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Next Manipur Legislative Assembly election

2023-09-15T17:32:16Z

NithanjOn: Created an enlightening write-up.

{{Short description|Elections for the Legislative assembly of Manipur}}

{{Use dmy dates}}

{{Infobox election
| election_name = Next Manipur Legislative Assembly Election
| country = India
| type = Legislative
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 2022 Manipur Legislative Assembly election
| previous_year = 2022
| next_election =
| next_year = 2032
| election_date = By April-May 2027
| seats_for_election = All 60 elected seats in the [[Manipur Legislative Assembly]]
| majority_seats = 31
| map_image = [[File:Wahlkreise zur Vidhan Sabha von Manipur.svg|300px]]
| map2_image =
| map_size =
| map_caption = Map of the assembly constituencies in Manipur
| turnout =
| image1 = [[File:N Biren Singh.jpg|100px]]
| leader1 = [[N. Biren Singh]]
| leader_since1 = 2017
| party1 = Bharatiya Janata Party
| alliance1 = [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]]
| leaders_seat1 = [[Heingang Assembly constituency|Heingang]]
| last_election1 = 37.83%, 32 seats

| image2 = [[File:Okram Ibobi Singh Official.jpg|100px]]
| leader2 = [[Okram Ibobi Singh]]
| leader_since2 = 2002
| party2 = Indian National Congress
| alliance2= [[Manipur Progressive Secular Alliance|MPSA]]
| leaders_seat2 = [[Thoubal Assembly constituency|Thoubal]]
| last_election2 = 16.83%, 5 seats

| party4 = Naga People's Front
| image4 = [[File:Indian Election Symbol Cock.png|100px]]
| image5 = [[File:Indian_Election_Symbol_Arrow.svg|100px]]
| leader4 = [[Losii Dikho]]
| alliance4 =
| last_election4 = 8.09%, 5 seats
| leader_since4 = 2017
| leaders_seat4 = [[Mao Assembly constituency|Mao]]

| party3 = National People's Party (India)
| image3 = [[File:The Deputy Chief Minister of Manipur, Shri Y. Joykumar Singh calling on the Minister of State for Development of North Eastern Region (IC), Prime Minister’s Office, Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions (cropped).jpg|100px]]
| leader3 = [[Yumnam Joykumar Singh]]
| alliance3 = -
| last_election3 = 17.29%, 7 seats
| leader_since3 = 2017
| leaders_seat3 = [[Uripok Assembly constituency|Uripok]] (Lost)

| leader5 = [[Muhammad Abdul Nasir|Abdul Nasir]]
| leader_since5 = 2022
| party5 = Janata Dal (United)
| alliance5 =
| leaders_seat5 = [[Lilong (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Lilong]]
| last_election5 = 10.77%, 6 seats

| title = [[Chief Minister of Manipur|Chief Minister]]
| before_election = [[N. Biren Singh]]
| before_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| after_election =
| after_party =
}}

The '''Next Manipur legislative assembly election''' is expected to be held in [[2027 elections in India|April-May 2027]] to elect all 60 MLAs of the [[Manipur Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/elections/term-of-houses/ |title=Legislative Assemblies : Term of State/House |website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>

==Parties and Alliances==
*[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
*[[National People's Party (India)|NPP]]
*[[Naga People's Front|NPF]]
*[[Indian National Congress|INC]] 
*[[Kuki People's Alliance|KPA]]
*[[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]]
==Schedule==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Poll Event
! Schedule
|-
| Notification Date
| '''TBD'''
|-
| Last Date for filing nomination
| '''TBD'''
|-
| Scrutiny of nomination
| '''TBD'''
|-
| Last Date for Withdrawal of nomination
| '''TBD'''
|-
| Date of Poll
| '''TBD'''
|-
| Date of Counting of Votes
| '''TBD'''
|}
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Manipur elections}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manipur Legislative Assembly election - Next}}
[[Category:State Assembly elections in Manipur]]
[[Category:2020s in Manipur]]

Ancient Meitei literature

2023-09-13T08:52:55Z

NithanjOn:

{{Short description|Ancient Meitei language literature}}
{{About|the literature in [[Ancient Meitei language|Ancient Meitei]]|the medieval and modern era literatures|Meitei literature}}
{{Contains special characters|Meitei}}
{{Infobox literary genre
| name = Ancient Meitei literature (Old Manipuri literature)
| image = The Numit Kappa (ꯅꯨꯃꯤꯠ ꯀꯥꯞꯄ), a classical Meitei epic, written in ancient Meitei language (in archaic Meitei script).jpg
| imagesize = 250
| caption = An illustration of the [[ancient Meitei language]] narrative work {{langnf|mni|[[Numit Kappa]]|Shooting at the Sun}}
| alt =
| stylistic_origins = [[Meitei culture]] of [[Ancient Kangleipak]] (early [[Manipur]])
| cultural_origins = [[Meitei culture]] of [[Ancient Kangleipak]] (early [[Manipur]])
| features =
| popularity =
| formats =
| authors = 
| subgenrelist =
| subgenres = [[Epic cycles of incarnations]] 
| relatedgenres = 
| related1 = [[Meitei folklore]]
| related2 = [[Meitei folktales]]
| related3 = [[Meitei mythology]]
| related4 = [[Meitei proverbs]]
| related5 = [[traditional Meitei religion]]
| base# = 
| pub# = 
| title# = 
| series# = 
| regional_scenes =
| local_scenes =
| other_topics =
}}
'''Ancient Meitei literature''', also termed as '''Old Manipuri literature''', is [[literature]] written in the [[Ancient Meitei language]] ([[Old Manipuri language]]) from the earliest texts until the time of King {{langnf|mni|[[Pamheiba]]|[[Gharib Nawaz (Manipur)|Garib Niwaj]]}} of {{langnf|mni|[[Kangleipak]]|[[Manipur]]}}. All the ancient Meitei literary works are written in the traditional [[Meitei script]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Datta |first=Amaresh |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA142&dq=study+Manipuri+alphabet+must+researchers+incursion+old+Manipuri+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiTp-W509SAAxVV-jgGHcaNB20Q6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q=study%20Manipuri%20alphabet%20must%20researchers%20incursion%20old%20Manipuri%20literature&f=false |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-260-1803-1 |pages=142 |language=en |quote=... Although Bengali-Assamese alphabet replaced the original Manipuri alphabet for writing modern Manipuri in the year 1925, the study of Manipuri alphabet is still a must for those researchers who want to make an incursion in the field of old Manipuri literature, history, language, genealogy, astrology, numismatics, etc. However, the old Manipuri alphabet is still used by the royal bards and pundits in the palace of Manipur. ... |author-link=Amaresh Datta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharmila |first=Irom |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=iW-IDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT7&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwis7piJ6tKAAxUz-TgGHbI8B_k4PBDoAXoECAcQAw#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=Fragrance of Peace |publisher=Zubaan |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-83074-48-8 |location=India |pages=7 |language=en |quote=... also show-case the indigenous Meetei script. Meiteilon is a Tibeto-Burman language, and one of less than a dozen of this family of tongues that possesses a script. ... But it is only through the script that one can enter the world of ancient Manipuri literature, science and mythology. A generation of young children is growing up in Manipur who read this script only, and not the Brahmanic Bengali script adopted for over 300 years. For this generation there is no modern literature to read as everything is written in the Bengali script.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Parratt |first=John |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fO4N_FI8jt4C&pg=PA33&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjS56zC7NKAAxUzxTgGHXUbDFo4RhDoAXoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=Wounded Land: Politics and Identity in Modern Manipur |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-8324-053-6 |language=en |quote=... Its meetings passed resolutions to revive Meetei culture, to reintroduce the archaic script, to study the ancient Manipuri literature, and ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Lairenmayum Iboongohal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EQoIAQAAIAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Introduction to Manipur |publisher=S. Babudhan Singh; to be had of: Students' Store |others=[[University of California]] |year=1963 |location=India |pages=59 |language=en |quote=... A mass of Manipuri literature is locked in this old script which has gradually fallen into disuse among the Manipuris after they had adopted the Bengali script to write their language from the beginning of 18th century. ...}}</ref>
The [[ancient Meitei language]] texts, written in [[Meitei script]], are conventionally termed as "the [[:en:wikt:PuYa|Puya]]s".<ref>{{Cite book |last=George |first=K. M. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=eTXougCB-NMC&pg=PA431&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZ59XwvtKAAxXywjgGHVPRCpo4FBDoAXoECAsQAw#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology: Plays and prose |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-81-7201-783-5 |location=India |pages=431 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walter |first=Mariko Namba |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=573OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA765&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinz6SV8tKAAxWK-TgGHSt3AD84jAEQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=Shamanism [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture [2 volumes] |last2=Fridman |first2=Eva Jane Neumann |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing USA]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-646-0 |pages=573 |language=en |quote=The Meitei community has a long tradition of writing and literature, which is found in the ancient manuscripts of this community, popularly known as the puyas (Ray 2000). These manuscripts are handwritten in the archaic script on ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Effects of Burning of Meitei Puyas By Madhu Chandra |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=news_section.opinions.The_Effects_of_Burning_of_Meitei_Puyas_By_Madhu_Chandra |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=e-pao.net |quote=Puyas may be defined as sacred written records handed down to posterity by the forefathers of the Meiteis. They are a particular kind of old narratives which form a definite class in Manipuri literature.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Asha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-DaAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Biodiversity Conservation and Legal Aspects |publisher=Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors |others=[[University of Michigan]] |isbn=978-81-7910-187-2 |pages=197 |language=en |quote=The Meitei puyas are undoubtedly one of the richest catalogues occurring in any ancient literature. The manuscripts in Manipuri language have described local fauna and flora with reference to their growing region at a very high ...}}</ref>

Many of the ancient Meitei literary works need ''[[transliteration]] and [[translation]]'', as the language used is often ''"obscure and unintelligible"'' to the [[modern Meitei]] ([[modern Manipuri]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Assam (India) |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=yJM-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA20&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir2LfK-dKAAxV21zgGHS6ZCxM4lgEQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=Report on the Administration of the Province of Assam |publisher=[[University of California]] |year=1899 |pages=20 |language=en |quote=... it is probable that the collection of these old Manipuri works now in the State library comprises the greater portion still extant of this ancient literature. ... It now remains to have the books transliterated and translated, while a fair number of Manipuri pandits still remains capable of carrying out the work. The language used is often obscure and unintelligible to the modern Manipuri.}}</ref>

== Overview ==
{{Quote box
| quote = "The beginning of this old [[Manipuri literature]] (as in the case of [[Newari language|Newari]]) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now."<ref>{{Cite book |url= |title=[[Indian Literature (journal)|Indian Literature]] - Volume 14 - Page 20 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1971 |edition=Volume 14 - Page 20 |pages=20 |language=en |quote= The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Siṃha |first=Niṃthaukhoṃjama Khelacandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EpAOAAAAMAAJ |title=Manipuri Language: Status and Importance |publisher=N. Tombi Raj Singh |year=1975 |pages=34 |language=en, mni |quote=The beginning of this old Manipuri literature (as in the case of Newari) may go back to 1500 years, or even 2000 years, from now... |author-link=Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanajaoba |first=Naorem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CzSQKVmveUC&dq=manipuri+court+language&pg=PA290 |title=Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-853-2 |pages=290 |language=en}}</ref>
| source = —[[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]], [[Padma Vibhushan]] awardee Indian scholar
|width = 28%
|style = min-width: 15em
|bgcolor = #FFE0BB
|align = right
}}

'''[[Ougri (Meitei)|Ougri]]''' ({{lang-mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯧꯒ꯭ꯔꯤ}}|}}), an [[ancient Meitei language]] ritualistic musical work, was composed during the 1st century CE, and was sung mostly for the ''"destruction and ruination and also for prosperity"'' of the ancient Meitei society in [[Ancient Kangleipak]] (early [[Manipur]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyappappanikkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA326 |title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |isbn=978-81-260-0365-5 |pages=326 |language=en |author-link=Ayyappa Paniker}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=13, 14 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri |quote=Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...}}</ref>
Many scholars commented that this musical work existed even before the beginning of the [[Common Era]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyappappanikkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA329 |title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |isbn=978-81-260-0365-5 |pages=329 |language=en |author-link=Ayyappa Paniker}}</ref>

