thought that the award was being inappropriately given to people who had little notable involvement as active sports people at all, and had become devalued.<ref name="tribune">{{cite news |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010817/main5.htm |work=The Tribune |date=16 August 2001 |access-date=13 July 2013 |title=Milkha Singh not to accept Arjuna Award |archive-date=15 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715152917/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010817/main5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1494770.stm |title='Flying Sikh' snubs award |first=Asit |last=Jolly |date=16 August 2001 |access-date=13 July 2013 |work=BBC News |archive-date=23 February 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030223080909/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1494770.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> While sharing his experience in a college in [[Goa]] in 2014, he stated, "I rejected the Arjuna I was offered after I received the Padma Shri. It was like being offered an SSC [secondary school] certificate after securing a Masters degree."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mokani|first=Paresh|date=26 August 2014|title=Arjuna distributed like prasad in temple: Milkha Singh |location=Goa |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/athletics/arjuna-distributed-like-prasad-in-temple-milkha-singh/articleshow/40896789.cms|access-date=19 June 2021|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

All of Singh's medals have been donated to the nation. They were displayed at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]] in New Delhi and later moved to a sports museum in [[Patiala]],<ref name="masih" /> where a pair of [[running shoe]]s that he wore in Rome are also displayed.<ref>{{cite news |work=The Times of India |title=Milkha Singh donates Olympic shoes for charity auction |agency=Press Trust of India |date=24 January 2012 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/Milkha-Singh-donates-Olympic-shoes-for-charity-auction/articleshow/11618764.cms |access-date=15 July 2013 |archive-date=28 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728234126/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/Milkha-Singh-donates-Olympic-shoes-for-charity-auction/articleshow/11618764.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2012, he donated the [[Adidas]] shoes that he had worn in the 1960 400 m final to be sold in a charity auction organised by actor [[Rahul Bose]].<ref name="mid-day" />

==Illness and Death==

Singh was admitted to the intensive care unit at Fortis Hospital in Mohali on 24 May 2021 with [[pneumonia]] caused by [[COVID-19]]. His condition was, for a while, described as stable, but he died on 18 June 2021 at 11:30{{nbsp}}pm in [[Chandigarh]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/milkha-singh-dead-7365490/ |title=Milkha Singh no more; passes away aged 91 due to COVID-19 complications |author=Nitin Sharma |work=The Indian Express |date=18 June 2021 |access-date=18 June 2021 |archive-date=18 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618192823/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/milkha-singh-dead-7365490/ |url-status=live }}</ref> His wife, [[Nirmal Saini]], had died a few days earlier on 13 June 2021, also due to COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/nirmal-kaur-milkha-singh-wife-covid-19-death-7357415/ |title=Nirmal Milkha Singh dies of Covid: 'She has been the biggest trophy for me' |first=Nitin |last=Sharma |work=The Indian Express |date=14 June 2021 |access-date=18 June 2021 |archive-date=14 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614112007/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/nirmal-kaur-milkha-singh-wife-covid-19-death-7357415/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Singh was laid on his funeral pyre with a photo of his wife in his hands.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Shalini|last=Gupta|date=2021-06-20|title=Milkha Singh cremated with full state honours in Chandigarh|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/chandigarh-news/milkha-singh-cremated-with-full-state-honours-in-chandigarh-101624135471437.html|access-date=2021-06-20|website=Hindustan Times|location=Chandigarh}}</ref>

In November 2025, director and actor [[Farhan Akhtar]], who portrayed Singh in [[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]], shared to [[Aap Ki Adalat]] host [[Rajat Sharma]] that "His daughter rang me up in Mumbai and said doctors said her father was in his last stage. I requested her to give the phone to her dad. I spoke to Milkha ji for the last time on the phone."<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/news/aap-ki-adalat-farhan-akhtar-gets-emotional-remembering-his-last-call-with-milkha-singh-during-covid-2025-11-08-1016509|title= Aap Ki Adalat: Farhan Akhtar gets emotional remembering his last call with Milkha Singh during Covid}}</ref>

==Media and popular culture==
Singh and his daughter, Sonia Sanwalka, co-wrote his autobiography, titled ''[[The Race of My Life]]''. It was published in 2013.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/zqnhgnEijysVEmD6DfEhrJ/Milkha-Singh--My-God-my-religion-my-beloved.html |title=Milkha Singh: 'My God, my religion, my beloved' |publisher=Livemint |date=10 July 2013 |access-date=15 July 2013}}</ref> The book inspired<ref>{{cite news |work=The Indian Express |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/farhan-akhtar-looked-like-my-duplicate-in-bhaag-milkha-bhaag-milkha-singh/1133618/ |title=Farhan Akhtar looked like my duplicate in Bhaag Milkha Bhaag: Milkha Singh |date=25 June 2013 |access-date=17 August 2014 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305000658/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/farhan-akhtar-looked-like-my-duplicate-in-bhaag-milkha-bhaag-milkha-singh/1133618/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]'', a 2013 biographical film of Singh's life.<ref>{{cite news|title=I don't know how much people know about Milkha Singh: Farhan Akhtar |work=Hindustan Times|date=12 July 2013 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Bollywood/I-don-t-know-how-much-people-know-about-Milkha-Singh-Farhan-Akhtar/Article1-1091306.aspx |access-date=15 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130714194215/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Bollywood/I-don-t-know-how-much-people-know-about-Milkha-Singh-Farhan-Akhtar/Article1-1091306.aspx |archive-date=14 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bhaag Milkha Bhaag Picks Up Well on Day One |date=12 July 2013 |access-date=13 July 2013 |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/boxnewsdetail.php?page=shownews&articleid=5853&nCat= |publisher=Box Office India |archive-date=15 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715043821/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/boxnewsdetail.php?page=shownews&articleid=5853&nCat= |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ramnath">{{cite web |url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/fawdjxruZQLB1WdtIkQ5DI/When-Milkha-Singh-ran-for-his-life.html |title=When Milkha Singh ran for his life |first=Nandini |last=Ramnath |publisher=Livemint/Hindustan Times |date=1 July 2013 |access-date=13 July 2013 |archive-date=18 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718202025/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/fawdjxruZQLB1WdtIkQ5DI/When-Milkha-Singh-ran-for-his-life.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The film is directed by [[Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra]], and stars [[Farhan Akhtar]] in the title role, with [[Sonam Kapoor]], [[Meesha Shafi]] and [[Divya Dutta]] in female lead roles. The film was widely acclaimed in India and won awards including the [[National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment]] at the [[National Film Awards]],<ref>{{cite news|publisher=NDTV|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/winners-honoured-at-61st-national-film-award-function-560003|title=Winners Honoured at 61st National Film Award Function|date=3 May 2014|access-date=17 May 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229200236/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/winners-honoured-at-61st-national-film-award-function-560003|url-status=live}}</ref> and 5 awards at the [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |work=Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/bhaag-milkha-bhaag-wins-five-awards-at-iifa-2014/articleshow/34291494.cms |title='Bhaag Milkha Bhaag' wins five awards at IIFA 2014 |date=27 April 2014 |access-date=17 May 2020 |archive-date=14 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014095436/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/bhaag-milkha-bhaag-wins-five-awards-at-iifa-2014/articleshow/34291494.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The film made over {{INR|100|link=yes}} crores.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=NDTV |url=https://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/bhaag-milkha-bhaag-makes-rs-100-crores-still-top-of-box-office-613241 |title=Bhaag Milkha Bhaag makes Rs 100 crores, still top of box office |date=6 August 2013 |access-date=17 May 2020 |archive-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921171945/https://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/bhaag-milkha-bhaag-makes-rs-100-crores-still-top-of-box-office-613241 |url-status=live }}</ref> Singh sold the movie rights for one rupee but inserted a clause stating that a share of the profits would be given to the Milkha Singh Charitable Trust.<ref name="koshie" /> The Trust was founded in 2003 with the aim of assisting poor and needy sportspeople.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rupapublications.co.in/books/race-my-life-autobiography |publisher=Rupa Publications |title=The Race of My Life: An Autobiography |access-date=15 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712015624/http://www.rupapublications.co.in/books/race-my-life-autobiography |archive-date=12 July 2013 }}</ref>

In September 2017, Singh's wax statue – created by sculptors of [[Madame Tussauds]] in London – was unveiled at Chandigarh. It depicts Singh in running posture during his victorious run at the 1958 Commonwealth Games.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Milkha immortalized in wax|last=Sood|first=Kartik|date=27 September 2017|work=The Times of India}}</ref> The statue is placed at Madame Tussauds museum in New Delhi, India.<ref>{{cite news |work=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/milkha-singh-s-dream-comes-true-flying-sikh-gets-a-madame-tussauds-wax-statue/story-GLwy5dJRH9itSmKAvJtmgK.html |title=Milkha Singh's dream comes true, Flying Sikh gets a Madame Tussauds wax statue |date=26 September 2017 |access-date=17 May 2020 |archive-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923170742/https://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/milkha-singh-s-dream-comes-true-flying-sikh-gets-a-madame-tussauds-wax-statue/story-GLwy5dJRH9itSmKAvJtmgK.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After winning India's first track and field [[Olympic medal|gold medal]] at the [[2020 Olympics]], [[Neeraj Chopra]] dedicated his victory to Singh.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mathur|first=Abhimanyu|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/neeraj-chopra-makes-milkha-singhs-dream-a-reality-dedicates-olympic-gold-to-him-and-pt-usha/articleshow/85153736.cms|title=Neeraj Chopra makes Milkha Singh's dream a reality; dedicates Olympic gold to him and PT Usha|date=8 August 2021|access-date=9 August 2021|work=[[The Times of India]]|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809051740/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/neeraj-chopra-makes-milkha-singhs-dream-a-reality-dedicates-olympic-gold-to-him-and-pt-usha/articleshow/85153736.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Records and honours==
=== Awards ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Medal
!Event
!Category
!Source
|-
|Gold
|[[1958 Asian Games]]
|200 m
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Milkha Singh: Rome history only a small page in Flying Sikh's folklore|url=https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/milkha-singh-record-commonwealth-gold-asian-games-olympics-indian-athletics|access-date=18 June 2021|website=Olympics.com|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618193525/https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/milkha-singh-record-commonwealth-gold-asian-games-olympics-indian-athletics|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|Gold
|[[1958 Asian Games]]
|400 m
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Gold
|[[1958 Commonwealth Games]]
|440 yards
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Milkha Singh {{!}} Biography & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Milkha-Singh|access-date=18 June 2021|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418101136/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Milkha-Singh|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|Gold
|[[1962 Asian Games]]
|400 m
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Gold
|[[1962 Asian Games]]
|4 × 400 m relay
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Gold
|1958 Cuttack National Games
|200 m
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Gold
|1958 Cuttack National Games
|400 m
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Silver
|1964 Calcutta National Games
|400 m
|<ref>{{cite news|last=Bhunga|first=Jagdeep|date=22 August 2013|title=Miserable family of Makhan Singh de-motivate youth to go for sports|work=Spot News India|url=http://spotnewsindia.com/2013/08/22/miserable-family-makhan-singh-demotivate-youth-sports/|url-status=dead|access-date=8 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826161503/http://www.spotnewsindia.com/2013/08/22/miserable-family-makhan-singh-demotivate-youth-sports/|archive-date=26 August 2014}}</ref>
|}

=== Honours ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Honour
!Year
!Source
|-
|[[Padma Shri]]
|1959
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Milkha Singh – Keynote Speaker {{!}} Speaker Bureau USA|url=https://us.londonspeakerbureau.com/speaker-profile/milkha-singh/|access-date=18 June 2021|website=London Speaker Bureau|language=en-US|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618193526/https://us.londonspeakerbureau.com/speaker-profile/milkha-singh/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Helms World Trophy|Helms World Trophy for Asia]]
|1959
|<ref>{{cite web | last=Network | first=Olive Suno Radio | title=india bids goodbye to legendary flying Sikh – Milkha Singh |website=Radio Olive | date=20 June 2021 | url=https://olive.qa/india-in-mourning-as-flying-sikh-milkha-singh-dies/ | access-date=3 January 2024}}</ref>

|-
|[[East Bengal Club Season Awards|Bharat Gaurav Award]]
|2016
|<ref>{{cite web | title=East Bengal to honour Milkha Singh with Bharat Gaurav award | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=26 July 2016 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/east-bengal-to-honour-milkha-singh-with-bharat-gaurav-award/articleshow/53401005.cms | access-date=17 January 2024}}</ref>
|}

== See also ==
* [[Makhan Singh (sprinter)]]
* [[List of autobiographies by Indians]]
* [[Jeev Milkha Singh]]

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Milkha|title=[[The Race of My Life|The Race of My Life: An Autobiography]]|last2=Sanwalka|first2=Sonia|publisher=[[Rupa Books]]|year=2013|isbn=978-8129129109}}
*Biopic - ''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]''

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{Olympics.com profile}}
* {{Olympedia}}
* {{CGF profile}}
* {{World Athletics}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* [https://punjabipedia.org/topic.aspx?txt=ਮਿਲਖਾ+ਸਿੰਘ Milkha Singh] at [[Punjabipedia]]
*[https://www.indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=gOUQNukcgsrVzz5RnqF1GAggf12skTg06oem7za0y4U=&ParentID=NRu0wvIHmyGbFDRc/dcuyw== Sports and Achievements], [[Indian Army]].
* {{Cite web|date=26 April 2020|title=Pause, rewind, play: When Milkha Singh created history and clinched India's first Commonwealth gold|url=https://scroll.in/field/960240/pause-rewind-play-when-milkha-singh-created-history-and-clinched-indias-first-commonwealth-gold|access-date=19 June 2021|website=Scroll.in}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/magazine-38571647 |work=Witness |date=10 January 2017 |title=How India's 'Flying Sikh' went from orphan to gold medallist }}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Sports}}
{{Asian Games Champions Athletics 200 m Men}}
{{Asian Games Champions Athletics 400 m Men}}
{{Footer Commonwealth Champions 400m Men}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Milkha}}
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian men sprinters]]
[[Category:Olympic athletes for India]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1960 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Punjabi Sikhs]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games athletes for India]]
[[Category:Athletes from Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games gold medallists for India]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1958 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1962 Asian Games]]
[[Category:People from Muzaffargarh District]]
[[Category:People from Muzaffargarh]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1964 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1956 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 1958 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 1962 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in India]]
[[Category:Medallists at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games gold medallists in athletics]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists in athletics (track and field)]]

Roopa Sree

2026-03-22T04:47:15Z

NoellaXgt402: put up a stub

{{short description|Indian film and television actress (born 1976)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rupa Sree
| image =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1976|6|11}}
| birth_place = [[Chennai, Tamil Nadu]], India
| occupation = Actress
| years active = 1992–2006 2010–present
| parents =
| relatives =
| spouse =
| website =
}}

'''Rupa Sree''' (credited as '''Ragini''' in [[Kannada cinema|Kannada]] films) is an Indian actress who appeared in [[Cinema of Tamil Nadu|Tamil]], Kannada and [[Cinema of Kerala|Malayalam]] films and also in television soap operas.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1997-07-20/page/n9/mode/2up|magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]|language=ta|date=20 July 1997|pages=8–9|title=காதல்-கல்யாணம்...|access-date=22 May 2023}}</ref> She made her acting debut with the Malayalam film ''Kallanum Polisum'' (1992) with [[Mukesh (actor)|Mukesh]] in the lead.

==Biography==
Sree was born 11 June 1976<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nadigarsangam.org/member/s-rupa-a-k-a-rupasri/|title=S.Rupa (a.k.a) Rupasri | Official Site of South Indian Artists Association, Nadigar Sangam, Tamil Nadigar Sangam |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221162256/http://www.nadigarsangam.org/member/s-rupa-a-k-a-rupasri/ |archivedate=21 February 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> in [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. She has four sisters. She started her acting career, at the age of 13 years, as a heroine. later she moved to character roles and supporting roles. She appeared in glamorous roles as well. She took a break from movies after marriage. Her husband is also in film field. Again she made a comeback through serials, and now she is appearing in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Malayalam]] serials. She wins the heart of Malayalam audience through her role 'Urmila devi' in ''Chandanamazha'' serial.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Language
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1992 || ''Kallanum Polisum'' || Indhu || [[Malayalam]] ||
|-
| ''[[Enga Veetu Velan]]'' || -|| [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ||
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1993 || ''Idhaya Nayagan'' || Roopa || Tamil ||
|-
| ''Military Mava'' || Buchi || [[Kannada]] || Credited as Ragini in Kannada
|-
| ''[[Jaga Mechida Huduga]]'' || Asha || Kannada ||
|-
| ''Gundana Maduve'' || Ambuja || Kannada ||
|-
| ''Bevu Bella'' || Rukku || Kannada ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1994 || ''[[Pondattiye Deivam]]'' || Julie || Tamil ||
|-
| ''Thaatboot Thanjavoor'' || Durga|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Duet (1994 film)|Duet]]'' || Seema || Tamil ||
|-
| ''Prema Simhasana'' || || Kannada ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1995 || ''[[Ellame En Rasathan]]'' || Chinna Raani || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Gangai Karai Paattu]]'' || Ganga || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Dear Son Maruthu]]'' || Kaveri || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Arabikadaloram]]'' || Lisy || Malayalam ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1996 || ''Sukhavasam'' || Meera || Malayalam ||
|-
| ''Vetri Mugam'' || Sheela || Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1997 || ''[[Pudhayal]]'' || Gowri || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Kadavul]]'' || Shenbagam || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Janakiraman]]'' || Lalitha || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Ettupatti Rasa]]'' || Widow woman || Tamil || Guest appearance
|-
| 1998 || ''Kulirkaattu'' ||- || Malayalam ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1999 || ''Captain'' || Maya || Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Chinna Raja]]'' ||- || Tamil ||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Vaanavil ]]'' || Saravanan's wife || Tamil ||
|-
| 2009 || ''[[Yavarum Nalam]]'' || Serial actress|| Tamil ||
|-
|}

==Television ==
;Serials
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!year
! Serial
! Channel
!Role
! Language
|-
| || ''Pugazh'' || [[DD Podhigai]] || Savithri || rowspan=2|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| 1996–1998 || ''[[Kadhal Pagadai]]'' || [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] || Thangam
|-
| 2001–2002 || ''Atthamma'' || [[Gemini TV]] || Ambika || [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|-
| 2002 || ''Meera''|| [[DD Podhigai]] || || rowspan=2|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| 2002–2003 || ''Mangalyam'' || [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] || Parvathi
|-
| 2003–2004 || ''Akka'' || [[Gemini TV]] || Latha || [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|-
| rowspan=2| 2004–2006 || ''Ambigai'' || rowspan=3|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] || Ambika || rowspan=3|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| ''[[Ahalya (TV series)|Ahalya]]'' || Gayathri
|-
| 2005 || ''My Dear Bootham'' || Vasantha
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Kadamattathu Kathanar (TV series)|Kadamattathu Kathanar]]'' || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Saramma/Yakshi || [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2010 || ''Yaadhumagi Nindrai '' || [[Zee Tamil]] || Samyuktha || rowspan=5|[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]
|-
| 2011–2013 || ''[[Uthiripookkal (TV series)|Uthiripookkal]]'' || [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] || Yamuna
|-
| rowspan=2|2012 || ''[[All In All Alamelu]]'' || [[KTV (India)|KTV]] || Rekha
|-
| ''Asaigal'' || [[Mega TV (Tamil)|Mega TV]] ||
|-
| 2013–2014 || ''[[Kaalabairavan]]'' || [[Jaya TV]] || Uma
|-
| 2014–2017 || ''Chandanamazha'' || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Urmila Devi Jaypal Desai || [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2014 || ''Sri Krishna Leelalu'' || [[ETV (India)|E TV]] || [[Yashoda]] || [[Telugu (language)|Telugu]]
|-
| 2015–2016 || ''[[Vani Rani (TV series)|Vani Rani]]'' || [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] || Jyothi Manohar || [[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]
|-
| 2016 || ''Aluvayum Mathikariyum'' || [[Asianet Plus]] || Urmila Devi (Cameo Appearance) || [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2016–2017 || ''[[Deivam Thandha Veedu]]'' || [[Star Vijay]] || Chitradevi Devraj || [[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]
|-
| 2018–2021 || ''[[Seetha Kalyanam (TV series)|Seethakalyanam]]'' || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Rajeshwari Devi / Radhika Devi || [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2019–2023 || ''[[Barathi Kannamma (2019 TV series)|Barathi Kannamma]]'' || rowspan=2|[[Star Vijay]] || rowspan=2|Soundarya Devi || rowspan=7|[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Raja Rani (Tamil TV series)|Rajarani Season 2]]''
|-
| 2022 || ''Ullathai Allitha'' || [[Colors Tamil]] || Cameo Appearance
|-
| 2022–2023 || ''[[Ilakkiya]]'' || [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] || Janaki
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Bharathi Kannamma 2]]'' || [[Star Vijay]] || Soundarya
|-
|2023–2024|| ''[[Ranjithame (2023 TV series)|Ranjithame]]'' || [[Kalaignar TV]] || Vedhavalli
|-
|2024|| ''Veetuku Veedu Vaasapadi'' || [[Star Vijay]] || Sivagami (Photographic Appearance)
|-
|2024||''Chandrikayil Aliyunna Chandrakantham''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Anasuya Devi||[[Malayalam]]
|-
|2025||''[[Ayyanar Thunai]]''||[[Star Vijay]]||Shanthi (Photographic Appearance)||rowspan="2"|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
|2025–present||''[[Dhanam (TV series)|Dhanam]]''||[[Star Vijay]]||Rukmani
|-
|rowspan="2"|2025||''Manathe Kottaram''||[[Zee Keralam]]||Urmila||rowspan="3"|[[Malayalam]]
|-
|''Kattathe Kilikkoodu''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Lakshmi (Photographic Appearance)
|-
|2025–present||''Chembarathy''||[[Zee Keralam]]||Ramadevi
|}

;Other shows
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!year
! Program
! Channel
! Role
! Language
! Notes
|-
|rowspan=5|2015|| ''[[Badai Bungalow]]'' || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Guest || Malayalam || Chat show
|-
| ''[[Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran]]'' || Asianet || Participant || Malayalam || Game show
|-
| ''Kuttykalavara'' || [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]] || Mentor || Malayalam || Reality show
|-
| ''In Serial House Inn'' || Asianet || Herself || Malayalam || Special show
|-
| ''[[Asianet Comedy Awards]]'' || Asianet || Participant || Malayalam || Award show
|-
| 2016 || ''Comedy stars season 2'' || Asianet || Guest || Malayalam || Reality Show
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran]]'' || Asianet || Participant || Malayalam || Game Show
|-
|Rowspan=2| 2019 || ''Comedy stars season 2'' || Asianet || Guest || Malayalam || Reality Show
|-
|''[[Start Music Aaradhyam Paadum]]''|| Asianet || Participant|| Malayalam || Game Show
|-
|2021||''Engal Veetu Mahalakshmi''||Star Vijay||Soundarya Devi||Tamil||Vijay TV awards special show
|-
|2021||''Start Music Season 3''||Star Vijay|| Participant||Tamil||Game Show
|-
|2022||''Vijayin Thanai Thalaivi''||Star Vijay||Soundarya Devi||Tamil||Vijay TV awards special show
|-
|2022||''[[Raju Vootla Party]]''||Star Vijay||Guest||Tamil||
|-
|2022||''Andakakasam''||Star Vijay||Guest||Tamil||
|-
|2023||[[Start Music Aaradhyam Paadum]]||Asianet|| Participant||Malayalam||Game Show
|}

== Awards ==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=April 2023}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Ceremony
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Serial
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Result
|-
|rowspan="1"|2014
| [[Asianet Communications|Asianet Television Awards]]
|Best Character Actress
|''[[Chandanamazha]]''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Won}}
|-
|rowspan="3"|2015
| Asianet Television Awards
|Best Character Actress
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Won}}
|-
| Asianet Television Awards
|Most well dressed actress
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Won}}
|-
| Asianet Television Awards
|Most Popular Actress
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Nom}}
|-
|rowspan="3"|2016
| Asianet Television Awards
|Best Character Actress
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Nom}}
|-
| Asianet Television Awards
|Most Popular Actress
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Nom}}
|-
| Asianet Television Awards
|Entertainer of the year (Female)
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Won}}
|-
|rowspan="3"|2017
| Asianet Television Awards
|Best Character Actress
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Nom}}
|-
| Asianet Television Awards
|Special Jury
|''Chandanamazha''
|Urmila Devi
|{{Won}}
|-
|[[Vijay Television Awards]]
|[[Vijay Television Awards for Best Mamiyar-Fiction]]
|''[[Deivam Thandha Veedu]]''
|Chitradevi
|{{Nom}}
|-
|rowspan="1"|2019
|Asianet television awards
|Best actress in a Negative role
|'' Seetha kalyanam ''
|Rajeswari Devi
|{{won}}
|-
|2021
|[[Vijay Television Awards]]
|[[Vijay Television Awards for Best Mamiyar-Fiction]]
|''Bharathi Kannamma''
|Soundarya Devi
|{{Won}}
|-
||2023
|[[Vijay Television Awards]]
|[[Vijay Television Awards for Best Mother]]
|''Bharathi Kannamma''
|Soundarya Devi
|{{Won}}
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|5377326}}
*[http://www.vikatan.com/cinema/tamil-cinema/television/79342-%E2%80%98i-am-youngest-mother-in-law%E2%80%98---actress-roopa-sree.art Roopa Sree Interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204131704/http://www.vikatan.com/cinema/tamil-cinema/television/79342-%E2%80%98i-am-youngest-mother-in-law%E2%80%98---actress-roopa-sree.art |date=4 February 2017 }} in [[Ananda Vikatan]]

{{authority control}}

==Social Media Profiles==
* https://instagram.com/rupasree01

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sree, Roopa}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses from Chennai]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam television]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu television]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]

Test cricket

2026-03-18T20:59:31Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{Short description|Longest and original form of cricket}}
{{About|the format for men's international cricket|the women's format|Women's Test cricket}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox sport
| name = Men's Test cricket
| country/region = Worldwide
| first = {{Start date and age|15 March 1877}}
| union = [[International Cricket Council]]
| type = Outdoor, [[Bat-and-ball games|bat and ball]]
| image = England vs South Africa.jpg
| caption = A Test match between South Africa and England in January 2005. The two men wearing black trousers are the umpires. Test cricket is played in traditional white clothes and usually with a red ball – a pink ball in day/night Tests
| team = 11
| mgender = No
| equipment = {{plainlist|
*[[Cricket bat|Bat]],
*[[Cricket ball|Ball]],
*[[Stump (cricket)|Stumps]],
*[[Cricket helmet|Helmet]],
*[[Pads]],
*[[Cricket clothing and equipment|Other guards (thigh, abdominal, etc)]],
*[[Batting glove|Gloves]],
*[[Wicket-keeper's gloves]]
}}
| venue = [[Cricket field]]
|contact=No|image_size=300px}}
{{Cricket sidebar |expanded=all}}
'''Test cricket''' is a [[Forms of cricket|format]] of the sport of [[cricket]], considered the game's most prestigious and traditional form. Often referred to as the "ultimate test" of a cricketer's skill, endurance and temperament, it is a [[First-class cricket|first-class]] format of international cricket where two teams in [[Cricket whites|whites]], each representing their country, compete over a match that can last up to five days. It consists of up to four [[innings]] (up to two per team), with a minimum of ninety [[Over (cricket)|overs]] scheduled to be bowled in six hours per day, making it the sport with the longest playing time except for some multi-stage cycling races. A team wins the match by outscoring the opposition with the [[Batting (cricket)|bat]] and bowling them out with the [[Bowling (cricket)|ball]]. Otherwise the match ends in a [[Result (cricket)|draw]].

It is contested by 12 teams which are the [[List of International Cricket Council members|full-members]] of the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC). The term "test match" was originally coined in 1861–62 but in a different context—that the English team was testing itself against all of the Australian colonies.<ref name="Cricket1970">{{cite book |last=Bowen |first=Rowland |author-link=Rowland Bowen |title=Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development |publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode |year=1970 |isbn=978-04-13278-60-9 |location=London |page=99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dying? Like hell it is - Long live Test cricket |url=https://archive.sen.com.au/news/2023/02/28/dying-like-hell-it-is-long-live-test-cricket |access-date=2025-08-02 |website=archive.sen.com.au |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> Test cricket did not become an officially recognised format until the 1890s, but many international matches since 1877 have been retrospectively awarded Test status. The first such match took place at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] (MCG) in March 1877 between teams which were then known as a Combined Australian XI and [[James Lillywhite]]'s XI, the latter a team of visiting English professionals. Matches between [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] and [[England cricket team|England]] were first called "test matches" in 1892. The first definitive list of retrospective Tests was written by South Australian journalist [[Clarence P. Moody]] two years later and, by the end of the century, had gained acceptance.

Traditionally, Test matches had always been played with a red ball during daylight hours. However, amid growing concern over dwindling viewership in the late 2000s,<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Silgardo |first=Dustin |date=20 November 2019 |title=A brief history of pink-ball cricket |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/a-brief-history-of-pink-ball-cricket-1207107 |access-date=21 October 2025 |website=ESPNCricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-06-30 |title=Day-night Tests one step closer |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/day-night-tests-one-step-closer/040b7g4r9 |access-date=2025-10-20 |website=SBS News |language=en}}</ref> numerous trials were held in the early 2010s which culminated in [[Day/night cricket|day/night Tests]] being permitted by the ICC in 2012, and the first day/night match was between [[New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 2015–16|Australia and New Zealand]] at the [[Adelaide Oval]] in November 2015. These matches start later in the day and continue into the evening, necessitating the use of a pink ball to aid in visibility.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Red, White & Pink Cricket Balls: What is the Difference? |url=https://westernsportscentre.com.au/pages/red-white-pink-cricket-balls-what-is-the-difference |access-date=2025-10-20 |website=Western Sports Centre |language=en}}</ref>

The [[World Test Championship|ICC World Test Championship]] is the [[World cup competition|international championship]] of Test cricket. It is a league competition run by the ICC, with its inaugural season starting in [[2019–21 ICC Test Championship|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Schedule for inaugural World Test Championship announced |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/742337 |publisher=International Cricket Council |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=4 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204204916/https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/742337 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Ramsey, Andrew |date=20 June 2018 |title=Aussies to host Afghans as part of new schedule |url=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/icc-future-tour-program-schedule-fixture-international-cricket-ftp-australia-afghanistan-india/2018-06-20 |website=[[cricket.com.au]] |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620180802/https://www.cricket.com.au/news/icc-future-tour-program-schedule-fixture-international-cricket-ftp-australia-afghanistan-india/2018-06-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> In line with the ICC's goal of having one pinnacle tournament for each of the three formats of international cricket, it is the premier championship for Test cricket.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2013 |title=Test Championship to replace Champions Trophy |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/646147.html |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620182116/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/646147.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Early history==
{{main|History of cricket|History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883|History of Test cricket from 1884 to 1889|History of Test cricket from 1890 to 1900}}

===Growth of international cricket===
Teams designated as "England" or "All England" began to play in the 18th century, but these teams were not truly representative. Early [[international cricket]] was disrupted by the [[French Revolution]] and the [[American Civil War]]. The earliest international cricket match was between [[Canadian cricket team in the United States in 1844|the United States and Canada]], on 24 and 26 September 1844 (bad weather prevented play on the 25th).<ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/usa/engine/match/318995.html United States of America v Canada 1844] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061551/http://www.espncricinfo.com/usa/engine/match/318995.html |date=29 June 2011 }}. ESPNcricinfo.</ref> Overseas tours by national English teams began in 1859 with visits to North America, Australia and New Zealand. The [[Australian Aboriginal cricket team in England in 1868|1868 Australian Aboriginals]] were the first organised overseas team to tour England.

[[File:Ashes Urn 1921.jpg|left|thumb|The earliest published photo of [[the Ashes urn]], from ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'', 1921]]
Two rival English tours of Australia were proposed in the early months of 1877, with [[James Lillywhite]] campaigning for a professional tour and [[Fred Grace]] for an amateur one. Grace's tour fell through and it was Lillywhite's team that toured New Zealand and Australia in 1876–77. Two matches against a combined Australian XI were later classified as the first official Test matches. The first match was won by Australia, by 45 runs and the second by England. After reciprocal tours established a pattern of international cricket, [[The Ashes]] was established as a competition during the Australian tour of England in 1882. A surprise victory for Australia inspired a mock obituary of English cricket to be published in the ''Sporting Times'' the following day: the phrase "The body shall be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia" prompted the subsequent creation of the Ashes urn.

The series of 1884–85 was the first to be held over five matches: England player [[Alfred Shaw]], writing in 1901, considered the side to be "the best ever to have left England". South Africa became the third team to play Test cricket in 1888–89, when they hosted a tour by an under-strength England side. Australia, England and South Africa were the only countries playing Test cricket before [[World War I]].

===Terminology===
The term "test match" was coined during the [[English cricket team in Australia in 1861–62|English tour of Australia in 1861–62]] but in a different context. It meant that the English team was testing itself against each of the Australian colonies.<ref name="Cricket1970" /> Following Lillywhite's tour, Australian teams reciprocated, beginning with [[Australian cricket team in England and North America in 1878|Dave Gregory's team in 1878]]. By the beginning of 1892, eight English teams had visited Australia and seven Australian teams had visited England. In its issue of 25 February 1892, ''[[Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]'' revived the term "test match" and freely applied it to the [[English cricket team in Australia in 1891–92|three international matches]] which had just been played in Australia by [[Henry Holroyd, 3rd Earl of Sheffield|Lord Sheffield's XI]], starting with the match at the MCG which was billed as Lord Sheffield's Team v Combined Australia. The report began: "There was no little appropriateness in fixing the first of the three great test matches for January 1".<ref name="C29127">[https://archive.acscricket.com/cricket/1892/33/ "Tenth Match – Lord Sheffield's Team v Combined Australia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908221801/https://archive.acscricket.com/cricket/1892/33/ |date=8 September 2022 }} ''Cricket'', issue 291, 25 February 1892, p. 27.</ref>

===Clarence P. Moody===
The first list of matches considered to be "Tests" was conceived and published by South Australian journalist [[Clarence P. Moody]] in his 1894 book, ''Australian Cricket and Cricketers, 1856 to 1893–94''. Moody's proposal was well received by [[Charles W. Alcock]], editor of ''Cricket'' in England and his list of 39 matches was reproduced in the 28 December 1894 issue as part of an article entitled "The First Test Match". The list begins with the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]] match played 15–17 March 1877 and ends with the recent match at the [[Sydney Cricket Ground|Association Ground, Sydney]] played 14–20 December 1894.<ref name="C379463">[https://archive.acscricket.com/cricket/1894/487/ "The First Test Match"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908225143/https://archive.acscricket.com/cricket/1894/487/ |date=8 September 2022 }} ''Cricket'', issue 379, 28 December 1894, pp. 463–464.</ref> All 39 were retrospectively recognised as Test matches, as was the unlisted 1890 [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground|Old Trafford]] match that was abandoned without a ball being bowled. No South African matches were included in Moody's list but three against England were also given retrospective Test status.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Records/England/Test/Team/List_of_Matches.html |title=List of Test Matches |work=CricketArchive |access-date=9 September 2022 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=9 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909044131/https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Records/England/Test/Team/List_of_Matches.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Moody became a newspaper editor and founded the Adelaide ''[[Sunday Mail (Adelaide)|Sunday Mail]]'' in 1912.<ref>[https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/game-on-a-rich-sporting-history/news-story/07eca80e5030e130571aad9044d9362d "Game on: a rich sporting history"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908230423/https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/game-on-a-rich-sporting-history/news-story/07eca80e5030e130571aad9044d9362d |date=8 September 2022 }}. Hilferty, Tim: ''The Advertiser''. 5 May 2012.</ref>

== Twentieth century ==

=== Further growth and creation of the Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) ===
Growth of Tests continued, with 48 being played from 1901 to 1910.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Test Cricket – List of Matches for 1901 to 1910 |url=https://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchList.asp?Group=1900010119101231&Range=1900%20to%201910 |access-date=10 August 2025 |website=www.howstat.com}}</ref> The [[Imperial Cricket Conference]] (ICC) was founded on 15 July 1909, with England, Australia and South Africa as the founding members. The ICC included the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] (MCC), the [[Cricket Australia|Australian Board of Control for International Cricket]], and the [[Cricket South Africa|South African Cricket Association]] as its original associations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Amit |title=The Oxford handbook of sports history |date=2017 |others={{ill|Robert Edelman|de}}, Wayne Wilson |isbn=978-0-19-985891-0 |location=New York, NY |pages=214–215 |chapter=14-Cricket: The Indianization of an Imperial Game |oclc=959032235}}</ref> The ICC would oversee and regulate cricket between these three countries.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Iyer |first=Usha |date=September 2013 |title=Decolonisation and the Imperial Cricket Conference, 1947–1965: A Study in Transnational Commonwealth History? |url=https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/id/eprint/9659/1/Iyer%20Usha%20Final%20e-Thesis%20%28Master%20Copy%29.pdf |access-date=9 August 2025}}</ref> The President and Secretary of the MCC subsequently became the President and Secretary of the ICC. [[Lord's]], the home of the MCC, hence became the headquarters of the ICC. At their 1909 meeting, the ICC instigated a [[1912 Triangular Tournament|triangular tournament to be held between the three countries in 1912]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The original damp squib |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rewind-the-1912-triangular-tournament-in-england-465748 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225231623/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rewind-the-1912-triangular-tournament-in-england-465748 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=2025-08-09 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The nine-match tournament was marred by rain, and combined with the three-day match length for Tests in England at the time meant six of the matches resulted in draws. The tournament was so unsuccessful that the idea was never attempted again. The Daily Telegraph noted: "Nine Tests provide a surfeit of cricket, and contests between Australia and South Africa are not a great attraction to the British public."

There were only 24 Tests between 1911 and 1920,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Test Cricket – List of Matches for 1910 to 1920 |url=https://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchList.asp?Group=1911010119201231&v=D&Range=1911%20to%201920 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250320055853/https://howstat.com/Cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchList.asp?Group=1911010119201231&v=M&Range=1911%20to%201920 |archive-date=20 March 2025 |access-date=9 August 2025 |website=www.howstat.com |language=en}}</ref> including the nine as part of the 1912 Triangular Tournament, owing to the disruption caused by [[World War I]]. When Test cricket resumed after the war, England was the first to tour Australia as part of the [[English cricket team in Australia in 1920–21|1920–21 Ashes Series]], who were [[Whitewash (sport)|whitewashed]] by Australia for the first time in a Test series.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Ebor |first=Old |date=2019-01-14 |title="They have whacked us, well": JWHT Douglas and the Ashes whitewash |url=https://oldebor.wordpress.com/2019/01/14/they-have-whacked-us-well/ |access-date=2025-08-09 |website=Old Ebor |language=en |archive-date=13 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250913211507/https://oldebor.wordpress.com/2019/01/14/they-have-whacked-us-well/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":3">Burton S (2021) [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/mar/02/the-1920-21-ashes-typhus-quarantine-and-unseemly-barracking The 1920–21 Ashes: typhus quarantine and unseemly barracking], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 2021-03-02. Retrieved 2021-03-02.</ref> England were required to quarantine before the series due to an outbreak of typhus on their ship, and also had injuries to key players, which disrupted their preparation.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> After the conclusion of the series, England's captain [[Johnny Douglas]] congratulated the Australians "who have whacked us, well."<ref name=":2" />

The ICC held a second meeting in 1921 which focused on the use of eight-ball overs.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=icc |title=1909–1963 – Imperial Cricket Conference {{!}} About ICC Cricket |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1909-1963 |access-date=2025-08-09 |website=icc |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222135726/https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1909-1963 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Admission of India, New Zealand and West Indies ===
India, New Zealand and West Indies were invited to attend the ICC's third meeting on 31 May 1926, and subsequently became full members on the same day.<ref name=":4" /> At the meeting, it was agreed that the membership of the ICC should comprise "governing bodies of cricket in countries within the Empire to which cricket teams are sent, or which send teams to England." This definition regrettably excluded the United States, which had regularly received teams from England since 1859 and had also sent several teams to play in England.<ref name=":5" /> The meeting also discussed the "farcical" limit of three days for Tests, and it was unanimously agreed to establish an allotment of "more than three days for tests [sic] in England, which should be played out if possible." The MCC representatives confirmed that the English counties would be consulted in regard to the Australian proposal that at least four days should be permitted for Test matches.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 June 1926 |title=CRICKET CONFERENCE |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article16297499 |access-date=10 August 2025 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |location=New South Wales, Australia |page=15 |via=National Library of Australia |issue=27,590}}</ref> The meeting further discussed the use of eight-ball overs, and heard that all the State Cricket Associations in Australia had been consulted by the Australian Board of Control, with a unanimous decision that the eight-ball over was in the best interests of the game.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 June 1926 |title=CRICKET CONFERENCE |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article163384090 |access-date=10 August 2025 |work=[[The Newcastle Sun]] |location=New South Wales, Australia |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia |issue=2649}}</ref>

From this point onward, the ICC met "on an almost annual basis" except during war years, to set out future Test tours, checking that players were properly qualified, and encouraging the use of turf instead of matting pitches. Possible law changes were also discussed.<ref name=":5" />

West Indies toured England for their Test debut on 23 June 1928 against England at Lord's as part of a [[West Indian cricket team in England in 1928|three-Test series]]. England won each match batting only once, with the West Indies being largely outplayed. However they had shown their huge potential in a series of reciprocal tours in the previous decade.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Williamson |first=Martin |date=1 Feb 2014 |title=Playing two Tests in a day |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rewind-to-1930-when-england-played-two-tests-in-a-day-714423 |access-date=11 August 2025 |website=ESPNCricinfo |archive-date=18 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250818043214/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rewind-to-1930-when-england-played-two-tests-in-a-day-714423 |url-status=live }}</ref>

New Zealand made their Test debut on 10 January 1930 at [[Lancaster Park]] as England toured New Zealand for a [[English cricket team in New Zealand in 1929–30|three-Test series]]. Due a quirk of scheduling the series between previously agreed tours (Australia in 1928[[English cricket team in Australia in 1920–21|–]]29 & 1932[[English cricket team in Australia in 1920–21|–]]33 and South Africa in 1930[[English cricket team in Australia in 1920–21|–]]31), England was also playing a four-Test series against the [[English cricket team in the West Indies in 1929–30|West Indies at the same time]].<ref name=":6" /> Due to the third Test of the England-New Zealand series being affected by rain, a fourth was arranged to start on 21 February 1930 at [[Eden Park]]. The third Test of the England-West Indies series also began on the same day at [[Bourda]]. It was the only time one country has played in two Test matches on the same day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quick, quick Snow |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149452.html |access-date=14 January 2020 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |archive-date=3 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203061506/http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149452.html |url-status=live }}</ref> England won the New Zealand series 1–0, with three draws.

The fourth Test of the England-West Indies series was [[Timeless Test|timeless]]. England made 849 from 259 overs in the first innings, with [[Andy Sandham]] scoring 325, then the world record score; it was also the first Test triple century.<ref name=":6" /> England bowled the West Indies out for 286 from 111.5 overs, establishing a first-innings lead of 563. England's captain, [[Freddie Calthorpe|Calthorpe]], was criticised for not enforcing the follow-on, but the age of his side was likely a major factor.<ref name=":6" /> England thus batted again, notching 272 from 79.1 overs before declaring 9 wickets down.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scorecard – 1929–1930 West Indies v England – 03/04/1930 |url=http://www.howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchScorecard.asp?MatchCode=0193 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422071433/http://www.howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchScorecard.asp?MatchCode=0193 |archive-date=22 April 2023 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=howstat.com |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> With time seemingly unlimited, the West Indies were set 836 to win. At the close of play on the seventh day, they had scored 408 runs for the loss of five wickets, but two days of rain followed. As was the case with the infamous [[English cricket team in South Africa in 1938–39|Durban match in 1939]], England's ship was departing and the game had to finish a draw.<ref name=":6" />

India [[Indian cricket team in England in 1932|toured England for their debut in Tests]] on 25 June 1932. England won the only Test by 158 runs.

=== Changes to the size of the wicket ===
[[File:Reggie Schwarz c1905.jpg|thumb|278x278px|Reggie Schwarz in c. 1905 showing the smaller wicket]]In 1931, provisions were added to Law 6 in the [[Laws of Cricket]] to alter the size of the wicket (stumps and bails).<ref>{{Cite web |title=A brief history of cricket |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/a-brief-history-of-cricket-239757 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250708080316/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/a-brief-history-of-cricket-239757 |archive-date=8 July 2025 |access-date=2025-08-10 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The text was changed from the 1927 version which was as follows:<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=The ACS – The ACS |url=https://acscricket.com/ |access-date=2025-08-10 |language=en-GB |archive-date=23 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250923220633/https://acscricket.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Each wicket shall be eight inches in width and consist of three stumps, with two bails upon the top. The stumps shall be of equal and sufficient size to prevent the ball from passing through, twenty-seven inches out of the ground.}}

In the 1931 revision, the relevant text was as follows:<ref name="auto"/>

{{Blockquote|text=Each wicket shall be not less than eight inches and no more than nine inches in width and consist of three stumps, with two bails upon the top. The stumps shall be of equal and sufficient size to prevent the ball from passing through, not less than twenty-seven inches nor more than twenty-eight inches out of the ground.}}

Later, Law 6, which became Law 8, was standardised in the 1947 revision to the larger size as follows:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ACS – The ACS |url=https://acscricket.com/ |access-date=2025-08-10 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Each Wicket shall be 9 inches in width and consist of three stumps with two bails upon the top. The stumps shall be of equal and of sufficient size to prevent the ball from passing through, with their top 28 inches above the ground.|source=}}

=== The genesis and outlawing of bodyline ===
{{Main|Bodyline}}

==== 1930 Ashes series ====

After [[Don Bradman|Bradman]] scored 974 runs at an average of 139.14 (with four centuries – 131, 254, 334 and 232) in the [[Australian cricket team in England in 1930|1930 Ashes series]] in England, the most runs ever scored in a series—a record that still stands to this day,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Test matches {{!}} Batting records {{!}} Most runs in a series {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/most-runs-in-a-series-282849 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120191729/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/most-runs-in-a-series-282849 |archive-date=20 January 2025 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> the English sought to curtail his impact. In the timeless 5th Test where he made 232, a number of English players and commentators had noted Bradman's discomfort in playing the [[Bouncer (cricket)|short, rising delivery]].<ref name="Sportsfactor">{{cite web |date=2 March 2001 |title=The Sports Factor (transcript) |url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/sportsfactor/stories/2001/253062.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205083438/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/sportsfactor/stories/2001/253062.htm |archive-date=5 February 2008 |access-date=23 August 2008 |work=ABC Radio}}</ref> The observation was made too late to have an impact on the match, which Australia won by an innings and 39 runs, which also meant Australia won the series 2–1.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ENG vs AUS Cricket Scorecard, 5th Test at London, August 16–22, 1930 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/australia-tour-of-england-1930-61334/england-vs-australia-5th-test-62584/full-scorecard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250615051325/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/australia-tour-of-england-1930-61334/england-vs-australia-5th-test-62584/full-scorecard |archive-date=15 June 2025 |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Wisden made of a period of play:<ref>{{cite web |year=1931 |title=Fifth Test Match: England v Australia 1930 |url=http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/151746.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708060750/http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/151746.html |archive-date=8 July 2012 |access-date=23 May 2008 |work=Wisden}}</ref>{{blockquote|On the Wednesday morning the ball flew about a good deal, both batsmen frequently being hit on the body ... on more than one occasion each player cocked the ball up dangerously but always, as it happened, just wide of the fieldsmen.}}The revelation provided England with a possible tactic for the next Ashes series in [[English cricket team in Australia in 1932–33|Australia in 1932–33]]. England's new captain, [[Douglas Jardine]], along with his bowlers, devised and practised a plan in the [[1932 English cricket season|1932 season]] called "fast leg theory" which later became known as [[bodyline]]. It involved bowling at leg stump or just outside, and pitching the ball short, so that once bounced it reared up threateningly at the body of a batsman standing in an orthodox batting position. Fielders positioned on the leg side would catch any defensive deflection off the bat.<ref name="D103">Douglas, p. 103.</ref><ref name="BBC">{{cite web |last1=Watson |first1=Greig |date=16 January 2013 |title=Bodyline: 80 years of cricket's greatest controversy |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-nottinghamshire-21013615 |access-date=21 October 2017 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019231812/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-nottinghamshire-21013615 |url-status=live }}</ref> The batsman's options were limited as [[Batting (cricket)#Pull and hook|pull or hook shots]] could be caught on the boundary and defensive shots brought few runs and could carry far enough to the keeper or leg-side fielders. Other options included evading the ball through ducking or moving aside, or allowing the ball to strike the body.<ref name="pi130">Piesse, p. 130.</ref><ref name="h70">Haigh and Frith, p. 70.</ref><ref name="c171">Colman, p. 171.</ref>

==== 1932–33 Ashes series ====
[[File:Bodyline_Cricket_Series_1932_SLNSW_FL1660012.jpg|thumb|Jardine leads the English Team onto the Sydney Cricket Ground, 2 Dec 1932]]England employed the tactic in the 1932–33 series, with the tactic causing huge controversy due to its unsportsmanlike nature and restriction of scoring options. In the third Test at Adelaide, a spell of bowling from [[Harold Larwood]] saw [[Bill Woodfull]] struck over the heart. He dropped his bat, and staggered away holding his chest, bent over in pain. Jardine called to Larwood: "Well bowled, Harold!". Although the comment was aimed at unsettling Bradman, who was also batting at the time, Woodfull was appalled.<ref>Hamilton, p. 156.</ref><ref>Frith, p. 179.</ref> Play later resumed when Woodfull was fit to continue, and Allen bowled the next over. Play was again stopped for Larwood's next over when the players were moved into bodyline positions, as the crowd protested and called abuse at the England team. Many commentators condemned the field change as unsporting, and the furious spectators became extremely volatile.<ref name="F181">Frith, p. 181.</ref>

Following the fourth day's play at Adelaide, the Australian Board of Control sent a telegraph to the MCC, cricket's ruling body and the club that selected the England team. The Australian Board had claimed bodyline was unsportsmanlike and that the bowling was menacing the best interests of the game. Meanwhile, the match continued and saw England bowled out for 412 on day five, setting Australia a target of 532 to win. Australia only had significant contributions from Woodfull, 73 from 208 balls, Bradman, 66 from 71 balls, and [[Vic Richardson]], 21 from 76 balls, as they were bowled out for 193 inside 70 overs on the sixth day. England were 2–1 up in the series.

The MCC replied to the first telegraph the following week, deeply resenting the accusation of unsportsmanlike bowling. Additionally, members of the MCC believed that the Australians had over-reacted to the English bowling.<ref name="BBC"/> At this point, the remainder of the series was under threat.<ref name="p259">Pollard, p. 259.</ref><ref>Frith, p. 227.</ref> [[File:4th Test Woodfull.jpg|thumb|[[Bill Woodfull]] evades a bodyline ball]]The Australian Board then sent another cable on 30 January, indicating that they wished the series to continue and offering to postpone consideration of the fairness of bodyline bowling until after the series. The MCC replied on 2 February, suggesting that continuing the series would be impossible unless the accusation of unsporting behaviour was withdrawn.<ref>Frith, pp. 226–28.</ref> The affair rose to the political level, and it was believed that it could have a significant trade impact between the two nations. The standoff was settled when [[Prime Minister of Australia|the Australian prime minister]], [[Joseph Lyons]], met with members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade. Following considerable discussion and debate in the English and Australian press, the Australian Board sent a cable to the MCC which, while maintaining its opposition to bodyline bowling, stated "We do not regard the sportsmanship of your team as being in question".<ref name="p2601">Pollard, pp. 260–261.</ref><ref>Frith, pp. 255–259.</ref> Correspondence between the Australian Board and the MCC continued for almost a year.<ref>Douglas, pp. 145–47.</ref>
In the final two Tests, England continued employing bodyline tactics but to a lesser extent than the first three.<ref>Frith, pp. 274, 277, 293.</ref> England won the remaining two matches of the series and thus won the series 4–1. Regarding Bradman, he had his leanest run tally in a series with 396 at an average of 56.57, with just one century and three half centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HowSTAT! Player Analysis by Series |url=http://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Players/PlayerSeries.asp?PlayerID=0225 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916030049/http://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Players/PlayerSeries.asp?PlayerID=0225 |archive-date=16 September 2009 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.howstat.com |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Continued use ====
Bodyline continued to be bowled occasionally in the 1933 English season, most notably by [[Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club|Nottinghamshire]], who had [[Arthur Carr (cricketer)|Carr]], [[Bill Voce|Voce]] and [[Harold Larwood|Larwood]] in their team.<ref name="p141">Perry, p. 141.</ref>

When the West Indies toured England in 1933, their captain [[Jackie Grant]] decided to use bodyline against the English for the first time. The match was drawn, but played a significant part in turning English opinion against bodyline. ''The Times'' used the word bodyline, without using inverted commas or using the qualification ''so-called'', for the first time.<ref name="Douglas168">Douglas, p.168.</ref> ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack|Wisden]]'' wrote that "most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that, while strictly within the law, it was not nice."<ref name="Douglas168" /><ref>See ''Cricinfo'' for the [http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/1930S/1933/WI_IN_ENG/WI_ENG_T2_22-25JUL1933.html scorecard] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050125024331/http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/1930S/1933/WI_IN_ENG/WI_ENG_T2_22-25JUL1933.html |date=25 January 2005 }} of the second Test between England and West Indies in 1933.</ref>

In 1934, Bill Woodfull led Australia back to England in a tour that had been under a cloud since the previous Ashes series. Jardine had retired from International cricket in early 1934 after captaining a fraught tour of India and under England's new captain, [[Bob Wyatt]], agreements were put in place so that bodyline would not be used.<ref name="h84">Haigh and Frith, p. 84.</ref><ref name="ha354">Harte, p. 354.</ref><ref name="r164">Robinson, p. 164.</ref> However, there were occasions when the Australians felt that their hosts had crossed the mark with tactics resembling bodyline.<ref name="h84"/> In a match between the Australians and Nottinghamshire, Voce, one of the bodyline bowlers in 1932–33 again used the tactics. Woodfull told the Nottinghamshire administrators that, if Voce's leg-side bowling was repeated, his men would leave the field and return to London. He further said that Australia would not return to the country in the future.<ref name="r164"/><ref name="h85">Haigh and Frith, p. 85.</ref><ref name="p28-30">Perry, pp. 147–148.</ref><ref>Harte, p. 356.</ref>

==== Outlawing ====
Originally, the MCC hoped that captains would ensure that the game was played in the correct spirit, and passed a resolution that bodyline bowling would breach this spirit.<ref name="Williamson">{{cite web |last=Williamson |first=Martin |title=A brief history ... Bodyline |work=Cricinfo |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/bodyline/content/story/148537.html |access-date=6 March 2013 |publisher=ESPNCricinfo |archive-date=4 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004065604/http://www.espncricinfo.com/bodyline/content/story/148537.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Frith, p. 374.</ref> When this proved to be insufficient,<ref name="Williamson" /> the MCC passed a law for the 1935 English cricket season, that "direct attack" bowling was unfair and became the responsibility of the umpires to identify and stop.<ref name="F408">Frith, p. 408.</ref> Later, in 1957, the Laws were altered to prevent more than two fielders standing behind square on the leg side; the intention was to prevent negative bowling tactics whereby off spinners and slow inswing bowlers aimed at the leg stump of batsmen with fielders concentrated on the leg side.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chalke |first1=Stephen |title=No Coward Soul. The remarkable story of Bob Appleyard |last2=Hodgson |first2=Derek |publisher=Fairfield Books |year=2003 |isbn=0-9531196-9-6 |location=Bath |page=177}}</ref> However, an indirect effect was to make bodyline fields impossible to implement.<ref name="Williamson"/>

Later law changes, under the heading of "Intimidatory Short Pitched Bowling", also restricted the number of "[[Bouncer (cricket)|bouncers]]" which could be bowled in an [[Over (cricket)|over]].<ref name="begin">{{cite web |title=A Dummy's Guide to Bodyline |url=http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/bodyline/content/story/316343.html |access-date=31 July 2008 |publisher=[[Cricinfo]] |archive-date=19 January 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130119205934/http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/bodyline/content/story/316343.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Frith, pp. 10–17.</ref>

=== End of timeless Tests ===
{{Main|Timeless Test}}There were 99 timeless Tests between 1877 and 1939.<ref>John Lazenby, ''Edging Towards Darkness: The Story of the Last Timeless Test'', Bloomsbury, London, 2017, p. 180.</ref> Of these, five were held in England, two in South Africa, one in the West Indies, with the remaining ninety-one being held in Australia. All Tests in Australia were timeless prior to [[World War II]]. The Australian climate combined with groundskeepers leaving the pitch uncovered and watering the pitch well meant pitches would dry out and crack as the match progressed, often making batting difficult by days four or five.<ref>Lazenby, p. 229.</ref> Only two timeless Tests in Australia were drawn, both against England in 1882, when the matches had to be left unfinished due to shipping schedules.<ref>Lazenby, pp. 188–89.</ref>

Timeless Tests were sometimes used outside Australia if the series result depended on the outcome of the match. This happened in [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]] in 1930 when the Fourth (and final) Test between West Indies and England lasted for seven playing days and had to be abandoned owing to shipping schedules. The fifth and final Test at The Oval in 1938 was also timeless, as England batted for the first two and a half days and made 903 for 7, before declaring and dismissing Australia twice by the end of the fourth day.<ref>Lazenby, pp. 187–88.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=4th Test, England tour of West Indies at Kingston, Apr 3–12 1930 |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/17590/scorecard/62579/west-indies-vs-england-4th-test-england-tour-of-west-indies-1929-30/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329190012/http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/17590/scorecard/62579/west-indies-vs-england-4th-test-england-tour-of-west-indies-1929-30/ |archive-date=29 March 2018 |access-date=29 March 2018 |website=Cricinfo}}</ref>
[[File:StateLibQld 1 133529 Athlone Castle (ship).jpg|thumb|300x300px|The [[RMMV Athlone Castle|Athlone Castle]], the ship England needed to catch]]
The fifth and final Test at [[Kingsmead Cricket Ground|Durban]] in 1938–39 between [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]] and [[England cricket team|England]] was also timeless. The infamous match was spread over twelve days with nine days of actual play – including two rest days and one day with no play. The match started on Friday 3 March 1939. South Africa batted first and were bowled out for 530 on Monday 6 March, with the Sunday having been a rest day. In reply England were bowled out on Wednesday, 8 March for 316. South Africa extended their lead with 481 in their second innings, as they batted for another two days, setting England a target of 696 to win. England were 0/0 at stumps on Thursday 9 March. At stumps on Friday 10 March, England had reached 253 for the loss of just one wicket. There was no play on Saturday, and Sunday was a rest day. They resumed on Monday, reaching 496 for the loss of three wickets. By 14 March 1939, they had reached 654 for the loss of five wickets in the fourth innings (the highest ever [[First-class cricket|first-class]] fourth innings score)<ref name="Beard">{{cite book |last=Frindall |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Frindall |title=Ask Bearders |publisher=[[BBC Books]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84607-880-4 |pages=216–217}}</ref> but the match had to remain unfinished as England's had to catch a train to Cape Town where their boat home was due to depart. The match had not been expected to take more than five days, but rain and rolling rejuvenated the pitch three times during the match, and it was still in good condition for batting when the match was abandoned.<ref>Lazenby, pp. 99–181.</ref>

The South Africans suggested that England could make alternative travel arrangements, to allow the match to be finished the next day. Hammond had had enough and disagreed. And so the match was called off. He remarked in his final speech: “I don’t think timeless Test matches are in the best interests of the game, and I sincerely hope that the last one has been played.”<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bull |first=Andy |date=2015-12-22 |title=The Test match that went on and on and on. Without a winner but with meaning |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/dec/22/the-spin-cricket-the-timeless-test-1939 |access-date=2025-09-12 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Wisden noted: "the limitless match we now believe to be dead."<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |date=2015-11-26 |title=Changes to Test cricket over the years |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/changes-to-test-cricket-over-the-years/72xnur0tp |access-date=2025-09-20 |website=SBS News |language=en}}</ref>

Timeless Tests were never scheduled after World War II, owing to the scheduling difficulties of matches that could continue indefinitely,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timeless Test matches: Play until there's a result |url=https://www.theroar.com.au/2020/06/30/timeless-test-matches-play-until-theres-a-result/ |access-date=2025-09-12 |website=The Roar |language=en-US |archive-date=24 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224103504/https://www.theroar.com.au/2020/06/30/timeless-test-matches-play-until-theres-a-result/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the comparative dullness of the play.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bull |first=Andy |date=2011-07-19 |title=The return of the timeless Tests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/jul/19/the-spin-return-timeless-tests |access-date=2025-09-12 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

=== Admission of Pakistan ===
[[File:Abdul Hafeez Kardar and Lala Amarnath with President of India Rajendra Prasad.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Captains [[Abdul Hafeez Kardar|Abdul Kardar]] (left) and [[Lala Amarnath]] (right) with Indian President [[Rajendra Prasad]] (center) on the day of the first test, 16 October 1952]]On 28 July 1952, Pakistan were admitted to the ICC, and in October that year played their first Test match.<ref>{{Cite web |last=icc |title=1909–1963 – Imperial Cricket Conference {{!}} About ICC Cricket |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1909-1963 |access-date=2025-09-12 |website=icc |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222135726/https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1909-1963 |url-status=live }}</ref> Almost 30 years passed until the next member (Sri Lanka) joined.

