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Julana railway station

2023-10-03T22:50:33Z

Nenuanonymous: Created article

{{Short description|Railway station in Haryana, India}}
'''Julana railway station''' is in Julana tehsil of Jind District {{convert|91|km|mi}} from Delhi on [[Delhi-Fazilka line]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Julana Railway Station Map/Atlas NR/Northern Zone - Railway Enquiry |url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/julana-jna/2177 |access-date=2022-07-20 |website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> Julana railway station is between Kila Zafargarh railway station and Jai Jai Wanti railway station on [[Bathinda-Rohtak line]].

==See also==
* [[List of railway stations in Haryana]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{adjacent stations|noclear=y
|system=Indian Railways|line=|left=|right=
}}
{{Railway stations in Haryana}}

{{coord|29.1268|76.3798|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Jind district]]

{{Haryana-railstation-stub}}

Sapta Saagaradaache Ello - Side B

2023-09-15T19:13:24Z

Nenuanonymous: Page designed.

{{Short description|2023 Kannada-language Romantic drama movie}}
{{under construction}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Sapta Saagaradaache Ello Side B poster.jpeg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Hemanth M. Rao]]
| producer = [[Rakshit Shetty]]
| writer = Gundu Shetty Hemanth M. Rao
| starring = Rakshit Shetty [[Rukmini Vasanth]] [[Chaithra J. Achar]]
| cinematography = Advaitha Gurumurthy
| editing = Sunil S. Bharadwaj
| music = [[Charan Raj (composer)|Charan Raj]]
| studio = [[Paramvah Studios]]
| distributor = [[KVN Productions]]
| released = 20 October 2023
| country = [[India]]
| budget =
| gross =
| runtime =
}}

'''''Sapta Saagaradaache Ello – Side B''''' (stylized as '''''Sapta Saagaradaache Ello (Side B)'''''; {{translation|"Somewhere Beyond the Seven Oceans (Side B)"}}) is the second of the 2-part 2023 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[romantic drama film]] Saptha Saagaradaache Ello, co-written and directed by [[Hemanth M. Rao]] and produced by [[Rakshit Shetty]]. It stars Rakshit Shetty, [[Rukmini Vasanth]] and [[Chaithra J. Achar]] in the lead roles. The music is composed by [[Charan Raj (composer)|Charan Raj]], while the cinematography was handled by Advaitha Gurumurthy and editing by Sunil S. Bharadwaj and Hemanth M. Rao.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hemanth Rao announces his next movie "Sapta Saagaradaache Ello"|url=https://udayavani.com/article/hemanth-rao-announces-his-next-movie-sapta-sagaradaache-yello/809233|accessdate=6 August 2023|newspaper=Udayavani}}</ref>

== Cast ==
*[[Rakshit Shetty]] as Manu
*[[Rukmini Vasanth]] as Priya
*[[Chaithra J. Achar]] as Surabhi
*[[Achyuth Kumar]] as Prabhu
*[[Pavitra Lokesh]] as Priya's mother
*[[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] as Shankre Gowda
*[[Sharath Lohithaswa]] as Patila
*Ramesh Indira as Soma
*Gopal Krishna Deshpande as a prisoner
*Ashok Sharma as a prisoner
*Ashwin Hassan as a prisoner
*Sunil Kulkarni as a prisoner
*Rajesh S Rao as Priya's father
*Havish Sreenath as Andy, assistant to music director Bhargava

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Hemanth M. Rao}}
{{Paramvah Studios}}

[[Category:2020s Kannada-language films]]
[[Category: 2023 films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]

Ahsan Raza

2023-09-11T14:33:54Z

Nenuanonymous:

{{short description|Pakistani cricketer and umpire}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Ahsan Raza
| country = Pakistan
| fullname = Ahsan Raza
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1974|5|29|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Lahore]], [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], Pakistan
| batting = Right-handed
| role = [[Batsman]], [[Wicket-keeper]], [[Umpire (cricket)|Umpire]]
| club1 = [[Faisalabad cricket team|Faisalabad]]
| year1 = {{nowrap|1993–1994}}
| club2 = [[Habib Bank Limited cricket team|Habib Bank Limited]]
| year2 = 1993–2000
| club3 = [[Lahore cricket teams|Lahore City]]
| year3 = 1996–1999
| club4 = Sargodha
| year4 = 1994–1995
| type1 = First-class
| debutdate1 = 27 October
| debutyear1 = 1993
| debutfor1 = Habib Bank Ltd
| debutagainst1 = [[Pakistan Automobiles Corporation cricket team|PAC]]
| lastdate1 = 29 January
| lastyear1 = 2000
| lastfor1 = Habib Bank Ltd
| lastagainst1 = Islamabad
| type2 = List A
| debutdate2 = 26 November
| debutyear2 = 1993
| debutfor2 = Habib Bank Ltd
| debutagainst2 = PAC
| lastdate2 = 4 October
| lastyear2 = 1999
| lastfor2 = Habib Bank Ltd
| lastagainst2 = Gujranwala
| umpire = true
| testsumpired = 8
| umptestdebutyr = 2021
| umptestlastyr = 2023
| odisumpired = 45
| umpodidebutyr = 2010
| umpodilastyr = 2023
| t20isumpired = 74
| umpt20idebutyr = 2010
| umpt20ilastyr = 2023
| wodisumpired = 12
| umpwodidebutyr = 2013
| umpwodilastyr = 2017
| wt20isumpired = 16
| umpwt20idebutyr = 2015
| umpwt20ilastyr = 2021
| columns = 2
| column1 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches1 = 21
| runs1 = 192
| bat avg1 = 8
| 100s/50s1 = 0/0
| top score1 = 20
| deliveries1 = 0
| wickets1 = –
| bowl avg1 = –
| fivefor1 = –
| tenfor1 = –
| best bowling1 = –
| catches/stumpings1 = 56/7
| column2 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches2 = 4
| runs2 = 3
| bat avg2 = 3
| 100s/50s2 = 0/0
| top score2 = 3
| deliveries2 = 0
| wickets2 = –
| bowl avg2 = –
| fivefor2 = –
| tenfor2 = n/a
| best bowling2 = –
| catches/stumpings2 = 2/2
| date = 16 June 2023
| source = http://content-www.cricinfo.com/pakistan/content/player/39146.html ESPNcricinfo
}}

'''Ahsan Raza''' (born 29 May 1974 in [[Lahore, Pakistan]]) is a Pakistani cricket umpire and former [[cricket]]er.<ref name="cricinfo">{{Cite web|url=http://content-www.cricinfo.com/pakistan/content/player/39146.html|title=Players and Officials – Ahsan Raza|publisher=Cricinfo|access-date=3 March 2009}}</ref> In November 2020, in the second [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) [[Zimbabwean cricket team in Pakistan in 2020–21|between Pakistan and Zimbabwe]], he stood in his 50th T20I match as an on-field umpire, becoming the first umpire to reach the milestone in T20I cricket.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/732431-officials-for-zimbabwe-series-named |title= Officials for Zimbabwe series named |work=The News |access-date=1 November 2020}}</ref>

==Playing career==
Ahsan Raza played for a number of Pakistani teams including [[Faisalabad cricket team|Faisalabad]], [[Habib Bank Limited cricket team|Habib Bank Limited]], [[Lahore cricket teams|Lahore]] and [[Sargodha]].<ref name="cricinfo"/><ref name="PCB">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/18793.html|title=Profile – Ahsan Raza|publisher=[[Pakistan Cricket Board]]|access-date=3 March 2009|archive-date=24 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224133909/http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/18793.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="pcb2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/First-Class_Matches.html|title=First-Class Matches played by Ahsan Raza|publisher=[[Pakistan Cricket Board]]|access-date=3 March 2009|archive-date=25 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525190730/http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/First-Class_Matches.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="pcb3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/List_A_Matches.html|title=List A Matches played by Ahsan Raza|publisher=[[Pakistan Cricket Board]]|access-date=3 March 2009|archive-date=25 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525190743/http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/List_A_Matches.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Umpiring career==
Ahsan Raza is Pakistan's nominated [[third umpire]] on the [[International Cricket Council]] [[International Panel of Umpires and Referees]].<ref name="icc">{{Cite web|url=http://icc-cricket.yahoo.com/about-icc/match-officials.html |title=Match Officials |publisher=[[International Cricket Council]] |access-date=3 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201010047/http://icc-cricket.yahoo.com/about-icc/match-officials.html |archive-date=1 February 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ahsan Raza made his debut as a first-class umpire in 2006 and had umpired 35 matches by the end of February 2009.<ref name="pcb4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/Umpire_in_First-Class_Matches.html|title=Ahsan Raza as Umpire in First-Class Matches|publisher=[[Pakistan Cricket Board]]|access-date=3 March 2009|archive-date=25 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525190802/http://www.pcboard.com.pk/Pakistan/Players/18/18793/Umpire_in_First-Class_Matches.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He got a contract from [[Pakistan Cricket Board]] (PCB) along with [[Zameer Haider]] and [[Shozab Raza]] in 2012.<ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/pakistan/content/story/553444.html Three umpires get PCB contracts] ''[[ESPNCricinfo.com]]''. Retrieved on 25-2-2012</ref>