The [[Poireiton Khunthok]] is a 3rd century [[ancient Meitei language]] literary work, which is a narrative of a historical colonisation of the [[Imphal Valley|valley]] by a group of people, led by [[Poireiton]], in an area between the Langgol Hills and the [[Mount Koubru|Koubru mountains]].{{efn|The antiquity of this literary work was verified by the ''"Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1, by W. Yumjao Singh, pp. 18-19."''}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466183/page/n121/mode/2up?view=theater |title=History Of Old Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Digital Library of India]] |others=[[Manipur University]] Library, Imphal |location=India |pages=121, 122 |language=en, mni |chapter=Poireiton Khunthokpa |quote=The Poireiton Khunthokpa, is the most conspicuous one of all pre-Garibniwaz manuscripts. From a linguistic point of view, it seems to be much earlier than any of the books yet come under our view. Circumstantial and other incidental evidences would confirm that the book might have been of the time of the third century A. D. It describes the colonization of the valley by a band of prople from the land of Death under Poireiton. They first established their colony near the Langol Hill; probably the vast area between the Koubru Hill and the Langol Hill was their kingdom. --Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1-by W. Yumjao Singh, pp 18-19. |author-link=Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhaṭṭācāryya |first=Haridāsa |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Wy88AAAAMAAJ&q=poireiton+Khunthok+century&dq=poireiton+Khunthok+century&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwioq4fOiNOAAxVs1TgGHX9GAW0Q6AF6BAgIEAM#poireiton%20Khunthok%20century |title=The Cultural Heritage of India: Languages and literatures |publisher=[[Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|Ramakrishna Mission, Institute of Culture]] |others=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1953 |location=India |pages=663 |language=en |quote=... The beginnings of this Old Manipuri literature may go back to 1,500 years or even 2,000 years from now. ... The late Yumajao Singh thought that Poireiton Khunthok, a prose work describing the settlement of some Meithei tribes, is the oldest work in Manipuri going back to the third century A.D. ... |author-link=Haridas Bhattacharya}}</ref>

The '''Khencho''' ({{lang-mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯈꯦꯟꯆꯣ}}|}}), another [[ancient Meitei language]] poetry work, was composed before the wake of the 7th century CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayyappappanikkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA330 |title=Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |isbn=978-81-260-0365-5 |pages=330 |language=en |author-link=Ayyappa Paniker}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=14, 15 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) |quote='Khencho' is quite obscure and entirely unintelligible to the present generation though it forms an inseparable element of the daily proceedings of the festival. ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=13, 14 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri |quote=Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...}}</ref>

Traditionally attributed to be written by ''Akoijam Tombi''<ref name=":ccrtindia.gov.in_Panthoibi_Khongul">{{Cite web |others=[[Ministry of Culture (India)|Ministry of Culture, Government of India]] |title=The relationship between Thang-Ta & Meitei Pung maintained by our Ancient ... |url=https://ccrtindia.gov.in/wp-content/fellowship_research_project/TherelationshipbetweenThangtaandMeiteiPungmaintainedbyourAncientGurus.pdf |website=ccrtindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Centre for Cultural Resources and Training]] |page=4}}</ref> (also called ''Akoijam Tomboy''<ref name=":Glimpses_Panthoibi_Khongul" />), during the reign of Meitei King Khongtekcha Yoiremba in c. 763 CE,<ref name=":Glimpses_Panthoibi_Khongul">{{Cite book |last=Devi |first=Dr Yumlembam Gopi |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=gxqeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA119&dq=panthoibi+khongul&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-j56HibiAAxWZsVYBHZqqD9YQ6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q=panthoibi%20khongul&f=false |title=Glimpses of Manipuri Culture |publisher= |isbn=978-0-359-72919-7 |pages=119 |language=en |quote=... the text Panthoibi Khongul generally believed to have been written by Akoijam Tomboy during the reign of King Khongtekcha Yoiremba (763 A.D.) ...}}</ref><ref name=":ccrtindia.gov.in_Panthoibi_Khongul" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Sujit |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YCJrUfVtZxoC&pg=PA280&dq=panthoibi+khongul&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-j56HibiAAxWZsVYBHZqqD9YQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=panthoibi%20khongul&f=false |title=A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850 |publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-250-1453-9 |pages=280 |language=en |quote=Panthoibi khongul ( ? C ; Manipuri ) : prose narrative , the original of which was believed to have been composed in ancient Meitei language in first half of 8th century AD ... |author-link=Sujit Mukherjee}}</ref> the '''[[Panthoibi Khonggul]]''' ([[Ancient Meitei language|Ancient Meitei]]: {{lang|omp|Panthoipi Khongkul}}, romanized: /pān-thoi-pī khōng-kūl/ ; {{Lang-mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯢꯕꯤ ꯈꯣꯡꯒꯨꯜ}}|pān-thoi-bī khōng-gūl|in quest of Panthoibi<ref name="google2004">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DufZAAAAMAAJ |title=Society and Economy in North-East India |publisher=Regency Publications |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-87498-83-4}}</ref> or "Panthoibi's footprint"<ref name="google1">{{Cite book |last=Zama |first=Margaret Ch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxdBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |title=Emerging Literatures from Northeast India: The Dynamics of Culture, Society and Identity |publisher=SAGE Publishing India |year=2013 |isbn=978-81-321-1746-9 |page=79}}</ref>}}), often misspelled as the '''[[Panthoibi Khongul]]''', narrates the adventure of lady {{langnf|omp|[[Panthoipi]]|[[Panthoibi]]}} to unite with her ultimate lover {{langnf|mni|[[Nongpok Ningthou]]|[[Sovereign of the East]]}},<ref name="google2">{{Cite book |last=North East India History Association. Session |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDluAAAAMAAJ |title=Proceedings of North East India History Association |publisher=The Association |year=2003 |isbn=}}</ref><ref name="google3">{{Cite book |last=Dr. Yumlembam Gopi Devi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxqeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 |title=Glimpses of Manipuri Culture |isbn=978-0-359-72919-7 |page=119}}</ref> by leaving her former husband's house.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Asok Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjkBM3qyZ00C&pg=PA88 |title=Society, Politics, and Development in North East India: Essays in Memory of Dr. Basudeb Datta Ray |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Satyabrata |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-8069-572-8 |page=88}}</ref><ref name="google2004" /><ref name="google1" /><ref name="google2" />

In 1100 CE, the '''[[Loyumba Shinyen]]''' ({{lang-mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯣꯌꯨꯝꯄ ꯁꯤꯟꯌꯦꯟ}}|{{Script|Latn|Loyumpa Shinyen}}}}), an [[ancient Meitei language]] written [[constitution]] was ''finalised'' and regulated under the patronage of Meitei King [[Loiyumba|Loiyumba (Loyumba)]] (1074 CE-1112 CE) of the [[Ancient Kangleipak]] (early [[Manipur]]). It was a formal declaration of the proto-constitution which was first drafted in 429 CE by Meitei King [[Naophangba]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanajaoba |first=Naorem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO-vtI8NuxIC&dq=loyumba+shinyen+final+document&pg=PP2 |title=Manipur: Treatise & Documents |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-399-5 |pages=2 |language=en |quote=Manipur, known as 'Meetei Leipak' or 'Kangleipak' in the two millennia old Meetei manuscripts had experienced some form of constitutional government under a proto-Constitution in 429 A.D. which was reduced to a final format in 1110 A.D. Constitution entitled 'Loiyamba Shinyen' during the regime of King Loyumba.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanajaoba |first=Naorem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9eYC4tjzyi4C&dq=loyumba+shinyen+written+constitution&pg=PA304 |title=Law and Society: Strategy for Public Choice, 2001 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-271-4 |pages=304 |language=en |quote=The constitutionalism had developed with the adoption of a prototype of a constitution in 429 A.D. which was finally moulded into the written constitution in 1110 A.D., called 'Loyumba Shinyen' till it was substituted by Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947 which operated till Manipur's merger with India on October 15, 1949.}}</ref>

