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Danny Batth

2023-09-30T18:32:54Z

Mmeshi: Danny Batth

{{short description|English footballer}}
{{Use British English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox football biography
|name = Danny Batth
|image = Danny Batth.jpg
|image_size =
|caption = Batth playing for [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] in 2014
|fullname = Daniel Tanveer Batth<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.efl.com/siteassets/efl-documents/202021/efl-squad-numbering-11.09.2020.pdf |title=Notification of shirt numbers: Stoke City |publisher=English Football League |page=67 |access-date=26 September 2020}}</ref>
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1990|09|21}}<ref name="Hugman2010-11">{{cite book| editor-first = Barry J.| editor-last = Hugman| title = The PFA Footballers' Who's Who 2010–11| year = 2010| publisher = Mainstream Publishing| location = Edinburgh| isbn = 978-1-84596-601-0| page = 37 }}</ref>
|birth_place = [[Brierley Hill]], [[Dudley]], England
|height = {{height|ft=6|in=3}}<ref name="Hugman2010-11"/>
|position = [[Defender (association football)|Centre back]]
|currentclub = [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]]
|clubnumber = 21
|youthyears1 = 2000–2009 |youthclubs1 = [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. Development Squad and Academy|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]
|years1 = 2009–2019 |clubs1 = [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] |caps1 = 195 |goals1 = 14
|years2 = 2009–2010 |clubs2 = → [[Colchester United F.C.|Colchester United]] (loan) |caps2 = 17 |goals2 = 1
|years3 = 2010 |clubs3 = → [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] (loan) |caps3 = 1 |goals3 = 0
|years4 = 2011 |clubs4 = → [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]] (loan) |caps4 = 10 |goals4 = 0
|years5 = 2011–2012 |clubs5 = → [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]] (loan) |caps5 = 44 |goals5 = 2
|years6 = 2018–2019 |clubs6 = → [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] (loan) |caps6 = 10 |goals6 = 0
|years7 = 2019–2022 |clubs7 = [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] |caps7 = 100 |goals7 = 5
|years8 = 2022–2023 |clubs8 = [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]] |caps8 = 49 |goals8 = 1
|years9 = 2023– |clubs9 = [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]] |caps9 = 1 |goals9 = 0
|club-update = 19:15, 30 September 2023 (UTC)
}}
'''Daniel Tanveer Batth''' (born 21 September 1990) is an English professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Defender (association football)|defender]] for [[EFL Championship]] club [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]].

Batth began his career with his local side [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]], joining their [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. Development Squad and Academy|youth academy]] as a teenager. In order to gain first-team experience he spent time out on loan at [[Colchester United F.C.|Colchester United]], [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] and [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]] (twice). He broke into Wolves' first team in the [[2012–13 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2012–13]] season, and was made captain by [[Kenny Jackett]] for the [[2013–14 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2013–14]] season as Wolves won the [[EFL League One|League One]] title, with Batth being named in the [[PFA Team of the Year (2010s)|PFA Team of the Year]].

Batth remained a key member of the Wolves team as the play-offs were narrowly missed in [[2014–15 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2014–15]] before promotion to the [[Premier League]] was gained in [[2017–18 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2017–18]]. After not being considered by [[Nuno Espírito Santo]] for his Premier League squad, Batth joined [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] on loan in August 2018. Batth moved to [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] in January 2019 for a fee of £3 million. Batth spent three years at Stoke, making 107 appearances, before joining [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]] in January 2022.

==Club career==
===Wolverhampton Wanderers===
====Early career====
Born in [[Brierley Hill]], [[West Midlands (county)|West Midlands]],<ref name="Hugman2010-11"/> Batth joined the [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] Academy at the age of 15. He attended [[Thorns Community College]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Wolves' Danny Batth's tribute to friend killed in car crash |url=https://www.expressandstar.com/sport/2014/04/06/wolves-danny-batths-tribute-to-friend-killed-in-car-crash/ |website=Express and Star |access-date=29 January 2019}}</ref> He captained the youth team and overcame a dislocated shoulder in his reserve team debut, aged 16. He was one of seven academy graduates to sign a professional deal at the end of the [[2008–09 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2008–09 season]].<ref name="WW profile">{{cite web|title=Danny Batth|url=http://www.wolves.co.uk/team/player-profile/index.aspx?playerid=432329&tcmuri=181191|publisher=Wolverhampton Wanderers FC|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.wolves.co.uk/team/player-profile/index.aspx?playerid=432329&tcmuri=181191|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref>

====Loan to Colchester United====
Batth had his first taste of first-team football when he was signed by [[Aidy Boothroyd]] for [[EFL League One|League One]] club [[Colchester United F.C.|Colchester United]] on loan on 17 September 2009. He made his [[The Football League|Football League]] and professional debut two days later, starting in central defence alongside [[Magnus Okuonghae]] in a 2–0 win over [[Hartlepool United F.C.|Hartlepool United]] and earning the [[man of the match]] award.<ref>{{cite web|title=Colchester Utd 2–0 Hartlepool United|url=http://coludata.co.uk/matchdetails.asp?mid=3447|work=Coludata.co.uk|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://coludata.co.uk/matchdetails.asp?mid=3447|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> After making five starts during his first month with the club, his loan was extended until the end of the season at the [[Colchester Community Stadium]].<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC Sport|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/colchester_united/8308438.stm|title=Colchester extend defender loan|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/c/colchester_united/8308438.stm|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref>

On 20 February 2010, Batth scored his first professional goal with a header from a [[David Prutton]] corner to secure a 1–0 victory against [[Oldham Athletic A.F.C.|Oldham Athletic]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng_div_2/8495723.stm|title=Colchester 1–0 Oldham|publisher=BBC Sport|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/eng_div_2/8495723.stm|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> Batth made 17 league starts for Colchester and made one substitute appearance, scoring one goal.<ref name="SB">{{cite web|url=http://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id=52337 |title=Danny Batth – Football Stats – Soccer Base |publisher=Soccerbase |access-date=16 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id=52337 |archive-date=21 July 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> Colchester occupied a [[EFL League One play-offs|play-off]] position during a large part of Batth's spell.

====Loan to Sheffield United====
On his return to [[Molineux Stadium|Molineux]], Batth was named "Young Professional of the Year" at the club's end of season dinner.<ref name="WW profile"/> Following this, he made his competitive debut for Wolves in a [[EFL Cup|League Cup]] [[Overtime (sports)|extra time]] home win at the expense of [[Southend United F.C.|Southend United]] on 24 August 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wolverhampton 2–1 Southend|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/league_cup/8936647.stm|publisher=BBC Sport|date=24 August 2010|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/league_cup/8936647.stm|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> Three months later, he joined [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] on loan for one month,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.expressandstar.com/sport/wolverhampton-wanderers-fc/2010/11/25/danny-batth-joins-sheffield-united/|title=Danny Batth joins Sheffield United|publisher=Express & Star|date=25 November 2010|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.expressandstar.com/sport/wolverhampton-wanderers-fc/2010/11/25/danny-batth-joins-sheffield-united/|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> where he would make just a single substitute league appearance<ref name="SB"/> before being recalled to Wolves' [[Premier League]] squad for games against [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]], [[West Ham United]] and [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]], where he was a substitute.

====Loan to Sheffield Wednesday====
Batth then went out on loan once again to [[Sheffield]], only this time to [[Steel City derby|arch-rivals]] [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]]. He joined the Owls on 16 March 2011 until the end of the season.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sheffield Wednesday sign Wolves' Danny Batth on loan|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/s/sheff_wed/9427139.stm|publisher=BBC Sport|date=16 March 2011|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/s/sheff_wed/9427139.stm|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> His spell ended having made ten league appearances for the club.<ref name="SB"/>

Having impressed at Sheffield Wednesday during his loan stint the previous season, the club moved to re-sign him on loan once again, agreeing another six-month spell on 26 July 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sheffield Wednesday re-sign Danny Batth on loan|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/14300995|publisher=BBC Sport|date=26 July 2011|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/14300995|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref> In December 2011, the loan was extended to the end of the season, as the Owls challenged for promotion to the [[EFL Championship|Championship]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Sheffield Wednesday agree extension of Danny Batth loan|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/16290517|publisher=BBC Sport|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/14300995|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref> He scored in a 2–0 away win at [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] on New Year's Eve 2011,<ref>{{cite news|title=Preston 0–2 Sheffield Wed|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/16325033|publisher=BBC Sport|date=31 December 2011|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/16325033|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> and a second league goal on 10 March 2012 in a 3–0 win against [[A.F.C. Bournemouth|Bournemouth]] at [[Hillsborough Stadium|Hillsborough]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Sheffield Wed 3–0 Bournemouth|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17243531|publisher=BBC Sport|date=10 March 2012|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17243531|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> Batth finished his second stay at Sheffield Wednesday having totalled 49 appearances in all competitions, and having been part of their promotion as League One runners-up.<ref name="SB"/> He was voted runner-up in the club's "Player of the Season" award as a result of his fine season.

====Return to Wolverhampton Wanderers====
Batth began the [[2012–13 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2012–13 season]] back at Wolves, with Sheffield Wednesday manager [[Dave Jones (footballer born 1956)|Dave Jones]] ruling out a return for the defender.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC Sport|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19342727|title=Sheffield Wednesday boss Dave Jones praises Rodri debut|date=22 August 2012|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19342727|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref> Back in Wolves' colours, he scored the opening goal in a League Cup defeat of [[Northampton Town F.C.|Northampton Town]] on 30 August 2012,<ref>{{cite news|title=Northampton 1–3 Wolves|publisher=BBC Sport|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19352817|author=Mike Whalley|date=30 August 2012|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/19352817|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref> and then scored his first league goal for Wolves with a late equaliser in a 2–2 draw with [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] on 9 February 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Wolves 2–2 Leeds|publisher=BBC Sport|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/21311670|date=9 February 2013|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/21311670|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref> In his first full season in the Wolves first-team, Batth accumulated twelve league and two cup appearances in addition to his two goals.<ref name="SB"/> The club were however relegated from the Championship at the end of the campaign and took up the option on Batth's contract of an additional year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Options taken up|publisher=Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|url=http://www.wolves.co.uk/news/article/retained-list-826143.aspx|date=17 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.wolves.co.uk/news/article/retained-list-826143.aspx|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref>

Following Wolves' relegation to League One, the club installed [[Kenny Jackett]] as head coach for the [[2013–14 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2013–14 season]]. One of his first acts as manager was to give Batth the vice-captaincy at the club. Wolves enjoyed a hugely successful season and gained automatic promotion back to the Championship with four games to spare. Batth was the only ever-present in the promotion-winning side, playing all 46 league games in a season where Wolves won the League One title with a division record of 103 points.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.expressandstar.com/sport/wolverhampton-wanderers-fc/2014/05/04/wolves-lift-the-league-one-trophy/ |title=Wolves lift the League One trophy – in pictures and video |work=Express & Star |date=26 November 2014 |access-date=5 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021133104/http://www.expressandstar.com/sport/wolverhampton-wanderers-fc/2014/05/04/wolves-lift-the-league-one-trophy/ |archive-date=21 October 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> In January 2014 he signed a long-term deal with the club that ran until summer 2017.<ref>{{cite news|title=Danny Batth signs new Wolves contract|work=Express & Star|date=14 January 2014|url=https://www.expressandstar.com/sport/wolverhampton-wanderers-fc/2014/01/14/danny-batth-signs-new-wolves-contract/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.expressandstar.com/sport/wolverhampton-wanderers-fc/2014/01/14/danny-batth-signs-new-wolves-contract/|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Batth was also named in the [[PFA Team of the Year (2010s)#League One 5|PFA League One Team of the Year]]<ref>{{cite news|title=League One team of the year 2014|publisher=PFA|date=27 April 2014|url=http://www.thepfa.com/thepfa/pfaawards/l1-team-of-the-year-2014/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209142031/http://www.thepfa.com/thepfa/pfaawards/l1-team-of-the-year-2014/|archive-date=9 December 2014}}</ref>

The [[2014–15 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2014–15 season]] was Batth's first as a regular in the Championship. He remained as the only ever-present since Jackett's arrival, playing in every game of a side that had won 50 out of 86 games. Wolves got off to a positive start, maintaining a play-off position until mid-November as Batth formed a solid partnership with [[Richard Stearman]]. The club held the best defensive record in the league for the majority of the season, keeping 15 clean sheets along the way.{{cn|date=July 2023}} In December 2014, Batth scored an 88th-minute equaliser for Wolves in a 1–1 draw against [[Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.|Brighton & Hove Albion]] at Molineux.<ref>{{cite news |title=Wolves 1–1 Brighton |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/30459412 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> A string of commanding performances led to rumours of interest from local rivals [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]].<ref>{{cite news|work=Sky Sports |url=http://www1.skysports.com/football/news/11095/9403144/transfer-news-wolves-have-no-intention-of-selling-danny-batth |title=Transfer news: Wolves have no intention of selling Danny Batth |date=1 August 2014 |access-date=23 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423104018/http://www1.skysports.com/football/news/11095/9403144/transfer-news-wolves-have-no-intention-of-selling-danny-batth |archive-date=23 April 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> Wolves continued to be in the hunt for the play-offs with two games to play of the season but missed out on goals scored to [[Ipswich Town F.C.|Ipswich Town]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Wolves 4–2 Millwall |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/32460070 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> On 23 April it was revealed that Batth was facing a three-month layoff due to a stress fracture to his foot.<ref>{{cite news |title=Danny Batth: Injured Wolves defender to miss end of season |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/32432636 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> Batth played 39 times for Wolves in [[2015–16 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2015–16]] as they finished in 14th position.<ref name="2015/16"/>

Batth scored in a 3–1 win against rivals Birmingham City on 20 August 2016.<ref>{{cite news |title=Birmingham 1–3 Wolves |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/37067354 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> On 22 September 2016, the day after his 26th birthday, he signed a new four-year contract with Wolves to potentially tie him to the club until summer 2020.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/37446018|title=Danny Batth: Wolves skipper signs new four-year contract at Molineux|date=22 September 2016|access-date=25 September 2016}}</ref> On 1 April 2017, Batth scored twice against [[Cardiff City F.C.|Cardiff City]] moving Wolves eight points clear of the relegation zone.<ref>{{cite news |title=Wolves 3–1 Cardiff |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/39390887 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> He scored in the final match of the [[2016–17 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2016–17 season]], a 1–0 win against [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] which secured 15th place for Wolves.<ref>{{cite news |title=Wolves 1–0 Preston |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/39760476 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> Portuguese manager [[Nuno Espírito Santo]] was appointed ahead of the [[2017–18 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2017–18]] campaign which proved a very successful one for Wolves as they won the Championship title with 99 points.<ref>{{cite news |title=Wolves 0–0 Sheff Wed |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/43846716 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref>

====Loan to Middlesbrough====
On 31 August 2018, Batth returned to the [[EFL Championship|Championship]], after joining [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] on a season-long loan deal, after falling out of favour with Wolves, after they had been promoted to the [[Premier League]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Middlesbrough sign George Saville and Danny Batth on loan |url=https://www.skysports.com/football/news/11680/11487162/middlesbrough-sign-george-saville-and-danny-batth-on-loan |access-date=22 September 2018 |publisher=[[Sky Sports]] |date=31 August 2018}}</ref> Batth made 13 appearances under [[Tony Pulis]] at Middlesbrough before his loan was cut short in January 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Danny Batth Departs Boro |url=https://www.mfc.co.uk/news/danny-batth-departs-boro |website=Middlesbrough |access-date=29 January 2019}}</ref>

===Stoke City===
Batth joined [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] on 29 January 2019 on a three-and-a-half year contract for a fee understood to be an initial £3 million.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stoke City: Danny Batth completes moves from Wolves |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/47040051 |website=BBC Sport |access-date=29 January 2019}}</ref> Batth made his Stoke debut on 2 February 2019 against [[Hull City A.F.C.|Hull City]] and was given the captain's armband by [[Nathan Jones (Welsh footballer)|Nathan Jones]] in the absence of [[Ryan Shawcross]].<ref>{{cite web |title=New acquisition speaks of his pride after being handed captaincy on his Potters bow |url=https://www.stokecityfc.com/news/captaincy-surprised-batth |website=Stoke City |access-date=6 February 2019}}</ref> Batth played 17 times in the remainder of the [[2018–19 Stoke City F.C. season|2018–19]] season as Stoke finished in 16th place.<ref name="2018/19"/> Batth helped improve the Potters defence with the side keeping eight clean sheets.<ref>{{cite web |title=If this happens, Danny Batth has to be a strong contender for Stoke City player of the season |url=https://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/stoke-city-danny-batth-award-2732453 |website=Stoke Sentinel |date=8 April 2019 |access-date=13 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=From drunk grandad to the comeback kid - how Stoke City's goalkeepers and defenders rated in 2018/19 |url=https://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/gallery/stoke-city-201819-player-ratings-2859565 |website=Stoke Sentinel |date=12 May 2019 |access-date=13 May 2019}}</ref>

Batth scored his first goal for Stoke in an [[EFL Cup]] tie against [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] on 27 August 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49403080 |title=Leeds 2-2 Stoke|date=27 August 2019 |publisher=BBC|access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref> Stoke made a poor start to the [[2019–20 Stoke City F.C. season|2019–20]] season failing to win any of the first ten matches under Jones.<ref>{{cite web |title=Skipper assures Stoke City fans that players are desperate to put things right |url=https://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/stoke-city-batth-bristol-city-3313501 |website=Stoke Sentinel |date=13 September 2019 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Speaking in May 2020 Batth said he believed that Stoke made such a poor start because Jones brought in too many new players.<ref>{{cite web |title=At home with... Stoke duo Danny Batth and Sam Vokes |url=https://www.skysports.com/football/news/11688/11990419/at-home-with-stoke-duo-danny-batth-and-sam-vokes |website=Sky Sports |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Danny Batth and Sam Vokes open up on life under Nathan Jones and how Michael O'Neill is turning things around |url=https://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/stoke-city-championship-sky-sports-4147544 |website=Stoke Sentinel |date=19 May 2020 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Jones was replaced by [[Michael O'Neill (footballer)|Michael O'Neill]] in November and results began to improve.<ref>{{cite web |title=This is why - Defender on reason behind Stoke City upsurge |url=https://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/stoke-batth-oneill-swansea-sky-3774051 |website=Stoke Sentinel |date=24 January 2020 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> Batth scored in three of the final four matches as Stoke gained ten points to avoid relegation and finish in 15th position.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nottingham Forest 1–4 Stoke City |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/53412704 |access-date=23 July 2020}}</ref> In the [[2020–21 Stoke City F.C. season|2020–21 season]], Batth made 32 appearances as Stoke finished in 14th position.<ref name="2020/21"/><ref>{{cite news |title=AFC Bournemouth 0–2 Stoke City |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/56953367 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref>

===Sunderland===
On 18 January 2022, Batth joined League One side [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]] on a free transfer, signing an eighteen-month deal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://safc.com/news/team-news/2022/january/danny-batth-signs-for-sunderland|title=Danny Batth signs for SAFC|website=safc.com|date=18 January 2022}}</ref> He scored his first goal for Sunderland against [[Cambridge United F.C.|Cambridge United]] on 23 April 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/61124863 |title=Sunderland 5-1 Cambridge |date=23 April 2022 |work=BBC Sport|access-date=25 April 2022}}</ref>

===Norwich City===
Batth joined [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]] on a one-year contract in September 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sunderland's Danny Batth and Nottingham Forest's Hwang Ui-jo join Canaries |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/66695149 |website=BBC Sport |access-date=15 September 2023}}</ref>

==International career==
While never representing England at any level, Batth is technically eligible to play for [[India national football team|India]] through his father. However, he was left frustrated by Indian residency rules and passport regulations in July 2017, and has yet to play for the country.<ref name="Sky Sports">{{cite web|publisher=Sky Sports |url=http://www.skysports.com/football/news/11699/10940401/wolves-skipper-danny-batth-left-frustrated-by-his-quest-to-play-for-india|title=Wolves skipper Danny Batth left frustrated by his quest to play for India|date=7 July 2017|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Batth is of mixed [[English people|English]] and [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] descent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sher Punjabi|url=http://www.punjabiwolves.com/?goal=content&mode=news_details&id=185|publisher=Punjabi Wolves|access-date=16 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721195910/http://www.punjabiwolves.com/?goal=content&mode=news_details&id=185|archive-date=21 July 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy
}}</ref> Batth set up his own charity in August 2017, Foundation DB, with his partner Natalie Ann Cutler, to raise money to combat homelessness in [[Wolverhampton]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Foundation DB|url=https://www.foundationdb.co.uk/|website=Foundation DB|access-date=28 February 2019|archive-date=1 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701233111/https://www.foundationdb.co.uk/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wolves captain Danny Batth to tackle homelessness in city with new charity foundation |url=https://www.expressandstar.com/news/local-hubs/wolverhampton/2017/08/30/wolves-captain-danny-batth-to-tackle-homelessness-in-city-with-new-charity-foundation---with-pictures/ |website=Express & Star |access-date=28 February 2019}}</ref>

==Career statistics==
{{updated|match played 30 September 2023}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Danny Batth profile|url=http://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id=52337|website=Soccerbase|access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|FA Cup
!colspan="2"|League Cup
!colspan="2"|Other
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
|rowspan=10|[[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]
|[[2009–10 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2009–10]]<ref name="2009/10">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2009}}</ref>
|[[Premier League]]
|0||0||colspan="2"|—||0||0||colspan="2"|—||0||0
|-
|[[2010–11 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2010–11]]<ref name="2010/11">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2010}}</ref>
|Premier League
|0||0||0||0||1||0||colspan="2"|—||1||0
|-
|[[2012–13 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2012–13]]<ref name="2012/13">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2012}}</ref>
|[[EFL Championship|Championship]]
|12||1||0||0||2||1||colspan="2"|—||14||2
|-
|[[2013–14 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2013–14]]<ref name="2013/14">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2013}}</ref>
|[[EFL League One|League One]]
|46||2||2||0||1||0||1{{efn|Appearances in [[EFL Trophy|Football League Trophy]]}}||0||50||2
|-
|[[2014–15 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2014–15]]<ref name="2014/15">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2014}}</ref>
|Championship
|44||4||2||0||0||0||colspan="2"|—||46||4
|-
|[[2015–16 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2015–16]]<ref name="2015/16">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2015}}</ref>
|Championship
|38||2||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|—||39||2
|-
|[[2016–17 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2016–17]]<ref name="2016/17">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2016}}</ref>
|Championship
|39||3||1||0||1||0||colspan="2"|—||41||3
|-
|[[2017–18 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2017–18]]<ref name="2017/18">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2017}}</ref>
|Championship
|16||1||1||0||4||1||colspan="2"|—||21||2
|-
|[[2018–19 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2018–19]]<ref name="2018/19">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2018}}</ref>
|Premier League
|0||0||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|—||0||0
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!195!!14!!7!!0!!9!!2!!1!!0!!212!!16
|-
|[[Colchester United F.C.|Colchester United]] (loan)
|[[2009–10 Colchester United F.C. season|2009–10]]<ref name="2009/10"/>
|League One
|17||1||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|—||18||1
|-
|[[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] (loan)
|[[2010–11 Sheffield United F.C. season|2010–11]]<ref name="2010/11"/>
|Championship
|1||0||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||1||0
|-
|rowspan=3|[[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]] (loan)
|[[2010–11 Sheffield Wednesday F.C. season|2010–11]]<ref name="2010/11"/>
|League One
|10||0||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||10||0
|-
|[[2011–12 Sheffield Wednesday F.C. season|2011–12]]<ref name="2011/12">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2011}}</ref>
|League One
|44||2||4||0||1||0||colspan="2"|—||49||3
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!54!!2!!4!!0!!1!!0!!colspan="2"|—||59!!2
|-
|[[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] (loan)
|[[2018–19 Middlesbrough F.C. season|2018–19]]<ref name="2018/19"/>
|Championship
|10||0||0||0||3||0||colspan="2"|—||13||0
|-
|rowspan=5|[[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]]
|[[2018–19 Stoke City F.C. season|2018–19]]<ref name="2018/19"/>
|Championship
|17||0||0||0||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||17||0
|-
|[[2019–20 Stoke City F.C. season|2019–20]]<ref name="2019/20">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2019}}</ref>
|Championship
|43||4||0||0||2||1||colspan="2"|—||45||5
|-
|[[2020–21 Stoke City F.C. season|2020–21]]<ref name="2020/21">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2020}}</ref>
|Championship
|29||1||1||0||2||0||colspan="2"|—||32||1
|-
|[[2021–22 Stoke City F.C. season|2021–22]]<ref name="2021/22">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2021}}</ref>
|Championship
|11||0||0||0||2||0||colspan="2"|—||13||0
|-
!colspan=2|Total
!100!!5!!1!!0!!6!!1!!colspan="2"|—||107!!6
|-
|rowspan="4"|[[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]]
|[[2021–22 Sunderland A.F.C. season|2021–22]]<ref name="2021/22"/>
|League One
|9||1||0||0||colspan="2"|—||3{{efn|Appearances in [[EFL League One play-offs]]}}||0||12||1
|-
|[[2022–23 Sunderland A.F.C. season|2022–23]]<ref name="2022/23">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2022}}</ref>
|Championship
|40||0||2||0||0||0||0||0||42||0
|-
|[[2023–24 Sunderland A.F.C. season|2023–24]]<ref name="2023/24">{{Soccerbase season|id=52337|season=2022}}</ref>
|Championship
|0||0||0||0||1||0||colspan="2"|—||1||0
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!49!!1!!2!!0!!1!!0!!3!!0!!55!!1
|-
|[[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]]
|[[2023–24 Norwich City F.C. season|2023–24]]<ref name="2023/24"/>
|Championship
|1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||1||0
|-
!colspan="3"|Career total
!427!!23!!15!!0!!20!!3!!4!!0!!456!!26
|}
{{notelist}}

==Honours==
'''Sheffield Wednesday'''
*[[Football League One]] runner-up: [[2011–12 Football League One|2011–12]]

'''Wolverhampton Wanderers'''
*[[EFL Championship]]: [[2017–18 EFL Championship|2017–18]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=John |editor-last=Anderson |title=Football Yearbook 2018–2019 |year=2018 |publisher=Headline Publishing Group |location=London |isbn=978-1-4722-6106-9 |pages=386–387}}</ref>
*Football League One: [[2013–14 Football League One|2013–14]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Wolverhampton Wanderers 3–0 Carlise United |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/27167811 |access-date=2 May 2017}}</ref>

'''Sunderland'''
* [[EFL League One play-offs]]: [[2022 English Football League play-offs#League One|2022]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/61447041 |title=Sunderland 2–0 Wycombe |first=Chris |last=Paddy |website=BBC Sport |date=21 May 2022 |access-date=21 May 2022}}</ref>

'''Individual'''
*[[Football League Awards|Football League One Team of the Season]]: [[2013–14 Football League One|2013–14]]<ref>{{cite web |title=League 1 Team of the Season 2013/14 |url=https://www.efl.com/news/2014/may/sky-bet-league-1-team-of-the-season-201314/ |website=efl.com |publisher=English Football League |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref>
*[[PFA Team of the Year]]: [[PFA Team of the Year (2010s)#League One 5|2013–14 League One]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/27180793 |title=Luis Suarez: Liverpool striker wins PFA Player of the Year award |publisher=BBC Sport |date=28 April 2014 |access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref>

* [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]] Player of the Year: [[2022–23 Sunderland A.F.C. season|2022–23]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 April 2023 |title=Batth wins Club award |url=https://www.safc.com:443/news/team-news/2023/april/season-awards/batth-wins-poty |access-date=26 April 2023 |website=Sunderland Association Football Club}}</ref>

*[[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] Young Player of the Season: [[2009–10 Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. season|2009–10]]<ref>{{cite web |title=End of Season Dinner – Live! |url=http://www.wolves.co.uk/page/News/0%2C%2C10307~2043559%2C00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507174202/http://www.wolves.co.uk/page/News/0%2C%2C10307~2043559%2C00.html |archive-date=7 May 2010 |access-date=1 August 2018 |website=Wolves |publisher=Wolves Website}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[List of Sikh footballers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Soccerbase}}

{{Navboxes
| title = Awards
| bg = gold
| fg = navy
| list1 =
{{2013–14 Football League One PFA Team of the Year}}
{{Sunderland A.F.C. Player of the Year}}
}}
{{Norwich City F.C. squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Batth, Danny}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Men's association football defenders]]
[[Category:British Asian footballers]]
[[Category:Colchester United F.C. players]]
[[Category:English Football League players]]
[[Category:English men's footballers]]
[[Category:English people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:British sportspeople of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Middlesbrough F.C. players]]
[[Category:People from Brierley Hill]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]
[[Category:English people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:Sheffield United F.C. players]]
[[Category:Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players]]
[[Category:Stoke City F.C. players]]
[[Category:Sunderland A.F.C. players]]
[[Category:Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players]]
[[Category:Norwich City F.C. players]]

Shannon B Olsson

2023-09-28T19:12:45Z

Mmeshi: Shannon B. Olsson: Misspelled

#REDIRECT [[Shannon B. Olsson]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Bhai Balmukund

2023-08-10T20:32:21Z

Mmeshi: started on userpage

{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
'''Bhai Balmukund''' (1889 – 8 May 1915) was an Indian revolutionary freedom fighter. He was sentenced to death and hanged by the [[British Raj]] for his role in [[Delhi conspiracy case]]. He was a cousin of another revolutionary [[Bhai Parmanand]], who was a founder member of [[Ghadar Party]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bhai Parmanand|2009|page=79}}</ref>

==Earlier life==
Bhai Balmukund was born in 1889 at Kariala village in [[Jhelum district]] (now in Pakistan). His father's name was Bhai Mathura Das. His family hailed from a famous martyr of [[Hindu]] history [[Bhai Mati Das]] from whom they attached the epithet ''Bhai'' to their names.<ref>{{harvnb|Sarala|1999}}</ref> Balmukund's interest in national movement aroused when he was a student. After graduation, he took the profession of teaching, but his attachments to the national movement made him an ardent nationalist.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

==Revolutionary activities==
On 23 December 1912, when [[Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst|Lord Hardinge]] was marching in a state through the [[Chandni Chowk]], [[Delhi]], a bomb was thrown on him. The Viceroy received minor injuries only, but his attendant was killed. Another bomb was thrown at some Europeans at [[Bagh-e-Jinnah, Lahore|Lawrence Garden]], [[Lahore]] five months later on 17 May 1913. Following investigations, Balmukund was arrested from [[Jodhpur]], where he was working as a tutor of the Jodhpur Maharaja's sons.

==Death==
A trial was held at Delhi after the investigations of the bombings and Balmukund was sentenced to death along with his companions Master Amir Chand, Awadh Behari, and [[Basanta Kumar Biswas]] on 5 October 1914. He was hanged in the Old Delhi Jail near Delhi Gate on 8 May 1915 at the age of 26.<ref>{{cite news |author=Press Trust of India |title=Sheila Dikshit pays tribute to martyrs of Hardinge bomb case |url=https://www.ndtv.com/delhi-news/sheila-dikshit-pays-tribute-to-martyrs-of-hardinge-bomb-case-481520 |access-date=30 December 2021}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Sarala |first=Shrikrishna |title=Indian revolutionaries: a comprehensive study, 1757-1961 |volume=II |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVx-yK6MhaQC&q=bhai%20balmukand&pg=PT65 |access-date=1 April 2010 |pages=221–224 |isbn=9788187100171 }}
*{{cite book |last=Bhai Parmanand |title=The Story Of My Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9CHMoCHJl98C&pg=PP1 |access-date=2 April 2010 |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-87100-38-6 }}

{{Indian Revolutionary Movement}}

[[Category:Indian revolutionaries]]
[[Category:1915 deaths]]
[[Category:1889 births]]
[[Category:Revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]
[[Category:People from Jhelum]]

Diya Basu

2023-07-18T18:33:06Z

Mmeshi:

{{Short description|Indian Bengali actress and model}}
'''Diya Basu''' is an Indian [[Bengalis|Bengali]] actress. who works in Bengali television serials. Started her career as a model. She is known for the role of ''Priyam'' in the television series ''[[Jibon Saathi]].''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Canning er Minu: 'জীবন সাথী'-র প্রিয়ম এবার 'ক্যানিং-এর মিনু'! আসছে অন্যায়ের বিরুদ্ধে রুখে দাঁড়ানোর গল্প |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/canning-er-minu-new-bangla-serial-tele-actress-diya-basu-aka-priyam-jibon-sathi-play-lead-character-story-ordinary-girl-domestic-help-who-find-happiness-help-others-soc-422995-2022-07-10 |access-date=2023-07-17 |website=Aaj Tak বাংলা |language=bn}}</ref>

{{Infobox person
| name = Diya Basu
| birth_date = 17 October<ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/diya-basu-enjoys-a-working-birthday-says-mom-made-lunch-and-warm-wishes-made-the-day-memorable/articleshow/94920383.cms</ref>
| birth_place = Kolkata, India
| nationality = Indian
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|Model}}
}}

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Show
!Channel
!Notes
|-
|2018-2020
|''[[Hriday Haran B.A. Pass]]''
|[[Zee Bangla]]
|Pekhom's cousin
|-
|2020-2022
|''[[Jibon Saathi]]''
|[[Zee Bangla]]
|Priyam<ref>{{Cite news |title=TV show ‘Jibon Saathi’ completes 300 episodes; team celebrates |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/tv-show-jibon-saathi-completes-300-episodes-team-celebrates/articleshow/86754812.cms |access-date=2023-07-17 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|2022-2023
|''Canning-Er-Minu''
|[[Colors Bangla]]
|Minu<ref>{{Cite web |title=Canning Er Minu: শাশুড়ি-বউমার কাহিনি অতীত, ভিন্ন ধাঁচের গল্প বলবে 'ক্যানিং-এর মিনু' |url=https://eisamay.com/entertainment/tv-news/canning-er-minu-tv-serial-promo-released-diya-basu-playing-lead-character/articleshow/92857002.cms |access-date=2023-07-17 |website=Eisamay |language=bn}}</ref>
|}

== Reality shows ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Show
!Language
!Channel
|-
|2021
|''[[Didi No. 1]]''
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|[[Zee Bangla]]
|}

== Awards ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Award
!Name
!Character
!Result
|-
|2021
|''Zee Bangla Sonar Sansar Award''
|''[[Jibon Saathi]]''
|''Priyam''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sonar Sansar 2021: সেরা নায়িকা 'রানিমা', বাজিমাত কৃষ্ণকলির |url=https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/photos/zee-bangla-sonar-sansar-award-2021-see-the-winners-list-370264 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Zee24Ghanta.com}}</ref>
|{{won}}
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Basu, Diya}}
[[Category:Bengali television actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Singh Kaur

2023-07-02T00:16:51Z

Mmeshi: Created page with 'Singh Kaur (1955-1998) was a new age composer, vocalist and instrumentalist who, in a prolific career that lasted from the early 70s to the late 90s recorded 23...'

{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Singh Kaur
| image =
| image_size =
| landscape = 
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Laura Drew
| alias = Lorellei
| birth_date = 1955
| birth_place =
| origin =
| death_date = {{Death year and age|1998|1955}}
| death_place = [[Maui]], [[Hawaii]]
| genre = [[New-age music|New-age]]
| occupation = Composer, vocalist, instrumentalist
| instrument = Guitar
| years_active = 1978–1998
| label = Invincible Records, Soundings of the Planet, Sequoia Records
| associated_acts = [[Kim Robertson (musician)|Kim Robertson]], [[Dean Evenson]], [[Gary Stadler]]
| website = 
}}

'''Laura Drew''', a.k.a. '''Singh Kaur''' or '''Lorellei''' (1955–1998) was a [[new-age music]] composer, vocalist and instrumentalist, who had a prolific career that lasted from the early 1970s to the late 1990s, releasing 23 albums. With her angelic voice and haunting melodies, Singh Kaur was a pioneer in the growing genre of Western interpretations of Indian chanting music.

==Personal life==
{{Unsourced|section|date=July 2023}}
Singh Kaur initially lived at the Tucson [[ashram]], and it was there she began to flower as a musician. Although she had arrived with 'St. Francis' already complete, she was exposed to the eclectic musicians of the [[3HO]] community and a new, spiritually-focused, way of living.

She later moved to the [[Española, New Mexico]] 3HO community, where her musical talents expanded and she found her footing as a composer and singer of inspiring devotional songs. There, she met, and later married, Gurucharan Singh. Not long after their marriage, they moved to Denver to open a health food restaurant. From there, they moved to St. Louis for the purpose of opening a [[yoga]] ashram. During their years in St. Louis, Gurucharan and Singh Kaur had two children, Guru Shabd and Guru Ardas.