In January 2018, he was named as one of the seventeen on-field umpires for the [[2018 Under-19 Cricket World Cup]].<ref name="2018U19">{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/586590 |title=Match officials appointed for U19 Cricket World Cup |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref> In October 2018, he was named as one of the twelve on-field umpires for the [[2018 ICC Women's World Twenty20]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/887510 |title=11th team for next month's ICC Women's World T20 revealed |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=25 October 2018}}</ref> In October 2019, he was appointed as one of the twelve umpires to officiate matches in the [[2019 ICC T20 World Cup Qualifier]] tournament in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1412092 |title=Match Officials announced for ICC Men’s T20 World Cup Qualifier 2019 |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>

In February 2020, the ICC named him as one of the umpires to officiate in matches during the [[2020 ICC Women's T20 World Cup]] in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1607955 |title=ICC announces Match Officials for all league matches |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> Raza was also named as one of the two on-field umpires for the [[2020 ICC Women's T20 World Cup Final|final of the tournament]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Kim Cotton, Ahsan Raza umpires for India-Australia Women's T20 World Cup final|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/sports/kim-cotton-ahsan-raza-umpires-india-australia-womens-t20-world-cup-final-1502863318.html|newspaper=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]|agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]]|date=6 March 2020|access-date=6 March 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306105053/https://www.thestatesman.com/sports/kim-cotton-ahsan-raza-umpires-india-australia-womens-t20-world-cup-final-1502863318.html|archive-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> In December 2020, he was shortlisted as one of the Umpire of the Year for the 2020 PCB Awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcb.com.pk/press-release-detail/short-lists-for-pcb-awards-2020-announced.html |title=Short-lists for PCB Awards 2020 announced |work=Pakistan Cricket Board |access-date=1 January 2021}}</ref>

In January 2021, he umpired in his first [[Test cricket|Test match]], for Pakistan's home matches [[South African cricket team in Pakistan in 2020–21|against South Africa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1243017.html |title=1st Test, Karachi, Jan 26 - Jan 30 2021, South Africa tour of Pakistan |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>

In March 2023, Raza and [[Adrian Holdstock]] from South Africa were inducted in the [[Elite Panel of ICC Umpires]] after [[Aleem Dar]] left the panel.<ref>{{cite news |title=Adrian Holdstock, Ahsan Raza join ICC Elite Panel of Umpires as Aleem Dar steps down |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/3111811 |access-date=17 March 2023 |work=International Cricket Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Aleem Dar ends 19-year old career as Elite Panel Umpire |url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/125944/aleem-dar-ends-19-year-old-career-as-elite-panel-umpire-cricbuzzcom |access-date=17 March 2023 |work=Cricbuzz |language=en}}</ref>

==Attack==
{{See also|2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team}}
On 3 March 2009, Ahsan Raza was injured in [[2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team|an attack on the Sri Lankan cricket team]] in [[Lahore]].<ref name="sindhtoday">{{Cite news|url=http://www.sindhtoday.net/sports/70109.htm |title=Pakistani umpire critically injured in Lahore attack |date=3 March 2009 |publisher=Sindh Today |access-date=3 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306212941/http://www.sindhtoday.net/sports/70109.htm |archive-date=6 March 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> He was shot twice and was in a serious condition in a Lahore hospital.<ref name="abcnews">{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/03/03/2506521.htm?section=justin|title=ICC condemns gun attack on Sri Lankan players|date=3 March 2009|work=ABC News|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|access-date=3 March 2009}}</ref><ref name="Shot">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-32829651 |title=In pictures: Pakistan readies for return of international cricket |access-date=22 May 2015 |work=BBC Sport}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Test cricket umpires]]
* [[List of One Day International cricket umpires]]
* [[List of Twenty20 International cricket umpires]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cricinfo|ref=ci/content/player/39146.html}}

{{International Panel of ICC Umpires}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Raza, Ahsan}}
[[Category:1974 births]]
[[Category:Pakistani cricket umpires]]
[[Category:Pakistani Test cricket umpires]]
[[Category:Pakistani One Day International cricket umpires]]
[[Category:Pakistani Twenty20 International cricket umpires]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]
[[Category:Pakistani cricketers]]
[[Category:Faisalabad cricketers]]
[[Category:Habib Bank Limited cricketers]]
[[Category:Sargodha cricketers]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Lahore]]
[[Category:Lahore City cricketers]]

Kumarikunda Shaktipeeth

2023-09-10T14:34:39Z

Nenuanonymous: Shared a valuable publication.

{{Multiple issues|
{{orphan}}
{{More citations needed}}
}}
'''Kumarikunda''' is located near Kumari Canal in [[Sitakunda Upazila]] of [[Chittagong]], [[Bangladesh]]. This tank is the ruins of an ancient [[Hindu temple]]. The tank is identified as the Kanyashram Shaktipeeth in various texts on Tantra.<ref>{{Cite web |title=শাক্তপীঠ - বাংলাপিডিয়া |url=https://bn.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A0 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=bn.banglapedia.org}}</ref> Although the original temple has been destroyed, this kund is still a holy place for [[Hindus|Hindu]] [[devotees]] and is one of the [[Shakti Pitha|Ekanna Shaktipeeths]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction and Preface |url=https://sacred-texts.com/tantra/maha/maha00.htm |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=পাতা:সচিত্র তীর্থ-ভ্রমণ-কাহিনী (তৃতীয় ভাগ) - গোষ্ঠবিহারী ধর.pdf/৪১ - উইকিসংকলন একটি মুক্ত পাঠাগার |url=https://bn.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5-%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80_(%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97)_-_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0.pdf/%E0%A7%AA%E0%A7%A7 |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=bn.wikisource.org |language=bn}}</ref>
{{Infobox Hindu temple
|name=Kumarikunda
|image=Kumarikunda.jpg
|religious_affiliation=Hinduism
|location= sitakunda, Chittagong
|country=Bangladesh
|coordinates=22.521203, 91.729380
}}

==History==
According to legend, sometime during the Satya Yuga, a great sacrifice was organized by King Daksha to take revenge on Lord Shiva. King Daksha was angry because his daughter Sati (Devi) was married to 'Yogi' Mahadeva against his will. King Daksha invited almost all the gods and goddesses except Mahadeva and Sati Devi. Despite Mahadev's reluctance, Goddess Sati attended the event with Mahadev's followers. But as Sati Devi was not an invited guest, she was not given due respect. Moreover, Daksha insulted Mahadeva. Sati Devi could not bear this insult of her father towards her husband and committed suicide. The grief-stricken Mahadeva, enraged, falsified Daksha's yagna and carried Sati Devi's dead body on his shoulder and started the world-wide Tandava dance. By this destruction started in the whole world. To stop the deluge Lord Vishnu cut the body of Mother Sati with Sudarshan Chakra. Maa Sati's remains fell in various places in the Indian subcontinent, and the places later became known as sacred Peethas or Shakti Peethas. Peethanirnaya Tantra mentions "Kanyashrame cha padang me nimisho bhairavasthatha sarvani devata tatra" meaning Goddess Sati fell on the Kanyashram site. Goddess name is Sarvani Bhairav's name is Nimish.

==Kumarikunda Shaktipeeth==

* Scholars differ on the location of the Kanyashram Shaktipeeth. Some say the Shaktipeeth is located in the Kanyakumari temple in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. According to some, the ancient name of the city of Kanauj in ancient India was Kanyakubj, where the Kanyashram Sakthipeeth of the goddess is located. But according to most Pandits this Shaktipeeth is located in Kumarikunda, Bangladesh. Bharatchandra's Annadamangal Kavya does not find anything about this in poetry. According to the Shivacharita Shastra, the goddess's surface falls in the land of Vaivaswat. Gyanendra Mohan Das in his dictionary accepted the view of Sivacharita and said that the word Vaivasvat means the Sun. As the Sun rises in the East, this Peeth will be located in Bangladesh, which is located to the east of India. According to Satipetha researcher Dr. Dinesh Chandra Sarkar, Kumarikunda in Sitakunda is the Kanyashram Shaktipeeth. The Barahi Tantra mentions that the Kumarikunda Shaktipeeth is situated within a distance of five kroshas from the Chandranath temple. The famous Tantra saint Krishnananda Agambageesh in his great book Tantrasara mentions Kumarikunda and says that this Peethasthan is a suitable place for Tantric initiation.
* The ancient temple, however, cannot be seen today. If you continue along the crooked path of the Kumira Canal located in Bara Kumira of Sitakunda, you will come across the red brick of the once ruined Kumarikunda temple. Not long after, the temple was destroyed. A description of the Kumarikunda temple is also found in the illustrated Pilgrimage-Vramana-Kahini written by Gosthavihari Dhar. However, it is not possible to know the exact reason for the collapse of the temple. According to a local, the temple collapsed after the idol of Kumarikunda temple was stolen. Since then only this tank remains with the remains of the temple infrastructure. Due to the inaccessible path, it is not possible to see the devotees.