== Notable literary works ==
The following is a list of a few of the notable literary works of ancient Meitei literature, set in [[Meitei alphabet]]ical order:
{| class="wikitable"
! [[Ancient Meitei language]] literary work(s){{efn|The titles of some of these [[ancient Meitei language]] literary works are given in their respective [[Meitei language|modern Meitei language]] equivalent titles.}}
! [[Romanisation]]
! Literal meaning(s) / literal translation(s)
! Note(s) (if any)
! Reference(s)
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯀꯨꯝꯗꯝꯁꯩ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Kumdamsei}}|}}
| the song that ushers in a new season
| ritual song, philosophical and moral teachings, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=21 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period |quote='Kumdamsei', literally meaning the song that ushers in a new season, stands for the culmination of a protracted evolution of ritual songs. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯜꯀꯥꯎ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Salkao}}|}}
| male ox
| records of 7 fights of well grown bulls owned by elite people
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=87 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period |quote=Salkāo, literally meaning a male ox, is also a rare work of its kind in that it curiously records the fights between well-grown bulls belonging to respectable personages but gone bush and no one can be sure whether a single hand or more as in the case of Chainarol would be engaged in its composition. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯅꯥ ꯂꯝꯑꯣꯛ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Sana Lamok}}|}}
| royal welcome
| hymns
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=21 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Hymns) |quote='Sana Lamok' has music as its soul and is a paen offered to Pākhangbā, one of the two presiding deities of the Meitei community. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Sanamahi Laihui}}|}}
|
| religious work
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=84, 148, 149 |language=en, mni}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯥꯏꯁ꯭ꯔꯥ ꯐꯝ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Laisra Pham}}|}}
|
| a treatise on administration and social conduct
| <ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Himalaya_Today/ZCBuAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=Himalaya Today - Volume 4, Issue 1 - Volume 5, Issue 1 |publisher=Himalaya Today Publications |others=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1992 |pages=49 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=14 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period |quote=According to the manuscript Lāisra Pham, a treatise on administration and social conduct,...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯥꯏꯔꯦꯝꯃ ꯄꯥꯎꯁꯥ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Lairemma Paosa}}|}}
|
| religious song, religious poem, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=15 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯥꯡꯀꯣꯜ ꯆꯤꯡꯀꯣꯏꯄ}}|}} / {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯥꯡꯒꯣꯜ ꯆꯤꯡꯒꯣꯏꯕ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Langkol Chingkoipa}}|}} / {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Langgol Chinggoiba}}|}}
| account of Langgol hills
| description of the extensive Langgol hills with praise
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=103, 104 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Other Notable Works)}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯩꯊꯛ ꯂꯩꯈꯥꯔꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Leithak Leikharon]]}}|}}
|
| scripture, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=13, 82, 106 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯩꯔꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Leiron}}|}}
| account of flowers
| rhythmic and musical descriptions of 100 flowers and orchids known to ancient Meitei people
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=91-96, 98 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯣꯌꯨꯝꯕ ꯁꯤꯟꯌꯦꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Loyumba Sinyen]]}}|}}
|
| Constitution
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=9, 18, 21, 207 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period |quote=There is a body of rules and regulations relating to the conduct of the king, his nobles and the people codified from traditional practices and issued by King Loyumbā (1074–1112). These were enshrined in the manuscript Loyumbā Sinyen ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯧꯇꯥ ꯏꯁꯩ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Louta Eesei}}|}}
|
| hymns, prayer to deities for bountiful blessings to agriculture
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=22 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Hymns) |quote='Loutā Eesei', as the title signifies, is sung on the eve of ploughing the field when the young season sets in. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯪꯃꯥꯏꯂꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Langmailon}}|}}
|
| ritual song, hero worship
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=20 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) |quote='Langmailon' is an entertaining composition recited on ceremonial occasions connected with the celebration of the king's victory or of his coronation. Through the resonant rhythmic lines are described the various titles of a Meitei king, justifiably derived from his achievements and the splendid beauty of his kingdom. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯃꯩ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Mei}}|}}
| fire
| hymns, ditty to the fire god
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=21, 22 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Hymns) :: Mei |quote='Mei' is a ditty sung at the worship of the fire-god by extracting needfire. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯃꯣꯏꯔꯥꯡ ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧꯔꯣꯜ ꯂꯝꯕꯨꯕ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Moirang Ningthourol Lambuba}}|}}
|
| royal chronicle
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=71, 75, 76, 78 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period |quote=While the Cheithārol Kumbābā is couched mainly in prose, the Ningthourol Lambubā, the Moirāng Ningthourol Lambubā, and the Chāda Laihui are in poetry. ... Moirāng Ningthourol Lambubā, as the title implies, is the account of Moirāng kings and though cast in the likeness of the Ningthourol Lambubā, the language is comparatively simple and more musical. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯏꯕꯤ ꯅꯥꯍꯩꯔꯣꯜ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Panthoibi Naheirol}}|}}
|
| grande passion, love supramundane
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=60, 61, 62 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯏꯄꯤ ꯈꯣꯡꯀꯨꯜ}}|}} / {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯥꯟꯊꯣꯏꯕꯤ ꯈꯣꯡꯒꯨꯜ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Panthoipi Khongkul]]}}|}} / {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Panthoibi Khonggul]]}}|}}
|
| scripture, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=58, 59, 60 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯥꯈꯪꯕ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Pakhangba Laihui}}|}}
|
| religious work
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=84 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯥꯈꯪꯕ ꯂꯥꯡꯌꯦꯟꯁꯩ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Pakhangba Langyensei}}|}}
|
| ritual song, coronation ceremonial poetry, philosophical riddles
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=20 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Pakhangba Langyensei |quote='Pākhangbā Lāngyensei' is esteemed highly for its association with the coronation ceremony ... it still can claim a place in early Manipuri poetry. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯣꯏꯔꯩꯇꯣꯟ ꯈꯨꯟꯊꯣꯛ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Poireiton Khunthok]]}}|}}
|
| story of an ancient civilization
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=85-88 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Other Notable Works) |quote=Poireiton Khunthok is a rare work for its theme as also for its diction. Going apart from the prevalent practice of composition, it is in prose. ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khelchandra Ningthoukhongjam |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.466183/page/n121/mode/2up?view=theater |title=History Of Old Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Digital Library of India]] |others=[[Manipur University]] Library, Imphal |location=India |pages=121, 122 |language=en, mni |chapter=Poireiton Khunthokpa |quote=The Poireiton Khunthokpa, is the most conspicuous one of all pre-Garibniwaz manuscripts. From a linguistic point of view, it seems to be much earlier than any of the books yet come under our view. Circumstantial and other incidental evidences would confirm that the book might have been of the time of the third century A. D. It describes the colonization of the valley by a band of prople from the land of Death under Poireiton. They first established their colony near the Langol Hill; probably the vast area between the Koubru Hill and the Langol Hill was their kingdom. --Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1-by W. Yumjao Singh, pp 18-19. |author-link=Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯥꯎꯊꯤꯡꯈꯣꯡ ꯐꯝꯕꯥꯜ ꯀꯥꯕ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba}}|}}
|
| historical tragedy
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=14, 21, 49-54, 297 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period |quote=Nāothingkhong Phambāl Kāba is a tragedy resulting from circumstances which are not the making of the characters. ... The story, as the title suggests, is mainly concerned with the eventful life of Prince Hongnemyoi Khunjāo until his accession to the Meitei throne as Nāothingkhong in 663 A.D. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧꯔꯣꯜ ꯂꯝꯕꯨꯕ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Ningthourol Lambuba}}|}}
|
| royal chronicle
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=71-75, 77-78, 81, 110 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯨꯃꯤꯠ ꯀꯥꯞꯄ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Numit Kappa]]}}|}}
| the shooting down of the sun
| heroism, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=23, 26-29 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Trail of Heroism)}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯨꯡꯄꯥꯟ ꯄꯣꯟꯄꯤ ꯂꯨꯋꯥꯎꯄ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Nungpan Ponpi Luwaopa]]}}|}}
|
| love supramundane epic, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=23, 46-48, 198, 297 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Love Supramundane)}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯣꯡꯁꯥꯕ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Nongsaba Laihui}}|}}
|
| religious work
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=83 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯣꯡꯂꯥꯎ ꯏꯁꯩ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Nonglao Eesei}}|}}
|
| hymns (sung during severe drought)
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=22 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Hymns) : Nonglāo Eesei |quote='Nonglāo Eesei' is an amusing song supposed to be rendered in groups at the time of severe drought in the country and this is to be done before dawn by men and women in the buff. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯣꯡꯃꯥꯏꯆꯤꯡ ꯆꯤꯡꯀꯣꯏꯄ}}|}} / {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯅꯣꯡꯃꯥꯏꯖꯤꯡ ꯆꯤꯡꯒꯣꯏꯕ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Nongmaiching Chingkoipa}}|}} / {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Nongmaijing Chinggoiba}}|}}
| account of [[Nongmaiching mountains]]
| description of a number of cliffs, slopes and adjacent locations in the [[Nongmaiching Ching]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=102, 103 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Other Notable Works)}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯆꯥꯗꯥ ꯂꯥꯏꯍꯨꯏ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Chada Laihui]]}}|}}
|
| royal chronicle
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=71, 77-78, 81 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Chronicles) |quote=The 'Chāda Lāihui' is a genealogy of the Meitei kings from the distaff side and is perhaps unique of its kind in any literature. It begins first with the name of Chākhā Nuron Piron Yāmbi, mother of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, who ascended the throne in 33 A.D. ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Datta |first=Amaresh |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA605&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijxbqb6NKAAxVHwzgGHWh6CAo4KBDoAXoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-260-1803-1 |location=India |pages=605 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯆꯥꯏꯅꯔꯣꯜ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Chainarol}}|}}
| an account of combats
| collection of 27 stories of bellicosity among the clan dynasties
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=23, 36-42, 87 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Trail of Heroism) |quote=Chāinarol (An Account of Combats) reaffirms the tradition of bellicosity among the clan dynasties with, of course, the difference ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯆꯦꯡꯂꯩꯔꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Chengleiron}}|}}
| narrative of the Chenglei clan
| heroic legend of Chenglei King Chingjen Naran Panganba
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=23, 181 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Trail of Heroism) |quote=Chengleiron, literally meaning a narrative of the Chenglei clan, is essentially the bizarre legend of Chingjen Nāran Pānganbā born of Thāngyi Khongjrombā, king of the Chengleis ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯇꯨꯇꯦꯡꯂꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Tutenglon}}|}}
| dredging the channels of rivers
| heroic saga of two Meitei royal brothers
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=24-26 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Trail of Heroism) |quote=Tutenglon is the saga of two Meitei princes, Yoimongbā and Tāothingmāng, who took upon themselves the superhuman task of dredging the channels of the biggest and the longest rivers in Manipur, the Iril and the Imphal ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯇꯣꯔꯩꯔꯣꯜ ꯂꯝꯕꯨꯕ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Toreirol Lambuba]]}}|}}
|
| account of toponyms of places in riverbanks
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=99-100 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period |quote=Toreirol Lambubā is a veritable account of toponyms and describes how places, particularly located on the banks of meandering rivers, derived their names. Beginning with the epic adventure of Yoimongbā and Tāothingmāng, the Meitei princes in the 3rd century A.D. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯈꯨꯃꯟ ꯀꯪꯂꯩꯔꯣꯜ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Khuman Kangleirol}}|}}
|
| royal chronicle of Khuman dynasty
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=79 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Chronicles) |quote=The Khuman Kangleiron is a chronicle of the Khuman clan which held its sway in the south of the valley adjacent to the Meitei territory ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯈꯦꯟꯆꯣ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Khencho}}|}}
|
| religious song, religious poem
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=14, 15 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) |quote='Khencho' is quite obscure and entirely unintelligible to the present generation though it forms an inseparable element of the daily proceedings of the festival. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯈꯣꯡꯆꯣꯝꯅꯨꯄꯤ ꯅꯣꯡꯀꯥꯂꯣꯜ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Khongchomnupi Nongkalol}}|}}
|
| tragedy, comedy, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=54, 55 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Love Supramundane) |quote=Khongchumnupi Nongkārol is a strange story of love which baffles one's attempt to name it either as a tragedy or a comedy. ...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Devi |first=Lairenlakpam Bino |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=tIBymmBWqgsC&pg=PA16&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwis7piJ6tKAAxUz-TgGHbI8B_k4PBDoAXoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=The Lois of Manipur: Andro, Khurkhul, Phayeng and Sekmai |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7099-849-5 |location=India |pages=16 |language=en |quote=It is found in the ancient Manipuri literature named 'Khongjomnubi Nongkarol'. This book described in an allegorical way how the constellations of pleiads and orions took place in the sky and in the course how Khurkhul was named. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯊꯋꯥꯟꯊꯥꯕ ꯍꯤꯔꯥꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Thawanthaba Hiran}}|}}
|
| historical tragedy of [[crime passionnel]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=23, 29-36 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Trail of Heroism) |quote=Thawānthābā Hirān is a tragedy arising out of crime passionnel and is the first work to usher in realism in early Manipuri literature. Unlike the stories of previous works which have the nature of folk-tales, the present story is based on historical facts. The unfortunate incident was the consequence of sheer jealousy as Thawānthābā, the Meitei king (1195-1231), loved too well but not so wisely and this caused to stir the latent pugnacity between two groups of people. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯊꯥꯔꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Tharon]]}}|}}
| lore of months
| poetic account of the twelve lunar months of a year
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=100, 101 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Other Notable Works) |quote=Thāron, an account of the twelve lunar months of a year, is a significant work that stands to prove the propensity of the early Manipuri writers for describing or drawing any aspect that concerns human life. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯌꯥꯀꯩꯕꯥ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Yakeiba}}|}}
|
| ritual song
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=18, 19 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) |quote=...'Yākeibā' can be singled out as a neatly accomplished piece of composition. The opening eighteen lines describe the rising of the resplendent Sun as if done on a canvas. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯌꯥꯀꯩꯔꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Yakeiron}}|}}
|
| poem collection
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=19, 20 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Yākeiron |quote=There are a few more aubades that go by the name of 'Yakeiron' serving similar purpose, and always associated with the call of a bird. They do not make as wide a survey of many a region nor are so picturesque as the foregoing one, but each is invested with deep human emotions. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯌꯦꯟꯂꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Yenlon}}|}}
| account of herbs
| rhythmic description of 66 herbs used by the Meiteis, in delicacies and medicine
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=96-98 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Other Notable Works) |quote=Yenlon attempts to clearly show that beauty is not the exclusive virtue of orchids and other flowers, but many other plants, particularly herbs, growing in the wild have their own too. This, an ancient bard did spot and inspired him to compose pleasant lines on them. ... The text is composed in archaic diction with comparatively short sentences. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯍꯤꯖꯟ ꯍꯤꯔꯥꯎ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Hijan Hirao}}|}}
|
| narrative poem
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=16, 17 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) |quote='Hijan Hirāo', a long narrative poem, which is laden with deep human sentiment though in the form of pathetic fallacy over and above the charm of its music. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯐꯧꯀꯧꯔꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Phoukouron}}|}}
|
| hymns, prayer to goddess of crops ([[Phouoibi]])
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=22, 23 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Hymns) : Phoukouron |quote='Phoukouron', sung at harvesting is, in contrast to the former, marked by leisurely movement of lines formed by juxtaposed words, cryptic and occasionally abstruse. ... The goddess of crops, Phouoibi (Demeter of the Meiteis) is, in all humility, beseeched to munificently bestow the richest harvest. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯄꯣꯛꯂꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Apoklon}}|}}
|
| hymns
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=22 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Hymns) : Apoklon |quote='Apoklon' is an allocution to the first progenitor for his benediction for long life and material prosperity on mankind. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯅꯣꯏꯔꯣꯜ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Anoirol}}|}}
|
| religious song, religious poem, [[Meitei mythology]]
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=13, 15 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Anoirol |quote='Anoirol', a long composition sung with penā in brisk measures, describes the evolution of dance in different ages and other short incidents related to them. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯍꯣꯡꯂꯣꯟ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|Ahonglon}}|}}
|
| ritual song
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=17, 18 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ahonglon |quote='Ahonglon' with its vigour rhythm recounts the yearly joyous festivals performed by the successive Meitei kings with pomp and grandeur. Its antiquity can be traced back to a period before the 11th century for the manuscript Loyumbā Sinyen makes a mention of it...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯧꯒ꯭ꯔꯤ}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn|[[Ougri]]}}|}}
|
| religious song, religious poem
| <ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_Manipuri_Literature/yiBkAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |location=India |pages=13, 14 |language=en, mni |chapter=The Early Period (Ritual Songs) : Ougri |quote=Again from amongst the songs mentioned above, 'Ougri' and 'Khencho', in view of their more archaic diction and much advanced historical allusions, may be considered earlier than the rest. ... 'Ougri' is referred to as sung at the coronation of Nongdā Lāiren Pākhangbā, which took place in 33 A.D. ...}}</ref>
|-
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Mtei}}|}}
| {{lang|mni|{{Script|Latn}}|}}
|
|
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|}

== Translations and literary adaptations to modern Meitei ==
Many scholars and writers, including but not limited to M. Chandra Singh,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Moirangthem Kirti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5eBAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Folk Culture of Manipur |publisher=Manas Publications |others=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-81-7049-063-0 |pages=115 |language=en |quote=Late Pandit M. Chandra Singh, Thaynagi Meitei Sahitya (Old Literature of Manipur), included in the speech collection of 1952 published by Manipur Sahitya Parishad, ...}}</ref> [[Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahluwalia |first=B. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7siAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Social Change in Manipur |publisher=Cultural Publishing House |others=[[University of Michigan]] |location=India |pages=58 |language=en |chapter=Literature |quote=Exploring in the field of ancient Manipuri literature, N. Khelachandra Singh has brought out 'Manipuri Shahityagi ...}}</ref> and O. Bogheswor,<ref>{{Cite book |last=George |first=K. M. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=eTXougCB-NMC&pg=PA432&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiZ59XwvtKAAxXywjgGHVPRCpo4FBDoAXoECAsQAw#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology: Plays and prose |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-81-7201-783-5 |location=India |pages=427, 431, 432 |language=en}}</ref> have dedicated their long lives in the [[translations]], [[literary adaptations]] and restorations of ancient Meitei literary works. The contributions of these group of people make the new generations of readers aware of the essence and values of the old literature. In addition to them, the [[Manipuri Sahitya Parishad]] published books of old literature along with the modern versions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meitei |first=Sanjenbam Yaiphaba |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=c276DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT139&dq=ancient+Meitei+literature&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwifvPTVutKAAxVGxjgGHaRgDLo4ChDoAXoECAYQAw#v=onepage&q=ancient%20Meitei%20literature&f=false |title=The Cultural Heritage of Manipur |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Sarit K. |last3=Arunkumar |first3=M. C. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-000-29637-2 |pages=139 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Jyotirmoy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ws4BAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=History of Manipur |publisher=Eastlight Book House |others=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1973 |location=India |pages=176, 178, 182 |language=en |chapter=Literature; Religion, Literature and Dance}}</ref>