=== Five Day Tests in England ===
In 1948, matches in England were scheduled over five days for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goodman |first=Tom |date=2019-08-14 |title=From the Archives: Bradman out for 'duck' in his last Test |url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/cricket/from-the-archives-bradman-out-for-duck-in-his-last-test-20190716-p527r0.html |access-date=2025-09-12 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120181629/https://www.smh.com.au/sport/cricket/from-the-archives-bradman-out-for-duck-in-his-last-test-20190716-p527r0.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chronology of cricket – Bloomsbury |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/discover/wisden/archive/chronology-of-cricket/ |access-date=2025-09-12 |website=www.bloomsbury.com |archive-date=5 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005223022/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/discover/wisden/archive/chronology-of-cricket/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Most matches from 1880 to 1949 were three days, and from 1950 all matches were scheduled for five days except for the 2019 Test between England and Ireland (which was four days) and final matches of series in 1953, 1972 and 1975, which were six days. The [[World Test Championship]] final in 2021 was scheduled for five days with a reserve day, which was used after the first day was lost to rain.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Days allocated to Men's Test Cricket in England – The ACS |url=https://acscricket.com/?page_id=6708 |access-date=2025-09-12 |language=en-GB |archive-date=20 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250320174325/https://acscricket.com/?page_id=6708 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 8 March 1955, the ICC made the following decision at their meeting:<ref name=":8" />

{{Blockquote|text=In future all members of the Imperial Cricket Conference visiting England will play five five-day Test Matches. This will bring India, West Indies, New Zealand and Pakistan into line for the first time with Australia and South Africa.|author=}}

=== Advent of covered pitches ===
Various levels of "covering" existed through the history of cricket, from the Laws in 1884—"The ground shall not be rolled, watered, covered, mown, or beaten during a match, except before the commencement of each innings and of each day’s play." This phrasing remained until the 1947 Laws, which stated the pitch should not be covered "unless special regulations so provide". These Laws also permitted covering the run-ups to the pitch. The next edition of the Laws, in 1980, allowed for "complete covering of the pitch" before a match, but not during "unless prior arrangement or regulations so provide."<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Ebor |first=Old |date=2022-05-17 |title=The Extinction of the Sticky Wicket: The Confusing History of Pitch Covering |url=https://oldebor.wordpress.com/2022/05/17/the-extinction-of-the-sticky-wicket-the-confusing-history-of-pitch-covering/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Old Ebor |language=en}}</ref>

The main issue with uncovered pitches was that it produced "sticky wickets", which occurred after rain, while the pitch was drying, especially when this happened quickly. On a genuine sticky wicket, players could expect the ball to turn sharply with just a small amount of spin on the ball. Some balls might deviate a significant amount, while others would skid through. There was also often extremely uneven bounce.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Ebor |first=Old |date=2022-05-10 |title=The Sticky Wicket: How rain used to influence cricket pitches |url=https://oldebor.wordpress.com/2022/05/10/the-sticky-wicket-how-rain-used-to-influence-cricket-pitches/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Old Ebor |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250901212409/https://oldebor.wordpress.com/2022/05/10/the-sticky-wicket-how-rain-used-to-influence-cricket-pitches/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Leaving pitches uncovered also meant rain would cause huge delays while the ground dried out enough to permit play. The loss of time and gate money was of huge concern to administrators, especially those with precarious finances.<ref name=":10" />

Due to several wet summers, after much discussion, from the beginning of the [[1959 English cricket season|1959 season]], full covering was made compulsory for County cricket and Test matches.<ref name=":9" /> The entire pitch had to be covered every evening and on Sundays, it also had to be covered whenever play was abandoned due to rain. The only instance where pitches were not covered was when players came off due to rain but play was not abandoned.

From the 1960s and 70s, uncovered pitches across the world began to be phased out.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-20 |title=Pushing the (sealed) envelope: An alternative to the coin toss |url=https://www.wisden.com/cricket-news/a-good-toss-to-lose-david-franklin-pushes-crickets-sealed-envelope |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Wisden |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Covered pitches |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-covered-pitches-461172 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603232219/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-covered-pitches-461172 |archive-date=3 June 2024 |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1960, the first full covering during a Test was used in England.<ref name=":9" /> However, regulations were sometimes vague and even contradictory.<ref name=":9" /> The final changes came in the 1970s. In 1979, Test matches in England had total pitch covering during rain.<ref name=":9" /> The end of sticky wickets came in 1981 when the same full covering was enforced in all English first-class matches.<ref name=":9" />

After these changes, pitches became more standardised across the world, although differences still remained between countries and even between venues, due to the type of soil used and the local climate.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McGarry |first=Andrew |date=2015-11-26 |title=Innovations that changed the game of cricket |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-11-26/innovations-that-changed-cricket/6977816 |access-date=2025-09-13 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227112536/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-11-26/innovations-that-changed-cricket/6977816 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-14 |title=The science of cricket pitch soil |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/people/culture/cricket-pitch-soil-science-wicket/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=cosmosmagazine.com |language=en-AU |archive-date=13 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250613224211/https://cosmosmagazine.com/people/culture/cricket-pitch-soil-science-wicket/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate phenomenon catches England cricketers out down under – University of Reading |url=https://archive.reading.ac.uk/news-events/2009/June/pr21992.html |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=archive.reading.ac.uk}}</ref>

=== Imperial Cricket Conference renamed International Cricket Conference ===
On 15 July 1965, the Imperial Cricket Conference renamed itself the International Cricket Conference and countries from all over the world could be admitted, instead of only commonwealth countries.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=The ICC becomes democratic |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-the-icc-becomes-democratic-514060 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422033549/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-the-icc-becomes-democratic-514060 |archive-date=22 April 2024 |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=icc |title=1964–1988 – International Cricket Conference {{!}} About ICC Cricket |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1964-1988 |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=icc |language=en |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214102554/https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1964-1988 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite this, it was still run as an exclusive club by English cricket–the MCC president was the ICC president and the MCC secretary was the ICC secretary.<ref name=":11" />

=== Suspension of South Africa (1970–1991) ===
{{See also|Sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era}}

==== Apartheid ====
{{Main|Apartheid}}
Globally, tensions were rising throughout the 1960s against the [[apartheid]] regime of the South African government. Sporting boycotts due to the regime were enacted in the 1960s as countries across the world showed their condemnation of racial segregation.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=When politics killed a tour |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rewind-to-1970-when-politics-killed-a-tour-571799 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250119201635/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rewind-to-1970-when-politics-killed-a-tour-571799 |archive-date=19 January 2025 |access-date=2025-09-19 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> South Africa left the Commonwealth of Nations in 1961, and per the rules of the time, therefore had to leave the ICC.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=History of Cricket |url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/campus/2007/02/04/feature_cricket.htm |access-date=2025-09-19 |website=archive.thedailystar.net |archive-date=2 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202111919/https://archive.thedailystar.net/campus/2007/02/04/feature_cricket.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== D'Oliveira affair ====
[[File:Anti-apartheidsdemonstratie in Amsterdam de kop van de demonstratie, Bestanddeelnr 934-2645.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Anti-apartheid protest in [[Amsterdam]], 1988]]
{{Main|D'Oliveira affair}}
In 1968, Basil d'Oliveira, a mixed-race South African player who had represented England since 1966, was prohibited from playing by the South African government, in a development known as the [[D'Oliveira affair]]. The British prime minister at the time, [[Harold Wilson]] remarked: "Once the South Africans had said that they were not taking a player [d'Oliveira] we wanted to send, I would have rather thought that put them beyond the pale of civilized cricket."<ref name="booth98p99">Booth 1998 [[iarchive:racegamesportpol0000boot/page/99|p. 99]]</ref> Due to the affair, the English tour of South Africa was cancelled.<ref name=":12" />

==== Cancelled 1970 tour ====
{{Main|South African cricket team in England in 1970 (proposed)}}
Eighteen months later, South Africa was due to tour England as part of the 1970 season, and the public was growing discontent with the prospect of the tour,<ref name=":12" /> meanwhile the game's administrators remained steadfast in its determination that the tour should go ahead.<ref name=":12" /> Minutes of several meetings of the ICC and MCC showed they were much more concerned with the upcoming metrication in the UK and subsequent changing of the pitch length from 22 yards to 20.12 metres, and the weight of the ball from 5.5 ounces to 155.8 grams.<ref name=":12" /> On December 12, 1969, the Test and County Cricket Board (the precursor to the [[England and Wales Cricket Board|ECB]]) confirmed the tour would proceed, adding it was "averse to racial discrimination of any kind ... and respected the right of those who wish to demonstrate peacefully." However, at that stage protests had escalated from being peaceful.<ref name=":12" /> By the end of January 1970, twelve county grounds had been vandalised.

On 30 January, the [[International Cavaliers]], a touring charity-based multi-racial cricket team, had been refused entry to South Africa. A letter from the South African Cricket Association ended with "you must be aware any tour ... including non-white personnel would not be allowed." The MCC tried to distance itself from the situation, claiming that the Cavaliers were a private organisation; this only served to make itself appear woefully out of touch with the world.<ref name=":12" />

By mid-February, the MCC had cut the schedule from 28 to 11 matches, as they removed grounds seen as impossible to protect. They even permitted laying of artificial pitches on grounds hosting games, in order to allow play to continue if they were vandalised during play.<ref name=":12" /> Both pro and anti-tour letters were sent to newspapers as the tour grew closer, with players and officials taking stances for or against. Some journalists refused to commentate on any of the games; one, [[John Arlott]], said that while he was not sure protests at games were the answer, he felt that by allowing the tour to go ahead the ICC had put cricket in a position where it would be "the ultimate and inevitable sufferer" and that the Tests "would offer comfort and confirmation to a completely evil regime."

==== Ban ====
In April, Harold Wilson told the BBC that the MCC had made "a big mistake" in allowing the tour to happen. "Everyone should be free to demonstrate against apartheid ... I hope people will feel free to do so." In early May, the annual meeting of the MCC backed the tour without requiring a vote. Later, Warwickshire said they wouldn't pick any of their three coloured players for the match against the South Africans. The following day the gates at [[Edgbaston Cricket Ground|Edgbaston]] were vandalised.<ref name=":12" /> On 20 May, 12 days before the first match, the ICC voted almost unanimously for the tour to go ahead. "It was agreed in the long term this policy was in the best interests of cricket, and of cricketers of all races in South Africa," proclaimed secretary [[Billy Griffith]]. Despite this, the ICC stated there would be no further series involving South Africa "until SA cricket is played and teams selected on a multi-racial basis." An editorial in the Daily Mirror wrote: "The rulers of cricket stonewall on ... if this is their last word, they are assuming a terrible responsibility." On 22 May,<ref>{{Cite news |date=1970-05-22 |title=1970: South Africa cricket tour called off |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_2504000/2504573.stm |access-date=2025-09-19 |language=en-GB |archive-date=7 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307133241/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_2504000/2504573.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> the ICC called the tour off "with great regret", following a strongly worded official request from James Callaghan, the British home secretary. Griffith said he "regretted the discourtesy" to the South African board and further said he "deplored the activities of those who intimidate."

Inside the British government, there were fears the tour would cause racial unrest within the country, and allowing the tour to carry on could only harm Wilson's chances of re-election. John Vorster, South Africa's prime minister was furious. "For a government to submit so easily and so willingly to open blackmail is to me unbelievable." [[Ali Bacher]], South Africa's captain was more reserved: "I regret the manner in which politics have become involved in cricket ... [but] unless we broaden our outlook we will remain forever in isolation." That isolation lasted longer than anyone feared as the ICC's members voted to suspend South Africa indefinitely from international cricket at their meeting.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=icc |title=History of Cricket in the 20th Century {{!}} About ICC Cricket |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/cricket/history-of-cricket/20th-century |access-date=2025-09-19 |website=icc |language=en |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520193911/https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/cricket/history-of-cricket/20th-century |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Rebel tours ====
{{Main|South African rebel tours}}
Following the ban from the ICC, [[South African rebel tours|rebel tours]] took place in the 1980s, in spite of the express disapproval of the national cricket boards and governments, the ICC, and international organisations such as the [[United Nations]]<ref>Pg 35–71, Peter May, ''The Rebel Tours: Cricket's Crisis of Conscience'', 2009</ref> They were the subject of enormous controversy and remain a sensitive topic in the cricket world. Many players from various countries were banned for some years for their involvement in the rebel tours.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Humphries |first=Gary Linnell and David |date=2019-07-26 |title=From the Archives. 1985: Rebel cricketers banned for tours of South Africa |url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/cricket/from-the-archives-1985-rebel-cricketers-banned-for-tours-of-south-africa-20190726-p52b6l.html |access-date=2025-09-19 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718030613/https://www.smh.com.au/sport/cricket/from-the-archives-1985-rebel-cricketers-banned-for-tours-of-south-africa-20190726-p52b6l.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mason |first=Peter |date=2024-11-06 |title=The 1983 West Indian rebel tour to South Africa that shocked cricket |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2024/nov/06/cricket-west-indies-rebel-tour-1983-south-africa-clyde-walcott |access-date=2025-09-19 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Williamson |first=Martin |date=13 November 2009 |title=The Dirty Dozen |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/the-dirty-dozen-434386 |website=ESPNCricinfo |access-date=20 September 2025 |archive-date=29 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250629105431/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/the-dirty-dozen-434386 |url-status=live }}</ref> The English cricket side that toured South Africa in 1981–82 became known as "The Dirty Dozen".

==== Re-admission ====
In 1991, the ICC re-admitted South Africa at the personal request of [[Nelson Mandela]], ending the 22 year ban.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Odendaal |first=Andre |date=20 June 2010 |title=South Africa are isolated |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-south-africa-are-isolated-463657 |website=ESPNCricinfo |access-date=20 September 2025 |archive-date=1 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250401030558/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-south-africa-are-isolated-463657 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 6-ball over standardised globally ===
During the first 100 years of Test cricket, the number of balls per [[Over (cricket)|over]] ranged between 4 and 8.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=History of Overs – Test Cricket |url=https://www.howstat.com/Cricket/Statistics/Misc/HistoryOvers.asp |website=Howstat |access-date=20 September 2025 |archive-date=27 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240927050157/https://howstat.com/Cricket/Statistics/Misc/HistoryOvers.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> While matches in England had used 6-ball overs since 1946, and in South Africa since 1961–62, Pakistan, New Zealand and Australia had used 8-ball overs for several years. In 1978–79, Pakistan switched to 6-ball overs, and Australia and New Zealand switched the following season from 1979–80, standardising over length globally.<ref name=":15" />

There is no recorded reason for the switching between four, five, six, and eight ball overs in the formative years of cricket, however it is understood that the shortness of four and five-ball overs meant there were too many over changes during the course of the day, and also made it difficult for bowlers to get into a rhythm to plot a dismissal.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=6 June 2008 |title=That's the over |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/that-s-the-over-353235 |access-date=20 September 2025 |website=ESPNCricinfo |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207031925/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/that-s-the-over-353235 |url-status=live }}</ref> Eight-ball overs were used in Australia in an attempt to get more balls bowled in a day's play due to the reduction in change-overs. However, a downside was that bowlers would slow down in self preservation.<ref name=":14" /> The ICC permitted both 6-ball and 8-ball overs in the Laws, depending on the conditions of play in the host country. From the 2000 Laws, only 6-ball overs were permitted.<ref name=":13" />

It is widely believed that with the commercialisation of cricket and the [[Packer Revolution|Packer revolution]], there was no room left for the 8-ball over and the 6-ball over provided a happy balance between over changes and rhythm for the bowlers.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fella |first=Full On |date=2025-02-18 |title=Cricket Hasn't Always had Six Balls Per Over – Full on Sport |url=https://www.fullonsport.co.uk/cricket-hasnt-always-had-six-balls-per-over/ |access-date=2025-09-19 |language=en-US |archive-date=19 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250619034732/https://www.fullonsport.co.uk/cricket-hasnt-always-had-six-balls-per-over/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Admission of Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, and further changes to the ICC ===
On 21 July 1981, Sri Lanka was admitted by the ICC as a full member, becoming the eighth Test playing nation. They played their first Test match [[English cricket team in Sri Lanka in 1981–82#Only Test|against England]] at [[Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium|P. Sara Oval]], Colombo on 17 February 1982.<ref>{{cite web |title=First Test match for Sri Lanka |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/63307.html |access-date=5 August 2016 |work=ESPN Cricinfo |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226135239/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/63307.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In July 1989, the International Cricket Conference renamed itself to the International Cricket Council. In the same year, the practice of the MCC President automatically assuming the chairmanship of the ICC came to an end, though with the election of [[Colin Cowdrey]], was still led by an Englishman.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=icc |title=1989–Present – International Cricket Council {{!}} About ICC Cricket |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1989-present |access-date=2025-09-19 |website=icc |language=en |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816142659/https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1989-present |url-status=live }}</ref> The renamed organisation had more teeth; it was no longer confined to just making recommendations to national governing bodies, but could impose binding decisions on members.<ref name=":16" />

In July 1992, Zimbabwe was admitted by the ICC as a full member, becoming the ninth Test playing nation. They played their first Test match in October that year, against [[India national cricket team|India]] at [[Harare Sports Club]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Only Test: Zimbabwe v India at Harare, Oct 18–22, 1992 |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/63583.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023202744/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/63583.html |archive-date=23 October 2011 |access-date=5 November 2011 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref>

1993 saw the creation of the Chief Executive of ICC, to which David Richards of the Australian Cricket Board was appointed. With his appointment, the practice of the MCC's secretary performing the same function for the ICC came to an end.<ref name=":16" />

=== Television replays, return of South Africa and neutral umpires ===
{{Main|Third umpire}}
The [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 1992–93|Indian tour of South Africa in 1992–93]] marked the first use of television replays in Test cricket, and was also the first Test series played by South Africa after their ban by the ICC 23 years previous.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |title=A historic tour in more ways than one |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/a-historic-tour-in-more-ways-than-one-87448 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241215025411/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/a-historic-tour-in-more-ways-than-one-87448 |archive-date=15 December 2024 |access-date=2025-09-20 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The tour was also known for the trialling of [[Elite Panel of ICC Umpires|independent umpires]].<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":19" /> Television replays were used to settle "awkward line decisions" which morphed into the [[third umpire]] provision.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18">{{Cite news |title=SOUTH AFRICA v INDIA 1992–93 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/153619.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208055338/https://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/153619.html |archive-date=8 December 2024 |access-date=2025-09-20 |work=Cricinfo |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sachin Tendulkar]] was the first player to be given out, run out, by the third umpire.

By 1995, it had been agreed that television replays should be available in Tests "wherever possible" and that the third umpire should signal out with a red light, and not out with a green light (Tendulkar was given out with a green light in the first Test at Durban in November 1992.<ref name=":18" />)

In 1996, cameras were also permitted to check whether a ball had crossed the boundary, and in 1997, umpires could call on the third umpire to check if a catch was clean or not.<ref>{{Cite web |last=icc |title=1989–Present – International Cricket Council {{!}} About ICC Cricket |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1989-present |access-date=2025-09-20 |website=icc |language=en |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816142659/https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/the-icc/history-of-icc/1989-present |url-status=live }}</ref>

Test Match Playing Conditions in 1998–99 contained the following rules:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Test Match Playing Conditions |url=https://i.imgci.com/link_to_database/ABOUT_CRICKET/ICC_1998-99/TEST_MATCH_PLAYING_CONDITIONS.html |access-date=2025-09-20 |website=i.imgci.com}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=The third Umpire will officiate in regard to TV replays only when the Umpires on the field have referred a decision to him in regard to hit wicket, run out, caught or stumping appeals.}}{{Blockquote|text=Either the on field or third umpire shall be entitled to call for a TV replay to assist him in making a decision about whether the fieldsman had any part of his person in contact with the ball when he touched or crossed the boundary line or whether a four or six had been scored (refer to Regulation of ICC Full Members, Clause 2).}}[[Michael Atherton]], opening batsman for England, said after he was given out (caught) by the third umpire in the third Test in Adelaide in 1998: "In my opinion the third umpire should be restricted to line decisions [run outs, stumpings and boundaries]. What people are looking for from a third umpire is 100 per cent correct decision-making, but that's a Utopia that cannot exist. There's often doubt about non-line decisions made by the third umpire. There is no substitute at the end of the day for the player's word out in the middle and the two umpire's control of the decision making process."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atherton: cut powers of third umpire (13 December 1998) |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/atherton-cut-powers-of-third-umpire-13-december-1998-74736 |website=ESPNCricinfo}}</ref>

==Test status==
Test matches are the highest level of cricket, played between national representative teams with "Test status", as determined by the [[International Cricket Council]]. {{As of|June 2017}}, twelve national teams have Test status, the most recently promoted being Afghanistan and Ireland on 22 June 2017.<ref name=AI_test>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/40364481 |title=Ireland & Afghanistan awarded Test status by International Cricket Council |author= |date=22 June 2017 |website=BBC News |access-date=22 June 2017 |archive-date=22 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622143835/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/40364481 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Teams with Test status===
Test status is conferred upon a country or group of countries by the ICC. There are currently twelve men's teams that have been granted this status: international teams that do not have Test status can play [[first-class cricket]] in the [[ICC Intercontinental Cup]], under conditions which are similar to Tests.

The teams with Test status (with the date of each team's Test debut) are:
#{{cr|Australia}} ([[English cricket team in Australia and New Zealand in 1876–77#First Test|15 March 1877]])
#{{cr|England}} ([[English cricket team in Australia and New Zealand in 1876–77#First Test|15 March 1877]])
#{{cr|South Africa}} ([[English cricket team in South Africa in 1888–89#First Test|12 March 1889]])
#{{cr|West Indies}} ([[West Indian cricket team in England in 1928#First Test, Lord's, 23-26 June 1928|23 June 1928]])
#{{cr|New Zealand}} ([[English cricket team in New Zealand in 1929–30#First Test|10 January 1930]])
#{{cr|India}} ([[Indian cricket team in England in 1932#Test summary|25 June 1932]])
#{{cr|Pakistan}} ([[Pakistani cricket team in India in 1952–53#1st Test|16 October 1952]])
#{{cr|Sri Lanka}} ([[English cricket team in Sri Lanka in 1981–82#Only Test|17 February 1982]])
#{{cr|Zimbabwe}} ([[Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 1992–93#Only Test|18 October 1992]])
#{{cr|Bangladesh}} ([[Indian cricket team in Bangladesh in 2000–01#Only Test|10 November 2000]])
#{{cr|Ireland}} ([[Pakistani cricket team in Ireland in 2018#Only Test|11 May 2018]])
#{{cr|Afghanistan|2013}} ([[Afghan cricket team in India in 2018#Only Test|14 June 2018]])

Nine of these teams represent independent sovereign nations: the England cricket team represents the [[countries of the United Kingdom|constituent countries]] of [[England]] and [[Wales]], the West Indies is a combined team from fifteen Caribbean nations and territories, and Ireland represents both the [[Republic of Ireland]] and [[Northern Ireland]].

Following the [[D'Oliveira affair]] in 1969, [[History of cricket in South Africa from 1970–71 to 1990|South Africa]] was suspended from all forms of cricket from 1970 until the end of the [[Apartheid|apartheid regime]] in [[Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa|1991]].

Zimbabwe's Test status was voluntarily suspended in 2006 because of very poor performances, but its Test status was reinstated in August 2011.<ref>[http://www.voanews.com/zimbabwe/news/Zimbabwe-Cricket-Resume-Test-Play-After-Six-Year-Break-126790218.html Zimbabwe Cricket Side Resume International Test Play After Six-Year Break] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131101339/http://www.voanews.com/zimbabwe/news/Zimbabwe-Cricket-Resume-Test-Play-After-Six-Year-Break-126790218.html |date=31 January 2012 }} – [[Voice of America]].</ref>

The ICC has made several proposals to reform the system of granting Test status, including having two tiers with [[promotion and relegation]],<ref>{{cite web |date=18 July 2016 |title=NZC 'big supporter' of two-tier Test system, says CEO |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/new-zealand-cricket-big-supporter-of-two-tier-test-system-says-ceo-david-white-1036139 |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=29 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729212237/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/new-zealand-cricket-big-supporter-of-two-tier-test-system-says-ceo-david-white-1036139 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=4 September 2016 |title=Afghanistan ready to play Tests – ACB chief executive |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/afghanistan-ready-to-play-tests-acb-chief-executive-shafiq-stanikzai-1054077 |access-date=5 September 2016 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |first=Peter |last=Della Penna |archive-date=27 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727070534/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/afghanistan-ready-to-play-tests-acb-chief-executive-shafiq-stanikzai-1054077 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=27 June 2016 |title=BCB vice-president against two-tier Test system |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/bcb-vice-president-against-two-tier-test-system-1030121 |first=Mohammad |last=Isam |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=27 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527105441/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/bcb-vice-president-against-two-tier-test-system-1030121 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2016 |title=Four-day Tests, two-tier system not the answer – Thakur |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/four-day-tests-two-tier-system-not-the-answer-bcci-president-anurag-thakur-1052477 |access-date=31 August 2016 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=29 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729230624/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/four-day-tests-two-tier-system-not-the-answer-bcci-president-anurag-thakur-1052477 |url-status=live |first=Peter |last=Della Penna}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 June 2016 |title=ICC planning two Test divisions amid major overhaul |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/icc-planning-two-test-divisions-amid-major-overhaul-1022445 |first=George |last=Dobell |access-date=10 August 2016 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512021542/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/icc-planning-two-test-divisions-amid-major-overhaul-1022445 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 September 2016 |title=Two-tier proposal shelved at ICC meeting |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/two-tier-proposal-shelved-at-icc-meeting-1055073 |first=Nagraj |last=Gollapudi |access-date=21 October 2016 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416143041/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/two-tier-proposal-shelved-at-icc-meeting-1055073 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Baseball-style conference structure proposed for Tests |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/baseball-style-conference-structure-proposed-for-tests-1062376 |first=Daniel |last=Brettig |access-date=21 October 2016 |archive-date=24 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724132330/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/baseball-style-conference-structure-proposed-for-tests-1062376 |url-status=live}}</ref> or a [[playoffs|play-off]] between the winners of the [[ICC Intercontinental Cup]] and the team with the lowest [[ICC Men's Test Team Rankings|Test ranking]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/26973541 |title=Ireland and Scotland to get Test chance as ICC approves play-off |author= |date=10 April 2014 |website=BBC Sport |publisher=BBC |access-date= |archive-date=7 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907161017/https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/26973541 |url-status=live}}</ref> These proposals have not been successful as of 2024.

===Statistics===
{{main|List of Test cricket records}}
For [[cricket statistics|statistical purposes]], Tests are considered to be a subset of [[first-class cricket]]. Performances in first-class matches count towards only the first-class statistical record, but performances in Test matches count towards both the Test statistics and the first-class statistics.

Statisticians have developed criteria to determine which matches count as Tests if they were played before the formal definition of Test status. There have been exceptional circumstances including the simultaneous England touring sides of 1891–92 ([[English cricket team in Australia in 1891–92|in Australia]] and [[English cricket team in South Africa in 1891–92|South Africa]]) and 1929–30 ([[English cricket team in the West Indies in 1929–30|in the West Indies]] and [[English cricket team in New Zealand in 1929–30|New Zealand]]), all of whose international matches are deemed to have Test status.

In 1970, a series of five "Test matches" was played in England between England and a Rest of the World XI: these matches, originally scheduled between England and South Africa, were amended after South Africa was suspended from international cricket due to their government's [[apartheid]] policies. Although initially given Test status and included as Test matches in some record books, including ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'', this was later withdrawn, and a principle was established that official Test matches can only be between nations (the geographically and demographically small countries of the West Indies have, since 1928, fielded a coalition side).

Despite this principle, in 2005, the ICC ruled that the six-day [[2005 ICC Super Series|Super Series]] match that took place that October between Australia and a World XI was an official Test match: some cricket writers and statisticians, including [[Bill Frindall]], have ignored the ICC's ruling and exclude this match from their records.

The series of "Test matches" played in Australia between Australia and a World XI in 1971–72, and the commercial "[[World Series Cricket|Supertests]]" organised by [[Kerry Packer]] as part of his [[World Series Cricket]] enterprise played between "WSC Australia", "WSC World XI" and "WSC West Indies" from 1977 to 1979, have never been regarded as official Test matches as of 2021.

==Conduct of the game==
===Playing time===
{{See also|Playing time (cricket)}}
A standard day of Test cricket consists of three sessions of two hours each, the break between sessions being 40 minutes for lunch and 20 minutes for tea. However, the times of sessions and intervals may be altered in certain circumstances: if bad weather or a change of innings occurs close to a scheduled break, the break may be taken immediately; if there has been a loss of playing time, for example because of bad weather, the session times may be adjusted to make up the lost time; if the batting side is nine [[dismissal (cricket)|wickets]] down at the scheduled tea break, then the interval may be delayed until either 30 minutes has elapsed or the team is ''all out'';<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-15-intervals,41,AR.html |title=The Laws of Cricket – Law 15.8 |publisher=Lords.org |access-date=18 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124062128/http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-15-intervals,41,AR.html |archive-date=24 November 2012}}</ref> the final session may be extended by up to 30 minutes if 90 or more [[over (cricket)|overs]] have not been [[bowling (cricket)|bowled]] in that day's play (subject to any reduction for adverse weather);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/test_playing_conditions.pdf |title=ICC Standard Test match Playing Conditions ("Playing Conditions") cl 16.1.1 |access-date=18 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111201928/http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/test_playing_conditions.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012}}</ref> the final session may be extended by 30 minutes (except on the 5th day) if the umpires believe the result can be decided within that time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/test_playing_conditions.pdf |title=Playing Conditions cl 16.2 |access-date=18 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111201928/http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/test_playing_conditions.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012}}</ref>

Today, Test matches are scheduled to be played across five consecutive days. However, in the [[History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883|early days]] of Test cricket, matches were played for three or four days. [[Irish cricket team in England in 2023#Only Test|England hosted Ireland at Lord's]] on 1 June 2023 for a four-day test.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ireland tour of England |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ireland-in-england-2023-1336035/england-vs-ireland-only-test-1336127/live-cricket-score |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531013332/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ireland-in-england-2023-1336035/england-vs-ireland-only-test-1336127/live-cricket-score |archive-date=31 May 2023 |language=en |date=1 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> There were also frequent six-day tests until the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Test matches {{!}} Team records {{!}} Longest matches (by days) |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/longest-matches-by-days-284023 |access-date=2024-12-29 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |archive-date=30 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241230000100/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/longest-matches-by-days-284023 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Four-day Test matches were last played in 1973, between [[Pakistani cricket team in New Zealand in 1972–73|New Zealand and Pakistan]].<ref name="NZPak">{{cite web |title=Cremer senses opportunity in shorter contest |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cremer-senses-opportunity-in-shorter-contest-1130012 |access-date=19 December 2017 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529081602/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cremer-senses-opportunity-in-shorter-contest-1130012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Until the 1980s, it was usual to include a 'rest day,' often a Sunday. There have also been '[[Timeless Test]]s', which have no predetermined maximum time. In 2005, Australia played a match scheduled for six days against a World XI, which the ICC sanctioned as an official Test match, though the match reached a conclusion on the fourth day. In October 2017, the ICC approved a request for a four-day Test match, between [[Zimbabwean cricket team in South Africa in 2017–18#Only Test|South Africa and Zimbabwe]], which started on 26 December 2017 and ended on the second day, 27 December.<ref name="approve">{{cite web |title=Test, ODI leagues approved by ICC Board |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/test-odi-leagues-approved-by-icc-board-1123784 |access-date=13 October 2017 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |date=13 October 2017 |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516004434/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/test-odi-leagues-approved-by-icc-board-1123784 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ICC trialed the four-day Test format until the [[2019 Cricket World Cup]].<ref name="trial">{{cite web |title=South Africa to play Zimbabwe in inaugural four-day Test |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/south-africa-to-play-zimbabwe-in-inaugural-four-day-test-1123807 |access-date=13 October 2017 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |date=13 October 2017 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413074910/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/south-africa-to-play-zimbabwe-in-inaugural-four-day-test-1123807 |url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2019, [[Cricket Australia]] were considering playing four-day Tests, subject to consensus with other Test nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/sport/cricket/australian-cricket-board-to-seriously-consider-four-day-test-matches-1.957158 |title=Australian cricket board to 'seriously consider' four-day Test matches |work=The National |date=28 December 2019 |access-date=28 December 2019 |archive-date=28 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228172132/https://www.thenational.ae/sport/cricket/australian-cricket-board-to-seriously-consider-four-day-test-matches-1.957158 |url-status=live}}</ref> Later the same month, the ICC considered the possibility of making four-day Test matches mandatory for the [[World Test Championship|ICC World Test Championship]] from 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=ICC to consider mandatory four-day Tests |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/icc-to-consider-mandatory-four-day-tests-1211511 |access-date=30 December 2019 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125124640/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/icc-to-consider-mandatory-four-day-tests-1211511 |url-status=live}}</ref>

There have been attempts by the ICC, the sport's governing body, to introduce [[Day/night Test|day-night Test matches]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lord's could host first day night Test in May 2010 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/lord-s-could-host-first-day-night-test-in-may-2010-397240 |access-date=18 July 2013 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=22 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422020105/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/lord-s-could-host-first-day-night-test-in-may-2010-397240 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, the International Cricket Council passed playing conditions that allowed for the staging of day-night Test matches.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-news/icc-paves-day-night-tests/32709 |title=ICC paves way for Day-Night Tests |publisher=Wisden India |date=29 October 2012 |access-date=30 October 2012 |archive-date=30 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630231143/http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-news/icc-paves-day-night-tests/32709 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The first day-night Test took place during [[New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 2015–16|New Zealand's tour to Australia]] in November 2015.<ref name="Adelaide">{{cite web |title=First day-night Test for Adelaide Oval |date=29 June 2015 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/first-day-night-test-for-adelaide-oval-892403 |access-date=29 June 2015 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=8 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508194706/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/first-day-night-test-for-adelaide-oval-892403 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Play===
{{further|Cricket#Laws and gameplay}}
Test cricket is played in ''innings'' (the word denotes both the singular and the plural). In each innings, one team [[batting (cricket)|bats]] and the other [[bowling (cricket)|bowls]] (or [[fielding (cricket)|fields]]). Ordinarily four innings are played in a Test match, and each team bats twice and bowls twice. Before the start of play on the first day, the two team captains and the match referee [[toss (cricket)|toss a coin]]; the captain who wins the toss decides whether his team will bat or bowl first.

In the following scenarios, the team that bats first is referred to as ''Team A'' and their opponents as ''Team B''.

Usually the teams will alternate at the completion of each innings. Thus, Team A will bat (and Team B will bowl) until its innings ends, and then Team B will bat and Team A will bowl. When Team B's innings ends, Team A begin their second innings, and this is followed by Team B's second innings. The winning team is the one that scores more runs in their two innings.

A team's innings ends in one of the following ways:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-13-innings/ |title=LAW 13 – INNINGS |publisher=Lords.org |access-date=22 December 2017 |archive-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001123108/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-13-innings/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The team is "all out". This typically occurs when a team has lost ten wickets (ten of the eleven batters having been [[Dismissal (cricket)|dismissed]]) and are "bowled out". It may occasionally occur with the loss of fewer wickets if one or more batters are unavailable to bat (through injury, for example).
* The team's captain [[Declaration and forfeiture|declares]] the innings closed, usually because they believe they have enough runs. A declaration before the innings starts is called an innings forfeiture.
* The team batting fourth score the required number of runs to win.
* The prescribed time for the match expires.

If, at the completion of Team B's first innings, Team A leads by at least 200 runs, the captain of Team A may (but is not required to) order Team B to have ''their'' second innings next. This is called enforcing the [[follow-on]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-14-the-follow-on/ |title=Law 14 – The follow-on |publisher=MCC |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=22 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622060157/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-14-the-follow-on/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In this case, the usual order of the third and fourth innings is reversed: Team A will bat in the fourth innings. It is rare for a team forced to follow-on to win the match. In Test cricket it has only happened four times, although 344 follow-ons have been enforced.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2025 |title=Test Cricket – Match Records and Statistics – Miscellaneous |url=https://howstat.com/cricket/statistics/Matches/MatchFollowOn.asp |access-date=17 June 2025 |website=HowSTAT |archive-date=13 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250913025427/https://howstat.com/cricket/statistics/Matches/MatchFollowOn.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia was the losing team on three occasions, losing twice to England, in 1894 and in 1981, and once to India in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia has lost 3 Times by Enforcing Follow-On |url=https://www.scorewaves.com/news-details/australia-loses-after-follow-on |access-date=2024-06-06 |website=ScoreWaves |language=en |archive-date=27 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527053823/https://www.scorewaves.com/news-details/australia-loses-after-follow-on |url-status=live }}</ref> Most recently, on February 24, 2023, England lost to New Zealand by one run after enforcing the follow-on.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchFollowOn.asp?FollowOn=T&Result=Lost |title=Matches where Follow-On Available {{!}} Lost by Side Enforcing Follow-On |publisher=Howstat.com |access-date=3 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404233752/http://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchFollowOn.asp?FollowOn=T&Result=Lost |url-status=live }}</ref>

If the whole of the first day's play of a Test match has been lost because of bad weather or other reasons like bad light, then Team A may enforce the follow-on if Team B's first innings total is 150 or more fewer than Team A's. During the [[New Zealand cricket team in England in 2013#2nd Test|2nd Test]] between England and New Zealand at [[Headingley Cricket Ground|Headingley]] in 2013, England batted first after the first day was lost because of rain.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/566922.html |title=2nd Test: England v New Zealand at Leeds, May 24–28, 2013 | Cricket Scorecard |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=18 July 2013 |archive-date=24 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624090021/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/566922.html |url-status=live}}</ref> New Zealand, batting second, scored 180 runs fewer than England, meaning England could have enforced the follow-on, though chose not to. This is similar to four-day first-class cricket, where the follow-on can be enforced if the difference is 150 runs or more. If the Test is two days or fewer then the "follow-on" value is 100 runs.

After 80 overs, the captain of the bowling side may take a [[Cricket ball|new ball]], although this is not required.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-4-the-ball/ |title=Law 4 – The ball |publisher=MCC |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001123047/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-4-the-ball/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The captain will usually take the new ball: being harder and smoother than an old ball, a new ball generally favours faster bowlers who can make it bounce more variably. The roughened, softer surface of an old ball can be more conducive to spin bowlers, or those using [[swing bowling#Reverse swing|reverse swing]]. The captain may delay the decision to take the new ball if he wishes to continue with his spinners (because the pitch favours spin). After a new ball has been taken, should an innings last a further 80 overs, then the captain will have the option to take another new ball.

A Test match will produce a [[Result (cricket)|result]] by means of one of six scenarios:
*'''All four innings are complete.''' The team batting fourth are ''all out'' before overtaking the other team, usually before matching the other team's score. The team that batted third are the winners by a margin equal to the difference in the aggregate runs scored by the two teams (for example, "Team A won by 95 runs"). Very rarely (in over 2,000 Test matches played, [[Tied Test|it has only happened twice]]) the scores can end level, resulting in a [[Result (cricket)#Tie|tie]].
*'''The team batting in the fourth innings overtakes the opposing team's run total.''' The match ends, and the team batting fourth is the winner by a margin equal to the number of wickets still to fall in the innings (for example, "Team B won by five wickets").
*'''The third innings concludes with the team that batted twice still trailing the team that batted once.''' The match ends without playing a fourth innings. The team that batted only once is the winner by a margin equal to "an innings" plus the difference in aggregate run totals of the teams (for example, "Team A won by an innings and 26 runs").
*'''Time for the match expires without a result being reached.''' This usually occurs at the end of the last day of the match. The result is a [[Result (cricket)#Draw|draw]]: there is no winner, no matter how superior the position of one of the sides. Rain causing a loss of playing time is a common factor in drawn matches, although matches may be drawn even without interference from the weather: usually as a result of poor time management or an intentional effort on the part of one team to avoid losing.
*'''The match is abandoned because the ground is declared unfit for play.''' This has occurred three times, resulting each time in a draw being declared: England v Australia at [[Headingley Cricket Ground|Headingley]], [[Leeds]], 1975 (vandalism);<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/19/newsid_2534000/2534763.stm |work=BBC News |title=On This Day: 19 August |access-date=18 December 2010 |archive-date=7 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307132506/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/19/newsid_2534000/2534763.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> West Indies v England at [[Sabina Park]], [[Kingston, Jamaica]], 1998 (dangerous ground);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/63783.html |title=1st Test: West Indies v England at Kingston, Jan 29 – Feb 2, 1998 | Cricket Scorecard |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=18 July 2013 |archive-date=30 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830204624/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/63783.html |url-status=live}}</ref> West Indies v England at [[Sir Vivian Richards Stadium]], [[Antigua]], 2009 (dangerous ground).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wiveng2009/engine/current/match/352662.html |title=2nd Test: West Indies v England at North Sound, Feb 13–17, 2009 | Cricket Scorecard |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=18 July 2013 |archive-date=17 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917101734/http://www.espncricinfo.com/wiveng2009/engine/current/match/352662.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
*'''The match is awarded through a forfeiture.''' If a team refuses to take the field of play, the umpires may award the match to the opposing team.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-16-the-result/ |title=Law 16 – The result |publisher=MCC |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001123036/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-16-the-result/ |url-status=live}}</ref> This has only happened once in Test cricket, in the [[2006 ball-tampering controversy|2006 fourth Test between England and Pakistan]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/feb/01/england-pakistan-oval |work=The Guardian |location=London |title=England awarded abandoned Oval Test 'win' |date=1 February 2009 |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-date=28 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228152222/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/feb/01/england-pakistan-oval |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/england/5268560.stm |work=BBC News |title=Test abandoned after ball dispute |date=20 August 2006 |access-date=27 March 2010 |archive-date=21 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080321201943/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/england/5268560.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Clothing and equipment===
{{main|Cricket clothing and equipment}}
[[File:Pollock_to_Hussey.jpg|thumb|right|Test cricketers playing in their whites.]]
Traditionally cricketers play in all-white kit. Unlike in [[limited overs cricket]], this remains the case in Test cricket, as mandated by the ICC Clothing and Equipment Regulations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://images.icc-cricket.com/image/upload/prd/vou5znt1fvbkl0ucvqll.pdf |title=Clothing and equipment rules and regulations |website=icc-cricket.com |publisher=[[International Cricket Council]] |access-date=3 March 2024 |archive-date=3 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303232044/https://images.icc-cricket.com/image/upload/prd/vou5znt1fvbkl0ucvqll.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Competitions==
===Tours===
{{main|Category:International cricket tours}}
Test cricket is almost always played as a series of matches between two countries, with all matches in the series taking place in the same country (the host). Often there is a perpetual trophy that is awarded to the winner, the most famous of which is [[the Ashes]] contested between England and Australia. There have been two exceptions to the bilateral nature of Test cricket: the [[1912 Triangular Tournament]], a three-way competition between England, Australia and South Africa (hosted by England), and the [[Asian Test Championship]], an event held in 1998–99 and 2001–02.

The number of matches in Test series has varied from one to seven.<ref name="Seven tests">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/63065.html |title=Australia v England, Seventh Test, 1970–71 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=18 July 2013 |archive-date=20 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620143752/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/63065.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Up until the early 1990s,<ref name="Neutral umpires">{{cite web |last=Rajesh |first=S. |date=16 April 2011 |title=Neutral umpires |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-neutral-umpires-511175 |access-date=30 March 2012 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227020752/http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-s-turning-points-neutral-umpires-511175 |url-status=live}}</ref> Test series between international teams were organised between the two national cricket organisations with [[Umpire (cricket)|umpires]] provided by the home team. With the entry of more countries into Test cricket, and a wish by the ICC to maintain public interest in Tests in the face of the popularity of [[One Day International|One Day International cricket]], a rotation system was introduced that sees all ten Test teams playing each other over a six-year cycle, and an official [[ICC Men's Test Team Rankings|ranking system]] (with a trophy held by the highest-ranked team). In this system, umpires are provided by the ICC. An [[Elite Panel of ICC Umpires|elite panel of umpires]] was maintained since 2002, and the panel is supplemented by an additional [[International Panel of ICC Umpires|International Panel]] that includes three umpires named by each Test-playing country. The elite umpires officiate almost all Test matches, though usually not Tests involving their home country.

====Perpetual trophies====
Several pairs of Test teams have established perpetual trophies which are competed for whenever teams play each other in Test series. The current ones are:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name of trophy !! Team 1 !! Team 2 !! First contested !! Latest contested
|-
| [[The Ashes]] || {{cr|AUS}} || {{cr|ENG}} || [[English cricket team in Australia in 1882–83|1882–83]] || [[2025–26 Ashes series|2025-26]]
|-
| [[Anthony de Mello Trophy]]{{ref label|rounding|A|A}} || {{cr|IND}} || {{cr|ENG}} || [[English cricket team in India, Pakistan and Ceylon in 1951–52|1951–52]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/indiaengland-series-played-for-anthony-de-mello-trophy-bcci/article4071143.ece |title=India-England series played for Anthony De Mello trophy: BCCI |newspaper=The Hindu |date=6 November 2012 |access-date=3 June 2016 |archive-date=12 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112125829/http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/indiaengland-series-played-for-anthony-de-mello-trophy-bcci/article4071143.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[English cricket team in India in 2023–24|2023–24]]
|-
| [[Pataudi Trophy]]{{ref label|rounding|A|A}} || {{cr|ENG}} || {{cr|IND}} || [[Indian cricket team in England in 2007|2007]] || [[Indian cricket team in England in 2021|2021]]
|-
| [[Anderson–Tendulkar Trophy]]{{ref label|rounding|A|A}} || {{cr|ENG}} || {{cr|IND}} || [[Indian cricket team in England in 2025|2025]] || [[Indian cricket team in England in 2021|2025]]
|-
| [[Frank Worrell Trophy]] || {{cr|AUS}} || {{cr|WIN}} || [[West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1960–61|1960–61]] || [[West Indian cricket team in Australia in 2023–24|2023–24]]
|-
| [[Richards–Botham Trophy]]{{ref label|rounding|B|B}} || {{cr|ENG}} || {{cr|WIN}} || [[English cricket team in the West Indies in 2021–22#Test series|2021–22]] || [[West Indian cricket team in England in 2024|2024]]
|-
| [[Trans-Tasman Trophy]] || {{cr|AUS}} || {{cr|NZ}} || [[New Zealand cricket team in Australia in 1985–86|1985–86]] || [[Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 2023–24|2023–24]]
|-
| [[Border–Gavaskar Trophy]] || {{cr|AUS}} || {{cr|IND}} || [[Australian cricket team in India in 1996–97|1996–97]] || [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2024–25|2024–25]]
|-
| [[Southern Cross Trophy]] || {{cr|AUS}} || {{cr|ZIM}} || [[Australian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 1999–2000|1999–2000]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/63851.html |title=Southern Cross Trophy, 1999/00 |work=Cricinfo |access-date=3 June 2016 |archive-date=16 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716092422/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/63851.html |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[Zimbabwean cricket team in Australia in 2003–04#Test series|2003–04]]
|-
| [[Sir Vivian Richards Trophy]] || {{cr|SA}} || {{cr|WIN}} || [[West Indian cricket team in South Africa in 1998–99#Test series|1998–99]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?bowling_pacespin=1;class=1;filter=advanced;filter_box=series;home_or_away=1;orderby=wickets;type=team |title=Statistics / Statsguru / Test matches / Team records |access-date=3 June 2016 |archive-date=26 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126231107/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?bowling_pacespin=1;class=1;filter=advanced;filter_box=series;home_or_away=1;orderby=wickets;type=team |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[South African cricket team in the West Indies in 2024|2024]]
|-
| [[Clive Lloyd Trophy]] || {{cr|WIN}} || {{cr|ZIM}} || [[West Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2001#Test series|2001]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/102043.html |title=Test trophy to be named after Clive Lloyd |work=Cricinfo |date=28 July 2001 |access-date=3 June 2016 |archive-date=8 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808171524/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/102043.html |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[West Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2022–23|2022–23]]
|-
| [[Basil D'Oliveira Trophy]] || {{cr|ENG}} || {{cr|SA}} || [[English cricket team in South Africa in 2004–05|2004–05]] || [[South African cricket team in England in 2022|2022]]
|-
| [[Warne–Muralitharan Trophy]] || {{cr|AUS}} || {{cr|SL}} || [[Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 2007–08|2007–08]] || [[Australian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2024–25|2024–25]]
|-
| [[Gandhi–Mandela Trophy]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{cr|SA}} || [[South African cricket team in India in 2015–16|2015–16]] || [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2023–24|2023–24]]
|-
| [[Sobers–Tissera Trophy]] || {{cr|SL}} || {{cr|WIN}} || [[West Indian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2015–16|2015–16]] || [[West Indian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2021–22|2021–22]]
|-
| Ganguly–Durjoy Trophy || {{cr|IND}} || {{cr|BAN}} || [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2016–17|2016–17]] || [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2024–25|2024–25]]
|-
| [[Benaud–Qadir Trophy]] || {{cr|AUS}} || {{cr|PAK}} || [[Australian cricket team in Pakistan in 2021–22|2021–22]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pcb.com.pk/press-release-detail/pakistan-and-australia-to-play-for-benaud-qadir-trophy.html |title=Pakistan and Australia to play for Benaud-Qadir Trophy |work=Pakistan Cricket Board |date=10 January 2014 |access-date=3 March 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302113814/https://www.pcb.com.pk/press-release-detail/pakistan-and-australia-to-play-for-benaud-qadir-trophy.html |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[Pakistani cricket team in Australia in 2023–24|2023–24]]
|-
|[[Tangiwai Shield]] || {{cr|NZ}} || {{cr|SA}} || [[South African cricket team in New Zealand in 2023–24|2023–24]] || [[South African cricket team in New Zealand in 2023–24|2023–24]]
|-
|[[Crowe–Thorpe Trophy]] || {{cr|ENG}} || {{cr|NZ}} || [[English cricket team in New Zealand in 2024–25|2024–25]] || [[English cricket team in New Zealand in 2024–25|2024–25]]
|}
{| style="margin:1em auto" align="left"
|-
|{{note label|rounding|A|A}} The Anthony de Mello Trophy is awarded for the India–England test series played in India, whilst the Anderson–Tendulkar Trophy is awarded for the same series played in England. It replaced the Pataudi Trophy which was used until 2021.
|-
|{{note label|rounding|B|B}} The Richards–Botham Trophy, first played for in 2021–22, replaced the [[Wisden Trophy]], which was discontinued after 2020.
|}{{clear}}

{| class="sortable wikitable"
|+Number of perpetual trophies contested by each team
!Team
!No. of Trophies contested
|-
|{{cr|AUS}}
|7
|-
|{{cr|ENG}}
|5
|-
|{{cr|IND}}
|5
|-
|{{cr|WIN}}
|5
|-
|{{cr|RSA}}
|4
|-
|{{cr|NZL}}
|3
|-
|{{cr|SRI}}
|2
|-
|{{cr|ZIM}}
|2
|-
|{{cr|PAK}}
|1
|}

===International Test rankings===
{{transcluded section|ICC Men's Test Team Rankings}}
The twelve Test-playing nations are currently ranked as follows:
{{trim|{{#section-h:ICC Men's Test Team Rankings|Current rankings}}}}

===World Test Championship===
{{main|World Test Championship}}
After years of delays since proposals began in 2009, a league competition for Test cricket was held in [[2019–2021 World Test Championship|2019–2021]]. Arranged as a bilateral series in various countries with one team as host and another team as visitor. The length of each series varies between 2 and 5 matches. Ireland, Zimbabwe and Afghanistan are not taking part in this competition, but instead play a program of Test matches with each other and other teams during the same period.

WTC league games are organized by the host nation's cricket board, whereas the final is organized directly by the ICC. The winners of the tournament are awarded the [[ICC Test Championship Mace|Test Mace]], which was previously held by the leader of the [[ICC Men's Test Team Rankings|test team rankings]].

====Final results====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
!rowspan=2|Year
! colspan="5" |Final statistics
! colspan="6" |Individual tournament statistics
|-
!Venue
!Winner
!Winning margin
!Runner-up
!Player of the match
!Most runs
!Highest score
!Most centuries
!Most wickets
!Best Bowling
!Most [[five-wicket haul]]s
|-
| [[2021 ICC World Test Championship final|2021]]
| {{flagicon|England}} [[Rose Bowl (cricket ground)|Rose Bowl]], [[Southampton]]
| {{cr|NZ}}
| 8 wickets<ref>{{Cite web |title=Full Scorecard of India vs New Zealand Final 2019–2021 – Score Report |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-world-test-championship-2019-2021-1195334/india-vs-new-zealand-final-1249875/full-scorecard |access-date=2021-06-26 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003165550/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-world-test-championship-2019-2021-1195334/india-vs-new-zealand-final-1249875/full-scorecard |url-status=live}}</ref>
| {{cr|IND}}
|[[Kyle Jamieson]]
|[[Marnus Labuschagne]], 1675<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC World Test Championship, 2019–2021 Cricket Team Records & Stats |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?id=13202&type=tournament |access-date=2022-01-04 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
|[[David Warner (cricketer)|David Warner]], 335*<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC World Test Championship, 2019–2021 Cricket Team Records & Stats |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?id=13202&type=tournament |access-date=2022-01-04 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
|[[Marnus Labuschagne]], 5<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC World Test Championship, 2019–2021 Cricket Team Records & Stats |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_hundreds_career.html?id=13202&type=tournament |access-date=2022-01-04 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
|[[Ravichandran Ashwin]], 71<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC World Test Championship, 2019–2021 Cricket Team Records & Stats |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_career.html?id=13202&type=tournament |access-date=2022-01-04 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=26 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026183607/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/bowling-most-wickets-career/icc-world-test-championship-2019-2021-13202 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Lasith Embuldeniya]], 7/137<ref>{{Cite web |access-date=19 June 2025 |title=Best bowling figures in an innings For ICC World Test Championship, 2019–2021 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/bowling-best-figures-innings/icc-world-test-championship-2019-2021-13202 |website=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=23 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423062211/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/bowling-best-figures-innings/icc-world-test-championship-2019-2021-13202 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Kyle Jamieson]], 5<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC World Test Championship, 2019–2021 Cricket Team Records & Stats |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_5wi_career.html?id=13202&type=tournament |access-date=2022-01-04 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
|-
|[[2023 ICC World Test Championship final|2023]]
|{{flagicon|England}} [[The Oval]], [[London]]
|{{cr|AUS}}
|209 runs<ref>{{Cite web |title=AUS vs IND Cricket Scorecard, Final at London, June 07–11, 2023 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-world-test-championship-2021-2023-1268315/australia-vs-india-final-1358412/full-scorecard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609072138/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-world-test-championship-2021-2023-1268315/australia-vs-india-final-1358412/full-scorecard |archive-date=9 June 2025 |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
|{{cr|IND}}
|[[Travis Head]]<ref name=2023WTC>{{cite web |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/icc-world-test-championship-2021-2023-14028 |title=Records in ICC World Test Championship, 2021–2023 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=17 June 2023 |archive-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617002423/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/icc-world-test-championship-2021-2023-14028 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[Joe Root]], 1915<ref name=2023WTC/>
|[[Tom Latham (cricketer)|Tom Latham]], 252<ref name=2023WTC/>
|[[Joe Root]], 8<ref name=2023WTC/>
|[[Nathan Lyon]], 88<ref name=2023WTC/>
|[[Ajaz Patel]], 10/119<ref name="2023WTC" />
|[[Nathan Lyon]], 5<ref name=2023WTC/>
|-
|[[2025 ICC World Test Championship final|2025]]
|{{flagicon|England}} [[Lord's]], [[London]]
|{{cr|SA}}
|5 wickets<ref>{{Cite web |title=AUS vs SA Cricket Scorecard, Final at London, June 11–14, 2025 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-world-test-championship-2023-2025-1345943/australia-vs-south-africa-final-1449769/full-scorecard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250615033644/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-world-test-championship-2023-2025-1345943/australia-vs-south-africa-final-1449769/full-scorecard |archive-date=15 June 2025 |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
|{{cr|AUS}}
|[[Aiden Markram]]
|[[Joe Root]], 1968<ref name=":0"/>
|[[Harry Brook]], 317<ref name=":0" />
|[[Joe Root]], 7<ref name=":0" />
|[[Pat Cummins]], 80<ref name=":0" />
|[[Noman Ali]], 8/46<ref name=":0" />
|[[Pat Cummins]], 6<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[2027 ICC World Test Championship final|2027]]
|{{flagicon|England}} [[Lord's]], [[London]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/wtc-lord-s-to-host-next-two-world-test-championship-finals-1326293|title=Lord's to host next two WTC finals|website=ESPN Cricinfo|access-date=22 October 2024|archive-date=18 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818101156/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/wtc-lord-s-to-host-next-two-world-test-championship-finals-1326293|url-status=live}}</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

==Popularity==
Supporters of Test cricket, including [[Adam Gilchrist]], argue that it is "the ultimate test of a player's and team's ability".<ref>{{cite web |date=24 June 2009 |title=Adam Gilchrist's Cowdrey Lecture, 2009 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/adam-gilchrist-s-cowdrey-lecture-2009-410365 |access-date=21 December 2008 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226182915/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/adam-gilchrist-s-cowdrey-lecture-2009-410365 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, it has been suggested that Test cricket may be losing popularity, particularly in the face of competition from [[short form cricket]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/sport/cricket/chris-waters-reports-death-test-cricket-have-been-greatly-exaggerated-126971 |title=Chris Waters – Reports of the death of Test cricket have been greatly exaggerated |work=Yorkshire Post |date=9 February 2019 |access-date=27 August 2021 |quote=According to Shashank Manohar, chairman of the International Cricket Council, Test cricket itself "is dying, to be honest". Details of the funeral arrangements will be announced in due course. "Nowadays, people don’t have five days (of) time to watch a Test match", said Manohar. "From ten to five, everybody has their own job to do, so it is very difficult for them to watch this game. T20s get over in three-and-a-half hours, like watching a movie. Therefore, it is picking up very fast." |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816043258/https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/sport/cricket/chris-waters-reports-death-test-cricket-have-been-greatly-exaggerated-126971 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Day/night cricket|Day/night Test match]]es have been suggested as one way to address this problem.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-cricket-australia-mcgrath/australian-mcgrath-backs-day-night-tests-to-revive-popularity-idUKKCN20K24F |title=Australian McGrath backs day-night tests to revive popularity |last=Ganguly |first=Sudipto |work=Reuters |date=26 February 2020 |access-date=27 August 2021 |archive-date=3 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203090534/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-cricket-australia-mcgrath/australian-mcgrath-backs-day-night-tests-to-revive-popularity-idUKKCN20K24F |url-status=dead}}</ref> The suggested fall in popularity has been disputed, with a 2019 [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] poll showing that 86% of all cricket fans support Test cricket, more than any other format.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/lords/news-stories/test-cricket-popularity-strong-as-ever-says-mcc-wo |title=Test Cricket Popularity as Strong as Ever Says MCC World Cricket Committee Following MCC Survey |website=lords.org |date=9 March 2019 |access-date=27 August 2021 |quote=Over 13,000 responders from more than 100 countries took part in the survey, with the majority of responders supporting England, India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Sri Lanka. Overwhelmingly, Test cricket came out as the format that interests fans the most, regardless of country supported or age. An average of 86% of the responders placed Test cricket as their preferred format to watch, follow and support over One-Day Internationals, T20 Internationals and domestic T20 matches. |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921105706/https://www.lords.org/lords/news-stories/test-cricket-popularity-strong-as-ever-says-mcc-wo |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2025, after leading Royal Challengers Bangalore to their maiden Indian Premier League title, Virat Kohli stated that “The IPL marks five levels under Test cricket,” highlighting his belief in Test cricket as the superior format in a nation where the sport holds deep cultural importance.<ref>{{cite web |title="I've given everything that I had for the last 18 years to RCB" – Virat Kohli |url=https://www.iplt20.com/video/63927/ive-given-everything-that-i-had-for-the-last-18-years-to-rcb-virat-kohli |website=iplt20.com |access-date=2025-06-30 |archive-date=17 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250917004414/https://www.iplt20.com/video/63927/ive-given-everything-that-i-had-for-the-last-18-years-to-rcb-virat-kohli |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, Test cricket has experienced a revival of interest among fans due to several closely-fought series and the reduction in the number of draws.