==Travel to the temple==
The road leading to Kumarikunda Shaktipeeth is very difficult. If you want to go here, first of all you have to go to Sitakunda Upazila of Chittagong District. From near the shrine of Dal Chaul Mia in Bara Kumira of Sitakunda, one has to proceed along the crooked path of Kumira canal. Going forward along the trail, you will see a natural fireplace. After another turn on the Jhiripath, one can see a narrow path leading to this cistern and the red brick remains of the ruined temple. However, it is quite difficult to go to Kumarikund without the help of locals. This kunda is also known as Gaurikunda to the locals.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites in Bangladesh]]

Article 51 of the Constitution of India

2023-07-19T14:23:34Z

Nenuanonymous: Published a well-researched resource.

{{Constitution of India}}

'''Article 51 of the Constitution of India''' is a [[Directive Principle of State Policy|directive principle of state policy]] enshrined in [[Part IV of the Constitution of India|Part IV]] of the [[Constitution of India]]. It reflects India's commitment to [[international peace]] and cooperation, and outlines the guiding principles for the [[Indian foreign policy|country's foreign policy]] objectives.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of India – in English |url=https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s380537a945c7aaa788ccfcdf1b99b5d8f/uploads/2023/05/2023050195.pdf?#page=55 |url-status=live |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Constitution of India {{!}} Legislative Department {{!}} India |page=55 |format=PDF}}</ref>

== Background ==
On 29 November 1948, the [[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent Assembly]] debated the first version of Article 51 as Article 40 of the revised Draft Constitution, 1948.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Article 51: Promotion of international peace and security |url=https://www.constitutionofindia.net/articles/article-51-promotion-of-international-peace-and-security/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Constitution of India |language=en-US}}</ref> Draft Article 40 read:<blockquote>The State shall promote international peace and security by the prescription of open, just and honourable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among governments and by the maintenance of justice and respect for treaty obligations in the dealings of organised people with one another.</blockquote>

== Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy ==
[[Part IV of the Constitution of India]] contains the [[Directive Principles of State Policy]]. These principles are [[non-justiciable]] in nature, meaning they are not enforceable by the courts, but serve as guidelines for the government in making laws and policies. The Directive Principles aim to promote [[social justice]], [[economic welfare]], and the overall well-being of the citizens.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of India – in English |url=https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s380537a945c7aaa788ccfcdf1b99b5d8f/uploads/2023/05/2023050195.pdf?#page=52 |url-status=live |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Constitution of India {{!}} Legislative Department {{!}} India |page=52 |format=PDF}}</ref>

=== Article 51: Promotion of international peace and security ===
The State shall endeavour to—

(a) promote international peace and security;

(b) maintain just and honourable relations between nations;

(c) foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples with one another; and

(d) encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

== Purpose ==
Article 51 of the Constitution of India, found within [[Part IVA of the Constitution of India|Part IV]], emphasizes the importance of [[international peace]] and cooperation. It states that the State shall strive to foster respect for [[international law]] and treaty obligations in the conduct of its affairs. Indirectly, this encourages the promotion of the principles of the [[United Nations Charter]] also.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=admin |title=Article 51 and 253: Government of India's Obligation - Hind Law |url=https://hindlawedu.com/alternative-dispute-resolution-adr/article-51-and-253-government-of-indias-obligation/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The principles outlined in Article 51 have significant implications for India's foreign policy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PART IV - DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY |url=https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/pdf1/Part4.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India}}</ref> It emphasizes the State's commitment to adhere to international law, respect treaties and agreements, and this encourages India to uphold the principles enshrined in the United Nations Charter. It also includes the peaceful settlement of disputes, non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations, and the promotion of [[human rights]].<ref name=":0" />

Article 51 further emphasizes the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy and encourages the State to work towards the maintenance of peaceful relations with other countries. It urges India to cooperate with other nations in matters of mutual interest, such as economic development, social progress, and the advancement of human knowledge.<ref name=":0" />

== Criticism ==
While Article 51 reflects India's commitment to international peace and cooperation, India has faced criticism for it's marginal engagement with [[international law]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=India has lost its way in the use of international law |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/india-has-lost-its-way-in-the-use-of-international-law/article65883399.ece |access-date=2023-07-07 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Raj |first=Aditya |title=Incorporating international law in India’s foreign policy |url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/incorporating-international-law-in-indias-foreign-policy/ |url-status=live |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Observer Research Foundation {{!}} ORF}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Karuna Nundy: India Has a Strong Constitution, but Its Democracy Is Weakening |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/karuna-nundy-india-has-strong-constitution-its-democracy-weakening |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}</ref>

==Notes==

{{Reflist}}
==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Mahendra Pal |title=V. N. Shukla's Constitution of India |publisher=Eastern Book Company |isbn=978-9388822213 |edition=13th }}
{{refend}}



[[Category:Articles of the Constitution of India]]
[[Category:Constitution of India]]
[[Category:Peace]]

Neigh (sound)

2023-07-19T10:22:54Z

Nenuanonymous: Finished writing a new addition.

{{Short description|Sound made by horses}}

A '''''neigh''''' ({{Audio|Mares-Prefer-the-Voices-of-Highly-Fertile-Stallions-pone.0118468.s004.oga|listen|help=no}}) is the sound made by horses, [[horse]] [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] such as the [[hinny]], and other equines, such as the [[zebra]]. It consists of a succession of jerky sounds, initially [[Treble (sound)|high-pitched]] and gradually [[Bass (sound)|lower]]. Produced on exhalation by the [[larynx]] and modulated, it enables the animal to express its [[Emotion|emotions]] (such as fear or satisfaction) and to inform other animals through the sound produced. The main function of neighing is to alert other equines to its presence in the absence of visual communication. However, horses rarely neigh.

[[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]] established a classification of neighs into five categories, according to the emotion expressed by the horse, which has been widely used in subsequent works. Today, we only speak of neighing when the horse is vocalizing, and of squeaking or whinnying in other cases.

In literary works, the horse neigh is often the means by which it makes itself known to its rider and communicates with them. In divination practices, examination of the sound produced and the horse's attitude has given rise to hippomancy. Horse neigh plays a particularly important role in [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] beliefs.

== Etymology and terminology ==
In [[English language|English]] and [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] languages, the Middle High German ''nēgen'' gave rise to the Old English ''hnǣgan'' and Middle English ''neyen'', then the modern English verb ‘to neigh’. As in French, its use is attested before the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neigh |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/neigh |access-date=25 December 2012 |website=Merriam-Webster}}</ref> In the [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan language]], ''gsaṅs'' refers to voice in a general sense, and ''skad-gsaṅs'' to neigh, i.e., literally, "the horse's voice". Tibetan dictionaries distinguish between two types of neighing, the one that resounds and the other one that becomes faint.<ref name=":0">{{Harvtxt|Blondeau|Pelliot|1972|p=75}}</ref> In English, a similar distinction exists between nickering, whinnying and neighing, which designate three types of neighing.<ref name=":1">{{Harvtxt|Becker|2010}}</ref> This terminological distinction does not exist in French.