== Significance in modern times ==
The [[Civil Services Examination]] (CSE), conducted by the [[Union Public Service Commission]] (UPSC), for the recruitment of the [[Civil Services of India|bureaucrat civil services of the Government of India]], offers its aspirant candidates across the entire country an optional subject of [[Meitei literature]] ([[Manipuri literature]]), in which the "Old Manipuri Literature" is an integral part of it.<ref name=":byjus">{{Cite web |title=UPSC Manipuri Literature Syllabus for IAS Mains |url=https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/manipuri-literature-syllabus/ |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=BYJUS |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":unacademy">{{Cite web |title=UPSC - Manipuri Syllabus |url=https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/upsc-manipuri-syllabus/ |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=Unacademy |language=en-US}}</ref>

The literary works of ancient Meitei literature that are in the syllabus are:
(1) O. Bhogeswar Singh ([[:en:wikt:Ed.|Ed.]]) : [[Numit Kappa]]
(2) M. Gourachandra Singh (Ed.) : Thawanthaba Hiran
(3) [[Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra|N. Khelchandra Singh]] (Ed.) : Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba
(4) M. Chandra Singh (Ed.) : [[Panthoibi Khonggul]]<ref name=":byjus" /><ref name=":unacademy" />

== See also ==
* [[Meitei classical language movement]]
* [[Meitei culture]]
* [[Meitei folklore]]
* [[Meitei folktales]]
* [[Meitei inscriptions]]
* [[Meitei linguistic purism movement]]
* [[Meitei mythology]]
* [[Meitei proverbs]]
* [[Meitei religion]]
* [[Meitei script]]
* [[Ancient Greek literature]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
{{Incubator|code=omp|lang=Ancient Meitei}}

[[Category:Ancient literature]]
[[Category:Classical literature]]
[[Category:Meitei language]]
[[Category:Meitei literature]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]

Sanjeev Kumar (politician born 1979)

2023-09-10T13:06:13Z

NithanjOn: Contributed a new entry to the website.

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1979)}}

{{Cleanup rewrite}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| birth_name = Sanjeev Kumar
| office = [[MLA]], [[Parbatta Assembly constituency]]
| constituency1 = [[Parbatta]]
| term_start2 = 2020
| party = [[Janata Dal (United)]] (2005 – present)
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1979|11|08|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Patna]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]
| state = [[Bihar]]
| name = Sanjeev Kumar
| occupation = [[Doctor]], [[politician]]
| alma_mater = [[MBBS]], [[King Edward Memorial Hospital and Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical College]]
| image = Dr.Sanjeev Kumar MLA Bihar.jpg
| caption =
| spouse = Archita Prakash
| children = 3
}}

'''Sanjeev Kumar''' (born 8 November 1979) is an Indian politician and a member of Legislative Assembly, [[Bihar]] of India. He represents the 151-[[Parbatta]] constituency in [[Khagaria district|Khagaria]] district of Bihar. He is a member of the [[Janata Dal (United)]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=अमेरिका में सम्मानित किए गए CM नीतीश के विधायक डा. संजीव कुमार, उद्योगपतियों को बिहार आने के लिए किया आमंत्रित - CM Nitish Kumar MLA Dr. Sanjeev Kumar honored in America, invited industrialists to come to Bihar |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/khagaria-cm-nitish-kumar-mla-dr-sanjeev-kumar-honored-in-america-23147390.html |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>

== Personal Life ==
Sanjeev Kumar was born on 8 November 1979 [[Patna]], Bihar. His father Shri Ramanand Prasad Singh was 5 term MLA from Patbatta and Transport Minister of Bihar in [[Nitish Kumar|Nitish kumar]] government.{{cn}}

== Political career ==
Kumar has been active in politics since 2005, He won his first election as a MLA in the 2020 [[Parbatta Assembly constituency]]. He defeated his close contestant Digambar Prasad Tiwary from [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Yashveer |last2=Hindi |first2=India TV |title=Parbatta Election Result: परबत्ता में महज 951 वोटों से जीती जदयू |url=https://www.indiatv.in/elections/bihar-vidhan-sabha-chunav-2020-parbatta-election-result-sanjeev-kumar-digambar-prasad-tiwari-jdu-rjd-752823 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=India TV Hindi |language=hi}}</ref>

After the Sultanganj-Aguwani ghat bridge over river Ganga collapsed on June 4 2023<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tewary |first=Amarnath |title=JD(U) MLA holds department head responsible for bridge collapse in Bihar |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/jdu-mla-holds-department-head-responsible-for-bridge-collapse-in-bihar/article66942207.ece |access-date=2023-09-08 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> in Bihar's Khagaria district, the ruling Janata Dal(U) MLA from Parbatta Assembly constituency Sanjeev Kumar held the head of the State Road Construction Department (Government of Bihar) responsible for the incident. He also said that he already raised his concern about Sultanganj-Aguwani ghat bridge with chief minister Nitish Kumar and Deputy Chief Minister [[Tejashwi Yadav]].{{cn}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
{{catimprove}}

Danchaura

2023-09-06T22:46:56Z

NithanjOn: Published an informative piece.

{{Short description|Village in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Danchaura
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|27.31659|N|79.22782|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mainpuri district|Mainpuri]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bhongaon]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 1.771
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 574
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| demographics_type1 =
| demographics1_title1 =
| demographics1_info1 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 205262
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Danchaura''' ([[Devanagari]]: दनचौरा {{IAST|Danchaurā}}) is a village in [[Sultanganj, Mainpuri|Sultanganj]] block of [[Mainpuri district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]. As of 2011, it has a population of 574, in 103 households.

== Demographics ==
As of 2011, Danchaura had a population of 574, in 103 households.<ref name="Census 2011 A"/>{{rp|167}} This population was 56.6% male (325) and 43.4% female (249). The 0-6 age group numbered 88 (51 male and 37 female), or 15.3% of the total population. 91 residents were members of Scheduled Castes, or 15.9% of the total.<ref name="Census 2011 B">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Mainpuri, Part B (Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1259/download/4050/DH_2011_0917_PART_B_DCHB_MAINPURI.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref>{{rp|130-1}}

The [[1981 Census of India|1981 census]] recorded Danchaura as having a population of 374 people, in 62 households.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-A: Village & Town Directory, District Mainpuri |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/29484/download/32665/28516_1981_MAI.pdf |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|168-9}}

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Danchaura as comprising 2 hamlets, with a total population of 438 people (237 male and 201 female), in 82 households and 65 physical houses. The area of the village was given as 438 acres, and it was then counted as part of [[Bewar, Mainpuri|Bewar]] CD block.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (24 - Mainpuri District) |location=Lucknow |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28772/download/31954/22833_1961_MAI.pdf |access-date=25 December 2021}}</ref>{{rp|xcvi}}

== Infrastructure ==
As of 2011, Danchaura did not have any schools or healthcare facilities. Drinking water was provided by hand pump and tube well/borehole; there were no public toilets. The village had a post office but no public library; there was at least some access to electricity for all purposes. Streets were made of ''[[Indian vernacular architecture#kachcha|kachcha]]'' materials.<ref name="Census 2011 A">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Mainpuri, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1258/download/4046/DH_2011_0917_PART_A_DCHB_MAINPURI.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref>{{rp|167-72}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Mainpuri district}}

[[Category:Villages in Mainpuri district]]

Chinese language

2023-02-13T18:46:21Z

NithanjOn: Wrote an informative guide.

{{Short description|Group of languages of the ethnic Han Chinese}}
{{About|the [[Sinitic languages]] excluding the [[Greater Bai languages]]|other languages in China|Languages of China|the standard language|Standard Chinese|different varieties|Varieties of Chinese}}
{{Hatnote|Unless otherwise specified, Chinese in this article is written in [[Simplified Chinese characters|simplified]]/[[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional]]/[[pinyin]] order. If the simplified and traditional characters are the same, they are written only once.}}
{{More citations needed}}
{{Use dmy dates}}

{{Infobox language
| name = Chinese
| nativename = {{lang|zh-Hans|汉语}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|漢語}}, {{transl|zh|Hànyǔ}} or {{lang|zh|中文}}, {{transl|zh|Zhōngwén}}
| states = [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]] and other locations in the [[Sinophone]] world
| speakers = {{sigfig|1.35|3}} billion
| date = 2022
| ref = e25
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| ancestor = [[Old Chinese]]
| ancestor2 = [[Middle Chinese]]
| dia1 = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
| dia2 = [[Jin Chinese|Jin]]
| dia3 = [[Wu Chinese|Wu]]
| dia4 = [[Gan Chinese|Gan]]
| dia5 = [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]]
| dia6 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| dia7 = [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]
| dia8 = [[Yue Chinese|Yue]]
| dia9 = [[Pinghua|Ping]]
| dia10 = [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]]
| stand1 = [[Standard Chinese|Standard Mandarin]]
| stand2 = Standard [[Cantonese]]
| script = [[Chinese characters]] ([[Traditional Chinese characters|Traditional]]/[[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified]]) Transcriptions: [[Bopomofo|Zhuyin]] [[Pinyin]] (Latin) [[Xiao'erjing]] (Arabic) [[Dungan language#Writing system|Dungan]] (Cyrillic) [[Chinese braille|Chinese Braille]] [[ʼPhags-pa script]] (Historical)
| nation = {{collapsible list |titlestyle = font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; |title = [[List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language#Mandarin|Mandarin]]:
|[[China]] [[Singapore]] [[Taiwan]]
}}
{{collapsible list |titlestyle = font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; |title = [[List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language#Cantonese|Cantonese]]:{{efn|''De facto'' – while no specific variety of Chinese is official in Hong Kong and Macau, Cantonese is the predominant spoken form and the ''[[de facto]]'' regional standard, written in [[traditional Chinese characters]]. [[Standard Chinese|Standard Mandarin]] and [[simplified Chinese characters]] are only occasionally used in some official and educational settings. The HK SAR Government promotes 兩文三語 [Biliteracy (Chinese, English) and Trilingualism (Cantonese, Mandarin, English)], while the Macau SAR Government promotes 三文四語 [Triliteracy (Chinese, Portuguese, English) and Quadrilingualism (Cantonese, Mandarin, Portuguese, English)], especially in public education.}}
|[[Hong Kong]] [[Macau]]
}}{{collapsible list |titlestyle = font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;}}
| minority =
| agency = [[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Education]] (in the reserved name of "{{ill|National Commission on Language and Script Work|zh|国家语言文字工作委员会}}") (Mainland China) [[National Languages Committee]] (Taiwan) [[Civil Service Bureau]] (Hong Kong) [[Education and Youth Affairs Bureau (Macau)|Education and Youth Affairs Bureau]] (Macau) [[Chinese Language Standardisation Council of Malaysia|Chinese Language Standardisation Council]] ([[Malaysia]]) [[Promote Mandarin Council]] (Singapore)
| iso1 = zh
| iso2b = chi
| iso2t = zho
| iso3 = zho
| lc1 = cdo
| ld1 = [[Eastern Min]]
| lc2 = cjy
| ld2 = [[Jin Chinese|Jinyu]]
| lc3 = cmn
| ld3 = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
| lc4 = cpx
| ld4 = [[Pu-Xian Min]]
| lc5 = czh
| ld5 = [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]]
| lc6 = czo
| ld6 = [[Central Min]]
| lc7 = gan
| ld7 = [[Gan Chinese|Gan]]
| lc8 = hak
| ld8 = [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]
| lc9 = hsn
| ld9 = [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]]
| lc10 = mnp
| ld10 = [[Northern Min]]
| lc11 = nan
| ld11 = [[Southern Min]]
| lc12 = wuu
| ld12 = [[Wu Chinese|Wu]]
| lc13 = yue
| ld13 = [[Yue Chinese|Yue]]
| lc14 = csp
| ld14 = Southern [[Pinghua]]
| lc15 = cnp
| ld15 = Northern [[Pinghua]]
| lc16 = och
| ld16 = [[Old Chinese]]
| lc17 = ltc
| ld17 = Late [[Middle Chinese]]
| lc18 = lzh
| ld18 = [[Classical Chinese]]
| lingua = 79-AAA
| image = Chineselanguage.svg
| imagesize =
| imagecaption = ''Hànyǔ'' written in [[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional]] (top) and [[Simplified Chinese characters|simplified characters]] (middle); ''Zhōngwén'' (bottom)
| notice = IPA
| listclass = hlist
| glotto = sini1245
| glottorefname = Sinitic
| glottofoot = no
| map = Map-Sinophone World.png
| mapcaption = Map of the Chinese-speaking world.
{{legend|#00A800|Regions with a native Chinese-speaking majority.}}
{{legend|#80C534|Regions where Chinese is not native but an official or educational language.}}
{{legend|#b1ff72|Regions with significant Chinese-speaking minorities.}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| order = st
| title = Han language (general or spoken)
| s = {{linktext|汉语}}
| t = {{linktext|漢語}}
| l = [[Han Chinese|Han people]]/[[Han dynasty|dynasty]]'s [[language]]
| p = Hànyǔ
| w = Han4-yu3
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|an|4|.|yu|3}}
| myr = Hàn-yǔ
| tp = Hàn-yǔ
| h = Hon Ngi
| j = Hon3 jyu5
| y = hon yúh
| gd = hon3 yü5
| ci = {{IPA-yue|hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː}}
| buc = Háng-ngṳ̄
| poj = Hàn-gí, Hàn-gú
| wuu = hoe3 nyiu2
| altname = Chinese text (especially written)
| c2 = {{linktext|lang=zh|中文}}
| l2 = [[Names of China|Chinese ("middle/central")]] [[Text (literary theory)|text]] (or [[Written language|writing]])
| p2 = Zhōngwén
| h2 = Chung-Vun
| w2 = Chung1-wên2
| mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|wen|2}}
| myr2 = jūng-wén
| tp2 = jhong-wún
| buc2 = Dṳng-ùng
| poj2 = Tiong-bûn
| wuu2 = tson1 ven1
| j2 = Zung1 man4*2
| y2 = Jūng mán
| gd2 = Zung1 men4*2
| altname3 = Han text (especially written and when distinguished from other [[languages of China]])
| s3 = {{linktext|汉文}}
| t3 = {{linktext|漢文}}
| l3 = [[Han Chinese|Han]] [[Text (literary theory)|text]] (or [[Written language|writing]])
| p3 = Hànwén
}}