==See also==
{{Portal|Cricket}}
* [[List of Test cricket grounds]]
* [[List of Test cricket records]]
* [[Lists of Test cricketers]]
* [[List of cricketers who have played 100 Tests]]
* [[One Day International]]
* [[Twenty20 International]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*''Ground Rules – A Celebration of Test Cricket'', Barney Spender & David Gower, Dakini Books Ltd (Nov 2003), {{ISBN|0-9537032-6-6}}
*''The Wisden Book of Test Cricket'', Sir Donald Bradman (Foreword), Bill Frindall (Editor), Headline Book Publishing (1995), {{ISBN|0-7472-1118-3}}
*Marylebone Cricket Club (2003), [https://web.archive.org/web/20130311210212/http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/ The Laws of Cricket]. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
*International Cricket Council (2023), [https://images.icc-cricket.com/image/upload/prd/bh9v5ugp7okr877nxzo6.pdf Standard Test Match Playing Conditions]. Retrieved 2024-03-04.
*{{cite book |last=Wigmore |first=Tim |date=2025 |title= Test Cricket: A History |publisher= Quercus|isbn=978-1529428612 }}

==External links==
*[http://content-uk.cricinfo.com/ci/content/story/141605.html Origin of the name "Test"]
*[http://www.cricinfo.com/db/NATIONAL/ICC_MEMBERS/USA/USA_HISTORY.html USA v Canada – The oldest international sporting fixture]

{{Forms of cricket}}
{{International cricket}}
{{Team sports}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Test Cricket}}
[[Category:Test cricket| ]]
[[Category:Cricket terminology]]
[[Category:Sports originating in Australia]]
[[Category:Test matches|Cricket]]

Ishita Dutta

2026-03-16T21:59:11Z

NoellaXgt402: Enhanced and reorganized content

{{short description|Indian actress and model|bot=PearBOT 5}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ishita Dutta
| image = Ishita Dutta at the Club in Andheri (02).jpg
| caption = Dutta at a Club in [[Andheri|Andheri, Mumbai]], 2019
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1985|08|26|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Jamshedpur]], [[Bihar]], (present-day [[Jharkhand]]), India
| occupation = Actress
| years active = 2011–present
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Vatsal Sheth]]|2017}}
| children= 2
| relatives = [[Tanushree Dutta]] (elder sister)
| notable_works = ''[[Drishyam (2015 film)|Drishyam]]'' ''[[Drishyam 2 (2022 film)|Drishyam 2]]'' ''[[Bepanah Pyaar]]''
| website =
}}
'''Ishita Dutta''' (born 26 August 1985) is an Indian actress and model who works predominately in [[Hindi]] television and films apart from [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Kannada]] films.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/celebrity/article/on-ishita-duttas-birthday-check-out-some-mushy-photos-of-the-drishyam-actress-with-hubby-vatsal-sheth/643151 |title=On Ishita Dutta's birthday check out some mushy photos of the Drishyam actress with hubby Vatsal Seth |publisher=Zoom TV}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/Ishita-Dutta-Happy-With-Kannada-Debut/2015/01/08/article2608405.ece |title=Ishita Dutta Happy With Kannada Debut |access-date=8 June 2015 |work=The New Indian Express |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503203549/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/Ishita-Dutta-Happy-With-Kannada-Debut/2015/01/08/article2608405.ece |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Early life==
Dutta was raised in [[Jamshedpur]], [[Jharkhand]], in a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] Hindu family.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/8756/ |title=Working with Ajay Devgn, Tabu and Nishikant was superb – Ishita Dutta |date=31 July 2015 |work=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=9 August 2016 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816103348/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/8756/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> She attended Loyola School [[Media Studies]] in [[Mumbai]]. Her elder sister, [[Tanushree Dutta]], is also a model and actress, and won the [[Femina Miss India]] title in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ishita-dutta-i-support-my-sister-because-she-is-supporting-the-truth/articleshow/68940353.cms |title=Ishita Dutta: I support my sister because she is supporting the truth – Times of India ► |website=The Times of India |date=19 April 2019 |language=en |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420130552/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ishita-dutta-i-support-my-sister-because-she-is-supporting-the-truth/articleshow/68940353.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
[[File:Vatsal Sheth and Ishita Dutta at Ramesh S Taurani’s diwali bash (cropped).jpg|thumb|Dutta with husband [[Vatsal Sheth]] in 2022]]

Dutta met actor [[Vatsal Sheth]] on the sets of their show ''[[Rishton Ka Saudagar - Baazigar]]'' in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vatsal Sheth on his love story with Ishita Dutta: Feelings developed after our show got over |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=10 December 2019 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/vatsal-sheth-on-his-love-story-with-ishita-dutt-feelings-developed-after-our-show-got-over/story-ttjOO1UKmJpJn9JsYLhkbP_amp.html}}</ref> Dutta married Sheth on 28 November 2017 in [[Mumbai]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/ishita-dutta-and-vatsal-sheth-are-now-married-see-pics-1781116 |title=Ishita Dutta and Vatsal Sheth are now married |website=NDTV Indis |date=28 November 2017 |access-date=28 November 2018 |archive-date=28 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128154304/https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/ishita-dutta-and-vatsal-sheth-are-now-married-see-pics-1781116 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/bollywood-celebs-on-a-vacation/photo-ishita-dutta-and-hubby-vatsal-sheth-celebrate-their-first-marriage-anniversary-in-bali/photostory/66862993.cms |title=Ishita Dutta and hubby Vatsal Sheth celebrate their first marriage anniversary in Bali |website=The Times of India |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=8 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908030525/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/bollywood-celebs-on-a-vacation/photo-ishita-dutta-and-hubby-vatsal-sheth-celebrate-their-first-marriage-anniversary-in-bali/photostory/66862993.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2023, the couple announced their pregnancy and had a baby boy on 19 July 2023. The couple had a baby girl on June 10, 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Drishyam 2' actress Ishita Dutta confirms pregnancy with husband Vatsal Sheth |work=Economic Times |date=17 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/new-updates/drishyam-2-actress-ishita-dutta-confirms-pregnancy-with-husband-vatsal-sheth/articleshow/98734316.cms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Exclusive! It is a baby boy for Ishita Dutta and Vatsal Sheth|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-ishita-dutta-and-vatsal-sheth-deliver-a-baby-boy/articleshow/101965317.cms|access-date=2023-07-22|website=The Times of India|date=19 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

==Filmography==

=== Films ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="margin-right: 0;" {|
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Language
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| 2012
! scope="row" | ''Chanakyudu''
| Swapna
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/telugu/movie-reviews/Chanakyudu/movie-review/17454242.cms|title= Chanakyudu | publisher= timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2 Dec 2012 |accessdate= 10 March 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2015
! scope="row" | ''[[Raja Rajendra]]''
| Swathi
|[[Kannada]]
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Drishyam (2015 film)|Drishyam]]''
| Anju Salgaonkar
| rowspan="8" |[[Hindi]]
|
|
|-
| 2017
! scope="row" | ''[[Firangi (2017 film)|Firangi]]''
| Sargi
|
|
|-
| 2018
! scope="row" | ''Lashtam Pashtam''
| Zayanah
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2019
! scope="row" | ''[[Setters (film)|Setters]]''
| Prerna
|
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/setters-poster-meet-the-intriguing-and-coolest-squad-of-mind-gamers/articleshow/66100138.cms |title='Setters' poster out: Meet the intriguing and coolest squad of mind gamers! |work=Times of India |date=6 October 2018 |access-date=25 November 2018}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Blank (2019 film)|Blank]]''
| Husna
|
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/blank-trailer-sunny-deol-karan-kapadia-ishita-dutta-video-5658428/ |title=Blank trailer: Sunny Deol and Karan Kapadia fight to the finish |work=The New Indian Express |access-date=4 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426034706/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/blank-trailer-sunny-deol-karan-kapadia-ishita-dutta-video-5658428/ |archive-date=26 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|2020
! scope="row" | ''Kahaa Toh Tha''
| Myraa
| Short film
|<ref>{{Cite web |access-date=27 August 2020 |title=Kahaa Toh Tha: Love In Quarantine ft. Vatsal Sheth and Ishita Dutta |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCWWO6JvTp8 |website=Times Music|date=26 April 2020 }}</ref>
|-
| 2022
! scope="row" | ''[[Drishyam 2 (2022 film)|Drishyam 2]]''
| Anju Salgaonkar
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 February 2022 |title=Ajay Devgn and Shriya Saran begin Drishyam 2 shoot in Goa; Abhishek Pathak to direct |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/ajay-devgn-and-shriya-saran-begin-drishyam-2-shoot-in-goa-abhishek-pathak-to-direct/ |access-date=17 February 2022 |work=Bollywood Hungama |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2025
! scope="row" |''[[De De Pyaar De 2]]''
|Kittu ||
|
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="margin-right: 0;" {|
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| 2013–2014
! scope="row" | ''[[Ek Ghar Banaunga]]''
| rowspan="2"|Poonam Garg
|
|
|-
| 2013
! scope="row" | ''[[Nach Baliye 6]]''
| Guest appearance
|
|-
| 2016
! scope="row" | ''[[Rishton Ka Saudagar - Baazigar]]''
| Arundhati Trivedi
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"|2018
! scope="row" | ''[[Kaun Hai?|Kaun Hai? - Ek Naya Adhyay]]''
| Vaishnavi Choudhary
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Bepannah]]''
| Herself
| Guest appearance
|
|-
| 2019–2020
! scope="row" | ''[[Bepanah Pyaar]]''
| rowspan="2"|Bani Malhotra / Pragati Saxena
|
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ishita-dutta-to-play-the-lead-in-kasam-tere-pyaar-ki/articleshow/68952304.cms |title=Ishita Dutta to play the lead in Bepanah Pyaar |website=The Times of India |date=19 April 2019 |language=en |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=10 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010160552/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ishita-dutta-to-play-the-lead-in-kasam-tere-pyaar-ki/articleshow/68952304.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2019
! scope="row" | ''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 13)|Bigg Boss 13]]''
| rowspan="2"|Guest appearance
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/videos/zoom/telly-talk/ishita-dutta-bepanah-pyaar-is-a-show-about-love-with-a-mystery-exclusive/31765 |title=Ishita Dutta: "Bepanah Pyaar is a show about Love with a mystery" |website=Times Now News |language=en-GB |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=20 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820231444/https://www.timesnownews.com/videos/zoom/telly-talk/ishita-dutta-bepanah-pyaar-is-a-show-about-love-with-a-mystery-exclusive/31765 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Khatra Khatra Khatra]]''
| Herself
|
|-
| 2021–2022
! scope="row" | ''[[Thoda sa Baadal Thoda sa Paani]]''
| rowspan="2"|Kajol Mukherjee Basu
|
|<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ishita Dutta: Finally I am getting to play a Bengali girl on screen in Thoda Sa Baadal Thoda Sa Paani |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ishita-dutta-finally-i-am-getting-to-play-a-bengali-girl-on-screen/articleshow/84973399.cms |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=The Times of India |date=2 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2021
! scope="row" | ''[[Sirf Tum (TV series)|Sirf Tum]]''
| Guest appearance
|
|}

=== Music videos ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="margin-right: 0;" {|
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Singer
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020
! scope="row" | ''Rehne Do Zara''
| Soham Naik
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 July 2020 |title=I get inspired from people and real life situations |url=https://www.easterneye.biz/i-get-inspired-from-people-and-real-life-situations/ |access-date=16 December 2021 |newspaper=Easterneye |language=en-GB}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''Kithe''
| [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2020 |title=Ishita Dutta, Vatsal Sheth team up for a music video again |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/music/ishita-dutta-vatsal-sheth-music-video-kithe-630478 |access-date=26 December 2021 |website=India TV News |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ishita Dutta}}
* {{IMDb name|id=7181900|name=Ishita Dutta}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dutta, Ishita}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi television]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Bengali actresses]]
[[Category:Female models from Jamshedpur]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Indian soap opera actresses]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses from Jamshedpur]]

Renu Negi

2026-03-15T04:09:20Z

NoellaXgt402: put up a entry.

{{Short description|Indian documentary filmmaker}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Renu Negi
| image = Renu Negi, Indian Film Maker.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]], Himachal Pradesh, India
| occupation = Filmmaker
| years_active = 1993–present
| spouse =
| children =
| notable_works = ''Yak-the Ship of Mountain'', ''Dolma'', ''Chambal Ki Chitthi''
}}

'''Renu Negi''' is an Indian filmmaker. She is the first [[Adivasi|tribal]] woman filmmaker from [[Himachal Pradesh]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Bisht |first=Gaurav |date=1 August 2021 |title=Meet Himachal's first tribal woman to make a mark in filmmaking |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/meet-himachal-s-first-tribal-woman-to-make-a-remark-in-filmmaking-101627769959278.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009195052/https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/meet-himachal-s-first-tribal-woman-to-make-a-remark-in-filmmaking-101627769959278.html |archive-date=9 October 2021 |access-date=3 September 2025 |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Ashwani |date=21 May 2023 |title=Meet Renu Negi, The First Tribal Filmmaker From Himachal Pradesh's Kinnaur |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/meet-renu-negi-the-first-tribal-filmmaker-from-himachal-pradesh-kinnaur-weekender_story-288176 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250714114910/https://www.outlookindia.com/national/meet-renu-negi-the-first-tribal-filmmaker-from-himachal-pradesh-kinnaur-weekender_story-288176 |archive-date=14 July 2025 |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |language=en}}</ref>

Her documentary, ''Yak-the ship of mountain'', won the Silver Beaver Award for Best Science Film and the Special Award For Technical Excellence in Cinematography at the 8th National Science Film Festival in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Negi |first=Bhawana |date=18 April 2018 |title=Renu Negi's 'Yak' wins Silver Beaver Award at 8th NSFF |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/renu-negis-yak-wins-silver-beaver-award-8th-nsff-1502624199.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805140513/https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/renu-negis-yak-wins-silver-beaver-award-8th-nsff-1502624199.html |archive-date=5 August 2021 |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018 |title=Announcement of 8th NSFFI Awards |url=https://vigyanprasar.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/NSFFI-Awards-2018.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123121809/https://vigyanprasar.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/NSFFI-Awards-2018.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2018 |website=The Vigyan Prasar |publisher=[[Department of Science and Technology (India)]]}}</ref>

== Early life and family ==
Negi was born in a tribal family in the [[Kinnaur district]] of Himachal Pradesh. She is the eldest daughter in her family, and has a younger brother and sister. Her father was a craftsman and her mother was a handicraft specialist. Negi's husband is a medical officer, and the couple has two children.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2021 |title=Daughter of Himachal shines as successful film producer & director |url=https://www.himachalheadlines.com/opinion/daughter-of-himachal-shines-as-successful-film-producer-director/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902083115/https://www.himachalheadlines.com/opinion/daughter-of-himachal-shines-as-successful-film-producer-director/ |archive-date=2 September 2024 |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Himachal Headlines |language=en |publication-place=Himachal Pradesh}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=K |first=Anurag |date=16 July 2022 |title=Witnessing the digital transition of the global entertainment business – Renu Negi |url=https://www.thethrive.in/interview/witnessing-the-digital-transition-of-the-global-entertainment-business-renu-negi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614080753/https://www.thethrive.in/interview/witnessing-the-digital-transition-of-the-global-entertainment-business-renu-negi/ |archive-date=14 June 2024 |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=The Thrive |language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
Negi completed her studies in [[Shimla]] and completed a filmmaking apprenticeship, during which she refined her craft.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chauhan |first=Pratibha |date=14 May 2018 |title=Kinnaur filmmaker wins accolades |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/himachal/kinnaur-filmmaker-wins-accolades-588722/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250425063016/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/himachal/kinnaur-filmmaker-wins-accolades-588722/ |archive-date=25 April 2025 |access-date=3 September 2025 |work=[[The Tribune (India)|The Tribune]]}}</ref>

Negi has made several documentaries on travel, lifestyle, art, culture, social causes, etc. prevalent in Himachal and its various tribes. 'Dolma' is one of her notable documentaries talking about the early girl marriage still practised in Kinnaur. Her works 'Ek Nishi Aurat Ki Kahani', based on the [[Nyishi people|Nishi tribe]] and fiction film 'Wapsi',<ref name=":0" /> and other documentaries on tribes like [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]], [[Khamti people|Khamti]], [[Sherdukpen people|Sherdukpen]], and [[Khasi people|Khasis]] of [[Meghalaya]] were telecast as a weekly program on [[DD National]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1998, she started her Delhi-based production house RN Productions. Her recent documentary, ''Chambal Ki Chitthi'', which highlights the water crisis in [[Rajasthan]], was produced under RN Productions' banner.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 May 2023 |title='Chambal ki Chitthi' depicts water crisis and how ERCP can play key role in addressing it |url=https://www-aninews-in.translate.goog/news/business/business/chambal-ki-chitthi-depicts-water-crisis-and-how-ercp-can-play-key-role-in-addressing-it20230508193003/?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=hi&_x_tr_hl=hi&_x_tr_pto=tc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250903-232951/https://www-aninews-in.translate.goog/news/business/business/chambal-ki-chitthi-depicts-water-crisis-and-how-ercp-can-play-key-role-in-addressing-it20230508193003/?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=hi&_x_tr_hl=hi&_x_tr_pto=tc |archive-date=3 September 2025 |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=[[Asian News International]] |language=}}</ref> Negi also produced a documentary titled ''Ghar se door apna ghar'', based on Homestays in Himachal.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=arRjHkvmuqA |title=Ghar Se Door Apna Ghar-Himachal |date=27 April 2019 |last= |type=Video |language=hi |publisher=Himachal Tourism Official |trans-title=Himachal - Your home away from home |access-date=2 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416052019/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=arRjHkvmuqA |archive-date=16 April 2025 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

== Awards and recognition ==

* Silver Beaver Award for the Best Science Film for 'Yak-the ship of mountain'-2018<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bora |first=Bijay Sankar |date=22 March 2018 |title=State girl's movie 'Yak' wins award |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/himachal/state-girl-s-movie-yak-wins-award-561378/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426170317/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/himachal/state-girl-s-movie-yak-wins-award-561378/ |archive-date=26 April 2025 |access-date=3 September 2025 |work=[[The Tribune (India)|Tribune]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Negi, Renu}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Film directors from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Prataya Saha

2026-03-11T16:49:23Z

NoellaXgt402: put up article

{{Short description|Independent filmmaker from India }}{{COI|date=January 2022}}
'''Prataya Saha''' is an independent filmmaker, [[TED (conference)|TEDx]] performer, theatre director and photographer based in [[Bengaluru]] and [[Dubai]].

== Early life ==
Prataya was born in Kolkata and attended [[Calcutta Boys' School]]. He later moved to Karnataka to pursue a degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering at Siddaganga Institute of Technology. His interest in photography and storytelling eventually led him to a career in filmmaking.

== Career ==
Saha made his directorial debut in 2016 with ''Anna's Weekend'', which was selected for film festivals in China and the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Private Project|url=https://filmfreeway.com/811570|access-date=2021-12-31|website=FilmFreeway|language=en}}</ref> In 2017, he started working with Bengaluru-based production house Red Polka Productions. By 2021, he had directed over 10 films, with screenings at approximately 70 film festivals worldwide, including the [[New York Asian Film Festival]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=New York Asian Film Festival|url=https://www.nyaff.org/nyaff21/films/just-another-day|access-date=2021-12-31|website=www.nyaff.org}}</ref> [[Oaxaca FilmFest|Oaxaca Film Fest]], [[Rhode Island International Film Festival|Flickers' Rhode Island International Film Festival]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Research shows violence during pregnancy is on the rise: 'Just Another Day' director Prataya Saha|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2021/09/05/research-shows-violence-during-pregnancy-is-on-the-rise-just-another-day-director-prataya-saha.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref> and the [[Bengaluru International Short Film Festival]]. His film "Just Another Day", which addresses gender-based violence, received a special jury prize from the Department of Fine Arts at [[Kütahya Dumlupınar University|Kütahya Dumlupinar University]] in Turkey on November 25, 2021, the [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women|International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=I took a calculated risk, there was no 'Gully Boy' moment: Filmmaker Prataya Saha |url=https://www.globalindian.com/story/filmmaker/prataya-saha-mein-mehmood/ |access-date=2026-03-04 |website=The Global Indian |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Other works ===
In 2020, Saha began directing music videos in collaboration with the Bengaluru‑based production house Desktop Films. The videos have received millions of views online and have been released through major music labels, including [[T-Series (company)|T‑Series]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=I've more liberty with music videos: Prataya Saha|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2021/06/24/i-have-more-liberty-music-videos-prataya-saha.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saha, Prataya}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian filmmakers]]

Bhottada people

2026-03-11T00:19:35Z

NoellaXgt402: Added pg

{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = '''Bhottada'''
| image =
| total = 450,771 (2011)
| total_ref = <ref name="census 2011">{{cite web|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/ST.html|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|publisher=Government of India|accessdate=23 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907212310/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/ST.html|archive-date=7 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region1 = Odisha
| pop1 = 450,771
| ref1 = <ref name="census 2011" />
| languages = [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Bhatri language|Bhatri]]
| religions = [[File:Aum Om black.svg|16px]] [[Hinduism]] • [[File:Christian cross.svg|12px]] [[Christianity]]<ref name=2022OdishaRel>{{Cite web |title=C-01: Population by religious community (2011) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11387/download/14500/DDW21C-01%20MDDS.XLS |access-date=Sep 9, 2024 |website=Census India}}</ref>
| related =
}}

The '''Bhottada''' (also known as '''Dhotada, Bhotra, Bhatra, Bhattara, Bhotora, Bhatara''')<ref name="Mhaiske Patil Narkhede 2016 p. 167">{{cite book | last1=Mhaiske | first1=V.M. | last2=Patil | first2=V.K. | last3=Narkhede | first3=S.S. | title=Forest Tribology And Anthropology | publisher=SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHER (IND. | year=2016 | isbn=978-93-86102-08-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbs4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 | access-date=2020-06-23 | page=167}}</ref> is an ethnic group found mainly in many districts of [[Odisha]] and [[Chhattisgarh]] states of India.<ref name="scstrti-Bhottada">{{cite web | last=[[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Research and Training Institute|SCSTRTI]]| first=scstrti| title=Bhottada | website=Home | url=http://www.scstrti.in/index.php/communities/tribes/91-tribes/150-bhottada | access-date=2020-06-23}}</ref> The 2011 census showed their population to be around 450,771. They are classified as a [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribe]] by the Indian government.<ref name="census 2011"/>

== Etymology and origins ==

The name Bhottada is derived from the words ''Bhu'' meaning earth and ''Tara'', meaning chase.<ref name="Singh 1996 p.198">{{cite book | last=Singh | first=H.D. | title=543 faces of India: guide to 543 parliamentary constituencies | publisher=Newmen Publishers | year=1996 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxuLAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-06-23 | page=198| isbn=9788190066907 }}</ref> It is said that they migrated from Bastar.<ref name="scstrti-Bhottada"/>

==Subdivisions==
They have a number of exogamous totemistic clans or gotras named after different animals such as tortoise, tiger, cobra, monkey, dog, lizard, goat, etc. The clan members who are of a particular animal totem respect the same animals.<ref name="scstrti-Bhottada"/>

The clans has agnatic lineages formed as local descent groups who live close to each other in villages.<ref name="scstrti-Bhottada"/>

The tribe is divided into two divisions called ''Bada'' and ''Sana''. ''Bada''s are higher in social hierarchy, They claim to be of purer descent. The divisions are endogamous however nowadays intermarriage takes place between them.<ref name="scstrti-Bhottada"/>

== Culture ==

Marriage by negotiation is called ''Bibha''. It is considered ideal and prestigious. It involves elaborate process and is expensive. Other ways of acquiring mates such as by elopement, by capture, by service are practised. Cross-cousin marriage, junior levirate and sororate, divorce and remarriage are permitted on reasonable grounds.<ref name="scstrti-Bhottada"/>

They bury their dead. They worship Hindu deities and their own pantheon includes Budhi Thakurani, Bhairabi Budhi, Pardesi, Basumata, Banadurga, etc. Their chief festivals are ''Chait Parab'', ''Akhiturti'', ''Nua Khia''and Dussera. The traditional chief of the village is the ''Naik''. Assisted by ''Chalan'', ''Pujari'' and ''Gonda'', he handles the community affairs. At the regional level a group of villages constitute a ''Desh'' headed by ''Bhat Naik'' and supported by ''Panigrahi'' and ''Desia Gonda'' who mitigate inter-village disputes.<ref name="scstrti-Bhottada"/>

==See also==
* [[Tribes of India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Scheduled tribes of India}}
{{Scheduled tribes in Odisha}}
{{Reservation in India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Scheduled Tribes of India]]
[[Category:Social groups of Odisha]]
[[Category:Scheduled Tribes of Odisha]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Asia]]

Muslim Rajputs

2026-03-09T02:03:58Z

NoellaXgt402: minor expand section based on references for accuracy

{{Short description|Muslim descendants of Rajputs}}{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Muslim Rajputs
| native_name =
| image =
| caption =
| population =
| popplace = {{flag|India}} and {{flag|Pakistan}}
| region1 =
| pop1 =
| ref1 =
| region2 =
| pop2 =
| ref2 =
| langs = {{hlist| |[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] |
[[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] |[[Urdu]] |[[Mewati]]|
[[Pahari-Pothwari]] |}}
| religions = [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|18px]] [[Islam]]
| related = [[Rajputs]] and other [[Indo-Aryan peoples]]
}}
'''Muslim Rajputs''' or '''Musalman Rajpoots''' are the descendants of [[Rajputs]] in the northern regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] who are adherents of Islam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/4b6fe2403.pdf |title=UNHCR Refugee Review Tribunal. IND32856, 6 February 2008}}</ref> They are known to have converted from [[Hinduism]] to [[Islam]] from the [[medieval India|medieval]] period onwards, creating various dynasties and states while retaining Hindu surnames such as [[Chauhan (surname)|Chauhan]].<ref name="Singhal1972">{{cite book |last1=Singhal |first1=Damodar P. |title=Pakistan |date=1972 |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |isbn=978-0-13-648477-6 |page=17 |language=en |quote=Large communities converted to Islam from among Hindus carried with them Hindu customs and usages, and often passed them on to other Muslims. Many Rajput converts even retained their family names, such as Chauhan and Rajput.}}</ref><ref name="Singh1973">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Yogendra |title=Modernization of Indian Tradition |date=1973 |publisher=Oriental Press |page=74 |language=en |quote=The next in status are a few higher caste Hindu converts to Islam, particularly the Rajputs}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Cambridge South Asian Studies, Issue 16 |date=1965 |isbn=978-0-521-20432-3 |page=24 |language=en |quote=The latter may be subdivided into three distinct groups: converts from Hindu high castes such as Muslim Rajputs, converts from clean occupational castes such as Julahas and Qassabs, and converts from unclean occupational castes such as Bhangis and Chamars.}}</ref> Today, Muslim Rajputs can be found mostly in present-day Northern India and [[Pakistan]].<ref name=EB/> They are further divided into different clans.<ref name="توصیف الحسن میواتی الہندی">{{Cite book |last=توصیف الحسن میواتی الہندی |url=http://archive.org/details/20200823_20200823_1256 |title=تاریخِ میو اور داستانِ میوات |date=2020-08-23}}</ref> They are sometimes also known as [[Ranghar]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Psychological implications in Industrial Performance|author=Ashok Pratap Singh and Pratija Kumari|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MHNsxbiEM4UC&q=ranghar+Community&pg=PA694|pages=694–696|publisher=Global Vision Publishing House |isbn=9788182202009}}</ref>

==History==

The term ''Rajput'' is traditionally applied to the original [[Suryavansha|Suryavanshi]], [[Chandravanshi]] and [[Agnivanshi]] clans, who claimed to be [[Kshatriya]] in the Hindu [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] system.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

===Conversion to Islam and ethos===

Upon their conversion from [[Hinduism]] to Islam, many Muslim Rajputs maintained many of their Hindu customs.<ref name="Singhal1972"/> Muslim Rajputs also often retained common social practices, such as [[purdah]] (seclusion of women), with Hindu Rajputs.<ref name=EB>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/490157/Rajput|title=Rajput|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=30 October 2014}}</ref>

Despite the difference in religious faith, where the question has arisen of common Rajput honour, there have been instances where both Muslim and Hindu Rajputs have united against threats from external ethnic groups.<ref>''Self and sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850'' by Ayesha Jalal, Routledge 2000, p480, p481</ref>{{Weasel inline|date=May 2021}}

In 1993 recorded instances of conversions of Rajputs to Islam in [[Khurja]] tahsil of [[Bulandshahr]], in western [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>''Muslim Women'' by Zakia A. Siddiqi, Anwar Jahan Zuberi, Aligarh Muslim University, India University Grants, M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1993, p93</ref>

=== Muslim Rajput dynasties ===

====Kharagpur Raj====
{{Main|Kharagpur Raj}}
The Kharagpur Raj was a Muslim [[Kinwar|Kindwar]] Rajput chieftaincy in modern-day [[Munger district]] of [[Bihar]].<ref name="Ansari2019">{{cite book|author=Tahir Hussain Ansari|title=Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22|date=20 June 2019|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-000-65152-2|pages=22–28}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Agrarian Reforms in "Sarkar" Munger under Raja Bahrox Singh (1631-76) Of Kharagpur | author= Yogendra P. Roy | journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume = 60| year=1999 | pages= 287–292|jstor = 44144095}}</ref> [[Raja Sangram Singh]] led a rebellion against the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] authorities and was subsequently defeated and executed. His son, Toral Mal, was made to convert to Islam and renamed as ''Roz Afzun''. Roz Afzun was a loyal Commander to the Emperors [[Jahangir]] and [[Shah Jahan]] and Jahangir referred to him as his "favourite" commander in the empire.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Raja Roz Afzun of Kharagpur (AD 1601 - 31 | author= Yogendra P. Roy | journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume = 54| year=1993 | pages= 357–358|jstor = 44142975}}</ref> Another prominent chieftain of this dynasty was Tahawar Singh who played an active role in the Mughal expedition against the nearby [[Chero dynasty|Chero]]s of [[Palamu district|Palamu]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=Tahawar Singh-A Muslim Raja of Kharagpur Raj (1676 - 1727) | author= Yogendra P. Roy | journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume = 53| year=1992 | pages= 333–334|jstor = 44142804}}</ref>

====Khanzada dynasty====
{{Main|Khanzadas of Mewat}}
[[Khanzadas of Mewat|Mewat]] was a kingdom in [[Rajputana]] with its capital at [[Alwar]] ruled by a [[Khanzada]] [[Rajput kingdoms|Mewati Rajput dynasty]] during the period of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in [[India]]. [[Hasan Khan Mewati|Raja Hassan Khan Mewati]] was represented the [[Khanzada Rajputs|Meo Khanzada]] in [[Battle of Khanwa]].<ref name="rekhta.org">{{Cite web |title=Tareekh-e-Miyo Chhatri by Hakeem Abdush Shakoor |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/tareekh-e-miyo-chhatri-hakeem-abdush-shakoor-ebooks |access-date=2022-06-20 |website=Rekhta |language=en}}</ref>
Mewat was covered over a wide area, it included [[Hathin]] tehsil, [[Nuh district]], [[Tijara]], [[Gurgaon]], [[Kishangarh]] Bas, Ramgarh, Laxmangarh Tehsils [[Aravalli Range]] in [[Alwar]] district and Pahari, Nagar, Kaman tehsils in [[Bharatpur, India|Bharatpur]] district of [[Rajasthan]] and also some part of [[Mathura]] district of Uttar Pradesh. The last ruler of Mewat, [[Hasan Khan Mewati]] was killed in the [[battle of Khanwa]] against the Mughal emperor Babur. The [[Khanzada Rajputs|Meo Khanzadas]] were descended from Hindu [[Yadu]] Rajputs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bharadwaj |first1=Suraj |title=State Formation in Mewat Relationship of the Khanzadas with the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal State, and Other Regional Potentates |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=11 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199462797.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-946279-7 |url=https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/mobile/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199462797.001.0001/acprof-9780199462797-chapter-2 |access-date=24 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="rekhta.org"/><ref name="توصیف الحسن میواتی الہندی"/>

====Lalkhani Nawabs====
[[File:MuhammadSaidKhan.jpg|thumb|Muhammad Said Khan, the Nawab of Chhatri and a Lalkhani Rajput]]
The [[Lalkhani]]s are a Muslim Rajput community and a sub-clan of the [[Bargujar]]s. They were the [[Nawab]]s of various estates in Western [[Uttar Pradesh]]. These included [[Chhatari]] and neighbouring regions including parts of [[Aligarh]] and [[Bulandshahr]].<ref name="Stokes1978">{{cite book|author=Eric Stokes|title=The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9DU5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA199|year=1978|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-29770-7|pages=199–}}</ref>

====Qaimkhanis of Fatehpur-Jhunjhunu====
The [[Qaimkhani]]s were a Muslim Rajput dynasty who were notable for ruling the [[Fatehpur, Rajasthan|Fatehpur]]-[[Jhunjhunu]] region in [[Rajasthan]] from the 1300s to the 1700s.<ref name=Budhwar1978>{{cite journal | title=The Qayamkhani Shaikhzada Family of Fatehpur-Jhunjhunu | author= Sunita Budhwar | journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume = 39| year=1978 | pages= 412–425|jstor = 44139379}}</ref><ref>Dr Dasharatha Sharma, Kyam Khan Raso, Ed. Dasharath Sharma, Agarchand Nahta, Rajsthan Puratatva Mandir, 1953, page-15</ref> They were descended from Hindu Chauhan Rajputs, though as also stated by the historian Dirk Kolff the Qaimkhani have [[Turkic people|Turkic]] origins.<ref>{{cite book |title=Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850 |first=Dirk H. A. |last=Kolff |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-52305-9 |page=57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC&pg=PA57}}</ref>

====Mayi chiefs====
The [[Mayi clan]] were the chieftains of the Narhat-Samai (Hisua) chieftaincy in modern-day [[Nawada district]] in South [[Bihar]]. The founder of the Mayi clan was Nuraon Khan who arrived in Bihar in the 17th century. His descendants were Azmeri and Deyanut who were granted zamindari rights over six parganas by the Mughal authorities. Deyanut's son was Kamgar Khan who expanded his land by attacking and plundering neighbouring zamindars. Kamgar Khan also led numerous revolts against the Mughals and attempted to assert the Mayi's independence. His descendant was Iqbal Ali Khan who took part in the [[1781 revolt in Bihar]] against the British however his revolt failed and Mayi's lost much of their land.<ref name="Prakash2003">{{cite book|author=Gyan Prakash|title=Bonded Histories: Genealogies of Labor Servitude in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQFvks7lahoC|date=30 October 2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52658-6|pages=87–89}}</ref>

====Bengal====
Rajput communities began settling in [[Bengal Sultanate|Bengal during the Sultanate period]] where they were given high ranks in the Bengal government. One notable example is of Bhagirath of [[Ayodhya]], who belonged to the Hindu [[Bais (Rajput clan)|Bais]] clan, who was appointed as the [[Dewan]] of Sultan [[Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah]].{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} His son, Kalidas Gajdani embraced [[Sunni Islam]] through the guidance of [[Ibrahim Danishmand]] and became known as Sulaiman Khan. Bhagirath's grandson, [[Isa Khan]], grew to become the chief of Bengal's [[Baro-Bhuiyan]] confederacy which posed as a threat to the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]]s who wanted to conquer Bengal.<ref>{{cite Banglapedia|article=Isa Khan|author=Ahmed, ABM Shamsuddin}}</ref> The [[dewan|diwan]]s of [[Mymensingh]] and [[Dhaka]] during the 19th-century were said to be the descendants of Muslim Rajputs.<ref>{{cite book|title=The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204-1760|page=122|author=[[Richard M. Eaton|Eaton, Richard Maxwell]]|year=1993|isbn=978-0-520-20507-9|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|chapter=Bengal under the Sultans}}</ref>

Another Bengali Rajput community are the [[Ghosi tribe#West Bengal|Ghosi]], who can predominantly be found in the [[24 Parganas]] and [[Midnapore District|Midnapore]] districts, particularly near the towns of [[Barrackpur]] and [[Kharagpur]]. They migrated to Bengal from [[Kanpur]] five centuries ago and are descended from Amar Singh Rathore, a Rajput nobleman from [[Jhansi district|Jhansi]] who converted to [[Islam]]. They are divided into several clans; Rathore, Dogar, Chauhan, Khelari, Tatar, Lehar, Nahar and Maidul.<ref name="SiddiquiIndia)2004">{{cite book|author1=M. K. A. Siddiqui|author2=Institute of Objective Studies (New Delhi, India)|title=Marginal Muslim communities in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygNuAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=1 June 2011|year=2004|publisher=Institute of Objective Studies|isbn=978-81-85220-58-1|pages=295–305}}</ref>{{quotation needed|date=December 2024}}

====Princely state of Makran====
{{Main|Makran (princely state)}}
Makran state was ruled by [[Gichki]] Nawabs,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malik |first=Fida Hussain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNwCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |title=Balochistan: A Conflict of Narratives |date=2020-10-14 |publisher=Saiyid Books |isbn=978-969-2200-02-8 |language=en|page=11}}</ref> who were of Rajput origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Quddus |first=Syed Abdul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgFuAAAAMAAJ |title=The Tribal Baluchistan |date=1990 |publisher=Ferozsons |isbn=978-969-0-10047-4 |language=en|page=63|quote=The former rulers of Makran and Lasbela, Gichki and Jamots respectively, are Rajputs.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spooner |first=Brian |date=1964 |title=Kūch u Balūch and Ichthyophagi |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4299552 |journal=Iran |volume=2 |pages=53–67 |doi=10.2307/4299552 |jstor=4299552 |issn=0578-6967 |quote=The Gichki are the descendants of a Rajput family which settled in 17th century.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Their ancestor, Jagat Singh, had migrated from [[Rajputana]] in the 17th century and converted to Islam. The Gichki now identify as [[Baloch people|Baloch]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Ahmed |first1=Manzoor|last2= Khan |first2=Gulawar |date=2017 |url=https://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/csas/PDF/3_v32_1_17.pdf |title=The History of Baloch and Balochistan: A Critical Appraisal|volume=32|pages=39–52|quote=The Gichki (the ruling family of British Makran during mid 18th century) are said to have migrated from the Rajputana under Jagat Singh and settled in Kech (Makran). Their descendants, called Gichkis, have ruled over Makran for decades. The Gichki have been living in Balochistan since 18th century and identify as Baloch.|journal=South Asian Studies}}</ref>

== Demographics ==

=== British India ===

==== Punjab ====
In the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab province]] of [[British India]], comprising [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and some parts of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in modern Pakistan as well [[Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Delhi]], and some parts of [[Himachal Pradesh]] in modern India, in 1921, 70.7% of the Punjabi Rajputs were [[Muslims]] while 27.7% were Hindus, with the highest percentage of Rajputs found in [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], with 21%.<ref>Sharma, Subash Chander (1987). ''Punjab, the Crucial Decade''. New Delhi: Nirmal Publishers & Distributors. p. 105. {{ISBN|978-81-7156-173-5}}.</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
In 2008, it was estimated that the Rajput population in Pakistan stood at 15 million, with around 9 million in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], nearly 5 million in [[Sindh]], followed by 643,000 in [[Azad Kashmir]], 223,000 in [[Islamabad]], 174,000 in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] and 37,000 in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]].{{cn|date=November 2025}}

==== Punjab ====
In Pakistan's Punjab province, the Rajputs are dominant in the [[Pothohar Plateau|Potohar plateau]] through its politics and military.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arshad |first=Sameer |date=7 May 2013 |title=Caste plays dominant role in Pak elections |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/caste-plays-dominant-role-in-pak-elections/articleshow/19916533.cms?from=mdr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115204323/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/caste-plays-dominant-role-in-pak-elections/articleshow/19916533.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=15 January 2024 |website=[[The Times of India]] |quote=Rajputs are dominant in northern Punjab, where Abbasi’s constituency is located, followed by Jats in central and Balochs in the province’s south.}}</ref>

As per the [[2017 Pakistani census|2017 Pakistan census]], Rajputs numbered around 5% of [[Lahore District|Lahore]]'s population, their population amounting to some 550,000 individuals out of Lahore's total population of around 11 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=District Profile |url=https://lahore.punjab.gov.pk/district_profile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127195943/https://lahore.punjab.gov.pk/district_profile |archive-date=27 November 2023 |website=District Lahore - [[Government of Punjab, Pakistan|Government of Punjab]]}}</ref>

=== India ===

==== Uttar Pradesh ====
In India's [[Uttar Pradesh]], many Rajput communities have embraced Islam, such as the [[Bais (clan)|Bais]] or the [[Gautam (clan)|Gautam]], the Gautamanas or Gautam [[Thakur (title)|Thakurs]] as they like to call themselves being the largest such group in the [[Fatehpur district]], where they number around 100,000.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=8 July 2007 |title=The Muslim Rajputs of UP |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/the-muslim-rajputs-of-up/articleshow/2185320.cms?from=mdr |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Kaimkhani]]
* [[Lalkhani]]
* [[Ranghar]]
* [[Rajput architecture]]
* [[Rajput painting]]
* [[Rajputization]]
* [[List of Rajput dynasties and states]]
* [[Rajput clans]]
* [[List of Rajputs]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Alam |first=Ishteyaque |title=Muslim communities in Rajputana: during medieval period |date=2018 |publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7320-184-4 |location=Delhi}}

{{Indian Muslim}}
{{Social groups of Rajasthan}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Sindhi tribes]]
[[Category:Islam in India]]
[[Category:Rajputs]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of India]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Social groups of Rajasthan]]

Shotru

2026-03-04T00:23:33Z

NoellaXgt402: enhance page based on references for clarity

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Shotru (2011) poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical Poster of Shotru
| director = [[Raj Chakraborty]]
| screenplay = Padmanabha Dasgupta Raj Chakraborty
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1= Dialogues by
| data1 = Abhimanyu Mukherjee
}}
| story = Raj Chakraborty
| producer = [[Ashok Dhanuka]]
| starring = [[Jeet (Actor)|Jeet]] [[Nusrat Jahan]] [[Supriyo Dutta]] [[Biswajit Chakraborty]] [[Dipankar De]] [[Biplab Chatterjee]] [[Saayoni Ghosh]]
| cinematography = P. Selvakumar
| editing = [[Raviranjan Maitra|Rabi Ranjan Maitra]]
| music = [[Indraadip Dasgupta]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Indraadip Das Gupta is now working on the background score of "Shotru" |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/indraadip-das-gupta-is-now-working-on-the-background-score-of-shotru-the-audio-release-of-the-film-will-happen-post-may-13-by-practice-in-lifei-dont-harbour-expatation-i-just-do-my-work-i-believe-people-will-like-the-music-and-appreciate-its-production-quality-too-the-film-should-work-as-well-bengali-cinema-has-hardly-seen-so-much-of-action-before-both-shotru-and-paglu-are-releasing-on-the-same-day-dev-hasa-massive-pull-in-the-audience-/articleshow/8188202.cms}}</ref>
| studio = [[Eskay Movies]]
| distributor = Eskay Movies
| released = {{Film date|2011|06|03|df=y}}
| runtime = 166 minutes
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Shotru''''' ({{langx|bn|'''শত্রু'''}} ; English: '''''Enemy''''') is a 2011 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language [[action film|action crime film]] co-written and directed by [[Raj Chakraborty]].''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ek Policewale Ki Taaqat |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/ek-policewale-ki-taaqat/cast/2030138291/ |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=TVGuide.com |language=en}}</ref>'' Produced by [[Ashok Dhanuka]] under the banner of [[Eskay Movies]].It stars [[Jeet (actor)|Jeet]], [[Supriyo Dutta]] and [[Nusrat Jahan]] in lead roles,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shatru (2011) {{!}} Rotten Tomatoes |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/shatru_2011 |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=www.rottentomatoes.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=ShatruUA |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-details/shatru/movieshow/62525569.cms |access-date=2024-06-19 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> while [[Kharaj Mukherjee]], [[Dipankar De]], [[Biswajit Chakraborty]], [[Saayoni Ghosh]], Raja Dutta and [[Biplab Chatterjee]] played other pivotal roles. It is a remake of the 2010 tamil movie ''[[Singam]]''. It marks the debut of Nusrat Jahan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Abir and birthday girl Nusrat talk about Asur |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/abir-and-birthday-girl-nusrat-talk-about-asur/cid/1733796 |access-date=19 June 2024}}</ref> The soundtrack and background score was composed by [[Indraadip Dasgupta]], with screenplay and dialogues written by Padmanabha Dasgupta and Abhimanyu Mukherjee.<ref name=":"BengaliSingam"">{{cite web |title=Tollywood Hero JEET in Raj Chakraborty's SHATRU |url=http://www.dhoperchop.com/content/1185310-tollywood-hero-jeet-raj-chakrabortys-shatru-bengali-movie-remake-singam-tamil-hit |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903140848/http://www.dhoperchop.com/content/1185310-tollywood-hero-jeet-raj-chakrabortys-shatru-bengali-movie-remake-singam-tamil-hit |archive-date=3 September 2011 |access-date=27 September 2011 |website=Dhoperchop.com}}</ref>

Clashing with [[Dev (Bengali actor)|Dev]] and [[Koel Mallick]] starrer ''[[Paglu]]'', it was an all time blockbuster at the box office, with a successful run of over 210 days in theatres. It received positive reviews from critics. Critics appreciated the social messages and portrayals with Jeet and Dutta's performance and stylized action sequences which plays a very pivotal role in this film.

''Shotru'' marks the 2nd collaboration between Jeet and Raj Chakraborty. The signature dialogue of Jeet in the film, "Ami kono ishwar noi je chhere debo aar rakshas noi je mere debo, ami holam police, saala chhara aar marar majhkhane lotke rekhe debo" (Neither I am the god that you will be forgiven nor a monster that you will be killed, I am a police, will hang you scoundrel between forgiving and killing), became memorable among the masses. It was later dubbed into [[Hindi]] as ''Ek Policewale Ki Taaqat''.

==Plot==

Dibakar Singha is a police sub-inspector from [[Hridaypur]], working in the city of [[Howrah]]. Arjun Sarkar uses a job as a real estate agent to cover for crimes, including kidnapping and extortion, getting [[police]]. Dibakar learns of his crimes and decides to try and kill him.

Dibakar falls in love with Puja, a woman who is visiting her grandfather on vacation. She convinces Dibakar to fight the corruption in the police department and Arjun.

Dibakar is promoted to the head of an anti-kidnapping squad by the Home Minister. He conducts raids on Arjun's hideout and imprisons Arjun's brother Karna, who is innocent. To free his brother, Arjun plans to kidnap Puja's younger sister, Diya, but Dibakar foils the attempt by catching two of the kidnappers. One of the kidnappers confesses that they were hired by Arjun, providing Dibakar with the necessary evidence to prove Arjun's involvement in 62 kidnappings. Dibakar announces that two kidnappers were apprehended and the money was recovered and will be used as a government asset unless someone lays claim to it.

Almost exposed for his involvement, Arjun plans to lure Dibakar to his hideout to kill him. Dibakar, however, learns of Arjun's plan to have him killed and decides to go meet Arjun in disguise. There he kills Ratan, a close friend of Arjun. Then, Dibakar tells Arjun that Ratan has agreed to be a state witness against him. To prevent this from happening, Arjun sends someone to kill Ratan in the hospital. When Karna, the assassin, arrives at the hospital, he is killed by Dibakar while on the phone with Arjun. Angered by this, tries to kill Puja, who escapes with a bullet in her arm.

Dibakar exposes his superior, the [[Deputy superintendent|DSP]], as Arjun's mole in the police department. Having been exposed, the DSP is then forced into aiding Dibakar in exposing Arjun.

Arjun kidnaps the daughter of the Assam Home Minister and takes her to Jharkhand. Dibakar pursues him and kills Arjun.

At a ceremony to honour Dibakar for his actions, Dibakar announces that he will return to his village and that he has finished what he set out to do in the city. Puja is shown accompanying him on this journey.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|* [[Jeet (actor)|Jeet]] as Dibakar "Diba" Singha, Head of Anti-Kidnapping Task Force of [[West Bengal Police|WB Police]] (formerly OC of [[Hridaypur]]
* [[Nusrat Jahan]] as Puja Chowdhury, Dibakar's love interest
* [[Supriyo Dutta]] as Arjun Sarkar, a real estate agent and kidnapping head based in [[Howrah]]
* [[Dipankar De]] as Sudhakar Singha, Dibakar's father
* [[Biswajit Chakraborty]] as Mahendra Chowdhury, Puja's father
* Swagata Basu as Puja's mother
* [[Saayoni Ghosh]] as Diya, Puja's sister
* [[Biplab Chatterjee]] as [[Deputy Superintendent of Police|DSP]] Anup Chatterjee
* [[Kharaj Mukherjee]] as [[Sub Inspector|SI]] Bhajan Samanta
* [[Rabiranjan Maitra|Rabi Ranjan Maitra]] as [[Assistant Commissioner of Police|ACP]] Pranab Basu
*Raja Dutta as Karna Sarkar, Arjun's younger brother
* [[Pradip Mukherjee]] as Bibhash Basak, an [[Non resident Indian|NRI]] businessman
* Padmanabha Dasgupta as Dayal Khashnobish, Arjun's lawyer
* Pradip Dhar as Arjun's henchman
* Somnath Kar as Arjun's henchman
* Subrata Guha Roy as Giridhari, Arjun's rival
* Subhomoy Chatterjee as the goat owner
* Abhimanyu Mukherjee as Arjun's henchman
* Vascar Dev as SI Subrata, Dibakar's colleague
* [[Rocky Rajesh]] as Yoginder Yadav, a gangster based in [[Jharkhand]]

=== Special appearances ===
* [[Raj Chakraborty]] as himself
* [[Haradhan Bandopadhyay]] as Ramendra Chowdhury, Puja's grandfather
* [[Debika Mitra]] as Dibakar's mother}}
==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Shotru
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Indraadip Dasgupta]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 3 June 2011
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| label = [[Eskay Movies]]
| producer = [[Ashok Dhanuka]]
| prev_title = [[Le Chakka]]
| prev_year = 2010
| next_title = [[Fighter (2011 film)|Fighter]]
| next_year = 2011
| chronology = Indraadip Dasgupta
| misc = {{Singles
| name = Shotru
| type = Soundtrack
| single1 = Shotru title track (Om Bhur Bhuva Swaha)
| single1date =
| single2 = Rakhe Hori Ke Maare
| single2date =
| single3 = Aye Khuda
| single3date =
| single4 = Jani Na Kobe Dekha Hobe
| single4date =
| single5 =Jwaliye Puriye Debo Ghum Uriye
| single5date =
}}
}}
{{Soundtrack
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_lyrics = [[Srijato]] and Prasen
| all_music = [[Indraadip Dasgupta]]
| title1 = Shotru title track (Om Bhur Bhuva Swaha)
| length1 = 2:20
| lyrics1 = Srijato
| music1 = Indraadip Dasgupta
| extra1 = [[Rupam Islam]]
| title2 = Rakhe Hari Ke Maare
| length2 = 2:47
| lyrics2 = Srijato
| music2 = Indraadip Dasgupta
| extra2 = [[Javed Ali]] [[Soham Chakraborty (singer)|Soham Chakraborty]]
| title3 = Aye Khuda
| length3 = 3:41
| lyrics3 = Prasen
| music3 = Indraadip Dasgupta
| extra3 = [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]] Shahdab Hussain [[Altamash]]
| title4 = Janina Kobe Dekha Hobe
| length4 = 4:16
| lyrics4 = Srijato
| music4 = Indraadip Dasgupta
| extra4 = [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]] [[Anwesshaa]]
| title5 = Jwaliye Puriye Debo Ghum Uriye
| length5 = 4:12
| lyrics5 = Srijato
| music5 = Indraadip Dasgupta
| extra5 = [[June Banerjee]] [[Timir Biswas]]
}}

== Cancelled sequel ==
In June 2018, it was revealed that [[Raj Chakraborty]] is going to collaborate with [[Jeet (actor)|Jeet]] for ''Jeet 50'' after [[Abhimaan (2016 film)|''Abhimaan'']] (2016). Rumours reported it to be the sequel of ''Shotru'', in which [[Subhashree Ganguly]] was being approached as Puja, replacing [[Nusrat Jahan]] as she rejected the role. Then in an interview, Chakraborty revealed that there were no plans of making ''Shotru 2''<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-06-08 |title=Jeet and Subhashree Ganguly to team up for ‘Shotru 2’? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/naga-chaitanya-launches-sumanth-akkineni-starrer-subrahmanyapuram/articleshow/64506809.cms |access-date=2024-07-02 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> without a true story that would reflect the core plot, where the previous film was itself based on true events. But he also told that his collaboration with Jeet would be itself a standalone project. Later, the film was announced to be Jeet's 50th film under the title ''[[Shesh Theke Shuru]]'' (2019) and released on the occasion of [[Eid al-Fitr|Eid]] 2019.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|1954818}}

{{Raj Chakraborty}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Shotru}}
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:2011 films]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian police films]]
[[Category:2011 Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:2011 action thriller films]]
[[Category:2011 masala films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Raj Chakraborty]]
[[Category:Films scored by Indradeep Dasgupta]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the West Bengal Police]]
[[Category:Indian films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Films about kidnapping in India]]
[[Category:Films about rape in India]]
[[Category:Eskay Movies films]]

Nenu Seetamahalakshmi

2026-03-03T21:59:33Z

NoellaXgt402: put up new info

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Nenu Seetamahalakshmi
| image = Nenu Seetamahalakshmi.jpg
| alt =
| caption = DVD cover
| native_name = 
| director = [[G. Nageswara Reddy]]
| writer =
| screenplay = G. Nageswara Reddy
| story = G. Nageswara Reddy
| based_on = 
| producer = Valluripally Ramesh Babu
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1= Dialogue by
| data1 = [[Satish Vegesna]]
}}
| starring = {{plainlist|*[[Rohit (actor)|Rohit]]
*Sravya
}}
| narrator =
| cinematography = Bhupati
| editing = Paidi Reddy
| music = [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]]
| studio = Maharshi Cinema
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2003|11|8}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Nenu Seetamahalakshmi''''' ({{Translation|I, Seetamahalakshmi}}) is a 2003 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romantic drama film]] directed by [[G. Nageswara Reddy]] starring [[Rohit (actor)|Rohit]] and newcomer Sravya. The film was released to negative reviews and failed at the box office.