In [[French language]], '<nowiki/>''hennissement'<nowiki/>'' is a masculine noun<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hennissement |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie9/hennissement |access-date=8 January 2017 |website=Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Informations lexicographiques et étymologiques de hennissement |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/hennissement/0 |access-date=8 January 2017 |website=Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hennissement |url=https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/_hennissement/39571 |access-date=9 January 2017 |website=Larousse}}</ref> that, according to the [[Trésor de la langue française informatisé|''Trésor de la langue Française'' informatisé]], was attested in the 13th century and it is in the ''Histoire de l'empereur Henri de Constantinopled'' by [[Henry of Valenciennes]] (a text dated around 1220<ref name=":8" />). '<nowiki/>''Hennissement''<nowiki/>' is derived from the verb '<nowiki/>''hennir'<nowiki/>'', attested in 1100 for human beings, and 30 years later for the "cry of a horse", in [[Philip de Thaun|Philippe de Thaon]]'s ''Bestiaire''. Moreover, '<nowiki/>''hennir'<nowiki/>'' is a borrowing<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Hennir |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie9/hennir |access-date=8 January 2017 |website=Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Informations lexicographiques et étymologiques de hennir |url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/hennir/0 |access-date=8 January 2016 |website=Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales}}</ref> from the Latin '<nowiki/>''hinnire'<nowiki/>'' <ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hennir |url=https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/_hennir/39569 |access-date=8 January 2017 |website=Larousse}}</ref> which, as Quintilian notes in his ''[[Institutio Oratoria]]'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fögen |first=Thorsten |url=https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=YzdkWn-xRWkC&redir_esc=y |title=Regards croisés sur les mots non simples |publisher=ENS Éditions |year=2008 |isbn=2-84788-136-0 |edition=1st |series=Langages |location=Lyon |pages=65-84 |language=fr |chapter=La formation des mots et l'enrichissement de la langue vu par quelques auteurs latins |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref> is formed on an [[onomatopoeia]] of the "horse cry":<ref name=":9" /> the repetition of the [[vowel]] "i" evokes the sound of neighing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rossi |first=Mario |url=https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=dIJ3c_9DZTsC&redir_esc=y |title=Dictionnaire étymologique et ethnologique des parlers brionnais : Bourgogne du sud |publisher=Éditions Publibook université (ÉPU) |year=2004 |isbn=2-7483-0533-7 |edition=1st |series=Cour / Lettres & Langues / Linguistique |volume=1 |pages=253 |language=fr |chapter=Hennir |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref> Other Romance verbs, such as the [[Italian language|Italian]] '<nowiki/>''nitrire'<nowiki/>'', derive from it. An influence from [[Frankish language|Frankish]] '<nowiki/>''kinni'<nowiki/>'', meaning jaw, is also possible. The hinny neighs like a horse, while the mule bray like a donkey.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Homéric |url=https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=rJlDdCfM9cAC&redir_esc=y |title=Dictionnaire amoureux du cheval |publisher=Plon |year=2012 |isbn=2-259-21197-6 |edition=1st |series=Dictionnaire amoureux |location=Paris |pages=794 |language=fr |access-date=9 January 2017}}</ref> In French, ''<nowiki/>'hennissement'<nowiki/>'' and ''<nowiki/>'hennir''' are also used for the zebra.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zèbre |url=http://dico-sciences-animales.cirad.fr/liste-mots.php?fiche=29362&def=zèbres+1 |access-date=9 January 2017 |website=Dictionnaire des sciences animales |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cri de zèbre |url=https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/sons/Cri_de_zèbre/1100871 |access-date=9 January 2017 |website=Larousse}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Cob normand hennissant.jpg|thumb|[[Norman Cob]] neighing]]
From the earliest times, mankind has been aware of the sounds made by horses, which have been domesticated since antiquity, and has attributed all kinds of meanings to them. In Western Europe, [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon's]] study of horses, in which he follows [[Gerolamo Cardano|Cardan]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cardanus |first=Hieronymus |title=De Rerum varietate libri XVII |pages=7-32 |language=la}}</ref> describes five types of neighs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buffon |first=Georges-Louis |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k97493f |title=Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière : avec la description du cabinet du roi |publisher=Imprimerie royale |edition=4th |location=Paris |pages=16-554 |language=fr}}</ref> This study has been an authority for centuries, and it is included in [[Encyclopédie|''Encyclopédie, ou dicctionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et de métiers'']], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Diderot |first=Denis |title=Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers |last2=Le Rond d'Alembert |first2=Jean |publisher=Chez Briasson |edition=3rd |pages=307 |language=fr}}</ref> According to him, these five horse neighs are used to express joy, desire, anger, fear and pain respectively.<ref name=":2">{{Harvtxt|Cardini|1845|p=347}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Harvtxt|Vallon|1863|p=108}}</ref> The five types of neighs are as follows:

* the neigh of joy, in which the voice is heard for quite a long time, rising and ending on higher notes. The horse kicks at the same time, but lightly, and does not try to strike;
* the neigh of desire, love and affection, in which the horse doesn't kick. It is heard for a long time, and the voice ends with lower, faster sounds;
* the neigh of anger, during which the horse kicks and strikes dangerously, very short and high-pitched;
* the neigh of fear, during which he also kicks, is hardly longer than that of anger. The voice is low, hoarse and seems to come entirely from the [[Nostril|nostrils]]. This neigh is quite similar to the lion's [[Roar (vocalization)|roar]]; and
* the neigh of pain, less a neigh than a whinny, which is low-pitched and follows breathing.

This classification, very popular and widely used, is no longer valid today.

According to some [[19th century|19th-century]] encyclopedias, in some countries, particularly [[Hungary]], it was customary to split the horse's [[Nostril|nostrils]] to prevent neighing, particularly in times of war. This information is modified by the fact that neighing is modulated in the [[larynx]].<ref name=":2" /> The splitting of a donkey's nostril to prevent [[Donkey|braying]] is, however, well attested during the [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bruneau |first=Roland |title=Les équidés dans la Grande Guerre |url=http://sfhmsv.free.fr/SFHMSV_files/Textes/Activites/Bulletin/Txts_Bull/B5/Bruneau.pdf |journal=Bulletin de la Société française d'histoire de la médecine vétérinaire |language=fr |pages=20-33}}</ref>

== Description ==
[[File:Hirnu2.png|alt=Head in profile of a chestnut horse with half-open mouth and upturned lip.|left|thumb|A Finnish stallion neighing]]
The neigh is a succession of jerky sounds, first high-pitched, then gradually lower, producing a sort of long "Hiiiihiiiihiii". Intensity and pitch can vary considerably. It can be so loud that it can be heard by the human ear from a distance of several kilometers, which means that horses, whose hearing is better developed, can hear it from an even greater distance.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Faron |first=Nathalie |title=Le Cheval |publisher=Jean-Paul Gisserot |year=2002 |isbn=2877471896 |pages=26 |language=fr}}</ref> When a horse neighs, it opens its mouth, and its jaw and [[Nostril|nostrils]] move. Neighing is more frequent in the entire horse than in the [[mare]] and [[gelding]], and the timbre of their voices is not as strong.<ref name=":3" /> From birth, the male has a louder voice than the female. By the age of two or two-and-a-half, when puberty sets in, the voice of all horses becomes louder.<ref name=":2" /> The horse's vocalizations have complex [[Sound|sounds]], a wide [[Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] and varied frequencies, making them richer than those of most domestic animals.<ref name=":1" /> Although the name "neigh" is generally applied to the horse's call, the [[hinny]], a hybrid of [[stallion]] and donkey, readily neighs like a horse, while the [[mule]], a hybrid of donkey and mare, is more likely to bray.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Homéric |title=Dictionnaire amoureux du Cheval |publisher=Plon |year=2012 |isbn=2259218598}}</ref>

=== Mechanism ===
The horse neighs by inhaling to fill its lungs and then expelling the air that passes through its [[larynx]]. Neighing occurs in the [[larynx]] during [[exhalation]], which is why horses with an open [[trachea]] are unable to neigh, as the air no longer passes through it. The other parts of the [[respiratory system]] contribute to neighing in a secondary way. The lungs expel air into the larynx. The pharynx and nasal cavities add power to the vocalization and modify it. The air expelled from the [[Lung|lungs]] pushes the lips away from the [[glottis]], until the vocal cords return on themselves and momentarily close the [[respiratory tract]], only to spread apart again, producing vibratory movements fast enough to give rise to sounds, much as happens when you blow into the reed of an [[oboe]].<ref name=":3" /> The horse's throat, mouth and lips modify the nature of the sound emitted, while the power of the neigh is determined by the force with which air is expelled from the lungs.

=== Special features ===
The [[Haflinger]] breed, originally from the [[Tyrol]] in the Alps, is said by its breeders to have a wider range of neighs than other horses. This may be due to the fact that, in mountainous environments, horses have difficulty seeing each other and rely more on auditory communication.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hubrecht |first=Emmanuelle |title=Les plus beaux chevaux du monde |publisher=Éditions Atlas |year=2005 |isbn=9782723451406 |series=Atlas nature |pages=72 |language=fr}}</ref>

=== Function and emotions ===
[[File:Stallion meets Appalossa Mare.jpg|alt=Separated by a fence, a young girl holds a very calm spotted mare, while on the other side of the fence a bay stallion gets excited.|thumb|A [[stallion]] neighing with excitement at the touch of a mare.]]
Neighing is one of the horse's means of communication, but far from the most widely used. Not resorting to neighing is a precaution against possible [[Predation|predators]] of this large [[herbivore]], who might spot potential prey by the sound. Horses mainly use [[body language]]. They only resort to neighing in very specific cases, notably when they can't see other horses to decipher their movements.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lengelé |first=Alain |title=L'équitation réfléchie : Pensez cheval |isbn=2960069617 |edition=1st |pages=128 |language=fr}}</ref> The primary function of neighing is to allow the animal to call other horses it can't see.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deutsch |first=Julie |title=Le Comportement du cheval |publisher=Éditions Artémis |year=2006 |isbn=2844166407 |series=Les Équiguides |pages=19 |language=fr}}</ref>

Horses use neighing a lot when they're young. When [[Przewalski's horse|Przewalski's]] foals wake up, they neigh and receive a response from their mother, more rarely from another horse. They may try to locate the source of adult horses' neighing. The mare calls its foal by neighing if it wanders too far away, and the foal who is looking for its mother calls it in the same way: each probably recognizes the other's neigh very clearly.