'''Chinese'''{{efn|{{zh |s = 汉语 |t = 漢語 |p = Hànyǔ }}{{efn|{{lit.}} "[[Han Chinese|Han]] language"}} }} ({{zh |c = 中文 |p = Zhōngwén |links = no |labels = no }},{{efn|{{lit.}} "Chinese writing"}} especially when referring to [[written Chinese]]) is a group of [[language]]s spoken natively by the ethnic [[Han Chinese]] majority and [[List of ethnic groups in China|many minority ethnic groups]] in [[Greater China]]. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the world's population) speak a [[Varieties of Chinese|variety of Chinese]] as their [[first language]].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |title = Summary by language size |website = Ethnologue |date = 3 October 2018 |language = en |access-date = 2021-03-07 }}</ref>

Chinese languages form the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]] branch of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] family. The spoken [[varieties of Chinese]] are usually considered by native speakers to be [[Dialect|dialects of a single language]]. However, their lack of [[mutual intelligibility]] means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a [[Language family|family]].{{efn|Various examples include:
* David Crystal, ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. "The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages."
* Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. ''Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar'' (1989), p. 2. "The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family."
* {{harvp|Norman|1988|p=1}}. "[...] the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages [...]"
* {{harvp|DeFrancis|1984|p=56}}. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China."
Linguists in China often use a formulation introduced by [[Fu Maoji]] in the ''[[Encyclopedia of China]]'': "{{lang|zh|汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。}}" ("In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family."){{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=10, 21}}
}} Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from [[Middle Chinese]], of which the most spoken by far is [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (with about 800 million speakers, or 66%), followed by [[Min Chinese|Min]] (75 million, e.g. [[Southern Min]]), [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] (74 million, e.g. [[Shanghainese]]), and [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] (68 million, e.g. [[Cantonese]]).{{sfnp|Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|2012|pp=3, 125}} These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including [[New Xiang]] with [[Southwestern Mandarin]], [[Xuanzhou Wu Chinese]] with [[Lower Yangtze Mandarin]], [[Jin Chinese|Jin]] with [[Central Plains Mandarin]] and certain divergent dialects of [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] with [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] (though these are unintelligible with mainstream Hakka). All varieties of Chinese are [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] to at least some degree, and are largely [[Analytic language|analytic]].

The earliest Chinese written records are [[Shang dynasty]]-era [[Oracle bone script|oracle bone inscriptions]], which can be dated to 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of [[Old Chinese]] can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the [[Northern and Southern dynasties]] period, Middle Chinese went through several [[Sound change|sound changes]] and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. ''[[Qieyun]]'', a [[rime dictionary]], recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early [[Qing dynasty|Qing dynasties]] operated using a [[koiné language]] ([[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Guanhua]]) based on [[Nanjing dialect]] of Lower Yangtze Mandarin.

[[Standard Chinese]] (Standard Mandarin), based on the [[Beijing dialect]] of Mandarin, was adopted in the 1930s and is now an official language of both the People's Republic of [[China]] and the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] (Taiwan), one of the four [[Languages of Singapore|official languages of Singapore]], and one of the six [[official languages of the United Nations]]. The written form, using the [[Logogram|logograms]] known as [[Chinese characters]], is shared by literate speakers of mutually unintelligible dialects. Since the 1950s, [[simplified Chinese characters]] have been promoted for use by the government of the People's Republic of China, while Singapore officially adopted simplified characters in 1976. [[Traditional Chinese characters|Traditional characters]] remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and other countries with significant overseas Chinese speaking communities such as Malaysia (where, although simplified characters were adopted as the ''de facto'' standard in the 1980s, traditional characters remain in widespread use).

==Classification==
[[File:The origin and spread of the Sino-Tibetan language family.png|upright=1.5|left|thumb|After applying the linguistic comparative method to the database of comparative linguistic data developed by [[Laurent Sagart]] in 2019 to identify sound correspondences and establish cognates, phylogenetic methods are used to infer relationships among these languages and estimate the age of their origin and homeland.{{sfnp|Sagart|Jacques|Lai|Ryder|2019|pp=10319–10320}}]]
Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language family]], together with [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]] and many other languages spoken in the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Southeast Asian Massif]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=12–13}} Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] or [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of [[inflection]] in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive [[border zone]]s.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|pp=422, 434–436}} Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|p=426}} A top-level branching into Chinese and [[Tibeto-Burman languages]] is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|p=431}}

==History==
{{main|History of the Chinese language}}
The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the [[Shang dynasty]]. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=183–185}}

===Old and Middle Chinese===
The earliest examples of Chinese ([[Old Chinese]]) are divinatory inscriptions on [[oracle bone]]s from around 1250 BCE in the late [[Shang dynasty]].{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p=1}} The next attested stage came from [[Chinese bronze inscriptions|inscriptions on bronze artifacts]] of the [[Western Zhou]] period (1046–771 BCE), the ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' and portions of the ''[[Book of Documents]]'' and ''[[I Ching]]''.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=2–3}} Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the [[phonology of Old Chinese]] by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the ''Classic of Poetry'' and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=42–45}} Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial [[consonant cluster]]s of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|p=177}} Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] distinctions in Middle Chinese.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=181–183}} Several [[derivational affix]]es have also been identified, but the language lacks [[inflection]], and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and [[grammatical particle]]s.{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p=12}}

[[Middle Chinese]] was the language used during [[Northern and Southern dynasties]] and the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties (6th through 10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the ''[[Qieyun]]'' [[Rime dictionary|rime book]] (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by [[rhyme table]]s such as the {{Lang|zh-latn|[[Yunjing]]}} constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the ''Qieyun'' system.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=14–15}} These works define phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=125}} Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern [[varieties of Chinese]], [[Sino-Xenic vocabularies|borrowed Chinese words]] in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=34–42}} The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a [[diasystem]] encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=24}}

===Classical and literary forms===
{{main|Classical Chinese}}

The relationship between spoken and written Chinese is rather complex ("[[diglossia]]"). Its spoken varieties have evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. [[Classical Chinese]] [[literature]] began in the [[Spring and Autumn period]].

===Rise of northern dialects===
After the fall of the [[Northern Song]] dynasty and subsequent reign of the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] (Jurchen) and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] (Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called [[Old Mandarin]]) developed based on the dialects of the [[North China Plain]] around the capital.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=48}}
The ''[[Zhongyuan Yinyun]]'' (1324) was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new ''[[sanqu]]'' verse form in this language.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=48–49}}
Together with the slightly later ''[[Menggu Ziyun]]'', this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern [[Mandarin dialects]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=49–51}}

Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=133, 247}}
Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|common language based on Mandarin varieties]], known as ''Guānhuà'' ({{zh|s=官话|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=官話|labels=no}}, literally "language of officials").{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=136}}
For most of this period, this language was a [[Koiné language|koiné]] based on dialects spoken in the [[Nanjing]] area, though not identical to any single dialect.{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|pp=549–550}}
By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|pp=540–541}}

In the 1930s, a [[Standard Chinese|standard national language]], ''Guóyǔ'' ({{lang|zh-Hans|国语}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|國語}} ; "national language") was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the [[National Languages Committee|National Language Unification Commission]] finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it ''pǔtōnghuà'' ({{lang|zh-Hans|普通话}}/{{lang|zh-Hans|普通話}}; "common speech").{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|pp=3–15}} The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both Mainland China and Taiwan.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=133}} Because of their colonial and linguistic history, the language used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] is the local [[Cantonese]], although the standard language, Mandarin, has become very influential and is being taught in schools.{{sfnp|Zhang|Yang|2004}}

===Influence===
{{see also|Adoption of Chinese literary culture|Sino-Xenic vocabularies}}
[[File:Tripitaka Koreana.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Tripitaka Koreana]]'', a Korean collection of the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]]]]

Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the [[Han empire]] in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a [[Chinese domination of Vietnam|period of Chinese control]] that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The [[Four Commanderies of Han|Four Commanderies]] were established in northern Korea in the first century BCE, but disintegrated in the following centuries.{{sfnp|Sohn|Lee|2003|p=23}} [[Chinese Buddhism]] spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in [[Literary Chinese]].{{sfnp|Miller|1967|pp=29–30}} Later [[Korea]], [[Japan]], and [[Vietnam]] developed strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions, with Literary Chinese as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in [[Korea]] and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam.{{sfnp|Kornicki|2011|pp=75–77}} Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese.{{sfnp|Kornicki|2011|p=67}}

Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called [[Sino-Xenic pronunciations]]. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies.{{sfnp|Miyake|2004|pp=98–99}} This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of [[Mora (linguistics)|mora]]ic structure in Japanese{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|pp=120–121}} and the disruption of [[vowel harmony]] in Korean.{{sfnp|Sohn|2001|p=89}}

Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] roots in European languages.{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|p=146}} Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2000|p=43}} The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Sino-Japanese words]] account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|p=143}}

Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on [[Chinese characters]], but later replaced with the ''[[hangul]]'' alphabet for Korean and supplemented with ''[[kana]]'' syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex ''[[chữ nôm]]'' script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters (''[[kanji]]'') and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea (although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters - ''[[hanja]]'' - is still required), and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of former [[French Indochina|French colonization]], Vietnamese switched to [[Vietnamese alphabet|a Latin-based alphabet]].

Examples of [[List of English words of Chinese origin|loan words in English]] include "[[tea]]", from [[Hokkien]] (Min Nan) {{Zh|c=|s=|t=|poj={{linktext|tê}}|labels=no}} ({{Linktext|茶|lang=zh}}), "[[dim sum]]", from Cantonese ''dim2 sam1'' ({{Linktext|點心|lang=zh}}) and "[[kumquat]]", from Cantonese ''gam1gwat1'' ({{Linktext|金橘|lang=zh}}).