==Music==
{{Moresources|section|date=July 2023}}
In the early years of her musical life, Singh Kaur collaborated with the yogi musicians of 3HO. [[Yogi Bhajan]], her spiritual guide, commissioned Singh Kaur to record a series of eight mantras, six of which she was able to complete. These were to be the highly popular Crimson Series on Invincible Records, with Kim Robertson (harp, synthesizer), and produced by Liv Singh Khalsa. These recordings remain Singh Kaur's most popular, and are frequently played in hospitals, birthing centers, holistic spas, and other sites where healing music is helpful.

At one point in her musical journey Singh Kaur collaborated with Amar Singh Khalsa. He recounted her effortless creativity: "We were sitting in the [[St. Louis]] airport with Yogi Bhajan, who was waiting for a connecting flight to [[New York City]]. He asked Singh Kaur to put Rakhe Rakhan Har (a Sikh verse) to music. I was sitting next to her as Yogi Bhajan tapped out the heartbeat rhythm on an empty Styrofoam cup. I wrote the rhythm down, and when we got home, we put the rhythm into Singh Kaur's drum machine. This is the beat heard on the final recording. The next day I went off to work. When I came home that evening, I asked Singh Kaur about it, and she played a rough recording – basically the finished piece. She had sat down in the morning and the music just flowed through her. I was always amazed and awed by her ability to put the perfect music to any words that came her way – English or [[Gurmukhi]]."<ref>Sat Kartar Kaur Khalsa, "Remembering Singh Kaur", ''Aquarian Times Magazine'', 4:4, Winter 2005, p. 72</ref> Amar Singh Khalsa and his wife, Sahib-Amar Khalsa, continued to maintain a friendship with Singh Kaur and played keyboards and viola, respectively, on subsequent recordings.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

Singh Kaur's biggest commercial success was her album "Instruments of Peace" (later retitled "Imagine Peace") which made the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' New Age Music listing in 1988. This album was produced during Singh Kaur's long-time association with Dean and Dudley Evenson, with whom she stayed and toured over a two-year period. She released two other CDs on the Evenson's 'Soundings of the Planet' label: "What Child Is This", and "Spiritus: Breath of Life" (recorded under the name of Lorellei which she co-produced with [[Dean Evenson]]). It was with the album "Spiritus" that she poured out her heart, writing songs in English (rather than the mantras of her previous ashram life).

==Later years==
{{Moresources|section|date=July 2023}}
Owing to an increasingly stressful home life, Singh Kaur left her husband and children in the late 1980s; and this crisis impacted on her state of health and the quality of her work. Singer Wah was called in to double the vocal track on Blessings, the seventh recording in the Crimson Series. However, Singh Kaur soon regained her voice — although her health was beginning to decline — and continued to make recordings. It was after she left St. Louis and moved back to Tucson that she met Dean and Dudley Evenson of Soundings of the Planet, who befriended her and who subsequently produced 3 albums with her.

In the early 1990s, after listening to some [[Joni Mitchell]] recordings, Singh Kaur contacted her former producer, Liv Singh Khalsa of Invincible Music. She wanted to do another recording, and 'Wings of Love' was recorded in [[Phoenix, Arizona]], at the Invincible studios.

Responding to the invitation of a friend, Singh Kaur moved to [[Maui]], [[Hawaii]]. Although she never ceased being a Sikh, she abandoned the turban, and took to wearing conventional clothing. She continued to write songs, sang in a rock band, and began to enjoy her new freedom. It was during this period that she met her future husband, Keith Drew. He knew nothing of her musical past or talents, but saw her as a feisty and gorgeous redhead. While on Maui, Singh Kaur met a kindred musical spirit, Jaiia Earthschild, and they co-created, and recorded, many songs, which remain in Earthschild's personal collection.

Singh Kaur returned to the U.S. mainland in 1998, ill with [[ovarian cancer]], to work with [[Gary Stadler]] on "Fairy NightSongs".<ref name=sequoia>{{cite web|url=http://www.sequoiarecords.com/bio-singh-kaur.html |title=About Singh Kaur|publisher=Sequoia Records |accessdate=August 9, 2010}}</ref>

Singh Kaur also recorded the tracks for "This Universe", which was released posthumously.<ref name=sequoia/> She gave two farewell performances, one on [[Maui Island]] with her children, Guru Shabd and Guru Ardas Khalsa present, and one at the 3HO Ashram in [[Los Angeles]]. Before she returned to Hawaii, she gave her beloved Guild 12-string guitar and personal cassette and CD collection to Gary Stadler. Due to her illness, she relocated to Caroline Graham Muir's house as it was more easily accessible than the 3-story house that she and Keith shared.

Despite her illness, she recorded several vocal tracks for Daniel Paul (tabla musician); she would get out of bed long enough to sing, and then lay down again. Upon her her death she was dressed in her favorite green velvet dress. Later, after her cremation, her friends chartered a boat; and, with "Guru Ram Das" playing over the boat's sound system, her ashes were cast into the sea.

==Discography==

*
* Songs of the Lord's Love, (Invincible Music, 1978) with Sat Nam Singh
* Sukhmani, Ashtpadi 6 (1979)
* Peace Lagoon (1979)
* Peace Lagoon II (1983) with Sahib-Amar Kaur Khalsa and Amar Singh Khalsa
* Joyful Vision (1983)
* Mera Man Lochai (1985)
* Aap Sahaee Hoaa (1986) with Amar Singh Khalsa
* Sadhana Suite (1986) with Amar Singh Khalsa
* Rakhe Rakhanhar (1986)
* Guru Ram Dass, Crimson Series 1 (Invincible Music, 1986) with Kim Robertson
* Mool Mantra, Crimson Series 2 (Invincible Music, 1986) with Kim Robertson
* Sat Nam Wahe Guru, Crimson Series 3 (Invincible Music, 1987) with Kim Robertson
* Har Har Mukande, Crimson Series 4 (Invincible Music 1988) with Kim Robertson
* Mender of Hearts, Crimson Series 5 (Invincible Music 1988) with Kim Robertson
* Imagine Peace, (Soundings of the Planet, 1988) with Dean Evenson (inspired by famous John Lennon's song, "[[Imagine (John Lennon song)|Imagine]]")
* Ardas, Crimson Series 6 (Invincible Music 1989) with Kim Robertson
* Blessings, Crimson Series 7 (Invincible Music 1990) with Wah
* Wings of Love (Invincible Music, 1992)
* What Child is This (Soundings of the Planet, 1993) with Dean Evenson
* Spiritus: Breath of Life (Soundings of the Planet, 1996) recorded as "Lorellei"
* Fairy NightSongs (Sequoia Records, 1998) with Gary Stadler, Sahib-Amar Kaur Khalsa
* This Universe (released posthumously by Sequoia Records, 2005) with Gary Stadler
* Remember Him (released posthumously by Invincible Music 2017) with Amar Singh Khalsa

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* "Interview", Beads of Truth Magazine, II:17, Summer 1986, pp. 24–25.
* Gurudass Singh, "A Joyful Noise: Gurudass Singh explores 35 years of music in 3HO", Aquarian Times Magazine, 4:4, Winter 2005, pp. 66–71.
* Sat Kartar Kaur Khalsa, "Remembering Singh Kaur", Aquarian Times Magazine, 4:4, Winter 2005, p . 72.
* Gurubanda Singh Khalsa, "Music: The Companion that Soothes Us and Moves Us", The Man Called Siri Singh Sahib, eds. Sardarni Premka Kaur Khalsa, Sat Kirpal Kaur Khalsa, Los Angeles, Sikh Dharma, 1979, pp. 306–11.

==External links==
* [http://www.soundings.com Singh Kaur's Soundings of the Planet label]
* [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000017RB Singh Kaur's Spiritus album on amazon.com]
* [http://www.sequoiarecords.com/bio-singh-kaur.html Singh Kaur's Bio and Discography on Sequoia Records]
* [http://www.invinciblemusic.com/singh-kaur Singh Kaur's Discography on Invincible Records]
* {{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p2779}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kaur, Singh}}
[[Category:New-age musicians]]
[[Category:Converts to Sikhism]]
[[Category:American Sikhs]]
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]

Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar

2023-06-23T15:09:52Z

Mmeshi: Created page with 'Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar (18th November 1938 - 19th March 2010) 'BHAI TRILOCHAN SINGH PANESAR'(VEERJI) Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar(Veerji) devoted his life t...'

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{inline|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Bhai trilochan singh panesar.jpg|thumb|Picture of Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar also known as Veerji.]]
'''Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar''' also known as '''Veerji''' (18 November 1937 – 19 March 2010) was a social worker in India. He is famously known as Jhaaroo (broom) Wale Veerji as he made it his mission to clean all the major historical [[Gurdwara]]s in Delhi. He organised his team of volunteers to prepare food whole day and feed thousands of people through [[Langar (Sikhism)|Langar]] (community kitchen) every morning, in front of [[Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib]], [[Chandni Chowk]], [[Delhi]].

Veerji was born in [[Mandalay]], [[Burma]] on 18 November 1937. His father Sadhoo Singh served in the [[British Indian Army]] during [[World War II]] and later in the [[Indian Railways]]. Singh retired as a technical officer with the [[Indian Agricultural Research Institute]], Pusa, [[New Delhi]]. He died on 19 March 2010. His wife was Sardarni Dalip Kaur. She died on 5 Mar 2008. The couple had two sons, Premjit Singh Panesar and Kamaljeet Singh, who are now continuing the mission started by their parents. Veerji was deeply influenced by the teachings of Sikh Gurus, Bhai Kanhaiya, and Mother Teresa.

== Works ==
Noted columnist [[Khushwant Singh]] wrote a column in ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'' in September 2002 appreciating his work with the article "No One Will Go Hungry" ([http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020907/windows/above.htm]) after seeing his volunteers distribute food to pilgrims in Sach Khand Express train. He discouraged people from drawing commercial benefit from sale of Sikh religious texts and instead distributed them free of cost. He campaigned for a vegetarian diet. He organized camps for the inmates of Tihar Jail, New Delhi, and many jails in states such as [[Bihar]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] in which free eye check-up and distribution of spectacles, scanning and treatment for [[tuberculosis]], and distribution of clothes for inmates was organized. He and his teams cremate unclaimed dead bodies in various mortuaries around the city with the help of [[Department of Police, Delhi]]. He has immunized several of people for [[Hepatitis B]]. He, in various capacities, constructed and repaired a number of crematoriums. He hired land to grow crops from which grain could be used for feeding the poor.

== Construction works ==
Veerji helped in the construction of many temples. He contributed in construction of Gurudwara Moti Bagh and the [[Gurudwara Bangla Sahib|pond at Bangla Sahib]]. He got many [[tube well]]s dug in the city to provide water for drinking and cleaning. He started Virdhashram, a hospital where patients who need continued care are admitted. The last project he started was the construction of a multi-storeyed bath room block building in the [[Gurudwara Bangla Sahib]] near Cannaught Place, New Delhi. His team is currently constructing a multi-utility building at Gurudwara Bala Sahib in Delhi. The Langar Hall has been completed and a living accommodation for pilgrims and travellers is being completed.

== Emergency services ==

He constructed a 200-bed hospital in [[Limbdi]], [[Gujarat]] as a part of [[2001 Gujarat earthquake]] relief works. He also worked to provide relief during events such as [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]], bomb blasts at [[Sarojini Nagar]], New Delhi, [[Bihar]] floods in September 2008. His team contributed in relief work for the 2014 floods in Kashmir.

== Early life==
Veerji was born in Mandalay in Burma; it is said that in 1942 some of his family members were killed during the Japanese bombing. He was a five-year-old child, was picked up by his elder sister and brought to Punjab. His father who was then serving in Army, discovered that his children were alive much later. He studied in a village [[Madrasah|madrassa]] initially and in a school. He joined Engineering College at [[Nilokheri]], [[Haryana]], where he earned his diploma in civil engineering. Veerji joined PWD Punjab, and was involved in survey work in Rohtang Pass. He came on deputation to New Delhi for construction of IIT Delhi. He left IIT in 1971, and joined IARI Pusa.

== Highlighting Sikhism ==
Veerji encouraged marriages without dowry. He organized many marriages, and advised the couples to avoid expenditure. He opposed abortion and urged people instead to give such children to him, so that he could care for orphans. He helped many orphans by settling them in good families. Veerji discouraged ritualism, and orthodox behaviour.

==His Philosophy==
Life is short, make the best use of it. Realize that service (sewa) and prayer (simran) are the only two bedrocks of life. Without mercy in the heart even a saint becomes a monster. To achieve anything one has to first give up slumber, rest and one has to undergo pain. Giving is no giving till it pains to give. Serving is no serving till it pains to serve. When there is opposition, and hurt, the service is accepted by Almighty. Seek no publicity, work alone without politics, there are many who will value your work. If you are running after fame and respect, God is never happy. Serve the needy in silence. Nature rewards the humble. Serve the needy. Compassion is the most important quality in a person, the start point of religion. Without compassion, all is futile. Remembering God always, and making small prayers (Ardaas) before each work gets success. Building temples and places of worship is good, but real good thing is to serve humanity, and nature. Realize that each breath we take takes us closer to our end, do not waste time in petty affairs. Work with own hands, humbly. Share and consume, and do not eat meat. Your food itself should be pure, do not consume intoxicants. Do not use drugs, or tobacco. Suffering bad words, without reacting is real tapasya(strenuous worship). God loves us, and looks after us, he is always close to us, and cares for us. When you are serving the needy, you are serving God.
Service in which there is no pain involved is no service, giving is no giving till it pains to give. If you face opposition in your works, consider it as certain that success is near and you are about to be blessed. Shun the company of publicity seekers, they do work for fame and will barter your works for personal selfish motives. If you get into worry, feed the birds, worry disappears from under the roof of the house on which birds feed. If you have less money and cannot feed the birds, feed the ants, as they will be satisfied with just a few grams of sugar and flour (chini te atta). It is the number of souls which are satisfied by you which will matter. If you are in a great problem, and cannot get any results, go to a butchery, buy a pregnant cow, or an animal about to be butchered. Get that animal released, care for it, and you will be blessed. Release fish which is about to be eaten, into flowing water/ponds. Give water to the thirsty. Clothes to those who have none. Bandage the injured and those who cannot afford it. Sweep the floors of prayer houses, keep them clean. One who pays daily respects to a Master is loved by his master. Salute God daily, in each breath you take. Remembrance is being with Him. Have a contract with God: I will do your works, You do mine.

==Current works==
Veerji is revered as a saint by many. All projects started by him are still continuing. People who respect the way shown by him for humanitarian services continue to contribute their energies in the mission started by him. His mission seeks no donations in cash.

==References==

* Khushwant Singh (2002) in [http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020907/windows/above.htm No One Will Go Hungry]. ''The Tribune'', 7 September 2002. Retrieved on 29 April 2010.
* Gabriel Brau (2010) in [http://gabrielbrau.blogspot.com/2010_09_01_archive.html Visit to India - 6]. A photoessay on blogspot.com tell the story.
* Jeroem Swolf's Reportage in [https://web.archive.org/web/20110724154644/http://www.jeroenswolfs.nl/frame.php?catId=21136 Chandni Chowk Mornings] An independent foreign reporter covers the Morning Services in Delhi.
* Streets of the World in [http://www.streetsoftheworld.nl/countries/new_delhi/431 Activity at Chandni Chowk, New Delhi—Feeding the Hungry and tending to the sick and wounded.]
* Gobind Times a website devoted to Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar and his writings in [https://web.archive.org/web/20150402143026/http://gobindtimes.in/ Gobind Times—A Mouthpiece of Veerji].
* Why Not Give article in Times of India (Speaking Tree) dated 14 Oct 2012 [http://www.speakingtree.in/spiritual-articles/lifestyle/why-not-give].
* Keeping humanity alive on Delhi streets by Tamanna Naseer (The Statesman) dated 5 Sep 2015 accessed at [http://www.thestatesman.com/news/features/keeping-humanity-alive-on-delhi-streets/87773.html].
* Photography by Branson Q 360 Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar at [http://bransonq360.com/p940366922].
* Zee TV coverage about medical services provided by this mission in Hindi, TV grab at Facebook at [https://www.facebook.com/jaswinder.kaur.714655/videos/10157387960785171/].
* Prime Asia TV, Canada has covered the mission in a 25-minute documentary in Punjabi and Hindi at [https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ukQgDwQviq8&feature=youtu.be].
* Hospital on Street, an inspirational video on YouTube at [https://www.youtube.com/attribution_link?a=OH_tGsS6Eoo&u=%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DUxF69VH5EpI%26feature%3Dshare].
* National Geographic TV Channel coverage in Programme Mega Kitchens about team's contribution in Hola Mahalla and Baisakhi, Facebook post on TV grab at [https://www.facebook.com/jaswinder.kaur.714655/videos/10157386819345171/].
* Coverage on Navbharat Times, 03 Dec 17, Facebook post Facebook post at [https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=1942141045813243&id=100000520982686].
{{Sikhism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Panesar, Bhai Trilochan}}
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian Sikhs]]

Gates Foundation

2023-04-28T22:24:50Z

Mmeshi: Authored a fresh article.

#REDIRECT [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]]

Gujarat National Law University

2023-03-09T15:57:52Z

Mmeshi: Page generated.

{{Short description|Public law school}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox university
| image = Gujarat_National_Law_University_Logo.png
| name = Gujarat National Law University
| motto = ''Aa No Bhadraha, Kratavo Yantu Vishwatah''
| mottoeng = Let the noble thoughts come from all directions
| established = {{start date|2003}}
| type = [[National Law University]]
| founder = Kirtibhai N. Raval
| chancellor = [[Chief Justice of India]]
| director = [[Sanjeevi Shanthakumar]]
| city = [[Gandhinagar]]
| state = [[Gujarat]]
| country = [[India]]
| coor = {{Coord|23|09|10|N|72|39|39|E|display=inline,title}}
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| faculty =
| affiliations = [[Bar Council of India]]
| campus = [[Residential]]
| free_label =
| free =
| other_name =
| website = {{URL|http://www.gnlu.ac.in}}
}}
The '''Gujarat National Law University''' ('''GNLU''') is a pre-eminent [[Public university|public]] [[law school]] and a [[Autonomous law schools in India|National Law University]] established under the ''Gujarat National Law University Act, 2003'' in the state of Gujarat.<ref>{{cite web
| year = 2003
| url = http://www.gnlu.ac.in/gazette.pdf
| title = Gujarat National Law University Act
| work = Government of Gujarat
| access-date = April 7, 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070117041703/http://www.gnlu.ac.in/gazette.pdf  |archive-date = January 17, 2007}}</ref> The university is located at [[Gandhinagar]], which is the capital of Gujarat and is located 23 kilometers north of the city of [[Ahmedabad]]. The statute provides for the [[Chief Justice of India]] or a Senior Supreme Court Judge to serve as the [[Visitor]] of the university.

[[File:Administrative Block at GNLU.jpg|thumb|300px|Gujarat National Law University is the seventh [[National Law University]] to be set up in the country]]
[[File:Academic Block at GNLU.jpg|thumb|300px|Academic Block "Shishya Bhavan"|alt=]]

== History ==
GNLU was formed in the year 2003 by the efforts of the then [[Solicitor General of India]], [[Kirit Raval]], the then Chief Minister of [[Gujarat]], [[Narendra Modi]] and the [[Bar Council of India]]. The University is based on the structure of the [[National Law School of India University]] (NLSIU), Bangalore. GNLU was the seventh [[National Law University]] (NLU) to be set up in the country. It was established with the active support of the [[Government of India]], the [[Government of Gujarat]] and the judicial fraternity. Prof. (Dr.) [[V.S. Mani]] was the first Director, followed by Prof. (Dr.) [[Bimal N. Patel]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merinews.com/catFull.jsp?articleID=148307|title=GNLU Gandhinagar appoints a new director|website=www.merinews.com|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref> In 2012, GNLU got its new 50-acre campus situated in the Knowledge Corridor of [[Gandhinagar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legallyindia.com/lawschools/800-gnlu-students-move-into-monumental-50-acre-rs-150-crore-campus-in-gandhinagar-20120104-2464|title=800+ GNLU students move into 'monumental' 50 acre, Rs 150 crore campus in Gandhinagar|last=Ganz|first=Kian|website=www.legallyindia.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref>

== Academics ==
===Curriculum===
The curriculum of GNLU is based on a two-semester per year system and is decided by the professors concerned. The courses include project work, report writing, research and analysis. As GNLU is a Research-based Training University (RbTU), each faculty prepares the course outline, devises the syllabus based on their first in-house research and consultation with subject experts across the country and the world. [[Mooting]] is compulsory in the first semester and all first-year students taking admission in any undergraduate course have a choice to learn any one language ([[Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[French language|French]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[German language|German]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], and [[Sanskrit]]).

===Admissions===
[[File:Inauguration stone.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Foundation Stone]]
Admissions to GNLU were originally done on the basis of a separate entrance exam conducted by the university itself, but after a Supreme Court ruling directing all law entrance examinations to be clubbed together, the [[Common Law Admission Test]] (CLAT) was introduced in 2008, and since then admissions in GNLU, for both the undergraduate and postgraduate programs are made on the basis of performance in CLAT. The first CLAT was conducted in 2008, by NLSIU, and in 2014, GNLU conducted CLAT.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lawentrance.com/clat/clat2014-analysis.html|title=CLAT 2014 Exam Analysis|website=www.lawentrance.com|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> In 2019, around 60,000 students appeared for CLAT.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/clat-2019-around-60000-appear-for-the-test/articleshow/69506447.cms|title=CLAT 2019: Around 60,000 appear for the test - Times of India|website=The Times of India|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref>

=== Rankings ===
{{Infobox India university ranking
| type=University and college
| NIRF_L_2022 = 8
| IT_L_2022 = 4
}}
Gujarat National Law University was ranked fourth by ''[[India Today]]''{{'}}s "India's Best Colleges 2022: Law".<ref name=Rankings_IT_L_2022/> The [[National Institutional Ranking Framework]] (NIRF) ranked it eighth in India in the law ranking in 2022.<ref name=Rankings_NIRF_L_2022/>

===Journals published===
A full list of journals published by GNLU is here under:

* GNLU Law Review<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/The-GNLU-Law-Review/Home|title=Home {{!}} The GNLU Law Review|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>
* Gujarat Law Journal<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/Gujarat-Law-Journal/Home|title=Gujarat Law Journal|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>
* GNLU Journal of Law Development and Politics<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/Journal-of-Law-Development-And-Politics/Home|title=Home|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>
* GNLU Journal of Law & Economics<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gjle.in/|title=GNLU Journal of Law & Economics|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>
* GNLU Law and Society Review<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://glsr.in/|title=Gujarat National Law University Law and Society Review|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>
* GNLU Student Law Review<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/Research/GSLR|title=GSLR|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>
*GNLU Journal of Law and Sports<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/GNLU/News/0309-19%252f1241%252f03:+The+GNLU+Journal+of+Law+and+Sports|title=News {{!}} GNLU|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-12-07}}</ref>

===Legal Incubation Centre===
The law school has a specialized incubation centre to mentor law graduates aiming to be legal entrepreneurs. In a bid to instil business skills to start a legal venture, the law school has set centre on the lines on top B-schools. It is the first legal incubation centre of its kind in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/Legal-Incubation-Council/Home|title=Home {{!}} Legal Incubation Council|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref> It will give an opportunity to two GNLU graduates at a time to become initial incubates as it aims to create jobs, train entrepreneurs, have innovative start-ups, legal firms, and companies. The incubation centre will be started with Rs 10 lakh to create physical infrastructure such as office space, provide seed funds apart from others to promote entrepreneurship in the knowledge-driven profession.

===Legal History Museum===
The Indian Legal History Museum housed at GNLU is aiming to represent the development of civilization in India by exhibiting artefacts of legal heritage. It is the first legal history museum in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gnlu.ac.in/GNLU/Legal-History-Museum|title=Legal History Museum|website=www.gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref> The museum is divided into three floors, each floor designed in chronological sequence to trace and learn the legal systems of various time lines. It showcases the legal historical contents from the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus valley civilization]] to the Dynasties of Mauryan, Gupta, Shunga, Barhut, Khstrapa, Ganga, Vijaynagar, Palav, Chola, Pala and the Sultanate era. The first floor has exhibits covering the legal history of 14th-18th century CE. The exhibition showcases the later medieval period by depicting various Mughal era and company era texts and icons of Law and Justice. The second floor exhibits the legal history contents from the 19th century CE till date. On the third floor, there is a miniature form of the courtroom of the [[Supreme Court of India]], and a section ‘Around the world’, depicting salient features of the legal systems in different noteworthy countries. The Museum uses all interactive devices to make the visiting experience a learning with entertainment one. The museum also has a reception area with a clock-room and a museo-shop, along with the original certificate of [[Vallabhbhai Patel|Sardar Patel]]'s admission to the bar at [[Lincoln's Inn]].

==Research==
Research centres present at GNLU, function in niche areas of economy for the dissemination of specialized knowledge and professional excellence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/GNLU/Research-Centers-and-Endowed-Research-Programmes|title=Research Centers and Endowed Research Programmes|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-22}}</ref>

*Centre for Law and Society
* Centre for Foreign Policy and Security Studies
* Centre for Sports and Entertainment Law
* Centre for Private International Law
* Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development
* Centre for Banking Investment and Taxation
* Centre for Public International Law
* Centre for Corporate and Competition Law
* Centre for Constitutional and Administrative Law
* Centre for Business and Public Policy
*Centre for Intellectual Property Rights
* Centre for Law and Economics
*Centre for Research in Criminal Justice Sciences

==Student life==

===Moot Court Competitions===
[[Moot court]]s and other legal events are held in the university, as a part of the curriculum as well as an extracurricular activity. The university has a Moot Court Committee, popularly known as the MCC for conducting moot courts and allied activities. The MCC also conducts three inter-university moot court competitions, namely the ''GNLU International Moot Court Competition (GIMC)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/GIMC/About|title=About GIMC|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref>'', the ''GNLU Moot on Securities and Investment Law (GNLUMSIL),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/gmsil/home|title=Home {{!}} GNLUMSIL|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref>'' and the ''NHRC-GNLU National Moot Court Competition (NHRC-GNLU NMCC)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gnlu.ac.in/GNLU/News/2405-19%252f1611%252f01%253a+NHRC-GNLU+National+Moot+Court+Competition%252c+2019+(26-29+September%252c+2019)|title=News {{!}} GNLU|website=www.gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-13}}</ref>'' in collaboration with various law firms and government institutions.

Students from the university have participated in various national and international moot court competitions thereby, winning laurels for the university. GNLU won the India Rounds of the prestigious [[Philip C. Jessup International Law Moot Court Competition]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legallyindia.com/home/it-s-official-gnlu-beats-nalsar-nls-nujs-to-win-mpl-7-after-rocking-elsa-moot-and-season-20170823-8725|title=It's official: GNLU beats Nalsar, NLS, NUJS to win MPL 7, after rocking ELSA moot and season|last=Ganz|first=Kian|website=www.legallyindia.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref> In 2017, the university team won the Stetson International Environmental Moot Court Competition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.scconline.com/post/2017/04/13/gnlu-wins-stetson-international-rounds/|title=GNLU wins Stetson International Rounds|last=Saba|website=SCC Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref> In 2018, the university team won the South Asia Rounds of the Oxford Price Media Law Moot Court Competition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.scconline.com/post/2018/11/27/gnlu-wins-the-south-asia-regional-rounds-and-qualifies-for-international-rounds-of-oxford-price-media-moot/|title=GNLU wins the South Asia Regional Rounds and qualifies for International Rounds of Oxford Price Media Moot|last=Bhumika|website=SCC Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref> The university team also won the ISRO India Funding Rounds of the Manfred Lachs Space Law Moot Court Competition<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legallyindia.com/mooting/mooting-premier-league-re-boots-gnlu-wins-man-lachs-funding-rgnul-patiala-bags-nujs-herbies-nls-tops-table-after-man-lachs-17-win-20180327-9204,%20https://www.legallyindia.com/mooting/new-mpl-leader-symbi-pune-dethrones-nalsar-sandwiched-by-gnlu-nlu-delhi-s-fortunes-change-india-exceeds-in-germany-surana-corp-frankfurt-icc-red-cross-coverage-20170321-8356-2|title=Mooting Premier League re-boots: GNLU wins Man Lachs funding, RGNUL Patiala bags NUJS Herbies • NLS tops table after Man Lachs '17 win|last=Ganz|first=Kian|website=www.legallyindia.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref> and the Red Cross International Humanitarian Law Moot Court Competition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.icrc.org/new-delhi/2018/03/13/gujarat-national-law-university-wins-16th-hong-kong-regional-moot-court-competition/|title=Gujarat National Law University Wins 16th Hong Kong Regional Moot Court Competition}}</ref>

===Student Activities Committee===
[[File:KK singer at gnlu.jpg|thumb|250px|Famous singer ''KK'' at the 2014 version of ''"PENTAGRAM"''|alt=]]
The Student Activities Committee, popularly known as SAC is an organization of students who work to promote extra-curricular activities in the university. The various student activities like acoustic nights and movie nights organised by SAC offers students the much needed break from the busy, officious and monotonous schedule of law school. The SAC caters to diverse student interests varying from cultural pursuits like Music and Dance to literary activities like Quizzing and consists of nine clubs to address the same. The SAC also organises the annual three-day-inter-university literary and cultural fest '<nowiki/>''Pentagram'<nowiki/>''. The event usually scheduled for March every year is marked by different themes on the five days of the week preceding the fest, known as the '''Penta Week'.''

=== Sports Committee ===
The Sports Committee of GNLU is charged with organising all the sporting activities of the university. This committee, much like SAC caters to the sports enthusiasts of the university, and organises intra-events throughout the year. It further consists of seven clubs to address enthusiasts of a particular sport, like cricket, football, etc. The Sports Committee is responsible for organising the annual inter-university sports fest ''<nowiki/>'Justice League''' .

===Student Research and Development Committee===
The Students Research and Development Committee (SRDC) is a committee run by the students, both LL.B. and LL.M. alike and initiates, designs, develops, plans, executes and monitors all research activities in the university. It was created with an aim to promote the research culture and explore overall research potential of GNLU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnlu.ac.in/Research/About-SRDC|title=About SRDC|website=gnlu.ac.in|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref>

=== Graduate Outcomes ===
Students graduating from GNLU opt to pursue a diverse range of careers, ranging from corporate law firm jobs to jobs in the bar and the bench of the Indian judiciary as well. Apart from this, several undergraduate students get their applications selected for pursuing their graduate studies from esteemed universities such as the [[Faculty of Law, University of Oxford|University of Oxford]], the [[Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]], [[Columbia University]], [[Harvard University]], [[Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad|Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad]] etc., and in that process receive prestigious scholarships like the [[Rhodes Scholarship]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hatim Hussain - Rhodes Trust|url=https://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/|access-date=2021-04-17|website=Rhodes House - Home of The Rhodes Scholarships|language=en}}</ref> the INLAKS Scholarship and the Harlan Fiske Stone Scholarship among others. A few students even get recruited to foreign law firms such as [[Linklaters]] and [[Herbert Smith Freehills]]. Students also choose to write the [[Civil Services Examination (India)|UPSC Civil Services Examination]] and a number of alumni are placed in various levels in the bureaucratic set-up of the country. GNLU alumni are also active in NGOs and Public Policy Think Tanks in India as well as abroad, and a couple of them have started their own start-ups as well.

==See also==
* [[List of universities in India]]
* [[Universities and colleges in India]]
* [[Education in India]]
* [[Distance Education Council]]
* [[University Grants Commission (India)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* https://web.archive.org/web/20110511064034/http://www.gnlu.ac.in/aboutus.htm
* http://www.gnlu.ac.in/directorViceChancellor.htm
* http://www.gnlu.ac.in/eventcalendar.htm

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.gnlu.ac.in/}}

{{Autonomous law schools in India}}
{{Universities in Gujarat}}

[[Category:2003 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2003]]
[[Category:Law schools in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Universities in Gujarat]]
[[Category:National Law Universities]]

Sharia

2023-03-03T18:07:04Z

Mmeshi:

{{Short description|Islamic law}}
{{Redirect|Islamic law|other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Saria (disambiguation){{!}}Saria|Shara (disambiguation){{!}}Shara|Shariyah (disambiguation){{!}}Shariyah|Shahriyar (disambiguation){{!}}Shahriyar}}

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Islam |texts}}

'''Sharia''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|ə|ˈ|r|iː|ə}}; {{lang-ar|شريعة|sharīʿa}} {{IPA-ar|ʃaˈriːʕa}}) or ''''Shariat'''' is a body of [[religious law]] that forms a part of the [[Islam]]ic tradition.<ref name="Bassiouni">{{cite book |author-last=Bassiouni |author-first=M. Cherif |author-link=M. Cherif Bassiouni |year=2014 |origyear=2013 |chapter=The ''Sharīa'', Sunni Islamic Law (''Fiqh''), and Legal Methods (''Ilm Uṣūl al-Fiqh'') |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tbj1AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |editor-last=Bassiouni |editor-first=M. Cherif |title=The Shari'a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=18–87 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139629249.003 |isbn=9781139629249 |lccn=2013019592 |access-date=17 October 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017234851/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tbj1AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="oxforddic">{{cite web |title=British & World English: sharia |url=https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/sharia |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=4 December 2015 |location=Oxford |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208120345/https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/sharia |archive-date=8 December 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 2a|2003}} It is derived from the [[Five Pillars of Islam|religious precepts of Islam]] and is based on the [[Islamic holy books|sacred scriptures of Islam]], particularly the [[Quran]] and the [[Hadith]].<ref name="Bassiouni" /> In [[Arabic]], the term ''sharīʿah'' refers to [[God in Islam|Allah]]'s immutable [[divine law]] and is contrasted with ''[[fiqh]]'', which refers to its human scholarly interpretations.<ref name="ODI" />{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Calder|2009}} The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between [[Islamic fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]] and [[Islamic Modernism|modernists]].<ref name="oxforddic" />{{sfn|Amanat|2009|ps=: "Muslim fundamentalists [...] claim that Shari’a and its sources [...] constitute a divine law that regulates all aspects of Muslim life, as well as Muslim societies and Muslim states [...]. Muslim modernists, [...] on the other hand, criticize the old approaches to Shari’a by traditional Muslim jurists as obsolete and instead advocate innovative approaches to Shari’a that accommodate more pluralist and relativist views within a democratic framework."}}

[[Image:Ibnhanbal.jpg|thumb|A manuscript of [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Ibn Hanbal's]] legal writings, produced in October 879|250x250px]]

Traditional [[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|theory of Islamic jurisprudence]] recognizes four [[sources of Sharia]]: the ''AL-[[Quran]]'', ''[[sunnah]]'' (authentic hadith), ''[[qiyas]]'' (analogical reasoning),{{refn|group=note|[[Twelver]] Shia jurisprudence does not recognize the use of qiyas, but relies on reason (''ʿaql'') in their place. {{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 4c|2003}} {{sfn|Schneider|2014}}}} and ''[[ijma]]'' (juridical consensus).<ref name="Esposito, John 2001">[[John Esposito|John L. Esposito]], [[Natana J. DeLong-Bas]] (2001), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MOmaDq8HKCgC&pg=PA2 Women in Muslim family law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019170646/https://books.google.com/books?id=MOmaDq8HKCgC&pg=PA2 }}'', p. 2. [[Syracuse University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0815629085}}. Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> Sunni four [[Madhhab|Madhhab]] (legal school of Sunni Islam)— are [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafiʽi school|Shafiʽi]] and [[Hanbali]] developed Sunni methodologies for deriving Sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ''[[ijtihad]]''.<ref name=ODI>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Islamic Law |editor=John L. Esposito |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2014 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |access-date=29 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331154513/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} Traditional jurisprudence (''fiqh'') distinguishes two principal branches of law, ''[[Ibadah|ʿibādāt]]'' (rituals) and ''[[Muamalat|muʿāmalāt]]'' (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.<ref name=ODI/>{{sfn|Calder|2009}} Its rulings are concerned with ethical standards as much as with legal norms,{{sfn|Coulson|El Shamsy|2019}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|p=145}} assigning actions to one of [[Ahkam|five categories]]: [[Fard|mandatory]], [[Mustahabb|recommended]], [[Mubah|neutral]], [[Makruh|abhorred]], and [[Haram|prohibited]].<ref name=ODI/>{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Calder|2009}} Fiqh was elaborated over the centuries by legal opinions ([[fatwa]]s) issued by qualified jurists ([[mufti]]s) and historically applied in Sharia courts by ruler-appointed [[Qadi|judges]],<ref name=ODI/>{{sfn|Calder|2009}} complemented by various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by [[Muslims|Muslim]] rulers.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=500}}

In the 21st century, the role of Sharia has become an increasingly contested topic around the world.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} There are progressives trying to argue that Sharia is compatible with [[democracy]], [[human rights]], [[freedom of thought]], [[women's rights]] and [[bank]]ing.<ref name=naim96>{{cite book |first1=Abdullahi A |last1=An-Na'im |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC |page=337 |plainurl=yes}} |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |pages=337–59 |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Witte |editor2-first=Johan D. |editor2-last=van der Vyver |year=1996 |isbn=978-9041101792 }}</ref><ref name=hajjar2004>{{cite journal |last1=Hajjar |first1=Lisa |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=Law & Social Inquiry |volume=29 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=1–38 |jstor=4092696 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x|s2cid=145681085 }}</ref><ref>Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). ''Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East'' (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; {{ISBN|978-0253209399}}{{page needed}}</ref> The [[European Court of Human Rights]] in Strasbourg (ECtHR) ruled in several cases that Sharia is "incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".<ref>See ''Refah Partİsİ (The Welfare Party) And Others V. Turkey'' (Applications nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98), Judgment, Strasbourg, 13 February 2003, No. 123 (siehe S. 39): "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy, since principles such as pluralism in the political sphere and the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it and a regime based on sharia clearly diverges from Convention values"; see Alastair Mowbray, ''Cases, Materials, and Commentary on the European Convention on Human Rights'', OUP Oxford, 2012, p 744, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XWyq09yJho8C&pg=PA744 Google-Books preview].</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Janisch |first=Wolfgang |title=EuGH - Gegen Scheidungen nach Scharia-Recht |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/europaeischer-gerichtshof-gegen-scheidungen-nach-scharia-recht-1.3666617 |access-date=2023-02-03 |website=Süddeutsche.de |language=de}}</ref> In Muslim countries in the modern era traditional laws have been widely used with European models.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=19}} Judicial procedures and legal education have likewise been brought in line with European practice.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to Sharia its rules are largely retained only in family law.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The [[Islamic revival]] of the late 20th century brought calls by [[Islamism|Islamic]] movements for full implementation of Sharia, including ''[[hudud]]'' [[corporal punishment]]s, such as [[stoning]].{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}

== Etymology and usage ==
=== Contemporary usage ===
The word ''sharīʿah'' is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the [[Middle East]] to designate a prophetic religion in its totality.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=321}} For example, ''sharīʿat Mūsā'' means law or [[Moses|religion of Moses]] and ''sharīʿatu-nā'' can mean "our religion" in reference to any monotheistic faith.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=321}} Within Islamic discourse, ''šarīʿah'' refers to religious regulations governing the lives of Muslims.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=321}} For many Muslims, the word means simply "justice," and they will consider any law that promotes justice and social welfare to conform to Sharia.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

Jan Michiel Otto distinguishes four senses conveyed by the term ''sharia'' in religious, legal and political discourse:{{sfn|Otto|2008|pp=9–10}}
* ''Divine, abstract sharia'': God's plan for mankind and the norms of behavior which should guide the Islamic community. Muslims of different perspectives agree in their respect for the abstract notion of sharia, but they differ in how they understand the practical implications of the term.
* ''Classical sharia'': the body of rules and principles elaborated by [[Islamic jurists]] during the first centuries of [[Islam]].
* ''Historical sharia(s)'': the body of rules and interpretations developed throughout Islamic history, ranging from personal beliefs to state legislation and varying across an ideological spectrum. Classical sharia has often served as a point of reference for these variants, but they have also reflected the influences of their time and place.
* ''Contemporary sharia(s)'': the full spectrum of rules and interpretations that are developed and practiced at present.