Horse neighs are also a way for them to express their intentions, concerns and satisfactions,<ref name=":3" /> generally when these give rise to strong emotions, such as those experienced by two stallions fighting,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hennissements de cheval |url=https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/sons/Hennissements_de_cheval/1100765 |access-date=25 December 2012 |website=Larousse}}</ref> or a stallion who senses and approaches a mare. There are differences depending on the sensations the animal feels and communicates.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Is That Horse Happy or Sad? His Whinny Will Tell |url=https://thehorse.com/112963/is-that-horse-happy-or-sad-his-whinny-will-tell/ |access-date=6 September 2015 |website=TheHorse.com}}</ref> Researchers have studied the emotions that horses communicate to other horses when they neigh: while the tone is constant, the [[Harmonic|harmonics]] are varied and increase in proportion to anxiety. [[Frequency]] plays a role in communication.<ref name=":1" />

==== Neigh of satisfaction ====
This neigh is rather low-pitched and soft. It's a sign of friendship, emitted mainly at [[Equine nutrition|mealtimes]], and also by the mare to reassure its [[foal]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=Elwyn |title=Les chevaux |publisher=De Borée |year=2006 |isbn=9782844944498 |pages=272 |language=fr}}</ref> According to English-speaking authors, this type of neighing is divided into two quite distinct types. Whinnying refers to the neigh of satisfaction, a form of recognition that expresses the horse's joy. Nickering is the mare's neigh to reassure its foal, but can also be emitted by horses in the presence of people they particularly like: the animal then expresses its satisfaction at being at the person's side. The first type of neigh is louder and higher-pitched than the second.<ref name=":1" />

==== Neigh of worry and for calling ====
[[File:Calling for Rocket.jpg|alt=Head of a chestnut mare, in its paddock, head turned away, neighing.|thumb|[[Thoroughbred]] [[mare]] neighing in order to call one of its fellow horses, just a few meters away.]]
This neigh is much louder and higher-pitched, and can be heard from a great distance. It can be heard by a worried animal preparing to flee, or by a horse separated from its companions, looking for signs of other horses in the vicinity. The animal is waiting for a response that will provide the information it is seeking.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> This cry is easily recognizable, deafening a person standing next to the horse at the same time. <ref name=":1" /> What's more, the animal emitting it generally adopts a very specific position, raising its head to clear its [[throat]], which increases the power of the sound produced. Brood mares often neigh to call their foals close to them when they stray too far.

==== Other sounds ====
Other sounds produced by the horse are not neighs, but squeaks of mirth or pain, or whinnies of suffering.<ref name=":5" /> The loudest squeak is also a threat: it indicates that the horse is about to express its anger physically, for example during a group feeding or when a mare pushes a stallion away.<ref name=":4" />

== In culture ==
[[File:Mural del Gernika.jpg|alt=Black-and-white painting depicting unstructured figures and animals; a horse is present in the middle of the painting, neighing.|left|thumb|Mural of [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso's]] ''[[Guernica (Picasso)|Guernica]]'': the horse in the center neighs in pain, symbolizing the suffering of the Spanish people.]]
As with all animals in human contact, the horse neigh can take on a variety of symbolic meanings. It plays a role in hippomancy, [[Myth|myths]], [[Fairy tale|tales]], [[legends]] and popular texts. According to [[dream]] interpretations, neighing heralds news of a friend or a happy event to be celebrated among friends.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hennissement |url=https://www.dictionnaire-reve.com/interpretation-reve/H/2557/reve-de-hennissement.html |access-date=25 December 2012}}</ref> In the visual arts, the rendering of a horse's neighing is particularly elaborate in [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso's]] ''[[Guernica (Picasso)|Guernica]]'', in which the horse neigh is intended to convey the pain of an entire people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oriol |first=Antonio |title=Guernica |publisher=Société française du livre |year=1979 |pages=28-29 |language=fr}}</ref> Films, especially westerns, frequently add recorded neighs to scenes with horses, which can give the false impression that the animal makes extensive use of this mode of communication.

=== Music ===
A frequent theme in [[modern Greek]] folk songs is that of the woman who hears a horse neigh and recognizes the cry of her husband's mount, but not the man she has just spent the night with, whom she believes to be her lover. The neighing acts as a catalyst, preceding the punishment of the adulterous wife. In other songs, the neighing may be a decoy, a love code, an instrument of recognition to identify the horse rider, or a tribute from the equine to its departed master. All these meanings testify to the deep relationship between man and horse.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karagiannis-Moser |first=Emmanuelle |title=Le Bestiaire de La Chanson Populaire Grecque Moderne |publisher=Presses Paris Sorbonne |year=1997 |isbn=2840500906 |location=Paris |pages=60-62 |language=fr |chapter=Le hennissement du cheval}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Quote frame|[...] as we trudged along, I thought I heard a horse neighing from a group of black fir trees. Is that the wind blowing through those branches? No, it isn't! Here comes a troop of cavalry from the forest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lord Byron |title=Œuvres complètes |publisher=Charpentier |year=1838 |edition=3rd |pages=309 |language=fr}}</ref>|Lord Byron|Mazeppa|align=left}}

In the ''[[Roman d'Alexandre]]'', the fifteen-year-old future king passes the place where the terrible [[Bucephalus]] is confined one day and hears a loud neigh. When he asks which animal it belongs to, one of his father's men replies that Bucephalus is locked up there because it feeds on human flesh, making it very dangerous. When he hears Alexander's voice, Bucéphale lets out another neigh, this time very soft, and leans towards the young man he recognizes as his master.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Polet |first=Jean-Claude |title=Patrimoine littéraire européen : Le Moyen Âge, de l'Oural à l'Atlantique. Littératures d'Europe orientale |publisher=De Boeck Université |year=1993 |isbn=9782804115906 |edition=4th |pages=47-48 |language=fr}}</ref>

One of the impressives of the [[Japanese language]] is that of a group of horses neighing to greet the departure or arrival of a person they recognize.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tsuji |first=Sanae |title=Les impressifs japonais : Analyse des gitaigo et inventaire des impressifs japonais |publisher=Presses Universitaires Lyon |year=2003 |isbn=2729707387 |location=Lyon |pages=322 |language=fr}}</ref> In [[Pierre de Ronsard|Ronsard's]] poem ''L'Ombre du cheval'', the neighing gives a form of reality to an imaginary painting horse seen in a dream: the neighing awakens its master, becoming a clue to the animal's possible reality.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Pouey-Mounou |first=Anne-Pascale |title=L'imaginaire cosmologique de Ronsard |publisher=Travaux d'humanisme et Renaissance, Librairie Droz |year=2002 |isbn=2600006184 |edition=357th |pages=579 |language=fr}}</ref> ''Le vent du Nord set come le hennissement d'un Cheval noir'' is a 40-page story from the manga series [[Sabu to Ichi Torimono Hikae]] (1966-1972) by [[Shotaro Ishinomori|Shōtarō Ishinomori]].