==Varieties==
{{Main|Varieties of Chinese}}
[[File:Map of sinitic languages full-en.svg|upright=2|thumb|right|Range of Chinese dialect groups in China Mainland and Taiwan according to the ''Language Atlas of China''{{sfnp|Wurm|Li|Baumann|Lee|1987}}]]

[[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese.{{sfnp|Norman|2003|p=72}} These varieties form a [[dialect continuum]], in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=189–190}} Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the [[North China Plain]]. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbors. For instance, [[Wuzhou]] is about {{convert|120|mi|km|order=flip}} upstream from [[Guangzhou]], but the [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] variety spoken there is more like that of Guangzhou than is that of [[Taishan, Guangdong|Taishan]], {{convert|60|mi|km|round=5|order=flip}} southwest of Guangzhou and separated from it by several rivers.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=23}} In parts of [[Fujian]] the speech of neighboring counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=188}}

Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects are spoken.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=191}}
The vast majority of Chinese immigrants to North America up to the mid-20th century spoke the [[Taishanese|Taishan dialect]], from a small coastal area southwest of [[Guangzhou]].{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=98}}

===Grouping===
{{pie chart
| caption = Proportions of first-language speakers{{sfnp|Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|2012|pp=3, 125}}
| label1 = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] | color1 = #ac8761 | value1 = 65.7 
| label2 = [[Min Chinese|Min]] | color2 = #b1bab6 | value2 = 6.2 
| label3 = [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] | color3 = #c8c8a8 | value3 = 6.1 
| label4 = [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] | color4 = #bf6e7b | value4 = 5.6 
| label5 = [[Jin Chinese|Jin]] | color5 = #96642c | value5 = 5.2 
| label6 = [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] | color6 = #fbd98d | value6 = 3.9 
| label7 = [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] | color7 = #eeb36a | value7 = 3.5 
| label8 = [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]] | color8 = #a5ae87 | value8 = 3.0 
| label9 = [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]] | color9 = #9b987f | value9 = 0.3 
| label10 = [[Pinghua]], others | color10 = #946565 | value10 = 0.6 
| others = yes
}}
Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely on the basis of the different evolution of [[Middle Chinese]] voiced initials:{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=181}}{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|pp=53–55}}
* [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], including [[Standard Chinese]], [[Beijing dialect|Pekingese]], [[Sichuanese Mandarin|Sichuanese]], and also the [[Dungan language]] spoken in [[Central Asia]]
* [[Wu Chinese|Wu]], including [[Shanghainese]], [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]], and [[Wenzhounese]]
* [[Gan Chinese|Gan]]
* [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]]
* [[Min Chinese|Min]], including [[Fuzhou dialect|Fuzhounese]], [[Hainanese]], [[Hokkien]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]
* [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]
* [[Yue Chinese|Yue]], including [[Cantonese]] and [[Taishanese]]

The classification of [[Li Rong (linguist)|Li Rong]], which is used in the ''[[Language Atlas of China]]'' (1987), distinguishes three further groups:{{sfnp|Wurm|Li|Baumann|Lee|1987}}{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|pp=55–56}}
* [[Jin Chinese|Jin]], previously included in Mandarin.
* [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]], previously included in Wu.
* [[Pinghua Chinese|Pinghua]], previously included in Yue.

Some varieties remain unclassified, including [[Danzhou dialect]] (spoken in [[Danzhou]], on [[Hainan]] Island), [[Waxianghua]] (spoken in western [[Hunan]]) and [[Shaozhou Tuhua]] (spoken in northern [[Guangdong]]).{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|pp=72–73}}

===Standard Chinese===
{{Main|Standard Chinese}}
{{See also|List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language}}

[[Standard Chinese]], often called Mandarin, is the official [[standard language]] of [[China]], the de facto official language of [[Taiwan]], and one of the four official languages of [[Singapore]] (where it is called "Huáyŭ" {{lang|zh-Hans|华语}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|華語}} or Chinese). Standard Chinese is based on the [[Beijing dialect]], the dialect of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] as spoken in [[Beijing]]. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools.

In China and Taiwan, [[diglossia]] has been a common feature. For example, in addition to Standard Chinese, a resident of [[Shanghai]] might speak [[Shanghainese]]; and, if they grew up elsewhere, then they are also likely to be fluent in the particular dialect of that local area. A native of [[Guangzhou]] may speak both Cantonese and Standard Chinese. In addition to Mandarin, most [[Taiwanese people|Taiwanese]] also speak [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] (commonly "Taiwanese" {{lang|zh-Hant|台語}}<ref>{{cite news |last1=何 |first1=信翰 |title=自由廣場》Taigi與台語 |url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601 |access-date=11 July 2021 |agency=自由時報 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=李 |first1=淑鳳 |title=台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢 |journal=台語研究 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=56–71 |url=https://www.airitilibrary.com/Publication/alDetailedMesh?docid=20763611-201003-201004230089-201004230089-56-71 |access-date=11 July 2021}}</ref>), [[Hakka language|Hakka]], or an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klöter |first=Henning |journal=China Perspectives |volume=56 |issn=1996-4617 |url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/442 |title=Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> A Taiwanese may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Mandarin and other [[Languages of Taiwan|Taiwanese languages]], and this mixture is considered normal in daily or informal speech.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Kuo |first=Yun-Hsuan |title=New dialect formation: the case of Taiwanese Mandarin |type=PhD |publisher=University of Essex |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/YUN-HSUAN_KUO |access-date=26 June 2015}}</ref>

Due to their traditional cultural ties to [[Guangdong]] province and colonial histories, [[Cantonese]] is used as the standard variant of Chinese in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] instead.

===Nomenclature===
The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common shared national identity and a common written form.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=7–8}} Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great.{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1984|pp=55–57}}{{sfnp|Thomason|1988|pp=27–28}} However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language.{{sfnp|Norman|2003|p=72}}

There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity.{{sfnp|Campbell|2008}}

The Chinese government’s official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is fāngyán (方言, literally "regional speech"), whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called dìdiǎn fāngyán (地点方言/地點方言 "local speech").{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1984|p=57}}

Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include ''topolect'',{{sfnp|Mair|1991|p=7}} ''[[lect]]'',<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bailey|1973|p=11}}, cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Groves|2008|p=1}}</ref> ''vernacular'',{{sfnp|Haugen|1966|p=927}} ''regionalect'',{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1984|p=57}} and ''[[language variety|variety]]''.{{sfnp|Hudson|1996|p=22}}{{sfnp|Mair|1991|p=17}}

==Phonology==
{{Further|Standard Chinese phonology|Historical Chinese phonology|Varieties of Chinese#Phonology}}

[[File:Edmund Yeo - voice - ch 150127 1828.wav|thumb|A Malaysian man speaking [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] with a [[Malaysian Mandarin|Malaysian]] accent]]

Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and also to the characters of the writing system; and [[phonology|phonologically]] they are structured according to fixed rules.

The structure of each syllable consists of a [[syllable nucleus|nucleus]] that has a [[vowel]] (which can be a [[monophthong]], [[diphthong]], or even a [[triphthong]] in certain varieties), preceded by an [[syllable onset|onset]] (a single [[consonant]], or consonant+[[semivowel|glide]]; zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a [[syllable coda|coda]] consonant; a syllable also carries a [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in [[Cantonese]], where the [[nasal stop|nasal]] [[sonorant]] consonants {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} can stand alone as their own syllable.

In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final [[semivowel|glide]] is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, the retroflex approximant {{IPA|/ɻ/}}, and voiceless stops {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as [[Standard Chinese]], are limited to only {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɻ/}}.

The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from [[Middle Chinese]]. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.{{efn|{{harvp|DeFrancis|1984|p=42}} counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) ''Monosyllabism in English''; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English.|name=DeFrancis p42}}

===Tones===
All varieties of spoken Chinese use [[tone (linguistics)|tones]] to distinguish words.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=52}} A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is [[Shanghainese dialect|Shanghainese]] which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned [[pitch accent]] system much like modern Japanese.

A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of [[Standard Chinese]] (along with the neutral tone) to the syllable ''ma''. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words:
{{Chinese tones}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of Standard Mandarin tones
!Characters
!Pinyin
!Pitch contour
!Meaning
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|妈}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|媽}}
| {{lang|zh-Latn|mā}}
| high level
| 'mother'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|麻}}
| {{lang|zh-Latn|má}}
| high rising
| 'hemp'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|马}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|馬}}
| {{lang|zh-Latn|mǎ}}
| low falling-rising
| 'horse'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|骂}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|罵}}
| {{lang|zh-Latn|mà}}
| high falling
| 'scold'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|吗}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|嗎}}
| {{lang|zh-Latn|ma}}
| neutral
| [[Question word|question particle]]
|}

Standard [[Cantonese]], in contrast, has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a [[plosive|stop consonant]] were considered to be "[[checked tone]]s" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such:{{sfnp|Matthews|Yip|1994|pp=20–22}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of Standard Cantonese tones
!Characters
![[Jyutping]]
![[Yale romanization of Cantonese|Yale]]
!Pitch contour
!Meaning
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|诗}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|詩}}
| ''si1''
| ''sī''
| high level, high falling
| 'poem'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|史}}
| ''si2''
| ''sí''
| high rising
| 'history'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|弒}}
| ''si3''
| ''si''
| mid level
| 'to assassinate'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|时}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|時}}
| ''si4''
| ''sìh''
| low falling
| 'time'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|市}}
| ''si5''
| ''síh''
| low rising
| 'market'
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|是}}
| ''si6''
| ''sih''
| low level
| 'yes'
|}

==Grammar==
{{Main|Chinese grammar}}
{{See also|Chinese classifiers}}

Chinese is often described as a "monosyllabic" language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing [[Classical Chinese]] and [[Middle Chinese]]; in Classical Chinese, for example, perhaps 90% of words correspond to a single syllable and a single character. In the modern varieties, it is usually the case that a [[morpheme]] (unit of meaning) is a single syllable; in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as "seven", "elephant", "para-" and "-able".

Some of the conservative southern varieties of modern Chinese have largely monosyllabic words, especially among the more basic vocabulary. In modern Mandarin, however, most [[noun]]s, [[adjective]]s and [[verb]]s are largely disyllabic. A significant cause of this is [[Phonetic erosion|phonological attrition]]. [[Sound change]] over time has steadily reduced the number of possible syllables. In modern Mandarin, there are now only about 1,200 possible syllables, including tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (still largely monosyllabic) and over 8,000 in English.{{efn|name=DeFrancis p42}}

This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of [[homophone]]s. As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary<ref>{{cite book |title= Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary |editor-first= Peter |editor-last= Terrell |publisher= Langenscheidt KG |location= Berlin and Munich |year= 2005 |isbn= 978-1-58573-057-5 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/langenscheidtpoc00lang }}</ref> lists six words that are commonly pronounced as ''shí'' (tone 2): {{Lang|zh|十}} 'ten'; {{zh|s=实|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=實|labels=no}} 'real, actual'; {{zh|s=识|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=識|labels=no}} 'know (a person), recognize'; {{Lang|zh|石}} 'stone'; {{zh|s=时|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=時|labels=no}} 'time'; {{Lang|zh|食}} 'food, eat'. These were all pronounced differently in [[Early Middle Chinese]]; in [[Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese|William H. Baxter's transcription]] they were {{transl|zh|dzyip}}, {{transl|zh|zyit}}, {{transl|zh|syik}}, {{transl|zh|dzyek}}, {{transl|zh|dzyi}} and {{transl|zh|zyik}} respectively. They are still pronounced differently in today's [[Cantonese]]; in [[Jyutping]] they are ''sap9'', ''sat9'', ''sik7'', ''sek9'', ''si4'', ''sik9''. In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is; [[Yuen Ren Chao]]'s modern poem [[Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den]] exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced ''shi''. As such, most of these words have been replaced (in speech, if not in writing) with a longer, less-ambiguous compound. Only the first one, {{Lang|zh|十}} 'ten', normally appears as such when spoken; the rest are normally replaced with, respectively, ''shíjì'' {{zh|s=实际|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=實際|labels=no}} (lit. 'actual-connection'); ''rènshi'' {{zh|s=认识|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=認識|labels=no}} (lit. 'recognize-know'); ''shítou'' {{zh|s=石头|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=石頭|labels=no}} (lit. 'stone-head'); ''shíjiān'' {{zh|s=时间|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=時間|labels=no}} (lit. 'time-interval'); ''shíwù'' {{Lang|zh|食物}} (lit. 'foodstuff'). In each case, the homophone was disambiguated by adding another morpheme, typically either a synonym or a generic word of some sort (for example, 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable should be selected.

However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, ''shí'' {{Lang|zh|石}} alone, not ''shítou'' {{zh|s=石头|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=石頭|labels=no}}, appears in compounds meaning 'stone-', for example, ''shígāo'' {{Lang|zh|石膏}} 'plaster' (lit. 'stone cream'), ''shíhuī'' {{Lang|zh|石灰}} 'lime' (lit. 'stone dust'), ''shíkū'' {{Lang|zh|石窟}} 'grotto' (lit. 'stone cave'), ''shíyīng'' {{Lang|zh|石英}} 'quartz' (lit. 'stone flower'), ''shíyóu'' {{Lang|zh|石油}} 'petroleum' (lit. 'stone oil').

Most modern varieties of Chinese have the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character [[compound word|compounds]]. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic without compounding, as in ''kūlong'' {{Lang|zh|窟窿}} from ''kǒng'' 孔; this is especially common in [[Jin Chinese|Jin]].