== Plot ==
Naani and Seetamahalakshmi are in love and run away to [[Visakhapatnam]]. They realize that they are not made each other and go back to their respective houses in [[Hyderabad]]. After realizing that they can't stay apart for a few days, they try to reunite. How they reunite forms the rest of the story.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Rohit (actor)|Rohit]] as Naani
*Sravya as Seetamahalakshmi
*[[Chalapathi Rao]]
*[[Surya (Telugu actor)|Surya]]
*Delhi Rajeswari
*Apoorva
*[[Brahmanandam]]
*[[Kondavalasa Lakshmana Rao|Kondavalasa]]
*[[M. S. Narayana]]
*[[Krishna Bhagavaan]]
*[[Raghu Babu]]
* Pawan
* Basha
*[[Gundu Hanumantha Rao]]
* Jr. Relangi
}}

== Production ==
This film marks the third collaboration between [[G. Nageswara Reddy]] and [[Rohit (actor)|Rohit]] after ''[[6 Teens]]'' (2001) and ''[[Girl Friend (2002 film)|Girl Friend]]'' (2002).<ref name="I">{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-nenuseetamahalakshmi.html|title=Movie review - Nenu Seetamahalakshmi|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]|last=Jeevi|date=8 November 2003|access-date=24 February 2024|archive-date=12 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712191304/https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-nenuseetamahalakshmi.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack for the film was composed by [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Nenu Seethamahalakshmi Songs: Nenu Seethamahalakshmi MP3 Telugu Songs by Kousalya Online Free on Gaana.com |url=https://gaana.com/album/nenu-seethamahalakshmi |website=[[Gaana (music streaming service)|Gaana]] |access-date=24 February 2024 |language=en |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907114821/http://gaana.com/album/nenu-seethamahalakshmi |url-status=live }}</ref> and it was released under the audio label of [[Aditya Music]]. The audio release function took place on 8 October 2003 with [[N. T. Rama Rao Jr.]] as the chief guest.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news241.html|title=NTR to release Nenu Seetamalaxmi audio|date=1 October 2003|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]|access-date=24 February 2024|archive-date=9 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609005610/https://idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news241.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Kannulu Moste
| length1 = 4:39
| lyrics1 = Bhaskara Bhatla
| extra1 = Sandeep Bhaumik, [[Kousalya (singer)|Kousalya]]
| title2 = Anaganaga
| length2 = 4:21
| lyrics2 = Kandikonda
| extra2 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], Kousalya
| title3 = Aakasama
| length3 = 5:26
| lyrics3 = Kandikonda
| extra3 = [[M. M. Keeravani]]
| title4 = Muddu Muddu
| length4 = 5:17
| lyrics4 = Sai Sri Harsha
| extra4 = [[Raghu Kunche|Sri Raghukunche]], Kousalya
| title5 = Kotipalli
| length5 = 4:51
| lyrics5 = Kandikonda
| extra5 = Vasu, Kousalya
| title6 = Nuvvena Nuvvena
| length6 = 7:37
| lyrics6 = Srinivas
| extra6 = [[Chakri (composer)|Chakri]], Kousalya
| total_length = 36:37
}}

== Reception ==
Jeevi of ''[[Idlebrain.com]]'' rated the film {{Fraction|2|3|4}} out of 5 and wrote that "The director tried to narrate the film in comedy format, but failed to generate rib-tickling humor".<ref name="I"/> Similarly, a critic from ''[[Sify]]'' wrote that "here the director is confused whether to make it a love story or a comedy caper."<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://sify.com/movies/telugu/review.php?id=13305515&ctid=5&cid=2430 | title=Review: Nenu Seetamahalakshmi|work=[[Sify]]| last = Moviebuzz | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050107092939/http://sify.com/movies/telugu/review.php?id=13305515&ctid=5&cid=2430 | url-status=dead | archive-date=7 January 2005|access-date=24 February 2024}}</ref>

==Box office==
The film was a box office failure causing Sravya to revert to her birthname Neetha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news243.html|title=Sravya changes her name|date=12 December 2003|work=[[Idlebrain.com]]|access-date=24 February 2024|archive-date=18 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218110829/https://idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news243.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|1579988}}
{{G. Nageswara Reddy}}
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by G. Nageswara Reddy]]
[[Category:Films scored by Chakri]]
[[Category:2003 Telugu-language films]]

Vasundhara (film)

2026-03-03T21:36:46Z

NoellaXgt402: creating a data

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Vasundhara
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[T. S. Nagabharana]]
| producer = {{Plainlist |
* R. Nanjappa
* Naginibharana
}}
| writer = {{Plainlist |
* [[T.S. Nagabharana]]
* Lakshmipathi Kolar
}}
| starring = {{Plainlist |
* [[Aishwarya Nag]]
* [[Rajesh (Kannada actor)|Rajesh]]
* Avinash Jugari
* [[Jayanthi (actress)|Jayanthi]]
* [[T. S. Nagabharana]]
}}
| cinematography = Ananth Urs
| music = Stephan Prayog
| editing = Ravi Aradhya
| studio = Shruthalaya Productions<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.shruthalaya.com/ |title=Open Page |access-date=18 January 2014 |archive-date=7 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107041720/http://shruthalaya.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2014|01|31}}
| country = [[India]]
| language= [[Kannada]]
}}
'''''Vasundhara''''' ({{langx|kn|ವಸುಂಧರ}}) is a 2014 [[Kannada]] thriller/drama film directed by [[T.S. Nagabharana]]. The name refers to [[Mother goddess|Mother Earth]] and its role as life giver, protector, preserver and absolver of all sins of all forms of life, and the embodiment of patience and tolerance.

==Synopsis==
The film revolves around the trials and tribulations of Vasundhara AKA as Mrs. Bagatov who is inadvertently caught in the cauldron of terrorist violence, communal frenzy, corporate greediness, corrupt bureaucracy and media manipulations. In the process it also unravels the positive power of the media, the uncompromising commitment to distinguish between right and wrong in the face of great suffering and the need for empowerment of women in the interest of the future of our society.

==Cast==
{{Div col}}
*[[Rajesh (Kannada actor)|Rajesh]]
*[[Aishwarya Nag]] as Vasundhara
*Avinash Jugari
*[[Jayanthi (actress)|Jayanthi]]
*[[T. S. Nagabharana]]
*Ashok Rao
*[[Sudharani]]
*Dharma as Afroz Pasha
*[[Rajshri Ponnappa]]
*Bharath Kalyan as Arun Chawla
*[[Pannaga Bharana]]
*Nagini Bharana
*Shrutha Bharana
*M.K. Uppinangadi
*Suryodhaya
*Sriphathi Manjanbail
*Girish Jatti
*Niranjan
*Ramesh Babu
*Harish Ninasam
*Baby Saanavi Bharana
{{div col end}}

==Production==
The production commenced<ref>{{cite web|title=Launch News|url=http://chitraloka.com/news/3120-vasundhara-launched.html|publisher=ChitraLoka|access-date=14 December 2013|archive-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216080541/http://chitraloka.com/news/3120-vasundhara-launched.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> on 23 May 2013 and was wrapped up on 10 July 2013<ref>{{cite news|title=TOI Shooting Wrap Up|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-06-30/news-interviews/40285614_1_r-nanjappa-nagini-bharana-vasundhara|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703201707/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-06-30/news-interviews/40285614_1_r-nanjappa-nagini-bharana-vasundhara|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 July 2013|access-date=14 December 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 June 2013}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Vasundhara
| type = [[Soundtrack]]
| artist = Stephen Prayog
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{film date|df=y|2014|1|9}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = Ashwini Audio
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The film's soundtrack is composed by Stephen Prayog. The lyrics were penned by Gopal Vajapeyee, Lakshmpathi Kolar, and Vasuki Vaibhav. The soundtrack was launched on 9 January 2014. It is being distributed by Ashwini Audio.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news-interviews/Nagabharanas-Vasundhara-audio-launched/articleshow/28703280.cms |title=Nagabharana's Vasundhara audio launched - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201195248/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2014-01-12/news-interviews/46112232_1_shruthalaya-films-banner-nagabharana-stephen-prayog |archive-date=1 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/bangalore/Audio-of-Vasundhara-released-in-Bangalore/articleshow/28634963.cms |title=Audio of Vasundhara released in Bangalore - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201195149/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2014-01-11/bangalore/46067450_1_vasundhara-audio-release-audio-launch |archive-date=1 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The entire soundtrack album can be purchased from [[Hungama Digital Media Entertainment]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hungama.com/#/music/album-vasundara-songs/2374446|title=Latest Bollywood Songs Online, Download Hindi Mp3 songs, Free Music, Videos & Movies Online}}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline = Track List
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Gananayaka
| extra1 = Lakshmi Vijay, Vijay Urs, Srinivas & Vaibhav
| lyrics1 = Gopal Wajapeyeyi
| length1 = 4:34
| title2 = Kanasella Neene (Are Are)
| extra2 = Rajesh Krishnan, Archana Ravi & Stephen Prayog
| lyrics2 = Vasuki Vaibhava
| length2 = 4:42
| title3 = Dumtaka Dumtaka
| extra3 = Stephen Prayog, Vasuki Vaibhava, Sujatha Prasad, Kushala, Lakshmi Vijay, Archana Ravi, Dakshayani & Rekha Mohan
| lyrics3 = Gopal wajapeyeyi
| length3 = 4:01
| title4 = Ello Doora
| extra4 = Hemanth
| lyrics4 = Lakshmpathi Kolara
| length4 = 4:51
}}

==Marketing==
The online marketing campaign of the movie has been taken up by Adwitiya Technologies. The first official teaser of the movie was released on 13 December 2013. The second official teaser was released on 29 December 2013. The music videos of the songs "Kanasella Neene (Are Are)" and "Gana Nayaka" were released on 4 January 2014 and 13 January 2014 respectively.

The soundtrack was released on 9 January 2014. All the songs were made available online through a [[YouTube]] Jukebox on 21 January 2014.

==Release==

''Vasundhara'' released in theaters on {{nowrap|January 31}}, 2014.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|14097290}}
{{T. S. Nagabharana}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vasundhara}}
[[Category:2014 films]]
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]
[[Category:2014 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2014 Indian films]]
[[Category:2014 thriller films]]
[[Category:Films directed by T. S. Nagabharana]]

Ponniyin Selvan: I (soundtrack)

2026-03-02T14:17:03Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{short description|2022 soundtrack album by A. R. Rahman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox album
| name = Ponniyin Selvan: I
| caption = Album cover
| type = [[Soundtrack]]
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cover = Ponniyin Selvan I album cover.jpg
| alt =
| released = 19 September 2022
| recorded = 2019–2022
| studio = [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios]], [[Chennai]] [[KM Music Conservatory]], Chennai Panchathan Hollywood Studios, [[Los Angeles]] Firdaus Studio, [[Dubai]]
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 25:25
| language = Tamil
| label = [[Tips Music]]
| producer = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| prev_title = [[Vendhu Thanindhathu Kaadu (soundtrack)]]
| prev_year = 2022
| next_title = [[Pathu Thala]]
| next_year = 2022
| misc = {{Singles
| name = Ponniyin Selvan: I
| type = soundtrack
| single1 = Ponni Nadhi
| single1date = 31 July 2022
| single2 = Chola Chola
| single2date = 19 August 2022
}}
}}

'''''Ponniyin Selvan: I''''' is the soundtrack album for 2022 Indian [[Tamil-language]] [[epic film|epic]] [[period film|period drama]] film of the [[Ponniyin Selvan: I|same name]] directed by [[Mani Ratnam]] which features an ensemble cast of [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]], [[Karthi]], [[Jayam Ravi]], [[Aishwarya Rai Bachchan]], [[Trisha (actress)|Trisha]], [[Aishwarya Lekshmi]], [[Sobhita Dhulipala]], [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]], [[R. Sarathkumar]], [[Vikram Prabhu]], [[Jayaram]], [[Prakash Raj]], [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] and [[R. Parthiban]]. The film’s soundtrack and score were composed by Ratnam's norm composer [[A. R. Rahman]], marking the duo's 30th year collaborating.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Many Mani years together!' Amul creative celebrates AR Rahman-Mani Ratnam collaboration over the years |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/many-mani-years-together-amul-creative-celebrates-ar-rahman-mani-ratnam-collaboration-over-years/articleshow/94634085.cms |access-date=2022-10-05 |archive-date=5 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005065645/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/many-mani-years-together-amul-creative-celebrates-ar-rahman-mani-ratnam-collaboration-over-years/articleshow/94634085.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

For the film, Rahman researched extensively for the period setting and soundscape, taking nearly six months for initial works on the music.<ref name=":8" /> The soundtrack was curated and conceptualised for nearly three years, since mid-2019 to early-2022, where all the songs were recorded at the [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios]] in [[Chennai]], and also recorded at the Firdaus Studio in [[Dubai]], inaugurated by Rahman, during [[Expo 2020]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-08 |title=What is more special about AR Rahman's new studio in Dubai – Click to know |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/ar-rahman-studio-dubai-expo2020-firdaus-orchestra-isai-nyani-ilaiyaraaja-tamil-news-309207 |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008030238/https://www.indiaglitz.com/ar-rahman-studio-dubai-expo2020-firdaus-orchestra-isai-nyani-ilaiyaraaja-tamil-news-309207 |url-status=live }}</ref> The soundtrack is the first of the two-part series composed for the duology, which has six songs for each film. It also marked Rahman's first soundtrack for a Mani Ratnam film not to feature lyrics written by [[Vairamuthu]]. Instead the soundtrack for the Tamil version, featured lyrics written by Ilango Krishnan, [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]], [[Siva Ananth]] and Krithika Nelson, while [[Mehboob Kotwal]], [[Ananta Sriram]], [[Rafeeq Ahamed]] and [[Jayanth Kaikini]] are credited as the songwriters for the Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada versions, respectively.<ref name=":4" />

''Ponniyin Selvan: I''<nowiki/>'s soundtrack, released by [[Tips Music]], featured two singles. The first song titled "Ponni Nadhi" was released by [[Tips Music]] on 31 July 2022,<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |date=2022-07-29 |title=Ponniyin Selvan song Ponni Nadhi's release date announced with poster of Karthi's Vanthiyathevan |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/ponniyin-selvan-song-ponni-nadhi-release-date-announced-8058705/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=The Indian Express |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730124931/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/ponniyin-selvan-song-ponni-nadhi-release-date-announced-8058705/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the second song "Chola Chola" was released on 19 August.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Chola Chola, the second single from Ponniyin Selvan 1 on its way |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/aug/17/chola-chola-the-second-single-from-ponniyin-selvan-1-on-its-way-33824.html |access-date=2022-08-20 |newspaper=[[Cinema Express]] |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820182240/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/aug/17/chola-chola-the-second-single-from-ponniyin-selvan-1-on-its-way-33824.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Second single from PS-I titled Chola Chola to be out on Friday |url=https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/08/17/second-single-from-ps-i-titled-chola-chola-to-be-out-on-friday |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=DT next |date=18 August 2022 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818065840/https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/08/17/second-single-from-ps-i-titled-chola-chola-to-be-out-on-friday |url-status=live }}</ref> The music launch event was held on 6 September, at [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Chennai)|Jawaharlal Nehru Indoor Stadium]] in Chennai, with the presence of the cast and crew and other celebrities.<ref>{{Cite web |title='பொன்னியின் செல்வன்' படத்தின் ஆடியோ, ட்ரெய்லர் வெளியீட்டு விழா - அதிகாரப்பூர்வ அறிவிப்பு |url=https://www.puthiyathalaimurai.com/newsview/146340/Ponniyin-Selvan-Movie-The-Grand-audio-and-trailer-launch-ceremony-in-September-6th-at-The-Nehru-indoor-stadium |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=Puthiyathalaimurai |date=30 August 2022 |language=ta |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830144156/https://www.puthiyathalaimurai.com/newsview/146340/Ponniyin-Selvan-Movie-The-Grand-audio-and-trailer-launch-ceremony-in-September-6th-at-The-Nehru-indoor-stadium |url-status=live }}</ref> The album was officially released to music streaming platforms on the following day, 7 September, along with the Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada versions. The music received positive response from critics appreciating Rahman's composition and the lyrics, while also praising the instrumentation in tune to the periodic setting and soundscape.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mukherjee |first=Anindita |title=Ponniyin Selvan's music album out! Kamal Haasan, Shankar laud composer AR Rahman |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-s-music-album-out-kamal-haasan-shankar-laud-composer-ar-rahman-1997140-2022-09-06 |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=India Today |date=6 September 2022 |archive-date=9 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909061053/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-s-music-album-out-kamal-haasan-shankar-laud-composer-ar-rahman-1997140-2022-09-06 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Background ==
The soundtrack featured music composed by Ratnam's norm collaborator, [[A. R. Rahman]]. He called ''Ponniyin Selvan'' as one of the most difficult projects, since it is an epic film, and required an exhaustive research.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Exclusive! AR Rahman on Mani Ratnam's Ponniyin Selvan: 'It's probably my most difficult film' |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2020/feb/24/ar-rahman-music-mani-ratnam-ponniyin-selvan-my-most-difficult-film-22557.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127172106/https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2020/feb/24/ar-rahman-music-mani-ratnam-ponniyin-selvan-my-most-difficult-film-22557.html |archive-date=27 November 2020 |access-date=4 February 2021 |website=[[Indulge Express]]|date=23 February 2020 }}</ref> It took him six months to work on the project, and he and Mani Ratnam also went to [[Bali]] and [[Cambodia]] for writing some of the songs,<ref name=":8" /> However, Rahman had stated the challenging part on scoring the film is that, Ratnam wanted a particular sound, "which is unique but at the same time relatable", adding that he worked hard to get that sound.<ref name=":8" /> Rahman researched on periodic instruments for the songs in tune to the film's setting in [[Chola period]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |author-link=Naman Ramachandran |date=15 January 2021 |title=Oscar-Winning Composer A.R. Rahman Teases Return to Hollywood, Talks 'Tandav,' 'Ponniyin Selvan' (EXCLUSIVE) |url=https://variety.com/2021/music/news/ar-rahman-teases-return-to-hollywood-tandav-1234885537/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305182001/https://variety.com/2021/music/news/ar-rahman-teases-return-to-hollywood-tandav-1234885537/ |archive-date=5 March 2021 |access-date=19 September 2021 |website=Variety}}</ref> During their music session in Bali and Cambodia, he incorporated those instruments from the region and used it in the soundtrack. In a September 2019 interaction with the press, Ratnam revealed that the film will have 12 songs (featuring in two-parts).<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 September 2019 |title=Mani Ratnam brings on board AR Rahman and Vairamuthu for his 'Ponniyin Selvan' adaptation |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/mani-ratnam-brings-board-ar-rahman-and-vairamuthu-his-ponniyin-selvan-adaptation-108630 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201033513/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/mani-ratnam-brings-board-ar-rahman-and-vairamuthu-his-ponniyin-selvan-adaptation-108630 |archive-date=1 December 2020 |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref>

In December 2019, singer [[Harini (singer)|Harini]] confirmed in an interview that she has rendered her voice for one of the songs in the film.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1211551416092778497 |user=galattadotcom |title=National Award Winning Singer Harini Has Recorded A Song for the Film |author=Galatta Media |date=29 December 2019 |access-date=3 January 2020 |quote=#GalattaBreaking National Award-winning singer #Harini has sung a song in #ManiRatnam's magnum opus #PonniyinSelvan. She confirmed the same during an exclusive conversation with #Galatta}}</ref> [[Shreya Ghoshal]] further recorded one song for the film. Apart from composition, Rahman also sang the track "Ponni Nadhi" for the film.<ref name=":10" /> In a January 2021 interview to [[Naman Ramachandran]] of ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'', Rahman said that the entire composition was completed during the [[COVID-19 lockdown in India]]. In December, Rahman shared a glimpse from the recording session of the film's songs, through social media platforms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A R Rahman posts clip of Mani Ratnam's briefing for 'Ponniyin Selvan' music |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2021/12/10/ar-rahman-posts-clip-mani-ratnam-ponniyin-selvan-music-tamil.html |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=OnManorama |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630164803/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2021/12/10/ar-rahman-posts-clip-mani-ratnam-ponniyin-selvan-music-tamil.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=K. |first=Janani |date=December 9, 2021 |title=AR Rahman shares glimpse of Ponniyin Selvan recording sessions. Watch video |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ar-rahman-shares-glimpse-of-ponniyin-selvan-recording-sessions-watch-video-1885865-2021-12-09 |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=India Today |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630164803/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ar-rahman-shares-glimpse-of-ponniyin-selvan-recording-sessions-watch-video-1885865-2021-12-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> The recording of the songs were completed by early-January 2022, and had submitted the final versions to Ratnam, who was impressed with the songs.<ref>{{Cite news |title=A.R. Rahman completes a major work for 'Ponniyin Selvan' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/a-r-rahman-completes-a-major-work-for-ponniyin-selvan/articleshow/88730908.cms |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=The Times of India |date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630164804/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/a-r-rahman-completes-a-major-work-for-ponniyin-selvan/articleshow/88730908.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2022, Rahman composed the film score at the newly constructed Firdaus Studio in Dubai, where he was performing at the [[Expo 2020]], and invited Ratnam to supervise the scoring in person.<ref>{{Cite news |title=AR Rahman gives a massive update on 'Ponniyin Selvan' background score composition |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/ar-rahman-gives-a-massive-update-on-ponniyin-selvan-background-score-composition/articleshow/90390958.cms |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=The Times of India |date=23 March 2022 |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630164804/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/ar-rahman-gives-a-massive-update-on-ponniyin-selvan-background-score-composition/articleshow/90390958.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The following month, vocal sessions for the film score began at the [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios|Panchathan Record Inn]] studio in Chennai.<ref>{{Cite news |title=AR Rahman shares a photo from intense session for 'Ponniyin Selvan' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/ar-rahman-shares-a-photo-from-intense-session-for-ponniyin-selvan/articleshow/90796095.cms |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=The Times of India |date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630164805/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/ar-rahman-shares-a-photo-from-intense-session-for-ponniyin-selvan/articleshow/90796095.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Percussionist [[Sivamani (percussionist)|Sivamani]] confirmed his involvement on scoring the film in late-June, and shared few behind-the-scenes of the recording through [[Instagram]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Drums Sivamani teases fans with a music video from 'Ponniyin Selvan' recording session |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/drums-sivamani-teases-fans-with-a-music-video-from-ponniyin-selvan-recording-session/articleshow/92569040.cms |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=The Times of India |date=30 June 2022 |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630164803/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/drums-sivamani-teases-fans-with-a-music-video-from-ponniyin-selvan-recording-session/articleshow/92569040.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

Singer and social media influencer Antara Nandy, a contestant in Rahman's YouTube show ''ARRived'', made her feature film debut as a playback singer through this film.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sudevan |first=Praveen |date=2022-09-26 |title=Singer Antara Nandy on how AR Rahman chose her 'scratch version' of 'Alaikadal' for 'Ponniyin Selvan' |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/singer-antara-nandy-on-how-ar-rahman-chose-her-scratch-version-of-alaikadal-for-ponniyin-selvan/article65913290.ece |access-date=2022-10-05 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=5 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005134045/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/singer-antara-nandy-on-how-ar-rahman-chose-her-scratch-version-of-alaikadal-for-ponniyin-selvan/article65913290.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> She earlier recorded a scratch version of the song "Alaikadal" within 45 minutes and mailed Ratnam for rectifying the song, though no response being received. Later, she was informed that her recording was approved and later was asked to sing the track in Hindi, Telugu and Kannada languages. The recording was finished within a week prior to the film's music launch.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news |title=Rahman sir said I nailed the 'Alaikadal' song: Singer Antara Nandy |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/rahman-sir-said-i-nailed-the-alaikadal-song-singer-antara-nandy/articleshow/94583401.cms |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=The Times of India |date=October 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003213807/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/rahman-sir-said-i-nailed-the-alaikadal-song-singer-antara-nandy/articleshow/94583401.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Speaking to ''[[The Times of India]]'', Nandy said: "... [Mani] Sir told me one line brief, “I want it to sound like the waves of ocean, it should have ups and downs. It has to flow”. Then Mani sir also explained the scene to me, that, it is a song sung by a strong boatwoman, singing to her love of the life who she’s longing to meet. It has to portray love, a flowy song. Though I knew the lyrics, I didn’t know what each word meant, so I was worried. Rahman sir completely guided me, going line by line. That’s how we recorded the song. After he started guiding, it became so easy."<ref name=":7" />

== Music and lyrics ==
Ilango Krishnan, [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]], [[Siva Ananth]] and Krithika Nelson reported to write the songs for the ''Ponniyin Selvan: I'' soundtrack. For the dubbed versions, [[Mehboob Kotwal]], [[Ananta Sriram]], [[Rafeeq Ahamed]] and [[Jayanth Kaikini]] wrote the song lyrics in Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada languages. Initially, [[Vairamuthu]] was reported to write all of the songs for the film, continuing the three-decade long collaboration with Ratnam and Rahman. His involvement received criticism from the female peers in the industry, particularly that of singer [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]], who accused him on the grounds of sexual misconduct, led him to be excluded from the project in mid-December 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 December 2019 |title=Vairamuthu not a part of Mani Ratnam's Ponniyin Selvan? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/vairamuthu-not-a-part-of-mani-ratnams-ponniyin-selvan-6172752/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201033512/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/vairamuthu-not-a-part-of-mani-ratnams-ponniyin-selvan-6172752/ |archive-date=1 December 2020 |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lyricist Vairamuthu out of Mani Ratnam's Ponniyin Selvan due to #MeToo backlash? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-is-lyricist-vairamuthu-out-of-mani-ratnam-s-film-due-to-metoo-backlash-1629246-2019-12-18 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201033518/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-is-lyricist-vairamuthu-out-of-mani-ratnam-s-film-due-to-metoo-backlash-1629246-2019-12-18 |archive-date=1 December 2020 |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=[[India Today]]|date=18 December 2019 }}</ref> Rahman did not comment about Vairamuthu's exit, as the officials of [[Madras Talkies]] made the decision,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=AR Rahman speaks on Vairamuthu's exit from 'Ponniyin Selvan' |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/ar-rahman-speaks-on-vairamuthus-exit-from-ponniyin-selvan-news-tamil-ubiqRBaccijgh.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224030551/https://www.sify.com/movies/ar-rahman-speaks-on-vairamuthus-exit-from-ponniyin-selvan-news-tamil-ubiqRBaccijgh.html |archive-date=24 February 2020 |access-date=4 February 2021 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> while also adding that two of the songs were written by [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]].<ref name=":9" /> Several lyricists were reported to be part of the film, including Venba Geethaiyan, who was about to contribute to the songs, but was not officially roped in.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2021|title=Mani Ratnam's 'Ponniyin Selvan': Technical Crew Details revealed! - Exclusive Update|work=Indiaglitz |access-date=24 December 2023|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/mani-ratnams-ponniyin-selvan-technical-crew-details-revealed-exclusive-update-tamil-news-292414|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231224152200/https://www.indiaglitz.com/mani-ratnams-ponniyin-selvan-technical-crew-details-revealed-exclusive-update-tamil-news-292414|archive-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> In August 2021, the production executives officially revealed that poet Ilango Krishnan, will write lyrics for the film's songs.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=5 August 2021 |title=Ponniyin Selvan: For the first time in 30 years, a Mani Ratnam film without Vairamuthu's lyrics! |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/ponniyin-selvan-for-the-first-time-in-30-years-a-mani-ratnam-film-without-vairamuthus-lyrics-news-tamil-vifeD6eeejefh.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819133725/https://www.sify.com/movies/ponniyin-selvan-for-the-first-time-in-30-years-a-mani-ratnam-film-without-vairamuthus-lyrics-news-tamil-vifeD6eeejefh.html |archive-date=19 August 2021 |access-date=19 September 2021 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> He was reported to contribute for eight songs in the two-part franchise.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2021 |title=Mani Ratnam and Vairamuthu's 30 years bond breaks with 'Ponniyin Selvan' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/mani-ratnam-and-vairamuthus-30-years-bond-breaks-with-ponniyin-selvan/articleshow/85068803.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917204119/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/mani-ratnam-and-vairamuthus-30-years-bond-breaks-with-ponniyin-selvan/articleshow/85068803.cms |archive-date=17 September 2021 |access-date=19 September 2021 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=நா.கதிர்வேலன் |title=PS -1 : பொன்னி நதி மட்டுமல்ல பொன்னியின் செல்வனில் 12 பாடல்கள் எழுதியிருக்கும் கவிஞர் இவர்தான்! |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/article-about-ponniyin-selvan-movie-first-song-ponni-song |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=Ananda Vikatan |date=August 2022 |language=ta |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809185614/https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/article-about-ponniyin-selvan-movie-first-song-ponni-song |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Quote box
| quote="For this song, he told me that it had captured Vanthiyathevan's thoughts as he was riding to the Chola capital to deliver messages to the king and his daughter Kundhavai, who was the sister of his friend and leader Aaditha Karikalan. Vanthiyathevan is a warrior, who is goodhearted, intelligent, mingles with everyone, somewhat attracted towards women and has great affection towards Karikalan. He is his trustworthy friend, aide, and also commander. He has longing to see Thanjavur and the Ponni river for many years, but has been stuck up with the battles Karikalan was fighting in the north. Now, he finally has gotten his wish, but then he was going to travel as a spy. His thoughts turn to the Ponni river, which to him feels like heaven, but duty calls. The song had to capture this mental state of Vanthiyathevan."
| source = — Ilango Krishnan, describing the song "Ponni Nadhi"<ref>{{Cite news |title=Exclusive: I did feel pressure, but Mani Ratnam and Rahman made me feel comfortable: Ponniyin Selvan lyricist Ilango Krishnan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/exclusive-i-did-feel-pressure-but-mani-ratnam-and-rahman-made-me-feel-comfortable-ponniyin-selvan-lyricist-ilango-krishnan/articleshow/93275510.cms |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=The Times of India |date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820173551/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/exclusive-i-did-feel-pressure-but-mani-ratnam-and-rahman-made-me-feel-comfortable-ponniyin-selvan-lyricist-ilango-krishnan/articleshow/93275510.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
| align = right
| width = 30%
}}
Krishnan revealed that, the film's dialogue writer [[B. Jeyamohan]] contacted him through text, about his inclusion, and he formally met Ratnam and Rahman in February 2020, who collected some of the works related to [[Ponniyin Selvan]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Rajaraman |first=Kaushik |title=Research behind Ponni Nadhi, PS was immense: Ilango Krishnan |url=https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/08/01/research-behind-ponni-nadhi-ps-was-immense-ilango-krishnan |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=DT next |date=August 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820173401/https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/08/01/research-behind-ponni-nadhi-ps-was-immense-ilango-krishnan |url-status=live }}</ref> For the songwriting process, he read several novels about the works of Cholas' history from prominent Indian historians-authors, [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], [[T. V. Sadasiva Pandarathar]], [[Kudavayil Balasubramanian]] amongst several others, to ensure no historical inaccuracies. He also re-read classical poems, such as [[Akanaṉūṟu]], [[Purananuru|Puranaanuru]], [[Kuṟuntokai]] and [[Kamba Ramayanam]], to refer those aesthetics of [[Classical Tamil|Classical]] and [[Sangam literature|Sangam]] Tamil poetry, and incorporated modernised Tamil to "bring to life the imagery of the Chola period".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal debut: Ilango Krishnan explores lyric writing with Mani Rathnam's Ponniyin Selvan |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/aug/03/royal-debutilango-krishnan-exploreslyric-writing-with-mani-rathnamsponniyin-selvan-2483411.html |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=The New Indian Express |date=3 August 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820173400/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/aug/03/royal-debutilango-krishnan-exploreslyric-writing-with-mani-rathnamsponniyin-selvan-2483411.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The song "Ponni Nadhi" was written within a month, while other songs in the album were written within two hours. It was the fourth song at the time, Krishnan had submitted it, who was not aware on being the introductory song for [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan|Vandiyadevan]].<ref name=":1" /> While writing the track, he used the classical Tamil verses for few of the lines, including the first line from the song describes on "how Kallanai is an attire for Cauvery river that was built by Karikala Cholan 2,000 years ago".<ref name=":1" /> Krishnan revealed that, the significance of the track, is that, it is one of the few songs in Tamil, in the past few years, that did not borrow words from other languages. But, he predominantly "stuck to words with common usages".<ref name=":1" />

== Marketing and release ==
In July 2022, the producers announced that [[Tips Industries]] have acquired the film's music rights for five languages at a sum of {{INRConvert|25|c}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-08 |title=Ponniyin Selvan's audio rights sold for a whopping price; Amitabh Bachchan, Suriya & others to launch teaser |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/ponniyin-selvans-audio-rights-bag-whopping-price-amitabh-bachchan-suriya-others-launch-teaser-1157677 |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=Pinkvilla |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731122810/https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/ponniyin-selvans-audio-rights-bag-whopping-price-amitabh-bachchan-suriya-others-launch-teaser-1157677 |url-status=live }}</ref> The first single from the film, "Ponni Nadhi" was released on 31 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Keshri |first=Shweta |date=July 28, 2022 |title=Ponniyin Selvan first single Ponni Nadhi to release on July 31. See new poster feat Karthi |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-first-single-ponni-nadhi-to-release-on-july-31-see-new-poster-feat-karthi-1981109-2022-07-28 |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=India Today |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731122810/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-first-single-ponni-nadhi-to-release-on-july-31-see-new-poster-feat-karthi-1981109-2022-07-28 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":62"/> The song was released in five different languages—in [[Hindi]] as "Kaveri Se Milne", in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as "Ponge Nadhi" and in [[Malayalam]] and [[Kannada]] under the same title.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PS- I intro song Ponni Nadhi in Rahman's voice to release on Sunday |url=https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/07/28/ps-i-intro-song-ponni-nadhi-in-rahmans-voice-to-release-on-sunday |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=DT next |date=29 July 2022 |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729064325/https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/07/28/ps-i-intro-song-ponni-nadhi-in-rahmans-voice-to-release-on-sunday |url-status=live }}</ref> A. R. Rahman sung the vocals for the track in Tamil, Telugu and Hindi versions, whereas Alphons Joseph and Nakul Abhyankar sung the Malayalam and Kannada versions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-31 |title=பொன்னியின் செல்வன் க்ளிம்ப்ஸ் வீடியோ - ரசிகர்கள் கொண்டாட்டம் |url=https://zeenews.india.com/tamil/movies/ponni-nadhi-song-glimpse-video-was-released-404638 |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=Zee Hindustan Tamil |language=ta |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731122810/https://zeenews.india.com/tamil/movies/ponni-nadhi-song-glimpse-video-was-released-404638 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The single was launched in an event held at [[Express Avenue]] mall in [[Royapettah]], [[Chennai]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-30 |title='Ponniyin Selvan': Lavish first single launch event venue and time details are here! - Tamil News |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/mani-ratnam-ar-rahman-ponniyin-selvan-first-single-launch-event-venue-details-revealed-latest-update-tamil-news-321349 |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731122810/https://www.indiaglitz.com/mani-ratnam-ar-rahman-ponniyin-selvan-first-single-launch-event-venue-details-revealed-latest-update-tamil-news-321349 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=வந்தியத் தேவனுடன் ஆடித் திருநாள் கொண்டாட்டம்-பொன்னி நதி முதல் பாடல் எங்கே, எப்போது ரிலீஸ்? |url=https://www.puthiyathalaimurai.com/newsview/144383/Ponniyin-Selvan-part-1-first-single-release-on-tomorrow-Express-Avenue-mall |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=Puthiyathalaimurai |date=30 July 2022 |language=ta |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803025334/https://www.puthiyathalaimurai.com/newsview/144383/Ponniyin-Selvan-part-1-first-single-release-on-tomorrow-Express-Avenue-mall |url-status=live }}</ref> with Jayam Ravi, Karthi and Jayaram in attendance.<ref name=":0" /> Sports personalities, [[P. V. Sindhu]], [[Sanju Samson]] and [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] released the Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam versions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-30 |title=These famous sports celebrities will release Ponniyin Selvan's first single |url=https://www.123telugu.com/mnews/these-famous-sports-celebrities-will-release-ponniyin-selvans-first-single.html |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=123telugu.com |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731122807/https://www.123telugu.com/mnews/these-famous-sports-celebrities-will-release-ponniyin-selvans-first-single.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The same day, A. R. Rahman performed the song live in his concert at [[Houston]], [[Texas]].<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1553702473332043777 |user=MadrasTalkies_ |title=The Mozart of Madras is ready to perform his magic in Houston tonight! #PonniNadhi live in concert! #PS1FirstSingle |author=Madras Talkies |date=2022-07-31 |access-date=2022-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Houston audience grooves to AR Rahman's Ponni Nadhi |url=https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/08/13/houston-audience-grooves-to-ar-rahman-s-ponni-nadhi |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=DT next |date=14 August 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820174515/https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/08/13/houston-audience-grooves-to-ar-rahman-s-ponni-nadhi |url-status=live }}</ref> The making video of the song, was released on 3 August 2022, coinciding [[Aadi Perukku]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title="Ponni Nadhi is an introduction to Vanthiyathevan's personality," says Karthi in new promo video for Ponniyin Selvan |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/aug/04/ponni-nadhi-is-an-introduction-to-vanthiyathevans-personality-says-karthi-in-new-promovideo-for-33423.html |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=Cinema Express |date=4 August 2022 |archive-date=5 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805213606/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/aug/04/ponni-nadhi-is-an-introduction-to-vanthiyathevans-personality-says-karthi-in-new-promovideo-for-33423.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Actor [[Karthi]], who plays [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan|Vandiyadevan]], said the song is an introduction to his personality, and an introduction to the Chola kingdom. He further described that the song "covers Vanthiyathevan’s entire journey across the kingdom, as he rides his horse along the banks of the [[Kaveri River]] (known in ancient times as Ponni river)".<ref name=":2" /> On 19 August, the second single "Chola Chola" was released in five languages under the same title.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2022-08-19 |title=Ponniyin Selvan Part 1 song Chola Chola: An ode to Vikram's Aditya Karikalan |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/ponniyin-selvan-part-1-song-chola-chola-ar-rahman-vikram-8100186/ |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=The Indian Express |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820174522/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/ponniyin-selvan-part-1-song-chola-chola-ar-rahman-vikram-8100186/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The song was described as "an ode to [[Aditya Karikala]]'s victory and valour",<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=K. |first=Janani |date=August 19, 2022 |title=Chiyaan Vikram is in trance in Chola Chola first glimpse from Ponniyin Selvan. Full song out today at 6 pm |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/chiyaan-vikram-is-in-trance-in-chola-chola-first-glimpse-from-ponniyin-selvan-full-song-out-today-at-6-pm-1989862-2022-08-19 |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=India Today |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820174515/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/chiyaan-vikram-is-in-trance-in-chola-chola-first-glimpse-from-ponniyin-selvan-full-song-out-today-at-6-pm-1989862-2022-08-19 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the "glory and power of Cholas".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-19 |title='Ponniyin Selvan': The second single 'Chola Chola' depicts the glory and power of Cholas! - Tamil News |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/mani-ratnam-ponniyin-selvan-ps1-ar-rahman-chiyaan-vikram-karthi-second-single-release-latest-update-tamil-news-322310 |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008030741/https://www.indiaglitz.com/mani-ratnam-ponniyin-selvan-ps1-ar-rahman-chiyaan-vikram-karthi-second-single-release-latest-update-tamil-news-322310 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The film's music launch event was held on 6 September 2022 at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Chennai)|Jawaharlal Nehru Indoor Stadium]], [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajpal |first=Roktim |title=Ponniyin Selvan trailer and audio to be launched on September 6. Details inside |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-trailer-and-audio-to-be-launched-on-september-6-details-inside-1994485-2022-08-30 |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=India Today |date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=30 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930011431/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ponniyin-selvan-trailer-and-audio-to-be-launched-on-september-6-details-inside-1994485-2022-08-30 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=K. |first=Janani |title=Rajinikanth, Kamal Haasan to grace Mani Ratnam's Ponniyin Selvan trailer launch on Sept 6 in Chennai |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/rajinikanth-kamal-haasan-to-grace-mani-ratnam-s-ponniyin-selvan-trailer-launch-on-sept-6-in-chennai-1996468-2022-09-05 |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=India Today |date=5 September 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001080604/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/rajinikanth-kamal-haasan-to-grace-mani-ratnam-s-ponniyin-selvan-trailer-launch-on-sept-6-in-chennai-1996468-2022-09-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> The event saw the attendance of the film's cast and crew, and graced by [[Rajinikanth]] and [[Kamal Haasan]] as the chief guests.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ramanujam |first=Srinivasa |date=2022-09-07 |title='Ponniyin Selvan' audio launch: Rajinikanth and Kamal Haasan's camaraderie steals the show |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/ponniyin-selvan-audio-launch-rajinikanth-and-kamal-haasans-camaraderie-steals-the-show/article65860770.ece |access-date=2022-10-05 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004025509/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/ponniyin-selvan-audio-launch-rajinikanth-and-kamal-haasans-camaraderie-steals-the-show/article65860770.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> It was preceded by a live performance featuring Rahman's musical ensemble, who performed the film's songs and also other chartbusters from films such as [[Roja (film)|''Roja'']] (1992), [[Bombay (1995 film)|''Bombay'']] (1995), ''[[Alai Payuthey]]'' (2000), ''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]'' (2007) and several other films, as a tribute to 30 years of Rahman's debut in the film music industry and [[List of films directed by Mani Ratnam featuring A. R. Rahman|his collaboration with Ratnam]].<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=2022-09-06 |title=Ponniyin Selvan trailer and audio launch: Highlights |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/ponniyin-selvan-trailer-launch-live-updates-kamal-haasan-rajinikanth-8134586/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=The Indian Express |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928003826/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/ponniyin-selvan-trailer-launch-live-updates-kamal-haasan-rajinikanth-8134586/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The event was not streamed live, but was later telecasted on [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] on 25 September.<ref name=":11" />

== Track listing ==
The album was digitally released on streaming media platforms on 7 September (a day after the audio launch).<ref>{{Citation |title=Ponniyin Selvan Part-1 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |date=2022-09-07 |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/6efDS3Pp3DUkDnr5XgPyMN |access-date=2022-10-05 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907133250/https://open.spotify.com/album/6efDS3Pp3DUkDnr5XgPyMN |url-status=live }}</ref> It was also released in Hindi, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada, the same day.<ref>''PS-1'' dubbed tracklists:

* {{Citation |title=PS-1 (Hindi) [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] |date=2022-09-07 |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4NGWQIC642c6GoZ1b7p1Bt |access-date=2022-10-05 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008030740/https://open.spotify.com/album/4NGWQIC642c6GoZ1b7p1Bt |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |title=PS-1 (Telugu) [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] |date=2022-09-07 |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/7blW9PaHTJc7WOKKIWvctP |language= |access-date=2022-10-05 |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007080508/https://open.spotify.com/album/7blW9PaHTJc7WOKKIWvctP |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |title=PS-1 (Malayalam) [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] |date=2022-09-07 |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/1lpL6ddnxCEjbSSJBFcPst |language= |access-date=2022-10-05 |archive-date=5 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005111928/https://open.spotify.com/album/1lpL6ddnxCEjbSSJBFcPst |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |title=PS-1 (Kannada) [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] |date=2022-09-07 |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/0wV3TVTx8iQa9jBkn8pc18 |language= |access-date=2022-10-05 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907203835/https://open.spotify.com/album/0wV3TVTx8iQa9jBkn8pc18 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Tamil
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ponni Nadhi
| lyrics1 = [[Kabilan (Lyricist)|Kabilan]]
| extra1 = [[A. R. Rahman]], [[A. R. Raihanah]], [[Bamba Bakya]]
| length1 = 4:51
| title2 = Chola Chola
| lyrics2 = [[Siva Ananth]]
| extra2 = Sathya Prakash, V. M. Mahalingam, [[Nakul Abhyankar]]
| length2 = 3:40
| title3 = Ratchasa Maamaney
| lyrics3 = [[Kabilan (Lyricist)|Kabilan]]
| extra3 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Palakkad Sreeram]], Mahesh Vinayakram
| length3 = 4:50
| title4 = Alaikadal
| lyrics4 = Siva Ananth
| extra4 = Antara Nandy
| length4 = 5:14
| title5 = Devaralan Attam
| lyrics5 = Ilango Krishnan
| extra5 = Yogi Sekar
| length5 = 4:33
| title6 = Sol
| lyrics6 = Ilango Krishnan, Krithika Nelson
| extra6 = [[Rakshita Suresh]], Krithika Nelson
| length6 = 2:14
| total_length = 25:25
}}

===BGM Songs===
{{Track listing
| all_lyrics = Ilango Krishnan
| headline = Tamil
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Saaya Sanjale
| extra1 = [[Nakul Abhyankar]]
| length1 = NA
| title2 = Chola Anthem
| extra2 = Pavithra Chari, Vrusha Balu, [[Super Singer 10#Contestants|Padmaja Sreenivasan]], Aravind Srinivas, Sridhar Sena, Manoj Krishna
| length2 = NA
| title3 = Kodi Kodi (Reprise)
| extra3 = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| length3 = NA
| title4 = Ilayanenjil
| extra4 = [[Haricharan]], Aravind Srinivas, Sathya Prakash
| length4 = NA
| title5 = Thoo Venvanmathi
| extra5 = Sivasri Skandaprasad
| length5 = NA
| title6 = Climax Lament
| extra6 = [[Sunitha Sarathy]]
| length6 = NA
| title7 = Aga naga
| extra7 = [[Shakthisree Gopalan]]
| length7 = NA
| title8 = Nandhini Theme
| extra8 = Nabyla Maan
| length8 = NA
| total_length = NA
}}

{{
Track listing
| all_lyrics = [[Mehboob Kotwal|Mehboob]]
| headline = Hindi
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Kaveri Se Milne
| extra1 = [[A. R. Rahman]], Swagat Rathod, Pooja Tiwari
| length1 = 4:51
| title2 = Chola Chola
| extra2 = [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]], Swagat Rathod
| length2 = 3:40
| title3 = Rakshas Mama Re
| extra3 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]], Mahesh Vinayakram
| length3 = 4:50
| title4 = Doobi Doobi
| extra4 = Antara Nandy
| length4 = 5:14
| title5 = Devaralan Naach
| extra5 = Sudeep Jaipurwale
| length5 = 4:33
| title6 = Bol
| extra6 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length6 = 2:14
| total_length = 25:25
}}

{{Track listing
| all_lyrics = [[Anantha Sriram]]
| headline = Telugu
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ponge Nadhi
| extra1 = [[A. R. Rahman]], [[A. R. Raihanah]], Bamba Bakya
| length1 = 4:51
| title2 = Chola Chola
| extra2 = [[Mano (singer)|Mano]], [[Anurag Kulkarni]]
| length2 = 3:40
| title3 = Raachasa Maavaya
| extra3 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Shankar Mahadevan]], Mahesh Vinayakram
| length3 = 4:50
| title4 = Alanai Neekai
| extra4 = Antara Nandy
| length4 = 5:14
| title5 = Devaralan Aatta
| extra5 = Sarath Santhosh
| length5 = 4:32
| title6 = Sye
| extra6 = Sireesha Bhagavatula
| length6 = 2:14
| total_length = 25:25
}}

{{Track listing
| all_lyrics = [[Rafeeq Ahamed]]
| headline = Malayalam
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ponni Nadhi
| extra1 = [[Alphons Joseph]], [[A. R. Raihanah]], Jithin Raj
| length1 = 4:51
| title2 = Chola Chola
| extra2 = [[Benny Dayal]], Jithin Raj
| length2 = 3:40
| title3 = Rakshasa Maamane
| extra3 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Palakkad Sreeram]], Mahesh Vinayakram
| length3 = 4:50
| title4 = Alakadal
| extra4 = [[Shweta Mohan]]
| length4 = 5:14
| title5 = Devaralan Aattam
| extra5 = Sreekanth Hariharan
| length5 = 4:32
| title6 = Chol
| extra6 = [[Sanah Moidutty]]
| length6 = 2:15
| total_length = 25:25
}}

{{Track listing
| all_writing = [[Jayanth Kaikini]]
| headline = Kannada
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ponni Nadhi
| extra1 = [[Nakul Abhyankar]], [[A. R. Raihanah]], [[Bamba Bakya]]
| length1 = 4:51
| title2 = Chola Chola
| extra2 = [[Ravi Basrur]], [[Nakul Abhyankar]]
| length2 = 3:40
| title3 = Rakshasa Maamane
| extra3 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Vijay Prakash]], Mahesh Vinayakram
| length3 = 4:50
| title4 = Baradane Chandra
| extra4 = Antara Nandy
| length4 = 5:14
| title5 = Devaralan Aattaa
| extra5 = Yogi Sekar
| length5 = 4:32
| title6 = Hele Neenu
| extra6 = Sivasri Skandaprasad
| length6 = 2:14
| total_length = 25:25
}}

== Background score ==
{{Main|Ponniyin Selvan (Original Score)}}

== Reception ==
The music received positive response from critics, praising its periodic setting, instrumentation and soundscape. Suanshu Khurana of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave the album three-and-a-half out of five stars, and reviewed "Alaikadal" as a "soulful composition" and "the best piece on the album"; he further elaborated "From the prelude which is a metered alaap, the scale temperings, the violin interludes, soaring synths, and edgy percussion, the tender melody – a reminder of Tamil music from the ’50s – is sung brilliantly and sticks."<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=2022-09-24 |title=Ponniyin Selvan 1 music review: AR Rahman's album is music to the ears |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/ponniyin-selvan-1-music-review-ar-rahman-album-8170491/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=The Indian Express |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002003330/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/ponniyin-selvan-1-music-review-ar-rahman-album-8170491/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He further wrote "According to the novel, the Chola kings were devotees of Thevaram – a compendium of hymns in praise of Shiva – or how some of them were also influenced massively by Buddhism [...] Rahman had tapped into the milieu of the time and used music from these traditions. It would have made the current, quite a notable tapestry, more authentic. One understands the limitations of modern film music but if anyone can deliver this balance of the note structures, it’s Rahman."<ref name=":12" />

''Moviecrow'' also gave three-and-a-half stars and said "Rahman's soundtrack for the epic Ponniyin Selvan stays true to the story's situations and matches the grandeur needed while the composer's brilliance is also evident in the melodies."<ref name=":12"/> Critic Siddharth Srinivas called the album as "a work of genius from AR Rahman, who skilfully puts in a variant and efficient set of songs that work superbly. This is another strong example of his amazing combinations with Mani Ratnam, and it works so well that one cannot stop going back to it."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srinivas |first=Siddarth |date=2022-09-15 |title=Ponniyin Selvan (PS1) Songs Review |url=https://www.onlykollywood.com/ponniyin-selvan-ps1-songs-review/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=Only Kollywood |archive-date=15 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915032154/https://www.onlykollywood.com/ponniyin-selvan-ps1-songs-review/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Vipin Nair of ''Music Aloud'' stated "''Ponniyin Selvan'' features the best songs that A. R. Rahman has produced for Mani Ratnam in a while".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-28 |title=Ponniyin Selvan: I – Music Review (Tamil Soundtrack) |url=https://www.musicaloud.com/2022/09/28/ponniyin-selvan-i-music-review-tamil-soundtrack/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=Music Aloud |archive-date=5 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005180701/https://www.musicaloud.com/2022/09/28/ponniyin-selvan-i-music-review-tamil-soundtrack/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Reviewing the track "Ponni Nadhi", critic based at ''[[Pinkvilla]]'' praised the composition, instrumentation and Rahman's vocals, stating "The music looks top-notch while Sivamani's thumping beats give us many reasons to be hooked to the magical track. The detailing of the flute in the song by Kamalakar and the violin by Vignesh give a refreshing and mesmerising take to the song altogether.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-31 |title=Ponniyin Selvan's Ponni Nadhi: AR Rahman's magical voice & Sivamani's catchy beats together deliver a gem |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/ponniyin-selvans-ponni-nadhi-ar-rahmans-magical-voice-sivamanis-catchy-beats-together-deliver-gem-1170034 |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=PINKVILLA |archive-date=1 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801074658/https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/ponniyin-selvans-ponni-nadhi-ar-rahmans-magical-voice-sivamanis-catchy-beats-together-deliver-gem-1170034 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Indian Express]]'' called the song as "rousing and energetic". On reviewing "Chola Chola", a critic from [[Outlook (Indian magazine)|''Outlook'']], praised the use of "global sounds" such as the South Indian folk instruments, percussions and Shehnai played by [[S. Ballesh]], Krishna Ballesh and the orchestra (Chennai Strings Orchestra, [[Sunshine Orchestra]] and Budapest Scoring Orchestra) making it an "audio-visual treat".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-20 |title=From Chennai To Budapest, Global Sounds Make 'Chola Chola' An Audio-Visual Treat |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/from-chennai-to-budapest-global-sounds-make-chola-chola-an-audio-visual-treat-news-217661 |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=Outlook India |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820182054/https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/from-chennai-to-budapest-global-sounds-make-chola-chola-an-audio-visual-treat-news-217661 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Criticism ==
"Ponni Nadhi" received criticism from a section of audiences, who criticised the lyricist Ilango Krishnan, for the lack of nativity, and the similar ideas and phrases exhibited in his lyrics. [[Vairamuthu]]'s exclusion from the film also met with criticism, as he had an understanding on the Sangam literature.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Vinoth Kumar |first=N |date=2022-08-07 |title=Ponniyan Selvan: Lyrics are ho-hum, say critics; what kept Vairamuthu out? |url=https://thefederal.com/entertainment/ponniyan-selvan-lyrics-are-ho-hum-say-critics-what-kept-vairamuthu-out/ |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=The Federal |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808101929/https://thefederal.com/entertainment/ponniyan-selvan-lyrics-are-ho-hum-say-critics-what-kept-vairamuthu-out/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":4" /> In an interview to [[Puthiya Thalaimurai|''The Federal'']], journalist Lenin Ernesto defended Krishnan saying that he had exhibited the same ideas that Vairamuthu did, comparing that of the song "Thai Thindra Manney", written by him for [[Selvaraghavan]]'s [[Aayirathil Oruvan (2010 film)|''Aayirathil Oruvan'']] (2010), and added "When the story in the film is said to have taken place some 1,000 years ago, shouldn’t the lyricist use the ancient words instead of using colloquial terms?"<ref name=":5" /> Speaking to the same magazine, poet Pithan Venkatraj, felt that Rahman's tunes for the track lacked the periodic feel and instead reminded of one of his earlier numbers. He compared the track to "Narumugaye" written by Vairamuthu for ''[[Iruvar]]'' (1997).<ref name=":5" />

Pirashanth Kamalanathan, a Srilankan-based entrepreneur also explained on Vairamuthu's grasp from the novel helped in describing the character of the antagonist, Neelambari ([[Ramya Krishnan]]) in ''[[Padayappa]]'' (1999), through the lyrics of the song "Minsara Kanna". He also explained on how [[Aishwarya Rai Bachchan]] was earlier considered as the original choice for the character, before Ramya Krishnan's involvement (she ironically played Nandhini in ''Ponniyin Selvan'').<ref name=":5" /> Other fellow poets and lyricists, also felt that Vairamuthu should be consulted when writing the film's screenplay.<ref name=":5" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{A. R. Rahman}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:A. R. Rahman soundtracks]]
[[Category:Tamil film soundtracks]]
[[Category:2022 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:Hindi film soundtracks]]

Michael (2011 Indian film)

2026-03-02T09:58:49Z

NoellaXgt402: Creating

{{Short description|2011 Indian Hindi film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Michael
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Ribhu Dasgupta]]
| producer = [[Anurag Kashyap]] [[Guneet Monga]] [[Ramesh Sharma]] [[Shaiju Nambiadath]] [[Suni Bohra]]
| writer = Ribhu Dasgupta [[Debaloy Bhattacharya]]
| starring = [[Naseeruddin Shah]] [[Mahie Gill]] [[Sabyasachi Chakrabarty]]
| music =
| cinematography = Somak Mukherjee
| editing = [[Lionel Fernandes]]
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2011|9|15|[[2011 Toronto International Film Festival|TIFF]]|df=yes}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
}}

'''''Michael''''' is a 2011 Indian [[psychological thriller]] film directed by [[Ribhu Dasgupta]] and produced by [[Anurag Kashyap]].<ref>{{cite book |title=International Film Guide 2012 |first=Ian Hayden |last=Smith |year= 2012 |isbn= 978-1908215017 |page= 141}}</ref><ref name="washingtonbanglaradio">{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/93286811-interview-film-maker-ribhu-dasgupta-michael-hindi-2011-directorial-debut-premiering |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924025111/http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/93286811-interview-film-maker-ribhu-dasgupta-michael-hindi-2011-directorial-debut-premiering |url-status=usurped |archive-date=24 September 2011 |title=Interview: Film-Maker Ribhu Dasgupta on ''Michael'' (Hindi, 2011) - Directorial Debut Premiering in TIFF 2011 |accessdate=28 August 2012 |work=washingtonbanglaradio}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodlife.com/news-gossip/michael-movie-trailer-naseeruddin-shah-looks-dark-and-grungy |title=''Michael'' movie trailer: Naseeruddin Shah looks dark and grungy |date=28 November 2012 |accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>

==Plot==
The film opens some years ago with Kolkata police inspector Michael at a political rally. It is a large rally, several hundred people packed into a square, the largest protest against the current government, yet it is wholly peaceful. Michael receives a radio order to open fire and disperse the crowd. He protests, it is a peaceful rally, but his supervisor, acting on political pressure from above, repeats the order to fire. Michael fires a single shot that accidentally hits a 12-year-old boy.

Michael is diagnosed with "progressive myopia" and subsequently fired from his position without severance or pension benefits. He begins receiving angry phone calls from the father of the dead boy. The father threatens to kill Michael's 8-year-old son Roy on his 12th birthday.

Several years later, Michael is living in a small apartment with his son. He makes a miserable living as a projectionist in a movie theater and ekes out some additional income pirating movies for a gang of local thugs. Michael is always harangued by his landlord, the drunk and bitter Mr. DCosta, for overdue rent and continues to receive progressively threatening calls from the dead boy's father. His only goal is to get Roy out of the city and into a boarding school, saving money that he moves about his apartment so DCosta cannot find it. Rwitika, Michael's only friend, occasionally looks after Roy and urges him to pick up and move on. Amid this turmoil, he finds a quiet comfort in Mrs DCosta, who generally sympathizes with him and occasionally warns him about her husband.

A few days before Roy's 12th birthday, Michael gets intensely threatening phone calls. He stumbles out of his movie theater (and forgets an important movie copying job for which he has received an advance). His midget assistant Makkhan copies the movie and tries to sell it to a rival gang. Michael returns later and picks up a DVD (empty, since Makkhan took the movie DVD) and delivers it. When Michael returns home, he finds the gang members outside who beat him up until he figures out what happened. His assistant Makkhan shows up, badly beaten up, and discloses that the rival gang members took the DVD and beat him up and gave him no money. If Michael had paid him more money, he would not have gone to the other gang. They argue about the money until Michael discovers that his saved money is gone! Michael, slowly unspooling into insanity, moves Roy to Rwitika's place and subsequently beseeches her to send him away. He barges into DCosta's flat across the hall to see them celebrating something. In a maddened (and drunk) stupor, Michael threatens DCosta with a pistol and later begs him to return the money. DCosta, himself drunk, curses and berates Michael whereupon Michael, crazed with anger, shoots him dead. His wife reveals that it was she who took the money for her fertility treatment. Michael is shocked and hurt that she betrayed his trust. He runs out of the flat and, knowing that the police will hunt him down for murder, goes to get Roy out of the city.

Michael hurries to Rwitika's place to get Roy. At midnight, Roy's birthday, he runs across a crossroad. A public phone rings and Michael stops to pick it up. It is the dead boy's father, who vows to shoot Roy. Michael begs him to stop until Rwitika comes on the line next. Shocked, Michael hangs up the phone and steps into the road where a passing taxicab runs him over and kills him. It is revealed that Michael had been hearing voices all along (there was no father of the dead boy) since his guilt over the rally slowly drove him insane. The film ends as a police jeep finds his body and calls for an ambulance.