A related term ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|al-qānūn al-islāmī}}'' ({{lang|ar|{{large|القانون الإسلامي}}}}, Islamic law), which was borrowed from European usage in the late 19th century, is used in the Muslim world to refer to a legal system in the context of a modern state.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=323}}

=== Etymology ===
The primary range of meanings of the [[Arabic]] word ''šarīʿah'', derived from the root ''š-r-ʕ'', is related to religion and religious law.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=321}} The lexicographical tradition records two major areas of use where the word ''šarīʿah'' can appear without religious connotation.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=326}} In texts evoking a pastoral or nomadic environment, the word, and its derivatives refer to watering animals at a permanent water-hole or to the seashore, with special reference to animals who come there.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=326}} Another area of use relates to notions of stretched or lengthy.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=326}} This range of meanings is cognate with the Hebrew ''saraʿ''{{clarify}} and is likely to be the origin of the meaning "way" or "path".{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=326}} Both these areas have been claimed to have given rise to aspects of the religious meaning.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=326}}

Some scholars describe the word ''šarīʿah'' as an archaic [[Arabic]] word denoting "pathway to be followed" (analogous to the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] term [[Halakha]]h ["The Way to Go"]),<ref name="haqq">Abdal-Haqq, Irshad (2006). ''Understanding Islamic Law – From Classical to Contemporary'' (edited by Aminah Beverly McCloud). Chapter 1 ''Islamic Law – An Overview of its Origin and Elements''. [[AltaMira Press]]. p. 4.</ref> or "path to the water hole"<ref name="Hashim1">{{cite book |last1=Hashim Kamali |first1=Mohammad |author-link=Mohammad Hashim Kamali |title=Shari'ah Law: An Introduction |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |isbn=978-1851685653 |pages=2, 14}}</ref><ref name="weiss1998" /> and argue that its adoption as a metaphor for a divinely ordained way of life arises from the importance of water in an arid desert environment.<ref name="weiss1998">Weiss, Bernard G. (1998). ''The Spirit of Islamic Law''. Athens, Georgia: [[University of Georgia Press]]. p. 17. {{ISBN|978-0820319773}}.</ref>

=== Use in religious texts ===
In the Quran, ''šarīʿah'' and its cognate ''širʿah'' occur once each, with the meaning "way" or "path".{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=321}} The word ''šarīʿah'' was widely used by Arabic-speaking Jews during the Middle Ages, being the most common translation for the word ''torah'' in the 10th-century Arabic translation of the [[Torah]] by [[Saadia Gaon|Saʿadya Gaon]].{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=321}} A similar use of the term can be found in Christian writers.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=321}} The Arabic expression ''Sharīʿat Allāh'' ({{lang|ar|شريعة الله}} "God’s Law") is a common translation for תורת אלוהים (‘God’s Law’ in Hebrew) and νόμος τοῦ θεοῦ (‘God’s Law’ in Greek in the New Testament [Rom. 7: 22]).<ref>Ullmann, M. (2002), Wörterbuch der griechisch-arabischen Übersetzungen des neunten Jahrhunderts, Wiesbaden, p. 437. Rom. 7: 22: ‘συνήδομαι γὰρ τῷ νόμῳ τοῦ θεοῦ’ is translated as ‘أني أفرح بشريعة الله’</ref> In Muslim literature, ''šarīʿah'' designates the laws or message of a prophet or God, in contrast to ''[[fiqh]]'', which refers to a scholar's interpretation thereof.{{sfn|Calder|Hooker|2007|p=322}}

In older English-language law-related works in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, the word used for Sharia was '''''sheri'''''.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Corps de Droit Ottoman|journal=[[Law Quarterly Review]]|volume=21 |publisher=Stevens and Sons|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8jUbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA443 443]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=8jUbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA444 44]}}, Number LXXXIV "The religious law of the ''Sheri'', of which the ultimate source is the Koran,[...]" – A review of ''[[Corps de Droit Ottoman]]''</ref> It, along with the French variant ''chéri'', was used during the time of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and is from the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''şer’''(''i'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Strauss |first=Johann |chapter-url=https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |year=2010 |chapter=A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the ''Kanun-ı Esasi'' and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages |editor=Herzog, Christoph |editor2=Malek Sharif |title=The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy |location=[[Würzburg]] |pages=21–51 |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233851/https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |url-status=live }} ([http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 info page on book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920231333/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 }} at [[Martin Luther University]]) // Cited: p. 39 (PDF p. 41/338) // ""Chéri" may sound ambiguous in French but the term, used in our context for Islamic law (Turkish: şer’(i), is widely used in the legal literature at that time."</ref>

==Historical origins==
A similar legal concept ''[[Eye for an eye]]'' first recorded in the [[Code of Hammurabi]]. [[Qisas]] was a practice used as a resolution tool in inter-tribal conflicts in pre-Islamic Arab society. The basis of this resolution was that a member from the tribe to which the murderer belonged was handed over to the victim's family for execution, equivalent to the social status of the murdered person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=KIRAZLI |first=SADIK |title=Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41932575 |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=25–53 |jstor=41932575 |issn=0578-8072}}</ref> The "condition of social equivalence" meant the execution of a member of the murderer's tribe who was equivalent to the murdered, in that the murdered person was male or female, slave or free, elite or commonone. For example, only one slave could be killed for a slave, and a woman for a woman. In other cases, ''compensatory payment ([[Diyya]])'' could be paid to the family of the murdered person. On top of this pre-Islamic understanding added a debate about whether a Muslim can be executed for a non-Muslim during the Islamic period.

The main verse for implementation in Islam is Al Baqara, 178 verse: "Believers! Retaliation is ordained for you regarding the people who were killed. Free versus free, captive versus captive, woman versus woman. Whoever is forgiven by the brother of the slain for a price, let him abide by the custom and pay the price well."

According to the traditionalist (''Atharī'') Muslim view, the major precepts of Sharia were passed down directly from the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] without "historical development"<ref name="Forte-1978-8">{{cite journal|last1=Forte |first1=David F.|title=Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht|journal=Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review|volume=1|page=8 |url=http://www.soerenkern.com/pdfs/islam/IslamicLawTheImpactofJosephSchacht.pdf|access-date=19 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420073952/http://www.soerenkern.com/pdfs/islam/IslamicLawTheImpactofJosephSchacht.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and the emergence of Islamic jurisprudence (''fiqh'') also goes back to the lifetime of Muhammad.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Calder|2009}} In this view, his [[Sahaba|companions]] and followers took what he did and approved of as a model ([[sunnah]]) and transmitted this information to the succeeding generations in the form of [[hadith]].{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Calder|2009}} These reports led first to informal discussion and then systematic legal thought, articulated with greatest success in the eighth and ninth centuries by the master jurists [[Abu Hanifah]], [[Malik ibn Anas]], [[Al-Shafi‘i]], and [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], who are viewed as the founders of the [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafiʿi]], and [[Hanbali]] legal schools (''[[madhhab]]s'') of Sunni jurisprudence.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}

Modern historians have presented alternative theories of the formation of fiqh.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Calder|2009}} At first Western scholars accepted the general outlines of the traditionalist account.{{sfn|Jokisch|2015}} In the late 19th century, an influential [[Historical revisionism|revisionist]] hypothesis was advanced by [[Ignac Goldziher]] and elaborated by [[Joseph Schacht]] in the mid-20th century.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} Schacht and other scholars<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Daniel W. |author-link=Daniel W. Brown |title=Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521570770 |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/116836545/Rethinking-Traditions-in-Modern-Islamic-Thought-Daniel-w-Brown |access-date=10 May 2018 |ref=DWBRTMIT1996 |pages=18–24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321033206/https://www.scribd.com/document/116836545/Rethinking-Traditions-in-Modern-Islamic-Thought-Daniel-w-Brown |archive-date=21 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> argued that having conquered much more populous agricultural and urban societies with already existing laws and legal needs, the initial Muslim efforts to formulate legal norms{{refn|group=note|"...the essential features of old Muhammadan jurisprudence, such as the idea of the 'living tradition' of the ancient schools of law [local practices of early Muslim communities]; a body of common doctrine expressing the earliest effort to systematize; legal maxims which often reflect a slightly later stage, and an important nucleus of legal traditions... it is safe to say that [this] Muhammadan legal science started in the later part of the Umaiyad period, taking the legal practice of the time as its raw material and endorsing, modifying, or rejecting it"<ref name=Schacht-OoMJ-1959-190>{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-year=1950 |year=1959 |page=190 }}</ref>}}
regarded the Quran{{refn|group=note|Islamic "law did not derive directly from the Koran but developed... out of popular and administrative practices under the Umayyads, and this practice often diverged from the intentions and even the explicit wording of the Koran... Norms derived from the Koran were introduced into Muhammadan law almost invariably at a secondary stage"<ref name=128-schacht>Schacht, Origins, p. 224</ref>}} and Muhammad's hadiths as just one source of law,{{refn|group=note|"In the time of Shafi’i, traditions from the Prophet were already recognized as one of the material bases of Muhammadan law. Their position in the ancient schools of law was, as we have seen, much less certain."<ref name=Schacht-OoMJ-1959-40>{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-year= 1950 |year= 1959 |page=40 }}</ref> Another example is that an early major works of fiqh—[[Muwatta Imam Malik]] (edited by Shaibani)—contains 429 ahadith by Muhammad but 750 by the [[Sahabah|Companions]], [[Tabi‘un|Successors]] and others,<ref name=Schacht-OoMJ-1959-22>{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-year= 1950 |year= 1959 |page=22 }}</ref> in contrast to later works by al-Bukhari, Muslim, etc. that contain only ahadith by Muhammad.}} with jurist personal opinions, the legal practice of conquered peoples, and the decrees and decisions of the caliphs also being valid sources.<ref name=Jokisch-2018-393>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs90DwAAQBAJ&q=schacht+competing+schools+of+law&pg=PA394 |editor1=Anver M. Emon |editor2=Rumee Ahmed |page=393 |last1=Jokisch |first1=Benjamin |chapter=Origins of and influences on Islamic Law |access-date=11 November 2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191668265 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213724/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs90DwAAQBAJ&q=schacht+competing+schools+of+law&pg=PA394 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to this theory, most canonical hadiths did not originate with Muhammad but were actually created at a later date, despite the efforts of hadith scholars to weed out fabrications.{{refn|group=note|"...a great many traditions in the classical and other collections were put into circulation only after Shafi'i's time; the first considerable body of legal traditions from the Prophet originated towards the middle of the second century..."<ref name=Schacht-OoMJ-1959-4>{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-year= 1950 |year= 1959 |page=4 }}</ref>}}
After it became accepted that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources, proponents of rules of jurisprudence supported by the hadith would extend the [[Matn|chains of transmission]] of the hadith back to Muhammad's companions.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} In his view, the real architect of Islamic jurisprudence was [[Al-Shafi‘i]] (d. 820 CE/204 AH), who formulated this idea (that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources) and other elements of classical legal theory in his work ''[[Al-Risala (Al-Shafi‘i)|al-risala]]'',{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Jokisch|2015}} but who was preceded by a body of Islamic law not based on primacy of Muhammad's hadiths.

While the origin of hadith remains a subject of scholarly controversy, this theory (of Goldziher and Schacht) has given rise to objections, and modern historians generally adopt more cautious, intermediate positions,{{sfn|Jokisch|2015}}
and it is generally accepted that early Islamic jurisprudence developed out of a combination of administrative and popular practices shaped by the religious and ethical precepts of Islam.{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} It continued some aspects of pre-Islamic laws and customs of the lands that fell under Muslim rule in the aftermath of the [[Early Muslim conquests|early conquests]] and modified other aspects, aiming to meet the practical need of establishing Islamic norms of behavior and adjudicating disputes arising in the early Muslim communities.{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=125}} Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local master and discuss religious topics.{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=125}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=31–35}} At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=31–35}} As the boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school's founder.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=31–35}} In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=130}}

== Traditional jurisprudence (''fiqh'') ==
{{Main|Fiqh}}
Fiqh is traditionally divided into the fields of ''[[Principles of Islamic jurisprudence|uṣūl al-fiqh]]'' (lit. the roots of fiqh), which studies the theoretical principles of jurisprudence, and ''furūʿ al-fiqh'' (lit. the branches of fiqh), which is devoted to elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Schneider|2014}}

=== Principles of jurisprudence (''uṣūl al-fiqh'') ===
{{Main|Principles of Islamic jurisprudence}}
Classical jurists held that human reason is a gift from God which should be exercised to its fullest capacity.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|p=15}} However, they believed that use of reason alone is insufficient [[Enjoining good and forbidding wrong|to distinguish right from wrong]], and that rational argumentation must draw its content from the body of transcendental knowledge revealed in the Quran and through the sunnah of Muhammad.{{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 4c|2003}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|p=15}}

Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how scriptures should be interpreted from the standpoint of linguistics and rhetoric.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is [[Naskh (tafsir)|abrogated]] by a passage revealed at a later date.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus (''[[Ijma|ijmaʿ]]'') and analogical reasoning (''[[qiyas]]'').{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}} It therefore studies the application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of [[ijtihad]], which refers to a jurist's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} The theory of [[Twelver Shia]] jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason (''[['Aql|ʿaql]]'') as a source of law in place of ''qiyas'' and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the [[The Twelve Imams|imams]].{{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 4c|2003}}{{sfn|Kamali|1999|pp=121–22}}

==== Sources of Sharia ====
{{Main|Sources of Sharia}}
Islamic scholar [[Rashid Rida|Sayyid Rashid Rida]] (1865 - 1935 C.E) lists the four basic sources of Islamic law, agreed upon by all [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]]:<blockquote>"the [well-known] sources of legislation in Islam are four: the ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'', the ''[[Sunnah]]'', the [[Ijma|consensus]] of the ''[[ummah]]'' and ''[[ijtihad]]'' undertaken by competent jurists"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rashīd Riḍā|first=Muhammad|title=The Muhammadan Revelation|publisher=Al-Saadawi Publications|year=1996|isbn=1-881963-55-1|location=Alexandria, VA|page=127}}</ref></blockquote>
* ''[[Quran]]'': In Islam, the Quran is considered to be the most sacred source of law.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16–18}} Classical jurists held its textual integrity to be beyond doubt on account of it having been handed down by many people in each generation, which is known as "recurrence" or "concurrent transmission" (''tawātur'').{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16–18}} {{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 4b|2003}} Only several hundred verses of the Quran have direct legal relevance, and they are concentrated in a few specific areas such as inheritance, though other passages have been used as a source for general principles whose legal ramifications were elaborated by other means.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16–18}}
* ''[[Hadith]]'': The body of hadith provides more detailed and practical legal guidance, but it was recognized early on that not all of them were authentic.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16–18}} Early Islamic scholars developed a methodology for evaluating their authenticity by assessing trustworthiness of the individuals listed in their transmission chains.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16–18}} These criteria narrowed down the vast corpus of prophetic traditions to several thousand "sound" hadiths, which were collected in several canonical compilations.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16–18}} The hadiths which enjoyed concurrent transmission were deemed unquestionably authentic; however, the vast majority of hadiths were handed down by only one or a few transmitters and were therefore seen to yield only probable knowledge.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16-18}}{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}} The uncertainty was further compounded by ambiguity of the language contained in some hadiths and Quranic passages.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=16–18}} Disagreements on the relative merits and interpretation of the textual sources allowed legal scholars considerable leeway in formulating alternative rulings.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}
* ''[[Ijma]]'': It is the consensus that could in principle elevate a ruling based on probable evidence to absolute certainty.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=21–22}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} This classical doctrine drew its authority from a series of hadiths stating that the Islamic community could never agree on an error.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=21–22}} This form of consensus was technically defined as agreement of all competent jurists in any particular generation, acting as representatives of the community.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=21–22}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Kamali|1999|p=146}} However, the practical difficulty of obtaining and ascertaining such an agreement meant that it had little impact on legal development.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=21–22}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} A more pragmatic form of consensus, which could be determined by consulting works of prominent jurists, was used to confirm a ruling so that it could not be reopened for further discussion.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The cases for which there was a consensus account form less than 1 percent of the body of classical jurisprudence.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=21–22}}
* ''[[Qiyas]]'': It is the Analogical reasoning that is used to derive a ruling for a situation not addressed in the scripture by analogy with a scripturally based rule.{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}} In a classic example, the Quranic prohibition of drinking wine is extended to all intoxicating substances, on the basis of the "cause" (''ʿilla'') shared by these situations, which in this case is identified to be intoxication.{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}} Since the cause of a rule may not be apparent, its selection commonly occasioned controversy and extensive debate.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=23–24}} Majority of [[Sunni Muslims]] view ''[[Qiyas]]'' as a central Pillar of ''[[Ijtihad]]''.<ref name="overview">{{cite book|author1=Irshad Abdel Haqq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZS7EaHTQX8C&q=Islamic+law%3A+An+Overview+of+Its+Origins+and+Elements&pg=PA1|title=Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary|publisher=Rowman Altamira|year=2006|isbn=9780759109919|editor1-last=Ramadan|editor1-first=Hisham M.|author-link1=Islamic law: An Overview of Its Origins and Elements|access-date=17 August 2016|archive-date=20 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920215257/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZS7EaHTQX8C&q=Islamic+law:+An+Overview+of+Its+Origins+and+Elements&pg=PA1|url-status=live}}</ref> On the other hand; [[Zahiri]]tes, [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], [[Al-Bukhari]], early [[Hanbalites]], etc rejected ''Qiyas'' amongst the Sunnis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=B. Hallaq|first=Wael|title=The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-521-80332-8|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=124, 127}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lucas|first1=Scott C.|title=The Legal Principles of Muhammad B. Ismāʿīl Al-Bukhārī and Their Relationship to Classical Salafi Islam|journal=Islamic Law and Society|volume=13|issue=3|page=292|doi=10.1163/156851906778946341}}</ref><ref>Mansoor Moaddel, ''Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse'', pg. 32. [[Chicago]]: [[University of Chicago Press]], 2005.</ref> Twelver Shia jurisprudence also does not recognize the use of ''qiyas'', but relies on reason (''ʿ[['Aql]]'') in its place.{{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 4c|2003}}{{sfn|Schneider|2014}}

==== Ijtihad ====
{{Main|Ijtihad}}
The classical process of ijtihad combined these generally recognized principles with other methods, which were not adopted by all legal schools, such as ''[[istihsan]]'' (juristic preference), ''[[istislah]]'' (consideration of public interest) and ''[[istishab]]'' (presumption of continuity).{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}} A jurist who is qualified to practice ijtihad is known as a ''mujtahid''. {{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 4d|2003}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} The use of independent reasoning to arrive at a ruling is contrasted with ''[[taqlid]]'' (imitation), which refers to following the rulings of a mujtahid.{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} By the beginning of the 10th century, development of Sunni jurisprudence prompted leading jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and the scope of ijtihad was gradually restricted.{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009c}} From the 18th century on, leading Muslim reformers began calling for abandonment of taqlid and renewed emphasis on ijtihad, which they saw as a return to the vitality of early Islamic jurisprudence.{{sfn|Rabb|2009c}}

==== Decision types (''aḥkām'') ====
{{Main||Ahkam}}

Fiqh is concerned with ethical standards as much as with legal norms, seeking to establish not only what is and is not legal, but also what is morally right and wrong.{{sfn|Coulson|El Shamsy|2019}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|p=145}} Sharia rulings fall into one of five categories known as "the five decisions" (''al-aḥkām al-khamsa''): [[Fard|mandatory]] (''farḍ'' or ''wājib''), [[Mustahabb|recommended]] (''mandūb'' or ''mustaḥabb''), [[Mubah|neutral]] (''mubāḥ''), [[Makruh|reprehensible]] (''makrūh''), and [[Haram|forbidden]] (''ḥarām'').{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Schneider|2014}}

It is a sin or a crime to perform a forbidden action or not to perform a mandatory action.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} Reprehensible acts should be avoided, but they are not considered to be sinful or punishable in court.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|p=20}} Avoiding reprehensible acts and performing recommended acts is held to be subject of reward in the afterlife, while neutral actions entail no judgment from God.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|p=20}} Jurists disagree on whether the term ''[[Halal|ḥalāl]]'' covers the first three or the first four categories.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The legal and moral verdict depends on whether the action is committed out of necessity (''ḍarūra'') and on the underlying intention (''[[niyya]]''), as expressed in the legal maxim "acts are [evaluated according] to intention."{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

As can be seen in many examples, classification is relative. For example, believing in the existence and miracles of [[Awliya]] is presented as a "condition" for orthodox Islam by many prominent Sunni creed writers such as [[Al-Tahawi]] and [[Abu Hafs Umar al-Nasafi|Nasafi]]<ref name="Jonathan A.C. Brown 2012 p. 123">Jonathan A. C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters: Sunni Skepticism about the Miracles of Saints", ''Journal of Sufi Studies'' 1 (2012), p. 123</ref><ref name="Christopher Taylor 1999 pp. 5-6">Christopher Taylor, ''In the Vicinity of the Righteous'' (Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp. 5–6</ref> and is accepted in traditional Sunnis and Shi'ism. However, this understanding, along with expressions of respect and visits to the graves of saints, are seen as unacceptable heresy by puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements such as [[Salafism]], [[Wahhabism]] and [[Islamic Modernism]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Encyclopedia of Islam |year=2012|editor4-first=Thierry |editor4-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Clifford Edmund |editor2-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=Emeri Johannes |editor3-last=van Donzel|editor1-first=Wolfhart |editor1-last=Heinrichs|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]|isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref>

=== Aims of Sharia and public interest ===
{{Main|Maqasid|Maslaha}}
''Maqāṣid'' (aims or purposes) of Sharia and ''maṣlaḥa'' (welfare or public interest) are two related classical doctrines which have come to play an increasingly prominent role in modern times.{{sfn|Duderija|2014|pp=2–6}}{{sfn|Brown|2009}}{{sfn|Gleave|2012}} They were first clearly articulated by [[al-Ghazali]] (d. 1111), who argued that ''maslaha'' was God's general purpose in revealing the divine law, and that its specific aim was preservation of five essentials of human well-being: religion, life, intellect, offspring, and property.{{sfn|Opwis|2007|p=65}} Although most classical-era jurists recognized ''maslaha'' and ''maqasid'' as important legal principles, they held different views regarding the role they should play in Islamic law.{{sfn|Duderija|2014|pp=2–6}}{{sfn|Gleave|2012}} Some jurists viewed them as auxiliary rationales constrained by scriptural sources and analogical reasoning.{{sfn|Duderija|2014|pp=2–6}}{{sfn|Opwis|2007|pp=66–68}} Others regarded them as an independent source of law, whose general principles could override specific inferences based on the letter of scripture.{{sfn|Duderija|2014|pp=2–6}}{{sfn|Opwis|2007|pp=68–69}} While the latter view was held by a minority of classical jurists, in modern times it came to be championed in different forms by prominent scholars who sought to adapt Islamic law to changing social conditions by drawing on the intellectual heritage of traditional jurisprudence.{{sfn|Duderija|2014|pp=2–6}}{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009}}{{sfn|Brown|2009}} These scholars expanded the inventory of ''maqasid'' to include such aims of Sharia as reform and women's rights ([[Rashid Rida]]); justice and freedom ([[Mohammed al-Ghazali]]); and human dignity and rights ([[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]]).{{sfn|Duderija|2014|pp=2–6}}

=== Branches of law (''furūʿ al-fiqh)'' ===
{{Fiqh}}
{{Further|Topics in Sharia law}}
The domain of ''furūʿ al-fiqh'' (lit. branches of fiqh) is traditionally divided into ''ʿibādāt'' (rituals or acts of worship) and ''muʿāmalāt'' (social relations).{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} Many jurists further divided the body of substantive jurisprudence into "the four quarters", called rituals, sales, marriage and injuries.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=28–30}} Each of these terms figuratively stood for a variety of subjects.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=28–30}} For example, the quarter of sales would encompass partnerships, guaranty, gifts, and bequests, among other topics.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=28–30}} Juristic works were arranged as a sequence of such smaller topics, each called a "book" (''kitab'').{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=28–30}} The special significance of ritual was marked by always placing its discussion at the start of the work.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=28–30}}

Some historians distinguish a field of Islamic criminal law, which combines several traditional categories.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009c}}{{sfn|Schneider|2014}} Several crimes with scripturally prescribed punishments are known as ''[[hudud]]''.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} Jurists developed various restrictions which in many cases made them virtually impossible to apply.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} Other crimes involving intentional bodily harm are judged according to a version of ''[[lex talionis]]'' that prescribes a punishment analogous to the crime (''[[qisas]]''), but the victims or their heirs may accept a monetary compensation (''[[Diya (Islam)|diya]]'') or pardon the perpetrator instead; only ''diya'' is imposed for non-intentional harm.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009c}} Other criminal cases belong to the category of ''[[Tazir|taʿzīr]]'', where the goal of punishment is correction or rehabilitation of the culprit and its form is largely left to the judge's discretion.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009c}} In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler-administered courts or local police using procedures which were only loosely related to Sharia.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Ziadeh|2009c}}

The two major genres of ''furūʿ'' literature are the ''mukhtasar'' (concise summary of law) and the ''mabsut'' (extensive commentary).{{sfn|Calder|2009}} ''Mukhtasars'' were short specialized treatises or general overviews that could be used in a classroom or consulted by judges.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=10–11}} A ''mabsut'', which usually provided a commentary on a ''mukhtasar'' and could stretch to dozens of large volumes, recorded alternative rulings with their justifications, often accompanied by a proliferation of cases and conceptual distinctions.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=10–11}} The terminology of juristic literature was conservative and tended to preserve notions which had lost their practical relevance.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} At the same time, the cycle of abridgement and commentary allowed jurists of each generation to articulate a modified body of law to meet changing social conditions.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=10–11}} Other juristic genres include the ''qawāʿid'' (succinct formulas meant to aid the student remember general principles) and collections of fatwas by a particular scholar.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

Classical jurisprudence has been described as "one of the major intellectual achievements of Islam"<ref name="Lewis-ME-223">{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Bernard|title=The Middle East, a brief history of the last 2000 years |publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=NY|isbn=978-0684832807|page=223}}</ref> and its importance in Islam has been compared to that of [[theology]] in [[Christianity]].{{refn|group=note|"What theology is for the Christian, law is for the Muslim."<ref name="Smith-1957-57">{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=W.|title=Islam in Modern History|date=1957|page=57}}</ref> referenced in <ref name="Forte-1978-2">{{cite journal|last1=Forte|first1=David F.|title=Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht|journal=Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review|volume=1|page=2 |url=http://www.soerenkern.com/pdfs/islam/IslamicLawTheImpactofJosephSchacht.pdf|access-date=19 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420073952/http://www.soerenkern.com/pdfs/islam/IslamicLawTheImpactofJosephSchacht.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

===Schools of law===
{{main|Madhhab}}
[[File:Ibnhanbal.jpg|thumb|Juristic exchange between [[Abu Dawood]] and [[Ibn Hanbal]]. One of the oldest literary manuscripts of the Islamic world, dated October 879 [[Anno Domini|A.D.]]]]
The main Sunni schools of law (''madhhabs'') are the [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]] and [[Hanbali]] madhhabs.{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} Rulings of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in Lower Egypt, East Africa, and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} The [[Zahiri]] school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}}{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the [[Twelver]], [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] and [[Ismaili]] madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The [[Ibadi]] legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}}

The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} State law codification commonly utilized the methods of ''takhayyur'' (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and ''talfiq'' (combining parts of different rulings on the same question).{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional [[ulema]] as interpreters of the resulting laws.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the [[Salafi]] and [[Wahhabi]] movements.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}} Other currents, such as networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law without focusing on traditions of a particular madhhab.{{sfn|Hussin|2014}}

==Pre-modern Islamic legal system==
=== Jurists ===
{{Main|Mufti|Madrasa}}

Sharia was traditionally interpreted by [[mufti]]s. During the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were private legal specialists who normally also held other jobs. They issued [[fatwa]]s (legal opinions), generally free of charge, in response to questions from laypersons or requests for consultation coming from judges, which would be stated in general terms. Fatwas were regularly upheld in courts, and when they were not, it was usually because the fatwa was contradicted by a more authoritative legal opinion.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=9–10, 13}} The stature of jurists was determined by their scholarly reputation.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=9–10}}{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=499}} The majority of classical legal works, written by author-jurists, were based in large part on fatwas of distinguished muftis.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=9–10}} These fatwas functioned as a form of legal [[precedent]], unlike court verdicts, which were valid only for the given case.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|p=180}} Although independent muftis never disappeared, from the 12th century onward Muslim rulers began to appoint salaried muftis to answer questions from the public.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=501}} Over the centuries, [[Sunni]] muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while [[Shia]] jurists in Iran progressively asserted an autonomous authority starting from the early modern era.{{sfn|Dallal|Hendrickson|2009}}

[[File:Samarkand, Registan, Ulugbek Medressa (6238565020).jpg|thumb|[[Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand]] (est. 1422)]]
Islamic law was initially taught in study circles that gathered in mosques and private homes. The teacher, assisted by advanced students, provided commentary on concise treatises of law and examined the students' understanding of the text. This tradition continued to be practiced in ''[[madrasa]]s'', which spread during the 10th and 11th centuries.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=45–47}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=217}} Madrasas were institutions of higher learning devoted principally to study of law, but also offering other subjects such as theology, medicine, and mathematics. The madrasa complex usually consisted of a mosque, boarding house, and a library. It was maintained by a ''[[waqf]]'' (charitable endowment), which paid salaries of professors, stipends of students, and defrayed the costs of construction and maintenance. At the end of a course, the professor granted a license (''[[ijaza]]'') certifying a student's competence in its subject matter.{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=217}} Students specializing in law would complete a curriculum consisting of preparatory studies, the doctrines of a particular madhhab, and training in legal disputation, and finally write a dissertation, which earned them a license to teach and issue fatwas.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=501}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=45–47}}

=== Courts ===
{{Main|Judge (Islamic law)|Mazalim|Shurta|Muhtasib}}
[[File:'Abd Allah ibn Shaykh Murshid al-Katib - Sa'di and a Dervish Go to Settle their Quarrel Before a Judge - Walters W618106B - Cropped.jpg|thumb|left|The poet [[Saadi Shirazi|Saadi]] and a [[dervish]] go to settle their quarrel before a judge (16th century Persian miniature)]]
A [[Judge (Islamic law)|judge]] (qadi) was in charge of the qadi's court (''mahkama''), also called the Sharia court. Qadis were trained in Islamic law, though not necessarily to a level required to issue fatwas.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=11–12}} Court personnel also included a number of assistants performing various roles.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|p=158}} Judges were theoretically independent in their decisions, though they were appointed by the ruler and often experienced pressure from members of the ruling elite where their interests were at play.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=501}} The role of qadis was to evaluate the evidence, establish the facts of the case, and issue a verdict based on the applicable rulings of Islamic jurisprudence.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The qadi was supposed to solicit a fatwa from a mufti if it was unclear how the law should be applied to the case.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009}} Since Islamic legal theory does not recognize the distinction between private and public law, court procedures were identical for civil and criminal cases, and required a private plaintiff to produce evidence against the defendant. The main type of evidence was oral witness testimony. The standards of evidence for criminal cases were so strict that a conviction was often difficult to obtain even for apparently clear-cut cases.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} Most historians believe that because of these stringent procedural norms, qadi's courts at an early date lost their jurisdiction over criminal cases, which were instead handled in other types of courts.{{sfn|Tillier|2014}}

If an accusation did not result in a verdict in a qadi's court, the plaintiff could often pursue it in another type of court called the ''[[mazalim]]'' court, administered by the ruler's council.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The rationale for ''mazalim'' (lit. wrongs, grievances) courts was to address the wrongs that Sharia courts were unable to address, including complaints against government officials. Islamic jurists were commonly in attendance and a judge often presided over the court as a deputy of the ruler.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=501}} ''Mazalim'' verdicts were supposed to conform to the spirit of Sharia, but they were not bound by the letter of the law or the procedural restrictions of qadi's courts.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009}}

The police (''[[shurta]]''), which took initiative in preventing and investigating crime, operated its own courts.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=501}} Like the mazalim courts, police courts were not bound by the rules of Sharia and had the powers to inflict discretionary punishments.{{sfn|Tillier|2014}} Another office for maintaining public order was the ''[[muhtasib]]'' (market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud in economic transactions and infractions against public morality.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=501}} The ''muhtasib'' took an active role in pursuing these types of offenses and meted out punishments based on [[Urf|local custom]].{{sfn|Tillier|2014}}