Chinese [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is strictly bound to a set number of [[syllable]]s with a fairly rigid construction. Although many of these single-syllable morphemes (''zì'', {{Lang|zh|字}}) can stand alone as individual [[word (linguistics)|words]], they more often than not form multi-syllabic [[Compound (linguistics)|compounds]], known as ''cí'' ({{zh|s=词|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=詞|labels=no}}), which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese ''cí'' ('word') can consist of more than one character-morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.

For example:
* {{lang|zh-Latn|yún}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|云}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|雲}} 'cloud'
* {{lang|zh-Latn|hànbǎobāo}}, {{lang|zh-Latn|hànbǎo}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|汉堡包}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|漢堡包}}, {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|汉堡}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|漢堡}} 'hamburger'
* {{lang|zh-Latn|wǒ}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|我}} 'I, me'
* {{lang|zh-Latn|shǒuményuán}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|守门员}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|守門員}} 'goalkeeper'
* {{lang|zh-Latn|rén}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|人}} 'people, human, mankind'
* {{lang|zh-Latn|dìqiú}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|地球}} 'The Earth'
* {{lang|zh-Latn|shǎndiàn}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|闪电}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|閃電}} 'lightning'
* {{lang|zh-Latn|mèng}} {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|梦}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|夢}} 'dream'

All varieties of modern Chinese are [[analytic language]]s, in that they depend on [[syntax]] (word order and sentence structure) rather than [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]—i.e., changes in form of a word—to indicate the word's function in a sentence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=10}} In other words, Chinese has very few [[grammatical inflection]]s—it possesses no [[Grammatical tense|tenses]], no [[grammatical voice|voices]], no [[grammatical number|number]]s (singular, plural; though there are plural markers, for example for personal pronouns), and only a few [[Article (grammar)|articles]] (i.e., equivalents to "the, a, an" in English).{{efn|A distinction is made between {{Lang|zh|他}} as 'he' and {{Lang|zh|她}} as 'she' in writing, but this is a 20th-century introduction, and both characters are pronounced in exactly the same way.}}

They make heavy use of [[grammatical particle]]s to indicate [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]]. In Mandarin Chinese, this involves the use of particles like ''le'' {{Lang|zh|了}} (perfective), ''hái'' {{zh|s=还|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=還|labels=no}} ('still'), ''yǐjīng'' {{zh|s=已经|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=已經|labels=no}} ('already'), and so on.

Chinese has a [[subject–verb–object]] [[word order]], and like many other [[languages of East Asia]], makes frequent use of the [[topic–comment]] construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of [[classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]] and [[measure word]]s, another trait shared with neighboring languages like [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]]. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of [[serial verb construction]], [[pro-drop language|pronoun dropping]] and the related [[null subject language|subject dropping]].

Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences.

==Vocabulary==
The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/chinese/real_chinese/mini_guides/characters/characters_howmany.shtml|title=BBC - Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> However Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the [[morpheme]], as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language.

Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The ''[[Hanyu Da Zidian]]'', a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including [[bone oracle]] versions. The ''[[Zhonghua Zihai]]'' (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The [[CC-CEDICT]] project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms and names of political figures, businesses and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD),<ref>Timothy Uy and Jim Hsia, Editors, ''Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary – Advanced Reference Edition'', July 2009</ref> based on [[CC-CEDICT]], contains over 84,000 entries.

The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume ''[[Hanyu Da Cidian]]'', records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised ''[[Cihai]]'', a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms.

The 7th (2016) edition of ''[[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]]'', an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in [[mainland China]], has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words.

===Loanwords===
Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of [[loanwords]] from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese [[morphemes]], including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.

Some early [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably {{linktext|蜜|lang=zh}} ''mì'' "honey", {{linktext|狮|lang=zh-Hans}}/{{linktext|獅|lang=zh-Hant}} ''shī'' "lion," and perhaps also {{linktext|马|lang=zh-Hans}}/{{linktext|馬|lang=zh-Hant}} ''mǎ'' "horse", {{linktext|猪|lang=zh-Hans}}/{{linktext|豬|lang=zh-Hant}} ''zhū'' "pig", {{Lang|zh|犬}} ''quǎn'' "dog", and {{linktext|鹅|lang=zh-Hans}}/{{linktext|鵝|lang=zh-Hant}} ''é'' "goose".{{efn|[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] s.v. "[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-75039/Chinese-languages Chinese languages]": "Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) A number of words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer."; Jan Ulenbrook, ''Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen'' (1967) proposes 57 items; see also Tsung-tung Chang, 1988 [http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp007_old_chinese.pdf Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese].}}
Ancient words borrowed from along the [[Silk Road]] since [[Old Chinese]] include {{Lang|zh|葡萄}} ''pútáo'' "[[grape]]", {{Lang|zh|石榴}} ''shíliu''/''shíliú'' "[[pomegranate]]" and {{zh|s=狮子|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=獅子|labels=no}} ''shīzi'' "[[lion]]". Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including {{Lang|zh|佛}} ''Fó'' "Buddha" and {{zh|s=菩萨|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=菩薩|labels=no}} ''Púsà'' "bodhisattva." Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as {{Lang|zh|胡同}} ''hútòng'' "[[hutong]]". Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as {{Lang|zh-hant|葡萄}} "grape," generally have [[Persia]]n etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from [[Sanskrit]] or [[Pāli]], the [[liturgical language]]s of [[North India]]. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the [[Gobi]], Mongolian or northeast regions generally have [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] etymologies, such as {{Lang|zh-hant|琵琶}} ''pípá'', the Chinese lute, or {{Lang|zh|酪}} ''lào''/''luò'' "cheese" or "[[yogurt]]", but from exactly which source is not always clear.{{sfnp|Kane|2006|p=161}}

===Modern borrowings===
{{See also|Translation of neologisms into Chinese|Transcription into Chinese characters}}
Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (''[[calque]]'', or by meaning), phonetic translation (by sound), or [[phono-semantic matching|a combination of the two]]. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and [[international scientific vocabulary]]. Any [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] etymologies are dropped and converted into the corresponding Chinese characters (for example, ''anti-'' typically becomes "{{Lang|zh|反}}", literally ''opposite''), making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word ''telephone'' was initially loaned phonetically as {{zh|s=德律风|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=德律風|labels=no}} (Shanghainese: ''télífon'' {{IPA|[təlɪfoŋ]}}, Mandarin: ''délǜfēng'') during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later {{zh|s=电话|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=電話|labels=no}} ''diànhuà'' (lit. "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent ({{Lang|zh|電話}} is in fact from the Japanese {{Nihongo2|電話}} ''denwa''; see below for more Japanese loans). Other examples include {{zh|s=电视|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=電視|labels=no}} ''diànshì'' (lit. "electric vision") for television, {{zh|s=电脑|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=電腦|labels=no}} ''diànnǎo'' (lit. "electric brain") for computer; {{zh|s=手机|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=手機|labels=no}} ''shǒujī'' (lit. "hand machine") for mobile phone, {{zh|s=蓝牙|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=藍牙|labels=no}} ''lányá'' (lit. "blue tooth") for [[Bluetooth]], and {{zh|s=网志|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=網誌|labels=no}} ''wǎngzhì'' (lit. "internet logbook") for blog in Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as {{zh|s=汉堡包|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=漢堡包|labels=no}} ''hànbǎobāo'' ({{Lang|zh-hant|漢堡}} ''hànbǎo'' "Hamburg" + {{Lang|zh|包}} ''bāo'' "bun") for "hamburger". Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes ([[phono-semantic matching]]), such as {{zh|s=马利奥|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=馬利奧|labels=no}} Mǎlì'ào for the video game character [[Mario]]. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example {{zh|s=奔腾|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=奔騰|labels=no}} ''bēnténg'' (lit. "dashing-leaping") for [[Pentium]] and {{zh|s=赛百味|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=賽百味|labels=no}} ''Sàibǎiwèi'' (lit. "better-than hundred tastes") for [[Subway (restaurant)|Subway restaurants]].

Foreign words, mainly [[proper noun]]s, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, "Israel" becomes {{Lang|zh|以色列}} ''Yǐsèliè'', "Paris" becomes {{Lang|zh|巴黎}} ''Bālí''. A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including {{zh|s=沙发|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=沙發|labels=no}} ''shāfā'' "sofa", {{zh|s=马达|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=馬達|labels=no}} ''mǎdá'' "motor", {{Lang|zh|幽默}} ''yōumò'' "humor", {{zh|s=逻辑|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=邏輯|labels=no}} ''luóji''/''luójí'' "logic", {{zh|s=时髦|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=時髦|labels=no}} ''shímáo'' "smart, fashionable", and {{Lang|zh|歇斯底里}} ''xiēsīdǐlǐ'' "hysterics". The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghai dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, {{zh|s=沙发|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=沙發|labels=no}} "sofa" and {{zh|s=马达|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=馬達|labels=no}} "motor" in Shanghainese sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as {{Lang|zh|梳化}} ''so1 faa3*2'' "sofa" and {{Lang|zh|摩打}} ''mo1 daa2'' "motor".

Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From [[French language|French]] came {{Lang|zh|芭蕾}} ''bālěi'' "ballet" and {{zh|s=香槟|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=香檳|labels=no}} ''xiāngbīn'', "champagne"; from [[Italian language|Italian]], {{Lang|zh|咖啡}} ''kāfēi'' "caffè". English influence is particularly pronounced. From early 20th century Shanghainese, many English words are borrowed, such as {{zh|s=高尔夫|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=高爾夫|labels=no}} ''gāoěrfū'' "golf" and the above-mentioned {{zh|s=沙发|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=沙發|labels=no}} ''shāfā'' "sofa". Later, the United States [[soft power|soft influences]] gave rise to {{Lang|zh|迪斯科}} ''dísikē''/''dísīkē'' "disco", {{zh|s=可乐|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=可樂|labels=no}} ''kělè'' "cola", and {{Lang|zh|迷你}} ''mínǐ'' "mini [skirt]". Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as {{Lang|zh|卡通}} ''kaa1 tung1'' "cartoon", {{Lang|zh|基佬}} ''gei1 lou2'' "gay people", {{Lang|zh|的士}} ''dik1 si6*2'' "taxi", and {{Lang|zh|巴士}} ''baa1 si6*2'' "bus". With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, {{zh|s=粉丝|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=粉絲|labels=no}} ''fěnsī'' "fans", {{Lang|zh|黑客}} ''hēikè'' "hacker" (lit. "black guest"), and {{Lang|zh|博客}} ''bókè'' "blog". In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as {{Lang|zh|駭客}} ''hàikè'' for "hacker" and {{Lang|zh|部落格}} ''bùluògé'' for "blog" (lit. "interconnected tribes").

Another result of the English influence on Chinese is the appearance in Modern Chinese texts of so-called {{zh|s=字母词|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=字母詞|labels=no}} ''zìmǔcí'' (lit. "lettered words") spelled with letters from the English alphabet. This has appeared in magazines, newspapers, on web sites, and on TV: {{zh|s=三G手机|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=三G手機|labels=no}} "3rd generation cell phones" ({{Lang|zh|三}} ''sān'' "three" + G "generation" + {{zh|s=手机|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=手機|labels=no}} ''shǒujī'' "mobile phones"), {{Lang|zh|IT界}} "IT circles" (IT "information technology" + {{Lang|zh|界}} ''jiè'' "industry"), HSK (''Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì'', {{zh|s=汉语水平考试|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=漢語水平考試|labels=no}}), GB (''Guóbiāo'', {{zh|s=国标|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=國標|labels=no}}), {{zh|s=CIF价|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=CIF價|labels=no}} (CIF "Cost, Insurance, Freight" + {{zh|s=价|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=價|labels=no}} ''jià'' "price"), {{Lang|zh|e家庭}} "e-home" (e "electronic" + {{Lang|zh|家庭}} ''jiātíng'' "home"), {{zh|s=W时代|labels=off}}/{{zh|t=W時代|labels=off}} "wireless era" (W "wireless" + {{zh|s=时代|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=時代|labels=no}} ''shídài'' "era"), {{Lang|zh|TV族}} "TV watchers" (TV "television" + {{Lang|zh|族}} ''zú'' "social group; clan"), {{zh|s=后РС时代|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=後PC時代|labels=no}} "post-PC era" ({{zh|s=后|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=後|labels=no}} ''hòu'' "after/post-" + PC "personal computer" + {{zh|s=时代|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=時代|labels=no}}), and so on.

Since the 20th century, another source of words has been [[Japanese language|Japanese]] using existing [[kanji]] (Chinese characters used in Japanese). Japanese re-molded European concepts and inventions into {{nihongo|''[[wasei-kango]]''|和製漢語||lit. "Japanese-made Chinese"}}, and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, ''jīngjì'' ({{zh|s=经济|labels=no}}/{{zh|t=經濟|labels=no}}; {{Nihongo2|経済}} ''keizai'' in Japanese), which in the original Chinese meant "the workings of the state", was narrowed to "economy" in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then [[Wasei-kango|reimported]] into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages.