==Cast==
* [[Naseeruddin Shah]] as Michael
* [[Mahie Gill]] as Rwitika
* [[Sabyasachi Chakrabarty]]
* [[Rudranil Ghosh]]
* [[Iravati Harshe]]
* [[Churni Ganguly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|1754202|Michael}}
* [https://variety.com/2011/film/markets-festivals/michael-2-1117946270/ ''Variety'' review]

{{Anurag Kashyap|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Michael}}
[[Category:2011 films]]
[[Category:2010s psychological drama films]]
[[Category:2011 psychological thriller films]]
[[Category:2011 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2011 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian psychological drama films]]
[[Category:Indian psychological thriller films]]
[[Category:2011 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2011 drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ribhu Dasgupta]]

Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary

2026-02-22T21:28:41Z

NoellaXgt402: basic add information for clarity further and added references

{{Short description|Wildlife sanctuary in Jharkhand, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary
| alt_name =
| iucn_category = IV
| image = File:Among the sals of Jharkhand.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Sal forest in Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary
| image_size =
| map = India Jharkhand#India
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location of Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary in Jharkhand
| map_width =
| mapframe-zoom = 10
| location = [[Jharkhand]], [[India]]
| nearest_city = [[Hazaribagh]]
| coordinates = {{coords|24.1474|85.36|region:IN-JH|notes=<ref>{{cite web| url=http://protectedplanet.net/sites/Hazaribagh_Sanctuary| title=Hazaribagh Sanctuary| work=protectedplanet.net| access-date=13 January 2012| archive-date=13 March 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313105745/http://www.protectedplanet.net/sites/Hazaribagh_Sanctuary| url-status=dead}}</ref>|display=inline, title}}
| area_km2 = 184
| established = 1955
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year = 2222
| governing_body = Department of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, [[Government of Jharkhand]]
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| url = http://www.forest.jharkhand.gov.in/
}}
[[File:H'Bag National Park Entrance.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A display at the entrance of the sanctuary giving relevant details in [[Hindi]]]]

'''Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary''' is a wildlife sanctuary in [[Jharkhand]], [[India]], about {{convert|55|mi}} north of [[Ranchi]].<ref name="Educational2010">{{cite book|author=Educational Britannica Educational|title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPUvqtdfjyAC&pg=PA109|access-date=6 June 2012|date=1 July 2010|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-61530-202-4|page=109}}</ref> It was established in 1955. It is home to many wild animals including deer, monkey and birds.<ref name="Ramchandani2000">{{cite book|last=Ramchandani|first=Indu|title=Students' Britannica India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AE_LIg9G5CgC&pg=PA261|access-date=6 June 2012|year=2000|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|page=261}}</ref>

== History ==
The Hazaribagh wildlife sanctuary was established in 1955. It was unofficially called as Hazaribag National Park from 1955 to 1976.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/jharkhands-hazaribagh-national-park-is-a-myth-it-does-not-exist/723091/|title=Jharkhand’s Hazaribagh National Park is a myth. It does not exist|work=[[The Print]]|date=28 August 2021|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Vatsa|first=Mihir|date=2017-09-23|title=Tiger Fall, the waterfall that wasn’t|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/tiger-fall-the-waterfall-that-wasnt/article19734754.ece|access-date=2021-07-01|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

It was a private hunting reserve of kings of [[Ramgarh Raj|Ramgarh]]. Rajderwa was private hunting lodge of kings which includes a enclosure of [[wild boar]], [[barking deer]] and [[nilgai]]. The forest area got reduced due to deforestation and rampant hunting wiped out nearly all wildlife across the sanctuary.<ref name="IndianExpress2023">{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/express-sunday-eye/hazaribagh-the-abode-of-tigers-now-an-example-of-the-empty-forest-syndrome-8409111/|title=Hazaribagh: Once the abode of tigers, now an example of the ‘empty forest’ syndrome|work=[[Indian Express]]|date=30 January 2023|access-date=16 January 2025}}</ref>

==Wildlife==
Nestling in low hilly terrain, at an average altitude of {{Convert|615|m|ft}}, it has an area of {{Convert|184|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} and consists of mixed deciduous forest with [[sal tree]]s. It is home to various wild animals, including [[chital]], [[Sambar deer|sambar]], [[wild boar]], [[fox]], [[hyena]]s, [[sloth bear]]s, [[peafowl]], and [[pigeon]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYFmoOWfmX8C&pg=PA118|title=Handbook of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves in India|author=Sharad Singh Negi|page=118|publisher=Indus Publishing Company|year=2002|isbn=9788173871283|access-date=23 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="Ramchandani2000"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/safari-boost-to-tourist-footfall/cid/1429540|title=Safari boost to tourist footfall|work=|date=21 June 2015|access-date=23 January 2025}}</ref>

Earlier it was home to [[wolf]], [[leopards]] and [[tigers]] but due to deforestation and hunting, many wild animals have been wiped out from the sanctuary.<ref name="IndianExpress2023"/><ref name="Ramchandani2000"/> In January 2024, a tiger was videographed by the villagers in the sanctuary. According to forest officials, the [[tiger]] had come from [[Chhattisgarh]] through [[Palamu Tiger Reserve]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hi/!state/tiger-seen-in-hazaribag-wildlife-sanctuary-after-44-years-jhs24013001318|title=हजारीबाग वाइल्डलाइफ सेंचुरी में 44 साल बाद दिखा बाघ, कैमरे में कैद हुई टाइगर की गतिविधियां - हजारीबाग वाइल्डलाइफ सेंचुरी में बाघ|work=[[ETV Network]]|date=13 January 2024|access-date=16 January 2025|lang=Hindi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1 February 2025|title=Trap camera links loitering tiger to Palamu reserve, Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary on alert as big cat returns|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/trap-camera-links-loitering-tiger-to-palamu-reserve-dalma-wildlife-sanctuary-on-alert-as-big-cat-returns/cid/2080886|work=Telegraph India|access-date=1 February 2025}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary}}
{{Wikivoyage-inline|Hazaribagh National Park}}

{{protected areas of Jharkhand}}
{{North Chotanagpur Division topics}}
{{Hazaribagh city}}

[[Category:Wildlife sanctuaries in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Hazaribagh]]
[[Category:Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1955]]
[[Category:1955 establishments in Bihar]]

First Anglo-Maratha War

2026-02-19T21:36:55Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Original research|date=November 2019}}
{{POV|date=August 2024}}
}}
{{Short description|Part of Anglo-Maratha Wars between 1775 and 1818}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = First Anglo-Maratha War
| image = File:Maratha British Treaty.JPG
| caption = A mural depicting a British officer surrendering to Mahadaji Scindia following the Maratha victory at the Battle of Wadagaon
| date = {{start and end dates|1775|03|15|1782|05|17|df=yes}} {{nwr|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=03|day1=15|year1=1775|month2=05|day2=17|year2=1782}})}}
| partof = the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]]
| place = {{hlist|[[Central India]]|[[Western India]]}}
| result = Inconclusive<ref name="Kantak1993" /><ref>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C&pg=PA290|others=quote: "First Anglo-Maratha War...The war ends inconclusively."|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|author=John Bowman|page=290|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231500043|date=2000-09-05}}</ref>
*[[Status quo ante bellum]]
* [[Treaty of Salbai]]
| combatant1 = {{Tree list}}{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain }} [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] 
**[[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1707).svg|23px]] [[East India Company]] {{Tree list end}}
| combatant2 = {{Tree list}}[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Maratha Empire]]
**[[File:Indore Flag.svg|23px]] [[Indore State]]
**[[File:Flag of Gwalior (State).svg|23px]] [[Gwalior State]] {{Tree list end}}
| commander1 = {{ubl|[[File:Flag of Great Britain.svg|23px]] [[Warren Hastings]]<ref name="Kantak1993">{{cite book|last=Kantak|first=M. R. |title=The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774-1783: A Military Study of Major Battles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdXnVOKKkssC&pg=PA220|year=1993|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-696-1|page=220}}</ref>|[[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1707).svg|23px]] Colonel Keating|[[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1707).svg|23px]] Thomas Wyndham Goddard<ref name="Kantak1993" />|[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Raghunathrao]]<ref name="Naravane2006" />}}
| commander2 = {{ubl|[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Sawai Madhavrao|Madhavrao II]]<ref name="Kantak1993" />|[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Nana Fadnavis]]|[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Hari Pant]]||[[File:Flag of Gwalior (State).svg|23px]] [[Mahadji Shinde]]<ref name="Kantak1993" />|[[File:Indore Flag.svg|23px]] [[Tukoji Rao Holkar|Tukoji Holkar]]<ref name="Kantak1993" /><ref name="History of the Mahrattas">{{Cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Al8OAAAAQAAJ&q=Holkar | title=History of the Mahrattas| last1=Duff| first1=James Grant| year=1878}}</ref>}}
| strength1 = 93,000 troops total<ref name="West2009">{{cite book|last=West|first=Barbara A. |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=AMYZAQAAIAAJ|keywords= First Anglo-Maratha War}}|volume=M to Z|year=2009|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-7109-8|page=509|quote=This period also coincided with the First Anglo-Maratha War, which was settled only in 1782 with a Maratha victory over the British and their local allies.}}</ref><ref name="Kantak1993" /> 23 ships<ref name="Kantak1993" />
| strength2 = Around 146,000 troops total<ref name="West2009" /><ref name="Kantak1993" /> 14 ships<ref name="Kantak1993" />
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
}}
{{Campaignbox Anglo-Maratha Wars}}
{{Wars of Great Britain}}

The '''First Anglo-Maratha War''' (1775–1782) was the first conflict fought between the [[British East India Company]] and [[Maratha Empire]] in India. The war, fought in between [[Surat]] and [[Poona]], began with the 1775 [[Treaty of Surat]] after the East India Company agreed to support the recently-deposed [[Raghunathrao|Raghunathrao's]] claim as [[peshwa]] of the Maratha Empire. Several years of intermittent and largely inconclusive campaigning followed, in which the East India Company failed to decisively defeat the highly mobile Marathas. The war ended in 1782 following the [[Treaty of Salbai]].<ref name="Kantak1993" /> As per the treaty, both sides returned each other's captured territory, and the British withdrew their support for Raghunathrao. The British and Marathas would not fight against each other again until the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] 20 years later.

==Background==
After the death of [[Madhavrao Peshwa]] in 1772, his brother [[Narayanrao Peshwa|Narayanrao]] became [[peshwa]] (prime minister) of the Maratha Empire. Narayanrao's palace guards murdered him in August 1773, and his uncle [[Raghunathrao]] (Raghoba) became the Peshwa. However, Narayanrao's wife, [[Gangabai]], gave birth to a posthumous son, who was the legal heir to the throne. The newborn infant was named [['Sawai' Madhavrao]] (Sawai means "One and a Quarter"). Twelve Maratha chiefs, known as the Baarbhai <ref>Known as the Baarbhai or Barbhai Council {{Cite book|last=Kulkarni |first=Sumitra |year=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYOSHaZnBy8C&pg=PA74|title=The Satara Raj, 1818-1848: A Study in History, Administration, and Culture |location=New Delhi |publisher=Mittal Publications |page= 74 |isbn=978-81-7099-581-4 }}</ref> and led by [[Nana Phadnavis]], directed an effort to install the infant as the new Peshwa and to rule in his name as [[regent]]s.

[[Raghunathrao]], unwilling to give up his position of power, sought help from the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] at [[Bombay]] and signed the [[Treaty of Surat]] on 6 March 1775. According to the treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the territories of [[Salsette]] and [[Vasai|Bassein]] (Vasai) to the British, along with part of the revenues from [[Surat]] and [[Bharuch]] districts. In return, the British promised to provide Raghunathrao with 2,500 soldiers.

At the same time, the Marathas tried to form a military alliance with the French. Two Frenchmen, Saint-Lubin and M. Montigny acted as intermediaries between France and the Poona Regency. Although the alliance proposals went nowhere, British suspicions of a global anti-British front increased in the midst of the concurrent [[American War of Independence]].<ref>{{Citation |last=KADAM |first=towards Cordial Relations UMESH ASHOK |title=The Maratha Court and the Embassies of Saint-Lubin and M. Montigny: A Truce towards Cordial Relations |date=2016 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315276809-18/maratha-court-embassies-saint-lubin-montigny-truce-towards-cordial-relations-towards-cordial-relations-umesh-ashok-kadam |work=The Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India |access-date=2023-08-30 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315276809-18 |doi-broken-date=12 July 2025 |isbn=978-1-315-27680-9}}</ref>

The [[British Calcutta Council]] condemned the Treaty of Surat, sending Colonel Upton to [[Pune]] to annul it and make a new treaty with the regency. The [[Treaty of Purandar (1776)|Treaty of Purandhar]] (1 March 1776) annulled that of Surat, Raghunathrao was pensioned and his cause abandoned, but the revenues of Salsette and Bharuch districts were retained by the British. The Bombay government rejected this new treaty and gave refuge to Raghunathrao. In 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated his treaty with the Calcutta Council by granting the French a port on the West coast. The British retaliated by sending a force towards Pune.

==Initial stage and Treaty of Purandar (1774–1775)==
British troops under the command of Colonel Keating, left [[Surat]] on 15 March 1775, for Pune. But they were checked by Haripant Phadke at Adas and were totally defeated on 18 May 1775.<ref name="Rathod1994" /> Casualties for Keating's force, accompanied by [[Raghunathrao]], included 96 killed. The Marathas casualties in the Battle of Adas (Gujarat) included 150 killed.<ref name="Naravane2006">{{cite book|first=M. S. |last=Naravane|title=Battles of the Honourable East India Company: Making of the Raj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxsa3jtHoCEC&pg=PA53|year=2006|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-313-0034-3}}</ref>{{rp|53–56}}

[[Warren Hastings]] estimated that direct actions against Pune would be detrimental. Therefore, the [[Supreme Council of Bengal]] condemned the [[Treaty of Surat]], sending Colonel Upton to [[Pune]] to annul it and make a new treaty with the regency. An agreement between Upton and the ministers of Pune called [[Treaty of Purandar (1776)|Treaty of Purandar]] was signed on 1 March 1776.

The '''Treaty of Purandar''' (or '''Treaty of Purandhar''') was a doctrine signed on 1 March 1776 by the [[peshwa]] of the [[Maratha Empire]] and the [[British East India Company]]'s [[Supreme Council of Bengal]] in [[Calcutta]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061935/Treaty-of-Purandhar Encyclopædia Britannica - Treaty of Purandhar] ''After the death of the peshwa Narayan Rao in 1773, his uncle Raghunath Rao tried to secure the succession.Raghunath's claim in the Treaty of Surat (7 March 1775) in return for Salsette Island and Bassein (Vasai). But the supreme government disallowed this treaty and sent its own agent to renegotiate. The resulting Treaty of Purandhar annulled that of Surat. Raghunath was pensioned and his cause abandoned, but Salsette and the Broach revenues were retained by the British. The tangle was increased by the support of the London authorities for Bombay, which in 1778–79 again supported Raghunath. Peace was finally restored in 1782.''</ref> Based on the terms of the accord, the British were able to secure [[Salsette]].<ref>Sugden, p. 96. ''It appeared that the Mahrattas had no plans to recover Bassein and Salsette by force, and that they were about to conclude an armistice with the East India Company. Indeed, the supreme council of the company had sent a plenipotentiary to the Mahratta capital, Poona, and it was expected that Salsette would be yielded without violence. This is, in fact, what happened. By playing one faction among the Mahrattas against the other, the company secured Salsette in 1776 by the treaty of Purandhar.''</ref>
Treaty was signed between the then Governor General Warren Hasting who sent Colonel Upton and Nana Fadnavis of Peshwa in which British accepted Sawai Madhav Rao as a new Peshwa and Maratha accepted not to recognise existence of French in India.

The Treaty of Purandhar (1 March 1776) annulled that of Surat, Raghunath Rao was pensioned and his cause abandoned, but the revenues of Salsette and Broach districts were retained by the British.

==Battle of Wadgaon==
{{Main|Battle of Wadgaon}}
[[File:Route of the Bombay detachment across the Mahratta country from Culpee to Surat in 1778.jpg|thumb|Route of the Bombay detachment across the Mahratta country from Culpee to Surat c. 1778.]]

Following a treaty between France and the [[Poona]] Government in 1776, the [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] Government decided to invade and reinstate Raghoba. They sent a force under Col. Egerton reached [[Khopoli]] and made its way through the [[Western Ghats]] at [[Bhor Ghat]] and onwards toward Karla, which was reached on 4 January 1779 while under Maratha attacks. Finally the British were forced to retreat back to Wadgaon, but were soon surrounded. The British surrendered<ref>{{cite news |last= Athale|first= Colonel Anil A|date=12 January 2018|title=How a Maratha general defeated the British|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/column/how-a-maratha-general-defeated-the-british/20180112.htm|newspaper=Rediff News}}</ref> and were forced to sign the [[Treaty of Wadgaon]] on 16 January 1779, a victory for the Marathas.<ref name="Naravane2006" />{{rp|56–58}}

Reinforcements from northern India, commanded by Colonel (later General) Thomas Wyndham Goddard, arrived too late to save the Bombay force. The British [[Governor-General]] in [[Bengal]], [[Warren Hastings]], rejected the treaty on the grounds that the Bombay officials had no legal power to sign it, and ordered Goddard to secure British interests in the area.

Goddard with 6,000 troops stormed [[Bhadra Fort]] and captured [[Ahmedabad]] on 15 February 1779. There was a garrison of 6,000 Arab and Sindhi infantry and 2,000 horses. Losses in the fight totalled 108, including two British.<ref name="toib">{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Bhadra-Fort-to-turn-into-heritage-hangout/articleshow/4646568.cms | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216064235/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-06-12/ahmedabad/28165182_1_bhadra-fort-walled-city-cultural-centre | url-status=live | archive-date=16 February 2013 | title=Bhadra Fort to turn into heritage hangout! | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=12 June 2009 | agency=TNN | access-date=17 January 2013 | location=Ahmedabad}}</ref><ref name="Duff-446" /><ref name="hb">{{cite book | title=A comprehensive history of India, civil, military and social | publisher=Blackie | last=Beveridge |first=Henry | url=https://archive.org/details/acomprehensiveh02bevegoog/page/n498| year=1862 | pages=456–466}}</ref> Goddard also captured [[Vasai|Bassein]] on 11 December 1780. Another [[Bengal]] detachment led by Captain Popham and assisted by the Rana of Gohad, captured [[Gwalior]] on 4 August 1780, before Mahadji Scindia could make preparations. Skirmishes took place between Mahadji Scindia and General Goddard in Gujarat, but indecisively. Hastings sent yet another force to harass [[Mahadji Shinde]], commanded by Major Camac.{{efn|Camac (not to be confused with Carnac) received his promotion to Lieutenant-Colonel while on this mission}}

==Central India and the Deccan==
[[File:Vijay Stambh Vadgaon.JPG|thumb|right| A ''Vijay Stambh'' (Victory Pillar) erected to commemorate Maratha victory over British. The pillar is located at [[Vadgaon Maval|Vadgaon/Wadgaon Maval]], close to the city of [[Pune]], India]]
[[File:Scindia Memorial Vadgaon.JPG|thumb|right|An information plaque describing the Maratha victory over British. The plaque is located at [[Vadgaon Maval|Vadgaon/Wadgaon Maval]], close to the city of [[Pune]], India]]

After capturing [[Vasai|Bassein]], Goddard marched towards [[Pune]]. But he was routed in the Battle of Bhor Ghat in April 1781 by Parshurambha, [[Hari Pant|Haripant Phadke]] and [[Tukoji Rao Holkar|Tukoji Holkar]].<ref name="Kantak1993" /><ref name="History of the Mahrattas">{{Cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Al8OAAAAQAAJ&q=Holkar | title=History of the Mahrattas| last1=Duff| first1=James Grant| year=1878}}</ref>

In central India, [[Mahadji]] stationed himself at Malwa to challenge Camac. Initially, [[Mahadji]] had an upper hand and British forces under Camac, being harassed and reduced, had to retreat to Hadur.<ref name="Rathod1994">{{cite book|last=Rathod|first=N. G. |title=The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C|year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-85431-52-9}}</ref>{{rp|20}}

In February 1781, the British beat Shinde to the town of Sipri,<ref name="Duff-446">{{Cite book|last=Duff|first= James Grant |date=1826 |title= A History of the Mahrattas |location=London |publisher=Longman |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorymahratt01duffgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorymahratt01duffgoog/page/n489 446]}}</ref> but every move they made after that was shadowed by his much larger army, and their supplies were cut off, until they made a desperate night raid in late March, capturing not only supplies, but even guns and [[war elephant|elephants]].<ref name="Mill1826">{{cite book|last=Mill|first= James|chapter-url=http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/mill-the-history-of-british-india-vol-4 |title=The History of British India|volume=4| chapter=Chapter 6|location=London|publisher= Baldwin |date=1826}}</ref> Thereafter, the military threat from Shinde's forces to the British was much reduced.

The contest was equally balanced now. Where Mahadji scored a significant victory over Camac at [[Battle of Sironj|Sironj]],<ref name="Naravane2006" />{{rp|62}} the British avenged the loss through the [[Battle of Durdah]]<ref name="Jaques2007">{{cite book|last=Jaques|first=Tony|title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3amnMPTPP5MC&pg=PA320|volume=A-E|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33537-2|page=320}}</ref> on 24 March 1781.

Colonel Murre arrived with fresh forces in April 1781 to assist Popham and Camac. After his defeat at Sipri, [[Mahadaji Shinde|Mahadji Shinde]] - eager to broker an alliance with the British and avoid further conflict - proposed a new treaty, in spite of objections from within his camp.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Dalrymple |first=William |title=The Anarchy |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4088-6437-1 |location=London |language=English}}</ref>

==Treaty of Salbai==
{{Main|Treaty of Salbai}}
The war ended on 17 May 1782 with the signing of the [[Treaty of Salbai]] between Warren Hastings and Mahadji Shinde, and was later ratified by Hastings in June 1782, and by Nana Phadnavis in February 1783.

In exchange for the Maratha Empire recognising Raghunathrao's cession of [[Salsette]] and [[Bassein Fort]] to the East India Company, the British withdrew their support for him and recognised Madhavrao II as Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. The British also recognised Maratha claims west of the Jumna River, and agreed to return the territories it occupied over the course of the war. However, in return, the Marathas agreed to return the territories it had captured from the British, while also recognising British suzereinty over the [[Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah|Nawab of Arcot]]. The Marathas also promised to continue upholding the prior trading privileges enjoyed by the British, whilst agreeing not to support any European power. This was at a time when the British were keen to prevent France - already providing support to Mysore - from gaining further influence in the region during the ongoing [[Anglo-French War (1778–1783)|Anglo-French War]].

The treaty ended the First Anglo-Maratha War, restored the status quo, and established a relative peace between the two parties for 20 years until the outbreak of the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]].<ref name="Naravane2006" />{{rp|63}}

==Aftermath==
The war ultimately highlighted the strengths and weaknesses of the largely European style of warfare used by the East India Company, and the ''[[ganimi kava]]'' style of warfare used by the Marathas. Despite being on the offensive throughout the war, the British lacked mobile cavalry capable of pursuing the highly mobile Maratha armies. Conversely, although the Maratha armies consistently harried the British while avoiding [[pitched battles]], these alone were not enough to achieve a decisive victory. The Marathas' extensive use of scorched earth tactics against the British also exacted a considerable toll on the local population.

Nevertheless, in the immediate term, the Marathas had successfully frustrated British machinations in western India by thwarting the restoration of Raghunathrao in exchange for minor territorial concessions, while compelling the British to recognise its own claims west of the Jumna River.

However, the most significant consequence of the First Anglo-Maratha War was the resulting isolation of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], which itself was fighting the East India Company in the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]]; with the war against the Marathas concluded, the East India Company was able to concentrate its efforts against the kingdom. Although the 1784 [[Treaty of Mangalore]] between the British and Mysore similarly held Company ambitions at bay and forced it to remain neutral in the [[Maratha–Mysore wars|Maratha–Mysore war]], Mysore would be soundly defeated by an Anglo-Maratha alliance 8 years later in the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]].

By the time of the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], the defeat of Mysore, the consolidation of its own strength, and the increasing division within the Maratha Empire, placed the East India Company in a much stronger position than it enjoyed in the 1770s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Dalrymple |first=William |title=The Anarchy |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4088-6437-1 |location=London |language=English}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
The 2013 Hollywood film titled ''[[The Lovers (2013 film)|The Lovers]]'' is based on the backdrop of this war.<ref name="TimeOfIndia">{{Cite web | title = Atul and Milind's The Lovers to be premiered at Cannes | work = The Times of India | date = 10 May 2014 | access-date = 2018-08-13 | url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/Atul-Kulkarni-Milind-Gunaji-Roland-Joffe-Singularity-The-Lovers-Bipasha-Basu-Abhay-Deol-Ajay-Zankar-Aishwarya-Rai-Vivek-Oberoi/articleshow/34926960.cms }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Commons category|First Anglo-Maratha War}}
* [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]]
* [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]
* [[List of Maratha dynasties and states]]
* [[James Hartley (Indian officer)]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Beck, Sanderson. ''India & Southeast Asia to 1800'' (2006) [http://www.san.beck.org/2-10-Marathas1707-1800.html "Marathas and the English Company 1701–1818" online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225084030/http://www.san.beck.org/2-10-Marathas1707-1800.html%20 |date=25 December 2018 }}. Retrieved 1 October 2004.
* Gordon, Stewart. ''Marathas, marauders, and state formation in eighteenth-century India'' (Oxford University Press, 1994).
* Gordon, Stewart. "The Marathas," in '' New Cambridge History of India,'' II.4, (Cambridge U Press, 1993).
* Seshan, Radhika. "The Maratha State: Some Preliminary Considerations." ''Indian Historical Review'' 41.1 (2014): 35–46. [http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0376983614521732 online]

==External links==
* Athale, Anil. [http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/feb/14spec.htm Anil Athale on Joffe's Invaders]. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
* Hameed, Shahul. [https://web.archive.org/web/20041105041122/http://sify.com/itihaas/fullstory.php?id=13258693 The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)]. Retrieved 1 October 2004.
* {{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20121216064527/http://www.gatewayforindia.com/history/maratha.htm Indian History – British Period]}}. Retrieved 1 October 2004.
* Paranjpe, Amit et al. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20040927075428/http://www.mumbainet.com/cityinfo/histmaha.htm#Peshwa History of Maharashtra]}}. Retrieved 1 October 2004.
* [https://sites.google.com/vvdatalink.com/vv-datalink/knowledge/history/indian-history/mordern-history/anglo-maratha-wars Anglo Maratha Wars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125033212/https://sites.google.com/vvdatalink.com/vv-datalink/knowledge/history/indian-history/mordern-history/anglo-maratha-wars |date=25 January 2022 }}

{{MarathaEmpire}}
{{British colonial campaigns}}
{{Indian Independence Movement}}
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[[Category:Wars involving the British East India Company|Ang]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Maratha Empire|Anglo-Maratha War 1]]
[[Category:Wars involving British India|Anglo-Maratha War 1]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Kingdom of Great Britain|Anglo-Maratha War 1]]
[[Category:1775 in India]]
[[Category:1775 in the British Empire]]
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[[Category:1778 in India]]
[[Category:1779 in India]]
[[Category:1780 in India]]
[[Category:1781 in India]]
[[Category:1782 in India]]
[[Category:1782 in the British Empire]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1775]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1776]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1777]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1778]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1779]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1780]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1781]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1782]]
[[Category:Military history of British India]]

Davinder Singh Jass

2026-02-11T09:03:16Z

NoellaXgt402: General cleanup and content improvements

{{Short description|Indian army officer}}

{{Use Indian English|date=September 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Captain (armed forces)|Captain]]
| name = Davinder Singh Jass
| honorific_suffix = [[Kirti Chakra|KC]]
| image = Captain Davinder Singh Jass.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1983|9|29}}
| birth_place = [[Ghaziabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| death_place = [[Sopore]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2010|2|23|1983|9|29|df=yes}}
| branch = {{army|India}}
| serviceyears = 2007–2010
| servicenumber = IC-70151W
| rank = [[File:Captain of the Indian Army.svg|15px]] [[Army ranks and insignia of India#Officers|Captain]]
| awards =
[[File:Kirti_Chakra_ribbon.svg|30px]] [[Kirti Chakra]]
| unit = [[Para (Special Forces)|1 Para (SF)]]
| allegiance = {{flag|India|name=Republic of India}}
| alma_mater = {{unbulletedlist|[[GLA University]] ([[Bachelor of Technology|BTech]])|[[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad|IIIT Allahabad]] ([[Master of Business Administration|MBA]]; unfinished)|[[Indian Military Academy]]}}
}}

[[Captain]] '''Davinder Singh Jass''' {{Post-nominals|country=IND|KC}} (29 September 1983 – 23 February 2010) was an [[Indian Army]] [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]] of [[Para (Special Forces)|1 Para (Special Forces)]]. He was posthumously awarded the [[Kirti Chakra]], India's second highest peacetime [[Military awards and decorations|military decoration]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Gallantry Awards {{!}} Ministry of Defence, Government of India |url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/3576 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=www.gallantryawards.gov.in}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Davinder Singh Jass was born on 29 September 1983 to Dalbir Kaur and Bhupinder Singh Jass, a former general manager of [[Dabur|Dabur India]], in [[Ghaziabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. He had an elder sister Harpreet Kaur Jass, who is a professor in [[Jamia Millia Islamia]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-02-25 |title=A mother waits: He told me he would be home for Holi |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/a-mother-waits-he-told-me-he-would-be-home-for-holi/ |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

After his schooling in Guru Harkrishan Public School, [[India Gate]], [[New Delhi]], he got a [[Bachelor of Technology|BTech]] in [[Computer science|Computer Science]] from [[GLA University]], [[Mathura]]. He then enrolled for an [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]] in [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad|IIIT Allahabad]] in 2005. He had secured a job at [[Deloitte]], but after qualifying to join the army on his second attempt, he joined the [[Indian Military Academy]], just a few months before getting his MBA degree.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-02-25 |title=Capt Jass chose army over MNC job |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/capt-jass-chose-army-over-mnc-job-68116-2010-02-24 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Military career ==
Jass was commissioned into [[Indian Army Corps of Signals|Corps of Signals]] on 10 December 2007. He was inducted into the elite [[Para (Special Forces)|1]] [[Parachute Regiment (India)|Parachute Regiment]] in January 2009, and he successfully cleared his probation on 11 April 2009. He was later posted to [[Kupwara]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] in November 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-08-14 |title=Ashoka Chakra to (Late) Major Laishram Jyotin Singh Two Kirti Chakras (Posthumous) also Awarded |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=64772 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=pib.gov.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]]}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2010-02-23 |title=Captain Devinder Singh Jass KC |url=https://www.honourpoint.in/profile/captain-devinder-singh-jass-kc-2/ |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Honourpoint |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Sopore encounter ==
On 22 February 2010, the security forces received information from intelligence sources about the presence of militants in the Chinkipora area in [[Sopore]] in [[Baramulla district]]. In the wee hours of 23 February 2010, the [[Indian Army|Army]], the [[Central Reserve Police Force|CRPF]], and the [[Jammu and Kashmir Police|Jammu and Kashmir police]], launched a joint search operation.<ref name=":0" />

As they initiated a house-to-house search, the militants hiding in three houses open fired, triggering a gun battle at about 5:30 am. Captain Jass, leading his team, tried to force his way into one of the houses. The militants lobbed grenades, after which the army lost contact with the officer. Later when a fellow officer contacted his mobile phone, the militants picked it up; and when offered a safe passage for his release, they said that he had already been killed. The official statement of both the army and the police was that Jass was not taken captive and was killed fighting the militants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-02-24 |title=Captain killed in Valley |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/captain-killed-in-valley/cid/546656 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-02-25 |title=Sopore encounter: Pride in the midst of grief |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/sopore-encounter-pride-in-the-midst-of-grief-411522 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

The [[Encounter killing|encounter]] ended after nearly 15 hours; the Captain's body couldn't be retrieved till late in the evening. Other than Captain Jass, two soldiers of 1 Para, [[Naik (military rank)|Naik]] Selva Kumar and [[paratrooper]] Imtiaz Ahmad Thoker, were also killed. They both were posthumously awarded the [[Sena Medal]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-08-14 |title=Independence Day Gallantry Awards and other Decorations |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=64771 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=pib.gov.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]]}}</ref> Among the slain militants, there were one each from [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] and [[Hizbul Mujahideen]], two from [[Harkat-ul-Mujahideen]], and one was a local militant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Asia: Timeline (Terrorist Activities) -2010 |url=https://www.satp.org/terrorist-activity/southasia-Feb-2010 |website=South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP)}}</ref>

== Kirti Chakra ==
Captain Jass was awarded the Kirti Chakra, India's second highest peace-time military honour on [[Independence Day (India)|15 August]], 2010; and it was presented to him on 18 March 2011, at the Defence Investiture Ceremony, at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]], in New Delhi. His mother Dalbir Kaur received the honour for her deceased son from the [[President of India]], [[Pratibha Patil]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting the Kirti Chakra to Captain Davinder Singh Jas (posthumously), at the Defense Investiture Ceremony, in New Delhi on March 18, 2011. |url=https://thehinduimages.com/details-page.php?id=122484202 |website=The Hindu Images}}</ref>

{{quote|author=Gazette of India Notification|quote={{center|'''IC-70151 CAPTAIN DAVINDER SINGH JASS, 1ST BATTALION THE PARACHUTE REGIMENT (SPECIAL FORCES) (POSTHUMOUS)'''}}

{{right|(Effective date of the award: 23 February 2010)}} 

Captain Davinder Singh Jass was leading his troop of Alfa Team in an operation in a village in Sopore district of Jammu & Kashmir.

On 23 February 2010, after receiving information of presence of terrorists in the village, a heavily congested built up area, Captain Davinder Singh Jass after carrying out meticulous planning moved to the area. While closing into the target area his leading squad came under heavy indiscriminate terrorist fire from multiple directions, injuring members of his squad. With utter disregard to personal safety he extricated one of his injured men to safety. Thereafter, the officer crawled forward and extricated the second buddy, however he sustained serious gun shot wounds. Unmindful of injuries, he continued engaging the terrorists and closed in to a terrorist. In a daring encounter he killed one terrorist in a fierce hand to hand combat before succumbing to his injuries.|source=<ref name=":1" />}}

== Legacy ==
After the Captain's death, a road was named after him in Indirapuram,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-01-30 |title=SIGNAGE BOARD OF KIRTI CHAKRA CAPT DAVINDER SINGH |url=https://thehinduimages.com/details-page.php?id=160247476 |website=The Hindu Images}}</ref> the neighbourhood in Ghaziabad where his family lives, by the initiative of Trans Hindon residents’ association. There is also a gateway or ‘dwar’ outside their housing society, with his picture and name; which was built with the help of politician [[Amarpal Sharma]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-01-30 |title=Oneness for all |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/oneness-for-all/article6839375.ece |access-date=2023-09-08 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In January 2023, [[V. K. Singh|Gen V. K. Singh (Retd)]] inaugurated a badminton and volleyball court in Nagar Nigam Balika Inter College, Indirapuram (Ghaziabad), constructed by Shaheed Captain Davinder Singh Jass Memorial Trust in the Captain's name.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-14 |title=शहीद कैप्टन देवेंद्र सिंह जस्स के जीवन से प्रेरणा लेने का समय: वी के सिंह |trans-title=Time to take inspiration from the life of martyr Captain Devendra Singh Jass: VK Singh |url=https://www.hindusthansamachar.in/Encyc/2023/1/14/we-shoukd-take-encurrage-from-shaheeds.php |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.hindusthansamachar.in |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jass, Davinder}}
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kirti Chakra]]
[[Category:Indian military personnel killed in action]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sena Medal]]
[[Category:People from Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh]]

Ranikhet

2026-02-07T16:14:00Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Ranikhet
| other_name =
| nickname = Ranikhet
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Kumaon Regimental Centre.jpg{{!}}Passing out Parade at KRC
| photo1b = Ranikhet12.JPG{{!}}Golf Course
| photo2a = Fantastic view.jpg{{!}}Himalayan view from Ranikhet
| photo3a = Bhalu Dam.jpg{{!}}Bhalu Dam
| photo3b = Haidakhan Temple.jpg{{!}}Haidakhan Temple
| photo4a = Panorama of Ranikhet town in Almora district, Uttarakhand.jpg{{!}}Ranikhet Skyline
| spacing = 2
| position = center
| color_border = white
| color = white
| size = 275
| foot_montage = Left to right; top to bottom: passing-out parade at [[Kumaon Regiment|KRC]], golf course, Himalayan view, Bhalu Dam Lake at [[Chaubatia]], Haidakhan temple at [[Chiliyanaula]] and Ranikhet skyline
}}
| image_alt = Ranikhet
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Uttarakhand#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttarakhand, India
| pushpin_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{coord|29.65|N|79.42|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttarakhand]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Almora district|Almora]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 1869
| population_total = 18,886
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]], [[Sanskrit]]
| demographics1_title2 = Native
| demographics1_info2 = [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type =  263645
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = UK-20
| website = {{URL|uk.gov.in}}
| footnotes =
| official_name =
}}
'''Ranikhet''' ([[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]]: {{lang|kfy|Rānikhèt}}) is a [[hill station]] and [[cantonment]] town, near [[Almora|Almora Town]] in [[Almora district]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranikhet {{!}} Uttarakhand Tourism Development Board {{!}} Department of Tourism, Government Of Uttarakhand, India|url=https://uttarakhandtourism.gov.in/destination/ranikhet/|website={{!}} Uttarakhand Tourism Development Board {{!}} Department of Tourism, Government Of Uttarakhand, India|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-12}}</ref> in the Indian state of [[Uttarakhand]]. It is the home of the Military Hospital, [[Kumaon Regiment]]<ref name="indianarmy.nic.in">{{cite web|title=The Official Home Page of the Indian Army|url=https://indianarmy.nic.in/|access-date=2020-12-31|website=www.indianarmy.nic.in}}</ref> (KRC) and [[Naga Regiment]]<ref name="indianarmy.nic.in"/> and is maintained by the [[Indian Army]].

Ranikhet is at an altitude of 1,869 metres (6,132 ft) above sea level, within sight of the western peaks of the [[Himalayas]]. Ranikhet is a Class IV town with a civic status of a Cantonment board.<ref>{{cite web|title=RANIKHET CANTONMENT BOARD|url=https://ranikhet.cantt.gov.in/|access-date=10 April 2020|website=Census of India, 2011}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Ranikhet, polo ground &c.jpg|thumb|left|Ranikhet Polo Ground, c.1895]]
Ranikhet, which means ''Queen's Meadow''<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranikhet {{!}} Uttarakhand Tourism Development Board {{!}} Department of Tourism, Government Of Uttarakhand, India|url=https://uttarakhandtourism.gov.in/destination/ranikhet/|access-date=2020-12-31|website={{!}} Uttarakhand Tourism Development Board {{!}} Department of Tourism, Government Of Uttarakhand, India|language=en-US}}</ref> in Kumaoni, gets its name from a local legend, which states that it was here, that Raja Sudhardev, a [[Katyuri kings|Katyuri]] ruler, won the heart of his queen, Rani Padmini, who subsequently chose the area for her residence, giving it the name, Ranikhet,<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranikhet|url=http://kumaon.gov.in/pages/display/66-ranikhet}}</ref> though no palace exists in the area.

Ranikhet had been under Nepalese rule after the Nepalese invasion of [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] and [[Doti]] in 1790, and the [[Kumaoni people|Kumaonis]] won it under the leadership of their able General Kashi Nath Adhikari – after whom the small town of [[Kashipur, Uttarakhand|Kashipur]] was named (which at one point of time was the gateway to the hills and is now an educational and institutional hub) – with the help of British at around 1816 and is a part of India now.

After the conquest of [[Almora]] on 3 May 1815, when Kumaon had been handed over to the British by the Gorkhas, the soldiers and officers of the British army started to live in [[Hawalbagh]]. It continued till 1839, when the army offices were shifted to [[Almora Cantonment]] and the troops were stationed at [[Lohaghat]] and [[Pithoragarh]] so as to enable them to effectively monitor the Indo-Nepal Border. However, a local rebellion in 1846 resulted in the removal of military camp from Lohaghat and the troops were transferred back to Hawalbagh where they remained stationed until the establishment of another permanent Cantonment at Ranikhet.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Verma |first1=Indra Lal |title=जनपद चम्पावत के दर्शनीय स्थल |trans-title=Places to see in Champawat district |date=2014 |publisher=Binsar Publishing |location=[[Dehradun]] |language=hi |page=21}}</ref>

Between 1830 and 1856, various European groups acquired land in the region in hope of establishing tea gardens in the district. One of them was the Troupe family, that bought the land from the villagers of [[Chaubatia]], Holm Khet and Upat. In 1868, this site was selected for the residence of British soldiers, and the following year a cantonment was formed here after acquiring land from the villagers of Sarna, Kotli and Tana on a compensation of Rs 13,024.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tyagi|first1=Nutan|title=Hill Resorts of U.P. Himalaya,: A Geographical Study|year=1991|publisher=Indus Publishing|isbn=9788185182629|language=en|page=[https://archive.org/details/hillresortsofuph0000tyag/page/ 82]|url=https://archive.org/details/hillresortsofuph0000tyag/page/}}</ref><ref name="Pandey">{{cite book|last1=Pandey|first1=Badri Datt|title=History of Kumaun : English version of "Kumaun ka itihas"|date=1993|publisher=Shyam Prakashan|location=[[Almora]]|isbn=81-85865-01-9}}</ref>{{rp|78}} All the properties of the Troupe family were also acquired in the same year, except for the Holm estate, which was not incorporated into the cantonment until 1893.

In 1869,<ref>[http://www.ranikhetcantonment.org.in/history/history.aspx History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221002632/http://www.ranikhetcantonment.org.in/history/history.aspx |date=21 December 2008 }} www.ranikhetcantonment.org.in.</ref> the British established the headquarters of the [[Kumaon Regiment]]<ref name="indianarmy.nic.in"/> as well as pargana Pali here and used the station as a retreat from the heat of the Indian summer. The treasury was opened here on 1 April 1869 and a Cantonment Committee was formed in 1871.<ref name="Pandey" />{{rp|78}} A police station was also established in the city in 1869–70.<ref name="Pandey" />{{rp|441}} The forests around Ranikhet were declared reserved forests in 1873. These forests had been brought under an action plan by 1887,<ref>E.E. Fernandez, Esq., Offg. Deputy Director, Forest School, Dehradun. Working plan of the Ranikhet Working Circle. Allahbad. NWP & Oudh Govt. Press. 1888</ref> although they continued to be managed under then-prevalent cantonment laws and regulations until 1915. Under these rules grazing and cutting of grass and burning of forests without permission were forbidden. On 3 December 1915, a portion of the cantonment was notified as a reserve forest under the Indian Forest Act of 1878.<ref>I.N. Sewal, Working Plan for the Cantonment Forest of Ranikhet, U.P., Govt. of India Press, New Delhi: 1938, p3,4.)</ref>

[[File:Entrance to Ranikhet Bazaar in 1946.JPG|thumb|left|Entrance to Ranikhet Bazaar, c. 1946]]
At one time during [[British Raj]], it was also proposed as the summer headquarters of Government of India, in lieu of [[Shimla]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Pamela|last1=Kanwar|title=Imperial Simla: The Political Culture of the Raj|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=39| language = en}}</ref> In 1900, it had a summer population of 7,705, and its corresponding winter population was measured in 1901 as 3,153<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V21_239.gif Ranikhet] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], v. 21, p. 233.</ref>
<ref>[https://hindi.citymailnews.com/know-the-first-healing-center-in-the-country-to-get-rid-of-stress/ "The first healing center in the Ranikhet to get rid of stress"] hindi.citymailnews.com</ref> The headquarters of Pali Tehsil were established in Ranikhet in 1913, and the tehsil itself was later renamed as Ranikhet Tehsil.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aggarwal|first1=J. C.|last2=Agrawal|first2=S. P.|title=Uttarakhand: Past, Present, and Future|year=1995|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=9788170225720|language=en}}</ref>{{rp|170}}

A demand to bifurcate the [[Almora district]] to form a separate [[Ranikhet district]] started to gain popularity soon after the independence of India. Movements for Ranikhet district had begun by the 1960s, and these movements had grown, both in number and scale, by 1985. In 1987, a committee headed by Venkat Ramani, the President of the Uttar Pradesh Revenue Council recommended the district and then two years later, in 1989, the Eighth Finance Commission gave its financial approval to the district. Even after this, when the district was not formed, a movement started again in 1993–94, after which a CO and ADM were appointed in Ranikhet; the latter was soon removed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ranikhet District has Remained Just a Declaration - सिर्फ घोषणा बनकर रह गया रानीखेत जिला - Amar Ujala |url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttarakhand/almora/ranikhet-district-remained-just-declare |access-date=15 January 2022 |date=22 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122071911/https://www.amarujala.com/uttarakhand/almora/ranikhet-district-remained-just-declare |archive-date=22 January 2018 }}</ref>

In 2004 & 2005 people again agitated for the demand of a separate district. In 2007, an official proposal for formation of Ranikhet district was sent to the state government by the administration. According to this proposal, six blocks, five tehsils, 1309 revenue villages, 59 justice panchayats and 120 patwari areas were to be included in Ranikhet district. The proposed district was to have a population of 3,40,456 according to the [[2001 Census of India|2001 census]], and would be spread over an area of 13,735.740 hectares. In 2010 another mass movement was led by advocates. This agitation lasted for eight months, and after this, the then Chief Minister of Uttarakhand, Ramesh Pokhriyal announced the creation of the Ranikhet district which would include the Ranikhet, [[Salt, Uttarakhand|Salt]], [[Bhikiyasain (Uttarakhand Assembly constituency)|Bhikiasain]], [[Dwarahat]], and [[Chaukhutia]] tehsils of [[Almora district]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Vikas|last1=Dhuliya|title=मानक शिथिल कर उत्तराखंड में चार नए जिलों की संस्तुति|url=https://www.jagran.com/uttarakhand/dehradun-city-recommended-four-new-districts-in-uttarakhand-14580228.html|access-date=23 February 2018|date=27 August 2016|publisher=Dainik Jagran|location=Dehradun|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224052831/https://www.jagran.com/uttarakhand/dehradun-city-recommended-four-new-districts-in-uttarakhand-14580228.html|archive-date=24 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the district never came into existence because no gazette notification was ever issued.

==Geography and climate==
{{wide image|Panorama of Himalayas from Ranikhet, Uttarakhand, India.jpg|1000px|A panoramic view of the Kumaon [[Himalaya]]s from Ranikhet, showing [[Trisul]] ({{conv|abbr=on|7120|m|ft}}), [[Nanda Devi]] ({{conv|abbr=on|7,817|m|ft}}), [[Nanda Kot]] ({{conv|abbr=on|6,861|m|ft}}), [[Panchachuli]] ({{conv|abbr=on|6,904|m|ft}}) and other giant peaks.}}
Ranikhet Cantonment is spread over a total area of 4,176.031 acres, of which 2,580.135 acres is Reserve Forest area, 920.328 acres is Station area and 675,568 acres is Military area.<ref name="Shodhganga">{{cite web|title=The Kumaon Regiment|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/170154/11/chapter%207.3.pdf|publisher=Shodhganga|access-date=23 February 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224052846/http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/170154/11/chapter%207.3.pdf|archive-date=24 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|155}} The cantonment is spread across two ridges, the first, called the Ranikhet ridge, is situated at an elevation of {{convert|5983|ft|m|abbr=on}} and the second, the [[Chaubatia]] ridge, is at an elevation of {{convert|6942|ft|m|abbr=on}}. The Ranikhet Cantonment Board - a 14 membered board formed under the Cantonment Board Act of 1924 - looks after the administration of the town. Ranikhet is a first class cantonment, and is divided into 7 wards for administrative functions. Of the total 14 members in Ranikhet Cantonment Board, 7 are elected from these wards.

[[File:Snow Fall in Ranikhet.jpg|thumb|Ranikhet receives snowfall during winters.]]
Ranikhet has an average elevation of {{convert|1869|m|ft|abbr=on}} at a distance of {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Almora]] and {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Nainital]]. Administratively, the town is a part of [[Almora district]]; located to the west of district headquarters. It houses the headquarters of the Ranikhet tehsil and Ranikhet sub-division. The western narrow strips and eastern part of Ranikhet are comparatively high and covered with a dense forest mainly of pine.<ref name="dchb" />

Ranikhet is nestled in the sylvan surroundings inhabited by pine (''[[Pinus roxburghii]]''), oak (''[[Quercus]]''), buransh (''[[Rhododendron arboreum]]'') and deodar (''[[Deodar Cedar]]'') forests that host a large variety of fauna, such as [[leopard]]s, [[rhesus monkey]]s, [[pine marten]]s, [[Nepal gray langur|Himalayan langur]], [[dhole]], rabbits, [[barking deer]], [[sambar deer|sambar]], and more. Exotic plants of Ranikhet include ''[[Ginkgo biloba]]'' and ''[[saffron]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ranikhetcantonment.org.in/haritage/haritage.aspx |title=Ranikhet - Heritage Cantonment |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221090554/http://www.ranikhetcantonment.org.in/haritage/haritage.aspx |archive-date=21 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Ranikhet becomes very cold in the winters and remains moderate in summers,<ref>{{cite book|first1=Lalita|last1=Devi|title=Climatic Characteristics and Water Balance: A Study of Uttar Pradesh|date=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=93|isbn=9788170223894|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XPjusi7nWMC|access-date=23 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224112912/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=4XPjusi7nWMC|archive-date=24 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and is best enjoyed from March to October. Ranikhet gets snowfall in the winter season, mainly in the months of December, January and February. But in the rest of the months the weather of Ranikhet remains pleasant.

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| source = Climate-Data.org<ref name="climate">{{cite web|title=Climate Ranikhet: Temperature, Climate graph, Climate table for Ranikhet - Climate-Data.org|url=https://en.climate-data.org/location/33827/|website=en.climate-data.org|access-date=21 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124080623/https://en.climate-data.org/location/33827/|archive-date=24 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

== Demographics ==
{{Historical population
| source = [[Census of India]]<ref name="dchb">{{cite book|title=District Census Handbook|publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Uttarakhand|location=Dehradun|page=847|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/0509_PART_A_DCHB_ALMORA.pdf|access-date=31 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114093722/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/0509_PART_A_DCHB_ALMORA.pdf|archive-date=14 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 1881 | 5984
| 1901 | 3246
| 1911 | 5781
| 1921 | 3632
| 1931 | 3772
| 1941 | 4894
| 1951 | 8937
| 1961 | 10642
| 1971 | 13917
| 1981 | 18190
| 1991 | 16874
| 2001 | 19055
| 2011 | 18886
}}
The Cantonment Town of Ranikhet has a population of 19,049 persons. 16271 persons in Ranikhet are literates (10206 Male and 6065 Female).<ref name="dchb" /> The literacy rate in Ranikhet town is significantly ahead of others in the district. Female Literacy is 91.18 percent.<ref name="dchb" /> In 1881, when the first edition of [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]] was published, Ranikhet had a population of 5,984, and the city was home to 3,313 Hindus, 1,090 Muslims, and 1,573 Europeans.

The spoken language by natives is [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]].

== Tourism ==
The Ranikhet Cantonment area is home to several tourist places. The KRC Museum, maintained by the [[Kumaon Regiment]] of the [[Indian Army]], has a collection of pictures and aretfacts, mainly focusing on the contributions of the Regiment during the [[World war]]s, [[Sino-Indian War]], Indo-Pakistani wars of [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]] & [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]], the [[Kargil War|Kargil war]] and [[Operation Pawan]]. It has on display the various weapons captured, flags of enemies captured by the army and a LTTE boat captured during Operation Pawan. The museum also showcases medals and uniforms of the soldiers and stories of the First and the Second Param Vir Chakra winners, and all the Army Generals who belonged to the Kumaon Regiment. Other tourist places in the cantonment include the Ashiyana Park, which was specially designed & developed for children. The Mankameshwar Temple, constructed and maintained by the Kumaon regiment, is located in the middle of the cantonment. Opposite the temple is a Gurudwara and a Shawl factory. The Rani Jheel, located near Nar Singh Stadium, is a man-made lake, where tourists can enjoy boat rides. St. Bridget's Church is an old church in Ranikhet town.

The Ranikhet Golf Course, located at Upat Kalika is one of the highest golf courses of Asia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Upat Golf Course Ranikhet Almora - Travel Guide to Golf Course Ranikhet|url=https://www.euttaranchal.com/tourism/ranikhet-golf-course.php|website=www.euttaranchal.com|access-date=2020-05-12}}</ref> It is situated at a distance of {{convert|5|km|mi|0}} from main Ranikhet City. Ranikhet Golf Course is a 9-hole course making it one of the prime attractions of Ranikhet. The green meadow of the golf course at such high altitude is awe-inspiring. The golf club provides membership plans for outsiders as well.

Situated 4 km from Ranikhet at [[Chilianaula]], the Haidakhan Temple, constructed by [[Haidakhan Babaji]], is dedicated to Lord [[Shiva]]. The Jhula Devi temple is situated at a distance of {{convert|7|km|mi|0}} from the town of Ranikhet near [[Chaubatia]]. The temple is dedicated to [[Maa Durga]], who is believed to have protected the villagers from wild animals, leopards and tigers, that roamed in the dense jungles around the temple. The temple is festooned with numerous [[Bell (instrument)|bells]] owing to the tradition of offering a bell to the goddess upon fulfilment of one's wishes. Located in the vicinity of Jhula Devi temple is the Rama Mandir, dedicated to lord [[Rama]]. The Rama Mandir has a [[monastery]] where students are taught ancient [[vedas]] along with [[Indian mathematics#Vedic period|vedic]] and modern mathematics. The Binsar Mahadev Temple is situated close to a stream amidst beautiful pine and deodar trees.

Other nearby places include [[Chaubatia]], Tarikhet, Syalikhet and Majkhali. Chaubatia, located about {{convert|10|km|mi|0}} from Ranikhet, is famous for its apple orchards. There are also plantations of [[apricots]], [[peach]]es, [[chestnuts]], and almonds. The Bhalu Dam, located near Chaubatia is a man-made lake that supplies drinking water to Ranikhet Town. Tarikhet is located at a distance of {{convert|8|km|mi|0}} from Ranikhet Cantt, and is well known for its Gandhi Kuti, and the temple of [[Golu Devata]]. Syalikhet is a scenic spot situated at a distance of {{convert|25|km|mi|0}} from Ranikhet. Syalikhet is located in the amidst green forest and apple orchards and is known for a temple of Syahi Devi. Majkhali is a picnic spot on the Ranikhet-Almora road. It is located at a distance of 12 km from Ranikhet and offers a close view of the snowy Himalayas with peaceful surroundings. It also holds 'melas' during festivals. Baburkhola village, which resembles a Scottish countryside, is at a distance of 5 km from Majhkali.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Rani Jheel, Ranikhet.jpg|Rani Jheel
File:Sarna Garden road, Ranikhet.JPG|Sarna Garden road
File:Bhalu Dam.jpg|Bhalu Dam
File:Jhula devi temple, Ranikhet.jpg|Jhula devi temple
File:Tranquil Reflections at Rani Jheel, Ranikhet – A Serene Escape Amidst Pine Forests.jpg|Rani Jheel
</gallery>

==Transport==
Ranikhet is situated at a distance of {{convert|350|km|mi|0}} from [[Delhi]], well connected by road and railway. The nearest railway station is [[Kathgodam]], approximately {{convert|68|km|mi|0}} from Ranikhet ([[GMAPS]]) one can also use taxis from kathgodam & Haldwani railway stations towards Ranikhet at reasonable cost. [[Pantnagar Airport]] is the nearest airport. Nearest hill stations are Almora - 50 km, Nainital - 60 km. There are some more places nearby which can be visited like [[Chaubatia]], [[Dwarahat]], [[Kausani]], [[Chaukhutia]], [[Majhkhali]], [[Naina Gaon]], [[Jalali (Uttarakhand)|Jalali]], [[Barakham]], [[Doonagiri]], [[Naithna]], [[Masi, Almora|Masi]] and [[Pali]].

==Ranikhet chicken disease==
A poultry disease first discovered in Ranikhet, also known as Newcastle disease.

== Economy ==
Ranikhet's economy is based on the cantonment town and emerging tourism. Commodities manufactured in Ranikhet include sweet meats, jam and hosiery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/0509_PART_A_DCHB_ALMORA.pdf|title=District Census Handbook, Census of India 2011|access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Ranikhet photo shot by Ravi.jpg|thumb|Rainkhet area as seen from the road near Golf Course, Ranikhet.]]

== Schools ==
Ranikhet Town has 10 Primary Schools, 6 Middle Schools, 4 Secondary Schools and 6 Senior Secondary schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/0509_PART_A_DCHB_ALMORA.pdf|title=Census of India, 2011|access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref> As per the Census of India (2011) one college

*Ashok Hall Girls’ Residential School
*[[G D Birla Memorial School]]
*Mount Sinai School, Dhamizer, Ranikhet
*[[The Pleasant Valley School, Highland Korichina]]
*[[Shiv dutt paliwal government inter college (Pali)]] [http://wikimapia.org/17156961/Pali-inter-college]
*[[Kendriya Vidyalaya, Ranikhet]]
*[[Army Public School, Ranikhet]][http://apsranikhet.in]
*National Inter college, Ranikhet
*[[Cantonment School, Ranikhet]]
*[[Canossa Convent School, Ranikhet]]
*[[Beershiva Sr. Sec. School, Ranikhet]]
*[[Ranikhet (Mission) Inter College]]
* Jodhamal school
* Government college Ranikhet

==Media==
Ranikhet has an [[All India Radio]] Relay station known as Akashvani Ranikhet. It broadcasts on FM frequencies.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Ranikhet}}
{{Commons category}}<nowiki> </nowiki>[https://mitramtrip.com/8-best-places-to-visit-in-ranikhet/ 8 Best Places to visit in Ranikhet]
* [https://mitramtrip.com/8-best-places-to-visit-in-ranikhet/ Ranikhet at a Glance]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081221005734/http://www.ranikhetcantonment.org.in/index.aspx Ranikhet Cantonment Board Official website]
* [http://wikimapia.org/country/India/Uttaranchal/Ranikhet/ Ranikhet on wikimapia]
* [http://www.almoraonline.com/ranikhet Explore Ranikhet with Almora Online]
{{Almora district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hill stations in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Cantonments of India]]
[[Category:Tourism in Uttarakhand|R]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Almora district]]
[[Category:Military installations established in 1869]]

Saraswati Mandir

2026-02-04T21:26:46Z

NoellaXgt402: creating a page

{{about||the school in Mahim, Mumbai|Saraswati Mandir High School|the temples dedicated to goddess [[Saraswati]]|:Category:Saraswati temples}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox museum
| name = my home
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| logo =
| logo_upright =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image = Saraswati Mandir 1933.png
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Saraswati Mandir in 1933
| map_type = India Gujarat
| map_relief =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| coordinates = {{Coord|display=it}}
| former_name = Sarika Sadan, Narmad Nivas
| established = {{Start date|2015|08|24|df=y}}
| dissolved = 
| location = Amliran, [[Surat]], [[Gujarat]], India
| type = [[writer's house museum]], [[historic site]]
| accreditation =
| key_holdings =
| collections =
| collection_size =
| visitors =
| founder =
| executive_director =
| director =
| president =
| ceo =
| chairperson =
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| architect = [[Narmad]]
| historian =
| owner = [[Surat Municipal Corporation]]
| publictransit =
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| embedded =
}}
'''Saraswati Mandir''', also known as '''Sarika Sadan''' or '''Narmad House,''' is a [[writer's house museum]] in [[Surat]], [[Gujarat]], India. It was built by [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] poet [[Narmad]] in 1866. In 2015, the house was renovated and converted into museum and memorial house dedicated to Narmad.