=== Socio-political context ===
The social fabric of pre-modern Islamic societies was largely defined by close-knit communities organized around kinship groups and local neighborhoods. Conflicts between individuals had the potential to escalate into a conflict between their supporting groups and disrupt the life of the entire community. Court litigation was seen as a last resort for cases where informal mediation had failed. This attitude was reflected in the legal maxim "amicable settlement is the best verdict" (''al-sulh sayyid al-ahkam''). In court disputes, qadis were generally less concerned with legal theory than with achieving an outcome that enabled the disputants to resume their previous social relationships. This could be accomplished by avoiding a total loss for the losing side or simply giving them a chance to articulate their position in public and obtain a measure of psychological vindication.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=57–60}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009b|pp=159–62}} Islamic law required judges to be familiar with local customs, and they exercised a number of other public functions in the community, including mediation and arbitration, supervision of public works, auditing waqf finances, and looking after the interests of orphans.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|pp=11–12}}{{sfn|Tillier|2014}}

[[File:Zibik.jpg|thumb|upright|An unhappy wife complains to the kadı about her husband's impotence (18th century [[Ottoman miniature]])]]
Unlike pre-modern cultures where the ruling dynasty promulgated the law, Islamic law was formulated by religious scholars without involvement of the rulers. The law derived its authority not from political control, but rather from the collective doctrinal positions of the legal schools (madhhabs) in their capacity as interpreters of the scriptures. The [[ulema]] (religious scholars) were involved in management of communal affairs and acted as representatives of the Muslim population vis-à-vis the ruling dynasties, who before the modern era had limited capacity for direct governance.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=166–67}} Military elites relied on the ulema for religious legitimation, with financial support for religious institutions being one of the principal means through which these elites established their legitimacy.{{sfn|Berkey|2003|pp=225–26}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=166–67}} In turn, the ulema depended on the support of the ruling elites for the continuing operation of religious institutions. Although the relationship between secular rulers and religious scholars underwent a number of shifts and transformations in different times and places, this mutual dependence characterized Islamic history until the start of the modern era.{{sfn|Hodgson|1974|pp=176–77}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=166–67}} Additionally, since Sharia contained few provisions in several areas of public law, Muslim rulers were able to legislate various collections of economic, criminal and administrative laws outside the jurisdiction of Islamic jurists, the most famous of which is the ''[[Qanun (law)|qanun]]'' promulgated by Ottoman sultans beginning from the 15th century.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=500}} The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Aurangzeb]] (r. 1658–1707) issued a hybrid body of law known as [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri]], based on [[Hanafi]] fatwas as well as decisions of Islamic courts, and made it applicable to all religious communities on the [[Indian subcontinent]]. This early attempt to turn Islamic law into semi-codified state legislation sparked rebellions against Mughal rule.{{sfn|Jones-Pauly|2009}}

=== Women, non-Muslims, slaves ===
{{Main|Women in Islam|Dhimmi|Islamic views on slavery|History of slavery in the Muslim world}}

In both the rules of civil disputes and application of penal law, classical Sharia distinguishes between men and women, between Muslims and non-Muslims, and between free persons and slaves.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

[[File:Slavezanzibar2.JPG|thumb|180 px|[[Zanzibar]] Child slave sentenced to transport logs by Arab master in Sultanate, 1890s]]

Traditional Islamic law assumes a patriarchal society with a man at the head of the household.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=502}} Different legal schools formulated a variety of legal norms which could be manipulated to the advantage of men or women,{{sfn|Lapidus|Salaymeh|2014|p=212}} but women were generally at a disadvantage with respect to the rules of inheritance, blood money (''diya''), and witness testimony, where in some cases a woman's value is effectively treated as half of that of a man.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=502}} Various financial obligations imposed on the husband acted as a deterrent against [[Triple talaq|unilateral divorce]] and commonly gave the wife financial leverage in divorce proceedings.{{sfn|Lapidus|Salaymeh|2014|p=212}} Women were active in Sharia courts as both plaintiffs and defendants in a wide variety of cases, though some opted to be represented by a male relative.{{sfn|Lapidus|Salaymeh|2014|p=213}}{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

Sharia was intended to regulate affairs of the Muslim community.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} Non-Muslims residing under Islamic rule had the legal status of [[dhimmi]], which entailed a number of protections, restrictions, freedoms and legal inequalities, including payment of the [[jizya]] tax.{{sfn|Nettler|2009}} Dhimmi communities had legal autonomy to adjudicate their internal affairs. Cases involving litigants from two different religious groups fell under jurisdiction of Sharia courts,{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} where (unlike in secular courts){{sfn|Esposito|DeLong-Bas|2018|p=85}} testimony of non-Muslim witnesses against a Muslim was inadmissible in criminal cases{{sfn|Masters|2009}} or at all.{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=351}} This legal framework was implemented with varying degree of rigor. In some periods or towns, all inhabitants apparently used the same court without regard for their religious affiliation.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb imposed Islamic law on all his subjects, including provisions traditionally applicable only to Muslims, while some of his predecessors and successors are said to have abolished jizya.{{sfn|Jones-Pauly|2009}}{{sfn|Hardy|1991|p=566}} According to Ottoman records, non-Muslim women took their cases to a Sharia court when they expected a more favorable outcome on marital, divorce and property questions than in Christian and Jewish courts.{{sfn|Lapidus|Salaymeh|2014|p=360}} Over time, non Muslims in the Ottoman Empire could be more or less likely to use Islamic courts. For example, in 1729 at the Islamic court in [[Galata]] only two percent of cases involved non-Muslims whereas in 1789 non-Muslims were a part of thirty percent of cases.'''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gocek|first=Fatma Muge|title=The Legal Recourse of Minorities in History: Eighteenth-Century Appeals to the Islamic Court of Galata|journal=Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies|pages=53, 54}}</ref> '''Ottoman court records also reflect the use of Islamic courts by formerly non-Muslim women.'''<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Baer|first=Marc|title=Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul|journal=Gender & History|volume=16|issue=2 |pages=426, 427|doi=10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00347.x|s2cid=145552242 }}</ref> '''As it was illegal for non-Muslims to own Muslims and for non-Muslim men to marry Muslim women in the Ottoman empire, conversion to Islam would have been an option for non-Muslim women to free themselves of a spouse or master they did not want to subject to.'''<ref name=":2" /> '''However, this would likely lead to them being shunned by their former community.<ref name=":2" />

Classical fiqh acknowledges and regulates slavery as a legitimate institution.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=502}} It granted slaves certain rights and protections, improving their status relative to Greek and Roman law, and restricted the scenarios under which people could be enslaved.{{sfn|Lewis|1992|p=7}}{{sfn|El Achi|2018}} However, slaves could not inherit or enter into a contract, and were subject to their master's will in a number of ways.{{sfn|Lewis|1992|p=7}}{{sfn|El Achi|2018}} The labor and property of slaves were owned by the master, who was also entitled to sexual submission of his unmarried slaves.{{sfn|El Achi|2018}}{{sfn|Ali|2010|p=39}}

Formal legal disabilities for some groups coexisted with a legal culture that viewed Sharia as a reflection of universal principles of justice, which involved protection of the weak against injustices committed by the strong. This conception was reinforced by the historical practice of Sharia courts, where peasants "almost always" won cases against oppressive landowners, and non-Muslims often prevailed in disputes against Muslims, including such powerful figures as the governor of their province.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009|p=61}}{{sfn|Hallaq|2009b|p=167}} In family matters the Sharia court was seen as a place where the rights of women could be asserted against their husband's transgressions.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

==Modern legal reforms==
===Under colonial rule===
Starting from the 17th century, European powers began to extend political influence over lands ruled by Muslim dynasties, and by the end of the 19th century, much of the Muslim world came under colonial domination. The first areas of Islamic law to be impacted were usually commercial and criminal laws, which impeded colonial administration and were soon replaced by European regulations.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|p=174}} Islamic commercial laws were also replaced by European (mostly French) laws in Muslim states which retained formal independence, because these states increasingly came to rely on Western capital and could not afford to lose the business of foreign merchants who refused to submit to Islamic regulations.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

[[File:Warren Hastings.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Warren Hastings]] initiated far-reaching legal reforms in British India]]
The first significant changes to the legal system of [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] were initiated in the late 18th century by the governor of Bengal [[Warren Hastings]]. Hastings' plan of legal reform envisioned a multi-tiered court system for the Muslim population, with a middle tier of British judges advised by local Islamic jurists, and a lower tier of courts operated by qadis. Hastings also commissioned a translation of the classic manual of Hanafi fiqh, ''[[Al-Hidayah]]'', from Arabic into Persian and then English, later complemented by other texts.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=176–81}}{{sfn|Masud|2009}} These translations enabled British judges to pass verdicts in the name of Islamic law based on a combination of Sharia rules and [[common law]] doctrines, and eliminated the need to rely on consultation by local ulema, whom they mistrusted. In the traditional Islamic context, a concise text like ''Al-Hidayah'' would be used as a basis for classroom commentary by a professor, and the doctrines thus learned would be mediated in court by judicial discretion, consideration of local customs and availability of different legal opinions that could fit the facts of the case. The British use of ''Al-Hidayah'', which amounted to an inadvertent codification of Sharia, and its interpretation by judges trained in Western legal traditions anticipated later legal reforms in the Muslim world.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=176–81}}{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=503}}

British administrators felt that Sharia rules too often allowed criminals to escape punishment, as exemplified by Hastings' complaint that Islamic law was "founded on the most lenient principles and on an abhorrence of bloodshed".{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=176–81}} In the course of the 19th century, criminal laws and other aspects of the Islamic legal system in India were supplanted by British law, with the exception of Sharia rules retained in family laws and some property transactions.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=176–81}}{{sfn|Masud|2009}} Among other changes, these reforms brought about abolition of slavery, prohibition of child marriage, and a much more frequent use of capital punishment.{{sfn|Hallaq|2009b|p=378}}{{sfn|Masud|2009}} The resulting legal system, known as ''Anglo-Muhammadan law'', was treated by the British as a model for legal reforms in their other colonies. Like the British in India, colonial administrations typically sought to obtain precise and authoritative information about indigenous laws, which prompted them to prefer classical Islamic legal texts over local judicial practice. This, together with their conception of Islamic law as a collection of inflexible rules, led to an emphasis on traditionalist forms of Sharia that were not rigorously applied in the pre-colonial period and served as a formative influence on the modern identity politics of the Muslim world.{{sfn|Masud|2009}}

===Ottoman Empire===
[[File:1879-Ottoman Court-from-NYL.png|thumb|upright=1.5|An Ottoman courtroom (1879 A.D. drawing)]]
During the colonial era, Muslim rulers concluded that they could not resist European pressure unless they modernized their armies and built centrally administered states along the lines of Western models. In the [[Ottoman Empire]], the first such changes in the legal sphere involved placing the formerly independent [[waqf]]s under state control. This reform, passed in 1826, enriched the public treasury at the expense of the waqfs, thereby depleting the financial support for traditional Islamic legal education. Over the second half of the 19th century, a new hierarchical system of secular courts was established to supplement and eventually replace most religious courts. Students hoping to pursue legal careers in the new court system increasingly preferred attending secular schools over the traditional path of legal education with its dimming financial prospects.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=174–76}} The [[Tanzimat]] reforms of the 19th century saw reorganization of both Islamic civil law and sultanic criminal law after the model of the [[Napoleonic Code]].{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} In the 1870s, a codification of civil law and procedure (excepting marriage and divorce), called the ''[[Mecelle]]'', was produced for use in both Sharia and secular courts. It adopted the Turkish language for the benefit of the new legal class who no longer possessed competence in the Arabic idiom of traditional jurisprudence. The code was based on Hanafi law, and its authors selected minority opinions over authoritative ones when they were felt to better "suit the present conditions". The Mecelle was promulgated as a ''[[qanun (law)|qanun]]'' (sultanic code), which represented an unprecedented assertion of the state's authority over Islamic civil law, traditionally the preserve of the ulema.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=174–76}} The 1917 [[Ottoman family law|Ottoman Law of Family Rights]] adopted an innovative approach of drawing rules from minority and majority opinions of all Sunni madhhabs with a modernizing intent.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}} The [[Republic of Turkey]], which emerged after the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], abolished its Sharia courts and replaced Ottoman civil laws with the [[Swiss Civil Code]],{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}} but Ottoman civil laws remained in force for several decades in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Iraq.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}{{sfn|Rabb|2009b}}

===Nation states===
[[File:Mahkamah Syariyah Aceh.jpg|thumb|''Mahkamah Syariyah'' (Sharia court) in [[Aceh]], [[Indonesia]]]]

Westernization of legal institutions and expansion of state control in all areas of law, which began during the colonial era, continued in nation-states of the Muslim world.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=182–83}} Sharia courts at first continued to exist alongside state courts as in earlier times, but the doctrine that sultanic courts should implement the ideals of Sharia was gradually replaced by legal norms imported from Europe. Court procedures were also brought in line with European practice. Though the Islamic terms ''qadi'' and ''mahkama'' (qadi's/Sharia court) were preserved, they generally came to mean judge and court in the Western sense. While in the traditional Sharia court all parties represented themselves, in modern courts they are represented by professional lawyers educated in Western-style law schools, and the verdicts are subject to review in an appeals court. In the 20th century, most countries abolished a parallel system of Sharia courts and brought all cases under a national civil court system.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}

In most Muslim-majority countries, traditional rules of classical fiqh have been largely preserved only in family law. In some countries religious minorities such as Christians or Shia Muslims have been subject to separate systems of family laws.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} Many Muslims today believe that contemporary Sharia-based laws are an authentic representation of the pre-modern legal tradition. In reality, they generally represent the result of extensive legal reforms made in the modern era.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=182–83}} As traditional Islamic jurists lost their role as authoritative interpreters of the laws applied in courts, these laws were codified by legislators and administered by state systems which employed a number of devices to effect changes,{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} including:
* Selection of alternative opinions from traditional legal literature (''takhayyur''), potentially among multiple madhhabs or denominations, and combining parts of different rulings (''talfiq'').{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=182–83}}{{sfn|Schacht|Layish|2000|p=155}}
* Appeal to the classical doctrines of necessity (''darura''), public interest (''maslaha''), and the objectives (''maqasid'') of Sharia, which played a limited role in classical fiqh, but were now given wider utilitarian applications.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=182–83}}{{sfn|Schacht|Layish|2000|p=155}}{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=503}}
* Changes in administrative law that grant the courts discretionary powers to restrict certain practices which are not forbidden by substantive law (e.g., polygamy), in some cases imposing penal sanctions as additional deterrence.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=182–83}}{{sfn|Schacht|Layish|2000|p=155}}
* Modernist interpretation of Islamic scriptures without adherence to the rules or methodologies of traditional jurisprudence, known as ''neo-ijtihad''.{{sfn|Hallaq|2010|pp=182–83}}{{sfn|Schacht|Layish|2000|p=155}}

[[File:The Late Grand Moufti (1906) - TIMEA.jpg|thumbnail|upright|[[Muhammad Abduh]] exercised a powerful influence on liberal reformist thought]]

The most powerful influence on liberal reformist thought came from the work of the Egyptian Islamic scholar [[Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad ʿAbduh]] (1849–1905). Abduh viewed only Sharia rules pertaining to religious rituals as inflexible, and argued that the other Islamic laws should be adapted based on changing circumstances in consideration of social well-being. Following precedents of earlier Islamic thinkers, he advocated restoring Islam to its original purity by returning to the Quran and the sunna instead of following the medieval schools of jurisprudence.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}} He championed a creative approach to ijtihad that involved direct interpretation of scriptures as well as the methods of ''takhayyur'' and ''talfiq''.{{sfn|Calder|2009}}{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}

One of the most influential figures in modern legal reforms was the Egyptian legal scholar [[Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri]] (1895–1971), who possessed expertise in both Islamic and Western law. Sanhuri argued that reviving Islamic legal heritage in a way that served the needs of contemporary society required its analysis in light of the modern science of [[comparative law]]. He drafted the civil codes of Egypt (1949) and Iraq (1951) based on a variety of sources, including classical fiqh, European laws, existing Arab and Turkish codes, and the history of local court decisions.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}{{sfn|Jones-Pauly|2009}} Sanhuri's Egyptian code incorporated few classical Sharia rules, but he drew on traditional jurisprudence more frequently for the Iraqi code.{{sfn|Jones-Pauly|2009}} Sanhuri's codes were subsequently adopted in some form by most Arab countries.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}

Aside from the radical reforms of Islamic family law carried out in Tunisia (1956) and Iran (1967), governments often preferred to make changes that made a clear break from traditional Sharia rules by imposing administrative hurdles rather than changing the rules themselves, in order to minimize objections from religious conservatives. Various procedural changes have been made in a number of countries to restrict polygamy, give women greater rights in divorce, and eliminate child marriage. Inheritance has been the legal domain least susceptible to reform, as legislators have been generally reluctant to tamper with the highly technical system of [[Islamic inheritance jurisprudence|Quranic shares]].{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}{{sfn|Jones-Pauly|2009}} Some reforms have faced strong conservative opposition. For example, the 1979 reform of Egyptian family law, promulgated by [[Anwar Sadat]] through presidential decree, provoked an outcry and was annulled in 1985 by the supreme court on procedural grounds, to be later replaced by a compromise version.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}} The [[Mudawana|2003 reform of Moroccan family law]], which sought to reconcile universal human rights norms and the country's Islamic heritage, was drafted by a commission that included parliamentarians, religious scholars and feminist activists, and the result has been praised by international rights groups as an example of progressive legislation achieved within an Islamic framework.{{sfn|Rabb|2009d}}{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}

=== Islamization ===
{{Islamism sidebar|Concepts}}
{{Main|Islamization}}

The [[Islamic revival]] of the late 20th century brought the topic of Sharia to international attention in the form of numerous political campaigns in the Muslim world calling for full implementation of Sharia.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Stewart|2013|pp=503–04}} A number of factors have contributed to the rise of these movements, classified under the rubric of [[Islamism]] or [[political Islam]], including the failure of authoritarian secular regimes to meet the expectations of their citizens, and a desire of Muslim populations to return to more culturally authentic forms of socio-political organization in the face of a perceived cultural invasion from the West.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|pp=503–04}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=835}} Islamist leaders such as [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] drew on leftist anticolonialist rhetoric by framing their call for Sharia as a resistance struggle. They accused secular leaders of corruption and predatory behavior, and claimed that a return to Sharia would replace despotic rulers with pious leaders striving for social and economic justice. In the [[Arab world]] these positions are often encapsulated in the slogan "Islam is the solution" (''al-Islam huwa al-hall'').{{sfn|Stewart|2013|pp=503–04}}

Full implementation of Sharia theoretically refers to expanding its scope to all fields of law and all areas of public life.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} In practice, Islamization campaigns have focused on a few highly visible issues associated with the conservative Muslim identity, particularly women's [[hijab]] and the ''hudud'' criminal punishments (whipping, stoning and amputation) prescribed for certain crimes.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|pp=503–04}} For many Islamists, ''hudud'' punishments are at the core of the divine Sharia because they are specified by the letter of scripture rather than by human interpreters. Modern Islamists have often rejected, at least in theory, the stringent procedural constraints developed by classical jurists to restrict their application.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}} To the broader Muslim public, the calls for Sharia often represent, even more than any specific demands, a vague vision of their current economic and political situation being replaced by a "just utopia".{{sfn|Lapidus|2014|p=835}}

A number of legal reforms have been made under the influence of these movements, starting from the 1970s when Egypt and Syria amended their constitutions to specify Sharia as the basis of legislation.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|pp=503–04}} The [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979 represented a watershed for Islamization advocates, demonstrating that it was possible to replace a secular regime with a [[theocracy]].{{sfn|Stewart|2013|pp=503–04}} Several countries, including Iran, Pakistan, Sudan, and some Nigerian states have incorporated hudud rules into their criminal justice systems, which, however, retained fundamental influences of earlier Westernizing reforms.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Mayer|2009}} In practice, these changes were largely symbolic, and aside from some cases brought to trial to demonstrate that the new rules were being enforced, hudud punishments tended to fall into disuse, sometimes to be revived depending on the local political climate.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=20}} The supreme courts of Sudan and Iran have rarely approved verdicts of stoning or amputation, and the supreme courts of Pakistan and Nigeria have never done so.{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=20}} Nonetheless, Islamization campaigns have also had repercussions in several other areas of law, leading to curtailment of rights of women and religious minorities, and in the case of Sudan contributing to the breakout of a civil war.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}}

Advocates of Islamization have often been more concerned with ideology than traditional jurisprudence and there is no agreement among them as to what form a modern Sharia-based "[[Islamic state]]" should take. This is particularly the case for the theorists of [[Islamic economics]] and [[Islamic finance]], who have advocated both free-market and socialist economic models.{{sfn|Mayer|2009}} The notion of "Sharia-compliant" finance has become an active area of doctrinal innovation and its development has had a major impact on business operations around the world.{{sfn|Stewart|2013|pp=503–04}}

== Contemporary applications ==
{{main|Application of Sharia by country}}

[[File:Use of Sharia by country.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|Use of sharia by country: 
{{legend|#179C86|Sharia plays no role in the judicial system.}}
{{legend|#F6DD4F|Sharia influences personal status (family) laws.}}
{{legend|#706EA4|Sharia influences personal status and criminal laws.}}
{{legend|#FF9950|Regional variations in the application of sharia.}}
]]

=== Muslim-majority countries ===
The legal systems of most Muslim-majority countries can be classified as either secular or mixed. Sharia plays no role in secular legal systems. In mixed legal systems, Sharia rules are allowed to influence some national laws, which are codified and may be based on European or Indian models, and the central legislative role is played by politicians and modern jurists rather than the [[ulema]] (traditional Islamic scholars). Saudi Arabia and some other Gulf states possess what may be called classical Sharia systems, where national law is largely uncodified and formally equated with Sharia, with ulema playing a decisive role in its interpretation. Iran has adopted some features of classical Sharia systems, while also maintaining characteristics of mixed systems, like codified laws and a parliament.{{sfn|Otto|2008|pp=8–9}}

==== Constitutional law ====
Constitutions of many Muslim-majority countries refer to Sharia as a source or the main source of law, though these references are not in themselves indicative of how much the legal system is influenced by Sharia, and whether the influence has a traditionalist or modernist character.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Calder|2009}} The same constitutions usually also refer to universal principles such as democracy and human rights, leaving it up to legislators and the judiciary to work out how these norms are to be reconciled in practice.{{sfn|Otto|2008|pp=18–19}} Conversely, some countries (e.g., Algeria), whose constitution does not mention Sharia, possess Sharia-based family laws.{{sfn|Calder|2009}} Nisrine Abiad identifies Bahrain, Iran, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia as states with "strong constitutional consequences of Sharia "on the organization and functioning of power".{{sfn|Abiad|2008|pp=38–42}}

==== Family law ====
Except for secular systems, Muslim-majority countries possess Sharia-based laws dealing with family matters (marriage, inheritance, etc.). These laws generally reflect influence of various modern-era reforms and tend to be characterized by ambiguity, with traditional and modernist interpretations often manifesting themselves in the same country, both in legislation and court decisions.{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=19}} In some countries (e.g., parts of Nigeria), people can choose whether to pursue a case in a Sharia or secular court.{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=19}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Greece Scraps Compulsory Shariah for Muslim Minority|author=Niki Kitsantonis|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/10/world/europe/greece-shariah-law.html|access-date=16 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416212547/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/10/world/europe/greece-shariah-law.html|archive-date=16 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Criminal law ====
Countries in the Muslim world generally have criminal codes influenced by civil law or common law, and in some cases a combination of Western legal traditions. Saudi Arabia has never adopted a criminal code and Saudi judges still follow traditional Hanbali jurisprudence. In the course of Islamization campaigns, several countries (Libya, Pakistan, Iran, Sudan, Mauritania, and Yemen) inserted Islamic criminal laws into their penal codes, which were otherwise based on Western models. In some countries only ''hudud'' penalties were added, while others also enacted provisions for ''[[qisas]]'' (law of retaliation) and ''[[Diya (Islam)|diya]]'' (monetary compensation). Iran subsequently issued a new "Islamic Penal Code". The criminal codes of Afghanistan and United Arab Emirates contain a general provision that certain crimes are to be punished according to Islamic law, without specifying the penalties. Some Nigerian states have also enacted Islamic criminal laws. [[Islamic criminal law in Aceh|Laws in the Indonesian province of Aceh]] provide for application of discretionary (''[[ta'zir]]'') punishments for violation of Islamic norms, but explicitly exclude ''hudud'' and ''qisas''.{{sfn|Tellenbach|2015|pp=249–50}} [[Brunei]] has been implementing a "Sharia Penal Code", which includes provisions for stoning and amputation, in stages since 2014.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=New York Times|author=Austin Ramzy|title=Brunei to Punish Adultery and Gay Sex With Death by Stoning|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/28/world/asia/brunei-adultery-gay-stoning.html|access-date=28 March 2019|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225124704/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/28/world/asia/brunei-stoning-death.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Brunei Shariah law applies death sentence for homosexuality|newspaper=Deutsche Welle|url=https://www.dw.com/en/brunei-shariah-law-applies-death-sentence-for-homosexuality/a-48076114|access-date=27 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331093514/https://www.dw.com/en/brunei-shariah-law-applies-death-sentence-for-homosexuality/a-48076114|archive-date=31 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The countries where ''hudud'' penalties are legal do not use stoning and amputation routinely, and generally apply other punishments instead.{{sfn|Vikør|2014}}{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=20}}{{sfn|Brown|2017}}

==== Property law ====
Sharia recognizes the concept of ''haqq''.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Birnhack|first1=Michael|last2=Khoury |first2=Amir|editor1-first=Rochelle|editor1-last=Dreyfuss|editor2-first=Justine|editor2-last=Pila |chapter=The Emergence and Development of Intellectual Property Law in the Middle East |title=The Oxford Handbook of Intellectual Property Law|series=Oxford Handbooks|publisher=Oxford Academic |edition=online |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198758457.013.19}}</ref> ''Haqq'' refers to personal rights of the individual and the right to generate and accumulate wealth. The various ways in which property can be acquired under Sharia are purchase, inheritance, bequest, physical or mental effort, ''diya'' and donations.<ref name="autogenerated139">{{Cite journal|title=Outlines of Muhammadan Law. By Asaf A. A. Fyzee. [India: Oxford University Press. 1949. xvi and 443 pp. 25s.]|journal=The Cambridge Law Journal |volume=11|issue=1|pages=139–140|doi=10.1017/s0008197300015518|issn=0008-1973}}</ref> Certain concepts relating to property under Sharia are ''Mulk'', ''Waqf'', ''Mawat'' and ''Motasarruf''.<ref name="autogenerated139" />

=== Muslim-minority countries ===
Sharia also plays a role beyond religious rituals and personal ethics in some countries with Muslim minorities. For example, in Israel Sharia-based family laws are administered for the Muslim population by the [[Ministry of Justice (Israel)|Ministry of Justice]] through the Sharia Courts.<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Israel Ministry of Justice]]|title=The Sharia Courts|url=https://www.justice.gov.il/En/Units/ShariaCourts/Pages/default.aspx|access-date=19 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325005530/https://www.justice.gov.il/En/Units/ShariaCourts/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date=25 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In India, the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act provides for the use of Islamic law for Muslims in several areas, mainly related to family law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/india.htm |title=India |publisher=Law.emory.edu |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116220209/http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/india.htm |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In England, the [[Muslim Arbitration Tribunal]] makes use of Sharia family law to settle disputes, though this limited adoption of Sharia is controversial.<ref>Taher, Abul (14 September 2008). Revealed: UK’s first official sharia courts. ''The Sunday Times''</ref><ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/9975937/Inside-Britains-Sharia-courts.html Inside Britain's Sharia courts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518200507/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/9975937/Inside-Britains-Sharia-courts.html }} Jane Corbin, ''The Telegraph'' (7 April 2013)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bowen |first1=John R. |year=2010 |url=http://ir.stthomas.edu/ustlj/vol7/iss3/3/ |title=How could English courts recognize Shariah? |journal=University of St. Thomas Law Journal |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=411–35 |access-date=19 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821120614/http://ir.stthomas.edu/ustlj/vol7/iss3/3/ |archive-date=21 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Court procedures ===
{{original research|section|Most of this section consisted of ahistorical generalizations made by WP editors from snippets describing various pre-modern and modern legal systems without distinguishing between them. The most serious misrepresentations have been corrected, but this material needs to be verified more carefully.}}
{{anchor|Courts}}
[[File:Melaka State Syariah Court.jpg|thumb|Shariah court in [[Malacca]], [[Malaysia]].]]

Sharia courts traditionally do not rely on lawyers; [[plaintiffs]] and [[defendants]] represent themselves. In Saudi Arabia and Qatar, which have preserved traditional procedure in Sharia courts, trials are conducted solely by the judge, and there is no jury system. There is no pre-trial [[Discovery (law)|discovery]] process, and no [[cross-examination]] of witnesses. Unlike common law, judges' verdicts do not set binding [[precedents]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/qatar.html |title=Qatar: The Duality of the Legal System |access-date=28 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708060546/http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/qatar.html |archive-date=8 July 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> under the principle of ''[[stare decisis]]'',<ref>[https://caselaw.findlaw.com/data2/delawarestatecases/493-2003.pdf ''Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corp. v. Mobil Yanbu Petrochemical Co.'', Supreme Court of Delaware, January 14, 2005 p. 52]. "The Saudi law system differs in critically important respects from the system of legal thought employed by the common law countries, including the United States. Perhaps most significant is that Islamic law does not embrace the common law system of binding precedent and ''stare decisis''. In Saudi Arabia, judicial decisions are not in themselves a source of law, and with minor exceptions, court decisions in Saudi Arabia are not published or even open to public inspection."</ref> and unlike civil law, Sharia is left to the interpretation in each case and has no formally [[Codification (law)|codified]] universal statutes.<ref>Tetley (1999), Mixed Jurisdictions: Common Law v. Civil Law (Codified and Uncodified), La. Law Review, 60, 677</ref>

The [[rules of evidence]] in Sharia courts traditionally prioritize oral testimony, and witnesses must be Muslim.<ref name="av1">Antoinette Vlieger (2012), Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates, {{ISBN|978-1610271288}}, Chapter 4{{page needed}}</ref> Male Muslim witnesses are deemed more reliable than female Muslim witnesses, and non-Muslim witnesses considered unreliable and receive no priority in a Sharia court.<ref>Tahir Wasti (2009), The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004172258}}, pp. 126–27</ref><ref>Etannibi E. O. Alemika (2005), "Human Rights and Shariah Penal Code in Northern Nigeria", ''UN Human Rights Monitor'', pp. 110–27</ref> In civil cases in some countries, a Muslim woman witness is considered half the worth and reliability than a Muslim man witness.<ref name="unicef2011" /><ref name="mfdl1" /> In criminal cases, women witnesses are unacceptable in stricter, traditional interpretations of Sharia, such as those found in [[Hanbali]] jurisprudence, which forms the basis of law in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="av1" />

==== Criminal cases ====
A confession, an oath, or the oral testimony of Muslim witnesses are the main evidence admissible in traditional sharia courts for hudud crimes, i.e., the religious crimes of adultery, fornication, rape, accusing someone of illicit sex but failing to prove it, [[Apostasy in Islam|apostasy]], drinking intoxicants and theft.<ref>Mohamed S. El-Awa (1993), Punishment In Islamic Law, American Trust Publications, {{ISBN|978-0892591428}}, pp. 1–68{{nonspecific}}</ref><ref>Philip Reichel and Jay Albanese (2013), Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, Sage publications, {{ISBN|978-1452240350}}, pp. 36–37</ref>{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=663}}{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=31}} According to classical jurisprudence, testimony must be from at least two free Muslim male witnesses, or one Muslim male and two Muslim females, who are not related parties and who are of sound mind and reliable character. Testimony to establish the crime of adultery, fornication or rape must be from four Muslim male witnesses, with some [[fiqh]]s allowing substitution of up to three male with six female witnesses; however, at least one must be a Muslim male.<ref>Ajijola, Alhaji A.D. (1989). ''Introduction to Islamic Law''. Karachi: International Islamic Publishers. p. 133.</ref> [[Forensic identification|Forensic evidence]] (''i.e.'', fingerprints, ballistics, blood samples, DNA etc.) and other [[circumstantial evidence]] may likewise rejected in [[hudud]] cases in favor of eyewitnesses in some modern interpretations. In the case of regulations that were part of local Malaysian legislation that did not go into effect, this could cause severe difficulties for women plaintiffs in rape cases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamali |first1=Mohammad Hashim |author-link=Mohammad Hashim Kamali |year=1998 |title=Punishment in Islamic Law: A Critique of the Hudud Bill of Kelantan, Malaysia |jstor=3382008 |journal=[[Arab Law Quarterly]] |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=203–34 |doi=10.1163/026805598125826102}}{{request quotation}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mohd Noor |first1=Azman |last2=Ibrahim |first2=Ahmad Basri |year=2008 |title=The rights of a rape victim in Islamic Law |journal=IIUM Law Journal |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=65–83 |url=http://irep.iium.edu.my/id/eprint/5699 |access-date=19 July 2016 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213728/http://irep.iium.edu.my/5699/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In Pakistan, DNA evidence is rejected in paternity cases on the basis of legislation that favors the presumption of children's legitimacy, while in sexual assault cases DNA evidence is regarded as equivalent to expert opinion and evaluated on a case-by-case basis.<ref>{{cite journal|title=DNA Evidence in Pakistani Courts: An Analysis|author=Shahbaz Ahmad Cheema|journal=Lums Law Journal|volume=3|url=https://sahsol.lums.edu.pk/law-journal/dna-evidence-pakistani-courts-analysis|access-date=25 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325131327/https://sahsol.lums.edu.pk/law-journal/dna-evidence-pakistani-courts-analysis|archive-date=25 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Civil cases ====
{{qref|2|282|b=y}} recommends written financial contracts with reliable witnesses, although there is dispute about equality of female testimony.<ref name="mfdl1">{{cite journal |last1=Fadel |first1=Mohammad |title=Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=29 |issue=2 |year=2009 |pages=185–204 |ssrn=1113891 |jstor=164016 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800064461|s2cid=143083939 }}</ref>

Marriage is solemnized as a written financial contract, in the presence of two Muslim male witnesses, and it includes a brideprice ([[Mahr]]) payable from a Muslim man to a Muslim woman. The brideprice is considered by a Sharia court as a form of debt. Written contracts were traditionally considered paramount in Sharia courts in the matters of dispute that are debt-related, which includes marriage contracts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paul Powers |title=Intent in Islamic Law: Motive and Meaning in Medieval Sunnī Fiqh |publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-9004145924 |pages=97–110, 125–41}}</ref> Written contracts in debt-related cases, when notarized by a judge, is deemed more reliable.<ref name="remes1" />

In commercial and civil contracts, such as those relating to exchange of merchandise, agreement to supply or purchase goods or property, and others, oral contracts and the testimony of Muslim witnesses historically triumphed over written contracts. Islamic jurists traditionally held that written commercial contracts may be forged.<ref name="remes1">Reem Meshal (2014), ''Sharia and the Making of the Modern Egyptian'', [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-9774166174}}, pp. 96–101 and Chapter 4</ref><ref name="timku1">Timur Kuran (2012), The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691156415}}, pp. 246–49 and Chapter 12</ref> [[Timur Kuran]] states that the treatment of written evidence in religious courts in Islamic regions created an incentive for opaque transactions, and the avoidance of written contracts in economic relations. This led to a continuation of a "largely oral contracting culture" in Muslim-majority nations and communities.<ref name="timku1" /><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/private/ierc/conference_registration/papers/Kuran.pdf "Explaining the Economic Trajectories of Civilizations – Musings on the Systemic Approach"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020235639/http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/private/ierc/conference_registration/papers/Kuran.pdf }} pp. 7, 10.</ref>

In lieu of written evidence, oaths are traditionally accorded much greater weight; rather than being used simply to guarantee the truth of ensuing testimony, they are themselves used as evidence. Plaintiffs lacking other evidence to support their claims may demand that defendants take an oath swearing their innocence, refusal thereof can result in a verdict for the plaintiff.<ref>Lippman, Matthew Ross; McConville, Seán; Yerushalmi, Mordechai (1988). ''Islamic Criminal Law and Procedure – An Introduction''. New York City: [[Praeger Publishers]]. p. 71. {{ISBN|978-0275930097}}.</ref> Taking an oath for Muslims can be a grave act; one study of courts in Morocco found that lying litigants would often "maintain their testimony right up to the moment of oath-taking and then to stop, refuse the oath, and surrender the case."<ref name="frank">Frank, Michael J. (April 2006). "Trying Times – The Prosecution of Terrorists in the Central Criminal Court of Iraq". ''[[Florida Journal of International Law]]''.{{page needed}}</ref> Accordingly, defendants are not routinely required to swear before testifying, which would risk casually profaning the Quran should the defendant commit perjury.<ref name="frank" />