=== Beliefs, legends and divination ===
Neighing can be an indicator in hippomancy, divination using horses. As with [[Equine coat color|coat]] characteristics and [[Horse markings|white markings]], various popular beliefs attribute qualities to the horse's neighing. According to French belief in the mid-[[19th century|nineteenth century]], horses that neigh most often, especially with joy and desire, are the best and most generous.<ref name=":2" />

==== Buddhism and Hinduism ====
[[File:Tibet, Hayagriva, guardiano della dottrina dharmapala, e la sua consorte, 1490-1510 ca..JPG|thumb|[[Hayagriva]], deity surmounted by the head of a neighing horse.]]
The horse neigh is a symbol of the wrathful Buddhist deity [[Hayagriva]], whose head is surmounted by one to three green-necked neighing horses. This frightens [[Māra]], [[Gautama buddha|Gautama Buddha]]'s tempting demon (as well as his avatars), and restores his faith in attaining enlightenment. Ash-Vagosha, whose name means "horse neigh", was a renowned Indian Buddhist of the 1st century, who wrote a biography of the Buddha.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beér |first=Robert |title=The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols |publisher=Serindia Publications, Inc. |year=2003 |isbn=1932476032 |pages=67}}</ref> In [[Hinduism]], thunder is created when [[Indra|Indra's]] chariot passes by, by the neighing of his horses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cotton |first=Gérard |title=Orientalia |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_1931_num_10_3_6798 |journal=Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire |language=fr |volume=10 |pages=582}}</ref>

==== Tibet ====
Various beliefs relating to neighs are particularly well documented in [[Tibet]]. According to the Tibetan hippologists who wrote the Touen-houang manuscripts (800-1035), a horse neigh sound comes from the [[wind]], the force of life, from the base of its navel to its mouth. Depending on the sound and position of the horse when it neighs, it can be a good or bad [[omen]] for its master. Neighs that imitate the sound of a conch shell, large drum, lion, tiger, chariot roll, flute, bull, thunder or river; are signs of good fortune, especially if the animal lowers its head or turns it to the left when neighing.<ref name=":0" /> Similarly, a horse that neighs a lot when accompanying others, or makes others neigh, is a good sign. Conversely, if a horse neighs a lot while looking around, or if its cry resembles a donkey's bray, then it's a bad omen.<ref name=":7">{{Harvtxt|Blondeau|Pelliot|1972|p=76}}</ref> A bad horse is one that imitates the cry of a camel, vulture, cat, jackal, dog, crow, monkey or owl.<ref name=":0" /> A horse that neighs when looking to the right or when touched, and is ridden by a king, promises its rider to rule the whole Earth.<ref name=":7" /> A sick horse, on the other hand, will soon die if it neighs while looking and breathing sideways.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Blondeau|Pelliot|1972|p=104}}</ref> Finally, Tibetan hippologists recommend not to draw [[Omen|omens]] from very young, very old, sick, hungry or thirsty horses,<ref name=":7" /> but to pay close attention to neighing in all other cases.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Blondeau|Pelliot|1972|p=154}}</ref>

==== Hippomancy in the West ====
[[File:Darius In Parse.JPG|thumb|According to the legend told by [[Herodotus]], it was thanks to the neighing of his horse that [[Darius the Great|Darius I]] became King of Persia.]]
Divination by means of neighing is also practiced in the West, but is less well documented. In his ''[[Dictionnaire Infernal]]'', [[Jacques Collin de Plancy|Collin de Plancy]] speaks of Celtic hippomancy, thanks to the neighing and movement of white horses fed and kept in consecrated forests, considered to be the guardians of divine secrets.<ref>{{Cite book |last=De Plancy |first=Collin |title=Dictionnaire infernal |publisher=Édition Slatkine |year=1993 |pages=336 |language=fr}}</ref> In his ''Morales sur le livre de Job'', [[Pope Gregory I]] describes the horse as a true preacher, and its neigh as the voice of preaching.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grégorie |url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=_4ebBdSxFlIC&pg=PA408#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Les Morales de S. Grégoire Pape, sur le livre de Job… Traduites en François (par le duc de Luynes) |last2=Luynes |publisher=Chez Hilaire Baritel |pages=408 |language=fr}}</ref> The [[Balius and Xanthus|myth of Balius and Xanthus]], the horses of [[Achilles]], one of which speaks and predicts the death of its master, provides some evidence of hippomancy through neighing.<ref name=":6" />

==== Darius' horse ====
According to a legend recounted by [[Herodotus]], the neighing of a horse plays a major role in the choice of government in ancient [[Persia]]. As seven conspirators were unable to agree on the preferable form of government, it was decided that they would all ride to the same place the next morning before sunrise, and that whoever's horse was first to neigh in greeting to the sun would be made King of the Persians. Darius' squire learns of this, and cheats by leading his master's stallion to a mare placed where he will be the next morning. When Darius' horse arrives before sunrise, the smell and memory of the previous day's mare cause him to neigh with joy, and the kingdom falls to his master. The six other conspirators dismount and proclaim [[Darius the Great|Darius I]] king of the Persians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hérodote |title=Histoires |edition=3rd |pages=80-83 |language=fr}}</ref> In reality, Darius was probably chosen by consensus among the conspirators, but this legend illustrates the importance of the horse's neigh in defining the future king.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gerlach |first=Daniel |title=Civilisations disparues : l'empire perse |year=2010 |language=fr}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[List of animal sounds]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{Cite book |last=Cardini |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=vsI9AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA347&lpg=PA347&dq=Hennissement&source=bl&ots=J-KQLPvL7L&sig=XHd82344HNxpgLn6riJlGmKbW8U&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=F1NsUN-uOOqn0QX49oHIDQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Hennissement&f=false |title=Dictionnaire d'hippiatrique et d'équitation |publisher=Bouchard-Huzard |year=1845 |language=fr |chapter=Hennissement}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vallon |first=Alexandre-Bernard |url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=eiRCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Cours d'hippologie à l'usage de MM. les officiers de l'armée |publisher=Javaud |year=1863 |language=fr |chapter=Voix}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blondeau |first=Anne Marie |title=Matériaux pour l'étude de l'hippologie et de l'hippiatrie tibétaines : à partir des manuscrits de Touen-houang |last2=Pelliot |first2=Paul |publisher=Centre de recherche d'histoire et de philologie de la Section de l'École pratique des hautes études, Librairie Droz |year=1972 |isbn=2600033025 |language=fr |chapter=Examen du hennissement}}
* {{Cite book |last=Becker |first=Marty |title=Why Do Horses Sleep Standing Up? |publisher=Hachette UK |year=2010 |isbn=1409131351 |language=fr |chapter=What's the difference between nickering, whinnying and neighing?}}

[[Category:Onomatopoeia]]
[[Category:Animal sounds]]

Second Battle of Lahore (1759)

2023-07-12T07:50:57Z

Nenuanonymous:

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Second Battle of Lahore
| place = Near [[Lahore]]
| partof = [[Afghan-Sikh Wars]]
| date = November 1759
| result = Sikh Victory
| combatant1 = [[File:Sikh Akali flag.svg|30px]] [[Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)|Dal Khalsa]]
| combatant2 = [[File:Abdali flag.png|30px]] [[Durrani Empire]]
| commander1 = [[File:Sikh Akali flag.svg|20px]] [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]] [[File:Sikh Akali flag.svg|20px]] [[Charat Singh]] [[File:Sikh Akali flag.svg|20px]] [[Jai Singh Kanhaiya]] [[File:Sikh Akali flag.svg|20px]] [[Gujjar Singh Banghi|Gujjar Singh Bhangi]] [[File:Sikh Akali flag.svg|20px]] [[Lehna Singh Bhangi]]
| commander2 = [[File:Abdali flag.png|20px]] Jahan Khan{{WIA}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = 40,000<ref name=Tactics>{{cite book|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Battle_Tactics_And_War_Manoeuvres_of_the/ghlfDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=40,000+afghans+1759&pg=PT103&printsec=frontcover|title=Battle Tactics And War Manoeuvres of the Sikhs|author=D.S Saggu VSM|isbn=9781642490060}}</ref>
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 2,000 killed<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/A_Study_of_Eighteenth_Century_India_Poli/dohDAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=lahore+2,000+afghans+1759&dq=lahore+2,000+afghans+1759&printsec=frontcover|title=A Study of Eighteenth Century India: Political history, 1707-1761|author=Jagadish Narayan Sarkar|pp=343}}</ref><ref name=Khushwant>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khushwant |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsikhs1401khus/page/150/mode/2up|title=A History Of The Sikhs, Vol. 1, 1469-1839|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|pages=150|isbn=9780195673081}}</ref>
}}
{{Campaignbox Afghan-Sikh Wars}}
The '''Second Battle of Lahore''' was fought in November 1759 by the Sikh forces led by [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]] and the Afghan forces led by Jahan Khan.