==History==
[[Narmad]] lived at Surat and he bought land opposite his ancestral house in Amliran street<ref name="The2016" /> in [[Gopipura]] neighbourhood of Surat at the cost of {{INRConvert|600|year=1866}}. He started construction of new house along with renovation of old one in January 1866 which was completed in September 1866.<ref name="Dave1994">{{cite book|last=Dave|first=Narmadashanker Lalshanker|editor=Ramesh M. Shukla|title=Mari Hakikat|url=http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/537875|edition=1|year=1994|publisher=Kavi Narmad Yugavart Trust|location=Surat|pages=67|language=gu|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025050702/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/537875|archivedate=2016-10-25}}</ref> He named it ''Saraswati Mandir'' and used it for writing and research. The construction of house exacerbated his financial problem.

The house was later purchased by Jatashankar Trivedi. Subsequently, it was purchased by Gajendrashankar Lalshankar Pandya as his eldest daughter Sarika insisted to purchase it.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Tv9 Gujarati|title=Surat: Kavi Narmad's house regains glory - Tv9 Gujarati|date=2015-08-23|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIrUn9opN_Y |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823082813/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIrUn9opN_Y&gl=US&hl=en |archive-date=2015-08-23 |url-status=dead|accessdate=2017-07-23}}</ref> He expanded the house and constructed extension in the southern one-third part and added tin roof above the house. He renamed it ''Sarika Sadan'' after the name of his eldest daughter.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=S9 NEWS - GUJARAT|title=Surat Smc Kavi Narmad Home Opening|date=2015-08-24|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzoi9ZY1U6s|url-status=dead|accessdate=2017-07-23|archive-date=13 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713104046/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzoi9ZY1U6s}}</ref> After his death, his wife Kailash continued to reside there.<ref>{{Citation|last=Bhairvi Pandya|title=Kavi Narmad's home "Saraswati Mandir" in Surat- historic renovation commentary by Dr Deepak Pandya|date=2016-04-16|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nEvMnv6bwlY|accessdate=2017-07-23}}</ref> They wanted to sell the house but the local residents and Narmad's fans opposed and wanted it to be converted into museum or library.<ref name="one2008" /> The [[Surat Municipal Corporation]] purchased it and handed over it to Kavi Narmad Yugavart Trust which was dedicated to publication and preservation of works of Narmad, on 24 August 1992, the birth anniversary of Narmad. They partially restored and converted it into memorial but later handed it back to Surat Municipal Corporation. The house stayed neglected<ref name="Mumbai Samachar">{{cite web|url=http://www.bombaysamachar.com/frmStoryShow.aspx?sNo=61699|title=અરે એ તે ક્યારે, ભસમ સહુ થઈ જાય પછીથી?|last=Mehta|first=Deepak|date=|website=[[Mumbai Samachar]]|language=gu|trans-title=When? After all destroyed?|access-date=23 July 2017|archive-date=23 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170723120817/http://www.bombaysamachar.com/frmStoryShow.aspx?sNo=61699|url-status=dead}}</ref> until some renovation in 2010s.<ref name="one2008">{{cite web|url=https://www.oneindia.com/2008/08/25/kavi-narmads-house-lies-in-shambles-1219671212.html|title=Kavi Narmad's house lies in shambles|date=25 August 2008|website=OneIndia|access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

The Surat Municipal Corporation started renovation, restoration and preservation of house to its original form in 2014.<ref name="The2016">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/surat/Kavi-Narmads-house-to-regain-glory/articleshow/30637086.cms|title=Kavi Narmad's house to regain glory|date=14 January 2016|website=The Times of India|access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> They removed the extension and replaced decayed wooden parts, roof and flooring.<ref name="Toi2016"/> The renovated house was converted into museum and articles and information about Narmad's life, family and works are put on display. The ground floor has the [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Narmad. It also houses his books and some furniture used by him. The project cost {{INRConvert|35|l}}.<ref name="Toi2016"/><ref name=":0"/>

The museum was opened to public on 24 August 2015, the 182nd birth anniversary of Narmad.<ref name="Toi2016"/><ref name=":1"/>

=== Replica ===
The replica of ''Sarika Sadan'' was constructed at the [[Veer Narmad South Gujarat University]] at the cost of {{INRConvert|1.5|c}} and named ''Narmad Smriti Bhavan.'' It was also opened on 24 August 2015.<ref name=":0" /> It houses handwritten manuscripts and some belongings of [[Narmad]].<ref name="DeshGujarat 2013">{{cite web|url=http://deshgujarat.com/test/2013/08/25/vnsgu-to-build-a-real-size-replica-of-poet-narmads-house/|title=VNSGU to build a real size replica of poet Narmad's house|date=25 August 2013|website=DeshGujarat|access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

==Architecture==
The original single storeyed house was spread in an area of {{convert|102|m2|sqft}}.<ref name="The2016" /> It had framework made of wood and the walls made of bricks. The walls were plastered with [[limestone]]. Its floor was tiled with [[Kota Stone|Kota stone]] with shiny finish. It had sloped roof with [[Mangalore tiles]].<ref name="Toi2016">{{cite web | title=Narmad house thrown open to public | website=The Times of India | date=18 January 2016 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/surat/Narmad-house-thrown-open-to-public/articleshow/48663894.cms | access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of tourist attractions in Surat]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_BuYI5m8S8 Short documentary on house before its renovation]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nEvMnv6bwlY Slideshow on house after its renovation], narrated in Gujarati by its former owner's son.
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_BuYI5m8S8 Short Documentary on Sarika Sadan by SCET students]

{{Surat topics}}

[[Category:Museums established in 2015]]
[[Category:Houses completed in 1866]]
[[Category:Poetry museums]]
[[Category:Literary museums]]
[[Category:Biographical museums in India]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Surat]]
[[Category:Culture of Surat]]
[[Category:Writers' centres and houses]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in India]]
[[Category:Museums in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Surat]]
[[Category:Poetry organisations based in India]]

The Stealth (film)

2026-01-25T11:44:01Z

NoellaXgt402: redirect created

#REDIRECT [[Binoy Mathew]]

State Gallery of Art, Chitramayee

2026-01-16T09:42:37Z

NoellaXgt402: creating a entry

{{Short description|Public gallery in Hyderabad, India}}
{{Use India English|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox museum
| name = State Gallery of Art
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| logo =
| logo_upright =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| image_upright =
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| caption =
| map_type = India
| map_relief = 1
| map_size = 250
| map_caption = Location of the gallery in [[India]]
| map_dot_label =
| coordinates = {{coord|17.43656|78.39783|format=dms|type:landmark_region:IN|display=it}}
| mapframe = yes
| former_name = 
| established = 2004
| dissolved = 
| location = Road Number 1, Kavuri Hills, [[Madhapur]], [[Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], [[India]]
| type = [[Art museum|Art gallery]]; [[fine arts]]
| accreditation =
| key_holdings =
| collections =
| collection_size =
| visitors =
| founder =
| executive_director =
| deputy_director =
| leader_type =
| leader =
| director =
| president =
| ceo =
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| owner = [[Government of Telangana]]
| employees =
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}}
The '''State Gallery of Art''', also known as '''Chitramayee''' and as the '''State Gallery of Fine Arts''', is a public [[fine arts]] [[art museum|gallery]] located in [[Madhapur]], [[Hyderabad]], in the state of [[Telangana]], [[India]]. It was established in 2004. It operates under the Youth Advancement, Tourism & Culture Department of the [[Government of Telangana]].<ref name="x.com">{{cite web |title=Chitramayee State Gallery of Art |work=X.com |url=https://x.com/chitramayee |date= |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=State Gallery of Art in deplorable condition |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/State-Gallery-of-Art-in-deplorable-condition/article16885163.ece |work=The Hindu |date=21 December 2016 |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref>

==History==
Established in 2004 by the Department of Culture, [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]], the gallery was created to promote fine arts and support artists across disciplines in the region.<ref name="telanganatoday"/> Following the formation of Telangana in 2014, the gallery came under the administration of the Government of Telangana and operates under the Youth Advancement, Tourism & Culture Department of the Government of Telangana.<ref name="x.com"/>

== Art exhibitions ==
The gallery hosts national and international art exhibitions throughout the year, featuring works by both emerging and established artists. Regular programming includes solo shows, thematic group exhibitions, photography festivals, and workshops aimed at art education and public engagement.<ref name="telanganatoday">{{cite web |title=State Art Gallery - Hyderabad |url=https://telanganatoday.com/tag/state-art-gallery |work=telanganatoday.com |date= |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite blog |author=Zhi, Zhi |url=https://medium.com/@zhizhi/what-makes-for-good-exhibition-designs-reviewing-the-state-gallery-of-art-hyderabad-7f73efbf47eb |title=What makes for good exhibition designs? Reviewing the State Gallery of Art, Hyderabad |work=Medium |date=14 July 2023 |access-date=16 January 2026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.asianage.com/books/hyderabad-to-host-major-contemporary-art-exhibition-at-chitramayee-state-gallery-1829845 |title=Hyderabad to host major contemporary art exhibition at Chitramayee state gallery |work=Deccan Chronicle |date=13 October 2024 |access-date=16 January 2026 |via=The Asian Age }}</ref>


The gallery has a strong focus on community engagement. It provides space and opportunities for local artists and regularly collaborates with educational institutions and independent curators. For instance, in 2025, the "Arts Education: Responding to Changing Landscapes" conference was held at the gallery, bringing together educators and artists to discuss arts education in Southern India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arts Education: Responding to Changing Landscapes: A Southern Indian Conference |url=https://indiaifa.org/events/ae-responding-to-changing-landscapes-february2025.html |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Southern Indian Conference on Arts Education passionately dives into arts education |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2025/Feb/23/southern-indian-conference-on-arts-education-passionately-dives-into-arts-education |work=The New Indian Express |date=23 February 2025 |access-date=12 April 2025}}</ref>

== Location and accessibility ==

The State Gallery of Art is located at Road Number 1, Kavuri Hills, Madhapur in Hyderabad. It can be accessed through private or public transport.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2004 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Art museums and galleries established in 2004]]
[[Category:Art museums and galleries in India]]
[[Category:Museums in Hyderabad, India]]

Zoo

2026-01-15T15:50:47Z

NoellaXgt402: slightly corrected page for consistency further

{{short description|Collection of wild animals}}
{{other uses}}
[[File:Sea Lion and Keeper at the Welsh Mountain Zoo - geograph.org.uk - 4684996.jpg|thumb|A sea lion and a zookeeper at the [[Welsh Mountain Zoo]]]]
A '''zoo''' (short for '''zoological garden'''; also called a '''zoological park''', '''animal park,''' or '''menagerie''') is a facility where [[animal]]s are kept within [[enclosures]] for public [[exhibition]] and often bred for [[Conservation biology|conservation]] purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zoo {{!}} Animals & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/zoo |access-date=2022-12-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Zoo Studies: Living Collections, Their Animals and Visitors|last=Rees|first=Paul A.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2023|location=Cambridge|pages=12–42|chapter=Defining Zoos, Their Culture and Visitors|doi=10.1017/9781108566049.003|isbn=9781108566049}}</ref>

The term ''zoological garden'' refers to [[zoology]], the study of animals. The term is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ζῷον}}, {{Transliteration|grc|zōion}}, 'animal', and the suffix {{lang|grc|-λογία}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|-logia}}, 'study of'. The abbreviation ''zoo'' was first used of the [[London Zoological Gardens]], which was opened for scientific study in 1828, and to the public in 1847.<ref name="ZSL">[https://www.zsl.org/about-us/landmarks-in-zsl-history "Landmarks in ZSL History"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815135643/https://www.zsl.org/about-us/landmarks-in-zsl-history |date=2020-08-15 }}</ref> The first modern zoo was the [[Tierpark Hagenbeck]] by [[Carl Hagenbeck]] in [[Germany]]. In the [[United States]] alone, zoos are visited by over 181 million people annually.<ref>{{cite web|title=Visitor Demographics|url=https://www.aza.org/partnerships-visitor-demographics|website=[[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]]|access-date=7 July 2016|archive-date=7 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807092935/https://www.aza.org/partnerships-visitor-demographics|url-status=live}}</ref>

However, [[animal welfare organizations]] have expressed [[#Moral criticism|criticism]] of zoos and the conditions in which animals are kept. Concerns have been raised about the impact of zoos on [[animal welfare]], including both [[#Animal welfare in zoos|housing conditions]] and the [[#Effect of visitors on animals|effects of visitor behavior]]. In recent decades, efforts have been made to improve conditions in zoos.

== Etymology ==
[[File:View of the Zoological Gardens1835.jpg|thumb|[[London Zoo]], 1835]]
The [[London Zoo]], which was opened in 1828, was initially known as the "Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society of London", and it described itself as a [[menagerie]] or "zoological forest".<ref name=Blunt29>Blunt 1976; Reichenbach 2002, pp. 151–163.</ref> The abbreviation "zoo" first appeared in print in the United Kingdom around 1847, when it was used for the [[Bristol Zoo|Clifton Zoo]], but it was not until some 20 years later that the shortened form became popular in the rhyming song "[[Walking in the Zoo]]" by music-hall artist [[Alfred Vance]].<ref name=Blunt29/> The term "zoological park" was used for more expansive facilities in [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]], [[National Zoological Park (United States)|Washington, D.C.]], and the [[Bronx Zoo|Bronx]] in New York, which opened in 1846, 1891 and 1899 respectively.<ref>Hyson 2000, p. 29; Hyson 2003, pp. 1356–1357.</ref>

Relatively new terms for zoos, in the late 20th century are "[[animal conservation|conservation]] park" or "bio park". Adopting a new name is a strategy used by some zoo professionals to distance their institutions from the stereotypical and nowadays criticized zoo concept of the 19th century.<ref>Maple 1995, p. 25.</ref> The term "bio park" was first coined and developed by the [[National Zoological Park (United States)|National Zoo in Washington D.C.]] in the late 1980s.<ref>Robinson 1987a, pp. 10–17; Robinson 1987b, pp. 678–682.</ref> In 1993, the [[New York Zoological Society]] changed its name to the [[Wildlife Conservation Society]] and re branded the zoos under its jurisdiction as "wildlife conservation parks".<ref>Conway 1995, pp. 259–276.</ref>

== History ==

=== Royal menageries ===
{{Further|Menagerie}}
[[File:towrlndn.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Tower of London]] housed [[England]]'s royal menagerie for several centuries (picture from the 15th century, [[British Library]]).]]

The predecessor of the zoological garden is the [[menagerie]], which has a long history from the ancient world to modern times. The oldest known zoological collection was revealed during excavations at [[Hierakonpolis#Oldest-known zoo|Hierakonpolis]], [[Egypt]] in 2009, of a {{circa|3500 BCE}} menagerie. The exotic animals included [[hippopotamus|hippos]], [[hartebeest]], [[elephant]]s, [[baboon]]s and [[wildcat]]s.<ref>World's First Zoo - Hierakonpolis, Egypt, ''Archaeology Magazine'', http://www.archaeology.org/1001/topten/egypt.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712005902/http://www.archaeology.org/1001/topten/egypt.html |date=2010-07-12 }}</ref> King [[Ashur-bel-kala]] of the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] created zoological and botanical gardens in the 11th century BC. In the 2nd century BC, the [[Emperor of China|Chinese Empress]] Tanki had a "house of deer" built, and [[King Wen of Zhou]] kept a {{convert|1500|acre|ha|adj=on}} zoo called ''Ling-Yu,'' or the Garden of Intelligence. Other well-known collectors of animals included King [[Solomon]] of the [[United Monarchy|Kingdom of Israel and Judah]], Queen [[Semiramis]] and King [[Ashurbanipal]] of [[Assyria]], and King [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar]] of [[Babylonia]].<ref name=EBZoo>{{cite encyclopedia|title =Zoo|encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica|date =24 March 2017|url =https://www.britannica.com/science/zoo|access-date =19 February 2019|archive-date =20 February 2019|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190220065108/https://www.britannica.com/science/zoo|url-status =live}}</ref> By the 4th century BC, zoos existed in most of the Greek city states; [[Alexander the Great]] is known to have sent animals that he found on his military expeditions back to [[Greece]]. The Roman emperors kept private collections of animals for study or for use in the arena,<ref name=EBZoo/> the latter faring notoriously poorly. The 19th-century historian [[William Edward Hartpole Lecky|W. E. H. Lecky]] wrote of the [[Ludi Romani|Roman games]], first held in 366 BCE:

{{blockquote|At one time, a [[bear]] and a [[bull]], chained together, rolled in fierce combat across the sand ... Four hundred bears were killed in a single day under [[Caligula]] ... Under [[Nero]], four hundred [[tiger]]s fought with bulls and elephants. In a single day, at the dedication of the [[Colosseum]] by [[Titus]], five thousand animals perished. Under [[Trajan]] ... [[lion]]s, tigers, elephants, [[rhinoceros]]es, hippopotami, giraffes, bulls, stags, even crocodiles and serpents were employed to give novelty to the spectacle.<ref>Lecky, W.E.H. ''History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne''. Vol. 1, Longmans, 1869, pp. 280–282.</ref>}}

[[Charlemagne]] had an elephant named [[Abul-Abbas]] that was given to him by the Abbasid caliph.

King [[Henry I of England]] kept a collection of animals at his palace in [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire|Woodstock]] which reportedly included lions, leopards, and camels.<ref name=Blunt15>Blunt, Wilfred. ''The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century''. Hamish Hamilton, 1976, pp. 15–17.</ref> The most prominent collection in medieval England was in the [[Tower of London]], created as early as 1204 by King [[John I of England|John I]]. [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] received a wedding gift in 1235 of three leopards from [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], and in 1264, the animals were moved to the Bulwark, renamed the Lion Tower, near the main western entrance of the Tower. It was opened to the public during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in the 16th century.<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4371908.stm "Big cats prowled London's tower"], BBC News, October 24, 2005.</ref> During the 18th century, the price of admission was three half-pence, or the supply of a cat or dog for feeding to the lions.<ref name=Blunt15/> The animals were moved to the London Zoo when it opened.

[[Aztec]] emperor [[Moctezuma II]] had in his capital city of [[Tenochtitlan]] a "house of animals" with a large collection of birds, mammals and reptiles in a garden tended by more than 600 employees. The garden was described by several Spanish conquerors, including [[Hernán Cortés]] in 1520. After the Aztec revolt against the Spanish rule, and during the subsequent battle for the city, Cortés reluctantly ordered the zoo to be destroyed.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Martín del Campo y Sánchez|first1=Rafael|title=El parque zoológico de Moctezuma en Tenochtitlán|url=http://repositorio.fciencias.unam.mx:8080/jspui/bitstream/11154/143305/1/38VParqueZool%C3%B3gico.pdf|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-date=10 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013930/http://repositorio.fciencias.unam.mx:8080/jspui/bitstream/11154/143305/1/38VParqueZool%C3%B3gico.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Enlightenment era ===
[[File:Versailles M2.JPG|thumb|''The [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] menagerie during the reign of [[Louis XIV]] in the 17th century''|alt=]]
{{Further|List of zoos by country}}

The oldest zoo in the world still in existence is the [[Schönbrunn Zoo]] in [[Vienna]], Austria. It was constructed by Adrian van Stekhoven in 1752 at the order of Emperor [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]], to serve as an imperial [[menagerie]] as part of [[Schönbrunn Palace]]. The menagerie was initially reserved for the viewing pleasure of the imperial family and the court, but was made accessible to the public in 1765.<ref>M.G. Ash, ed., ''Mensch, Tier und Zoo – der Tiergarten Schönbrunn im internationalen Vergleich vom 18. Jahrhundert bis heute''(Vienna: Böhlau, 2008).</ref> In 1775, a zoo was founded in [[Madrid]], and in 1795, the zoo inside the ''[[Jardin des Plantes]]'' in Paris was founded by [[Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre|Jacques-Henri Bernardin]], with animals from the royal menagerie at Versailles, primarily for scientific research and education. The planning about a space for the conservation and observation of animals was expressed in connection with the political construction of republican citizenship.<ref>Pierre Serna, "The republican menagerie: animal politics in the French Revolution." ''French History'' 28.2 (2014): 188–206.</ref>

The [[Kazan Zoo]], the first zoo in Russia was founded in 1806 by the Professor of [[Kazan Federal University]] [[Karl Fuchs (museum founder)|Karl Fuchs]].

=== The modern zoo ===
Until the early 19th century, the function of the zoo was often to symbolize royal power, like King [[Louis XIV]]'s [[menagerie]] at [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]]. Major cities in Europe set up zoos in the 19th century, usually using London and Paris as models. The transition was made from princely menageries designed to entertain high society with strange novelties into public zoological gardens. The new goal was to educate the entire population with information along modern scientific lines. Zoos were supported by local commercial or scientific societies.

===British Empire===
[[File:Annual report - Zoological Society of London (Page 1) BHL12918324.jpg|thumb|Annual report of the Zoological Society of London, 1836]]
The modern zoo that emerged in the 19th century in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Tim|date=2014-01-01|title='Zoo proliferation'—The first British Zoos from 1831–1840|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044516914000252|journal=Der Zoologische Garten|language=en|volume=83|issue=1|pages=17–27|doi=10.1016/j.zoolgart.2014.05.002|bibcode=2014DZGar..83...17B |issn=0044-5169|quote=in the years immediately after the establishment of the London Zoo, ... Britain had a number of these institutions when other countries did not have any or, at most, one such place|access-date=2020-03-26|archive-date=2021-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028220002/https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/vsi/S0044516914000252?issn=00445169|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> was focused on providing scientific study and later educational exhibits to the public for entertainment and inspiration.<ref name=Zsl2012>{{Cite web |url=http://www.zsl.org/education/the-modern-zoo/introducing-the-modern-zoo,438,AR.html |title=Introducing the Modern Zoo |publisher=Zoological Society of London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214164255/http://www.zsl.org/education/the-modern-zoo/introducing-the-modern-zoo,438,AR.html |archive-date=2013-12-14 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

A growing fascination for [[natural history]] and [[zoology]], coupled with the tremendous expansion in the urbanization of London, led to a heightened demand for a greater variety of public forms of entertainment to be made available. The need for public entertainment, as well as the requirements of scholarly research, came together in the founding of the first modern zoos. [[Whipsnade Zoo]] in [[Bedfordshire]], England, opened in 1931. It allowed visitors to drive through the enclosures and come into close proximity with the animals.

The [[Zoological Society of London]] was founded in 1826 by [[Stamford Raffles]] and established the [[London Zoo]] in [[Regent's Park]] two years later in 1828.<ref name="science-history">{{cite web |url=http://www.todayinsci.com/4/4_27.htm |title=April 27 |publisher=Today in Science History |access-date=5 March 2008 |archive-date=19 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119055832/http://www.todayinsci.com/4/4_27.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> At its founding, it was the world's first scientific zoo.<ref name=EBZoo /><ref name="ZSL-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.zsl.org/info/about-us/zsls-history,129,AR.html|title=ZSL's History|publisher=[[Zoological Society of London|ZSL]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228235326/http://www.zsl.org/info/about-us/zsls-history%2C129%2CAR.html|archive-date=28 February 2008|access-date=5 March 2008}}</ref> Originally intended to be used as a collection for [[science|scientific study]], it was opened to the public in 1847.<ref name="ZSL-history" /> The Zoo is located in [[Regent's Park]]—then undergoing development at the hands of the architect [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]]. What set the London zoo apart from its predecessors was its focus on society at large. The zoo was established in the middle of a city for the public, and its layout was designed to cater for the large London population. The London zoo was widely copied as the archetype of the public city zoo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://designforlife.com.sg/thesis/12history.html|title=The Role of Architectural Design in Promoting the Social Objectives of Zoos|access-date=2012-12-17|archive-date=2013-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412051728/http://designforlife.com.sg/thesis/12history.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1853, the Zoo opened the world's first [[public aquarium]]. It closed in 2019 and some fish moved to [[Whipsnade Zoo]].

[[Dublin Zoo]] was opened in 1831 by members of the medical profession interested in studying animals while they were alive and more particularly getting hold of them when they were dead.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/the-great-zoos-who-2669960.html |work=Irish Independent |first=John |last=Costello |title=The great zoo's who |date=June 9, 2011 |access-date=June 9, 2011 |archive-date=January 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116232229/http://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/the-great-zoos-who-2669960.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Downs' Zoological Gardens]] created by [[Andrew Downs (naturalist)|Andrew Downs]] and opened to the [[Nova Scotia]] public in 1847. It was originally intended to be used as a collection for scientific study. By the early 1860s, the zoo grounds covered 40 hectares with many fine flowers and ornamental trees, picnic areas, statues, walking paths, The Glass House (which contained a greenhouse with an aviary, aquarium, and museum of stuffed animals and birds), a pond, a bridge over a waterfall, an artificial lake with a fountain, a wood-ornamented greenhouse, a forest area, and enclosures and buildings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cu0SAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Andrew+Downs%22+Halifax|title=The Dalhousie Review|last=Stewart|first=Herbert Leslie|date=29 December 2017|publisher=Dalhousie University Press|via=Google Books|access-date=19 September 2017|archive-date=7 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607033620/https://books.google.com/books?id=cu0SAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Andrew+Downs%22+Halifax|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/halifax-zoological-gardens-1.3207653|title=Halifax's first zoo is well-kept secret of Fairmount history|last=McGregor|first=Phlis|date=4 September 2015|agency=CBC News|access-date=17 April 2017|archive-date=18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418081824/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/halifax-zoological-gardens-1.3207653|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.saltscapes.com/people-culture-section/people-culture-category/1089-zoo-diary.html|title=Zoo Diary|last=Punch|first=Terry|date=May–June 2006|website=Saltscapes Magazine|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228103002/https://www.saltscapes.com/people-culture-section/people-culture-category/1089-zoo-diary.html|archive-date=28 February 2017}}</ref>

The first zoological garden in Australia was [[Melbourne Zoo]] in 1860.

===Germany===
[[File:Wildpferde Tripsdrill.jpg|thumb|"Wild" horses in the [[Erlebnispark Tripsdrill]] wildlife and theme park near [[Cleebronn]] in Southern Germany]]
In German states leading roles came [[Berlin]] (1841), [[Frankfurt]] (1856), and [[Hamburg]] (1863). In 1907, the entrepreneur [[Carl Hagenbeck]] founded the [[Tierpark Hagenbeck]] in [[Eimsbüttel]], now a quarter of Hamburg. His zoo was a radical departure from the layout of the zoo that had been established in 1828. It was the first zoo to use open enclosures surrounded by moats, rather than barred cages, to better approximate animals' natural environments.<ref>{{Cite news|publisher=[[National Audubon Society]] |work=Audubon Magazine |title=The New Zoo |url=http://audubonmagazine.org/features0111/newzoo.html |author=Rene S. Ebersole |date=November 2001 |access-date=2007-12-18 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070906144905/http://www.audubonmagazine.org/features0111/newzoo.html |archive-date=2007-09-06 }}</ref> He also set up mixed-species exhibits and based the layout on the different organizing principle of geography, as opposed to taxonomy.<ref>Nigel Rothfels, ''Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo'' (2008)</ref>

===Poland===
[[File:WPKiW - ZOO - Niedźwiedź Brunatny.JPG|thumb|Bear in [[Silesian Zoological Garden]] in [[Chorzów]], [[Poland]]]]
[[File:Afrykarium tunel.jpg|thumb|The largest tank of the [[Africarium|Afrykarium]] in the [[Wrocław Zoo]] shows the depths of the [[Mozambique Channel]], where sharks, rays, and other large [[pelagic fish]] can be viewed from this 18 meter long underwater [[Shark tunnel|acrylic tunnel]]]]
The [[Wrocław Zoo]] ({{langx|pl|Ogród Zoologiczny we Wrocławiu}}) is the oldest zoo in [[Poland]], opened in 1865 when the city was part of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], and was home to about 10,500 animals representing about 1,132 species (in terms of the number of animal species, it is the third largest in the world<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wroclaw.wyborcza.pl/wroclaw/1,35771,19502168,wielkie-liczenie-w-zoo-we-wroclawiu-zobacz-ile-zwierzat-w.html?disableRedirects=true |title=Wielkie liczenie w zoo we Wrocławiu. Zobacz, ile zwierząt w nim mieszka |language=pl |trans-title=Counting great at the zoo in Wrocław. See how many animals live in it |date=January 19, 2016 |website=wroclaw.wyborcza.pl |access-date=October 28, 2021 |archive-date=May 6, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506111932/http://wroclaw.wyborcza.pl/wroclaw/1,35771,19502168,wielkie-liczenie-w-zoo-we-wroclawiu-zobacz-ile-zwierzat-w.html |url-status=live }}</ref>). In 2014 the Wrocław Zoo opened the [[Africarium]], the only themed [[oceanarium]] devoted solely to exhibiting the [[fauna of Africa]], comprehensively presenting selected ecosystems from the continent of [[Africa]]. Housing over 10 thousand animals, the facility's breadth extends from housing insects such cockroaches to large mammals like elephants on an area of over 33 [[hectare]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Isler |first1=Danuta |title=A trip to Wroclaw Afrykarium |url=http://www.thenews.pl/1/6/Artykul/365527,A-trip-to-Wroclaw-Afrykarium |website=Radio Poland |access-date=2018-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713232413/http://www.thenews.pl/1/6/Artykul/365527,A-trip-to-Wroclaw-Afrykarium |archive-date=2018-07-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===United States===
{{see also|Barnum's American Museum}}
In the United States, the [[Philadelphia Zoo]], opened on July 1, 1874, earning its motto "America's First Zoo." The Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens in Chicago and the Cincinnati Zoo opened in 1875. In the 1930s, federal relief programs provided financial aid to most local zoos. The [[Works Progress Administration]] and similar New Deal government agencies helped greatly in the construction, renovation, and expansion of zoos when the Great Depression severely reduced local budgets. It was "a new deal for animals."<ref>Jesse C. Donahue, and Erik K. Trump, ''American zoos during the depression: a new deal for animals'' (McFarland, 2014).</ref>

The [[Atlanta Zoo]], founded in 1886, suffered neglect. By 1984 it was ranked among the ten worst zoos in the United States. Systematic reform by 2000 put it on the list of the ten best.<ref>Francis Desiderio, "Raising the Bars: The Transformation of Atlanta's Zoo, 1889-2000." ''Atlanta History'' 18.4 (2000): 8–64.</ref>

By 2020, the United States featured 230 accredited zoos and aquariums across 45 states, accommodating 800,000 animals, and 6,000 species out of which about 1,000 are endangered. The zoos provide 208,000 jobs, and with an annual budget of $230 million for [[wildlife conservation]]. They attract over 200 million visits a year and have special programs for schools. They are organized by the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]].<ref>See [https://www.aza.org/about-us Association of Zoos & Aquariums, 2020] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112005002/https://www.aza.org/about-us |date=2020-11-12 }}</ref><ref>Daniel E. Bender, ''The Animal Game: Searching for Wildness at the American Zoo'' (Harvard University Press, 2016).</ref>

===Japan===
Japan's first modern zoo, Tokyo's [[Ueno Zoo]], opened in 1882 based on European models. In World War II it was used to teach the Japanese people about the lands recently conquered by the Army. In 1943, fearing American bombing attacks, the government ordered the zoo to euthanize dangerous animals that might escape.<ref>Ian Jared Miller, and Harriet Ritvo, ''The Nature of the Beasts: Empire and Exhibition at the Tokyo Imperial Zoo'' (2013) pp. 4, 99–105. [https://www.amazon.com/Nature-Beasts-Exhibition-Imperial-Studies/dp/0520271866/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028220001/https://www.amazon.com/rd/uedata?at&v=0.219733.0&id=EA6NX145BCT9PP7T4DQG&m=1&sc=adblk_no&pc=2088&at=2088&t=1635458401517&csmtags=adblk_no&pty=Detail&spty=Glance&pti=0520271866&tid=EA6NX145BCT9PP7T4DQG&aftb=1 |date=2021-10-28 }}</ref><ref>Aso Noriko, ''Public Properties: Museums in Imperial Japan'' (Duke UP, 2014).</ref>

===Environmentalism===
[[File:Siperiantiikeri Korkeasaari.jpg|thumb|A [[Siberian tiger]] (''Panthera tigris altaica'') at [[Korkeasaari Zoo]] in [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]]]
When [[ecology]] emerged as a matter of public interest in the 1970s, a few zoos began to consider making conservation their central role, with [[Gerald Durrell]] of the [[Jersey Zoo]], George Rabb of [[Brookfield Zoo Chicago]], and William Conway of the [[Bronx Zoo]] ([[Wildlife Conservation Society]]) leading the discussion. From then on, zoo professionals became increasingly aware of the need to engage themselves in conservation programs, and the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums|American Zoo Association]] soon said that conservation was its highest priority.<ref>See Kisling, Vernon N. (ed.): ''Zoo and Aquarium History'', Boca Raton 2001. {{ISBN|0-8493-2100-X}}; Hoage, R. J. Deiss and William A. (ed.): ''New Worlds, New Animals'', Washington 1996. {{ISBN|0-8018-5110-6}}; Hanson, Elizabeth. ''Animal Attractions'', Princeton 2002. {{ISBN|0-691-05992-6}}; and Hancocks, David. ''A Different Nature'', Berkeley 2001. {{ISBN|0-520-21879-5}}</ref> To stress conservation issues, many large zoos stopped the practice of having animals perform tricks for visitors. The [[Detroit Zoo]], for example, stopped its elephant show in 1969, and its chimpanzee show in 1983, acknowledging that the trainers had probably abused the animals to get them to perform.<ref>Donahue, Jesse and Trump, Erik. ''Political Animals: Public Art in American Zoos and Aquariums''.
Lexington Books, 2007, p. 79.</ref>

[[habitat destruction|Mass destruction of wildlife habitat]] has yet to cease all over the world and many species such as [[elephants]], big cats, [[penguin]]s, tropical birds, primates, [[Rhinoceros|rhinos]], exotic reptiles, and many others are in danger of dying out. Many of today's zoos hope to stop or slow the decline of many endangered species and see their primary purpose as breeding endangered species in captivity and reintroducing them into the wild. Modern zoos also aim to help teach visitors the importance of animal conservation, often through letting visitors witness the animals firsthand.<ref name="Masci, David 2014">Masci, David. "Zoos in the 21st Century." CQ Researcher 28 Apr. 2000: 353–76. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.</ref> Some critics, and the majority of animal rights activists, say that zoos, no matter their intentions, or how noble these intentions, are immoral and serve as nothing but to fulfill human leisure at the expense of the animals (an opinion that has spread over the years). However, zoo advocates argue that their efforts make a difference in wildlife conservation and education.<ref name="Masci, David 2014"/>

=== Human exhibits ===
[[File:Ota Benga at Bronx Zoo.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Ota Benga]], who was featured as a human exhibit in New York City, 1906]]
{{Further|Human zoo|Scientific racism|Social Darwinism}}
Humans were occasionally displayed in cages at zoos along with non-human animals, to illustrate the differences between people of [[Europe]]an and non-European origin. In September 1906, [[William Temple Hornaday|William Hornaday]], director of the [[Bronx Zoo]] in New York City—with the agreement of [[Madison Grant]], head of the [[Wildlife Conservation Society|New York Zoological Society]]—had [[Ota Benga]], a Congolese [[Pygmy peoples|pygmy]], displayed in a cage with the chimpanzees, then with an [[orangutan]] named Dohong, and a parrot. The exhibit was intended as an example of the "missing link" between the orangutan and white man. It triggered protests from the city's clergymen, but the public reportedly flocked to see Benga.<ref>Bradford, Phillips Verner and Blume, Harvey. ''Ota Benga: The Pygmy in the Zoo''. St. Martins Press, 1992.</ref><ref name=NYTBenga>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E7D81F3EE733A25753C1A96F9C946797D6CF "Man and Monkey Show Disapproved by Clergy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508081838/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C04E7D81F3EE733A25753C1A96F9C946797D6CF |date=2016-05-08 }}, ''The New York Times'', September 10, 1906.</ref>

Humans were also displayed at various events, especially colonial expositions such as the 1931 [[Paris Colonial Exposition]], with the practice continuing in [[Belgium]] at least to as late as 1958 in a "Congolese village" display at [[Expo 58]] in [[City of Brussels|Brussels]]. These displays, while sometimes called "human zoos", usually did not take place in zoos or use cages.<ref>Blanchard, Pascal; Bancel, Nicolas; and Lemaire, Sandrine. [http://www.africultures.com/anglais/articles_anglais/43blanchard.htm "From human zoos to colonial apotheoses: the era of exhibiting the Other"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418022152/http://www.africultures.com/anglais/articles_anglais/43blanchard.htm |date=April 18, 2008 }}, ''Africultures''.</ref>

== Type ==
{{Further|List of zoos by country|Immersion exhibit}}
[[File:zoo-sp.jpg|thumb|right|Monkey islands, [[São Paulo Zoo]]]]

Zoo animals live in enclosures that often attempt to replicate their natural [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]s or behavioural patterns, for the benefit of both the animals and visitors. [[Nocturnal]] animals are often housed in buildings with a reversed light-dark cycle, i.e. only dim white or red lights are on during the day so the animals are active during visitor hours, and brighter lights on at night when the animals sleep. Special climate conditions may be created for animals living in extreme environments, such as penguins. Special enclosures for [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, [[insect]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[fish]], and other aquatic life forms have also been developed. Some zoos have walk-through exhibits where visitors enter enclosures of non-aggressive species, such as [[lemur]]s, [[marmoset]]s, birds, [[lizard]]s, and [[turtle]]s. Visitors are asked to keep to paths and avoid showing or eating foods that the animals might snatch.

=== Safari park ===
{{Main|Safari park}}
[[File:Giraffes at west midlands safari park.jpg|thumb|left|[[Giraffe]]s in the [[West Midlands Safari Park]]]]

Some zoos keep animals in larger, outdoor enclosures, confining them with [[moat]]s and fences, rather than in cages. [[Safari park]]s, also known as zoo parks and lion farms, allow visitors to drive through them and come in close proximity to the animals.<ref name=EBZoo/> Sometimes, visitors are able to feed animals through the car windows.

The first safari park was [[Whipsnade Zoo|Whipsnade Park]] in [[Bedfordshire]], England, opened by the [[Zoological Society of London]] in 1931 which since 2014 covers {{Convert|600|acre|ha|abbr=off}}. Since the early 1970s, an {{Convert|1800|acre|ha|abbr=off}} park in the San Pasqual Valley near San Diego has featured the [[San Diego Zoo Safari Park]], run by the Zoological Society of San Diego. One of two state-supported zoo parks in North Carolina is the {{convert|2000|acre|ha|abbr=off|adj=off}} [[North Carolina Zoo]] in Asheboro.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ferral |first=Katelyn |url=http://www.newsobserver.com/2010/07/15/582114/nc-zoo-bucking-a-trend-sets-an.html |title=N.C. Zoo, bucking a trend, sets an attendance record |publisher=Newsobserver.com |date=2010-07-15 |access-date=2013-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509111832/http://www.newsobserver.com/2010/07/15/582114/nc-zoo-bucking-a-trend-sets-an.html |archive-date=2013-05-09 |url-status = dead}}</ref> The {{convert|500|acre|ha|abbr=off|adj=off}} [[Werribee Open Range Zoo]] in Melbourne, Australia, displays animals living in an artificial [[savannah]].

=== Aquaria ===
{{further|Public aquarium}}
[[File:Seals@melb zoo.jpg|thumb|right|Sea lions at the [[Melbourne Zoo]]]]

The first [[public aquarium]] was opened at the London Zoo in 1853. This was followed by the opening of public aquaria in continental [[Europe]] (e.g. [[Paris]] in 1859, Hamburg in 1864, Berlin in 1869, and [[Brighton]] in 1872) and the United States (e.g. [[Boston]] in 1859, [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in 1873, San Francisco [[Woodward's Gardens]] in 1873, and the [[New York Aquarium]] at [[The Battery (Manhattan)|The Battery]] in 1896).

=== Roadside zoos ===
Roadside zoos are found throughout [[North America]], particularly in remote locations. They are often small, for-profit zoos, often intended to attract visitors to some other facility, such as a gas station. The animals may be trained to perform tricks, and visitors are able to get closer to them than in larger zoos.<ref>[http://www.theguzoo.com/main_page.html Guzoo Animal Farm] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510051708/http://www.theguzoo.com/main_page.html |date=May 10, 2008 }}, website about Canadian roadside zoos, accessed June 18, 2009.</ref> Since they are sometimes less regulated, roadside zoos are often subject to accusations of [[neglect]]<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=KeoyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0AcGAAAAIBAJ&pg=2373,1804633&dq=roadside-zoo&hl=en Roadside zoo animals starving.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093125/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=KeoyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0AcGAAAAIBAJ&pg=2373,1804633&dq=roadside-zoo&hl=en |date=2016-03-12 }} ''Free Lance-Star.'' 11 Jan. 1997.</ref> and [[Cruelty to animals|cruelty]].<ref>Dixon, Jennifer. [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JUoeAAAAIBAJ&sjid=EccEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3844,1173112&dq=roadside-zoo+cruelty&hl=en House panel told of abuses by zoos.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093012/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JUoeAAAAIBAJ&sjid=EccEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3844,1173112&dq=roadside-zoo+cruelty&hl=en |date=2016-03-12 }} ''Times Daily.'' 8 July 1992.</ref>

In June 2014 the [[Animal Legal Defense Fund]] filed a lawsuit against the Iowa-based roadside Cricket Hollow Zoo for violating the Endangered Species Act by failing to provide proper care for its animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aldf.org/press-room/press-releases/animal-legal-defense-fund-sues-iowa-zoo-over-endangered-species-act-violations/Animal|title=Animal Abandonment is a Crime |website= [[Animal Legal Defense Fund]]|date=8 April 2014|first = Ian|last = Elwood|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170629090221/http://aldf.org/blog/animal-abandonment-is-a-crime/|archive-date = 29 June 2017}}</ref> Since filing the lawsuit, ALDF has obtained records from investigations conducted by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services; these records show that the zoo is also violating the Animal Welfare Act.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/237127240/USDA-APHIS-Inspection-Report-of-Cricket-Hollow-Zoo-May-21-2014/USDA|title=- APHIS Inspection Report of Cricket Hollow Zoo, May 21 2014}}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Petting zoos ===
{{Main|Petting zoo}}
[[File:Petting farm in Germany.JPG|thumb|Petting farm in [[Berlin Zoo]]]]
A petting zoo, also called petting farm or children's zoo, features a combination of [[List of domesticated animals|domestic animals]] and wild species that are docile enough to touch and feed. To ensure the animals' health, the food is supplied by the zoo, either from vending machines or a kiosk nearby.

=== Animal theme parks ===
{{Main|Animal theme park}}

An animal theme park is a combination of an [[amusement park]] and a zoo, mainly for entertaining and commercial purposes. [[Marine mammal park]]s such as [[SeaWorld]], [[Sea Life]] and [[Marineland of Florida|Marineland]] are more elaborate [[dolphinarium]]s keeping [[whale]]s, and containing additional entertainment attractions. Another kind of animal theme park contains more entertainment and amusement elements than the classical zoo, such as stage shows, roller coasters, and mythical creatures. Some examples are [[Busch Gardens Tampa Bay]] in [[Tampa, Florida]], both [[Disney's Animal Kingdom]] and [[Gatorland]] in [[Orlando, Florida]], [[Flamingo Land Resort]] in [[North Yorkshire]], [[England]], and [[Six Flags Discovery Kingdom]] in [[Vallejo, California]].

== Zoo population management ==
=== Sources of animals ===
By 2000 most animals being displayed in zoos were the offspring of other zoo animals.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} This trend, however was and still is somewhat species-specific. When animals are transferred between zoos, they usually spend time in quarantine, and are given time to acclimatize to their new enclosures which are often designed to mimic their natural environment. For example, some species of penguins may require refrigerated enclosures. Guidelines on necessary care for such animals is published in the ''[[Zoological Society of London]]''.<ref name=EBProcurement>"Zoo: Procurement and care of animals," ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2008.</ref> Animal exchanges between facilities are usually made voluntarily, based on a model of cooperation for conservation, but may also reflect political currents, such as the so-called [[panda diplomacy]]. Loaned animals usually remain the property of the original park, and any offspring yielded by loaned animals are usually divided between the lending and holding institutions. For decades the capture of wild animals or purchasing of animals has been broadly considered unethical and has not been practiced by reputable zoos.

=== Space constraints and surplus animals ===
[[File:Rhinoceros unicornis - Tiergarten Schönbrunn.jpg|thumb|''[[Indian rhinoceros|Rhinoceros unicornis]]'' found in [[Schönbrunn Zoo]], [[Vienna]]]]
Especially in large animals, a limited number of spaces are available in zoos. As a consequence, various management tools are used to preserve the space for the genetically most important individuals and to reduce the risk of [[inbreeding]]. Management of animal populations is typically through international organizations such as [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums|AZA]] and [[EAZA]].<ref name=PQA/> Zoos have several different ways of managing the animal populations, such as moves between zoos, [[Wildlife contraceptive|contraception]], sale of excess animals and euthanization (culling).<ref name=WMC/>

Contraception can be an effective way to limit a population's breeding. However it may also have health repercussions and can be difficult or even impossible to reverse in some animals.<ref>{{cite web|title=What happens when zoo contraceptives work too well?|url=http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/what-happens-when-zoo-contraceptives-work-too-well/article_8e71a4c4-2cd1-58d7-b8af-8fe8eb1be30c.html|publisher=St. Louis Dispatch|author=Hunn, D.|date=February 16, 2014|access-date=November 21, 2016|archive-date=August 6, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806214001/http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/what-happens-when-zoo-contraceptives-work-too-well/article_8e71a4c4-2cd1-58d7-b8af-8fe8eb1be30c.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, some species may lose their reproductive capability entirely if prevented from breeding for a period (whether through contraceptives or isolation), but further study is needed on the subject.<ref name=PQA>{{cite journal|title=Population Q&A|journal=Zooquaria|publisher=EAZA|volume=Autumn 2016|issue=94|pages=32–33}}</ref> Sale of surplus animals from zoos was once common and in some cases animals have ended up in substandard facilities. In recent decades the practice of selling animals from certified zoos has declined.<ref name=WMC>{{cite book|title=Wild Mammals in Captivity|url=https://archive.org/details/wildmammalscapti00klei|url-access=limited|year=2010|author=Kleiman, Thompson and Baer|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wildmammalscapti00klei/page/n281 265]–266|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-44009-5}}</ref> A large number of animals are culled each year in zoos, but this is controversial.<ref name=HPMG>{{cite web|title=Marius The Giraffe Was Not Alone: Zoos in Europe Kill 5,000 Healthy Animals Annually|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/02/27/marius-giraffe-zoos-cull_n_4865542.html|publisher=Huffington Post|date=February 27, 2014|access-date=November 21, 2016|archive-date=November 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122153323/http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/02/27/marius-giraffe-zoos-cull_n_4865542.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A highly publicized culling as part of population management was that of [[Marius (giraffe)|a healthy giraffe]] at [[Copenhagen Zoo]] in 2014. The zoo argued that his genes already were well-represented in captivity, making the giraffe unsuitable for future breeding. There were offers to adopt him and an online petition to save him had many thousand signatories, but the culling proceeded.<ref>{{cite web|title=Copenhagen Zoo kills 'surplus' young giraffe Marius despite online petition.|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/copenhagen-zoo-kills-surplus-young-giraffe-marius-despite-online-petition-9117317.html|work=The Independent|author=Johnston, I.|date=February 9, 2014|access-date=February 10, 2014|archive-date=February 10, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210053407/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/copenhagen-zoo-kills-surplus-young-giraffe-marius-despite-online-petition-9117317.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Although zoos in some countries have been open about culling, the controversy of the subject and pressure from the public has resulted in others being closed.<ref name=WMC/> This stands in contrast to most zoos publicly announcing animal births.<ref name=WMC/> Furthermore, while many zoos are willing to cull smaller and/or low-profile animals, fewer are willing to do it with larger high-profile species.<ref name=WMC/><ref name=HPMG/>

=== Breeding and cloning ===
Many animals breed readily in captivity. Zoos frequently are forced to intentionally limit captive breeding because of a lack of natural wild habitat in which to reintroduce animals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ralls |first=Katherine |title=Encyclopedia of Biodiversity |publisher=Smithsonian Institution USA |year=2001 |pages=599–607}}</ref> This highlights the importance of in situ conservation, or preservation of natural spaces, in addition to the utility of zoo captive breeding and reintroduction programs. In situ conservation and reintroduction programs are key elements to obtaining certification by reputable organisations such as the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] (AZA).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Reintroduction Programs |url=https://www.aza.org/reintroduction-programs?locale=en |publisher=American Association of Zoos and Aquariums}}</ref> Efforts to clone endangered species in the United States, Europe, and Asia are frequently embedded in zoos and zoological parks.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cloning Wild Life: Zoos, Captivity, and the Future of Endangered Animals |date=2013 |publisher=NYU Press |author1=Carrie Friese |isbn=9780814729106 |page=3 and 14}}</ref>

== Justification ==
=== Conservation and research ===
[[File:NCZooelephants.jpg|thumb|right|The African plains exhibit at [[North Carolina Zoo]] illustrates the dimension of an open-range zoo.]]

The position of most modern zoos in [[Australasia]], [[Asia]], [[Europe]], and [[North America]], particularly those with scientific societies, is that they display wild animals primarily for the [[conservation biology|conservation]] of endangered [[species]], as well as for [[Animal testing|research purposes]] and education, and secondarily for the entertainment of visitors.<ref>Tudge, Colin. ''Last Animals in the Zoo: How Mass Extinction Can Be Stopped'', London 1991. {{ISBN|1-55963-157-0}}</ref><ref>[http://www.biaza.org.uk/resources/library/images/MANIFESTO.pdf "Manifesto for Zoos"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823075916/http://www.biaza.org.uk/resources/library/images/MANIFESTO.pdf |date=August 23, 2006 }}, John Regan Associates, 2004.</ref> The Zoological Society of London states in its charter that its aim is "the advancement of [[Zoology]] and Animal [[Physiology]] and the introduction of new and curious subjects of the Animal Kingdom." It maintains two research institutes, the Nuffield Institute of Comparative Medicine and the Wellcome Institute of Comparative Physiology. In the United States, the Penrose Research Laboratory of the Philadelphia Zoo focuses on the study of comparative [[pathology]].<ref name=EBZoo/> The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums produced its first conservation strategy in 1993, and in November 2004, it adopted a new strategy that sets out the aims and mission of zoological gardens of the 21st century.<ref>[http://www.waza.org/conservation/wzacs.php "World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216115923/http://www.waza.org/conservation/wzacs.php |date=2007-02-16 }}, World Association of Zoos and Aquariums.</ref> When studying behaviour of captive animals, several things should however be taken into account before drawing conclusions about wild populations. Including that captive populations are often smaller than wild ones and that the space available to each animal is often less than in the wild.<ref name="Rowden 2016" />

Conservation programs all over the world fight to protect species from going [[extinction|extinct]], but many conservation programs are underfunded and under-represented. Conservation programs can struggle to fight bigger issues like habitat loss and illness. It often takes significant funding and long time periods to rebuild degraded habitats, both of which are scarce in conservation efforts. The current state of conservation programs cannot rely solely ''in situ'' (on-site conservation) plans alone, ''ex situ'' (off-site conservation) may therefore provide a suitable alternative. Off-site conservation relies on zoos, national parks, or other care facilities to support the rehabilitation of the animals and their populations. Zoos benefit conservation by providing suitable habitats and care to endangered animals. When properly regulated, they present a safe, clean environment for the animals to increase populations sizes. A study on amphibian conservation and zoos addressed these problems by writing,

<blockquote>Whilst addressing ''in situ'' threats, particularly habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, is of primary importance; for many amphibian species ''in situ'' conservation alone will not be enough, especially in light of current un-mitigatable threats that can impact populations very rapidly such as chytridiomycosis [an infectious fungal disease]. ''Ex situ'' programmes can complement ''in situ'' activities in a number of ways including maintaining genetically and demographically viable populations while threats are either better understood or mitigated in the wild<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brady|first1= Leanna |last2= Young|first2=Richard|last3=Goetz|first3=Matthias|last4=Dawson|first4=Jeff|date=October 2017|title=Increasing zoo's conservation potential through understanding barriers to holding globally threatened amphibians|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|volume=26|issue=11|pages=2736 (or 2)|doi=10.1007/s10531-017-1384-y|bibcode= 2017BiCon..26.2735B |s2cid= 24619590 |id= {{ProQuest|1943858410}} }}</ref></blockquote>

The breeding of endangered species is coordinated by cooperative breeding programmes containing international studbooks and coordinators, who evaluate the roles of individual animals and institutions from a global or regional perspective, and there are regional programmes all over the world for the conservation of [[endangered species]]. In Africa, conservation is handled by the African Preservation Program (APP);<ref>African Association of Zoological Gardens and Aquaria</ref> in the U.S. and Canada by Species Survival Plans;<ref>[http://www.aza.org/ American Zoo and Aquarium Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222202601/http://aza.org/ |date=2011-02-22 }} and the [http://www.caza.ca/ Canadian Association of Zoos and Aquariums] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728053710/http://www.caza.ca/ |date=2010-07-28 }}</ref> in Australasia, by the Australasian Species Management Program;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arazpa.org.au/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202150900/http://arazpa.org.au/ASMP_Committee.htm |url-status=dead |title=AquaZoos - Educational Writing Group|archive-date=February 2, 2007|website=AquaZoos}}</ref> in Europe, by the European Endangered Species Program;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eaza.net/|title=European Association of Zoos and Aquaria » EAZA|website=www.eaza.net|access-date=2021-01-22|archive-date=2021-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125121855/https://www.eaza.net/|url-status=live}}</ref> and in Japan, South Asia, and South East Asia, by the Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums, the [[South Asian Zoo Association for Regional Cooperation]], and the South East Asian Zoo Association.

===Positive impacts on local wildlife===
[[File:A Guayaquil squirrel feeding on birdseed.jpg|thumb|A [[Guayaquil squirrel]] feeding on corn at the [[Parque de las Leyendas]] in [[Lima]], Peru]]
Besides conservation of captive species, large zoos may form a suitable environment for wild native animals such as [[heron]]s to live in or visit. A colony of [[black-crowned night heron]]s has regularly summered at the [[National Zoological Park (United States)|National Zoo]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] for more than a century.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Akpan|first1=Nsikan|title=Smithsonian's mystery of the black-crowned night herons solved by satellites|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/sciencescope-smithsonians-mystery-black-crowned-night-herons-solved-satellites|website=[[PBS NewsHour]]|date=12 May 2015 |publisher=PBS|access-date=2 May 2016|archive-date=1 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601185016/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/sciencescope-smithsonians-mystery-black-crowned-night-herons-solved-satellites/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some zoos may provide information to visitors on wild animals visiting or living in the zoo, or encourage them by directing them to specific feeding or breeding platforms.<ref>{{cite web|title=Birdworld Animals|url=http://birdworld.co.uk/animals/|website=Birdworld|access-date=21 January 2015|archive-date=4 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204034333/http://birdworld.co.uk/animals/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Tiergarten>{{cite web |title=Graureiher |url=https://www.zoovienna.at/tiere/voegel/graureiher/ |publisher=Tiergarten Schoenbrunn |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-date=10 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210171313/https://www.zoovienna.at/tiere/voegel/graureiher/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In addition to these potential positive impacts, Milstein proposes that zoos can transform their practices by increasing their focus on wildlife rescue and care, and by making better use of online platforms to situate species of interest within their wider ecologies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milstein |first=Tema |date=2009 |title=Somethin' Tells Me It's All Happening at the Zoo |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17524030802674174 |journal=Environmental Communication |volume=3 |pages=25–48 |doi=10.1080/17524030802674174 |hdl=1959.4/unsworks_77059 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Such changes may enhance public education and encourage audiences to participate in projects and campaigns that limit the ecologically destructive process putting local wildlife at risk in the first place.

== Animal welfare in zoos ==
{{Further|Captivity (animal)|Behavioral enrichment}}
[[File:Dalian zoo bear cages, 1997.jpg|right|thumb|Bear cages, {{Convert|1|m2|sqin|abbr=on}} in size, in Dalian Forest Zoo, Port Arthur, [[Liaoning|Liaoning Province]], China, in 1997.]]
The welfare of zoo animals varies widely including its level. Some zoos work to improve their animal enclosures and make it fit the animals' needs, but constraints such as size and expense can complicate this.<ref>Norton, Bryan G.; Hutchins, Michael; Stevens, Elizabeth F.; Maple, Terry L. (ed.): ''Ethics on the Ark. Zoos, Animal Welfare, and Wildlife Conservation''. Washington, D.C., 1995. {{ISBN|1-56098-515-1}}</ref><ref>Malmud, Randy. ''Reading Zoos. Representations of Animals and Captivity''. New York, 1998. {{ISBN|0-8147-5602-6}}</ref> The type of enclosure and the husbandry are of great importance in determining the welfare of animals. Substandard enclosures can lead to decreased lifespans, caused by factors as human diseases, unsafe materials in the cages and possible escape attempts. However, when zoos take time to think about the animal's welfare, zoos can become a place of [[wildlife refuge|refuge]]. Today, many zoos are improving enclosures by including tactile and sensory features in the habitat that allow animals to encourage natural behaviors. These additions can prove to be effective in improving the lives of animals in captivity. The tactile and sensory features will vary depending on the species of animal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beer |first1=Haley N. |last2=Shrader |first2=Trenton C. |last3=Schmidt |first3=Ty B. |last4=Yates |first4=Dustin T. |date=December 2023 |title=The Evolution of Zoos as Conservation Institutions: A Summary of the Transition from Menageries to Zoological Gardens and Parallel Improvement of Mammalian Welfare Management |journal=Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens |language=en |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=648–664 |doi=10.3390/jzbg4040046 |doi-access=free |issn=2673-5636}}</ref> There are animals that are injured in the wild and are unable to survive on their own, but in the zoos they can live out the rest of their lives healthy and happy. In recent years, some zoos have chosen to move out some larger animals because they do not have the space available to provide an adequate enclosure for them. However, those cannot avoid the fundamental issue of commercially exploiting beings that are inherently deserving of respect, and infringing upon their freedom.