==== Diya ====
{{main|Diya (Islam)}}

In classical jurisprudence monetary compensation for bodily harm (''[[Diya (Islam)|diya]]'' or blood money) is assessed differently for different classes of victims. For example, for Muslim women the amount was half that assessed for a Muslim man.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Arsani |last1=William |title=An Unjust Doctrine of Civil Arbitration: Sharia Courts in Canada and England |journal=Stanford Journal of International Relations |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=40–47 |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/sjir/pdf/Sharia_11.2.pdf |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818210814/https://web.stanford.edu/group/sjir/pdf/Sharia_11.2.pdf |archive-date=18 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>M Kar (2005), Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics (Ed: Suad Joseph, Afsāna Naǧmābādī), Brill, {{ISBN|978-9004128187}}, pp. 406–07</ref> ''Diya'' for the death of a free Muslim man is twice as high as for Jewish and Christian victims according to the Maliki and Hanbali madhhabs and three times as high according to Shafi'i rules.<ref name="ame1" /> Several legal schools assessed ''diya'' for [[Magians]] (''[[majus]]'') at one-fifteenth the value of a free Muslim male.<ref name="ame1">Anver M. Emon (2012), ''Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199661633}}, pp. 234–35</ref>

Modern countries which incorporate classical ''diya'' rules into their legal system treat them in different ways. The Pakistan Penal Code modernized the Hanafi doctrine by eliminating distinctions between Muslims and non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan |author=Tahir Wasti |publisher=Brill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88-XutlkJAQC&pg=PA49 |page=49 |year=2009 |isbn=978-9004172258 |access-date=17 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011033255/https://books.google.com/books?id=88-XutlkJAQC&pg=PA49 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Iran, ''diya'' for non-Muslim victims professing one of the faiths protected under the constitution (Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians) was made equal to ''diya'' for Muslims in 2004,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law |editor=Markus D. Dubber |editor2=Tatjana Hörnle |author=Silvia Tellenbach |chapter=Islamic Criminal Law |page=261 |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199673599.001.0001|isbn=978-0199673599 }}</ref> though according to a 2006 US State Department report, the penal code still discriminates against other religious minorities and women.<ref>{{cite web |author=U.S. State Department |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71421.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006, U.S. State Department |access-date=22 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525202703/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71421.htm |archive-date=25 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Human Rights Watch and the US State Department, in Saudi Arabia Jewish or Christian male plaintiffs are entitled to half the amount a Muslim male would receive, while for all other non-Muslim males the proportion is one-sixteenth.<ref>State Department of the U.S. Government (2012), [https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208622.pdf Saudi Arabia 2012, International Religious Freedom Report, p. 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328183313/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208622.pdf }}</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch (2004), [https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/saudi0704/4.htm#_ftn54 Migrant Communities in Saudi Arabia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010065345/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/saudi0704/4.htm#_ftn54 }}</ref><ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2011/nea/192905.htm Saudi Arabia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213724/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2011/nea/192905.htm }} Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US State Department, 2011 Report on International Religious Freedom Report (2011)</ref>

=== Role of fatwas ===
{{Main|Fatwa}}
[[File:Türkischer Mufti.jpg|thumb|upright|Turkish mufti (17th-century Spanish drawing)]]

The spread of codified state laws and Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced traditional muftis from their historical role of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts.{{sfn|Hendrickson|2013}}{{sfn|Masud|Kéchichian|2009}} Instead, fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects of Sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life.{{sfn|Hendrickson|2013}}{{sfn|Messick|2017}} Modern fatwas deal with topics as diverse as insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration and beer drinking.{{sfn|Messick|2017}} Most Muslim-majority states have established national organizations devoted to issuing fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population.{{sfn|Messick|Kéchichian|2009}} State-employed muftis generally promote a vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country.{{sfn|Dallal|Hendrickson|2009}}

Modern public and political fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world and beyond.{{sfn|Dallal|Hendrickson|2009}} [[Ayatollah Khomeini]]'s [[Rushdie Affair|proclamation]] condemning [[Salman Rushdie]] to death for his novel ''[[The Satanic Verses]]'' is credited with bringing the notion of fatwa to world's attention,{{sfn|Dallal|Hendrickson|2009}}{{sfn|Messick|2017}} although some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one.{{refn|group=note|Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its supporters.{{sfn|Hendrickson|2013}}{{sfn|Vikør|2005|p=142}}}} Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.{{sfn|Berger|2014}}

Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of ''[[ijtihad]]'', i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities (''[[taqlid]]''),{{sfn|Berger|2014}} and some of them are issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti.{{sfn|Dallal|Hendrickson|2009}} The most notorious examples are the fatwas of [[Islamic extremism|militant extremists]].{{sfn|Berger|2014}} When [[Osama bin Laden]] and his associates issued a fatwa in 1998 proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders", many Islamic jurists, in addition to denouncing its content, stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or proclaim a jihad.{{sfn|Dallal|Hendrickson|2009}} New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence.{{sfn|Berger|2014}}

In the internet age, a large number of websites provide fatwas in response to queries from around the world, in addition to radio shows and satellite television programs offering call-in fatwas.{{sfn|Dallal|Hendrickson|2009}} Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of issuing fatwas.{{sfn|Messick|2017}} There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An [[International Islamic Fiqh Academy, Jeddah|International Islamic Fiqh Academy]] was created by the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], but its legal opinions are not binding.{{sfn|Masud|Kéchichian|2009}} The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of different muftis or heed their rulings in real life.{{sfn|Berger|2014}}

=== Role of ''hisba'' ===
{{Main|Hisbah}}
{{Further|Islamic religious police}}

The classical doctrine of ''[[Hisbah|hisba]]'', associated with the Quranic injunction of ''[[enjoining good and forbidding wrong]]'', refers to the duty of Muslims to promote moral rectitude and intervene when another Muslim is acting wrongly.{{sfn|Thielmann|2017}}{{sfn|Mack|2018}} Historically, its legal implementation was entrusted to a public official called ''[[muhtasib]]'' (market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud, disturbance of public order and infractions against public morality. This office disappeared in the modern era everywhere in the Muslim world, but it was revived in Arabia by the first Saudi state, and later instituted as a [[Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)|government committee]] responsible for supervising markets and public order. It has been aided by volunteers enforcing attendance of daily prayers, gender segregation in public places, and a conservative notion of [[hijab]].{{sfn|Thielmann|2017}} Committee officers were authorized to detain violators before a 2016 reform.{{sfn|Chan|2016}} With the rising international influence of [[Wahhabism]], the conception of ''hisba'' as an individual obligation to police religious observance has become more widespread, which led to the appearance of activists around the world who urge fellow Muslims to observe Islamic rituals, dress code, and other aspects of Sharia.{{sfn|Thielmann|2017}}

[[File:Taliban beating woman in public RAWA.jpg|right|thumb|Taliban [[Mutaween#Other groups|religious police]] beating a woman in [[Kabul]] on 26 August 2001, as reported by [[RAWA]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Movies |url=http://www.rawa.us/movies/beating.mpg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325014821/http://www.rawa.us/movies/beating.mpg |archive-date=25 March 2009 |publisher=Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) |format=MPG}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Nitya Ramakrishnan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRdBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT437 |title=In Custody: Law, Impunity and Prisoner Abuse in South Asia |publisher=Sage Publishing India |year=2013 |isbn=978-8132117513 |page=437 |access-date=16 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213726/https://books.google.com/books?id=iRdBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT437 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> for opening her [[burqa]] (Face).]]

In Iran, ''hisba'' was enshrined in the constitution after the [[Iranian Revolution|1979 Revolution]] as a "universal and reciprocal duty", incumbent upon both the government and the people. Its implementation has been carried out by official committees as well as volunteer forces (''[[basij]]'').{{sfn|Thielmann|2017}}<ref name="rferl">{{cite web |title=Iran's Basij Force – The Mainstay Of Domestic Security |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/Irans_Basij_Force_Mainstay_Of_Domestic_Security/1357081.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110190716/http://www.rferl.org/content/Irans_Basij_Force_Mainstay_Of_Domestic_Security/1357081.html |archive-date=10 January 2012 |access-date=24 May 2014 |work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty}}</ref> Elsewhere, policing of various interpretations of Sharia-based public morality has been carried out by the [[Kano State Hisbah Corps]] in the Nigerian state of [[Kano State|Kano]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olaniyi |first1=Rasheed Oyewole |year=2011 |title=Hisbah and Sharia Law Enforcement in Metropolitan Kano |journal=Africa Today |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=71–96 |doi=10.2979/africatoday.57.4.71 |s2cid=154801688}}</ref> by ''Wilayatul Hisbah'' in the Aceh province of [[Indonesia]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uddin |first1=Asma |year=2010 |title=Religious Freedom Implications of Sharia Implementation in Aceh, Indonesia |url=http://ir.stthomas.edu/ustlj/vol7/iss3/8/ |url-status=live |journal=University of St. Thomas Law Journal |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=603–48 |ssrn=1885776 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528220701/http://ir.stthomas.edu/ustlj/vol7/iss3/8/ |archive-date=28 May 2016 |access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref> by the [[Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Gaza Strip)|Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice]] in the Gaza Strip, and by the [[Taliban]] during their 1996–2001 and 2021– rule of Afghanistan.{{sfn|Thielmann|2017}} Religious police organizations tend to have support from conservative currents of public opinion, but their activities are often disliked by other segments of the population, especially liberals, urban women, and younger people.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who are Islamic 'morality police'? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36101150 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413170252/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36101150 |archive-date=13 April 2019 |access-date=18 April 2019 |website=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref>

In Egypt, a law based on the doctrine of hisba had for a time allowed a Muslim to sue another Muslim over beliefs that may harm society, though because of abuses it has been amended so that only the state prosecutor may bring suit based on private requests.<ref name="Gallagher">Nancy Gallagher (2005), Apostasy, Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics, Editors: Suad Joseph and Afsāna Naǧmābād, {{ISBN|978-9004128187}}, p. 9</ref> Before the amendment was passed, a hisba suit brought by a group of Islamists against the liberal theologian [[Nasr Abu Zayd]] on charges of [[Apostasy in Islam|apostasy]] led to the annulment of his marriage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berger |first1=Maurits |year=2003 |title=Apostasy and Public Policy in Contemporary Egypt: An Evaluation of Recent Cases from Egypt's Highest Courts |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/13673/MS%20Berger%20-%20Apostasy%20and%20public%20policy%20in%20contemporary%20Egypt.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=720–40 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2003.0026 |jstor=20069684 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418033611/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/13673/MS%20Berger%20-%20Apostasy%20and%20public%20policy%20in%20contemporary%20Egypt.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=18 April 2019 |access-date=11 April 2019 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1887/13673 |s2cid=144601396}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olsson |first1=Susanne |year=2008 |title=Apostasy in Egypt: Contemporary Cases of Ḥisbah |journal=The Muslim World |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=95–115 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2008.00212.x}}</ref> The law was also invoked in an unsuccessful blasphemy suit against the feminist author [[Nawal El Saadawi]].<ref name="Gallagher" /> Hisba has also been invoked in several Muslim-majority countries as rationale for blocking pornographic content on the internet and for other forms of faith-based censorship.<ref>Helmi Noman (2013), "In the name of God – Faith based internet censorship in majority Muslim countries", in ''Routledge Handbook of Media Law'' (Editors: Monroe E. Price, et al.), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415683166}}, Chapter 14, p. 257</ref>

== Support and opposition ==

=== Support ===
A 2013 survey based on interviews of 38,000 Muslims, randomly selected from urban and rural parts in 39 countries using area probability designs, by the [[Pew Forum|Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]] found that a majority—in some cases "overwhelming" majority—of Muslims in a number of countries support making "Sharia" or "Islamic law" the [[law of the land]], including Afghanistan (99%), Iraq (91%), Niger (86%), Malaysia (86%), Pakistan (84%), Morocco (83%), Bangladesh (82%), Egypt (74%), Indonesia (72%), Jordan (71%), Uganda (66%), Ethiopia (65%), Mali (63%), Ghana (58%), and Tunisia (56%).<ref name=pewssp15/> In Muslim regions of Southern-Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the support is less than 50%: Russia (42%), Kyrgyzstan (35%), Tajikistan (27%), Kosovo (20%), Albania (12%), Turkey (12%), Kazakhstan (10%), Azerbaijan (8%). Regional averages of support were 84% in South Asia, 77% in Southeast Asia, 74% in the Middle-East/North Africa, 64%, in Sub-Saharan Africa, 18% in Southern-Eastern Europe, and 12% in Central Asia .<ref name=pewssp15/>

However, while most of those who support implementation of Sharia favor using it in family and property disputes, fewer supported application of severe punishments such as whippings and cutting off hands, and interpretations of some aspects differed widely.<ref name=pewssp15>{{cite book |editor-first=Sandra |editor-last=Stence |year=2013 |others=Research: Alan Cooperman, Neha Sahgal, Jessica Hamar Martinez, et al. |title=The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society |publisher=The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |pages=15–19, 46, 147–48 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2013/04/worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-full-report.pdf |access-date=31 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030223449/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2013/04/worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-full-report.pdf |archive-date=30 October 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the Pew poll, among Muslims who support making Sharia the law of the land, most do not believe that it should be applied to non-Muslims. In the Muslim-majority countries surveyed this proportion varied between 74% (of 74% in Egypt) and 19% (of 10% in Kazakhstan), as percentage of those who favored making Sharia the law of the land.{{sfn|Stence|2013|p=48}}

In all of the countries surveyed, respondents were more likely to define Sharia as "the revealed word of God" rather than as "a body of law developed by men based on the word of God".<ref>{{cite web|website=Pew Research Center|title=The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society. Chapter 1: Beliefs About Sharia|access-date=18 April 2019|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-beliefs-about-sharia/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323113645/https://news.gallup.com/poll/109072/many-turks-iranians-egyptians-link-sharia-justice.aspx|archive-date=23 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In analyzing the poll, [[Amaney Jamal]] has argued that there is no single, shared understanding of the notions "Sharia" and "Islamic law" among the respondents. In particular, in countries where Muslim citizens have little experience with rigid application of Sharia-based state laws, these notions tend to be more associated with Islamic ideals like equality and social justice than with prohibitions.<ref>{{cite web|website=Pew Research Center|title=Conference Call Transcript: The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society|access-date=18 April 2019|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-event-transcript/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418211542/https://www.pewforum.org/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-event-transcript/|archive-date=18 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Other polls have indicated that for Egyptians, the word "Sharia" is associated with notions of political, social and gender justice.<ref>Jonathan A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, p. 131.</ref>

In 2008, [[Rowan Williams]], the Archbishop of Canterbury, has suggested that Islamic and [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] courts should be integrated into the British legal system alongside ecclesiastical courts to handle marriage and divorce, subject to agreement of all parties and strict requirements for protection of equal rights for women.<ref name="feldman">{{cite news |last=Feldman |first=Noah |title=Why Shariah? |newspaper=New York Times Magazine |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427090249/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html |archive-date=27 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> His reference to the sharia sparked a controversy.<ref name="feldman" /> Later that year, [[Nicholas Phillips, Baron Phillips of Worth Matravers|Nicholas Phillips]], then [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales]], stated that there was "no reason why sharia principles [...] should not be the basis for mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution."<ref>{{cite news |title=Sharia law 'could have UK role' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7488790.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=4 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921024521/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7488790.stm |archive-date=21 September 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2008 YouGov poll in the United Kingdom found 40% of Muslim students interviewed supported the introduction of sharia into British law for Muslims.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/2461830/Killing-for-religion-is-justified-say-third-of-Muslim-students.html Killing for religion is justified, say third of Muslim students] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211225254/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/2461830/Killing-for-religion-is-justified-say-third-of-Muslim-students.html }} The Telegraph (26 July 2008)</ref> [[Michael Broyde]], professor of law at [[Emory University]] specializing in [[alternative dispute resolution]] and [[Jewish law]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://law.emory.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/broyde-profile.html |title=Michael J. Broyde |website=Emory University School of Law |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715192523/http://law.emory.edu/faculty-and-scholarship/faculty-profiles/broyde-profile.html |archive-date=15 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> has argued that sharia courts can be integrated into the American religious arbitration system, provided that they adopt appropriate institutional requirements as American rabbinical courts have done.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Volokh Conspiracy, via Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/06/30/sharia-in-america/ |author=Michael Broyde |title=Sharia in America |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701103548/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/06/30/sharia-in-america/ |archive-date=1 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Opposition ===
{{further|Ban on sharia law}}
[[File:Protest against Sharia in the United Kingdom 2014.jpg|thumb|Protest against Sharia in the United Kingdom (2014)]]
In the [[Western world]], Sharia has been called a source of "hysteria",<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Nation |journal=The Nation |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/true-story-sharia-american-courts/ |last=Awad |first=Abed |access-date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210213552/http://www.thenation.com/article/true-story-sharia-american-courts/ |archive-date=10 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> "more controversial than ever", the one aspect of Islam that inspires "particular dread".<ref name=kadri-267-8>{{cite book |last1=Kadri |first1=Sadakat |title=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0099523277 |pages=267–68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ztCRZOhJ10wC&q=Heaven+on+Earth%3A+A+Journey+Through+Shari%27a+Law |access-date=21 November 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213749/https://books.google.com/books?id=ztCRZOhJ10wC&q=Heaven+on+Earth%3A+A+Journey+Through+Shari%27a+Law |url-status=live }}</ref> On the Internet, "dozens of self-styled counter-jihadis" emerged to campaign against Sharia law, describing it in strict interpretations resembling those of Salafi Muslims.<ref name=kadri-267-8/> Also, fear of Sharia law and of the ideology of extremism among Muslims as well as certain congregations donating money to terrorist organizations within the Muslim community reportedly spread to mainstream conservative [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] in the United States.<ref name=TPM-9-23-2010>{{cite news |last1=Slajda |first1=Rachel |title=The War On Sharia Started Long Before You Ever Heard 'Ground Zero Mosque' |url=http://talkingpointsmemo.com/muckraker/the-war-on-sharia-started-long-before-you-ever-heard-ground-zero-mosque |access-date=10 December 2015 |agency=TPM Muckraker |publisher=Talking Points Memo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210222641/http://talkingpointsmemo.com/muckraker/the-war-on-sharia-started-long-before-you-ever-heard-ground-zero-mosque |archive-date=10 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Former [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] [[Newt Gingrich]] won ovations calling for a federal ban on Sharia law.<ref name=TPM-9-23-2010/>
The issue of "liberty versus Sharia" was called a "momentous civilisational debate" by right-wing pundit [[Diana West]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Don't Ignore Sharia's Advance |first=Diana |last=West |url=http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1974971/posts |agency=Times – News [Burlington, N.C] |access-date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210233714/http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1974971/posts |archive-date=10 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2008 in Britain, the future Prime Minister ([[David Cameron]]) declared his opposition to "any expansion of Sharia law in the UK."<ref name=BBC-26-3-2008>{{cite news |title=Cameron steps into Sharia law row |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7264740.stm |access-date=10 December 2015 |agency=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002074237/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7264740.stm |archive-date=2 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Germany, in 2014, the Interior Minister ([[Thomas de Maizière]]) told a newspaper (''[[Bild]]''), "Sharia law is not tolerated on German soil."<ref name=dw>{{cite news |title=Germany won't tolerate 'Sharia police' |url=http://www.dw.com/en/germany-wont-tolerate-sharia-police/a-17906086 |access-date=8 September 2015 |agency=DW |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922101349/http://www.dw.com/en/germany-wont-tolerate-sharia-police/a-17906086 |archive-date=22 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some countries and jurisdictions have explicit bans on sharia law. In Canada, for example, sharia law has been explicitly banned in [[Quebec]] by a 2005 unanimous vote of the National Assembly,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-gives-thumbs-down-to-shariah-law-1.535601 |title=Quebec gives thumbs down to Shariah law |access-date=31 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009234834/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-gives-thumbs-down-to-shariah-law-1.535601 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> while the province of [[Ontario]] allows family law disputes to be arbitrated only under Ontario law.<ref name=CHOKSI-14-3-2012>{{cite web |last1=Choski |first1=Bilal M. |title=Religious Arbitration in Ontario – Making the Case Based on the British Example of the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal |url=https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/970-choksi33upajintll7912012pdf |website=law.upenn.edu |access-date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304072259/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/970-choksi33upajintll7912012pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the U.S., opponents of Sharia have sought to ban it from being considered in courts, where it has been routinely used alongside traditional Jewish and Catholic laws to decide legal, business, and family disputes subject to contracts drafted with reference to such laws, as long as they do not violate secular law or the U.S. constitution.<ref name=thomas>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Jeffrey L. |title=Scapegoating Islam: Intolerance, Security, and the American Muslim |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Q-FCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |pages=83–86 |isbn=978-1440831003 |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213022551/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Q-FCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |archive-date=13 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> After failing to gather support for a federal law making observing Sharia a felony punishable by up to 20 years in prison, anti-Sharia activists have focused on state legislatures.<ref name=thomas/> By 2014, bills aimed against use of Sharia have been introduced in 34 states and passed in 11.<ref name=thomas/> A notable example of this would be 2010 Oklahoma State Question 755, which sought to permanently ban the use of Sharia law in courts. While approved by voters, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals placed an injunction on the law. Citing the unconstitutionality of the law's impartial focus on a specific religion, the law was struck down and never took effect.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oklahoma International and Sharia Law, State Question 755 (2010)|url=https://ballotpedia.org/Oklahoma_International_and_Sharia_Law,_State_Question_755_(2010)|access-date=19 March 2021|website=Ballotpedia|language=en|archive-date=18 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518135214/https://www.ballotpedia.org/Oklahoma_International_and_Sharia_Law,_State_Question_755_(2010)|url-status=live}}</ref> These bills have generally referred to banning foreign or religious law in order to thwart legal challenges.<ref name=thomas/>

According to Jan Michiel Otto, Professor of Law and Governance in Developing Countries at [[Leiden University]], "[a]nthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion. Those who adhere to a confrontational view of Sharia tend to ascribe many undesirable practices to Sharia and religion overlooking custom and culture, even if high-ranking religious authorities have stated the opposite."{{sfn|Otto|2008|p=30}}

== Contemporary debates and controversies ==

=== Compatibility with democracy ===
{{further|Islamic ethics|Islam and democracy|Shura|Ijma}}
It has been argued that the extent to which Sharia is compatible with democracy depends on how it is culturally interpreted,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Berger|first=Lars|title=Sharīʻa, Islamism and Arab support for democracy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2018.1527316|journal=Democratization|volume=26|issue=2|pages=309–26|doi=10.1080/13510347.2018.1527316|s2cid=150075053|issn=1351-0347|access-date=4 April 2020|archive-date=27 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213741/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13510347.2018.1527316|url-status=live}}</ref> with a cultural position that Sharia represents the human attempt to interpret God's message associated with a greater preference for democracy than an Islamist interpretation that Sharia law is the literal word of God.<ref name=":1" />

==== General Muslim views ====
Scholars [[John Esposito|John L. Esposito]] and [[Natana J. DeLong-Bas|DeLong-Bas]] distinguish four attitudes toward Sharia and democracy prominent among contemporary Muslims:{{sfn|Esposito|DeLong-Bas|2018|pp=142–43}}
* Advocacy of democratic ideas, often accompanied by a belief that they are compatible with Islam, which can play a public role within a democratic system, as exemplified by many protestors who took part in the [[Arab Spring]] uprisings;
* Support for democratic procedures such as elections, combined with religious or moral objections toward some aspects of Western democracy seen as incompatible with sharia, as exemplified by Islamic scholars like [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]];
* Rejection of democracy as a Western import and advocacy of traditional Islamic institutions, such as [[shura]] (consultation) and [[ijma]] (consensus), as exemplified by supporters of absolute monarchy and radical Islamist movements;
* Belief that democracy requires restricting religion to private life, held by a minority in the Muslim world.

According to Polls conducted by [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] and [[Pew Research Center|PEW]] in [[Muslim-majority]] countries; most Muslims see no contradiction between democratic values and religious principles, desiring neither a theocracy, nor a secular democracy, but rather a political model where democratic institutions and values can coexist with the values and principles of Sharia.{{sfn|Esposito|DeLong-Bas|2018|p=145}}<ref>{{cite web|website=Pew Research Center|title=Most Muslims Want Democracy, Personal Freedoms, and Islam in Political Life|url=https://www.pewglobal.org/2012/07/10/most-muslims-want-democracy-personal-freedoms-and-islam-in-political-life/|access-date=17 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417133154/https://www.pewglobal.org/2012/07/10/most-muslims-want-democracy-personal-freedoms-and-islam-in-political-life/|archive-date=17 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Gallup|title=Majorities See Religion and Democracy as Compatible|author1=Magali Rheault|author2=Dalia Mogahed|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/28762/majorities-muslims-americans-see-religion-law-compatible.aspx|access-date=17 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417133158/https://news.gallup.com/poll/28762/majorities-muslims-americans-see-religion-law-compatible.aspx|archive-date=17 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Islamic political theories ====
Muslih and Browers identify three major perspectives on democracy among prominent Muslims thinkers who have sought to develop modern, distinctly Islamic theories of socio-political organization conforming to Islamic values and law:{{sfn|Muslih|Browers|2009}}
* The rejectionist Islamic view, elaborated by [[Sayyid Qutb]] and [[Abul A'la Maududi]], condemns imitation of foreign ideas, drawing a distinction between Western democracy and the Islamic doctrine of ''shura'' (consultation between ruler and ruled). This perspective, which stresses comprehensive implementation of Sharia, was widespread in the 1970s and 1980s among various movements seeking to establish an Islamic state, but its popularity has diminished in recent years.
* The moderate Islamic view stresses the concepts of ''[[maslaha]]'' (public interest), ''[[Adl|ʿadl]]'' (justice), and ''shura''. Islamic leaders are considered to uphold justice if they promote public interest, as defined through ''shura''. In this view, ''shura'' provides the basis for representative government institutions that are similar to Western democracy, but reflect Islamic rather than Western liberal values. [[Hasan al-Turabi]], [[Rashid al-Ghannushi]], and [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]] have advocated different forms of this view.
* The liberal Islamic view is influenced by [[Muhammad Abduh]]'s emphasis on the role of reason in understanding religion. It stresses democratic principles based on pluralism and freedom of thought. Authors like [[Fahmi Huwaidi]] and [[Tariq al-Bishri]] have constructed Islamic justifications for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic state by drawing on early Islamic texts. Others, like [[Mohammed Arkoun]] and [[Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd]], have justified pluralism and freedom through non-literalist approaches to textual interpretation. [[Abdolkarim Soroush]] has argued for a "religious democracy" based on religious thought that is democratic, tolerant, and just. Islamic liberals argue for the necessity of constant reexamination of religious understanding, which can only be done in a democratic context.

==== European Court of Human Rights ====
In 1998 the [[Constitutional Court of Turkey]] banned and dissolved Turkey's [[Welfare Party|Refah Party]] over its announced intention to introduce Sharia-based laws, ruling that it would change Turkey's secular order and undermine democracy.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kevin Boyle |year=2004 |title=Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case |url=http://projects.essex.ac.uk/EHRR/V1N1/Boyle.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Essex Human Rights Review |volume=1 |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421043912/http://projects.essex.ac.uk/ehrr/V1N1/Boyle.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2018 |access-date=16 April 2019 |number=1}}</ref> On appeal by Refah the [[European Court of Human Rights]] determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".<ref>{{cite web |title=Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey |url=http://www.icnl.org/research/journal/vol6iss1/special_5.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129160352/http://www.icnl.org/research/journal/vol6iss1/special_5.htm |archive-date=29 November 2014 |access-date=20 November 2014 |publisher=The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law}}</ref><ref>[http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/29AC6DBD-C3F8-411C-9B97-B42BE466EE7A/0/2004__Wildhaber_Cancado_Trindade_BIL__opening_legal_year.pdf Hearing of the European Court of Human Rights] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528154417/http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/29AC6DBD-C3F8-411C-9B97-B42BE466EE7A/0/2004__Wildhaber_Cancado_Trindade_BIL__opening_legal_year.pdf}}, 22 January 2004 (PDF)</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ECHR press release Refah Partisi (2001) |url=http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2001/July/RefahPartisi2001jude.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124050055/http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2001/July/RefahPartisi2001jude.htm |archive-date=24 January 2010 |access-date=4 April 2012 |publisher=Echr.coe.int}}</ref> Refah's Sharia-based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms]]. It was determined that it would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".<ref>Christian Moe (2012), Refah Revisited: Strasbourg's Construction of Islam, in Islam, Europe and emerging legal issues (editors: W. Cole Durham Jr. et al.), {{ISBN|978-1409434443}}, pp. 235–71</ref> In an analysis, Maurits S. Berger found the ruling to be "nebulous" and surprising from a legal point of view, since the Court neglected to define what it meant by "Sharia" and would not, for example, be expected to regard Sharia rules for Islamic rituals as contravening European human rights values.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Maurits S. Berger |year=2018 |title=Understanding Sharia in the West |journal=Journal of Law, Religion and State |publisher=Brill |volume=6 |issue=2–3 |pages=236–73 |doi=10.1163/22124810-00602005 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kevin Boyle also criticized the decision for not distinguishing between extremist and mainstream interpretations of Islam and implying that peaceful advocacy of Islamic doctrines ("an attitude which fails to respect [the principle of secularism]") is not protected by the European Convention provisions for freedom of religion.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kevin Boyle |year=2004 |title=Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case |url=http://projects.essex.ac.uk/EHRR/V1N1/Boyle.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Essex Human Rights Review |volume=1 |page=12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421043912/http://projects.essex.ac.uk/ehrr/V1N1/Boyle.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2018 |access-date=16 April 2019 |number=1}}</ref>

=== Compatibility with human rights ===
Governments of several predominantly Muslim countries have criticized the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (UDHR) for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-[[Western world|Western]] countries. Iran declared in the UN assembly that UDHR was "a [[Secularism|secular]] understanding of the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law.<ref>David P. Forsythe (2009), ''Encyclopedia of Human Rights'': Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, pp. 239–45</ref> Islamic scholars and Islamist political parties consider 'universal human rights' arguments as imposition of a non-Muslim culture on Muslim people, a disrespect of customary cultural practices and of Islam.<ref name=as1999>{{cite journal |first1=Amyn B |last1=Sajoo |title=Islam and Human Rights: Congruence or Dichotomy |journal=Temple International and Comparative Law Journal |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=23–34 |isbn=978-0520360051 |oclc=81814299}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Kecia |last1=Ali |chapter=Progressive Muslims and Islamic jurisprudence: the necessity for critical engagement with marriage and divorce law |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2MCcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT189 |pages=163–87 |editor1-first=Omid |editor1-last=Safi |year=2003 |title=Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1780740454 |access-date=20 July 2016 |archive-date=12 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212231529/https://books.google.com/books?id=2MCcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT189 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1990, the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], a group representing all Muslim-majority nations, met in Cairo to respond to the UDHR, then adopted the [[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Heiner |last1=Bielefeldt |title='Western' versus 'Islamic' Human Rights Conceptions?: A Critique of Cultural Essentialism in the Discussion on Human Rights |journal=Political Theory |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=2000 |pages=90–121 |jstor=192285 |doi=10.1177/0090591700028001005|s2cid=144825564 }}</ref><ref>Anver M. Emon, Mark Ellis, Benjamin Glahn (2012), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199641444}}{{page needed}}</ref>

[[Ann Elizabeth Mayer]] points to notable absences from the Cairo Declaration: provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Article 24 of the Cairo declaration states that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic ''shari'a''".<ref name=mayer>{{cite book |first1=Ann Elizabeth |last1=Mayer |chapter=Islamic Law and Human Rights: Conundrums and Equivocations |editor1-first=Carrie |editor1-last=Gustafson |editor2-first=Peter H. |editor2-last=Juviler |year=2016 |title=Religion and Human Rights: Competing Claims?: Competing Claims? |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1315502557}}{{page needed}}</ref>

In 2009, the journal ''[[Free Inquiry]]'' summarized the criticism of the Cairo Declaration in an editorial: "We are deeply concerned with the changes to the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] by a coalition of Islamic states within the [[United Nations]] that wishes to prohibit any criticism of religion and would thus protect Islam's limited view of human rights. In view of the conditions inside the Islamic Republic of Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Syria, Bangladesh, Iraq, and Afghanistan, we should expect that at the top of their human rights agenda would be to rectify the legal inequality of women, the suppression of political dissent, the curtailment of free expression, the persecution of ethnic minorities and religious dissenters—in short, protecting their citizens from egregious human rights violations. Instead, they are worrying about protecting Islam."<ref>Paul Kurtz, [[Austin Dacey]], and Tom Flynn. "Defaming Human Rights". ''[[Free Inquiry]]''. February/March 2009, Vol. 29, No. 2.</ref>

[[H. Patrick Glenn]] states that Sharia is structured around the concept of mutual obligations of a collective, and it considers individual human rights as potentially disruptive and unnecessary to its revealed code of mutual obligations. In giving priority to this religious collective rather than individual liberty, the Islamic law justifies the formal inequality of individuals (women, non-Islamic people).<ref>Glenn, H. Patrick (2014), pp. 199–205</ref> Bassam Tibi states that Sharia framework and human rights are incompatible.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tibi |first1=Bassam |title=The Return of the Sacred to Politics as a Constitutional Law The Case of the Shari'atization of Politics in Islamic Civilization |journal=Theoria |volume=55 |issue=115 |pages=91–119 |year=2008 |jstor=41802396 |doi=10.3167/th.2008.5511506}}</ref> Abdel al-Hakeem Carney, in contrast, states that Sharia is misunderstood from a failure to distinguish ''Sharia'' from ''siyasah'' (politics).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carney |first1=ABD Al-Hakeem |title=The Desacralisation of Power in Islam |journal=Religion, State and Society |volume=31 |issue=2 |year=2003 |pages=203–19 |doi=10.1080/09637490308281|s2cid=144779047 }}</ref>

==== Blasphemy ====
{{Main|Islam and blasphemy}}
[[File:Blasphemy laws worldwide.svg|thumb|[[Blasphemy law]]s worldwide:
{{legend|#f9dc36|Subnational restrictions}}
{{legend|#ec8028|Fines and restrictions}}
{{legend|#e73e21|Prison sentences}}
{{legend|#800000|Death sentences}}]]
In classical fiqh, [[Islam and blasphemy|blasphemy]] refers to any form of cursing, questioning or annoying God, Muhammad or anything considered sacred in Islam,<ref name=khan>Siraj Khan, Blasphemy against the Prophet, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture (Editors: Coeli Fitzpatrick and Adam Hani Walker), {{ISBN|978-1610691772}}, pp. 59–67</ref><ref>R Ibrahim (2013), Crucified Again, {{ISBN|978-1621570257}}, pp. 100–01</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wiederhold |first1=Lutz |title=Blasphemy against the Prophet Muhammad and his companions (sabb al-rasul, sabb al-sahabah): The introduction of the topic into shafi'i legal literature and its relevance for legal practice under Mamluk rule |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |volume=42 |issue=1 |year=1997 |pages=39–70 |doi=10.1093/jss/XLII.1.39}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Saeed |first=Abdullah |author2=Hassan Saeed |title=Freedom of Religion, Apostasy and Islam |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Company |year=2004 |location=Burlington VT |pages=38–39 |isbn=978-0754630838}}</ref> including denying one of the [[Prophets in Islam|Islamic prophets]] or scriptures, insulting an [[angels in Islam|angel]] or refusing to accept a religious commandment.<ref>Lorenz Langer (2014). ''Religious Offence and Human Rights: The Implications of Defamation of Religions'' Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-1107039575}} p. 332</ref> Jurists of different schools prescribed different punishment for blasphemy against Islam, by Muslims and non-Muslims, ranging from imprisonment or fines to the death penalty.<ref name=khan/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Blasphemy: Islamic Concept |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |volume=2 |pages=974–76 |publisher=Thomson Gale |location=Farmington Hills, MI |year=2005}}</ref><ref>[[Ibn Taymiyyah]] (a [[Salafi]], related to Hanbali school), ''[[As-Sarim al-Maslul 'ala Shatim ar-Rasul|al-Sārim al-Maslūl ‘ala Shātim al-Rasūl]]'' (or, A ready sword against those who insult the Messenger), Published in 1297 AD in Arabic, Reprinted in 1975 and 2003 by Dar-ibn Hazm (Beirut), the book is on blasphemy/insulting Muhammad and the punishment per sharia</ref><ref>Jerusha Lamptey (2014), Never Wholly Other: A Muslima Theology of Religious Pluralism, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 with footnotes 28, 29 p. 258</ref> In some cases, sharia allows non-Muslims to escape death by converting and becoming a devout follower of Islam.<ref>Carl Ernst (2005), "Blasphemy: Islamic Concept", Encyclopedia of Religion (Editor: Lindsay Jones), Vol 2, Macmillan Reference, {{ISBN|0028657357}}</ref> In the modern [[Muslim world]], the laws pertaining to blasphemy [[Blasphemy law|vary by country]], and some countries prescribe punishments consisting of fines, imprisonment, [[flogging]], [[hanging]], or [[Beheading in Islam|beheading]].<ref name=psns>P Smith (2003). "Speak No Evil: Apostasy, Blasphemy and Heresy in Malaysian Syariah Law". ''UC Davis Journal Int'l Law & Policy''. 10, pp. 357–73.
* N Swazo (2014). "The Case of Hamza Kashgari: Examining Apostasy, Heresy, and Blasphemy Under Sharia". ''The Review of Faith & International Affairs'' '''12'''(4). pp. 16–26.</ref>