==Background==

[[Ahmad Shah Abdali]] invaded India for the fifth time during 1759 with the main goal to recapture all the territories taken by his enemies.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Advanced_Study_in_the_History_of_Modern/d1wUgKKzawoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=ahmad+shah+abdali%27s+fifth+indian+invasion&pg=PA263&printsec=frontcover|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813|author=Jaswant Lal Mehta|pp=263|isbn=9781932705546}}</ref> The [[Maratha Empire]] had left [[Punjab]] without any resistance, leaving the Sikhs alone against the Afghan Empire.<ref name=Encyclopedia>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIA-d/page/12/mode/2up|title=The Encyclopedia Of Sikhism|author=Harbans Singh|pp=12|isbn=9788173801006}}</ref> The Afghan army marched for [[Lahore]]. When the Sikhs got intel, they attacked the army, scaring away the durranis during the night.<ref name=Ganda>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ganda|url=https://archive.org/details/SardarJassaSinghAhluwalia_651/page/n117/mode/2up|title=Sardar Jassa Singh Ahluwalia|year=1990|pages=101-102}}</ref>

==Battle==

When the Shah learnt about this, he sent a 40,000 strong army towards [[Lahore]] in order to teach the Sikhs a lesson.<ref name=Tactics/> Jassa Singh was already prepared. When the battle began, Jassa Singh and Jai Singh attacked the Afghans from the right while the remaining Sikhs attacked from the left. If the Afghans attacked the Sikhs in the right, they would be attacked by the Sikhs in the left and vice versa.<ref name=Ganda/> At the end of the day, the Sikhs came out victorious as Jahan Khan was wounded and they had slain up to 2,000 Afghans.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhsVol.IiEvolutionOfSikhConfederacies1707-69/page/n171/mode/2up|title=History Of The Sikhs Vol. II Evolution Of Sikh Confederacies (1707-69)|author=Hari Ram Gupta|pages=154}}</ref><ref name=Encyclopedia/>

==Aftermath==

After this fierce engagement, the Afghans had fought the [[Marathas]] in the [[Battle of Taraori (1759)]] and defeated them.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Conflict_and_Conquest_in_the_Islamic_Wor/WjQfo3a1eVMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Battle+of+Taraori+1759&pg=PA43&printsec=frontcover|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World|author=Alexander Mikaberidze|pages=43|isbn=9781598843361}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[Nihang]]
* [[Martyrdom in Sikhism|Martyrdom and Sikhism]]

[[Category:Battles involving the Sikhs]]
[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category:Military history of Lahore]]

Sikhism in Belgium

2022-08-09T17:31:48Z

Nenuanonymous:

{{Sikhism sidebar}}
[[Sikhism]] is a minority religion in [[Belgium]], but Sikhs have played a role in Belgian history; during [[World War I]], many Sikhs fought in Belgium. In the [[First Battle of Ypres]], an entire platoon of Dogra Sikhs died.<ref>[http://www.sikhs.org/ww1/second.html Sikhs.org]</ref>

=={{anchor|Work}}Migration to Belgium==
The first eight Sikhs who came to Belgium as private citizens arrived on 8 November 1972 as political exiles. They were expelled from [[Uganda]]; at the time, it was under the dictatorial rule of [[Idi Amin]], who drove all Indians from the country.<ref name=Sint-Truiden>[http://www.flanderstoday.eu/content/sikhs-sint-truiden Denzil Walton, "The Sikhs of Sint-Truiden". ''Flanders Today'', May 5, 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124084610/http://flanderstoday.eu/content/sikhs-sint-truiden }} Retrieved 2011-09-10.</ref> Other Sikhs who arrived before 1985 (only a handful, among them Jarnail Singh Alhuwalia) were workers at the Indian Embassy. Most Sikhs arrived in the wake of Sukhdev Singh Jalwehra in 1985, after the storming of the Golden Temple in Amritsar by Indian troops the previous year. When Jalwehra arrived in Belgium, a ban existed on the wearing of turbans in passport or identity-card photos. Jalwehra fought the case and won, and Sikhs were no longer required to remove their turbans.{{Citation needed}} In 1993, when [[Baudouin I of Belgium|King Baudouin I]] died, Sukhdev Singh Jalwerha paid their respects at the palace with a group of other Sikhs as representatives of the Belgian Sikh community.

The first Sikhs in Belgium were predominantly male laborers with limited education, sharing a rented house and dividing the costs. Since they were accustomed to working in agriculture, they looked for work in that sector and found seasonal jobs in the Flemish province of Limburg on fruit farms. Later Sikhs immigrated for economic reasons; they had been living in impoverished regions of the Punjab and came looking for a better life in Belgium. At first they also found employment on fruit farms but when they could afford to do so they established their own shops, particularly shops remaining open at night in [[Brussels]].<ref name=Sint-Truiden/> As immigrants, completing the necessary paperwork was challenging. Sikh women are now arriving in Belgium in greater numbers, many to reunite their families.

=={{anchor|Incidents}}Persecution==
In 1994, the [[government of the United States]] noted that while Belgium has [[freedom of religion]] and has not seen much systematic violence directed against religious minorities or newcomers, an exception occurred in 1993 against Sikhs. In [[Sint-Truiden]], Sikh workers in [[agriculture]] were bullied by some citizens and one Sikh was shot. A house belonging to Sikhs was bombed, with no fatalities. There were arrests in the aftermath.<ref>U.S. Department of State, "[http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/1993_hrp_report/93hrp_report_eur/Belgium.html BELGIUM HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES, 1993]," January 31, 1994, URL accessed January 11, 2007.</ref>

=={{anchor|Incidents}}Official Intervention==
Following problems with immigration documentation which gave rise to concerns about possible human trafficking, the Mayor of Vilvoorde closed the local Gurdwara between October and December 2014, and following disturbances in the Temple, again in September 2016.

=={{anchor|Sikh Gurdwaras}}Gurdwaras==

[[File:Gurdwara Guru Ravidass Sabha, Oostende.jpg|thumb|Gurdwara Guru Ravidass Sabha, Ostend]]

There are seven [[Gurdwara]]s in Belgium; the oldest was founded in Sint-Truiden in 1993.<ref name=Sint-Truiden/> Gurmit Singh Aulakh (who came to Belgium in November 2007), made a speech and invoking [[Khalistan movement|Khalistan slogans]] at Gurudwara Sangat Sahib in Sint-Truiden.

Gurudwaras in Belgium are:

* Gurdwara Sangat Sahib, [[Watermael-Boitsfort|Watermaal]] and Sint-Truiden (Founded in 1993)
* Gurdwara Guru Nanak Sahib, [[Vilvoorde]], Brussels (1999)
* Gurdwara Guru Ram Dass Sikh Study and Cultural Center, [[Borgloon]] (2005)
* In [[Liège]] (2005)
* Gurudwara Mata Sahib Kaur (2014)
* [https://gurudwarasinghsabha.be/ Gurdwara Singh Sabha], [[Alken, Belgium|Alken]] (2013), [https://gurudwarasinghsabha.be/ Gurudwara Official website]
*Gurdwara Shri Guru Ravidass Sabha, [[Ostend]]
*Gurdwara Mata Sahib Kaur Ji Gent

=={{anchor|Population|Places with a significant Sikh population}}Sikh population==
According to a Dutch newspaper, there are approximately 10,000 Sikhs in Belgium.<ref>[http://www.brusselnieuws.be/site/rubrieken/1091100512/page.htm?&newsID=1136986257 Dutch newspaper on Sikhs celebrating Maghi in Brussels] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313013506/http://www.brusselnieuws.be/site/rubrieken/1091100512/page.htm }}</ref> A Sikh stronghold is [[Sint-Truiden]] ([[Limburg (Belgium)|Limburg]]), where the first Sikh [[Gurdwara]] was built. There are about 3,000 Sikhs in [[Limburg (Belgium)|Limburg]], 2,000 in [[Liège]] and more than 2,000 in [[Brussels]].{{Citation needed}} The remainder live throughout Belgium.

Cities with significant Sikh populations are:
*[[Vilvoorde]]
*[[Sint-Truiden]]
*[[Liège]]
*[[Borgloon]]
*[[Tienen]]
*[[Ostend]]
*[[Ghent]]
*[[Antwerp]]
*[[Leuven]]
*[[Alken, Belgium|Alken]]
*[[Hasselt]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.gurdwarabrussel.org/index1.htm Gurudwara Guru Nanak Sahib in Brussels]

{{Europe topic|Sikhism in}}

[[Category:Religion in Belgium|Sikhism]]
[[Category:Sikhism by country|Belgium]]
[[Category:Sikhism in Europe|Bel]]

Transitional period of Sri Lanka

2022-06-09T07:48:05Z

Nenuanonymous: Contributed a new entry to the platform.

{{Short description|Period of Sri Lankan history from 1232 to 1597}}
{{Main|History of Sri Lanka}}
{{History of Sri Lanka}}

The '''Transitional period of [[Sri Lanka]]''' spans from the end of the [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa]], in 1232, to the start of the [[Kandyan period]] in 1597. The period is characterised by the succession of capitals that followed the fall of the Polonnaruwa Kingdom and the creation of the [[Jaffna kingdom]] and [[Crisis of the Sixteenth Century]].