An issue with animal welfare in zoos is that best animal husbandry practices are often not completely known, especially for species that are only kept in a small number of zoos.<ref name="Rowden 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Rowden |first1=Lewis J. |last2=Rose |first2=Paul E. |title=A global survey of banteng (''Bos javanicus'') housing and husbandry: Banteng Husbandry Survey |journal=Zoo Biology |date=2016 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=546–555 |doi=10.1002/zoo.21329|pmid=27735990 |hdl=10871/24538 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> To solve this organizations like EAZA and AZA have begun to develop husbandry manuals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eaza.net/conservation/programmes/#BPG|title=PROGRAMMES » EAZA|website=www.eaza.net|access-date=2021-01-22|archive-date=2021-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126110025/https://www.eaza.net/conservation/programmes/#BPG|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aza.org/animal-care-manuals|title=Animal Care Manuals | Association of Zoos & Aquariums|website=www.aza.org|access-date=2021-01-24|archive-date=2021-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125182342/https://www.aza.org/animal-care-manuals|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Problems ==

=== Capture in wild and mortality ===
In modern, well-regulated zoos, breeding is controlled to maintain a self-sustaining, global captive population. This is not the case in some less well-regulated zoos, often based in poorer regions. Overall "stock turnover" of animals during a year in a select group of poor zoos was reported as 20%-25% with 75% of wild caught apes dying in captivity within the first 20 months.<ref>Jensen, Derrick and Tweedy-Holmes Karen. ''Thought to exist in the wild: awakening from the nightmare of zoos''. No Voice Unheard, 2007, p. 21; Baratay, Eric and Hardouin-Fugier, Elisabeth. ''Zoo: A History of the Zoological Gardens of the West''. Reaktion, London. 2002.</ref> The authors of the report stated that before successful breeding programs, the high mortality rate was the reason for the "massive scale of importations."

One 2-year study indicated that of 19,361 mammals that left accredited zoos in the U.S. between 1992 and 1998, 7,420 (38%) went to dealers, auctions, hunting ranches, unaccredited zoos and individuals, and game farms.<ref>Goldston, Linda. February 11, 1999, cited in Scully, Matthew. ''Dominion''. St. Martin's Griffin, 2004 (paperback), p. 64.</ref>

=== Behavioural restriction ===
Many modern zoos attempt to improve animal welfare by providing more space and [[behavioural enrichment]]s. This often involves housing the animals in naturalistic enclosures that allow the animals to express more of their natural behaviours, such as roaming and foraging. Whilst many zoos have been working hard on this change, in some zoos, some enclosures still remain barren concrete enclosures or other minimally enriched cages.<ref name=Masci2000>{{cite journal|author=Masci, D.|title=Zoos in the 21st century.|journal=CQ Researcher|year=2000|pages=353–76|url=http://www.cqpress.com/product/Researcher-Zoos-in-the-21st-Century.html|access-date=2016-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402135448/http://www.cqpress.com/product/Researcher-Zoos-in-the-21st-Century.html|archive-date=2015-04-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Sometimes animals are unable to perform certain behaviors in zoos, like seasonal migration or traveling over large distances. Whether these behaviors are necessary for good welfare however is unclear. Some behaviors are seen as essential for an animal's welfare whilst others are not.<ref>Veasey, Jake & Waran, Natalie & Young, Robert. (1996). On Comparing the Behaviour of Zoo Housed Animals with Wild Conspecifics as a Welfare Indicator. Animal Welfare. 5. 13–24.</ref> It is however shown that even in limited spaces, certain natural behaviors can still be performed. A study in 2014 for example found that [[Asian elephant]]s in zoos covered similar or higher walking distances when compared to sedentary wild populations.<ref>Rowell, Z. E. (2014). Locomotion in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research, 2(4), 130–135. https://doi.org/10.19227/jzar.v2i4.50 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028220009/https://jzar.org/jzar/article/view/50 |date=2021-10-28 }}</ref> Migration in the wild can also be related to food scarcity or other unfavorable environmental problems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nhpbs.org/natureworks/nwep4c.htm|title=How and Why Animals Migrate - NatureWorks|website=nhpbs.org|access-date=2021-01-22|archive-date=2020-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810041723/https://nhpbs.org/natureworks/nwep4c.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> However a proper zoo enclosure never runs out of food or water, and in case of unfavorable temperatures or weather animals are provided with (indoor) shelter.

=== Abnormal behaviour ===
{{Further|List of abnormal behaviours in animals}}

Animals in zoos can exhibit behaviors that are abnormal in their frequency, intensity, or would not normally be part of their [[Ethogram|behavioural repertoire]]. Whilst these types of behaviors can be a sign of bad welfare and stress, this is not necessarily the case. Other measurements or behavioral research is advised before determining whether an animal performing stereotypical behavior is living in bad welfare or not.<ref>Mason, Georgia & Latham, N.R.. (2004). Can't stop, won't stop: Is stereotypy a reliable animal welfare indicator?. Animal Welfare. 13. 57–69.</ref> Examples of stereotypical behaviors are pacing, head-bobbing, obsessive grooming and feather-plucking<ref name="Are zoos good">{{cite web|title=Are Zoos good or bad for animals?|url=http://animal.discovery.com/animal-facts/zoos-good-or-bad.htm|access-date=28 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030041017/http://animal.discovery.com/animal-facts/zoos-good-or-bad.htm|archive-date=30 October 2013|url-status = dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A study examining data collected over four decades found that [[polar bear]]s, lions, tigers and [[cheetah]]s can display stereotypical behaviors in many older exhibits. However they also noted that in more modern naturalistic exhibits, these behaviors could completely disappear.<ref name=MarkNYT2003>Derr, Mark. "Big Beasts, Tight Space and a Call for Change in Journal Report," ''The New York Times'', October 2, 2003.</ref> Elephants have also been recorded displaying [[Stereotypy (non-human)|stereotypical behaviours]] in the form of swaying back and forth, trunk swaying or route tracing. This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos.<ref name=Harrisetal.2008>{{cite web|author1=Harris, M.|author2=Sherwin, C.|author3=Harris, S.|url=http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WC05007_7719_FRP.pdf|title=Defra Final Report on Elephant Welfare|publisher=University of Bristol|date=10 November 2008|access-date=16 November 2011|archive-date=24 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141124052942/http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=WC05007_7719_FRP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> However it has been shown that modern facilities and modern husbandry can greatly decrease or even entirely remove abnormal behaviors. A study of a group of elephants in [[Planckendael]] showed that the older wild-caught animals displayed many stereotypical behaviors. These elephants had spent part of their lives either in a circus or in other substandard enclosures. On the other hand, the elephants born in the modern facilities that had lived in a herd their whole life barely displayed any stereotypical behaviors at all.<ref>Vleugels. E. (2016). Onderzoek naar stereotyp, agressief en dominant gedrag en locatiegebruik bij een groep Aziatische olifanten gehuisvest in Planckendael, UNIVERSITEIT GENT FACULTEIT DIERGENEESKUNDE</ref> The life history of an animal is thus extremely important when analyzing the causes of stereotypical behavior, as this can be a historical relict instead of a result of present-day husbandry.

Some zoos have used [[psychoactive drug]]s, such as [[Fluoxetine|Prozac]], in attempting to stop animals from exhibiting the behaviors.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Braitman |first=Laurel |title=Even the Gorillas and Bears in Our Zoos Are Hooked on Prozac |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/07/animal-madness-laurel-braitman/ |access-date=2022-10-20 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref>

=== Longevity ===
The influence on a zoological environment on animal's longevity is not straightforward. A study of 50 mammal species found that 84% of them lived longer in zoos than they would in the wild on average.<ref>Tidière, M., Gaillard, JM., Berger, V. et al. Comparative analyses of longevity and senescence reveal variable survival benefits of living in zoos across mammals. Sci Rep 6, 36361 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36361 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028220004/https://disqus.com/embed/comments/?base=default&f=srep&t_i=10.1038%2Fsrep36361&t_u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fsrep36361&t_d=Comparative%20analyses%20of%20longevity%20and%20senescence%20reveal%20variable%20survival%20benefits%20of%20living%20in%20zoos%20across%20mammals&t_t=Comparative%20analyses%20of%20longevity%20and%20senescence%20reveal%20variable%20survival%20benefits%20of%20living%20in%20zoos%20across%20mammals&s_o=default |date=2021-10-28 }}</ref> On the other hand, some research claims that elephants in Japanese zoos would live shorter than their wild counterparts at just 17 years. This has been refuted by other studies however.<ref name=Mott2008>{{cite web|author=Mott, M.|date=11 December 2008|title=Wild elephants live longer than their zoo counterparts|publisher=National Geographic News|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/12/081211-zoo-elephants.html|access-date=24 October 2012|archive-date=4 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504050854/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/12/081211-zoo-elephants.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Such studies might not yet fully represent recent improvements in husbandry. For example, studies show that captive-bred elephants already have a lower mortality risk then wild-caught ones.<ref>Lahdenperä M, Mar KU, Courtiol A, Lummaa V. Differences in age-specific mortality between wild-caught and captive-born Asian elephants [published correction appears in Nat Commun. 2018 Aug 28;9(1):3544]. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):3023. Published 2018 Aug 7. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-05515-8</ref>

=== Climate conditions ===
Climatic conditions can make it difficult to keep some animals in zoos in some locations. For example, [[Alaska Zoo]] had an elephant named Maggie. She was housed in a small, indoor enclosure because the outdoor temperature was too low.<ref name="Chicago Tribune 2016">{{cite news|last1=Kershaw|first1=Sarah|title=Alaska's lone zoo elephant heats up national debate|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2005/01/10/alaskas-lone-zoo-elephant-heats-up-national-debate/|access-date=23 January 2016|agency=Chicago Tribune|date=10 January 2005|archive-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130102149/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2005-01-10/news/0501100102_1_elephant-experts-alaska-zoo-asian-elephant|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=NBC2007>{{cite news|last1=Pemberton|first1=Mary|title=Alaska's only elephant heads to California|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21587690|access-date=23 January 2016|agency=NBC|date=11 January 2007|archive-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130104142/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21587690/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/alaskas-only-elephant-heads-california/#.VqLQkVN95Fw|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Epidemiology ===
[[Tsetse fly|Tsetse flies]] have invaded zoos that have been established in the tsetse zone. More concerning, tsetse-borne species of [[trypanosoma|trypanosome]]s have entered zoos outside the traditional tsetse zone in infected animals imported and added to their collections. Whether these can be controlled depends on several factors: Vale 1998 found that the technique used in placing [[attractant]]s was important; and Green 1988, Torr 1994, Torr et al. 1995, and Torr et al. 1997 found the availability for specifically needed attractants for the specific job to also vary widely.<ref name="Mbaya-et-al-2009">{{cite journal | last1=Mbaya | first1=A. W. | last2=Aliyu | first2=M. M. | last3=Ibrahim | first3=U. I. | title=The clinico-pathology and mechanisms of trypanosomosis in captive and free-living wild animals: A review | journal=[[Veterinary Research Communications]] | publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] | volume=33 | issue=7 | date=2009-04-02 | issn=0165-7380 | doi=10.1007/s11259-009-9214-7 | pages=793–809| pmid=19340600 | s2cid=23405683 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Adler-et-al-2011">{{cite journal | last1=Adler | first1=Peter H. | last2=Tuten | first2=Holly C. | last3=Nelder | first3=Mark P. | title=Arthropods of Medicoveterinary Importance in Zoos | journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=56 | issue=1 | date=2011-01-07 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120709-144741 | pages=123–142| pmid=20731604 }}</ref>

== Effect of visitors on animals ==

Various studies have examined the impact of visitors on animal welfare and behavior in zoo. Most report negative effects, particularly when visitor groups are large or noisy. Disturbing behaviors by visitors, such as teasing or banging on enclosure glass, have been linked to negative effects. However, under certain conditions and for some species, visitor presence can have positive effects.

=== Negative effects ===

Most studies have found that large or noisy visitor groups negatively affect animals.<ref name=Fernandez2009>{{cite journal | author = Fernandez, E. J.; Tamborski, M. A.; Pickens, S. R.; Timberlake, W. | title = Animal–visitor interactions in the modern zoo: Conflicts and interventions | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 120 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 1–8 | date = 2009 | doi = 10.1016/j.applanim.2009.06.002 | bibcode = 2009AABS..120....1F }}</ref>

A study measuring stress hormone ([[corticoid]]) levels in [[rhinoceroses]] found a significant relationship between visitor exposure and stress levels.<ref name=Carlstead2005>{{cite journal | author = Carlstead, K.; Brown, J. L. | title = Relationships between patterns of fecal corticoid excretion and behavior, reproduction, and environmental factors in captive black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinoceros | journal = Zoo Biology | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 215–232 | date = 2005 | doi = 10.1002/zoo.20050 }}</ref>

A review of [[primate]] studies indicated that visitors are generally a source of stress, with stronger negative effects when groups are large.<ref name=Hosey2000>{{cite journal | author = Hosey, G. R. | title = Zoo animals and their human audiences: What is the visitor effect? | journal = Animal Welfare | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 343–357 | date = 2000 | doi = 10.1017/S0962728600022946 }}</ref> Dominant group members can influence responses, as shown in [[gorillas]],<ref name=Wells2005>{{cite journal | author = Wells, D. L. | title = A note on the influence of visitors on the behaviour and welfare of zoo-housed gorillas | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 93 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 13–17 | date = 2005 | doi = 10.1016/j.applanim.2005.06.019 }}</ref> [[orangutans]],<ref name=Birke2002>{{cite journal | author = Birke, L. | title = Effects of browse, human visitors and noise on the behaviour of captive orang utans | journal = Animal Welfare | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–202 | date = 2002 | doi = 10.1017/S0962728600028141 }}</ref> and [[mangabey]] monkeys.<ref name=Mitchell1991>{{cite journal | author = Mitchell, G.; Obradovich, S. D.; Herring, F. H.; Dowd, B.; Tromborg, C. | title = Threats to observers, keepers, visitors, and others by zoo mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus chrysogaster) | journal = Primates | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 515–522 | date = 1991 | doi = 10.1007/BF02381942 }}</ref>

Visitor behavior can also affect primate [[aggression]]. Orangutans showed more aggressive behavior in the presence of noisy audiences,<ref name=Birke2002/> and [[siamangs]] increased aggressive behavior when visitors attempted to mimic their actions or engage in disturbing interactions.<ref name=Nimon1992>{{cite journal | author = Nimon, A. J.; Dalziel, F. R. | title = Cross-species interaction and communication: a study method applied to captive siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) and long-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) contacts with humans | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 33 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 261–272 | date = 1992 | doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(05)80013-9 }}</ref>

In petting zoos, [[goats]] and [[sheep]] exhibited more fear behaviors, such as fleeing or attacking, when visitor numbers were high.<ref name=Anderson2002>{{cite journal | author = Anderson, U. S.; Benne, M.; Bloomsmith, M. A.; Maple, T. L. | title = Retreat space and human visitor density moderate undesirable behavior in petting zoo animals | journal = Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–137 | date = 2002 | doi = 10.1207/S15327604JAWS0502_03 | pmid = 12738581 }}</ref>

[[Leopards]] exposed to the public had higher fecal stress hormone levels than leopards not shown to visitors,<ref name=Wielebnowski2002>{{cite journal | author = Wielebnowski, N. C.; Fletchall, N.; Carlstead, K.; Busso, J. M.; Brown, J. L. | title = Noninvasive assessment of adrenal activity associated with husbandry and behavioral factors in the North American clouded leopard population | journal = Zoo Biology | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 77–98 | date = 2002 | doi = 10.1002/zoo.10005 }}</ref> and larger visitor numbers increased stress hormones in [[Mexican wolves]]<ref name=Pifarre2012>{{cite journal | author = Pifarré, M.; Valdez, R.; González-Rebeles, C.; Vázquez, C.; Romano, M.; Galindo, F. | title = The effect of zoo visitors on the behaviour and faecal cortisol of the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 136| pages = 57–62 | date = 2012 | doi = 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.11.015 }}</ref> and [[Black wolf|black wolves]].<ref name=Rajagopal2011>{{cite journal | author = Rajagopal, T.; Archunan, G.; Sekar, M. | title = Impact of zoo visitors on the fecal cortisol levels and behavior of an endangered species: Indian blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra L.) | journal = Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science | volume = 14 | issue = 1| pages = 18–32 | date = 2011 | doi = 10.1080/10888705.2011.527598 | pmid = 21191845 }}</ref>

Increased stress-related behaviors with higher visitor numbers have also been observed in [[jaguars]],<ref name=Sellinger2005>{{cite journal | author = Sellinger, R.; Ha, J. | title = The effects of visitor density and intensity on the behavior of two captive jaguars (Panthera onca) | journal = Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 233–244 | date = 2005 | doi = 10.1207/s15327604jaws0804_1 | pmid = 16436028 }}</ref> [[fennec foxes]],<ref name=Carlstead1991>{{cite journal | author = Carlstead, K. | title = Husbandry of the Fennec fox: Fennecus zerda: Environmental conditions influencing stereotypic behaviour | journal = International Zoo Yearbook | volume = 30| pages = 202–207 | date = 1991 | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-1090.1991.tb03487.x }}</ref> [[brown bears]],<ref name=Soriano2013>{{cite journal | author = Soriano, A. I.; Vinyoles Cartanyà, D.; Maté García, C. | title = The influence of visitors on behaviour and on the use of space in two species of ursids: A management question? | journal = International Zoo News | volume = 60 | pages = 341–356 | date = 2013}}</ref> [[harbor seals]],<ref name=Stevens2013>{{cite journal | author = Stevens, J.; Thyssen, A.; Laevens, H.; Vervaecke, H. | title = The influence of zoo visitor numbers on the behaviour of harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) | journal = Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 31–34 | date = 2013}}</ref> [[deer]],<ref name=ShenJin2010>{{cite journal | author = Shen-Jin, L.; Todd, P. A.; Yan, Y.; Lin, Y.; Hongmei, F.; Wan-Hong, W. | title = The effects of visitor density on sika deer (Cervus nippon) behaviour in Zhu-Yu-Wan Park, China | journal = Animal Welfare | volume = 19 | pages = 61–65 | date = 2010 | doi = 10.1017/S0962728600001172 }}</ref> [[gazelles]],<ref name=Mansour2000>{{cite journal | author = Mansour, A. A. H.; Zakaria, A.-H.; Fraser, A. F. | title = Effect of enclosure quality on reactivity and welfare of captive Soemmerring's gazelle (Gazella soemmerringii) | journal = Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science | volume = 3 | pages = 335–343 | date = 2000 | issue = 4 | doi = 10.1207/S15327604JAWS0304_5 }}</ref> and [[koalas]].<ref name=Larsen2014>{{cite journal | author = Larsen, M. J.; Sherwen, S. L.; Rault, J.-L. | title = Number of nearby visitors and noise level affect vigilance in captive koalas | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 154 | pages = 76–82 | date = 2014 | doi = 10.1016/j.applanim.2014.02.005 }}</ref>

Studies suggest ways to improve animal welfare without removing public displays. These include limiting visitor numbers, providing educational signage, encouraging quiet behavior, and modifying enclosure design.<ref name=Fernandez2009/> Providing hiding places within enclosures allows animals to limit visitor exposure, which reduces stress and improves welfare.<ref name=Blaney2004>{{cite journal | author = Blaney, E. C.; Wells, D. L. | title = The influence of a camouflage net barrier on the behaviour, welfare and public perceptions of zoo-housed gorillas | journal = Animal Welfare | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 111–118 | date = 2004 | doi = 10.1017/S0962728600026841 }}</ref>

=== Positive effects ===

Although most effects are negative, some studies report positive effects under certain conditions. Moderate interaction with visitors can enhance welfare for some animals.<ref name=Fernandez2009/><ref name=Sherwen2019>{{cite journal | author = Sherwen, S. L.; Hemsworth, P. H. | title = The visitor effect on zoo animals: Implications and opportunities for zoo animal welfare | journal = Animals | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 366 | date = 2019 | doi = 10.3390/ani9060366 | doi-access = free | pmid = 31212968 | pmc = 6617010 }}</ref><ref name=Williams2023>{{cite journal | author = Williams, E.; Hunton, V.; Hosey, G.; Ward, S. J. | title = The impact of visitors on non-primate species in zoos: A quantitative review | journal = Animals | volume = 13 | issue = 7 | pages = 1178 | date = 2023 | pmid = 37048434 | doi = 10.3390/ani13071178 | doi-access = free | pmc = 10092984 }}</ref>

For example, a [[long-billed corella]] named Claude spent most of his time at the front of his cage walking and dancing when visitors were present.<ref name=Nimon1992>{{cite journal | author = Nimon, A. J.; Dalziel, F. R. | title = Cross-species interaction and communication: a study method applied to captive siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) and long-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) contacts with humans | journal = Applied Animal Behaviour Science | volume = 33 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 261–272 | date = 1992 | doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(05)80013-9 }}</ref> This behavior suggests that interactions were enriching. On very busy days, Claude occasionally retreated, showing that visitor exposure should be moderated.

[[Prairie dogs]] also approached visitors, indicating a positive experience.<ref name=Eltorai2010>{{cite journal | author = Eltorai, A. E.; Sussman, R. W. | title = The "Visitor Effect" and captive black-tailed prairie dog behavior | journal = Der Zoologische Garten | volume = 79| pages = 109–120 | date = 2010 | issue = 2 | doi = 10.1016/j.zoolgart.2010.07.002 | bibcode = 2010DZGar..79..109E }}</ref>

[[Chimpanzees]] may experience interactions with visitors as positive if they include feeding.<ref name=Cook1995>{{cite journal | author = Cook, S.; Hosey, G. | title = Interaction sequences between chimpanzees and human visitors at the zoo | journal = Zoo Biology | volume = 14| pages = 331–440 | date = 1995 | issue = 5 | doi = 10.1002/zoo.1430140505 }}</ref> Orangutans can respond positively to visitor presence when they have the option to hide.<ref name=Bloomfield2015>{{cite journal | author = Bloomfield, R. C.; Gillespie, G. R.; Kerswell, K. J.; Butler, K. L.; Hemsworth, P. H. | title = Effect of partial covering of the visitor viewing area window on positioning and orientation of zoo orangutans: A preference test | journal = Zoo Biology | volume = 34 | issue = 3| pages = 223–229 | date = 2015 | pmid = 25716803| doi = 10.1002/zoo.21207}}</ref>

A review of interactive petting areas found some positive effects when visitors fed animals, as observed in [[giraffes]]. However, most interactions, including petting or walking with animals, have the potential for negative or mixed effects.<ref name=DCruze2019>{{cite journal | author = D’Cruze, N.; Khan, S.; Carder, G.; Megson, D.; Coulthard, E.; Norrey, J.; Groves, G. | title = A global review of animal–visitor interactions in modern zoos and aquariums and their implications for wild animal welfare | journal = Animals | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 332 | date = 2019 | doi = 10.3390/ani9060332 | doi-access = free | pmid = 31181769 | pmc = 6617332 }}</ref>

== Moral criticism ==
Some critics and many animal rights activists argue that zoo animals are treated as voyeuristic objects, rather than living creatures, and often suffer due to the transition from being free and wild to captivity.<ref>Jensen, p. 48.</ref> Ever since imports of wild-caught animals can became more regulated by organizations like CITES and national laws, zoos have started sustaining their populations via breeding. This change started around the 1970s. Many corporations in the form of breeding programs have been set up since, for both common and endangered species.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zsl.org/education/where-do-our-animals-come-from-and-where-do-they-go|title=Where do our animals come from and where do they go?|website=Zoological Society of London (ZSL)|access-date=2021-01-22|archive-date=2020-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102193441/https://www.zsl.org/education/where-do-our-animals-come-from-and-where-do-they-go|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zoosociety.org/about-the-zoological-society/|title=About The Zoological Society - Zoological Society of Milwaukee|work=Zoological Society of Milwaukee |access-date=2021-10-28|archive-date=2021-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028220000/https://www.zoosociety.org/about-the-zoological-society/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eaza.net/conservation/programmes/|title=PROGRAMMES » EAZA|website=www.eaza.net|access-date=2021-01-22|archive-date=2021-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126110025/https://www.eaza.net/conservation/programmes/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Emma Marris]], writing an opinion piece for ''[[The New York Times]]'', suggested zoos "stopped breeding all their animals, with the possible exception of any endangered species with a ''real'' chance of being released back into the wild ... Eventually, the only animals on display would be a few ancient holdovers from the old menageries, animals in active conservation breeding programs and perhaps a few rescues. Such zoos might even be merged with sanctuaries."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Marris |first=Emma |date=2021-06-11 |title=Opinion {{!}} Modern Zoos Are Not Worth the Moral Cost |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/11/opinion/zoos-animal-cruelty.html |access-date=2022-10-20 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In 2017, activist travel company [[Responsible Travel]] and anti-captive animal charity the [[Born Free Foundation]] conducted an independent survey of 1,000 members of the UK public who had visited a zoo in the previous five years, to gauge public understanding of zoos' contribution to [[Conservation biology|conservation]]. The results showed that zoos spend on average ten times less than visitors expect on conservation. It also emerged that three-quarters of visitors would expect at least one-fifth of the animals in a zoo to be endangered. The actual figure, according to the Born Free Foundation, is 10%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Are zoos as good for wildlife as they make out? {{!}} Responsible Travel |url=https://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/blog-post-twenty-six |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=www.responsibletravel.com |language=en}}</ref>

In light of these findings and ongoing animal welfare concerns,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ZOOS AND AQUARIA |url=https://www.bornfree.org.uk/zoos-aquaria |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=www.bornfree.org.uk}}</ref> in 2017, Responsible Travel became the first [[Travel agency|travel company]] to stop promoting holidays that include visits to a zoo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=@NatGeoUK |date=2017-05-31 |title=Hot topic: is it time for zoos to be banned? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/2017/05/hot-topic-is-it-time-for-zoos-to-be-banned |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=National Geographic |language=en-gb}}</ref>

===Live feeding===
{{Globalize|section|China|UK||date=January 2022}}
In some countries, feeding live vertebrates to zoo animals is illegal under most circumstances. The UK Animal Welfare Act of 2006, for example, states that prey must be killed for feeding, unless this threatens the health of the predator.<ref name=Faunalytics>{{Cite web|url=https://faunalytics.org/the-feeding-of-live-food-to-exotic-pets-issues-of-welfare-and-ethics/|title=Live-Feeding Prey to Captive Predators|date=October 17, 2014|website=[[Faunalytics]]|access-date=January 23, 2021|archive-date=January 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130231726/https://faunalytics.org/the-feeding-of-live-food-to-exotic-pets-issues-of-welfare-and-ethics/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some zoos had already adopted such practices prior to the implementation of such policies. London Zoo, for example, stopped feeding live vertebrates in the 20th century, long before the Animal Welfare Act.<ref name=Faunalytics/> Despite being illegal in China, some zoos have been found to still feed live vertebrates to their predators. In some parks like Xiongsen Bear and Tiger Mountain Village, live chickens and other livestock were found to be thrown into the enclosures of tigers and other predators. In Guilin, in south-east China, live cows and pigs are thrown to tigers to amuse visitors. Other Chinese parks like [[Shenzhen Safari Park]] have already stopped this practice after facing heavy criticism.<ref name=lairweb1999>{{cite news|url=http://www.lairweb.org.nz/tiger/release7.html|title=Ferocity training|publisher=Sunday Morning Post, Hong Kong|date=November 29, 1999|access-date=June 24, 2009|archive-date=July 28, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728065303/http://www.lairweb.org.nz/tiger/release7.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Regulation ==
[[File:WPA Zoo Poster (Elephant).jpg|thumb|upright|WPA 1937 poster promoting visits to American zoos]]

=== United States ===
In the United States, any public animal exhibit must be licensed and inspected by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]], the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]], and the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]]. Depending on the animals they exhibit, the activities of zoos are regulated by laws including the [[Endangered Species Act]], the [[Animal Welfare Act of 1966|Animal Welfare Act]], the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918]] and others.<ref name=Grech>Grech, Kali S. [http://www.animallaw.info/articles/ovuszoos.htm "Overview of the Laws Affecting Zoos"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624212519/http://animallaw.info/articles/ovuszoos.htm |date=2012-06-24 }}, Michigan State University College of Law, Animal Legal & Historical Center, 2004.</ref>

Additionally, zoos in several countries may choose to pursue accreditation by the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] (AZA), which originated in the U.S. To achieve accreditation, a zoo must pass an application and inspection process and meet or exceed the AZA's standards for animal health and welfare, fundraising, zoo staffing, and involvement in global conservation efforts. Inspection is performed by three experts (typically one veterinarian, one expert in animal care, and one expert in zoo management and operations) and then reviewed by a panel of twelve experts before accreditation is awarded. This accreditation process is repeated once every five years. The AZA estimates that there are approximately 2,400 animal exhibits operating under USDA license as of February 2007; fewer than 10% are accredited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aza.org/Accreditation/AccreditationIntro/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102132956/http://www.aza.org/Accreditation/AccreditationIntro/ |url-status=dead |title=AZA Accreditation Introduction|archive-date=November 2, 2007}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
The [[European Union]] introduced a directive to strengthen the conservation role of zoos, making it a statutory requirement that they participate in conservation and education, and requiring all member states to set up systems for their licensing and inspection.<ref name=Defra/> Zoos are regulated in the UK by the Zoo Licensing Act of 1981, which came into effect in 1984. A zoo is defined as any "establishment where wild animals are kept for exhibition [...] to which members of the public have access, with or without charge for admission, seven or more days in any period of twelve consecutive months", excluding circuses and pet shops. The Act requires that all zoos be inspected and licensed, and that animals kept in enclosures are provided with a suitable environment in which they can express most normal behavior.<ref name=Defra>[http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/gwd/zoo.htm "The Zoo Licensing Act 1981"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080504172909/http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/gwd/zoo.htm |date=May 4, 2008 }}, Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Animals}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[List of zoo associations]]
* [[Ex-situ conservation|''Ex-situ'' conservation]]
* [[In-situ conservation|''In-situ'' conservation]]
* [[Conservation movement]]
* [[Index of conservation articles]]
* [[Virtual zoo]]
* [[Emergency response team (zoo)|Zoo emergency response team]]
* [[Frozen zoo]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Baratay, Eric, and Elizabeth Hardouin-Fugier. (2002) ''History of Zoological Gardens in the West''
* Blunt, Wilfrid (1976). ''The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century'', Hamish Hamilton, London. {{ISBN|0-241-89331-3}} [https://archive.org/details/isbn_241893313 online]
* [[Irus Braverman|Braverman, Irus]] (2012). ''Zooland: The Institution of Captivity'', Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|9780804783576}} [https://www.amazon.com/Zooland-Institution-Captivity-Cultural-Lives/dp/0804783586/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411234324/http://www.amazon.com/Zooland-Institution-Captivity-Cultural-Lives/dp/0804783586 |date=2021-04-11 }}
* Bruce, Gary. (2017) ''Through the Lion Gate: A History of the Berlin Zoo'' [https://www.amazon.com/Through-Lion-Gate-History-Berlin/dp/0190234989/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028220004/https://www.amazon.com/rd/uedata?ld&v=0.219733.0&id=ZV1GZZ9M8MEG20CVE839&sw=1600&sh=1000&vw=1344&vh=19735&m=1&sc=ZV1GZZ9M8MEG20CVE839&ue=5&bb=110&ns=127&x1=307&be=2068&fp=194&fcp=194&pc=2844&tc=-354&na_=-354&ul_=-1635458401832&_ul=-1635458401832&rd_=-1635458401832&_rd=-1635458401832&fe_=-340&lk_=-340&_lk=-340&co_=-333&_co=-329&sc_=-333&rq_=-329&rs_=-46&_rs=1646&dl_=-26&di_=2126&de_=2127&_de=2127&_dc=2844&ld_=2844&_ld=-1635458401832&ntd=-1&ty=0&rc=0&hob=2&hoe=5&ld=2847&t=1635458404679&ctb=1&rt=__ld:24-0-0-17-3-0-1&ec=23&ecf=0&csmtags=aui%7Caui:aui_build_date:3.21.7-2021-10-25%7Cewc:unpersist%7Cewc:unpersist:emptycart%7Cewc:bview%7Cewc%7Cewc:unrec%7Cewc:cartsize:0%7Cewc:aui%7Cnavbar%7Cfls-na-amazon-com%7Cadblk_no&viz=visible:5&pty=Detail&spty=Glance&pti=0190234989&tid=ZV1GZZ9M8MEG20CVE839&aftb=1 |date=2021-10-28 }}
* Conway, William (1995). "The conservation park: A new zoo synthesis for a changed world", in ''The Ark Evolving: Zoos and Aquariums in Transition'', Wemmer, Christen M. (ed.), Smithsonian Institution [[Conservation and Research Center]], [[Front Royal, Virginia]].
* Donahue, Jesse C., and Erik K. Trump. (2014) ''American zoos during the depression: a new deal for animals'' (McFarland, 2014).
* Fisher, James. (1967) ''Zoos of the World: The Story of Animals in Captivity'', popular history
* Hancocks, David. ''A Different Nature: The Paradoxical World of Zoos and Their Uncertain Future'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Different-Nature-Paradoxical-Uncertain-Future/dp/0520236769/ excerpt]
* Hardouin-Fugier, Elisabeth. (2004) ''Zoo: A History of Zoological Gardens in the West''
* Hyson, Jeffrey (2000). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20081217084841/http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/Environmentalism/env1.pdf Jungle of Eden: The Design of American Zoos]" in ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080804041323/http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/COEN.html Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture]'', Conan, Michel (ed.), Dumbarton Oaks, Washington. {{ISBN|0-88402-278-1}}
* Hochadel, Oliver. "Watching Exotic Animals Next Door: 'Scientific' Observations at the Zoo (ca. 1870–1910)."''Science in Context''(June 2011) 24#2 pp 183–214. [https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/85333/1/Hochadel-2011-Watching%20Exotic%20Animals%20Next%20Door....pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817121201/https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/85333/1/Hochadel-2011-Watching%20Exotic%20Animals%20Next%20Door....pdf |date=2021-08-17 }}
* Hyson, Jeffrey (2003). "Zoos," in {{cite book
|editor-last=Krech III
|editor-first=Shepard
|editor2-last=Merchant
|editor2-first=Carolyn
|editor3-last=McNeill
|editor3-first=John Robert
|title=Encyclopedia of World Environmental History
|volume=3: O–Z, Index
|year=2004
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-93735-1
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse
}}
* ''The International Zoo Yearbook'', annual since 1959 from the [[Zoological Society of London]].
* [[Robert E. Kohler|Kohler, Robert E.]] (2006). ''All Creatures: Naturalists, Collectors, and Biodiversity, 1850–1950'' (Princeton University Press).
* Kisling, Vernon N., ed. (2001) ''Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections to Zoological Gardens'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/Zoo-Aquarium-History-Collections-Zoological/dp/084932100X/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125052733/http://www.amazon.com/Zoo-Aquarium-History-Collections-Zoological/dp/084932100X |date=2016-01-25 }}.
* Maddeaux, Sarah-Joy. (2014) "A 'delightful resort for persons of all ages, and more especially for the young': Children at Bristol Zoo Gardens, 1835–1940." ''Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth'' 7.1 (2014): 87–106 [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/536562/summary excerpt].
* Maple, Terry (1995). "Toward a Responsible Zoo Agenda", in ''Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare, and Wildlife Conservation'', Norton, Bryan G., Hutchins, Michael, Stevens, Elizabeth F. and Maple, Terry L. (ed.), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. {{ISBN|1-56098-515-1}}
* Meuser, Natascha (2019). ''Zoo Buildings. Construction and Design Manual''. DOM publishers, Berlin. {{ISBN|978-3-86922-680-4}}
* Miller, Ian Jared, and Harriet Ritvo. ''The Nature of the Beasts: Empire and Exhibition at the Tokyo Imperial Zoo'' (2013) [https://www.amazon.com/Nature-Beasts-Exhibition-Imperial-Studies/dp/0520271866/ excerpt]
* Murphy, James B. (2007) ''Herpetological History of the Zoo & Aquarium World''
* Reichenbach, Herman (2002). "Lost Menageries: Why and How Zoos Disappear (Part 1)", [https://web.archive.org/web/20080501154538/http://www.zoonews.ws/IZN/316/IZN-316.htm International Zoo News Vol.49/3 (No.316)], April–May 2002.
* Robinson, Michael H. (1987a). "Beyond the zoo: The biopark", [[Defenders of Wildlife]] Magazine, Vol. 62, No. 6.
* Robinson, Michael H. (1987b). "Towards the Biopark: The Zoo That Is Not", American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, Annual Proceedings.
* Rothfels, Nigel. (2008) ''Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo'' [https://www.amazon.com/Savages-Beasts-Animals-History-Culture/dp/0801889758/ excerpt]
* Vandersommers, Daniel. (2023) ''Entangled Encounters at the National Zoo: Stories from the Animal Archive'' (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2023).
* Woods, Abigail. (2018) "Doctors in the Zoo: Connecting Human and Animal Health in British Zoological Gardens, c. 1828–1890." In ''Animals and the Shaping of Modern Medicine'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018), pp. 27–69.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Zoos}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719115732/http://www.zoos-worldwide.de/ Zoos Worldwide] Zoos, aquariums, animal sanctuaries and wildlife parks
* [http://www.asianelephant.net Zoological Gardens keeping Asian Elephants]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110531130026/http://www.zoohistory.co.uk/downloads The Bartlett Society: Devoted to studying yesterday's methods of keeping wild animals], download page

{{Zoos}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Zoos| ]]
[[Category:Animal rights]]
[[Category:Animal welfare]]
[[Category:Zoology]]

Swami Vivekananda Institute of Science and Technology

2026-01-02T21:28:27Z

NoellaXgt402: brief added citations to improve readability and cleaned formatting per standard format

{{Short description|Private engineering college in Kolkata, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Swami Vivekananda Institute of Science and Technology
| image = Swami_Vivekananda_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology_(SVIST)_in_Kolkata.jpg
| image_name =
| caption = Swami Vivekananda Institute of Science and Technology (SVIST) in Kolkata
| established = 2008
| type = [[Private university|Private]] [[engineering college]]
| campus = Urban
| address = Dakshin Gobindapur.
[[Sonarpur]], [[Kolkata]]
[[West Bengal]] 700145
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|22|23|08.25|N|88|24|45.59|E|display=title, inline}}
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India
| academic_affiliation = [[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology|MAKAUT]]
| affiliations = [[All India Council for Technical Education|AICTE]], [[National Accreditation and Assessment Council|NAAC]]
| chairman = Manoj Ghosh
| director = Dr. Nandan Gupta
|website = http://www.svist.org/
}}
'''Swami Vivekananda Institute of Science and Technology,''' abbreviated as '''SVIST,''' is a private engineering institution in [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]] which offers [[Undergraduate degree|undergraduate]] ([[BTech]]) four-year engineering degree courses in five disciplines. The college is affiliated to [[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology]] (MAKAUT).<ref>{{cite web |title=List of Colleges & Its Courses Affiliated by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, West Bengal (formerly West Bengal University of Technology) for the Academic Year 2020-2021 (As on 27.07.2020) |url=https://makautwb.ac.in/big_files/College%20list-2020-21-27-07-2020.pdf |website=Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[All India Council for Technical Education]]
*[[Education in India]]
*[[Education in West Bengal]]
*[[List of institutions of higher education in West Bengal]]
*[[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology]]
*[[Maulana Azad]]
*[[National Assessment and Accreditation Council]]
*[[University Grants Commission (India)]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[https://makautwb.ac.in/page.php?id=194]

==External links==
* http://www.svist.org/
*[https://makautwb.ac.in/ Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology]

{{West Bengal University of Technology}}

[[Category:Engineering colleges in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in South 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to West Bengal University of Technology]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2001]]
[[Category:2001 establishments in West Bengal]]

{{Kolkata-university-stub}}

Richard Schmidt (Indologist)

2026-01-01T21:53:28Z

NoellaXgt402: put up details.

'''Johann Wilhelm Richard Schmidt''' (29 January 1866 – 15 November 1939) was a German Indologist who specialized in Sanskrit, Pāli and Marathi. He worked several Indian erotic texts and published a translation of the [[Kama Sutra|Kamasutra]] by [[Vātsyāyana|Vatsyayana]] and the [[Ratirahasya|Ratirahasyam]] by Pandit Kokkoka which went into multiple editions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Das Ratirahasyam. Die Indische ars amatoria|translator=Schmidt, Richard|place= Berlin |year=1903|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.219313/}}</ref>

Schmidt was born in [[Aschersleben]], son of a teacher. He studied in [[Eisleben]] and went to the [[Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg|University of Halle]] where he received a doctorate in 1890 for a study of [[Śukasaptati|Sukasaptati]] under [[Richard Pischel]] and [[Karl Friedrich Geldner]]. In 1897 he translated the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana. His habilitation was in 1898 at Halle where he taught alongside Pischel and others as a private lecturer. He taught Sanskrit and lexicography at Halle. He worked as a librarian at the [[Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft]] from 1904 to 1910. He spent some years teaching in Eisleben and in 1910 he moved to the University of Münster, becoming an ordinary professor in 1919. He joined the [[NSDAP]] in 1933 (member number 2492244). He added to [[Otto von Böhtlingk|Böhtlingk]]'s Sanskrit dictionary. He examined the Katha tradition and had an interest in Sanskrit erotic texts. In 1902 he wrote on the love life of the Sanskrit people. In 1907 he wrote on fakirs in ancient and modern India covering yoga traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indologie.uni-halle.de/institutsgeschichte/richard_schmidt/|title=Schmidt, Richard|publisher= Die Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.catalogus-professorum-halensis.de/schmidtrichard.html|title=Richard Schmidt| publisher=Die Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-11 |title=SCHMIDT, Richard – Persons of Indian Studies by Prof. Dr. Klaus Karttunen |url=https://whowaswho-indology.info/9986/schmidt-richard-2/ |access-date=2026-01-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

His major publications include:
* 1890 Vier Erzählungen aus der Sukasaptati
* 1897 Das Kamasutram des Vatsyayana
* 1907 Fakire und Fakirtum im alten und modernen Indien
* 1919 Das alte und moderne Indien
* 1922 Beiträge zu indischen Erotik
* 1924 Elementarbuch der Saurasen

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.134716 Das Kamasutram des Vatsyayana] (1915)
* [https://archive.org/details/dieukasaptatitex00schmuoft Die Sukasaptati (Textus Ornatior)] (1899) ([https://archive.org/details/dertextusornatio00schmuoft 1896 edition])
* [https://archive.org/details/beitrgezurindi00schm Beiträge zur indischen Erotik. Das Liebesleben des Sanskritvolkes] (1922)
* [https://archive.org/details/fakireundfakirt00schm Fakire und Fakirtum im alten und modernen Indien] (1908)
* [https://archive.org/details/dasalteundmodern00schm Das alte und moderne Indien] (1919)
* [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.01597 Das Pañcatantram: textus ornatior, eine altindische Märchesammlung]
* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.142224 Liebe und Ehe im Alten Und Modernen Indien] (1904)

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Schmidt, Richard}}
[[Category:1866 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
[[Category:German Indologists]]
[[Category:Linguists of Sanskrit]]
[[Category:University of Halle alumni]]

Osteobrama belangeri

2025-12-28T19:21:23Z

NoellaXgt402: basic enhanced citations based on references also and fixed typos

{{short description|Species of fish}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Rohtee belangeri Achilles 147.jpg
| image2 = ꯄꯦꯡꯕꯥ (cropped).jpg
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Vishwanath, Waikhom |date=2010 |title=''Osteobrama belangeri'' |volume=2010 |article-number=e.T168218A6467894 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T168218A6467894.en |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref>
| taxon = Osteobrama belangeri
| authority = ([[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1844)
| synonyms = *''Leuciscus belangeri'' Valenciennes, 1844
*''Rohtee belangeri'' (Valenciennes, 1844)
*''Similiogaster belangeri'' (Valenciennes, 1844)
*''Systomus microlepis'' [[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1858
*''Osteobrama microlepis'' (Blyth, 1858)
*''Rohtee microlepis'' (Blyth, 1858)
*''Rohtee blythi'' [[Pieter Bleeker|Bleeker]], 1860
*''Osteobrama brevipectoralis'' (Tilak & Husain, 1989)
}}

'''''Osteobrama belangeri''''' ({{langx|mni|Pengba}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=H. Surmangol |date=2006 |title=Learners' Manipuri-English dictionary.Pengba |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/sharma_query.py?qs=pengba&matchtype=default |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=dsal.uchicago.edu}}</ref>) is a species of [[ray-finned fish]] in the genus ''[[Osteobrama]]''. It was found in the Indian state of [[Manipur]], but has been [[Local extinction|extirpated]] there and as of 2022 is found in the wild only in [[Myanmar]]. Farmed populations in Manipur and wild-caught fish from in Myanmar are used as food. The extirpation from Manipur was caused by dam building, habitat degradation and the introduction of [[Introduced species|alien species]] which caused the populations to fragment.<ref name="iucn status 18 November 2021" />

==Etymology==
The fish is named in honor of botanist and explorer [[Charles Paulus Bélanger]] (1805-1881), who collected the type specimen.<ref name = ETYFish>{{cite web | url = https://etyfish.org/smiliogastrinae/ | title = Family CYPRINIDAE: Subfamily SMILIOGASTRINAE Bleeker 1863 (Small Barbs) | access-date = 28 December 2025 | author1 = Christopher Scharpf | author2 = Kenneth J. Lazara | name-list-style = amp | work = The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database | publisher = Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara | date = 16 November 2025}}</ref>

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{FishBase|Osteobrama|belangeri}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2917788}}

[[Category:Osteobrama|Belangeri]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Achille Valenciennes]]
[[Category:Fish described in 1844]]

{{Cyprininae-stub}}

Indian Civil Service

2025-12-28T05:09:56Z

NoellaXgt402: Updated article with clearer structure

{{Short description|Civil service of India during British rule from 1858 to 1947}}
{{Distinguish|Civil Services of India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
The '''Indian Civil Service''' (abbreviated as '''ICS''', officially known as the '''Imperial Civil Service''') was the higher [[civil service]] of the [[British Raj]] in the period between 1858 and 1947.

Its members administered more than 300 million people<ref name="India Attitude">{{cite book| title=Anglo-Indian Attitudes: Mind of the Indian Civil Service|last=Dewey |first=Clive |date=July 1993 | publisher=A&C Black, 1993| isbn = 978-0-8264-3254-4}}</ref> in the [[presidencies and provinces of British India]] and were ultimately responsible for overseeing all government activity in the 250 districts of India. They were appointed under Section XXXII(32) of the [[Government of India Act 1858]],<ref name="ICS History">{{cite web|title=The Indian Civil Service|url=https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/india/ics.htm|access-date=18 September 2014|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803015831/https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/india/ics.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ICS Administer">{{cite web|title=Administering India: The Indian Civil Service|url=https://www.historytoday.com/ann-ewing/administering-india-indian-civil-service|access-date=18 September 2014|archive-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153222/https://www.historytoday.com/ann-ewing/administering-india-indian-civil-service|url-status=live}}</ref> enacted by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British Parliament]].<ref>Blunt, (1937)</ref> The ICS was headed by the [[Secretary of State for India]], a member of the [[British Cabinet]]. At first, almost all the top thousand members of the ICS, known as "Civilians", were British and had been educated in the best British schools.<ref name=AZ>Surjit Mansingh, ''The A to Z of India'' (2010), pp 288–90</ref>

At the time of the partition of [[India]] in 1947, the outgoing Government of India's ICS was divided between [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]].{{efn|ICS members in Pakistan was originally administering equally both [[West Pakistan]] and [[East Pakistan]]. However, Pakistan was split into two. West Pakistan is now renamed to [[Islamic Republic of Pakistan]], and East Pakistan is now renamed to [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]].}} Although these are now organised differently, the contemporary [[Civil Services of India]], the [[Central Superior Services of Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh Civil Service]], and [[Union Civil Service Board|Myanmar Civil Service]] are all descended from the old Indian Civil Service. Historians often rate the ICS, together with the railway system, the legal system, and the [[British Indian army|Indian Army]], as among the most important legacies of British Raj in India.<ref>Ramesh Kumar Arora and [[Rajni Goyal]], ''Indian public administration: institutions and issues'' (1995) p. 42; Ranbir Vohra, ''The making of India: a historical survey'' (2001) p 185</ref>

==History and origins==
{{Main|British Raj|Civil Service in early India}}
From 1858, after the demise of the [[East India Company]]'s rule in India, the British [[civil service]] took on its administrative responsibilities. The change in governance came about due to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], which came close to toppling British rule in the country.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmyVKwxmeyUC |title=In quest of Indian folktales: Pandit Ram Gharib Chaube and William Crooke |first=Sadhana |last=Naithani |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2006 |page=6 |isbn=978-0-253-34544-8}}</ref>

===Entry and setting===
{{Main|Aitchison Commission|Early Nationalists}}
Up to 1853, the Directors of the East India Company made appointments of covenanted civil servants by nomination. This nomination system was abolished by the [[British Parliament]] in 1853, and it was decided that appointments would be through competitive examinations of [[British subjects]], without distinction of race. The examination for admission to the service was first held only in [[London]] in August of each year.<ref>{{cite book| title= The India List and India Office List |year= 1905| publisher= [[India Office]]; [[India Office Records]]| author= }}</ref> All candidates were required to pass a horse-riding test.

{{Rquote|right|An appointment to the civil service of the Company will not be a matter of favour but a matter of right. He who obtains such an appointment will owe it solely to his own abilities and industry. It is undoubtedly desirable that the civil servants of the Company should have received the best, the most finished education that the native country affords (the Report insisted that the civil servants of the [[East India Company|Company]] should have taken the first degree in arts at Oxford or Cambridge Universities).|Macaulay Committee Report<ref name="ARC">{{cite web |url=http://arc.gov.in/10th/ARC_10thReport_Ch2.pdf |title=History of civil services in India and Reforms |author= |date=8 June 2011 |website=arc.gov.in |publisher=Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances, Government of India |location=[[New Delhi]] |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320162004/http://arc.gov.in/10th/ARC_10thReport_Ch2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
The competitive examination for entry to the civil service was combined for the Diplomatic, [[Civil Service (United Kingdom)|the Home]], the Indian, and the [[Colonial Service]]s. Candidates had to be aged between 18 and 23 to take the exam.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-11|title=Historical Perspective of The Indian Civil Services & The Union Public Service Commission|url=https://upscpathshala.com/content/historical-perspective-indian-civil-services-union-public-service-commission/|access-date=2020-07-23|website=upscpathshala.com|publisher=UPSC Pathshala|language=en-US|archive-date=4 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204201533/https://upscpathshala.com/content/historical-perspective-indian-civil-services-union-public-service-commission/|url-status=live}}</ref> The total marks possible in the examination were 1,900 and one could get up to three opportunities to enter.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} Successful candidates underwent one or two years of probation in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], according to whether they had taken the London or the Indian examination. This period<ref name="Colonial Service Training">{{cite web|title=The Colonial Service Training Courses : Professionalizing the Colonial Service|website=britishempire.co.uk|publisher=|url=http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/colonialservicetrainingcourses.htm|access-date=25 February 2016|archive-date=9 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309155639/http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/colonialservicetrainingcourses.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> was spent at the [[University of Oxford]] ([[Indian Institute]]), the [[University of Cambridge]], colleges in the [[University of London]] (including the [[School of Oriental Studies]]) or [[Trinity College Dublin]],<ref name="Colonial Service Training"/> where a candidate studied the law and institutions of India, including [[criminal law]] and the [[law of evidence]], which together gave knowledge of the revenue system, as well as reading Indian history and learning the language of the province to which they had been assigned.<ref name="Colonial Service Training"/>

The Early Nationalists,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Ralhan |editor-first=Om Prakash |title=Encyclopedia of Political Parties – India – Pakistan – Bangladesh – National – Regional – Local |volume=23. Moderate phrase in India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Anmol Publications |year=1995 |pages=29–36 |quote=The phase from 1885 to 1905 is known as the period of the Early Nationalists.}}</ref> also known as the Moderates,<ref>{{cite book |first=Robin J. |last=Porter |chapter=Imperial India, 1858–1914 |title=Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century |year=2001 |pages=345, 434}}</ref> worked for implementation of various social reforms such as the appointment of a Public Service Commission and a resolution of the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] (1893) allowing for simultaneous examination for the Indian Civil Service in London and India.

By 1920, there were five methods of entry into the higher civil service: the open competitive examinations in London, separate competitive examinations in India, nomination in India to satisfy provincial and communal representation, promotion from the Provincial Civil Service, and appointments from the bar (one-fourth of the posts in the ICS were to be filled from the bar).<ref>{{cite book| first1= Ramesh Kumar| last1= Arora |first2= Rajni |last2= Goyal| title= Indian public administration: Institutions and Issues| year= 1995| page= 43| isbn= | publisher= }}</ref>

==Uniform and dress==
{{multiple image
| total_width = 450
| image1 = Sir Henry Edward Stokes KCSI.JPG
| alt1 = Sir Henry Edward Stokes
| image2 = Sir Gabriel (1849-1920).JPG
| alt2 = Sir Gabriel Stokes
| image3 = V Narahari Rao in civil service uniform.jpg
| alt3 = V. Narahari Rao
| footer = [[Henry Stokes|Sir Henry Edward Stokes]], [[Gabriel Stokes|Sir Gabriel Stokes]] and [[V. Narahari Rao]] in the uniform of the Indian Civil Service.
}}

[[Queen Victoria]] had suggested that the civil servants in India should have an official [[dress uniform]] code, as did their counterparts in the [[Colonial Service]], but the [[Council of India]] decided that prescribing a dress uniform would be an undue expense for their officials.<ref name="Cohn 1996">{{cite book |title=Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India|last=Cohn |first=Bernard S.|year=1996 |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00043-5}}</ref>

The only civilians allowed a dress uniform by regulations were those who had distinct duties of a political kind to perform, and who were thereby brought into frequent and direct personal contact with native princes.<ref name="Cohn 1996"/> This uniform included a blue coat with gold embroidery, a black velvet lining, collar and cuffs, blue cloth trousers with gold and lace two inches wide, a [[Beaver hat|beaver]] [[cocked hat]] with black silk [[cockade]] and [[ostrich feather]]s, and a sword.<ref name="Cohn 1996"/>

==Nature and role==
{{Main|Aitchison Commission}}
The civil services were divided into two categories – covenanted and uncovenanted. The covenanted civil service consisted of British civil servants occupying the higher posts in the government. The uncovenanted civil service was introduced to facilitate the entry of Indians at the lower rung of the administration.<ref>Meghna Sabharwal, Evan M. Berman "Public Administration in South Asia: India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan (Public Administration and Public Policy)" (2013)</ref><ref name="CUC Civil Service">{{cite web |url=http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indiaofficerecordsfamilyhistory/occupations/civilservice/civilservice.html |title=Civil Service |date=8 June 2011 |publisher=The British Library |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925105401/http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indiaofficerecordsfamilyhistory/occupations/civilservice/civilservice.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Salary and ranks==
===Salary===
Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], pay scales were drawn up.<ref name="India Attitude"/> Assistant Commissioners started out in their early twenties on around £300 a year.<ref name="India Attitude"/> The governorship of a British province was the highest post an ICS officer could aspire to.<ref name="ICS HT History"/> The governors at the top of the pyramid got £6,000 a year plus allowances.<ref name="India Attitude"/> All ICS officers retired on the same pension of £1,000.<ref name="India Attitude"/> This sum was paid as an [[annuity]] each year after retirement. Widows of deceased officers were entitled to £300 a year, leading to a popular saying that an ICS marriage was worth "three hundred a year alive or dead".<ref>{{cite book|first=Philip|last=Mason|page=146|title=The Men who Ruled India|date=4 December 1987 |publisher=Pan Books |isbn=0-330-29621-3}}</ref> In the first decades of the twentieth century, the imbalance in salaries and emoluments was so great that 8,000 European officials together earned a total of £13,930,554, while 130,000 Indians in government service (not just those in the Indian Civil Service proper) were collectively paid a total of £3,284,163.<ref name="ICS Colonial">{{cite web|title=The Un-Indian Civil Service|date=10 August 2016|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/essay/the-un-indian-civil-service|publisher=[[Open (Indian magazine)|OPEN]]|access-date=18 May 2017|archive-date=22 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170522222644/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/essay/the-un-indian-civil-service|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Tenure and service===
ICS officers normally served for a minimum of twenty-five years, and there was a maximum service period of thirty-five years.<ref name="India Attitude"/> ICS officers served as political officers in the [[Indian Political Department]] and also were given fifty percent of the judgeships in the state high court (the rest were generally elevated from the high court bar).<ref name="ICS HT History">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/the-men-who-ran-the-raj/story-S6yQeWGkqIw7xzgRhH5wIO.html;jsessionid=125A208D67F92172A25F8BFDC9942813 |title=Archive: The men who ran the Raj |access-date=4 September 2016 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904100052/http://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/the-men-who-ran-the-raj/story-S6yQeWGkqIw7xzgRhH5wIO.html%3Bjsessionid%3D125A208D67F92172A25F8BFDC9942813 |archive-date=4 September 2016 }}</ref> The tenure of ICS officers serving as judges of the high court and Supreme Court was determined by the retirement age fixed for judges.<ref name="ICS HT History"/>
===Ranks===
Source:{{efn|As per published records and book named "The India List and India Office List 1905" as published by [[India Office]] and [[India Office Records]].}}{{efn|As per Warrant or Precedence of 1905.}}
* Central Government
** [[Secretary to Government of India]]
** [[Joint Secretary to Government of India]]
** Deputy Secretary
** Additional Deputy Secretary
** Under Secretary
** [[Assistant Secretary#India|Assistant Secretary to Government of India]]
* State Government
** [[Chief Secretary (British Empire)]]
** Secretary to the State Government
** Divisional Commissioner
** Deputy Commissioner / [[District Collector]]
** Assistant Commissioner
* Courts
** Judge of the State High Court
** District Judge

==Changes after 1912==
{{Rquote|right|If a responsible government is to be established in India, there will be a far greater need than is even dreamt of at present for persons to take part in public affairs in the legislative assemblies and elsewhere and for this reason the more Indians we can employ in the public service the better. Moreover, it would lessen the burden of Imperial responsibilities if a body of capable Indian administrators could be produced. |'''Regarding the importance of Indianising Civil Services, [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]]'''<ref name="Montagu–Chelmsford">{{cite book |title=A Comprehensive History of India, Volume 3 |first=Chopra |last=P. N. |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|year=2003 |isbn=978-81-207-2506-5}}</ref>}}
With the passing of the [[Government of India Act 1919]], the Imperial Services headed by the [[Secretary of State for India]], were split into two – [[All India Services]] and [[Central Civil Services|Central Services]].<ref name="Public Personnel Administration">{{cite book| title =Public Personnel Administration : Theory and Practice|last=Goel |first=S.L. |year=2008 | publisher=Deep and Deep Publications, 2008| isbn = 978-81-7629-395-2}}</ref>

Before the First World War, 95% of ICS officers were Europeans; after the war, the British government faced growing difficulties in recruiting British candidates to the service. With fewer young British men interested in joining, mainly due to the decreased levels of compensation compared to other careers,<ref name="Potter_ICS"/> and confronted with numerous vacancies, the government resorted to direct appointments; between 1915 and 1924, 80% of new British ICS appointees entered the service in this way. During the same period, 44% of new appointments to the ICS were filled by Indians.<ref name="Potter_ICS"/>

In 1922, Indian candidates were permitted to sit for the ICS examinations in Delhi; in 1924, the Lee Commission, chaired by [[Arthur Lee, 1st Viscount Lee of Fareham]] (which eventually led to the foundation of the Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commission under the [[Government of India Act 1935]]) made several recommendations: ICS officers should receive increased and more comprehensive levels of compensation, future batches of ICS officers should be composed of 40% Europeans and 40% Indians with the remaining 20% of appointments to be filled by direct promotion of Indians from the Provincial Civil Services (PCS), and the examinations in Delhi and London were to produce an equal number of ICS probationers.<ref name="Potter_ICS"/> In addition, under-representation of candidates from Indian minority groups (Muslims, Burmese and so on) would be corrected by direct appointments of qualified candidates from those groups, while British candidates would continue to have priority over Indians for ICS appointments.<ref name="Potter_ICS"/> While initially successful, the expansion of the Indian independence movement from the late 1920s resulted in a hardening of Indian attitudes against European officers, and furthered distrust of Indian ICS appointments amongst Indians. This resulted in a declining recruitment base in terms of quality and quantity.<ref name="Potter_ICS">David C. Potter, "Manpower Shortage and the End of Colonialism: The Case of Indian Civil Service," ''Modern Asian Studies'', (Jan 1973) 7#1 pp 47–73</ref>

The [[All India Services|All India]] and class 1 [[Central Civil Services of India|Central Services]] were designated as '''Central Superior Services''' as early as 1924.<ref name="Problems and Issues Administration">{{cite book| title =Problems and Issues in Administrative Federalism|last=Maheshwari |first=Shriram |year=1992 | publisher=Allied Publishers| isbn = 978-81-7023-342-8}}</ref> From 1924 to 1934, Administration in India consisted of "ten"<ref name="Problems and Issues Administration"/> All India Services and five central departments, all under the control of Secretary of State for India, and three central departments under joint Provincial and Imperial Control.