Blasphemy laws were rarely enforced in pre-modern Islamic societies, but in the modern era some states and radical groups have used charges of blasphemy in an effort to burnish their religious credentials and gain popular support at the expense of liberal Muslim intellectuals and religious minorities.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam|title=Blasphemy|editor= Juan Eduardo Campo|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009}}</ref>

Blasphemy, as interpreted under Sharia, is controversial.<ref>Harun Omer, [http://thesharia.com/the-invented-islam-punishment-for-blasphemy/ "The Invented Islam – 'Punishment for Blasphemy'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222092312/http://thesharia.com/the-invented-islam-punishment-for-blasphemy/ }}, ''TheSharia.com'', 2015</ref> Representatives of the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] have petitioned the United Nations to condemn "defamation of religions" because "Unrestricted and disrespectful freedom of opinion creates hatred and is contrary to the spirit of peaceful dialogue".<ref>[http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/263450/anti-blasphemy-measure-laid-rest-nina-shea An Anti-Blasphemy Measure Laid to Rest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150119065732/http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/263450/anti-blasphemy-measure-laid-rest-nina-shea }} Nina Shea, National Review (31 March 2011)</ref> The [[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]] subjects free speech to unspecified Sharia restrictions: Article 22(a) of the Declaration states that "Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shariah."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/cairodeclaration.html |title=University of Minnesota Human Rights Library |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103121418/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/cairodeclaration.html |archive-date=3 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Others, in contrast, consider blasphemy laws to violate freedom of speech,<ref>Brian Winston (2014), The Rushdie Fatwa and After: A Lesson to the Circumspect, Palgrave Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-1137388599}}, p. 74, Quote: "(In the case of blasphemy and Salman Rushdie) the death sentence it pronounced was grounded in a jurisprudential gloss on the Surah al-Ahzab (33:57)"</ref> stating that freedom of expression is essential to empowering both Muslims and non-Muslims, and point to the abuse of blasphemy laws in prosecuting members of religious minorities, political opponents, and settling personal scores.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21635070-pakistans-blasphemy-laws-legitimise-intolerance-bad-mouthing Bad-mouthing: Pakistan’s blasphemy laws legitimise intolerance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910235624/https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21635070-pakistans-blasphemy-laws-legitimise-intolerance-bad-mouthing }} The Economist (29 November 2014)</ref><ref>[https://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2015/01/johnson-blasphemy Blasphemy: Dangerous words] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707161612/https://www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2015/01/johnson-blasphemy }} The Economist (7 January 2015)</ref><ref name=bbc-blasphemy>{{cite web|title=What are Pakistan's blasphemy laws?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12621225|website=BBC News|access-date=18 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405093821/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12621225|archive-date=5 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Blasphemy law in Pakistan|In Pakistan, blasphemy laws]] have been used to convict more than a thousand people, about half of them [[Ahmadi]]s and [[Christians]].<ref name="Böwering">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA72 |page= 72 |title= The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |editor= Gerhard Böwering |editor2= Patricia Crone |editor3= Mahan Mirza |publisher= Princeton University Press |year= 2013 |isbn= 978-0691134840 |access-date= 18 April 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190406141758/https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA72 |archive-date= 6 April 2019 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name=bbc-blasphemy/> While none have been legally executed,<ref name="Böwering"/> two Pakistani politicians, [[Shahbaz Bhatti]] and [[Salmaan Taseer]], have been assassinated over their criticism of the blasphemy laws. The Pakistani blasphemy laws are based upon [[Indian Penal Code|colonial-era legislation]] which made it a "crime to disturb a religious assembly, trespass on burial grounds, insult religious beliefs or intentionally destroy or defile a place or an object of worship", with these laws being modified between 1980 and 1986 by the [[Government of Pakistan|military government]] of General [[Zia-ul Haq]] to make them more severe. A number of clauses were added by the government in order to [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq#'Sharization' of Pakistan|"Islamicise" the laws]] and deny the Muslim character of the [[Ahmadi]] minority.<ref name=bbc-blasphemy/>

==== Apostasy ====
{{Main|Apostasy in Islam}}
[[File:Apostasy laws world map.svg|alt=|thumb|upright=1.15|Countries that criminalize [[apostasy from Islam]] as of 2020. Some Muslim-majority countries impose the death penalty or a prison sentence for apostasy from Islam, or ban non-Muslims from proselytizing .<ref>[http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/05/28/which-countries-still-outlaw-apostasy-and-blasphemy/ Which countries still outlaw apostasy and blasphemy?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725201505/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/05/28/which-countries-still-outlaw-apostasy-and-blasphemy/ }} Pew Research Center, United States (May 2014)</ref>]]
[[File:Execution of a Moroccan Jewess by Alfred Dehodencq.jpg|thumb|left| Execution of a Moroccan woman ([[Sol Hachuel]]) on the grounds of leaving Islam ([[Apostasy in Islam|apostasy]]) painting by [[Alfred Dehodencq]]]]
According to the classical doctrine, apostasy from Islam is a crime as well as a sin, punishable with the [[death penalty]],<ref name=jstor-1570336>{{cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=Rudolph |last2=Vries |first2=Gert J. J. De |title=Apostasy in Islam |journal=Die Welt des Islams |volume=17 |issue=1/4 |pages=1–25 |doi= 10.2307/1570336 |jstor=1570336}}</ref><ref name="Lewis-1995-229">{{cite book|last1= Lewis|first1= Bernard|title= The Middle East, a Brief History of the Last 2000 Years|publisher= Touchstone Books|isbn= 978-0684807126|page= 229|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1ajwK7ejowwC&q=%22crime+as+well+as+a+sin%22+lewis&pg=PT234|access-date= 27 November 2015|archive-date= 27 December 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213725/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ajwK7ejowwC&q=%22crime+as+well+as+a+sin%22+lewis&pg=PT234|url-status= live}}</ref> typically after a waiting period to allow the apostate time to repent and to return to Islam.<ref name=jstor-1570336/><ref name=aromar/><ref name="KEY">{{cite book|author1= Kecia Ali|author2= Oliver Leaman|title= Islam: the key concepts|publisher= Routledge|year= 2008|page= 10|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=H5-CdzqmuXsC&pg=PA10|access-date= 29 November 2013|isbn= 978-0415396387|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131212074154/http://books.google.com/books?id=H5-CdzqmuXsC&pg=PA10|archive-date= 12 December 2013}}</ref><ref name=johnesposito>{{cite book|author= John L. Esposito|title= The Oxford dictionary of Islam|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2004|page= 22|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA22|access-date= 28 November 2013|isbn= 978-0195125597|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131212075502/http://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA22|archive-date= 12 December 2013}}</ref> [[Wael Hallaq]] writes that "[in] a culture whose lynchpin is religion, religious principles and religious morality, apostasy is in some way equivalent to high treason in the modern nation-state".<ref name="waelhallaq">{{cite book|last1= Wael|first1= B. Hallaq|title= Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn= 978-0-521-86147-2|page= 319|author1-link= Wael Hallaq}}</ref> Early Islamic jurists set the standard for apostasy from Islam so high that practically no apostasy verdict could be passed before the 11th century,<ref name="Princeton.Enc.2013">{{cite book |editor1=Gerhard Bowering|others=associate editors Patricia Crone, Wadid Kadi, Devin J. Stewart and Muhammad Qasim Zaman; assistant editor Mahan Mirza|title = The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought |date = 2013 |publisher = [[Princeton University Press]] |location = Princeton, N.J. |isbn = 978-0691134840 |page = 40}}</ref> but later jurists lowered the bar for applying the death penalty, allowing judges to interpret the apostasy law in different ways,<ref name="Princeton.Enc.2013"/> which they did sometimes leniently and sometimes strictly.{{sfn|Vikør|2005|p=291}} In the late 19th century, the use of criminal penalties for apostasy fell into disuse, although civil penalties were still applied.<ref name=jstor-1570336/>

According to Abdul Rashied Omar, the majority of modern Islamic jurists continue to regard apostasy as a crime deserving the [[Capital and corporal punishment in Islam|death penalty]].<ref name=aromar>{{cite book|last= Omar|first= Abdul Rashied|editor1= Mohammed Abu-Nimer|editor2= David Augsburger|title= Peace-Building by, between, and beyond Muslims and Evangelical Christians|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HvrDWka4iRgC&pg=186|year=2009|publisher= Lexington Books|chapter= The Right to religious conversion: Between apostasy and proselytization|isbn= 978-0-7391-3523-5|pages= 179–94|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160111010040/https://books.google.com/books?id=HvrDWka4iRgC&pg=186|archive-date= 11 January 2016}}</ref> This view is dominant in conservative societies like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. A number of liberal and progressive Islamic scholars have argued that apostasy should not be viewed as a crime.<ref name="ELLIOTT-3-26-2006">{{cite news|last1=Elliott|first1=Andrea|title=In Kabul, a Test for Shariah|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/26/weekinreview/26elliott.html?_r=0|access-date=28 November 2015|agency=New York Times|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111010040/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/26/weekinreview/26elliott.html?_r=0|archive-date=11 January 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news |first=Magdi |last=Abdelhadi |title=What Islam says on religious freedom |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4850080.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=14 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211123527/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4850080.stm}}</ref><ref name=jstor-1570336/><ref name=bbcsudan>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27424064 |title=Sudan woman faces death for apostasy|work=BBC News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519054610/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27424064 |archive-date=19 May 2014 |quote=There is a long-running debate in Islam over whether apostasy is a crime. Some liberal scholars hold the view that it is not (...), Others say apostasy is (...). The latter is the dominant view in conservative Muslim states such as Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan (...).}}</ref> Others argue that the death penalty is an inappropriate punishment,<ref name= hassanibrahim>{{cite book|first =Hassan|last= Ibrahim |editor-first= Ibrahim M.|editor-last= Abu-Rabi'|title= The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought|publisher= Blackwell Publishing|isbn =978-1-4051-2174-3|pages= 167–69}}</ref><ref name=smz>{{cite journal |last1=Zwemer |first1=Samuel M. |title=The Law of Apostasy |journal= The Muslim World |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages= 36–37, chapter 2 |issn= 0027-4909}}</ref> inconsistent with the Qur'anic verses such as [[Al-Baqara 256|"no compulsion in religion"]];<ref name="ELLIOTT-3-26-2006"/> and/or that it was a man-made rule enacted in the early Islamic community to prevent and punish the equivalent of desertion or treason,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Esposito |year=2011|title=What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam|page=74|publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wSVQI3Ya2EC&pg=PA74|isbn=978-0199794133|author-link=John Esposito |access-date=18 April 2019 |url-status=live|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611044119/https://books.google.com/books?id=2wSVQI3Ya2EC&pg=PA74}}</ref> and should be enforced only if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder (''[[fitna (word)|fitna]]'').<ref name="autogenerated526">Ahmet Albayrak writes in ''The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia'' that regarding apostasy as a wrongdoing is not a sign of intolerance of other religions, and is not aimed at one's freedom to choose a religion or to leave Islam and embrace another faith, but that on the contrary, it is more correct to say that the punishment is enforced as a safety precaution when warranted if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder (''[[fitna (word)|fitna]]''). Oliver Leaman, ''The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia'', pp. 526–27.</ref> According to [[Khaled Abou El Fadl]], moderate Muslims do not believe that apostasy requires punishment.<ref name="GTWIFE">{{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl |first1=Khaled|title=The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists|year=2007 |publisher=HarperOne|isbn=978-0061189036|page=158|author1-link=Khaled Abou El Fadl}}</ref> [[Criticism of Islamism|Critics]]<ref>{{cite web|title=UN rights office deeply concerned over Sudanese woman facing death for apostasy |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=47810 |website=UN News Centre|access-date=17 April 2017|url-status=live|archive-date=17 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417115144/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=47810}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia: Writer Faces Apostasy Trial|website=Human Rights Watch|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/02/13/saudi-arabia-writer-faces-apostasy-trial |access-date=17 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417114956/https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/02/13/saudi-arabia-writer-faces-apostasy-trial|archive-date=17 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> argue that the death penalty or other punishment for apostasy in Islam is a violation of universal [[human rights]], and an issue of [[freedom of faith]] and conscience.<ref name=hassanibrahim/><ref>{{cite book|title= Human Rights Diplomacy |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=U84ktW2N93QC&pg=64|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-15390-4|page=64|url-status=live|archive-date=11 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111010039/https://books.google.com/books?id=U84ktW2N93QC&pg=64}}</ref>

Twenty-three Muslim-majority countries, {{as of | 2013 | lc = on}}, penalized apostasy from Islam through their [[criminal law]]s.<ref>[https://www.loc.gov/law/help/apostasy/index.php Laws Criminalizing Apostasy] {{webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20171231144725/https://www.loc.gov/law/help/apostasy/index.php }} Library of Congress (2014)</ref>
{{As of | 2014}}, apostasy from Islam was a capital offense in Afghanistan, Brunei, Mauritania, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.<ref name=locapo>[https://www.loc.gov/law/help/apostasy/apostasy.pdf Laws Criminalizing Apostasy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011180050/http://www.loc.gov/law/help/apostasy/apostasy.pdf }} Library of Congress (2014)</ref><ref>[http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e174 Apostasy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904042337/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e174 }} Oxford Islamic Studies Online, Oxford University Press (2012)</ref> In other countries, Sharia courts could use family laws to void the Muslim apostate's [[marriage in Islam|marriage]] and to deny [[child custody|child-custody]] rights as well as [[inheritance]] rights.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Zwemer |first1= Samuel M. |title= The Law of Apostasy |journal= The Muslim World |volume= 14 |issue=4 |pages= 41–43, Chapter 2 |issn= 0027-4909}}</ref> In the years 1985–2006, four individuals were legally executed for apostasy from Islam: "one in Sudan in 1985; two in Iran, in 1989 and 1998; and one in Saudi Arabia in 1992."<ref name="ELLIOTT-3-26-2006"/> While modern states have rarely prosecuted apostasy, the issue has a "deep cultural resonance" in some Muslim societies and Islamists have tended to exploit it for political gain.<ref name="ELLIOTT-3-26-2006"/> [[Apostasy in Islam#Public opinion|In a 2008–2012 Pew Research Center poll]], public support for capital punishment for apostasy among Muslims ranged from 78% in Afghanistan to less than 1% in Kazakhstan, reaching over 50% in 6 of the 20 countries surveyed.

==== LGBT rights ====
{{main|LGBT in Islam}}
[[File:World laws pertaining to homosexual relationships and expression.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Same-sex intercourse illegal: {{legend|#800000|[[Capital punishment|Death penalty]]}}{{legend|#cc6633|Death penalty on books but not applied}}
{{legend|#e73e21|Up to [[life in prison]]}}{{legend|#ec8028|Imprisonment}}{{legend|#f9dc36|Prison on books but not enforced}}]]
Homosexual intercourse is illegal in classical Sharia, with different penalties, including capital punishment, stipulated depending on the situation and legal school. In pre-modern Islam, the penalties prescribed for homosexual acts were "to a large extent theoretical" according to the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', owing in part to stringent procedural requirements for their harsher (''hudud'') forms and in part to prevailing social tolerance toward same-sex relationships.<ref name=EI2>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=Liwāṭ |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C.E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W.P. |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4677}}</ref> Historical instances of prosecution for homosexual acts are rare, and those which followed Sharia rules are even rarer.<ref name=iranica-law>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/homosexuality-ii|author=E. K. Rowson|title=Homosexuality in Islamic Law |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|year=2012|access-date=9 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409045203/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/homosexuality-ii|archive-date=9 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Public attitudes toward homosexuality in the Muslim world turned more negative starting from the 19th century through the [[International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism|gradual spread]] of [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalist movements]] such as [[Salafi movement|Salafism]] and [[Wahhabism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Falaky |first1=Fayçal |title=Radical Islam, Tolerance, and the Enlightenment |journal=Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture |volume=47 |pages=265–66 |doi=10.1353/sec.2018.0026 |s2cid=149570040 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Daniel |title=Oppression and Subalternity: Homosexual and Transgender in Islam |journal=Journal of the International Relations and Affairs Group |volume=3 |issue=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_wBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |pages=109–10 |isbn=978-1304399694 |access-date=18 December 2020 |url-status=live |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514154958/https://books.google.com/books?id=oz_wBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA109}}</ref><ref name="dialmy">{{cite journal |last1=Dialmy |first1=Abdessamad |title=Sexuality and Islam |journal=The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=160–68 |doi=10.3109/13625181003793339|pmid=20441406 |s2cid=1099061 }}</ref> and under the influence of sexual notions prevalent in Europe at that time.<ref name=lapidus>{{Cite book| author1=Ira M. Lapidus|author2=Lena Salaymeh |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=Kindle |year=2014| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 |pages=361–362}}</ref><ref name=beckers>Tilo Beckers, "Islam and the Acceptance of Homosexuality," in ''Islam and Homosexuality, Volume 1'', ed. Samar Habib, 64–65 (Praeger, 2009).</ref> A number of Muslim-majority countries have retained [[Criminalization of homosexuality|criminal penalties for homosexual acts]] enacted under colonial rule.<ref name=ahmadi>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Civil Rights and Economic Development|title=Islam and Homosexuality: Religious Dogma, Colonial Rule, and the Quest for Belonging|author=Shafiqa Ahmadi|volume=26|year=2012|issue=3 |pages=557–558 |url=https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1709&context=jcred |access-date=9 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404044040/https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1709&context=jcred|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=economist>{{cite news|newspaper=The Economist|title=How homosexuality became a crime in the Middle East|url=https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/06/06/how-homosexuality-became-a-crime-in-the-middle-east|access-date=9 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407190245/https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/06/06/how-homosexuality-became-a-crime-in-the-middle-east|archive-date=7 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In recent decades, prejudice against LGBT individuals in the Muslim world has been exacerbated by increasingly conservative attitudes and the rise of Islamist movements, resulting in Sharia-based penalties enacted in several countries.<ref name=economist/> The [[Death penalty for homosexuality|death penalty for homosexual acts]] is currently a legal punishment in Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, some northern states in Nigeria, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, parts of Somalia, and Yemen, all of which have Sharia-based criminal laws. It is unclear whether the laws of Afghanistan and United Arab Emirates provide for the death penalty for gay sex, as they have never been carried out.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deathpenaltyworldwide.org/country-search-post.cfm?country=Afghanistan |title=The Death Penalty in Afghanistan |publisher=Death Penalty Worldwide |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914020231/http://www.deathpenaltyworldwide.org/country-search-post.cfm?country=Afghanistan |archive-date=14 September 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="WP">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/|title=Analysis – Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death|first1=Max|last1=Bearak|first2=Darla|last2=Cameron|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=9 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111064457/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/|archive-date=11 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Criminalization of consensual homosexual acts and especially making them liable to capital punishment has been condemned by international rights groups. [[LGBT in Islam#Opinion polls|According to polls]], the level of social acceptance for homosexuality ranges from 52% among Muslims in the U.S. to less than 10% in a number of Muslim-majority nations.

==== Women ====
{{main|Women in Islam|Islam and domestic violence}}

===== Personal status and child marriage =====
Shari'a is the basis for personal status laws in most Islamic-majority nations. These personal status laws determine [[women's rights|rights of women]] in matters of marriage, divorce and child custody. A 2011 [[UNICEF]] report concludes that Sharia law provisions are discriminatory against women from a human rights perspective. In many countries, in legal proceedings relating to Sharia-based personal status law, a [[Status of women's testimony in Islam|woman's testimony is worth half of a man's]] before a court.<ref name=unicef2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/REGIONAL-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf |title=MENA Gender Equality Profile – Status of Girls and Women in the Middle East and North Africa, UNICEF (October 2011) |access-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605134725/http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/REGIONAL-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 1917 codification of Islamic family law in the [[Ottoman empire]] distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, which followed the traditional Hanafi limits of 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, most countries in the Middle East followed the Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15 or 16 for boys and 13–16 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence is subject to approval by a judge and the legal guardian of the adolescent. Egypt diverged from this pattern by setting the age limits of 18 for boys and 16 for girls, without a distinction between competence for marriage and minimum age.<ref name=EI2-8-29>{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Schacht, J.|author2= Layish, A.|author3= Shaham, R.|author4= Ansari, Ghaus|author5= Otto, J.M.|author6= Pompe, S.|author7= Knappert, J. |author8=Boyd, Jean| year=1995 | title=Nikāḥ|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor1=P. Bearman|editor2= Th. Bianquis|editor3= C.E. Bosworth|editor4= E. van Donzel|editor5= W.P. Heinrichs|volume=8|page=29}}</ref> Many senior clerics in Saudi Arabia have opposed setting a minimum age for marriage, arguing that a woman reaches adulthood at puberty.<ref>{{cite news|title=Saudi push to end child marriages|newspaper=The National|author=Wael Mahdi|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/saudi-push-to-end-child-marriages-1.541430|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503101846/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/saudi-push-to-end-child-marriages-1.541430|archive-date=3 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

===== Property rights =====
Islamic law granted Muslim women certain legal rights, such as property rights which women in the West did not possess until "comparatively recent times".<ref>Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?, {{ISBN|0195144201}}, p. 83</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Badawi |first=Jamal A. |title=The Status of Women in Islam |journal=Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=8 |issue=2 }}{{page needed}}</ref><ref name=Feldman>{{cite news |author-link=Noah Feldman |last=Feldman |first=Noah |title=Why Shariah? |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all |access-date=17 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116110730/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all |archive-date=16 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Starting with the 20th century, Western legal systems evolved to expand women's rights, but women's rights in the Muslim world have to varying degree remained tied to the Quran, hadiths and their traditional interpretations by Islamic jurists.<ref name=alik/><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Hafez, Mohammed |title=Why Muslims Rebel |journal=Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 }}</ref> Sharia grants women the [[right to property|right to inherit property]] from other family members, and these rights are detailed in the Quran.{{sfn|Horrie|Chippindale|1991|p=49}} A woman's inheritance is unequal and less than a man's, and dependent on many factors.{{qref|4|12|b=y|s=y}}<ref name=davidpowers/> For instance, a daughter's inheritance is usually half that of her brother's.{{qref|4|11|b=y|s=y}}<ref name=davidpowers>{{cite journal |last1=Powers |first1=David S. |title=The Islamic Inheritance System: a Socio-Historical Approach |journal=Arab Law Quarterly |volume=8 |issue=1 |year=1993 |pages=13–29 |jstor=3381490 |doi=10.1163/157302593X00285}}</ref>

===== Domestic violence =====
The [[An-Nisa, 34|Surah 4:34]], in the Quran, has been debated for domestic violence and also has been the subject to [[An-Nisa, 34#Debates and discussion about the text|varied interpretations]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alim.org/library/quran/ayah/compare/4/34/men-are-given-authority-over-women-and-corrective-measures-for-disobedient-women-and-arbitration-in-family-disputes |title=Surah 4:34 (An-Nisaa), Alim – Translated by Mohammad Asad, Gibraltar (1980) |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927231420/http://www.alim.org/library/quran/ayah/compare/4/34/men-are-given-authority-over-women-and-corrective-measures-for-disobedient-women-and-arbitration-in-family-disputes |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eui.eu/DepartmentsAndCentres/RobertSchumanCentre/Research/InternationalTransnationalRelations/MediterraneanProgramme/MRM/MRM2011/ws04.aspx|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927154118/http://www.eui.eu/DepartmentsAndCentres/RobertSchumanCentre/Research/InternationalTransnationalRelations/MediterraneanProgramme/MRM/MRM2011/ws04.aspx|url-status=dead|title=Salhi and Grami (2011), Gender and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa, Florence (Italy), European University Institute|archivedate=27 September 2013}}</ref> According to some interpretations, Sharia condones certain forms of domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects ''[[nushuz]]'' (disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife only after admonishing and staying away from the bed does not work.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Farid |last1=Esack |chapter=Islam and Gender Justice: Beyond Simplistic Apologia |chapter-url={{Google books|riz_cIdSq0gC |page=187 |plainurl=yes}} |pages=187–210 |editor1-first=John C. |editor1-last=Raines |editor2-first=Daniel C. |editor2-last=Maguire |year=2014 |title=What Men Owe to Women: Men's Voices from World Religions |publisher=SUNY |isbn=978-0791491553 }}</ref> These interpretations have been criticized as inconsistent with women's rights in domestic abuse cases.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Mathias |last1=Rohe |chapter=Shari'a in a European Context |chapter-url={{Google books|bY1sReuxDy0C |page=93 |plainurl=yes}} |pages=93–114 |editor1-first=Ralpho |editor1-last=Grillo |editor2-first=Roger |editor2-last=Ballard |editor3-first=Alessandro |editor3-last=Ferrari |editor4-first=André J. |editor4-last=Hoekema |editor5-first=Marcel |editor5-last=Maussen |editor6-first=Prakash |editor6-last=Shah |year=2009 |title=Legal Practice and Cultural Diversity |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0754675471 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Funder |first1=Anna |title=''De Minimis Non Curat Lex'': The Clitoris, Culture and the Law |journal=Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems |volume=3 |issue=2 |year=1993 |pages=417–67}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Zainah |last1=Anwar |chapter=Law-Making in the Name of Islam: Implications for Democratic Governance |chapter-url={{Google books|6Js6QXUbmjYC |page=121 |plainurl=yes}} |pages=[https://archive.org/details/islaminsoutheast0000unse/page/121 121–34] |editor1-first=K S |editor1-last=Nathan |editor2-first=Mohammad Hashim |editor2-last=Kamali |year=2005 |title=Islam in Southeast Asia: Political, Social and Strategic Challenges for the 21st Century |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-9812302830 |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminsoutheast0000unse/page/121 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bakht |first1=Natasha |title=Family Arbitration Using Sharia Law: Examining Ontario's Arbitration Act and its Impact on Women |journal=Muslim World Journal of Human Rights |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2007 |ssrn=1121953 |doi=10.2202/1554-4419.1022|s2cid=144491368 }}</ref> [[Musawah]], [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women|CEDAW]], KAFA and other organizations have proposed ways to modify Sharia-inspired laws to improve women's rights in Muslim-majority nations, including women's rights in domestic abuse cases.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.musawah.org/cedaw-and-muslim-family-laws-search-common-ground |title=CEDAW and Muslim Family Laws: In Search of Common Ground |year=2012 |publisher=[[Musawah]] |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624100604/http://www.musawah.org/cedaw-and-muslim-family-laws-search-common-ground |archive-date=24 June 2016 |url-status=live }}{{page needed}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brandt |first1=Michele |last2=Kaplan |first2=Jeffrey A. |title=The Tension between Women's Rights and Religious Rights: Reservations to Cedaw by Egypt, Bangladesh and Tunisia |journal=Journal of Law and Religion |volume=12 |issue=1 |year=1995 |pages=105–42 |jstor=1051612 |doi=10.2307/1051612|s2cid=154841891 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/86247/lebanon-move-to-take-domestic-violence-cases-out-of-religious-courts |title=Lebanon – IRIN, United Nations Office of Humanitarian Affairs (2009) |work=IRINnews |access-date=31 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812051407/http://www.irinnews.org/report/86247/lebanon-move-to-take-domestic-violence-cases-out-of-religious-courts |archive-date=12 August 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/10/19/uae-spousal-abuse-never-right |title=UAE: Spousal Abuse never a Right |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226083817/https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/10/19/uae-spousal-abuse-never-right |archive-date=26 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Others believe that wife-beating is not consistent with a more modernist perspective of the Quran.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Hamid R. |last1=Kusha |chapter=Qur'anic Perspectives on Wife Abuse |pages=595–602 |editor1-first=Nicky Ali |editor1-last=Jackson |year=2007 |title=Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0415969680}}</ref> Many Imams and scholars who learned Shariah in traditional Islamic seminaries object to the misuse of this verse to justify domestic violence. Muslims for [[White Ribbon Campaign]] was launched in 2010 with Imams and Muslim leaders committing to join with others to work to end violence against women.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canadian Muslims Launch Annual White Ribbon Campaign |url=http://iqra.ca/2013/canadian-muslims-launch-annual-white-ribbon-campaign/ |website=Iqra.ca |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213746/http://iqra.ca/2013/canadian-muslims-launch-annual-white-ribbon-campaign/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Khutbah]] campaigns were held in many parts of the world to speak out against domestic violence and encourage Muslim congregants to eradicate domestic abuse.<ref>{{cite web |title=Call to Action to Eradicate Domestic Violence |url=http://iqra.ca/2011/call-to-action-to-eradicate-domestic-violence/ |website=Iqra.ca |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213810/http://iqra.ca/2011/call-to-action-to-eradicate-domestic-violence/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim Council of Britain urges Imams to speak out against domestic abuse this Friday |url=https://mcb.org.uk/press-releases/muslim-council-of-britain-urges-imams-to-speak-out-against-domestic-abuse-this-friday/ |website=Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213800/https://mcb.org.uk/press-releases/muslim-council-of-britain-urges-imams-to-speak-out-against-domestic-abuse-this-friday/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Philippa H. |title=Imams rally against domestic violence in the UK |website=www.aljazeera.com |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/03/imams-rally-domestic-violence-uk-160326110808840.html |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213800/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2016/6/18/imams-rally-against-domestic-violence-in-the-uk |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Rape =====
Rape is considered a serious crime in the Sharia law since the Islamic prophet Muhammad ordered rapists to be punished by stoning.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mohammad Hashim Kamali|title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=67}}</ref> Rape is a crime in all countries of the North Africa and Middle East region, but as of 2011, Sharia-based or secular laws in some countries, including Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia, allowed a rapist to escape punishment by marrying his victim, while in other countries, including Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates, rape victims who press charges risk being prosecuted for extramarital sex (''[[zina]]'').<ref name="unicef2011" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/challenges_to_women_security_mena_region.pdf |title=Kendra Heideman and Mona Youssef, Challenges to Women's Security in the MENA Region, Wilson Center (March, 2013) |access-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091840/http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/challenges_to_women_security_mena_region.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/article/new-survey-assesses-womens-freedom-middle-east |title=Sanja Kelly (2010) New Survey Assesses Women's Freedom in the Middle East, Freedom House (funded by US Department of State's Middle East Partnership Initiative) |access-date=3 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927072952/http://www.freedomhouse.org/article/new-survey-assesses-womens-freedom-middle-east |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Slavery ====
{{see also|Islamic views on slavery|Islamic views on concubinage}}
[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|13th century slave market, Yemen. Slaves and concubines are considered as possessions in Sharia; they can be bought, sold, rented, gifted, shared, and inherited when owners die.]]
Sharia recognizes the basic inequality between master and slave, between free women and slave women, between believers and non-believers, as well as their unequal rights.<ref name=blbr>
* Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?, {{ISBN|0195144201}}, pp. 82–83;
* Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, 2nd Edition, Vol 1, pp. 13–40.</ref><ref>({{qref|16|71|b=y}}, {{qref|24|33}}, {{qref|30|28}})</ref> Sharia authorized the institution of slavery, using the words ''abd'' (slave) and the phrase ''ma malakat aymanukum'' ("that which your right hand owns") to refer to women slaves, seized as captives of war.<ref name=blbr/><ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml Slavery in Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006015406/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml }} BBC Religions Archives</ref> Under Islamic law, Muslim men could have sexual relations with female captives and slaves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mazrui |first1=Ali A. |title=Islamic and Western Values |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=76 |issue=5 |year=1997 |pages=118–32 |jstor=20048203 |doi=10.2307/20048203}}</ref><ref name=alik>Ali, K. (2010). Marriage and slavery in early Islam. Harvard University Press.{{page needed}}</ref> Slave women under sharia did not have a right to own property or to move freely.<ref>Sikainga, Ahmad A. (1996). Slaves Into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan. University of Texas Press. {{ISBN|0292776942}}.</ref><ref>Tucker, Judith E.; Nashat, Guity (1999). Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press. {{ISBN|0253212642}}.</ref> Sharia, in Islam's history, provided a religious foundation for enslaving non-Muslim women (and men), but allowed for the [[manumission]] of slaves. However, manumission required that the non-Muslim slave first convert to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jean Pierre Angenot |title=Uncovering the History of Africans in Asia |page=60 |isbn=978-9004162914 |publisher=Brill Academic |quote=Islam imposed upon the Muslim master an obligation to convert non-Muslim slaves and become members of the greater Muslim society. Indeed, the daily observation of well defined Islamic religious rituals was the outward manifestation of conversion without which emancipation was impossible.|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name=pl1>{{cite book |last1=Lovejoy |first1=Paul |title=Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521784306 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/16 16–17] |quote=The religious requirement that new slaves be pagans and need for continued imports to maintain slave population made Africa an important source of slaves for the Islamic world. (...) In Islamic tradition, slavery was perceived as a means of converting non-Muslims. One task of the master was religious instruction and theoretically Muslims could not be enslaved. Conversion (of a non-Muslim to Islam) did not automatically lead to emancipation, but assimilation into Muslim society was deemed a prerequisite for emancipation. |url=https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/16}}</ref> A slave woman who bore a child to her Muslim master (''umm al-walad'') could not be sold, becoming legally free upon her master's death, and the child was considered free and a legitimate heir of the father.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kecia Ali |title=Slavery and Sexual Ethics in Islam, in Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacies |editor=Bernadette J. Brooten |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0230100169 |pages=107–119 |quote=The slave who bore her master's child became known in Arabic as an "umm walad"; she could not be sold, and she was automatically freed upon her master's death. [p. 113]}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Umm al-Walad|editor=John L. Esposito|encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2014 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2424|access-date=18 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801050417/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2424 |archive-date=1 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Terrorism ====
{{further|Islamic terrorism|Islamic extremism|Jihad|Jihadism|Salafi jihadism}}
[[File:North face south tower after plane strike 9-11.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Al-Qaeda]] ideologues have used their interpretation of sharia to justify terrorist attacks]]
Some [[Islamic extremism|extremists]] have used their interpretation of Islamic scriptures and Sharia, in particular the doctrine of [[jihad]], to justify acts of war and terror against Muslim as well as non-Muslim individuals and governments.<ref name=aenexeter/>{{sfn|Horrie|Chippindale|1991|p=4}}{{sfn|Horrie|Chippindale|1991|p=100}} The expert on terrorism [[Rachel Ehrenfeld]] wrote that the "Sharia's finance ([[Islamic banking]]) is a new weapon in the arsenal of what might be termed [[Generations of warfare#Fifth generation|fifth-generation warfare (5GW)]]".<ref name=ZakatForTerror2>{{cite book |last= Norwitz |first= Jeffrey H. | title = Pirates, Terrorists, and Warlords: The History, Influence, and Future of Armed Groups Around the World | publisher = [[Skyhorse Publishing]] | location = New York| year = 2009 | pages = 84–86}}</ref> However, sharia-complaint financing actually requires a person to stay away from weapons manufacturing.<ref name="Jamaldeen">{{cite web |last1=Jamaldeen |first1=Faleel |title=Seven Prohibited Industries in Islamic Financial Investments |url=https://www.dummies.com/personal-finance/islamic-finance/seven-prohibited-industries-in-islamic-financial-investments/ |access-date=7 September 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213729/https://www.dummies.com/personal-finance/islamic-finance/seven-prohibited-industries-in-islamic-financial-investments/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="JamesChen">{{cite web |last1=Chen |first1=James |title=Shariah-Compliant Funds |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/shariah-compliant-funds.asp |website=Investopedia |access-date=7 September 2020 |archive-date=27 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227213729/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/shariah-compliant-funds.asp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Todorof |first1=Maria |title=Shariah-compliant FinTech in the banking industry |journal=ERA Forum |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1007/s12027-018-0505-8|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In classical fiqh, the term ''jihad'' refers to armed struggle against oppressors.<ref name=OEIP>{{cite encyclopedia|first1=Rudolph|last1=Peters|first2=David|last2=Cook|title=Jihād|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2014|isbn=978-0199739356 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0057 |access-date=16 April 2019 |doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001 |url-status=live|archive-date=23 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123114402/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001/acref-9780199739356-e-0263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Tyan, E. | year= 2012 | title=D̲j̲ihād|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs| doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189 }}</ref> Classical jurists developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat.<ref>{{cite web |author=Bernard Lewis |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |title=Jihad vs. Crusade |publisher=Opinionjournal.com |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816162048/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001547201928681240 |archive-date=16 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blankinship|first=Khalid Yahya|author-link=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|year=2011|title=Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War|journal=The Muslim World|volume=101|issue=3|page=416|doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x|issn=1478-1913|quote=In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.}}</ref> According to [[Bernard Lewis]], "[a]t no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism"<ref>Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 151</ref> and the terrorist practice of suicide bombing "has no justification in terms of Islamic theology, law or tradition".<ref>Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall p. 153</ref> In the modern era the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to an ideological and political discourse.<ref name=hallaq334>{{cite book |author=Wael B. Hallaq |title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbOtAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA335 |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=335 |isbn=978-1107394124 |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-date=12 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212220338/https://books.google.com/books?id=IbOtAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA335 |url-status=live}}</ref> While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some radicals have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory.<ref name=hallaq334/> For al-Qaeda ideologues, in jihad all means are legitimate, including targeting Muslim non-combatants and the mass killing of non-Muslim civilians.<ref name=aenexeter/>