==Writing system==
[[File:XingshuLantingxv.jpg|thumb|right|"[[Lantingji Xu|Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion]]" by [[Wang Xizhi]], written in [[Semi-cursive script|semi-cursive style]]]]
{{Main|Written Chinese|Mainland Chinese Braille|Taiwanese Braille}}


The Chinese [[orthography]] centers on [[Chinese characters]], which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.w3.org/TR/clreq/ |script-title=zh:Requirements for Chinese Text Layout 中文排版需求}}</ref> Chinese characters denote [[morpheme]]s independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character {{linktext|lang=zh|一}} ("one") is uttered {{transl|zh|yī}} in [[Standard Chinese]], {{transl|yue|yat1}} in [[Cantonese]] and ''it'' in [[Hokkien dialect|Hokkien]] (a form of Min).

Most written Chinese documents in the modern time, especially the more formal ones, are created using the grammar and syntax of the [[Standard Mandarin Chinese]] variants, regardless of dialectical background of the author or targeted audience. This replaced the old writing language standard of [[Literary Chinese]] before the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c142-201309003.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c142-201309003.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-10 |url-status=live|website=[[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]|title=白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？|author=黃華}}</ref> However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://stedu.stheadline.com/sec/article/628/%E7%B2%B5%E6%99%AE%E4%B9%8B%E7%88%AD-%E7%82%BA%E4%BD%A0%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E8%A7%A3%E6%AF%92 |script-title=zh:粵普之爭為你中文解毒}}</ref>

Meanwhile, colloquial forms of various Chinese language variants have also been written down by their users, especially in less formal settings. The most prominent example of this is the [[written Cantonese|written colloquial form of Cantonese]], which has become quite popular in [[Tabloid journalism|tabloids]], [[instant messaging]] applications, and on the internet amongst Hong-Kongers and Cantonese-speakers elsewhere.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://m.thepaper.cn/wifiKey_detail.jsp?contid=1298257&from=wifiKey |script-title=zh:粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻-The Paper |work=[[:zh:澎湃新闻|The Paper]]}}</ref>

Because some Chinese variants have diverged and developed a number of unique morphemes that are not found in Standard Mandarin (despite all other common morphemes), unique characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standard to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like {{Lang|zh|冇}} and {{Lang|zh|係}} for Cantonese and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], are actively used in both languages while being considered archaic or unused in standard written Chinese.

The Chinese had no uniform phonetic transcription system for most of its speakers until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early [[rime book]]s and dictionaries. Early [[India]]n translators, working in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]], were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newmsgr.pct.org.tw/Magazine.aspx?strTID=1&strISID=125&strMagID=M2011081602899|title=白話字滄桑 - 陳宇碩 - 新使者雜誌 The New Messenger 125期母語的將來|website=newmsgr.pct.org.tw}}</ref>

In [[Hunan]], women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in [[Nü Shu]], a [[syllabary]] derived from [[Chinese characters]]. The [[Dungan language]], considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in [[Cyrillic]], and was previously written in the [[Arabic script]]. The [[Dungan people]] are primarily Muslim and live mainly in [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], and [[Russia]]; some of the related [[Hui people]] also speak the language and live mainly in China.

===Chinese characters===
[[File:8 strokes of 永-zh.svg|thumb|永 (meaning "forever") is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese characters. ]]
{{Main|Chinese characters}}


Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed [[Han dynasty]] scholar [[Xu Shen]] [[Chinese character classification|classified characters]] into six categories, namely [[pictograph]]s, simple [[ideograph]]s, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as ''rén'' {{lang|zh|人}} (human), ''rì'' {{lang|zh|日}} (sun), ''shān'' {{lang|zh|山}} (mountain; hill), ''shuǐ'' {{lang|zh|水}} (water). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as ''chōng'' {{lang|zh|沖}} (pour), combining a phonetic component ''zhōng'' {{lang|zh|中}} (middle) with a semantic [[Radical (Chinese character)|radical]] {{lang|zh|氵}} (water). Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century [[Kangxi Dictionary]] recognized 214 radicals.

Modern characters are styled after the [[kaishu|regular script]]. Various other written styles are also used in [[Chinese calligraphy]], including [[seal script]], [[cursive script (East Asia)|cursive script]] and [[clerical script]]. Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but they tend to use traditional characters for traditional art.

There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The [[Traditional Chinese character|traditional system]], used in [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], [[Macau]] and Chinese speaking communities (except [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]]) outside [[mainland China]], takes its form from standardized character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty. The [[Simplified Chinese character]] system, introduced by the People's Republic of China in 1954 to promote mass [[literacy]], simplifies most complex traditional [[glyph]]s to fewer strokes, many to common cursive [[shorthand]] variants. [[Singapore]], which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the ''de facto'' standard for younger ethnic Chinese in [[Malaysia]].

The [[Internet]] provides the platform to practice reading these alternative systems, be it traditional or simplified. Most Chinese users in the modern era are capable of, although not necessarily comfortable with, reading (but not writing) the alternative system, through experience and guesswork.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/compete/writing/big5event_winner2-2.htm|title = 全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最}}</ref>

A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a [[Newspapers of the People's Republic of China|Mainland newspaper]]. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School-children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zimmermann|first=Basile|year=2010|title=Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks|journal=Design and Culture|volume=2|issue=1|pages=27–43|doi=10.2752/175470710X12593419555126|s2cid=53981784|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:87901}}</ref> A large unabridged [[dictionary]], like the Kangxi Dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.

===Romanization===
{{Main|Romanization of Chinese}}
[[File:Gwoyu.svg|thumb|right|upright|"National language" ({{lang|zh-Hant|國語}}/{{lang|zh-Hans|国语}}; ''Guóyǔ'') written in Traditional and Simplified Chinese characters, followed by various romanizations.]]

[[Romanization]] is the process of transcribing a language into the [[Latin script]]. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western [[Christianity in China|Christian missionaries]] in the 16th century.

Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is ''[[Hanyu Pinyin]]'', introduced in 1956 by the [[People's Republic of China]], and later adopted by [[Singapore]] and [[Taiwan]]. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the [[Americas]], [[Australia]], and [[Europe]]. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the Pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside.

The second-most common romanization system, the [[Wade–Giles]], was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels, i.e. it is largely an [[Anglicization]], it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the [[United States]], particularly before the 1980s, and [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|until 2009]] was widely used in Taiwan.

When used within European texts, the [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles' extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with ''Beijing'' than they will be with ''Běijīng'' (pinyin), and with ''Taipei'' than ''T'ai²-pei³'' (Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which really are none, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four.

Here are a few examples of ''Hanyu Pinyin'' and Wade–Giles, for comparison:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Mandarin Romanization Comparison
|-
! Characters !! Wade–Giles !! Pinyin !! Meaning/Notes
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|中国}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|中國}}
| Chung¹-kuo² || {{lang|zh-Latn|Zhōngguó}} || [[China]]
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|台湾}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|台灣}}
| T'ai²-wan¹ || {{lang|zh-Latn|Táiwān}} || [[Taiwan]]
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh|北京}}
| Pei³-ching¹ || {{lang|zh-Latn|Běijīng}} || [[Beijing]]
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|台北}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|臺北}}
| T'ai²-pei³ || {{lang|zh-Latn|Táiběi}} || [[Taipei]]
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh|孫文}}
| Sun¹-wên² || {{lang|zh-Latn|Sūn Wén}} || [[Sun Yat-sen]]
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|毛泽东}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|毛澤東}}
| Mao² Tse²-tung¹ || {{lang|zh-Latn|Máo Zédōng}} || [[Mao Zedong]], Former Communist Chinese leader
|-
| nowrap | {{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|蒋介石}}/{{linktext|lang=zh-Hant|蔣介石}}
| nowrap | Chiang³ Chieh⁴-shih² || {{lang|zh-Latn|Jiǎng Jièshí}}
| [[Chiang Kai-shek]], Former Nationalist Chinese leader
|-
| {{linktext|lang=zh|孔子}}
| K'ung³ Tsu³ || {{lang|zh-Latn|Kǒngzǐ}} || [[Confucius]]
|}

Other systems of romanization for Chinese include [[Gwoyeu Romatzyh]], the French [[EFEO Chinese transcription|EFEO]], the [[Yale romanization of Mandarin|Yale system]] (invented during WWII for U.S. troops), as well as separate systems for [[Cantonese]], [[Min Nan]], [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and other Chinese varieties.

===Other phonetic transcriptions===
Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The [['Phags-pa script]], for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese.

[[Zhuyin]] (colloquially ''bopomofo''), a [[semi-syllabary]] is still widely used in Taiwan's [[elementary school]]s to aid standard pronunciation. Although zhuyin characters are reminiscent of [[katakana]] script, there is no source to substantiate the claim that Katakana was the basis for the zhuyin system. A comparison table of zhuyin to pinyin exists in the [[Bopomofo#Comparison|zhuyin article]]. Syllables based on pinyin and zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles:
* [[Pinyin table]]
* [[Zhuyin table]]

There are also at least two systems of [[cyrillization]] for Chinese. The most widespread is the [[Cyrillization of Chinese from Pinyin|Palladius system]].

==As a foreign language==
{{Main|Chinese as a foreign language}}
[[File:Chinese Language Training at CASA.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|Yang Lingfu, former curator of the [[National Museum of China]], giving Chinese language instruction at the [[Civil Affairs Staging Area]] in 1945.]]

With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4617646.stm |work = BBC News |title = How hard is it to learn Chinese? |date = 17 January 2006 |access-date = 28 April 2010 }}</ref>

Besides Mandarin, [[Cantonese]] is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities.<ref>Wakefield, John C., ''Cantonese as a Second Language: Issues, Experiences and Suggestions for Teaching and Learning (Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics)'', [[Routledge]], New York City, 2019., p.45</ref>

In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official [[Chinese Proficiency Test]] (also known as HSK, comparable to the English [[University of Cambridge ESOL examination|Cambridge Certificate]]), but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660 <ref>{{in lang|zh}} "汉语水平考试中心：2005年外国考生总人数近12万",[http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2006-01/16/content_160707.htm Gov.cn] [[Xinhua News Agency]], 16 January 2006.</ref> and in 2010 to 750,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chinese language proficiency test becoming popular in Mexico|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-06/27/c_13951048.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629055803/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-06/27/c_13951048.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 29, 2011|access-date=12 September 2013|author=Liu lili}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Chinese exclamative particles]]
* [[Chinese honorifics]]
* [[Chinese numerals]]
* [[Chinese punctuation]]
* [[Classical Chinese grammar]]
* [[Chengyu|Four-character idiom]]
* [[Han unification]]
* [[Languages of China]]
* [[North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics]]
* [[Protection of the Varieties of Chinese]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

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== Further reading ==
* {{citation|first=William C.|last=Hannas|title=Asia's Orthographic Dilemma|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8248-1892-0|postscript=.|ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Qiu |first=Xigui |author-link=Qiu Xigui |title=Chinese Writing |others=trans. Gilbert Louis Mattos and [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] |publisher=Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, [[University of California]], Berkeley|year=2000|isbn=978-1-55729-071-7|postscript=.|ref=none}}
* R. L. G. "[http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing Language borrowing Why so little Chinese in English?]" ''[[The Economist]]''. 6 June 2013.
* {{Citation
| last1 = Huang
| first1 = Cheng-Teh James
| last2 = Li
| first2 = Yen-Hui Audrey
| last3 = Li
| first3 = Yafei
| year = 2009
| title = The Syntax of Chinese
| series = Cambridge Syntax Guides
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| location = [[Cambridge]]
| isbn = 978-0-521-59958-0
| doi = 10.1017/CBO9781139166935
| postscript = .
| ref = none
}}

== External links ==
{{InterWiki |code = zh }}

* [http://ctext.org/ Classical Chinese texts] – Chinese Text Project
* [http://chinalinks.osu.edu/ Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720030244/http://chinalinks.osu.edu/ }} at the Ohio State University with hundreds of links to Chinese related web pages

{{-}}
{{Chinese language}}
{{Navboxes
|list =
{{Languages of China}}
{{Languages of Macau}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Languages of Singapore}}
{{Languages of Malaysia}}
{{Chinese loan vocabularies}}
}}
{{Portal bar|Language|China|Taiwan|Singapore|Hong Kong}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Language}}
[[Category:Chinese language| ]]
[[Category:Analytic languages]]
[[Category:Isolating languages]]
[[Category:Sinology|Language]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
[[Category:Languages of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Languages of Macau]]
[[Category:Languages of Singapore]]
[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Languages with own distinct writing systems]]
[[Category:Lingua francas]]

Alexandra Aitken

2022-04-11T01:33:41Z

NithanjOn: Subject now goes by this name

#REDIRECT [[Uttrang Kaur Khalsa]]

{{R from move}}