== After the Government of India Act 1935 ==
The finances of India under British rule depended largely on land taxes, and these became problematic in the 1930s. Epstein argues that after 1919, it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. The suppression of civil disobedience by the British after 1934 temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents, but after 1937, they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land. The outbreak of the [[World War II|Second World War]] strengthened them again, but in the face of the [[Quit India movement]], the revenue collectors had to rely on military force, and by 1946–47, direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside.<ref>Simon Epstein, 'District Officers in Decline: The Erosion of British Authority in the Bombay Countryside, 1919 to 1947' in ''Modern Asian Studies'', (May 1982) 16#3, pp 493–518</ref>

The outbreak of war in 1939 had immediate consequences for recruitment to the ICS. The examinations in London were suspended after that year's batch (12 British and eight Indian examinees) had qualified. In 1940 and 1941, 12 and four British candidates, respectively, were nominated to the ICS; the following year, the final London-nominated ICS candidates, both of whom were Indian, entered the service. Examinations continued to be held in Delhi for Indian candidates until 1943, when the last seven ICS officers (seven examinees, two nominated) joined. By this time, the British government felt it could no longer rely unambiguously on the complete loyalty of its Indian officers. During the period of the [[Interim Government of India]] (1946–1947), a few British candidates were given emergency appointments in the ICS, though ultimately none of them ever served in India.<ref name="Potter_ICS"/>

==Partition of India, dissolution, and subsequent service of officers==
At the time of the partition of India and departure of the British, in 1947, the Indian Civil Service was divided between the new [[Dominion]]s of [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]]. The part which went to India was named the [[Indian Administrative Service]] (IAS), while the part that went to Pakistan was named the "[[Central Superior Services of Pakistan|Civil Service of Pakistan]]" (CSP). In 1947, there were 980 ICS officers. 468 were Europeans, 352 Hindus, 101 Muslims, two depressed classes/Scheduled Castes, five domiciled Europeans and Anglo-Indians, 25 Indian Christians, 13 Parsis, 10 Sikhs, and four other communities.<ref name="ICS HT History"/> Many Hindus and Muslims went to India and Pakistan, respectively. This sudden loss of officer cadre caused major challenges in administering the nascent states.

Despite offers from the new Indian and Pakistani governments, virtually all of the European former ICS officers left following partition, with the majority of those who did not opt for retirement continuing their careers either in the British Home Civil Service or in another British colonial civil service.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=John |date=2016 |title=The Chaos of Empire: the British Raj and the Conquest of India |location=New York |publisher=PublicAffairs |pages=492–494 |isbn=978-1-61039-293-8 }}</ref> A few British ex-ICS officers stayed on over the ensuing quarter-century, notably those who had selected the "judicial side" of the ICS. The last British former ICS officer from the "judicial side" still serving in the subcontinent, Justice [[Donald Falshaw]] (ICS 1928), retired as Chief Justice of the Punjab High Court (now the [[Punjab and Haryana High Court]]) in May 1966,<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Last Briton Leaves Indian Service |work=The Times |date=12 May 1966 }}</ref><ref name="Becoming_Indian">{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=Douglas |date=2015 |title=Becoming Indian: William Broome and Colonial Continuity in Post-Independence India |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=303–331 |doi=10.1177/0376983615597167|s2cid=146608189 }}</ref> receiving a knighthood in the British [[1967 New Year Honours]] upon his return to Britain. [[J. P. L. Gwynn]] (ICS 1939), the last former ICS officer holding British nationality and the last to serve in an executive capacity under the Indian government, ended his Indian service in 1968 as Second Member of the Board of Revenue, but continued to serve in the British [[Civil Service (United Kingdom)|Home Civil Service]] until his final retirement in 1976.<ref>{{cite news |author=P. M. Gwynn |title=Obituary: J. P. L. Gwynn |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-j-p-l-gwynn-1126615.html |work=The Independent |date=17 November 1999 |access-date=8 February 2019 |archive-date=9 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209183102/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-j-p-l-gwynn-1126615.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=K. S. S. Seshan |title=JPL Gwynn: Smitten by the land and language |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/JPL-Gwynn-Smitten-by-the-land-and-language/article14425944.ece |work=The Hindu |date=16 June 2016 |access-date=8 February 2019 |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306092028/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/JPL-Gwynn-Smitten-by-the-land-and-language/article14425944.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

Justice [[William Broome (ICS)|William Broome]] (ICS 1932), a district and sessions judge at the time of independence in 1947, remained in Indian government service as a judge. Having married an Indian, Swarup Kumari Gaur, in 1937, with whom he raised a family, he eventually renounced his British citizenship in 1958 and became an Indian citizen with the personal intervention of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], himself a former barrister who regarded Broome as a distinguished jurist and as "much as Indian as anybody can be who is not born in India". Upon his retirement on 18 March 1972 from the [[Allahabad High Court]] as its most senior [[puisne judge]], Broome was the last former ICS officer of European origin serving in India.<ref name="Becoming_Indian"/>

[[Nirmal Kumar Mukarji]] (ICS 1943), a member of the final batch recruited to the ICS, who retired as Cabinet Secretary in April 1980, was the last Indian administrative officer who had originally joined as an ICS.<ref name="ICS HT History"/> The last former ICS officer to retire, [[Aftab Ghulam Nabi Kazi]] (also a member of the final ICS batch of 1943),<ref>{{cite book|pages=241|title=The India Office and Burma Office List: 1947|publisher=Harrison & Sons, Ltd.|year=1947}}</ref> retired as Chairman of the [[Pakistan Board of Investment]] in 1994. The last living British ex-ICS officer, [[Ian Dixon Scott]] (ICS 1932), died in 2002. [[V. K. Rao]] (ICS 1937), the last living ICS officer to have joined the service in a regular pre-war intake, died in 2018. He was a retired Chief Secretary of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and was the oldest former ICS officer on record at the time of his death. [[V.M.M. Nair]] (ICS 1942) transferred to the Indian Political Service in 1946 and then to the [[Indian Foreign Service]] after independence, retiring in 1977 as Ambassador to Spain. At his death in 2021, he was the last surviving former Indian Civil Service officer.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=6 October 2021 |title=Ex-diplomat V.M.M. Nair passes away |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ex-diplomat-vmm-nair-passes-away/article36867844.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=6 October 2021 |archive-date=6 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006182444/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ex-diplomat-vmm-nair-passes-away/article36867844.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Criticism and support==
{{Rquote|right|If you take that steel frame out of the fabric, it will collapse. There is one institution we will not cripple, there is one institution we will not deprive of its functions or of its privileges; and that is the institution which built up the British Raj – the British Civil Service of India.|''' [[David Lloyd George]], then [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] on the Imperial Civil Service'''<ref name="ICS India Lloyd George ">{{cite book |url=http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Mobile&sd=Articles&ArticleID=15210|title=One Who Forged India's Steel Frame |first=H.N|last=Bali |publisher=Boloji |year=2013}}</ref>}}
Dewey has commented that "in their heyday they [Indian Civil Service officers] were mostly run by Englishmen, with a few notable sons of Hindus and even fewer Muslims were the most powerful officials in the Empire, if not the world. A tiny cadre, a little over a thousand strong, ruled more than 300 million Indians. Each Civilian had an average of 300,000 subjects, and each Civilian penetrated every corner of his subjects' lives, because the Indian Civil Service directed all the activities of the Anglo-Indian state."<ref>{{cite book |first=Clive |last=Dewey |year=1993 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geSAtVIMJtsC |title=Anglo-Indian attitudes: the mind of the Indian Civil Service |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-85285-097-5}}</ref>

The ICS had responsibility for maintaining law and order, and often were at loggerheads with the independence activists during the [[Indian independence movement]]. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] often ridiculed the ICS for its support of British policies. He noted that someone had once defined the Indian Civil Service, "with which we are unfortunately still afflicted in this country, as neither Indian, nor civil, nor a service".<ref>Jawaharlal Nehru, ''Glimpses of world history: being further letters to his daughter'' (Lindsay Drummond Ltd., 1949), p. 94</ref> As Prime Minister, Nehru retained the organisation and its top people, albeit with a change of title to the "Indian Administrative Service". It continued its main roles. Nehru appointed long-time ICS officials [[Chintaman Deshmukh]] as his Finance Minister, and [[K. P. S. Menon (senior)|K. P. S. Menon]] as his Foreign Secretary. [[Sardar Patel]] appreciated their role in keeping India united after partition, and noted in Parliament that without them, the country would have collapsed.

[[File:ICS Commemoration Westminster Abbey.jpg|thumb|Commemoration of the Indian Civil Services at Westminster Abbey, London]]

==Members==
{{See also|Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers}}
At Independence, there were 980 ICS officers including 468 British, 352 Hindus, 101 Muslims, 25 Indian Christians, 13 Parsis, 10 Sikhs and 11 from other communities.<ref name="ICS3">{{cite web|title=Last Of The Indian Civil Service (ICS)|url=https://thefridaytimes.com/23-Apr-2022/last-of-the-indian-civil-service-ics|publisher=[[The Friday Times]]|access-date=1 August 2025|archive-date=1 August 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250801143715/https://thefridaytimes.com/23-Apr-2022/last-of-the-indian-civil-service-ics|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> ICS officers went to serve as [[Judges of the International Court of Justice]]{{efn|[[B. N. Rau]] and [[Nagendra Singh]]}}, [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]]{{efn|[[Chaudhri Muhammad Ali]]}}, 13 [[Cabinet Secretary (India)|Cabinet Secretaries of India]].

Many members were receipients of [[Order of chivalry|orders of chivalry]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of Secretaries to Government of India of the President of India |url=https://www.rashtrapatibhavan.gov.in/sites/default/files/RTI/listofsecy.pdf |website=Rashtrapati Bhavan |publisher=Government of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203005632/https://www.rashtrapatibhavan.gov.in/sites/default/files/RTI/listofsecy.pdf|archive-date=3 December 2024}}</ref> namely - [[Order of the Indian Empire]], [[Order of the British Empire]], [[Order of the Star of India]] and [[Knight Bachelor]]. They were also awarded the title of honor [[Rai Bahadur]].

===Female members===
No women were ever formally recruited into the ICS between 1858 and 1947. The service was exclusively male until its final years. Women were appointed only at the level of clerks (as typists and lowly clerical assistants), concentrated in the lower echelons of the uncovenanted civil service.<ref name="Women Civil Services">{{cite book |title=Women in the Civil Services - Gender and Workplace Identities in India|last=Gonsalves |first=Trijita|year=2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781000601275}}</ref>

===Notable members===
[[K. K. Nayar]] played a crucial role in [[Ayodhya dispute|Ayodhya Ram Janmabhoomi dispute]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2015-03-15 |title=City of 'New Delhi' was named on Dec 31, 1926 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/city-of-new-delhi-was-named-on-dec-31-1926/articleshow/46571432.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-01-25 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Indian members of the Indian Civil Service]]
* [[Public service commissions in India|List of Public service commissions in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==Further reading==
* Blunt, Edward. ''The I.C.S.: The Indian Civil Service'' (1937)
* Burra, Arudra. "The Indian Civil Service and the Nationalist Movement: Neutrality, Politics and Continuity," ''Commonwealth & Comparative Politics,'' Nov 2010, 48#4 pp 404–432
* Dewey, Clive. ''Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service'' (1993)
* Ewing, Ann. "Administering India: The Indian Civil Service," ''History Today'', June 1982, 32#6 pp 43–48, covers 1858–1947
* Gilmour, David. ''The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Ruling-Caste-Imperial-Lives-Victorian/dp/0374530807/ excerpt and text search]
* Gould, William. "The Dual State: The Unruly 'Subordinate', Caste, Community and Civil Service Recruitment in North India, 1930–1955," ''Journal of Historical Sociology,'' Mar-June 2007, Vol. 20 Issue 1/2, pp 13–43
* Kisch, H. M.; Ethel A. Waley-Cohen (ed.) ''A Young Victorian in India: Letters of H. M. Kisch of the Indian Civil Service'' (1957)
* Krishna, Anirudh. "Continuity and change: the Indian administrative service 30 years ago and today," ''Commonwealth & Comparative Politics,'' Nov 2010, 48#4 pp 433–444
* MacMillan, Margaret. ''Women of the Raj: The Mothers, Wives, and Daughters of the British Empire in India'' (2007)
* Masani, Zareer. ''Indian Tales of the Raj'' (1990), interviews with retired ICS officers about pre-1947 days
* Potter, David C. ''India's Political Administrators,1919–1983'' (1987) 289pp; the standard scholarly history
* Potter, David C. "The Last of the Indian Civil Service," ''South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies'' (Apr 1979), Vol. 2 Issue 1/2, pp 19–29
* Potter, David C. "Manpower Shortage and the End of Colonialism: The Case of Indian Civil Service," ''Modern Asian Studies'', (Jan 1973) 7#1 pp 47–73 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/312036 in JSTOR]
* Sharma, Malti. ''Indianization of the Civil Services in British India, 1858–1935'' (2001)
* Saumarez Smith, W. H.. ''A Young Man's Country: Letters of a Subdivisional Officer of the Indian Civil Service 1936-1937'' (1977)
* {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Vincent Arthur |author-link1=Vincent Arthur Smith |title=[[s:The Indian Civil Service as a Profession|The Indian Civil Service as a Profession]] |date=1903 |publisher=Hodges, Figgis, & Co., Ltd. |location=Dublin |edition=1 |language=en}}
* Thakur, R.N. ''The All India Services: A Study of their Origin & Growth'' (1969)

==External links==
{{Commons category|Indian Civil Service}}
*[https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/india/ics.htm The Indian Civil Service]

{{Standardized tests in India}}
{{Public Service Commissions in India}}
{{Public Services of India}}
{{Civil service}}
{{Indian military academies and colleges}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian Civil Service|Indian Civil Service]]
[[Category:Government of British India]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1858]]
[[Category:Government agencies disestablished in 1947]]

Chattar Manzil

2025-12-12T12:45:11Z

NoellaXgt402: slightly update intro for consistency also for accuracy

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Chattar Manzil
| native_language = Hindi
| image = Chattar Manzil1.jpg
| image_size = 180px
| caption = Chattar Manzil in 2013
| coordinates = {{Coord|26|51|31.29|N|80|55|56.62|E|scale:1563}}
| location = [[Lucknow]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| height =
| built =
| architect =
| architecture = [[Mughal architecture]]
| locmapin = India
| map_caption = Location in eastern Uttar Pradesh, India
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
}}
The '''Chattar Manzil''' ({{langx|ur|{{nastaliq|چھتر منزل}}}}, {{langx|hi|छतर मंज़िल}}), or '''Umbrella Palace''' is a building in [[Lucknow]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] which served as a palace for the [[Nawabs of Awadh|rulers of Awadh and their wives]].<ref name="Fire of Grace">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M84TwBhNfCsC&q=Chattar+Manzil&pg=PT46 |title=Lucknow:Fire of Grace |isbn=9788129104854|last1=Misra |first1=Amaresh |year=2004 }}</ref>

[[File:Chattar Manzil.jpg|thumb|Chattar Manzil between 1858 - 1860 ]]

==Construction and architecture==

[[File:Bara Chattar Manzil and Farhat Bakhsh - view from the south - Lucknow in 1862.jpg|thumb|Bara Chattar Manzil (palace on right) and Farhat Bakhsh (left) in Lucknow, viewed from the south (1862) Shepherd & Roberston]]

It was constructed by order of [[Nawab]] [[Ghazi-ud-Din Haider|Ghazi Uddin Haider]] and completed after his death by his successor, Nawab [[Nasiruddin Haider|Nasir Uddin Haider]].<ref name="lucknow1">{{cite web|url=http://www.lucknow.org.uk/tourist-attractions/chattar-manzil.html |title=Chattar Manzil – Chattar Manzil Lucknow – Chattar Manzil in Lucknow India |publisher=Lucknow.org.uk |accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref><ref name="lucknow2">{{cite web|title=Save Our Heritage : Chattar Manzil, Lucknow|url=https://lucknow.me/save-our-heritage-chattar-manzil-lucknow/|website=lucknow.me|date=21 December 2013 |accessdate=15 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="indiatimes2007">{{cite web|agency=Times News Network|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Chattar-Manzil-set-to-come-alive/articleshow/2316381.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140212132055/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-08-28/lucknow/27995454_1_building-central-drug-research-institute-monument |url-status=live |archive-date=2014-02-12 |title=Chattar Manzil set to come alive |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2014-02-12}}</ref>

The Chattar Manzil stand on the banks of the [[River Gomti]]. The Chattar Manzil consisted of a ''Bari'' (larger) Chattar Manzil and ''Chhoti'' (smaller) Chattar Manzil, however only the larger one still exists. These two buildings were examples of the Indo-European-Nawabi architectural style, even though the Bari Chattar Manzil has been altered over the years. The palaces were named after the chattris (umbrella-shaped domes) on the octagonal pavilions, which crown the buildings.<ref name="Bl.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/t/019pho000000883u00032000.html |title=The Chattar Manzil Palace from the river, Lucknow |publisher=Bl.uk |date=2003-11-30 |accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> The imposing building has large underground rooms and a dome surmounted by a gilt umbrella.<ref name="Fire of Grace"/><ref name="lucknow1"/><ref name="lucknow2"/>

==Usage==



The Palace has gone through many owners including the [[Nawabs of Awadh]] [[Saadat Ali Khan II|Saadat Ali Khan]] and [[Wajid Ali Shah]], and the [[British Raj|British]] and changes since its construction was started in the 1780s.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/chattar-manzil-then-and-now/article5667015.ece |title=Chattar Manzil, then and now |newspaper=The Hindu |date=2014-02-08 |accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref>

It served as a palace for the rulers of Awadh and their wives. Later during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] the building became a stronghold of the Indian revolutionaries.<ref name="indiatimes2007"/>

A portion of it was destroyed by [[United Kingdom|British]] during the [[war of 1857]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saveourheritage.in/chattar-manzil/ |title=Save Our Heritage : Chattar Manzil, Lucknow | Save Our Heritage |publisher=Saveourheritage.in |date=2013-12-21 |accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref> After the war of 1857 [[British raj|the government]] had allotted the building to an [[United States|America]]n [[NGO]] which used it as a club for recreation purposes, till 1947, the Chhatar Manzil was used as the [[United Services Club]].<ref name="lucknow1"/><ref name="indiatimes2007"/>

Post Independence, this building was allotted to the [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]] which used it as [[Central Drug Research Institute]] since 1950,<ref name="lucknow1"/><ref name="indiatimes2007"/> but now it has been vacated by CDRI.<ref name="lucknow2"/>

[[Government of Uttar Pradesh]] plans to set up two museums and a library at the Palace after its renovation and conservation by the State Archaeological Department.<ref name="thehindu"/>

==Popular culture==
From the time of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] it was often photographed by such figures as [[Felice Beato]], [[Samuel Bourne]],<ref name="Bl.uk"/> [[Darogha Ubbas Alli]], and [[Thomas Rust (photographer)|Thomas Rust]].

In December 2013 a two-day Wajid Ali Shah Festival was organized by filmmaker Muzaffar Ali's Rumi Foundation at Chattar Manzil to pay tribute to the Nawab of Oudh.<ref>{{cite web|last=Zia |first=Hassan |url=http://twocircles.net/2013dec23/nawab_wajid_ali_shah_festival_revamps_essence_chattar_manzil.html |title=Nawab Wajid Ali Shah festival revamps essence of Chattar Manzil |publisher=TwoCircles.net |date=2013-12-23 |accessdate=2014-02-12}}</ref>

Hindi film [[Jolly LLB 2]] was shot in Chattar Manzil.<ref>{{cite news|title=Jolly LLB 2: Akshay Kumar lauds UP film policy|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/jolly-llb-2-akshay-kumar-lauds-up-film-policy/story-V9zcdUs391Ouwk0HmdUoII.html|accessdate=15 April 2017|work=Hindustan Times|date=17 August 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Shukla|first=J. D.|title=History of Chattar Manzil|date=1976|publisher=Central Drug Research Institute|location=India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1BB5AAAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite news|last=Bayley|first=Stephan|title=All for the love of his wife!|url=http://www.thelucknowtribune.org/news.php?cat=524|accessdate=12 February 2014|newspaper=The Lucknow Tribune|date=12 March 2013|location=Lucknow|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222005836/http://www.thelucknowtribune.org/news.php?cat=524|archive-date=22 February 2014|url-status=dead}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Chattar Manzil}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060703051908/http://lucknow.nic.in/hplaces.htm NIC District Unit, Lucknow. ''Historical Places At Lucknow'']. Accessed 2 November 2006.

[[Category:Palaces in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Lucknow]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Lucknow]]

Kerala State Election Commission

2025-12-09T06:39:34Z

NoellaXgt402: created page!

{{Short description|Body charged with assuring fair elections in Kerala}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Kerala State Election Commission
| nativename =
| nativename_a = '''സംസ്ഥാന തിരഞ്ഞെടുപ്പ് കമ്മീഷൻ, കേരളം'''
| nativename_r =
| logo = Kerala State Election Commission Logo.png
| logo_width = 140
| logo_caption =
| type =
| seal =
| seal_width =
| seal_caption =
| formed = 3 December 1993<ref name="ksc ref1">{{cite news |title=Kerala State Election Commission |url=https://www.sec.kerala.gov.in/public/know_more |access-date=15 December 2021 |publisher=www.sec.kerala.gov.in}}</ref>
| preceding1 =
| preceding2 =
| dissolved =
| superseding =
| jurisdiction = [[Kerala]]
| headquarters = Vikas Bhavan P.O, [[Thiruvananthapuram]] - 695 033
| employees =
| budget =
| minister1_name =
| minister1_pfo =
| minister2_name =
| minister2_pfo =
| chief1_name = A.Shajahan IAS (Rtd)
| chief1_position = State Election Commissioner.
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| chief3_name =
| chief3_position =
| chief4_name =
| chief4_position =
| chief5_name =
| chief5_position =
| chief6_name =
| chief6_position =
| chief7_name =
| chief7_position =
| chief8_name =
| chief8_position =
| chief9_name =
| chief9_position =
| parent_department =
| parent_agency =
| website = {{URL|https://www.sec.kerala.gov.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Kerala State Election Commission''' is an [[Autonomy|autonomous]] [[Constitutional institution|constitutional body]] constituted in the Indian state of [[Kerala]] for supervising and conducting [[Elections in Kerala|elections]] to the [[Local government in Kerala|local self-government institutions]], ensuring that the electoral process is free, fair, and unbiased.<ref name="sec ref3" /> [[Constitution of India]] with provisions as per Article 243K and 243 ZA and Article 324 ensures creation and safeguarding of the powers of [[States Election Commission (India)|State Election Commissions]]. The Kerala State Election Commission is responsible for conducting elections for Urban Local Bodies like [[Municipalities of Kerala|Municipalities]] and [[List of municipal corporations in Kerala|Municipal Corporations]], as well as Rural Local Bodies like [[Panchayati raj in India|Panchayats]] (which include ''Gram Panchayats'', ''Block Panchayats'', and ''District Panchayats''), and any others specified by the [[Election Commission of India]]. Kerala State Election Commissioner is appointed by the [[Governor (India)|Governor]] of Kerala.

== History and Administration ==

Kerala State Election Commission was formed in accordance with powers of Election Commission of India, which was constituted in year 1950<ref name="sec ref1">{{cite news |title=WHAT IS ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA (ECI)? |url=https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-election-commission-of-india#collapse |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=Business Standard India}}</ref> to supervise state level elections.<ref name="sec ref3">{{cite news |title=State election panels: Independent of central EC, with similar powers |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/state-election-panels-independent-of-central-ec-with-similar-powers-5132220/ |access-date=6 December 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=12 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref> State election commissioner is appointed by Governor.<ref name="sec ref2">{{cite news |title=India Code: Section Details |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show-data?actid=AC_CEN_18_21_00005_199426_1517807320414&sectionId=42788&sectionno=98&orderno=98 |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=www.indiacode.nic.in}}</ref><ref name="sec ref6">{{cite news |title=State Election Commissioner Conditions of Service Rules, 1994 |url=http://www.bareactslive.com/HRY/HL534.HTM |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=www.bareactslive.com |archive-date=6 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206113835/http://www.bareactslive.com/HRY/HL534.HTM |url-status=dead }}</ref> To ensure the autonomy of the position, the Kerala state election commissioner cannot be removed from office except on the grounds and manner specified for [[judge]] of [[High courts of India|High Court]].

Kerala State Election Commission operates from Vikas Bhavan premises, located near Kerala State Assembly premises.<ref name="kse ref 6">{{cite news |title=CM inaugurates new HQ of State Election Commission |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2020/may/29/cm-inaugurates-new-hq-of-state-election-commission-2149313.html |access-date=16 December 2021 |publisher=The New Indian Express |date=29 May 2021}}</ref>

== Powers and Responsibilities ==

Kerala States Election Commissioner is responsible for the following:<ref name="sec ref1" /><ref name="sec ref7">{{cite news |title=Election Commission directs all state electoral officers to immediately redress all pending voter applications |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/election-commission-directs-state-electoral-officers-immediately-redress-pending-voter-applications-1503026387.html |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=The Statesman |date=23 November 2021}}</ref>

* Releasing election schedule.
* Issue notification containing guidelines for conducting elections for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Conducting elections for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Issue notification containing guidelines for conducting elections for conducting elections for Municipalities in State.
* Conducting elections for Municipalities in State.<ref name="kse ref5">{{cite news |title=Local Body Election Dates To Be Announced Soon; Polls Likely Before 10 Dec |url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/english/news/kerala/kerala-local-body-elections-2020/3025 |access-date=16 December 2021 |publisher=Deshabhimani |date=1 November 2020 |language=en |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216114001/https://www.deshabhimani.com/english/news/kerala/kerala-local-body-elections-2020/3025 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="kse ref7">{{cite news |title=Kerala: State Election Commission issues official notification for local body election today |url=https://newsonair.gov.in/News?title=Kerala%3A-State-Election-Commission-issues-official-notification-for-local-body-election-today&id=404132 |access-date=16 December 2021 |publisher=newsonair.gov.in |date=12 November 2020}}</ref>
* Laying guidelines for persons eligible to contest in elections for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Conducting elections for Municipalities in State.<ref name="kse ref 8">{{cite news |last1=Unnithan |first1=P. S. Gopikrishnan |title=Kerala: Local body elections to be held in 3 phases, counting of votes on December 16 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kerala-local-body-elections-to-be-held-in-3-phases-counting-of-votes-on-december-16-1738660-2020-11-06 |access-date=16 December 2021 |publisher=India Today |date=6 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* Model code of conduct are following in elections for local bodies.<ref name="kse ref3">{{cite news |title=State Election Commission Seeks Explanation from Kerala CM on Free Covid-19 Vaccine Announcement |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/state-election-commission-seeks-explanation-from-kerala-cm-on-free-covid-19-vaccine-announcement-3177938.html |access-date=16 December 2021 |publisher=News18 |date=14 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* Updating Electoral rolls with new additions.
* Updating Electoral rolls with removals, if any.
* Declaration of results of elections held for Municipal Corporations in State.
* Declaration of results of elections held for Municipalities in State.
* Ordering repoll if needed.
* Making arrangements for Statewide polls.
* Monitoring poll expenditure for Panchayat and Municipalities polls.
* Laying guidelines for issue of opinion polls.
* Decision on conducting elections.
* Declaring results of local body polls.
* Municipal and Panchayat constituencies delimitation exercise.
* Countermanding elections in case of malpractices.

== Composition ==

Kerala State Election Commission is headed by the State Election Commissioner and as many members as specified in State Act.<ref name="kse ref4">{{cite news |title=Kerala gets new chief electoral officer |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/kerala-gets-new-chief-electoral-officer-1.5811178 |access-date=16 December 2021 |publisher=Mathrubhumi |date=7 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> State Election Commissioners are independent persons not holding position or office in any Central or State Government organisations<ref name="sec ref5">{{cite news |title=State election commissioners should be independent, says SC |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/state-election-commissioners-should-be-independent-says-sc/cid/1809411 |publisher=www.telegraphindia.com |date=13 March 2021}}</ref> The State Election Commissioner is appointed by the [[List of governors of Kerala|Governor of Kerala]]. The Secretary is the chief administrative officer of the State Election Commission. The Secretary heads the Commission’s secretariat and is responsible for implementing the directions of the State Election Commissioner.

Sri A.Shajahan IAS, is the Chief Election Commissioner of Kerala State Election Commission.<ref name="ksec ref2">{{cite news |title=Shajahan is new SEC |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/shajahan-is-new-sec/article34207678.ece |access-date=15 December 2021 |publisher=The Hindu |date=31 March 2021 |language=en-IN}}</ref> His period of service will be 5 years or attaining an age of 65 years whichever is earlier.
==Election machinery==
At the district level, the [[District Collector]] is designated as the District Election Officer (DEO) for conducting elections to local self-government institutions (LSGIs). The Deputy Collector (Election) functions as the Assistant District Election Officer (ADEO), assisting the DEO in all election-related responsibilities.
The District Collector also acts as the Returning Officer for District Panchayat elections.<ref name="sec ref3" />

Officers from the [[Department of Revenue and Land Survey|Revenue Department]], [[Local Self Government Department (Kerala)|Local Self Government Department]] and other officials from various [[List of departments and agencies of the Government of Kerala|government departments]] will assist the State Election Commission for the conduction of the Election. The commission authorize such officers to various duties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=https://sec.kerala.gov.in/public/know_more_new |url=https://www.sec.kerala.gov.in/public/know_more_new |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250803191231/https://www.sec.kerala.gov.in/public/know_more_new |archive-date=2025-08-03 |access-date=2025-12-05 |website=sec.kerala.gov.in |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Constitutional Requirements ==

Kerala State Election Commission was formed after amendment of Constitution with 73rd and 74th declaration.<ref name="sec ref4">{{cite news |title=India State Election - Find information of all State elections in India |url=https://www.elections.in/state-elections.html |access-date=6 December 2021 |publisher=www.elections.in}}</ref> State Election Commissions were formed as per Article 243K of the Constitution, similar to setting up of Election commission of India as per Article 324.<ref name="sec ref3" />

== See also ==

* [[Election Commission of India]].

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.sec.kerala.gov.in/ Official Website]
* [http://www.ceo.kerala.gov.in/home.html Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223002912/http://ceo.kerala.gov.in/home.html |date=2017-02-23 }}

{{State agencies of Kerala}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:State election commissioners of India]]
[[Category:Local elections in Kerala]]

Hapa railway station

2025-11-18T16:59:40Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{short description|Railway station in Gujarat, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Hapa railway station
| type = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] [[Indian Railways]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| address = [[Jamnagar]], [[Gujarat]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|22.4686|70.1181|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| elevation = {{convert|16|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| line = [[Viramgam–Okha line]]
| other =
| structure = Standard
| platform = 3
| tracks = 1
| parking = Yes
| baggage_check =
| opened =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = Yes
| accessible =
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = HAPA
| zone = [[Western Railway zone|Western Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Rajkot}}
}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Western Railway zone|Western Railway]]
| status = Functioning
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| map_type = India Gujarat#India
| map_dot_label = Hapa railway station
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = Location in [[Gujarat]]##Location in India
}}
'''Hapa railway station''' is a railway station in the city of [[Jamnagar]] in [[Gujarat]], India. It is located in the [[Western Railway zone]] of Rajkot Division. Hapa railway station is located in Hapa tehsil of [[Jamnagar district]] and lies on the eastern outskirts of Jamnagar. A few express passenger trains originate and terminate at Hapa. [[Saurashtra Express]], [[Saurashtra Mail]] and some other trains also halt at Hapa.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/indian-railway/hapa-hapa-station |title=Hapa railway station (HAPA) : Station Code, Time Table, Map, Enquiry |publisher=[[NDTV]] |location=India |access-date=2018-01-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://indiarailinfo.com/departures/hapa-hapa/1663| title=HAPA/Hapa| website=India Rail Info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.raildrishti.in/raildrishti/IRDBStationPDF.jsp?stncode=HAPA| title=HAPA:Passenger Amenities Details As on : 31/03/2018 Division : Rajkot| website=Raildrishti}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.raildrishti.in/raildrishti/IRDBStationTimeTable.jsp?stncode=HAPA| title=HAPA/Hapa| website=Raildrishti}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.gujaratsamachar.com/news/madhya-gujarat/special-trains-between-hapa-santragachi| title=હાપા-સંતરાગાછી વચ્ચે સ્પેશિયલ ટ્રેન દોડાવાશે
| website=Gujarat Samachar}}</ref>

==Major trains==
The train which originates from Hapa are :
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="background:#fff;"
|-
!scope="col"| Train No.
!scope="col"| Train name
!scope="col"| Destination
|-
|12475 / 12476
|[[Hapa–Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Katra Superfast Express]]
|[[Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Katra railway station|Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Katra]]
|-
|22907 / 22908
|[[Madgaon–Hapa Superfast Express]]
|[[Madgaon Junction railway station|Madgaon]]
|-
|22939 / 22940
|[[Hapa–Bilaspur Superfast Express]]<ref>{{cite web| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/New-train-between-Hapa-Bilaspur-from-Nov-18/articleshow/45078068.cms| title=New Train between Hapa and Bilaspur from Nov 18, 2014| website=Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/Jamnagar-MP-flags-off-Hapa-Bilaspur-train/articleshow/45114468.cms| title=Jamnagar MP flags off Hapa-Bilaspur train, Date:11/11/2014 | website=Times of India}}</ref>
|[[Bilaspur Junction railway station|Bilaspur]]
|-
|12267 / 12268
|[[Mumbai Central–Hapa Duronto Express]]
|[[Mumbai Central railway station|Mumbai Central]]
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Railway stations in Gujarat}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Jamnagar district]]
[[Category:Rajkot railway division]]
[[Category:Transport in Jamnagar]]

{{Gujarat-railstation-stub}}

Talap Town

2025-11-17T04:05:29Z

NoellaXgt402:

{{Short description|Town in India}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Talap Town
| other_name = Talap
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = as
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = India Assam#India
| pushpin_map_caption = Map of Assam
| coordinates = {{coord|27.6856|95.5735|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Assam]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Tinsukia district|Tinsukia]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Subdivision (India)|Subdivision]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Doom Dooma]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| seat_type =
| seat =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_m = 128
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 2674
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 786156
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in India|STD Code]]
| area_code =
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Census of India|Census]] code
| blank_info_sec1 = 290175
| footnotes =
| pushpin_map_alt = Tinsukia district
| area_total_ha = 28.95
| official_name = Talap Town
}}
'''Talap''' is a town in [[Tinsukia district]], [[Assam]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chari |first1=P. R. |last2=Chandran |first2=D. Suba |title=Armed conflicts in South Asia 2013 : transitions |year=2014 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |location=London |isbn=9781317324676 |pages=208}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Saikia |first=Arunabh |title=This Assam town hasn't forgotten how the Army took away five civilians and killed them in 1994 |url=https://scroll.in/article/898739/this-assam-town-hasnt-forgotten-how-the-army-took-away-five-civilians-and-killed-them-in-1994 |access-date=27 August 2022 |publisher=[[Scroll.in]] |date=19 October 2018}}</ref>

As of the 2011 Census of India, Talap has a total population of 2,674 people including 1,393 males and 1,281 females. The literacy rate of the Talap per the census is 80.4%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Primary census abstract at town, village and ward level, Assam - District Tinsukia - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/6500/download/9577/DDW_PCA1810_2011_MDDS%20with%20UI.xlsx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703062835/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/6500/download/9577/DDW_PCA1810_2011_MDDS%20with%20UI.xlsx |archive-date=3 July 2022 |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Tinsukia district]]

{{Assam-geo-stub}}

Jagdishpur subdivision

2025-11-04T10:21:54Z

NoellaXgt402: created a post!

{{Short description|Administrative subdivision in Bhojpur district, Bihar, India}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jagdishpur subdivision
| settlement_type = Subdivision
| coordinates = {{coord|25.4592456|84.4170010|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map = India Bihar#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bihar, India
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flagicon|India}} [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Bihar]]
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Jagdishpur]]
| area_total_km2 = 232.13
| population_total = 263959
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = Hindi
| demographics2_title1 = Regional
| demographics2_info1 = Bhojpuri
| timezone1 = IST
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = PIN
| postal_code = 802158
| registration_plate = BR-03
}}

'''Jagdishpur subdivision''' is an administrative subdivision of [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] in the Indian state of [[Bihar]]. Its administrative headquarters is the town of [[Jagdishpur]]. As recorded in the [[2011 census of India|2011 Census of India]] the subdivision covers an area of approximately 232.13 km2 and had a population of 263,959. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/260/download/690/DH_2011_1029_PART_A_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part A – Village and Town Directory |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/261/download/694/DH_2011_1029_PART_B_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part B – Primary Census Abstract |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

==Geography==
Jagdishpur subdivision lies in the plains of central Bihar, south-west of the district headquarter Arrah. The area is part of the broad Gangetic alluvial plain — largely flat, fertile and composed of recent alluvium deposited by the Ganges and its tributaries. Soils are generally silty and the subdivision has extensive agricultural land. Parts of the district, including low-lying tracts near the Ganges floodplain, are prone to seasonal inundation during the monsoon; groundwater quality and local [[hydrogeology]] have been documented by the Central Ground Water Board. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cgwb.gov.in/old_website/District_Profile/Bihar/Bhojpur.pdf |title=District Groundwater Brochure: Bhojpur |publisher=Central Ground Water Board |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

==Administration==
Jagdishpur subdivision is one of three sub-divisions in Bhojpur district (the others being Ara Sadar and Piro). The subdivision contains three Community Development (CD) Blocks as listed on the official Bhojpur district portal:
* Jagdishpur block
* Bihiya (Behea) block
* Shahpur block. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://bhojpur.nic.in/subdivision-blocks/ |title=Subdivision & Blocks |publisher=District Bhojpur (Official website) |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

The Sub-Divisional Magistrate (SDM) and associated offices for Jagdishpur handle routine administration, revenue and development work for the three blocks. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://bhojpur.nic.in/district-administration/ |title=District Administration |publisher=District Bhojpur (Official website) |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

==Demographics==
As per the 2011 Census (District Census Handbook — Bhojpur; PCA/Town & Village Directory), Jagdishpur subdivision had a total population of 263,959 (rural population 231,512; urban population 32,447 — the latter being the Jagdishpur nagar panchayat). <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/260/download/690/DH_2011_1029_PART_A_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part A |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

Key indicators from the 2011 census for the subdivision and its urban centre include:
* Total population (2011): 263,959 (subdivision). <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/261/download/694/DH_2011_1029_PART_B_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part B – Primary Census Abstract |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>
* Jagdishpur (town) population (2011): 32,447. <ref name="DCHB-A">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/260/download/690/DH_2011_1029_PART_A_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part A |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>
* Literacy: overall subdivision literacy was recorded in the DCHB (see Part B/PCA tables for block-wise rates); the town of Jagdishpur had a literacy rate of about 68.5% according to the town PCA. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/6366 |title=PCA: Primary census abstract at town, village and ward level, Bihar – District Bhojpur (2011) |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>
* Sex ratio: the CD-block/subdivision sex ratio was recorded in the DCHB (subdivision sex ratio ~909 females per 1000 males). <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/261/download/694/DH_2011_1029_PART_B_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part B – Primary Census Abstract |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>
* [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]]: the DCHB/PCA tables record the SC proportion for the subdivision at roughly 13–14% and ST share below 1% (2011). <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/261/download/694/DH_2011_1029_PART_B_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part B – PCA tables |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

==Economy==
The economy of Jagdishpur subdivision is predominantly agricultural, occupying a high share of cultivated land with major crops including paddy and wheat; irrigation coverage and land-use statistics are given in the District Census Handbook. The DCHB also records the worker classification (cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industry and other workers) showing agriculture as the principal occupation in rural areas, with market and service activities concentrated in Jagdishpur town. Industrial and mineral activity in the subdivision is limited, as summarised in the DCHB village/town directories and the block-level tables. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/260/download/690/DH_2011_1029_PART_A_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part A – Village and Town Directory |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

==Transport==
Transport infrastructure in the subdivision includes road connections to Ara (Arrah) and neighbouring towns; village-level transport availability (roads, bus services) is tabulated in the DCHB Town & Village Directory. The town of Jagdishpur is served by local and regional road links and lies within reachable distance of Ara railway station for long-distance rail services (see DCHB and district transport entries for specifics). <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/260/download/690/DH_2011_1029_PART_A_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part A |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

==Education and public services==
The District Census Handbook lists educational and public health facilities at block and village level: a majority of villages in the subdivision have at least one primary school, and a number of villages and the town have secondary schools and health sub-centres; the DCHB village directory and block-level tables provide the full inventory of schools, primary health centres (PHCs), sub-centres and other public services. Public distribution outlets, post offices and banking facilities are also enumerated in the DCHB. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/260/download/690/DH_2011_1029_PART_A_DCHB_BHOJPUR.pdf |title=District Census Handbook: Bhojpur, Part A – Village & Town Directory |publisher=Census of India |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://bhojpur.nic.in/ |title=District Bhojpur — Official website |publisher=District Bhojpur (Official website) |accessdate=29 August 2025}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]]
* [[Jagdishpur]]
* [[Bihiya]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [https://bhojpur.nic.in/ Official website of Bhojpur district]

[[Category:Subdivisions of Bhojpur district]]

Sardar Patel University Mandi

2025-10-20T18:18:04Z

NoellaXgt402: creating info

{{Short description|University of Himachal Pradesh}}
{{Distinguish|Sardar Patel University|Sardar Patel University of Police, Security and Criminal Justice|Sardar Patel Institute of Technology|Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Sardar Patel University Mandi
| native_name = '''सरदार पटेल विश्वविद्यालय मण्डी'''
| image_name = Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Cluster University, Mandi 03.jpg
| caption =
| motto = न हि ज्ञानेन सदृशं पवित्रमिह विद्यते
| mottoeng = Indeed, there is nothing purifying here comparable to Knowledge.
| established = {{Start date and age|2022|4|1}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://m.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/sardar-patel-university-in-mandi-to-open-from-april-1-379888|title=Sardar Patel University in Mandi to open from April 1|website=tribuneindia.com}}</ref>
| type = [[Public Universities|Public]]
| endowment =
| rector =
| chancellor = [[Governor of Himachal Pradesh]]
| vice_chancellor = Lalit Kumar Awasthi
| provost =
| principal =
| dean =
| head =
| students =
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| doctoral =
| city = [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|Mandi]]
| state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| country = [[India]]
| coor =
| campus =
| free_label =
| free =
| colours =
| colors =
| nickname =
| mascot =
| logo =
| website = {{URL|https://www.spumandi.ac.in/}}
| staff =
| faculty =
| affiliations = [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]], [[Association of Indian Universities|AIU]], [[Association of Commonwealth Universities|ACU]], [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]]
}}

'''Sardar Patel University Mandi''' (formerly '''Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Cluster University''') is an Indian [[Public university|public]] [[State university (India)|state university]] located in the [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|Mandi]], [[Himachal Pradesh]] on the banks of river [[Beas River|Beas]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://svpcumandi.ac.in/ |title=Sardar Patel University Mandi |work=svpcumandi.ac.in |access-date=28 March 2022 |publisher=Sardar Patel University Mandi |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331124318/https://svpcumandi.ac.in/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was established by the Act No. 3 of 2022 of the [[Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Act No. 3 of 2022 |url=https://himachal.nic.in/WriteReadData/l892s/10_l892s/THE%20SARDAR%20PATEL%20UNIVERSITY%20MANDI,%20HIMACHAL%20PRADESH%20(ESTABLISHMENT%20AND%20REGULATION)%20ACT,%202021-45674353.pdf |access-date=9 January 2024 |website=[[Government of Himachal Pradesh]]}}</ref> Having jurisdiction over five districts [[Chamba district|Chamba]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Kullu district|Kullu]], [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul-Spiti]], [[Mandi, Himachal Pradesh|Mandi]] this [[Affiliating University|affiliating university]] provides affiliation to about 119 colleges and institutions.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://svpcumandi.ac.in/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526021630/https://svpcumandi.ac.in/ |date=26 May 2022 }}

{{Universities in Himachal Pradesh}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Himachal Pradesh University| ]]
[[Category:Education in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 2022]]
[[Category:2022 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Memorials to Vallabhbhai Patel]]

Baba Mukteshwar Puri, Kosli

2025-07-19T19:05:36Z

NoellaXgt402: refine intro as per guidelines and updated info

{{refimprove|date=December 2018}}
Baba Mukhteshwar Puri (in Hindi बाबा मुक्तेश्वर पुरी) was a much revered Hindu Yogi, saint, and theologist whose (मठ) [[Matha]] was situated in [[Kosli]]. Mukhteshwar Puri was 4th saint of the Kosli math. He lived in 12th century A.D. and practiced meditation throughout his life, which bestowed him with great vision and divine power. The enlightened soul is also called Gusai ji(गुसाईं जी ). All communities in & around Kosli still worship him. He is the prime deity of कोसलिया [[Kausaliya]] [[Yadav]] people, who are descendants of Kaushal/[[Kosal Dev Singh]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Baba Mukteshwar Puri Shrine: From under dense Jungle to Glory |url=https://www.dainiktribuneonline.com/2012/02/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A0-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4/ |accessdate=7 October 2018 |work=Dainik Tribune |date=5 Feb 2012 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530022635/http://dainiktribuneonline.com/2012/02/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A0-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Early life==
Mukhteshwar Puri was born in 1130 AD in Daboda village, under Bahadurgarh Tehsil in Jhajjhar District in a Brahmin family and his childhood name was Mukund Ram. His mother was a religious women & he too showed great inclination towards Bhakti & Dharma since the very beginning. Aged 5, he was sent to his maternal grandfather's home in Bijana/Beejna village. His maternal grandfather was a very learned scholar of Vedas and he fondly educated Mukund Ram. Mukund discovered that he wants to become a Yogi as worldly pleasures didn’t appealed him. He left home to join the company of saints. Mukund Ram reached Puri Math in [[Kosli]] in 1143 AD and become a disciple of Rajpuri ji Maharaj. Upon acquiring complete knowledge from his Guru he was designated the fourth mahant under title Mukhteshwar Puri in 1165 AD.<ref>{{cite news |title=People from Kosli Monastery writes letter to PM Modi & Govt. officials to extend facilities at Mukteshwar Puri Matha |url=https://www.bharatsarthi.com/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0/ |accessdate=7 October 2018 |work=Bharat Sarthi |date=25 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008022705/https://www.bharatsarthi.com/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0/ |archive-date=8 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
He was aged 35 then and did Tap (tough religious undergoings) for 54 Years. Brahmins from Beejna village are Purohits of Kosaliya people. People of Daboda, Bahadurgarh also acknowledge Baba Mukhteshwar Puri as their descendant.

==Foundation of Matha ==
Saint Krishna/Santosh Puri, who came from Uttrakhand to this place (present day Kosli) at around 1000 AD established the monastery/[[matha]] tradition at Baba Mukteshwar Puri, Kosli under the Trademark & Evergreen Hins/Heens tree (Capparis sepiaria)<ref>{{cite book |title=Rohtak District Gazetteer |publisher=Haryana Government |page=11 |url=http://revenueharyana.gov.in/Portals/0/general.pdf |accessdate=7 October 2018}}</ref> in Kosli. Wild animals like Lions, Tigers, Fox, wolf, Reptiles were the inhabitants of the Jungle at that time. Shri Krishna Puri fearlessly meditated in harmony with Nature. He was followed & succeeded by Durga/Prahlad Puri, Rajpuri/Parmanand Puri & Mukhteshwar Puri respectively.
In 1193, after the battles of Tarahin, Kaushal Singh & Laxmi Devi came helplessly near his math & asked for help. The holy soul Baba Mukhteshwar Puri, Kosli blessed the Kaushal/[[Kosal Dev Singh]] family & the events led to the establishment of [[Kosli]] and Baba Mukhteshwar Puri, Kosli math in 1225 AD.

==Legend==
King [[Anangpal Tomar]] ruled Delhi from 1130 AD to 1170 AD. His Kingdom included Kannauj, Gajni, Sultana, Patan, Jaipur, Shekhawati, Ramdevra. He had 2 daughters Sur Sundari and Kirtimalini/Kamla. When Anangpal became old, he decided to handover the kingdoms under his reign to his relatives and trustable court Nobles. He handed over the Delhi & Kannauj throwns to his Grandsons Prithviraj Chauhan & Jaichand respectively.

Patan (lies between Narnaul and Neem Ka Thana in Rajasthan) was given to loyal brothers: Sulen Singh and Ushna(ऊष्ण)/Kesri Singh. Rao Kaushal singh was born to Kesri Singh. But gradually the feuds between the brothers became violent over the matters of kingship. Consequences led Kesri Singh, his wife Kausalya Devi & their son Kaushal Singh to leave from Patan’s Royal Home to avoid family confrontation. They lived in exile for many years. One day, they received message of [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] which asked for support from fellow kings to fight unitedly against [[Muhammad of Ghor]] who had attacked Delhi. Kesari singh decided to stood up for his motherland in the hour of adversity. They first reached the residence of Raja Dilip Singh (father of Kausalya) in Delhi. Dilip Singh introduced beautiful, educated, able and dynamic [[Kosal Dev Singh]] (aged 16) to Thakur Jaswant Singh. Jaswant Singh was impressed with Kaushal singh and married her daughter Laxmi Devi with Kaushal Singh.

==Battle of Tarain, 1192 AD & afterwards==
Then [[Second Battle of Tarain]] followed in which Kesri Singh and Kaushal Singh fought for Prithviraj Chauhan against the Muhammad Ghori. It was one of the greatest & Landmark battle in the History of India. After massive Bloodshed, Hindu rulers led by Prithviraj Chauhan got defeated. Maharaj Kesari went missing or was dead. The invaders exploited the Hindus, their wealth and their religious shrines. It is mentioned in Prithviraj Raso. Thakur Jaswant Singh asked his pregnant daughter Laxmi Devi and son-in-law Kaushal singh to leave from Delhi immediately and gave them ownership of 45 villages in Dowry. Kaushal Dev singh and Laxmi Devi exhibited bravery and reached the designated intense Forest 40 km south of Jhajjar. There were wild animals like Tiger, Bears, Monkeys and shrubs with thrones. With great courage and amid difficulties Laxmi Devi gave birth to a boy at midnight. The Chandravanshi couple became happy and recognized the presence of a divine power in the vicinity.<ref name="Book">{{cite book |last1=Yadav |first1=Master Mangat Ram |title=A Book on Sage Mukteshwar Puri (बाबा मुक्तेश्वरपुरी की गौरव गाथा का प्रकाशन) |date=Aug 2017 |publisher=Baba Mukhteshwar Puri Math Adarsh Samiti |url=https://www.jagran.com/haryana/rewari-baba-mukteshwr-mth-16495373.html |accessdate=7 October 2018 |language=hi}}</ref>

==Meeting with Baba Mukteshwar Puri==
[[Kosal Dev Singh]] looked nearby for Water in the dense forest after the birth of his son. He noticed fire light and smoke coming from a direction. He moved ahead considering it a good omen. An ash smeared saint was meditating under a Heens Tree in that Jungle. Kaushal Dev singh was astonished and pleased. He bowed to this saint Baba Mukhteshwar Puri. The saint asked the King about his identity and purpose to visit here. Kaushal Dev Singh narrated the entire story of war and exile and asked for shelter.
At the crack of dawn (sunrise), Baba Mukteshwar Puri did Shanknaad as usual. He blessed Rao Kaushal Dev Singh, his escort Kausalya and newborn baby. Baba Mukteshwar named the newborn as Mohan Dev Singh because he was born in midnight like Lord Krishna. Laxmi Devi offered Shawl to the spiritual leader.<ref>{{cite news |title=Baba Mukteshwar Puri's story |url=https://www.dainiktribuneonline.com/2012/02/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A0-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4/ |accessdate=7 October 2018 |work=Tribune |date=5 Feb 2012 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530022635/http://dainiktribuneonline.com/2012/02/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A0-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==3 Boons & Further Development==
Baba Mukteshwar Puri gave three boons to Kaushal Dev Singh in 1193AD. First, establish a settlement here. It will be a big town consequently. Nobody will be able to challenge you. Second, your clans will see a unprecedented Growth. Third, the glory of your brave clan will propel in all directions. The sage asked Kaushal Dev Singh to be confident and Hard working and also warned him to be aware of water and fire calamities.

In this area Kaushal singh established [[Kosli]]/Kaushalgarh with the blessings of Baba Mukteshwar Puri in 1193 AD. The clan of Rao Kaushal Singh have Kosaliya gotra and Yadav caste.
Kaushal Singh and his wife Laxmi Devi made their settlement in the forest i.e present day Kosli. The couple was Educated, Brave, adorable & Hard- working. For earning livelihood they removed nearby shrubs and started engaging in Horticulture and Animal Husbandry. The tough days passed and the boundaries & population of Kosli flourished. In 1225 AD, Kaushal Dev Singh announced that Kosli is his throne & glory of Baba Mukteshwar Puri increased further. Good upbringing of son Mohan Dev was ensured & subsequently he was married to Veermati who was from nearby village.<ref>{{cite news |title=Development of Kosli Village and Devotion to Saint Mukteshwar Puri |url=https://www.bharatsarthi.com/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0/ |accessdate=7 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008022705/https://www.bharatsarthi.com/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0/ |archive-date=8 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

'''Matha establishment''': A small monastery/math in the honour of Baba Mukteshwar Puri was also built at the same place where the saint used to meditated under auspicious Heens हींस tree.
Kaushal Dev Singh vowed that he and his generations will always be worshippers & maintain the sacredness of Matha Baba Mukteshwar Puri, Kosli. 825 have passed and the promise is cheerfully observed till this date. Kosaliya gotra people from all across the India & abroad worship Baba Mukteshwar Puri Maharaj. Youths offer their 1st salary in respect. [[Ahirwal]] soldiers and officers in Indian Army acknowledge Baba Mukteshwar Puri.

==Social Importance & Teachings==
After Muslim rulers invaded India under Muhumad Gori in 1193 AD, the nation was under great turmoil. The locals including women were cruelly exploited. Wealth was drained and Hindu Temples were destructed preposterously. People left their native places and took shelter in nearby forests and mountains. Hundreds of sages like Baba Mukteshwar Puri were guiding light to society as they contained & transferred the traditional knowledge, Vedas & moral values to next generations.

Baba Mukteshwar Puri believed in Peace, Brotherhood & Truth. He believed that inner enlightenment is the eternal bliss. Meditation provokes the spiritual energy which gives us soothing qualities like Positivity, prosperity, Strength and Peace. These parameters aligns/connects our Body-Mind-Soul to the Supreme deity which is the true Wealth. Om sound is humming spontaneously in the Universe and the creature of all is ever Benevolent & helpful. Everybody is sent by God to this earth with a purpose. One should discover his duties & responsibilities through all the delusions & disarray.<ref>{{cite news |title=Teaching Social Harmony (गौमाता धन-संपत्ति का भंडार : महंत शिवपुरी महाराज ) |url=http://paliwalwani.com/delhi/1815 |accessdate=7 October 2018 |work=Paliwal News |date=10 July 2018}}</ref>

==Fairs==
It is believed that Baba Mukteshwar puri is immortal in his Samadhi. Newly wed couples and new born babies of Kosli and Kosaliya gotra visit Baba Mukhteshwar Puri Math with devotion. The Kosli people credit Baba for their prosperity & Harmony. Rot-Churma(रोट-चूरमा), Dahi(curd), Flag is offered to the sage. In Kosli Math, Shakkar(शक्कर ) [[Prasada]] is distributed and turmeric teeka(हल्दी टीका) is applied on the forehead of devotees who come from nearby towns and far states also. Fairs/mela is organised in the Baba Mukhteshwat Puri, Kosli during Holi and 14 Sep every year.<ref>{{cite news |title=Offering 101 Qunital fodder to Cows on 888th Birth anniversary of Baba Mukteshwar Puri |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/harayana/bahadurgarh/news/latest-bahadurgarh-news-021002-2149621.html |accessdate=7 October 2018 |work=Dainik Bhaskar |date=9 June 2018 |language=hi}}</ref>

==Committee==
To look into the administrative matters of Baba Mukteshwar Puri Matha a committee was formed 23 December 2007. It was registered as “Baba Mukhteshwar Puri Math Adarsh Samiti” Kosli, Rewari, Haryana. The campus of holy shrine was enlarged in 2008. The 86 feet tall Gumbad, new rooms, railing near Heens tree, efficient water arrangements, Clean and planned Gardens, toilets, new Hall, etc were built by the Adarsh Samiti.<ref>{{cite news |title=Matha Adarsh Samiti to look into the development matters |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/harayana/kosli/news/HAR-OTH-MAT-latest-kosli-news-042503-1190365-NOR.html |accessdate=7 October 2018 |work=Dainik Bhaskar Group |date=16 Oct 2016}}</ref>

A Book titled "History of Kosli and Kosaliya gotra & Glory of Baba Mukhteshwar Puri" has been published in 2017 by the Native [[Kausaliya]] Ahirs/Yadav people. The book has received much appreciation and provides a Handsome compilation of Ahirwal History.<ref name="Book"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Hinduism}}

[[Category:Indian Hindu saints]]
[[Category:People from Haryana]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian people]]