Some modern ulema, such as [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]] and [[Sulaiman Al-Alwan]], have supported attacks against Israeli army reservists and hence should be considered as soldiers, while [[Hamid bin Abdallah al-Ali]] declared that suicide attacks in Chechnya were justified as a "sacrifice".<ref name=aenexeter/><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3874893.stm Controversial preacher with 'star status'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229043134/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3874893.stm }} BBC article, by Agdi Abdelhadi on 7 July 2004</ref> Many prominent Islamic scholars, including al-Qaradawi himself, have issued condemnations of terrorism in general terms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kurzman.unc.edu/islamic-statements-against-terrorism/ |title=Islamic Statements Against Terrorism |author=Charles Kurzman |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410093855/http://kurzman.unc.edu/islamic-statements-against-terrorism/ |archive-date=10 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, [[Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh]], the [[Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia]] has stated that "terrorizing innocent people [...] constitute[s] a form of injustice that cannot be tolerated by Islam", while [[Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy]], [[Grand Imam of al-Azhar]] and former [[Grand Mufti]] of Egypt has stated that "attacking innocent people is not courageous; it is stupid and will be punished on the Day of Judgment".<ref name=aenexeter>Anisseh Engeland-Nourai, [https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/3417/VanEngeland_THE%20CHALLENGE%20OF%20FRAGMENTATION%20OF%20INTERNATIONAL%20HUMANITARIAN%20LAW.pdf?sequence=6 The Challenge of Fragmentation of International Humanitarian Law Regarding the Protection of Civilians – An Islamic Perspective] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122043455/https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/3417/VanEngeland_THE%20CHALLENGE%20OF%20FRAGMENTATION%20OF%20INTERNATIONAL%20HUMANITARIAN%20LAW.pdf?sequence=6 }} School of Law, University of Bedfordshire, pp. 18–25</ref><ref>Ira Lapidus, ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson''. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 297–98 see Bibliography for Conclusion.</ref>

== Comparison with other legal systems ==

=== Jewish law ===
{{main|Halakha}}
{{see also|Seven Laws of Noah}}
Islamic legal tradition has a number of parallels with [[Judaism]]. In both religions, revealed law holds a central place, in contrast to [[Christianity]] which does not possess a body of revealed law, and where theology rather than law is considered to be the principal field of religious study. {{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 2a|2003}}{{sfn|Stewart|2013|p=496}} Both Islamic and Jewish law (''[[Halakha]]'') are derived from formal textual revelations (Quran and [[Pentateuch]]) as well as less formal, orally transmitted prophetic traditions (''[[hadith]]'' and ''[[mishna]]''). According to some scholars, the words ''sharia'' and ''halakha'' both mean literally "the path to follow". The ''fiqh'' literature parallels [[Rabbinical Judaism|rabbinical law]] developed in the [[Talmud]], with fatwas being analogous to [[History of responsa in Judaism|rabbinic ''responsa'']].{{sfn|Glenn|2014|pp=183–84}}{{sfn|Messick|Kéchichian|2009}} However, the emphasis on ''qiyas'' in classical Sunni legal theory is both more explicitly permissive than Talmudic law with respect to authorizing individual reason as a source of law, and more implicitly restrictive, in excluding other, unauthorized forms of reasoning.{{sfn|Glenn|2014|pp=183–84}}

=== Western legal systems ===
Early Islamic law developed a number of legal concepts that anticipated similar such concepts that later appeared in English [[common law]].<ref name=Makdisi>{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=John A.|title=The Islamic Origins of the Common Law|journal=[[North Carolina Law Review]]|volume=77|issue=5|pages=1635–1739}}</ref><ref name=Devichand>{{cite news|author=Mukul Devichand|title=Is English law related to Muslim law?|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7631388.stm|access-date=5 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927214803/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7631388.stm|archive-date=27 September 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarities exist between the royal English [[contract]] protected by the action of [[debt]] and the Islamic ''Aqd'', between the English [[assize of novel disseisin]] and the Islamic ''Istihqaq'', and between the English [[jury]] and the Islamic ''Lafif'' in classical Maliki jurisprudence.<ref name=Makdisi/><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Jamila|last=Hussain|title=Book Review: ''The Justice of Islam'' by Lawrence Rosen|journal=[[Melbourne University Law Review]]|volume=30|year=2001}}</ref> The [[law school]]s known as [[Inns of Court]] also parallel [[Madrasah]]s.<ref name=Makdisi/> The methodology of legal [[precedent]] and reasoning by [[analogy]] (''[[Qiyas]]'') are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice|first=Mahmoud A.|last=El-Gamal|year=2006|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0521864145|page=16}}</ref> as are the English [[Trust law|trust]] and [[Agency (law)|agency]] institutions to the Islamic ''[[Waqf]]'' and ''[[Hawala]]'' institutions, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gaudiosi |first=Monica M. |title=The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College |journal=[[University of Pennsylvania Law Review]] |volume=136 |issue=4 |pages=1231–61 |doi=10.2307/3312162 |jstor=3312162 |url=http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review/vol136/iss4/6 |type=Submitted manuscript |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329174253/http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review/vol136/iss4/6/ |archive-date=29 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems|first=Gamal Moursi|last=Badr|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|volume=26|issue=2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, 24–25 February 1977|pages=187–98 [196–98]|doi=10.2307/839667|jstor=839667}}</ref><ref name=Devichand/>

Elements of Islamic law also have other parallels in Western legal systems. For example, the influence of Islam on the development of an international law of the sea can be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.<ref name=Tai>{{cite journal |last1=Tai |first1=Emily Sohmer |title=Book Reviews: Hassan S. Khalilieh, ''Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800–1050): The "Kitāb Akriyat al-Sufun" vis-à-vis the "Nomos Rhodion Nautikos"'' |journal=Medieval Encounters |volume=13 |issue=3 |year=2007 |pages=608–12 |doi=10.1163/157006707X222812}}</ref>

[[George Makdisi]] has argued that the madrasa system of attestation paralleled the legal scholastic system in the West, which gave rise to the modern university system. The triple status of ''[[faqih]]'' ("[[Master of Laws|master of law]]"), ''[[mufti]]'' ("professor of [[Fatwā|legal opinions]]") and ''mudarris'' ("teacher"), conferred by the classical Islamic legal degree, had its equivalents in the medieval Latin terms ''[[Magister (degree)|magister]]'', ''[[professor]]'' and ''[[Doctor (title)|doctor]]'', respectively, although they all came to be used synonymously in both East and West.<ref name=G-Makdisi>{{cite journal |last1=Makdisi |first1=George |title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=109 |issue=2 |year=1989 |pages=175–82 |jstor=604423 |doi=10.2307/604423}}</ref> Makdisi suggested that the medieval European doctorate, ''licentia docendi'' was modeled on the Islamic degree ''ijazat al-tadris wa-l-ifta’'', of which it is a word-for-word translation, with the term ''ifta’'' (issuing of fatwas) omitted.<ref name=G-Makdisi/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Devin J. |last=Stewart |title=Degrees, or Ijaza |editor=Josef W. Meri |encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA203 |isbn=978-0415966917 |access-date=28 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212193030/https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA203 |archive-date=12 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> He also argued that these systems shared fundamental freedoms: the freedom of a professor to profess his personal opinion and the freedom of a student to pass judgement on what he is learning.<ref name=G-Makdisi/>

There are differences between Islamic and Western legal systems. For example, Sharia classically recognizes only [[natural persons]], and never developed the concept of a [[legal person]], or [[corporation]], i.e., a legal entity that [[Limited liability|limits the liabilities]] of its managers, shareholders, and employees; exists beyond the lifetimes of its founders; and that can own assets, sign contracts, and appear in court through representatives.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Timur |last1=Kuran |author-link1=Timur Kuran |title=The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence |journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=785–834 |doi=10.1093/ajcl/53.4.785 |jstor=30038724 |hdl=10161/2546 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Interest prohibitions imposed secondary costs by discouraging record keeping and delaying the introduction of modern accounting.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuran |first1=Timur |title=The logic of financial westernization in the Middle East |journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization |volume=56 |issue=4 |year=2005 |pages=593–615 |doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2004.04.002}}</ref> Such factors, according to Timur Kuran, have played a significant role in retarding economic development in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Timur|last=Kuran |url=https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/0895330042162421|url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103013020/https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/0895330042162421|title=Why the Middle East is Economically Underdeveloped: Historical Mechanisms of Institutional Stagnation|archivedate=3 November 2018|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=18|issue=3|pages=71–90 |doi=10.1257/0895330042162421}}</ref> However, the rise of monopoly wealth and corporations have proven to also be detrimental to the economic equality of a society. Ziauddin Sardar also suggests that the promotion of equitable wealth distribution and suppression of monopoly capital are a part of Islam's message that emphasises genuine equity and justice.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ziauddin Sardar |title=The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, By Timur Kuran |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/long-divergence-how-islamic-law-held-back-middle-east-timur-kuran-2196199.html|access-date=2 May 2021|website=The Independent|archive-date=2 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502065733/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/long-divergence-how-islamic-law-held-back-middle-east-timur-kuran-2196199.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* [[Dīn]]
* [[Glossary of Islam]]
* [[Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists]]
* [[Imam Nawawi's Forty Hadith]], a brief collection of forty ''hadith'' by the founder of the [[Shafi'i|Shāfiʿī]] school, each used to illustrate a fundamental of ''shariah''.
* [[Islamic advice literature]]
* [[Islamic republic]]
* [[Islamic Sharia Council]], a court in the United Kingdom with no legal authority.
* [[Ma'ruf]]
* [[Principle of legality in French criminal law]]
* [[Sources of Islamic law]]
* [[Halakha]]
* [[Theonomy]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{div col|colwidth=50em}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia|first=Mathieu |last=Tillier |title=Courts|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics|editor=Emad El-Din Shahin|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001/acref-9780199739356-e-0138|url-access=subscription |doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001 |isbn=9780199739356 }}
* {{Cite book|first=Knut S.|last=Vikør| year=2005 | title=Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law|publisher=Oxford University Press }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Knut S. |last=Vikør |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |url=http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604214623/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |archive-date=4 June 2014|url-status=dead }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Farhat J. |last=Ziadeh |title=Uṣūl al-fiqh |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Farhat J. |last=Ziadeh |title=Law. Sunnī Schools of Law |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009b |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Farhat J. |last=Ziadeh |title=Criminal Law |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009c |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0170}}
{{div col end}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|url=http://www.catheyallison.com/Reliance_of_the_Traveller.pdf |title=Reliance of the Traveller |author=[[Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri]], [[Nuh Ha Mim Keller]] |date =1368|work=Amana Publications |access-date=5 August 2022}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Encyclopaedia of the Quran |last=Brockopp |first=Jonathan E. |editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |volume=1 |pages=396–397 |entry=Concubines}}
*Coulson, Noel J. (1964). ''A History of Islamic Law''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
* Potz, Richard (2011), [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-and-the-world/european-overseas-rule/richard-potz-islamic-law-and-the-transfer-of-european-law?set_language=en&-C= ''Islamic Law and the Transfer of European Law''], [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO – European History Online], Mainz: [http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History], retrieved: 25 March 2021 ([https://d-nb.info/1036230066/34 pdf]).
* [[Joseph Schacht|Schacht, Joseph]] (1964). ''An Introduction to Islamic Law''. Oxford: Clarendon

==External links==
*
*
*
* [http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 ''Islamic law''] – in ''The Oxford Dictionary of Islam'', via Oxford Islamic Studies Online
* ''[http://sharialaw.com Sharia Law]'' – information and misconceptions about sharia law
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170202054116/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 ''Sharia'' by Knut S. Vikør] – In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', via Bridging Cultures, National Endowment for the Humanities & George Mason University
* [http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 ''Law'' by Norman Calder et al] – In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', via Oxford Islamic Studies
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140903142056/https://www.unaa.org.au/brunei-implements-sharia-law.html Brunei implements sharia law] – UNAA (United Nations)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140905022923/http://yulr.org/sharia-law-in-the-international-legal-sphere/ Sharia Law in the International Legal Sphere] – Yale University
* [http://bostonreview.net/john-bowen-private-arrangements-sharia-England Private Arrangements: 'Recognizing Sharia' in Britain] – anthropologist John R. Bowen explains the working of Britain's sharia courts in a ''[[Boston Review]]'' article
* [http://www.quraanicstudies.com/no-error-in-qur-an-division-of-inheritance-according-to-quran/ Division of Inheritance According to Qur'an] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220104104/http://www.quraanicstudies.com/no-error-in-qur-an-division-of-inheritance-according-to-quran/ }}
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/6895 Explanation of "The Reward of the Omnipotent"] is a manuscript, in Arabic, from the late 19th or early 20th century about Sharia

{{Portal bar|Law}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sharia]]
[[Category:Islamic jurisprudence]]
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]
[[Category:Legal codes]]
[[Category:Religious legal systems]]
[[Category:Religious law]]

Landstinget

2022-08-08T05:06:38Z

Mmeshi:

{{Other uses|Landsting (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{expand Danish|topic=hist}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Landstinget
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| transcription_name =
| legislature =
| coa_pic =
| coa_res =
| coa_alt =
| coa_caption =
| logo_pic = National Coat of arms of Denmark.svg
| logo_res = 100px
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| house_type = [[Bicameralism]]
| body =
| jurisdiction =
| houses =
| term_limits =
| foundation = {{Start date|1849|06|05|df=y}}
| disbanded = {{End date|1953|06|05|df=y}}
| preceded_by =
| succeeded_by =
| new_session =
| leader1_type = [[Speaker of the Landsting|Speaker of Landstinget]]
| leader1 = ''See list''
| party1 =
| election1 =
| leader2_type =
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| seats = 76
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| structure1 = 1953 Danish Landsting election.svg
| structure1_res =
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| political_groups1 = '''[[Eriksen Cabinet|Last Government]] (35)'''
* {{nowrap|{{Color box|{{party color|Venstre (Denmark)}}}} [[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre – Liberal Party]] (22)}}
* {{nowrap|{{Color box|{{party color|Conservative People's Party (Denmark)}}}} [[Conservative People's Party (Denmark)|Conservative People's Party]] (13)}}
'''[[Confidence and supply|Supported by]] (1)'''
* {{Color box|{{party color|Justice Party of Denmark}}}} [[Justice Party of Denmark]] (1)
'''[[Opposition (politics)|Opposition]] (39)'''
* {{Color box|{{party color|Social Democrats (Denmark)}}}} [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] (33)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Danish Social Liberal Party}}}} [[Danish Social Liberal Party|Radikale Venstre – Social Liberal Party]] (6)
'''Faroe Islands'''
* {{Color box|#cccccc}} Independent (1)
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| voting_system1 = [[Indirect voting]]
| voting_system2 =
| first_election1 = [[1849 Danish Landsting election]] ([[:da:Landstingsvalget 1849|da]])
| first_election2 =
| first_election3 =
| last_election1 = [[1953 Danish Landsting election]] ([[:da:Landstingsvalget 1953|da]])
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}}
'''Landstinget''' was the [[upper house]] of the [[Rigsdag]] (the [[parliament]] of [[Denmark]]), from 1849 until 1953, when the [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] system was abolished in favour of [[unicameralism]]. Landstinget had powers equal to the [[Folketing]], which made the two houses of parliament hard to distinguish.

Originally, membership and the electorate was restricted, and the members were largely [[Conservatism|conservatives]]. Membership of the house was then restricted to certain sectors of society: only males with a certain net worth could hold a seat. In 1915, these restrictions were removed, and a few new members were appointed by the existing members.

==Etymology and earlier use==
[[File:Landstingssalen 2018a.jpg|thumb|left|The former Landsting chamber in [[Christiansborg Palace]] in 2018.]]

{{Lang|da|Ting}} (old Norse: [[Thing (assembly)|þing]]) means [[Deliberative assembly|assembly]]. It first came into being during [[Viking]] times and was formed by the [[Citizenship|freemen]] of the community, and it generally numbered about a hundred men. Tings were necessary in the [[Norse clans|clan-based society]] of Northern Germany and [[Scandinavia]], because they allowed for inter-clan wars to be resolved or prevented through the [[mediation]] of the ting. It also served as the place for religious rites and trade negotiations.

Landstinget is also the Danish name for the modern [[Parliament of Greenland]].

==History==
[[Image:Rigsretten i Landstingssalen 1877.jpg|thumb|left|The Danish Court of Impeachment, ''Rigsretten'', during a session in the Landsting Chamber, Christiansborg Palace, 1877.]]

Under the [[Constitution of Denmark|Constitution of 1849]], the requirements for the [[Suffrage|right to vote]] was the same for the two houses, however the [[Nomination rules|requirements for electability]] were stricter for Landstinget; candidates were limited to those of age 40 and above and they were required to have a substantial income.<ref name=constitution>{{cite web|url=http://www.um.dk/publikationer/UM/English/Denmark/kap1/1-9.asp |title=Official Denmark – Constitution |access-date=21 January 2007 |last=Zahle |first=Henrik |work=Denmark |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark|Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070110120220/http://www.um.dk/Publikationer/UM/English/Denmark/kap1/1-9.asp |archive-date=10 January 2007 }}</ref> The house originally had 51 members, all elected indirectly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sekr.uvm.dk/historie/tekster_tidssoejle/tid_hist/dan_2_grund_48.html|title=Danmarks Riges Grundlov af 5. juni 1849|access-date=21 January 2007|work=Danmarkshistorien|publisher=[[Ministry of Education of Denmark|Danish Ministry of Education]]|language=da|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212021337/http://sekr.uvm.dk/historie/tekster_tidssoejle/tid_hist/dan_2_grund_48.html|archive-date=12 February 2007}}</ref> The voters elected a group of electors for each [[Electoral district|constituency]], and the electors elected the members of the house. The members were elected for a [[Term of office|term]] of eight years; however, terms were [[Staggered elections|staggered]] so that half of the seats were up for election every four years.

With the Constitution of 1866, the electoral system was reformed. The number of seats was increased to 66 of which 12 were appointed by [[Monarchy of Denmark|the king]] for a period of twelve years, and one by the [[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] [[Løgting]].<ref name=gjennemsete>{{cite web|url=http://sekr.uvm.dk/historie/tekster_tidssoejle/tid_hist/dan_5_grund_66.html|title=Danmarks Riges Gjennemsete Grundlov af 5. juni 1849 som stadfæstet 28. juli 1866|access-date=21 January 2007|work=Danmarkshistorien|publisher=[[Ministry of Education of Denmark|Danish Ministry of Education]]|language=da|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319094830/http://sekr.uvm.dk/historie/tekster_tidssoejle/tid_hist/dan_5_grund_66.html|archive-date=19 March 2007}}</ref> The remaining 53 were elected indirectly.

In [[Copenhagen]], half the electors were elected by the voters paying the largest amount of tax, and the other half by all the voters. In the rest of the country, one elector was elected by the voters in each [[Parish (Denmark)|parish]] in the countryside and half as many electors were elected in the [[market town]]s by the same system as in Copenhagen. Then for each elector elected in the parishes and the market towns, one elector was found among those that paid the greatest amount of tax in the parishes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Engelstoft|first=Povl|editor=Bomholt, J. |editor2=Fabricius, K. |editor3=Hjelholt, H. |editor4=Mackeprang, M. |editor5=Møller A.|title=Den Danske Rigsdag 1849–1949 bind II – Rigsdagens historie 1866–1949|year=1951|publisher=J. H. Schultz Forlag|location=Copenhagen|language=da|pages=27–28}}</ref> As the main [[direct tax]] of the time was based on [[real estate]] and its value as [[Agricultural land|farmland]], this system greatly favoured [[Manorialism|manor]] owners. The result was a conservative majority lasting 35 years, until the [[1902 Danish Landsting election|1902 election]].<ref name=gjennemsete />

The next reform of the electoral system came with the Constitution of 1915, and the first election under this system was the [[1918 Danish Landsting election|1918 election]]. Women were [[Women's suffrage|given the right to vote]], the number of seats was increased to 72, the number of constituencies was reduced to seven, and the system of royally appointed members was replaced by 18 members elected by the resigning Landsting for a period of eight years.<ref>Engelstoft, p. 278.</ref><ref name=Rosenkrantz>{{cite book |last=Rosenkrantz|first=Palle|title=Den danske regering og rigsdag 1903–1934|year=1934|publisher=Arthur Jensens Forlag|location=Copenhagen|language=da|pages=41, 407}}</ref> The same year, [[Inger Gautier Schmit]], along with [[Nina Bang]], [[Kirsten Marie Christensen|Marie Christensen]], [[Marie Hjelmer]] and [[Olga Knudsen]], were the first women elected to the Landsting.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Inger Gautier Schmit {{!}} lex.dk|url=https://biografiskleksikon.lex.dk/Inger_Gautier_Schmit|access-date=2021-09-23|website=Dansk Biografisk Leksikon|language=da}}</ref>

Although a [[1939 Danish constitutional referendum|1939 referendum]] that would have replaced Landstinget with another chamber—the Rigsting—and simplified the legislative process, failed due to a low [[voter turnout]], the bicameral system and thereby Landstinget was abolished when the current constitution was approved in a [[1953 Danish constitutional and electoral age referendum|1953 referendum]].

==List of speakers==
{{main|Speaker of the Landsting}}

==See also==
*[[Danish politics]]
*[[Government of Denmark]]
**[[Government of the Faroe Islands]]
**[[Government of Greenland]]
*[[List of speakers of the Folketing]] (1850-)
*[[Thing (assembly)|Ting]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{Danish elections}}

[[Category:Government of Denmark]]
[[Category:Thing (assembly)]]
[[Category:1849 establishments in Denmark]]
[[Category:1953 disestablishments in Denmark]]
[[Category:Historical legislatures]]
[[Category:Political history of Denmark]]

Kassym-Jomart Tokayev

2022-05-25T20:31:09Z

Mmeshi:

{{short description|President of Kazakhstan since 2019}}
{{Redirect|Tokayev|other people with the name}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Excellency]]
| name = Kassym-Jomart Tokayev
| native_name = {{nobold|Қасым-Жомарт Тоқаев}}
| native_name_lang = kk
| image = Касым-Жомарт Токаев (13-12-2022).jpg
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| smallimage =
| alt =
| caption = Tokayev in 2022
| office = 2nd [[President of Kazakhstan]]
| term_start = 20 March 2019
| term_end =
| primeminister = [[Asqar Mamin]] [[Alihan Smaiylov]]
| predecessor = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
| successor =
| office2 = Chairman of the [[Security Council of Kazakhstan]]
| term_start2 = 5 January 2022
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
| successor2 =
| office3 = [[State Secretary of Kazakhstan]]
| term_start3 = 29 January 2002
| term_end3 = 13 June 2003
| president3 = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
| predecessor3 = [[Abish Kekilbayev]]
| successor3 = [[Imangali Tasmagambetov]]
| order4 = 4th
| office4 = Prime Minister of Kazakhstan
| term_start4 = 12 October 1999
| term_end4 = 28 January 2002 Acting: 1 October 1999 – 12 October 1999
| president4 = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
| 1blankname4 = First Deputy
| 1namedata4 = [[Aleksandr Pavlov (politician)|Aleksandr Pavlov]] (1999–2000) [[Daniyal Akhmetov]] (2000–2001)
| predecessor4 = [[Nurlan Balgimbayev]]
| successor4 = [[Imangali Tasmagambetov]]
| order5 =
| office5 = [[Deputy Prime Minister of Kazakhstan]]
| term_start5 = 15 March 1999
| term_end5 = 1 October 1999
| primeminister5 = [[Nurlan Balgimbayev]]
| office6 = Chairman of the [[Assembly of People of Kazakhstan|Assembly of People]]
| term_start6 = 28 April 2021
| term_end6 =
| predecessor6 = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
| successor6 =
| office7 = Chairman of [[Amanat (political party)|Amanat]]
| term_start7 = 28 January 2022
| term_end7 = 26 April 2022
| predecessor7 = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
| successor7 = [[Erlan Qoşanov]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin |last=yes |Senate career
|titlestyle=border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder |embed=yes
| office8 = 6th [[Chair of the Senate of Kazakhstan|Chair of the Senate]]
| term_start8 = 16 October 2013
| term_end8 = 19 March 2019
| deputy8 = [[Qairat Işçanov]] [[Asqar Beisenbaev]] [[Sergey Gromov]] [[Bektas Beknazarov]]
| predecessor8 = [[Kairat Mami]]
| successor8 = [[Dariga Nazarbayeva]]
| term_start9 = 11 January 2007
| term_end9 = 15 April 2011
| deputy9 = [[Muhambet Kopeev|Muhammed Kopeev]] [[Aleksandr Sudin]]
| predecessor9 = [[Nurtai Abykayev]]
| successor9 = [[Kairat Mami]]
| office10 = Member of the [[Senate of Kazakhstan|Senate]]
| term_start10 = 16 October 2013
| term_end10 = 19 March 2019
| term_start11 = 11 January 2007
| term_end11 = 15 April 2011
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}}}
{{Collapsed infobox section begin |last=yes |Diplomatic positions
|titlestyle=border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder |embed=yes
| office12 = [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]
| term_start12 = 29 January 2002
| term_end12 = 11 January 2007
| president12 = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
| primeminister12 = [[Imangali Tasmagambetov]] (2002–2003) [[Daniyal Akhmetov]] (2003–2007) [[Karim Massimov]] (2007)
| predecessor12 = [[Erlan Idrissov]]
| successor12 = [[Marat Tajin]]
| term_start13 = 13 October 1994
| term_end13 = 12 October 1999
| primeminister13 = [[Akejan Kajegeldin]] (1994–1997) [[Nurlan Balgimbayev]] (1997–1999)
| predecessor13 = [[Kanat Saudabayev]]
| successor13 = [[Erlan Idrissov]]
| office14 = 11th [[United Nations Office at Geneva|Director-General of the United Nations Office at Geneva]]
| term_start14 = 12 March 2011
| term_end14 = 16 October 2013
| predecessor14 = [[Sergei Ordzhonikidze]]
| successor14 = [[Michael Møller]]
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}}}
| birth_name = Qasym-Jomart Kemelevich Tokayev
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1953|5|17}}
| birth_place = [[Almaty|Alma-Ata]], [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakh SSR]], [[Soviet Union]] (now Almaty, [[Kazakhstan]])
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| citizenship =
| party = [[Independent politician|Independent]] (1991–1999, 2022–present)
| otherparty = [[Communist Party of Kazakhstan (Soviet Union)|CPSU]]
(before 1991) [[Amanat (political party)|Amanat]] (1999–2022)
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Nadezhda Tokayeva]]|1980|2020|end=div.}}
| partner =
| relations =
| children = '''Son:''' Timur
| parents = 
| relatives =
| residence = [[Ak Orda Presidential Palace]]
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Moscow State Institute of International Relations]] [[Beijing Language and Culture University]]
| occupation =
| profession =
| known_for =
| salary =
| cabinet =
| committees =
| portfolio =
| awards = 
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website = [https://www.akorda.kz/en/ akorda.kz]
| allegiance = {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
| branch = [[Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan]]
| serviceyears = 2019–present
| rank = [[File:Kazakhstan-Army-OF-10-01 (horizantal).svg|70px]] Supreme Commander
}}
'''Kassym-Jomart Kemeluly Tokayev''' ({{lang-kk|Қасым-Жомарт Кемелұлы Тоқаев|Qasym-Jomart Kemelūly Toqaev}} {{IPA-kk|qɑˈsəm ʑoˈmɑrt kʲeˌmʲelo̙ɫɯ toˈqɑjef}}; born 17 May 1953) is a [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] politician and diplomat who is currently serving as the [[President of Kazakhstan]] since 20 March 2019.<ref name="Inauguration">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ktk.kz/ru/newsfeed/article/2019/03/20/115229/|title=Tokayev sworn in as Kazakhstan's interim president|agency=[[TASS]]|access-date=20 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321091102/https://www.ktk.kz/ru/newsfeed/article/2019/03/20/115229/|archive-date=21 March 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tass.com/world/1049489|title=Tokayev sworn in as Kazakhstan's interim president|agency=[[TASS]]|access-date=20 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320084622/http://tass.com/world/1049489|archive-date=20 March 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Between 20 March and 12 June 2019, he served as acting president after the resignation of [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]], who previously held the presidential post for nearly three decades.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-president-nursultan-nazarbaev-says-he-is-resigning-/29830123.html|title=Kazakh President Nazarbaev Abruptly Announces Resignation|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|access-date=19 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319195948/https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakh-president-nursultan-nazarbaev-says-he-is-resigning-/29830123.html|archive-date=19 March 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Born in [[Alma Ata|Alma-Ata]] (now Almaty), Tokayev attended the [[Moscow State Institute of International Relations]] where after graduating in 1975, he worked as a diplomat in [[Singapore]] and China. After the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], Tokayev became the Deputy Foreign Minister of a newly independent Kazakhstan in 1992, where he was involved on the issues of [[nuclear disarmament]] within the [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet republics]]. In 1999, Tokayev became the [[Deputy Prime Minister of Kazakhstan|Deputy Prime Minister]], and in October of that year with the endorsement of the Parliament, he was appointed as [[Prime Minister of Kazakhstan|Prime Minister]] by President [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]. From 2002, Tokayev served as Foreign Minister and State Secretary, where he continued to play an active role in the field of nuclear non-proliferation. He was the [[United Nations Office at Geneva|Director-General of the UN Office at Geneva]] from 2011 to 2013 and served twice as a [[Senate of Kazakhstan|Chairman of the Kazakh Senate]] from 2007 to 2011 and 2013 to 2019.<ref name="tengrinews">{{Cite web|title=Kairat Mami to be the new Senate Speaker|url=https://en.tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/Kairat-Mami-to-be-the-new-Senate-Speaker--942/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091206/https://en.tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/Kairat-Mami-to-be-the-new-Senate-Speaker--942/|archive-date=27 March 2019|access-date=26 March 2019|website=Tengrinews.kz|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In 2019, Tokayev assumed office as the acting president after Nursultan Nazarbayev's resignation. Being a member of the ruling [[Amanat (political party)|Amanat]] party, he won a non-democratic [[2019 Kazakh presidential election|snap election]] in June of that year with the support of Nazarbayev as the nominee for the party.<ref name="Tokayev-wins">{{cite news |title=Tokayev wins Kazakhstan's presidency with 70.76 percent of vote, official preliminary results say |url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/Tokayev-wins-kazakhstans-presidency-with-70-76-percent-of-vote-official-preliminary-results-say/ |agency=The Astana Times |access-date=10 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610092125/https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/Tokayev-wins-kazakhstans-presidency-with-70-76-percent-of-vote-official-preliminary-results-say/ |archive-date=10 June 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> After being fully sworn to office, Tokayev pledged to continue Nazarbayev's policies. During his presidency, he has enacted several reforms including increasing workers' salaries, reducing corruption, abolishing capital punishment, and decentralizing the local government. From 2020, Tokayev had endured the economic downturn and troubles caused by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan|COVID-19 pandemic]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]] and has sought to solve Kazakhstan's rising inflation, domestic terrorism, illegal migration, drug trafficking, nuclear energy development and power shortages caused by cryptocurrency mining, as well as the [[COVID-19 vaccination in Kazakhstan|COVID-19 vaccination rollout]]. In 2022, Tokayev announced constitutional reforms that would limit his powers and grant more authority to the [[Parliament of Kazakhstan|Parliament]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kazakhstan president proposes reforms to limit his powers |language=en |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/16/kazakhistan-president-proposes-reforms-to-limit-his-powers |access-date=2022-03-22}}</ref> As a result, he initiated a [[2022 Kazakh constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] which was backed by an overwhelming number of voters and led to the complete stripping of Nazarbayev's post-presidential privileges regarding policymaking.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kazakh leader pledges reform after referendum win |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/kazakhstan-votes-amend-constitution-referendum-results-2022-06-06/ |access-date=2022-07-23}}</ref>

Since becoming president, Tokayev's political influence and role in Kazakhstan had steadily grown apart from Nazarbayev as he assumed various other powerful positions which were previously held by Nazarbayev starting with the chairmanship of the [[Assembly of People of Kazakhstan|Assembly of People]] in 2021. In January 2022, he imposed a nationwide [[state of emergency]], sacked the entirety of [[Mamin Cabinet|Asqar Mamin's government]], and ordered for security forces to use [[deadly force]] following a two-week long [[2022 Kazakh unrest|violent unrest]] that had broken out in early January of that year.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/5/emergency-declared-in-kazakhstans-almaty-mangistau-amid-unrest |title=Kazakh president sacks cabinet, declares emergency amid unrest |work=Al Jazeera |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-date=5 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105064813/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/5/emergency-declared-in-kazakhstans-almaty-mangistau-amid-unrest |url-status=live }}</ref> Shortly thereafter, Tokayev took leadership role in the [[Security Council of Kazakhstan|Security Council]] and ruling [[Amanat (political party)|Amanat]] party from Nazarbayev and along with his relatives, dismissed several officials who held a close relationship with Nazarbayev.

While managing to maintain the country's stability, ensuring political transition, and enacting new reforms, Tokayev's governance has remained [[authoritarian]] with [[Human rights in Kazakhstan|human rights]] abuses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Is EU serious about human rights in Kazakhstan?|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/25/eu-serious-about-human-rights-kazakhstan|access-date=2021-12-29|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en|archive-date=29 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229053854/https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/25/eu-serious-about-human-rights-kazakhstan|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2022 [[Suisse secrets]] leaks revealed that the Tokayev family had maintained an elaborate network of secretive offshore wealth assets since at least 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vlast (Kazakhstan) |first=OCCRP and |title=The Offshore Secrets of Kazakhstan's President Tokayev |url=https://www.occrp.org/en/suisse-secrets/the-offshore-secrets-of-kazakhstans-president-tokayev |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220194907/https://www.occrp.org/en/suisse-secrets/the-offshore-secrets-of-kazakhstans-president-Tokayev |archive-date=20 February 2022 |access-date=2022-02-20 |website=OCCRP |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==

Kassym-Jomart Tokayev was born to a [[Muslim]] [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] family in the city of Alma-Ata (now [[Almaty]]). His father, Kemel Tokayev (1923–1986), was a [[World War II]] veteran and a well-known writer who is considered to be the founder of Kazakh detective fiction. His mother, Turar Shabarbayeva (1931–2000), worked at the Alma-Ata Institute of Foreign Languages. He was named after his uncle Kassym Tokayev, who was also a [[Red Army]] soldier and was killed during the [[Battle of Rzhev]]. When describing the impact the war had on his father, Tokayev said that he "did not like to talk about the war" and only shared his feelings upon "his first encounter with the enemy, the courage of the average soldier, and his burning desire to return home."<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://astanatimes.com/2020/05/president-Tokayev-exclusive-interview-kazakhstan-must-lead-effort-to-improve-relations-with-neighbors/|title = President Tokayev Exclusive Interview: Kazakhstan Must Lead Effort to Improve Relations with Neighbors|date = 4 May 2020|access-date = 8 May 2020|archive-date = 15 May 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200515074914/https://astanatimes.com/2020/05/president-Tokayev-exclusive-interview-kazakhstan-must-lead-effort-to-improve-relations-with-neighbors/|url-status = live}}</ref> Kemel after the war received a medal for his coverage of the development of the [[Virgin Lands campaign]].