==Overview==
Periodization of Sri Lanka history:
{{Smalldiv|{{Sri Lankan history overview}}}}

==Political history==
===Dambadeniya period (1232–1341)===
{{Main|Kingdom of Dambadeniya}}

[[Dambadeniya]] is an ancient capital of Sri Lanka. Four kings ruled from there, Vijayabâhu III (1220–1236), Parâkkamabâhu II (1236–1270), Vijayabâhu IV (1270–1272), and Bhuvanaikabâhu I (1272–1283). The first king to choose Dambadeniya as his capital was Vijayabâhu III. He was able to bring about unity among the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]] who had scattered due to the hostile invasion of the Kalinga magha. He also succeeded in holding a Buddhist convention in 1226 to bring about peace among the [[Buddhist]] clergy. Parâkkamabâhu II inherited the throne from Vijayabâhu III. He was considered a genius who was a great poet and prolific writer. Among the books he wrote are Kausilumina, which is considered a great piece of literature. Unifying the three kingdoms that existed within Sri Lanka at that point in time is regarded as his greatest achievement.

Vijayabâhu, as the eldest son of Parâkkamabâhu II, was crowned in 1270. He was well known for his modest behaviour and for his religious activities. He was killed in the second year of his reign by a minister called Miththa. After the demise of his elder brother Vijayabâhu, king Bhuvanaikabâhu I, as the next in line to the throne, shifted the capital to [[Yapahuwa]] for reasons of security. He followed his father's footsteps as a writer and continued with the religious activities started by his brother Vijayabâhu.

===Jaffna Kingdom (1215–1624)===
{{Main|Jaffna kingdom}}

The Jaffna kingdom came into existence after the invasion of [[Kalinga Magha|Magha]], who is said to have been from [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], in South India. It was a tribute-paying feudatory region of the [[Pandyan Empire]] in modern [[South India]] in 1250, but it later became independent with the fragmentation of the Pandyan control. For a brief period, in the early and middle 14th century, it was an ascendant power in the island of Sri Lanka when all regional kingdoms accepted subordination. However, the Jaffna kingdom came under the rule of the south on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest by [[Parakramabahu VI of Kotte|Parâkramabâhu VI]]'s adopted son, [[Bhuvanaikabahu VI of Kotte|Prince Sapumal]]. He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467.{{sfn|Holt|1991|p=304}} It was freed of Kotte control in 1467. Its subsequent rulers directed their energies towards consolidating its economic potential by maximising revenue from [[pearl]]s and [[elephant]] exports and land revenue. It was less [[feudal]] than most of other regional kingdoms in the island of the same period. During this period, important local [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature was produced and [[Hindu]] temples were built, including an academy for language advancement.

===Gampola period (1341–1412)===
{{Main|Kingdom of Gampola}}

The capital was moved to [[Kingdom of Gampola|Gampola]] by Buwanekabahu IV, he is said to be the son of Sawulu Vijayabāhu. During this time, a muslim traveller and geographer named [[Ibn Battuta]] came to Sri Lanka and wrote a book about it. The Gadaladeniya Viharaya is the main building made in the Gampola Kingdom period. The [[Lankatilaka Vihara]]ya is also a main building built in Gampola.

Chinese admiral [[Zheng He]] and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into [[Ming-Kotte War|battle]] with the local king [[Vira Alakesvara of Gampola]]. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.{{sfn|South East Aisa in Ming Shi-lu|2005}}{{sfn|Voyages of Zheng He 1405–1433|2015}}{{sfn|Ming Voyages|2015}} Zheng He erected the [[Galle Trilingual Inscription]], a stone tablet at [[Galle]] written in three [[languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]), to commemorate his visit.{{sfn|The trilingual inscription of Admiral Zheng|2015}}{{sfn|Zheng He|2015}}

===Kotte period (1412–1597)===
{{Main|Kingdom of Kotte}}

By the Sixteenth century the population of the island was approximately 750,000, the majority, 400-450 thousand lived in the [[Kingdom of Kotte]] which was the largest and most powerful polity on the island.{{sfn|Pieris|2011}}{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=142}} Its boundaries reached from the [[Malvathu River|Malvatu Oya]] in the North to the [[Walawe River|Valave River]] in the South, and from the central highlands to the western coast. The Kotte kings regarded themselves as [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|Chakravartis]] (Emperors), laying claim to the whole island, after [[Parakramabahu VI of Kotte|Parakramabahu VI]], but actual power was limited to within their own boundaries.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=143}} Despite areas under its direct jurisdiction changing from time to time, Kotte held the island's lands where trade and agriculture were most developed. The Kotte kings were the largest land owners in the country, with much of the royal income coming from land revenue as opposed to trade. The [[Gabadāgam]] (Royal lands) accounted for more than three quarter of the annual royal income, and monetization of the economy in the littoral region began at least as far back as the fifteenth century.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=142}}

During this time the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] entered into the internal politics of Sri Lanka. Largely by accident, first contact between the two nations was in 1505-06. But it was not until 1517-18 that the Portuguese sought to establish a fortified trading settlement in order to establish control over the island's [[Cinnamon]] trade, as opposed to territorial conquest.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=145}} The building of a fort, near Colombo, had to be given up due popular hostility that was fanned by [[Sri Lankan Moors|Moorish traders]], who had established themselves on the island and controlled a large portion of its external trade.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=145}} The Portuguese at no stage established dominance over the politics of [[South Asia]], but sought to do so over its commerce by means of subjugation through naval power. Using their superior technology and sea power at points of weakness or divisions, the Portuguese would attain influence in greater proportions to their actual strength. Portuguese anxiety to establish a [[Bridgehead]] in Sri Lanka to control the island's [[Cinnamon]] trade drew them further into the politics of Sri Lanka.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=147}}

Kotte suffered from persistent succession disputes during this time. Though all were subordinate to the emperor of Kotte, brothers of the king would take the title [[Raja]] (king) and rule parts of the kingdom. This practice was possibly tolerated to humour princes who had some claim to the throne by giving them positions of responsibility, and the belief that having loyal relatives in outlying districts afforded some security to the king. However this political structure inevitably led to its own weakening in the long run, as those princes, who could, virtually administered the areas they claimed as autonomous principalities.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=144}}

====Crisis of the Sixteenth Century (1521–1597)====
{{Main|Crisis of the Sixteenth Century}}

[[File:Sri Lanka geopolitics - after "Spoiling of Vijayabahu".png|thumb|Sri Lanka after Vijayabā Kollaya in 1521]]

In 1521 the [[Vijayabā Kollaya]] was one such and the most eventful of succession disputes in the kingdom and would trigger the most chaotic period in the history of Sri Lanka. [[Vijayabahu VI of Kotte|Vijayabāhu VI]], who had four sons by two wives, sought to select his youngest son for the succession of the kingdom. In reaction the three older brothers assassinated their father, with the assistance of the Kandyan ruler, and divided the kingdom among themselves. With this partition the fragmentation of the Sri Lankan polity seemed well beyond the capacity of any statesman to repair.{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=144}} The Kandyan ruler took advantage of the situation in a cynical and shrewd move to aggravate the political instability as an opportunity to assert their independence from the control of Kotte. Kanday ruler [[Jayavira Bandara]] (1511–52) readily aided the three princes against their father, and it was clear the decline of the Kingdom of Kotte was necessary for the rise of the [[Kingdom of Kandy]].{{sfn|De Silva|2005|p=145}}

==See also==
* [[Mahavamsa]]
* [[Sinhala Kingdom]]
* [[List of Sinhalese monarchs]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist|20em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Main|Bibliography of Sri Lanka}}

{{refbegin|30em}}
;Books
*{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=John |title=Buddha in the Crown: Avalokiteśvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195064186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDbnCwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=de Silva |first1=K. M. |authorlink1=K. M. de Silva |title=A History of Sri Lanka |publisher=Vijitha Yapa Publications |location=Colombo |isbn=9789558095928 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PWbRAqsIJgIC}}

;Web
*{{cite web| publisher = lankalibrary forum |url =http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=1022 |title = The trilingual inscription of Admiral Zheng He|accessdate=13 April 2015}}
*{{cite web |publisher = world heritage site |url = http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100412063521/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |url-status = dead |archive-date = 12 April 2010 |title = Zheng He |accessdate = 13 April 2015 |df = dmy-all }}
*{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Geoff|title=Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource, Singapore: Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press |url=http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/reign/yong-le/year-9-month-6-day-16 |publisher=National University of Singapore |accessdate=15 September 2019}}

;News
*{{cite news |last1=Pieris |first1=Kamalika |title=Land tenure in 16th Century Sri Lanka |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=38335 |publisher=The Island |accessdate=23 September 2019}}
{{refend}}

{{Transitional period topics}}
{{Sri Lanka topics}}
{{History of Asia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Sri Lanka}}
[[Category:Transitional period of Sri Lanka| ]]