Tokayev spent part of his childhood in the village of {{Interlanguage link|Kälpe|kk|Кәлпе}}, [[Karatal District]], [[Almaty Region]], where his family had lived for generations.<ref>{{Cite web|last=tengrinews.kz|title=Улица Токаева. Аул детства нового Президента|url=https://tengrinews.kz/article/ulitsa-tokaeva-aul-detstva-novogo-prezidenta-1097/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-29|website=Tengrinews.kz|language=ru|archive-date=29 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229192228/https://tengrinews.kz/article/ulitsa-tokaeva-aul-detstva-novogo-prezidenta-1097/}}</ref> From 1970, Tokayev attended the [[Moscow State Institute of International Relations]] where he studied Mandarin. In his fifth year, Tokayev was sent to training courses at the Soviet embassy in China for six months. {{citation needed}}

== Early career ==
Upon graduation from the [[Moscow State Institute of International Relations]] in 1975, Tokayev joined the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] where he was posted to the Soviet Embassy in Singapore.

In 1979, Tokayev returned to the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1983, he went to China for training courses at the [[Beijing Language and Culture University|Beijing Language Institute]]. In 1984–1985, he served in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He was then posted to the Soviet embassy in [[Beijing]] where he served until 1991 as Second Secretary, First Secretary, and Counsellor. In 1991, he enrolled at the Soviet Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in [[Moscow]] for a training course towards senior diplomats.

== Political career ==

=== Deputy Foreign Minister (1992–1994) ===

In March 1992, Tokayev was appointed as a Deputy Foreign Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. From there, he briefly took stance against [[nuclear disarmament]] in the former Soviet republics of [[Belarus]] and Ukraine under pressure by Russia, letting negotiations to be held under the [[United Nations Security Council]], writing it as "a significant success of Kazakh diplomacy, which was taking its first steps in the international arena, opened the way for further negotiations with all influential states at the highest level."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Осипов|first=Антон|title=Что известно о новом президенте Казахстана Касыме-Жомарте Токаеве|url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/politics/articles/2019/03/20/796922-chto-izvestno-o-novom-prezidente|access-date=2020-12-16|website=Ведомости|language=ru|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122171356/https://www.vedomosti.ru/politics/articles/2019/03/20/796922-chto-izvestno-o-novom-prezidente|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1993, he became First Deputy Foreign Minister and on 13 October 1994, Tokayev was appointed to the post of [[Ministers of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]].

===Prime Minister of Kazakhstan (1999–2002)===

{{Main|Tokayev Cabinet}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin with Kasymzhomart Tokayev-1.jpg|thumb|left|Tokayev with [[Vladimir Putin]] in the [[Kremlin]], 19 January 2000|215x215px]]
In March 1999, Tokayev was promoted to the post of [[Deputy Prime Minister of Kazakhstan|Deputy Prime Minister]]. In October 1999, with the endorsement of the [[Parliament of Kazakhstan|Parliament]], he was appointed as a [[Prime Minister of Kazakhstan|Prime Minister]] by Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. During his tenure, the GDP growth rate grew by 13.5% in 2001 while the inflation rate being reduced by 11.2%.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Как премьер-министр Токаев вытаскивал экономику из кризиса|url=https://www.zakon.kz/4968885-kak-premer-ministr-tokaev-vytaskival.html|access-date=2020-12-16|website=zakon.kz|language=ru|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122205925/https://www.zakon.kz/4968885-kak-premer-ministr-tokaev-vytaskival.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 20 November 2001, at the [[Khabar Agency]] broadcast, Tokayev threatened to resign from his post as the PM unless President [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] would dismiss several government officials whom he accused of being "intriguers" such as Deputy PM [[Oraz Jandosov]], Labour and Social Protection of the Population Minister [[Alikhan Baimenov]], Pavlodar Regional äkim [[Galymzhan Zhakiyanov]] and Deputy Defense Minister Janat Ertlesova by trying to decentralise the country's executive branch and slow down the [[democratization]] programs. The move came just days after a group of prominent Kazakh officials whom Tokayev accused and others announced the creation of [[Democratic Choice of Kazakhstan]] at a press conference.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Премьер-министр Казахстана предлагает президенту страны освободить от должности ряд членов правительства, угрожая в противном случае уйти в отставку|url=https://ria.ru/20011120/18755.html|access-date=2020-12-29|website=РИА Новости|language=ru|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122220205/https://ria.ru/20011120/18755.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result, six cabinet members, including Jandosov, Zhakiyanov and Ertlesova were dismissed by Nazarbayev.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Brauer (NYT)|first=Birgit|title=World Briefing {{!}} Asia: Kazakhstan: President Fires Reform Advocates (Published 2001)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/23/world/world-briefing-asia-kazakhstan-president-fires-reform-advocates.html|access-date=2020-12-29|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122211355/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/23/world/world-briefing-asia-kazakhstan-president-fires-reform-advocates.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 28 January 2002, Tokayev resigned from his post without a full explanation, calling it a "normal event" due to "a strong presidency". He was subsequently appointed as a [[State Secretary of Kazakhstan|State Secretary]] and [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] concurrently.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Blua|first=Antoine|title=Kazakhstan: Tasmagambetov Appointed New Prime Minister After Tokaev Resigns|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1098610.html|access-date=2020-12-29|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|language=en|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118211403/https://www.rferl.org/a/1098610.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Foreign Minister and State Secretary (1994–1999, 2002–2007) ===
[[File:Tokaev.jpg|left|thumb|186x186px|Tokayev in 2006]]
As a Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tokayev played an active role in the field of nuclear non-proliferation. In 1995 and 2005, he participated in the Review Conferences for the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in New York City. In 1996, he signed the [[Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]] (CTBT) in New York, and in 2005 the [[Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone|Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone in Central Asia (CANWFZ)]] in [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]].

He was elected Chairman of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] and of the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]]. Tokayev took part in ten sessions of the United Nations General Assembly. He held a diplomatic rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.

=== Chairman of the Senate (2007–2011, 2013–2019) ===
As [[Chair of the Senate of Kazakhstan]], Tokayev was elected in 2008 as a vice-president of the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE). He served the post until being relieved on 15 April 2011 after being appointed as Director-General of the United Nations. President [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] expressed his gratitude towards Tokayev, stating that he's "absolutely committed to the path of reforms that I am pursuing."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Глава государства выразил уверенность в том, что К.Токаев достойно и с честью представит нашу страну в ООН|url=https://www.caravan.kz/news/glava-gosudarstva-vyrazil-uverennost-v-tom-chto-ktokaev-dostojjno-i-s-chestyu-predstavit-nashu-stranu-v-oon-293996/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=www.caravan.kz|publisher=Kazinform|language=ru|archive-date=26 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826115332/https://www.caravan.kz/news/glava-gosudarstva-vyrazil-uverennost-v-tom-chto-ktokaev-dostojjno-i-s-chestyu-predstavit-nashu-stranu-v-oon-293996/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 16 October 2013, he was reappointed again as the Senate Chair and was unanimously confirmed by the Senate MP's.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Касымжомарт Токаев единогласно избран спикером сената PК|url=https://forbes.kz//process/kasyimjomart_tokaev_edinoglasno_izbran_spikerom_senata_pk/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=www.forbes.kz|language=kk|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122205922/https://forbes.kz//process/kasyimjomart_tokaev_edinoglasno_izbran_spikerom_senata_pk/|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[2016 Protests against land reforms in Kazakhstan]], Tokayev stressed the issue of land lease to be dealt with in a critical matter.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Казинформ|title=Токаев: Стоит критически подойти к вопросу об аренде земли|url=https://forbes.kz//process/resources/tokaev_stoit_kriticheski_podoyti_k_voprosu_ob_arende_zemli/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=www.forbes.kz|language=ru|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511040008/https://forbes.kz/process/resources/tokaev_stoit_kriticheski_podoyti_k_voprosu_ob_arende_zemli/|url-status=live}}</ref>

After Kazakhstan unveiled its first proposed version of the Latin alphabet in 2017, it received criticism among citizens and linguistics over its use of apostrophes for marking accent letters.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Blackwood|first=Maria|title=Kazakhstan: New Latin Alphabet Criticized as Apostrophe Catastrophe {{!}} Eurasianet|url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-new-latin-alphabet-criticized-as-apostrophe-catastrophe|access-date=2020-12-29|website=eurasianet.org|language=en|archive-date=4 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104105359/https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-new-latin-alphabet-criticized-as-apostrophe-catastrophe|url-status=live}}</ref> Many businesses and organisations began adopting the new Latinised script.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Смайыл|first=Мейирим|title=Токаев о латинице: Применять апостроф еще рано|url=https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-o-latinitse-primenyat-apostrof-esche-rano-333538/|access-date=2020-12-29|website=Tengrinews.kz|language=ru|archive-date=5 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105064138/https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-o-latinitse-primenyat-apostrof-esche-rano-333538/|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the interview to [[BBC News]] in June 2018, Tokayev hinted a possibility on Nazarbayev's succession by expressing his belief that he wouldn't run for re-election as his presidential term was to end in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|title='I doubt Kazakh president will run again'|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-44546885|access-date=2020-12-17|archive-date=4 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104122737/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-44546885|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Director-General of the U.N. Office at Geneva ===
[[File:Kassym-Jomart Tokayev.jpg|left|thumb|205x205px|Tokayev speaking at the U.N. Economic Commission for Europe, 1 October 2012]]
[[File:Secretary Kerry, Russian Foreign Minister Lavrov Meet with UN Special Envoy Brahimi (9757147883).jpg|thumb|220px|right|Kassym-Jomart Tokayev with [[Sergey Lavrov]] and [[John Kerry]] on 13 September 2013]]
In March 2011, the Secretary-General of the United Nations announced the appointment of Tokayev as Under Secretary-General, Director-General of the United Nations Office at Geneva and Personal Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General to the Conference on Disarmament. He served as Secretary-General of the Conference on Disarmament. He was also the Designated Official for safety and security of U.N. personnel for Switzerland.

Tokayev holds a Doctorate in political science. He is the author of nine books and numerous articles on international affairs. He is a Fellow of the [[World Academy of Art and Science]], a member of the Panel of Eminent Persons at the [[Munich Security Conference]], an Honorary Professor of [[Shenzhen University]], an Honorary Professor and Doctor of the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, as well as a member of its board of trustees. He is also Honorary Dean of the [[Geneva School of Diplomacy and International Relations]]. As Director-General of UNOG, he received the "Academicus" award from the University of Geneva. According to the Russian Biographic Institution, Tokayev was admitted as a "Person of the year – 2018".

=== 2019 presidential campaign ===
{{See also|2019 Kassym-Jomart Tokayev presidential campaign}}
On 9 April 2019, Tokayev announced [[2019 Kazakh presidential election|early elections]] to be held on 9 June 2019.<ref name=":9">{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan to hold early presidential election on June 9 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/04/kazakhstan-hold-early-presidential-election-june-9-190409071500360.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409072457/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/04/kazakhstan-hold-early-presidential-election-june-9-190409071500360.html |archive-date=9 April 2019 |access-date=9 April 2019 |website=[[Al Jazeera]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> From there, he guaranteed electoral transparency and insisted that Kazakhstan is a democratic state which Tokayev cited as reason for a president to be elected according to the "will of the people" as well as eliminate "political uncertainty".<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kerimkhanov |first=Abdul |title=Kazakhstan announces early presidential elections |url=https://www.azernews.az/region/148646.html |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=AzerNews.az |language=en}}</ref>

Tokayev, with the backing of former president Nazarbayev, became a candidate for presidency following his nomination by the ruling [[Amanat (political party)|Amanat]] party, then known as Nur Otan on 23 April 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ru:Токаева выдвинули кандидатом в президенты от правящей партии Казахстана |url=https://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/6364591 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423161654/https://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/6364591 |archive-date=23 April 2019 |access-date=2019-04-23 |website=ТАСС |language=ru |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CEC information |url=https://www.election.gov.kz/rus/news/releases/index.php?ID=4688 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911200503/https://www.election.gov.kz/rus/news/releases/index.php?ID=4688 |archive-date=11 September 2019 |access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> During the campaign, Tokayev's election promises focused on continuation of existing policies, justice and progress, citing his personal reason in participating in the race to ensure Nazarbayev's continuity, a major part of Tokayev's platform.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shayakhmetova |first=Zhanna |title=Incumbent President Tokayev campaigns on platform of continuity, justice and progress |url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/05/incumbent-president-Tokayev-campaigns-on-platform-of-continuity-justice-and-progress/ |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref> While campaigning, Tokayev was mocked on social media for his use of [[photo manipulation]] software to erase his wrinkles and double chin from official photos.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Le président du Kazakhstan devrait sans doute se calmer sur le Photoshop |url=https://www.vice.com/fr/article/neazv7/le-president-du-kazakhstan-devrait-sans-doute-se-calmer-sur-le-photoshop |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512203829/https://www.vice.com/fr/article/neazv7/le-president-du-kazakhstan-devrait-sans-doute-se-calmer-sur-le-photoshop |archive-date=12 May 2019 |access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> He was elected president of Kazakhstan on 9 June with 71% of the popular vote.<ref name="Tokayev-wins" /> He was congratulated by foreign [[heads of state]] such as [[Xi Jinping]], [[Ilham Aliyev]], [[Recep Tayyip Erdogan]], [[Emomali Rahmon]], and [[Sooronbay Jeenbekov]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Телефонный разговор с Президентом Азербайджанской Республики Ильхамом Алиевым – Официальный сайт Президента Республики Казахстан |url=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/telefonnyi-razgovor-s-prezidentom-azerbaidzhanskoi-respubliki-ilhamom-alievym-1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616102503/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/telefonnyi-razgovor-s-prezidentom-azerbaidzhanskoi-respubliki-ilhamom-alievym-1 |archive-date=16 June 2019 |access-date=16 June 2019 |website=Akorda.kz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=На имя Главы государства Касым-Жомарта Токаева поступила телеграмма поздравления Президента Турецкой Республики Реджепа Эрдогана – Официальный сайт Президента Республики Казахстан |url=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/international_community/telegram_of_congratulations/na-imya-glavy-gosudarstva-kasym-zhomarta-tokaeva-postupila-telegramma-pozdravleniya-prezidenta-tureckoi-respubliki-redzhepa-erdogana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806083618/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/international_community/telegram_of_congratulations/na-imya-glavy-gosudarstva-kasym-zhomarta-tokaeva-postupila-telegramma-pozdravleniya-prezidenta-tureckoi-respubliki-redzhepa-erdogana |archive-date=6 August 2019 |access-date=16 June 2019 |website=Akorda.kz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Телеграмма поздравления Председателя Китайской Народной Республики Си Цзиньпина – Официальный сайт Президента Республики Казахстан |url=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/international_community/telegram_of_congratulations/telegramma-pozdravleniya-predsedatelya-kitaiskoi-narodnoi-respubliki-si-czinpina |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806083616/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/events/international_community/telegram_of_congratulations/telegramma-pozdravleniya-predsedatelya-kitaiskoi-narodnoi-respubliki-si-czinpina |archive-date=6 August 2019 |access-date=16 June 2019 |website=Akorda.kz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kassym-Jomart Tokayev wins Kazakhstan presidential vote |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/kassym-jomart-Tokayev-wins-kazakhstan-presidential-vote |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616034034/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/kassym-jomart-Tokayev-wins-kazakhstan-presidential-vote |archive-date=16 June 2019 |access-date=16 June 2019 |website=SBS News}}</ref>

==Presidency==
{{Main|Presidency of Kassym-Jomart Tokayev}}

=== Inauguration ===
On 19 March 2019, then-President [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] announced his resignation. According to the Constitution of Kazakhstan, in case of early termination of powers, the [[Chair of the Senate of Kazakhstan|Senate Chairman]] becomes President until the end of the previous term.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.akorda.kz/en/official_documents/constitution|title=The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan – Official site of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan|website=Akorda.kz|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324161425/http://www.akorda.kz/en/official_documents/constitution|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> On 20 March, Tokayev officially took office as president.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-president/president-of-kazakhstan-nursultan-nazarbayev-resigns-idUSKCN1R01N1|title=Veteran Kazakh leader Nazarbayev resigns after three decades in power|work=Reuters|access-date=19 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320043009/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-president/president-of-kazakhstan-nursultan-nazarbayev-resigns-idUSKCN1R01N1|archive-date=20 March 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Inauguration" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kazakhembus.com/2019-03-20-speech-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev|title=Speech by President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev at the Joint Session of the Parliament | Embassy of Kazakhstan in Washington, D.C.|website=kazakhembus.com|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324170140/https://kazakhembus.com/2019-03-20-speech-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Immediately after the inauguration, Tokayev proposed renaming the capital city of Kazakhstan after his predecessor, and the same day the [[Parliament of Kazakhstan]] approved the renaming of Astana to [[Nur-Sultan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://regnum.ru/news/2594661.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321164437/https://regnum.ru/news/2594661.html|url-status=dead|title=Новый глава Казахстана предложил переименовать Астану в Нурсултан|archive-date=21 March 2019|website=regnum.ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bfm.ru/news/409780|title=Парламент Казахстана одобрил переименование Астаны в Нурсултан|website=BFM.ru – деловой портал|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327085749/https://www.bfm.ru/news/409780|archive-date=27 March 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] was one of the first foreign leaders to congratulate Tokayev, inviting him to visit Moscow in a joint telephone conversation with him and Nazarbayev.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/60125|title=Telephone conversation with Nursultan Nazarbayev and Kassym-Jomart Tokayev|website=President of Russia|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322135655/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/60125|archive-date=22 March 2019|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Chinese government also described Tokayev as an "old friend" and "good friend".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2019/03/20/china-welcomes-new-kazakh-leader-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-old-friend-good-friend/|title=China welcomes new Kazakh leader Kassym-Jomart Tokayev as an 'old friend and good friend'|access-date=26 March 2019|df=dmy-all|archive-date=25 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325131851/https://www.hongkongfp.com/2019/03/20/china-welcomes-new-kazakh-leader-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-old-friend-good-friend/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following his victory in the [[2019 Kazakh presidential election|2019 presidential election]], Tokayev was fully sworn as Kazakhstan's second president on 12 June 2019 at the [[Palace of Independence (Nur-Sultan)|Palace of Independence]] in Nur-Sultan, which was attended by high-ranking Kazakh officials including former president Nazarbayev himself.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Tokayev sworn in as Kazakhstan's 2nd president |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/asia/2019/06/12/Tokayev-sworn-in-as-kazakhstans-2nd-president |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US}}</ref> From there, Tokayev addressed the nation that he would serve the nation's citizens fairly, embarking that "different opinions, united nation" would be a slogan of his presidency.<ref name=":10" />

=== Term ===

==== 2019 ====
In June 2019, following a military ammo deposit blast in the town of [[Arys, Kazakhstan|Arys]] which resulted in evacuations of residents and hundreds of injuries, Tokayev launched a criminal case and ordered the Interior and Defence ministries to prevent possible more explosions, pledging that any perpetrators would be prosecuted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blast at weapons depot triggers evacuation of 44,000 amid fears unexploded shells could turn town's streets into minefields |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/kazakhstan-explosion-weapons-depot-arys-deaths-injured-evacuation-a8972506.html |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashimov |first=Aydar |title=Kazakhstan launches probe of deadly arms depot explosion |url=https://central.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_ca/features/2019/06/25/feature-01 |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=Caravanserai |language=en-GB}}</ref> Tokayev paid visit to the town on 25 June, touring buildings that were affected by the blast as well as meeting with hospitalised victims.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Syundyukova |first=Nazerke |title=Tokayev visited Arys city after explosion military warehouse |url=https://qazaqtimes.com/en/article/64350 |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=qazaqtimes.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Tokayev delivered his first State of the Nation Address on 2 September 2019. The address focused on strengthening civil society and social security, supporting domestic business and economic development.<ref name="Tokayev20">{{cite web |title=Kazakh President's first state-of-nation address emphasises public involvement in government, say experts |url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakh-presidents-first-state-of-nation-address-emphasises-public-involvement-in-government-say-experts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813181442/https://astanatimes.com/2019/09/kazakh-presidents-first-state-of-nation-address-emphasises-public-involvement-in-government-say-experts/ |archive-date=13 August 2020 |access-date=9 September 2020 |website=The Astana Times}}</ref>

In October 2019, it was announced that all potential ministerial candidates needed the approval of Nazarbayev before being appointed, with the exception of Minister of Defence, Interior Minister and Foreign Minister.<ref>{{cite web |author= |title=Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev to Confirm Ministers, Governors: Decree |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019-10-21/kazakhstans-nazarbayev-to-confirm-ministers-governors-decree |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106023811/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2019-10-21/kazakhstans-nazarbayev-to-confirm-ministers-governors-decree |archive-date=6 November 2019 |access-date=16 December 2019 |via=usnews.com |agency=Reuters}}</ref>

After the [[Bek Air Flight 2100]] crash, Tokayev declared the following day, 28 December 2019, a [[national day of mourning]] and said that "all those responsible will be severely punished in accordance with the law."<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Tokayev declares December 28 a national day of mourning |url=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3598991 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317113924/https://www.inform.kz/en/president-Tokayev-declares-december-28-a-national-day-of-mourning_a3598991 |archive-date=17 March 2022 |access-date=28 December 2019 |website=www.inform.kz}}</ref> He also ordered the suspension of the flight authorisation of [[Bek Air]], the domestic airline involved.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bek Air grounded after fatal Fokker 100 accident at Almaty |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/bek-air-grounded-after-fatal-fokker-100-accident-at-almaty/135945.article |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227111451/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/bek-air-grounded-after-fatal-fokker-100-accident-at-almaty/135945.article |archive-date=27 December 2019 |access-date=27 December 2019 |website=[[FlightGlobal]]}}</ref>

[[File:Kassym-Jomart Tokayev and Vladimir Putin (2019-04-03) 03.jpg|thumb|Tokayev and Putin in the [[Kremlin]], 4 April 2019]]

==== 2020 ====
Following the [[2020 Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes|Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashes]] which broke out in February 2020, Tokayev fired the governor, deputy governor and police chief of the southern [[Jambyl Region]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Violence in Kazakhstan Turns Deadly for Dungans |work=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/violence-in-kazakhstan-turns-deadly-for-dungans/ |url-status=live |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217203854/https://thediplomat.com/2020/02/violence-in-kazakhstan-turns-deadly-for-dungans/ |archive-date=17 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ethnic violence blows hole in Kazakhstan's narrative of tolerance |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/2/10/ethnic-violence-blows-hole-in-kazakhstans-narrative-of-tolerance |url-status=live |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108225234/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/2/10/ethnic-violence-blows-hole-in-kazakhstans-narrative-of-tolerance |archive-date=8 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kazakhstan: Trial over deadly ethnic violence leaves bitter taste for Dungans |work=[[Eurasianet]] |url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-trial-over-deadly-ethnic-violence-leaves-bitter-taste-for-dungans |url-status=live |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108145531/https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-trial-over-deadly-ethnic-violence-leaves-bitter-taste-for-dungans |archive-date=8 January 2022}}</ref> Tokayev blamed "two criminal groups" fighting over contraband for the deadly [[ethnic violence]] between ethnic [[Kazakhs]] and the relatively wealthier [[Dungan people|Dungan]] minority.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kazakh president says smuggler gangs behind deadly ethnic clashes |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-president-violence-idUSKBN20O1SU |url-status=live |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108145530/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-president-violence-idUSKBN20O1SU |archive-date=8 January 2022}}</ref>

In an interview to Informburo news agency, Tokayev commented on the fate of [[Mukhtar Dzhakishev]], saying "this issue is exclusively within the competence of the court. Of course, I am aware that Dzhakishev has repeatedly applied for parole on ill-health. The session of the court of first instance will be held on 3 March. Let's wait for its decision, which I am sure will be fair."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Касым-Жомарт Токаев: Все национальности, проживающие в Казахстане, по сути являются единой нацией |url=https://informburo.kz/interview/kasym-zhomart-tokaev-vse-nacionalnosti-prozhivayushchie-v-kazahstane-po-suti-yavlyayutsya-edinoy-naciey.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005182113/https://informburo.kz/interview/kasym-zhomart-tokaev-vse-nacionalnosti-prozhivayushchie-v-kazahstane-po-suti-yavlyayutsya-edinoy-naciey.html |archive-date=5 October 2021 |access-date=2021-10-05 |website=informburo.kz |language=ru}}</ref> On 3 March 2020, the Semey City Court upheld the motion to grant parole to Dzhakishev. He served a 14-year prison sentence since 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kazakh court frees ex-CEO of state nuclear firm |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-dzhakishev-idUSKBN20Q0I8 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005182113/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-dzhakishev-idUSKBN20Q0I8 |archive-date=5 October 2021}}</ref>

On 2 May 2020, Nazarbayev's daughter [[Dariga Nazarbayeva]] was removed from the Senate and her role as the chair by Tokayev.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |title=Daughter of former Kazakh leader leaves key Senate post |language=en-US |website=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-nazarbayeva/daughter-of-former-kazakh-leader-leaves-senate-speaker-post-idUSKBN22E080 |url-status=live |access-date=2020-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503172409/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-nazarbayeva/daughter-of-former-kazakh-leader-leaves-senate-speaker-post-idUSKBN22E080 |archive-date=3 May 2020}}</ref> Many theories arose that this was a sign of either Tokayev was expanding his political influence or a growing feud between the ruling elite.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Welle (www.dw.com) |first=Deutsche |title=Президент Казахстана снял дочь Назарбаева с поста спикера сената {{!}} DW {{!}} 02.05.2020 |url=https://www.dw.com/ru/%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BB-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%8C-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%81-%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0/a-53309602 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503090258/https://www.dw.com/ru/%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BB-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%8C-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%81-%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0/a-53309602 |archive-date=3 May 2020 |access-date=2020-05-02 |website=DW.COM |language=ru-RU}}</ref>

In his second State of the Nation Address on 1 September 2020, Tokayev unveiled seven reforms with most focus on economic recovery. From there, he spoke of optimizing Kazakhstan's social system, increasing productivity and a greener economy, leveling business conditions, investing more in education and overseeing the state's administration as it becomes more sensitive and accountable.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumenov |first=Almaz |title=Kazakhstan: Presidential address fails to excite |url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-presidential-address-fails-to-excite |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}}</ref>

==== 2021 ====
In autumn 2020, Tokayev announced date for [[2021 Kazakh legislative election|2021 legislative elections]], where he asserted that the electoral and political process had been liberalised to allow for greater involvement in civil society and that the newly incoming parliament convocation will focus on support for socio-economic reforms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumenov |first=Almaz |title=Kazakhstan: Parliamentary elections scheduled for January 10 |url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-parliamentary-elections-scheduled-for-january-10 |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}}</ref> During election day, Tokayev said that the government would resign in accordance with law and that he would consult with newly elected MPs and party leaders in regard to the appointments of Prime Minister and cabinet members.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Satubaldina |first=Assel |title=President Tokayev Casts Vote at Kazakh Parliamentary Election |url=https://astanatimes.com/2021/01/president-Tokayev-casts-vote-at-kazakh-parliamentary-election/ |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref> In the aftermath of vote, the ruling [[Nur Otan]] despite losing dozen seats, topped the results in which the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE) citied that the elections "lacked genuine competition".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Putz |first=Catherine |title=Nur Otan Tops Kazakh Parliamentary Election That 'Lacked Genuine Competition' |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/01/nur-otan-tops-kazakh-parliamentary-election-that-lacked-genuine-competition/ |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref> At the opening session of the [[7th Parliament of Kazakhstan|7th Parliament]] held on 15 January 2021, Tokayev reappointed [[Asqar Mamin]] as the Prime Minister.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Askar Mamin reappointed as Kazakh prime minister after election |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kazakhstan-primeminister-idUSKBN29K148 |access-date=2022-03-22}}</ref>

On 28 April 2021, former president Nazarbayev resigned from the post as the chairman of the [[Assembly of People of Kazakhstan]] (QHA). From there, he proposed Tokayev to succeed him which was supported by the QHA members. Tokayev, in turn, suggested Nazarbayev to be named as the "Honorary Chairman", saying that the status should "rightfully belong" to him due to a "historical merit."<ref>{{Cite web|last=|title=Назарбаев покидает пост главы Ассамблеи народа Казахстана|url=https://forbes.kz//process/appointments/nazarbaev_pokidaet_post_glavyi_assamblei_naroda_kazahstana/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=www.forbes.kz|language=ru|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428230921/https://forbes.kz//process/appointments/nazarbaev_pokidaet_post_glavyi_assamblei_naroda_kazahstana/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 23 November 2021, Kazakhstan's First President Nursultan Nazarbayev's spokesperson, Aidos Ukibay, announced that the former president will hand over the powers of the Nur Otan party chair to current President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev.

==== 2022 ====
[[File:SCO meeting (2022-09-16).jpg|thumb|Tokayev at the 2022 [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]] summit]]
Following the [[2022 Kazakh unrest]], Tokayev dismissed Prime Minister [[Asqar Mamin]] as well as [[Mamin Cabinet|his cabinet]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan protests: government resigns amid rare outbreak of unrest|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas|access-date=2022-01-05|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=5 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105122522/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas|url-status=live}}</ref> While initially attempting to calm the public in early stages of the protests by promising to unveil his new proposed reforms<ref>{{Cite web|last=Запара|first=Екатерина|title=Токаев пообещал предложить план реформ на фоне беспорядков в Казахстане|url=https://iz.ru/1274103/2022-01-07/tokaev-poobeshchal-predlozhit-plan-reform-na-fone-besporiadkov-v-kazakhstane|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Известия|language=ru|archive-date=20 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120214836/https://iz.ru/1274103/2022-01-07/tokaev-poobeshchal-predlozhit-plan-reform-na-fone-besporiadkov-v-kazakhstane|url-status=live}}</ref> and introduced price controls for liquefied natural gas, diesel and gasoline, as well as for socially significant goods,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Кадакова|first=Екатерина|title=Президент Казахстана отправил правительство в отставку и ввел государственное регулирование цен на сжиженный газ, дизель и бензин|url=https://babel.ua/ru/news/74928-prezident-kazahstana-otpravil-pravitelstvo-v-otstavku-i-vvel-gosudarstvennoe-regulirovanie-cen-na-szhizhennyy-gaz-dizel-i-benzin|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-20|website=babel.ua|language=ru|archive-date=20 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120214836/https://babel.ua/ru/news/74928-prezident-kazahstana-otpravil-pravitelstvo-v-otstavku-i-vvel-gosudarstvennoe-regulirovanie-cen-na-szhizhennyy-gaz-dizel-i-benzin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Kazakhstan president declares state of emergency in protest-hit areas|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas|access-date=4 January 2022|archive-date=5 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105122522/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas|url-status=live}}</ref> Tokayev issued orders for the army to use [[Deadly force|lethal force]] against protesters, and to "shoot to kill, without warning."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kazakh president gives shoot-to-kill order to quell protests|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/7/kazakh-president-gives-shoot-to-kill-order-to-quell-protests|access-date=2022-01-12|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=12 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112235207/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/7/kazakh-president-gives-shoot-to-kill-order-to-quell-protests|url-status=live}}</ref> He also appointed [[Alihan Smaiylov]], who served as Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister prior, as the new PM.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chaudhury|first=Dipanjan Roy|title=Kazakh President announces action plan to address damages caused by terrorists|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/kazakh-president-announces-action-plan-to-address-damages-caused-by-terrorists/articleshow/88853377.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2022-01-20|archive-date=17 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317113909/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/kazakh-president-announces-action-plan-to-address-damages-caused-by-terrorists/articleshow/88853377.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 16 March 2022, Tokayev proposed constitutional reforms to limit the powers of his office, saying the country needed to switch from "superpresidential" rule to a presidential republic with a strong parliament.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kazakh President Tokayev lays out constitutional reform plan|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/kazakh-president-Tokayev-lays-out-constitutional-reform-plan-2022-03-16/access-date=2022-03-17}}</ref>

Early elections of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan were held on November 20, 2022, in which Kassym-Jomart Tokayev won with 81.31% of the votes.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tokayev wins Kazakh presidential election with 81.3% of vote|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/tokayev-wins-kazakh-presidential-election-with-813-vote-2022-11-21}}</ref>

===Domestic actions===
After assuming office, Tokayev outlined main directions for Kazakhstan which were increasing the incomes of population, eradication of corruption, judicial reforms, creating new jobs with decent wages, solving housing issues, fair social policies, regional developments, spiritualism, foreign national interests and youth opportunities.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Масанов|first=Юрий|title=Токаев назвал десять главных направлений своей работы в должности президента|url=https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-nazval-desyat-glavnyh-napravleniy-svoey-raboty-v-dolzhnosti-prezidenta-91228.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-04|website=informburo.kz|language=ru|archive-date=4 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904003119/https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-nazval-desyat-glavnyh-napravleniy-svoey-raboty-v-dolzhnosti-prezidenta-91228.html}}</ref> In his first month of presidency, Tokayev made several reorganisations and appointments within the administration and the ministerial cabinet with some top officials such as Presidential Administration head [[Bakhytzhan Sagintayev]] and National Security Committee chairman [[Karim Massimov]] keeping their posts while others being reshuffled or forced to stepped down.<ref>{{Cite web|last=ТОГУЗБАЕВ|first=Казис|title="Хаотичные назначения", "разумная преемственность". Кадровые решения Токаева глазами наблюдателей|url=https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-toqayevs-decisions-regarding-the-government-and-their-perceptions/30006865.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-04|website=Радио Азаттык|language=ru|archive-date=4 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904003118/https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-toqayevs-decisions-regarding-the-government-and-their-perceptions/30006865.html}}</ref>

====Political reforms====
{{See also|Politics of Kazakhstan}}
[[File:Tokayev with officials, January 2021.jpg|thumb|Tokayev meeting with government officials and Mazhilis MPs, 15 January 2021|231x231px]]
In May 2020, Tokayev signed the laws "On the procedure for organizing and holding peaceful assemblies in the Republic of Kazakhstan", "On introducing amendments to the Constitutional Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan", "On Elections in the Republic of Kazakhstan", and "On introducing amendments and additions to the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On Political Parties".<ref name="Reforms">{{cite web |title=Authorities of Kazakhstan carry out political reforms |url=https://www.eureporter.co/frontpage/2020/06/08/authorities-of-kazakhstan-carry-out-political-reforms/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=d3569d8f33f874d23bbe567ae675971830337cf7-1593463999-0-AcsAPsyc4WTNzJ3_iFXhU8UUuLV1K8Ro-_nrSZUNgImKJxZnUib4ttj5oqCxU86Vj_JsO38LlT6nabEZGKfx-97jpoViWYGu10mDPATDy129XY7A3qUkekBbCS058RntqdYXgBGJgAphV8yNYHONowv9xLYHYd-8poAakukJHsuy37SPH0faolfQbGGX-XVKklaxwp0YXSlw_SE9Lm09j1ZfJuoYnwTmYVBxQjTQlWkG2yGlwCIGCQ0gf3qviG3SEPbv43TpbCn-E9sOwPc0joti0s5a50zOmHJmfpK2tYqUe68YUKbbHT6HLs85zwfIv5ZjyCjm973F88eax87kjtqleZjivfJfK4evV29iX0Pk6px1_xJ5mns1hf0l-EJItw |website=EUreporter |access-date=29 June 2020 |archive-date=30 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630015140/https://www.eureporter.co/frontpage/2020/06/08/authorities-of-kazakhstan-carry-out-political-reforms/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=d3569d8f33f874d23bbe567ae675971830337cf7-1593463999-0-AcsAPsyc4WTNzJ3_iFXhU8UUuLV1K8Ro-_nrSZUNgImKJxZnUib4ttj5oqCxU86Vj_JsO38LlT6nabEZGKfx-97jpoViWYGu10mDPATDy129XY7A3qUkekBbCS058RntqdYXgBGJgAphV8yNYHONowv9xLYHYd-8poAakukJHsuy37SPH0faolfQbGGX-XVKklaxwp0YXSlw_SE9Lm09j1ZfJuoYnwTmYVBxQjTQlWkG2yGlwCIGCQ0gf3qviG3SEPbv43TpbCn-E9sOwPc0joti0s5a50zOmHJmfpK2tYqUe68YUKbbHT6HLs85zwfIv5ZjyCjm973F88eax87kjtqleZjivfJfK4evV29iX0Pk6px1_xJ5mns1hf0l-EJItw |url-status=live }}</ref> The new laws are an important part of the measures to strengthen the state's democratic foundations, and enhance the role of civil society.<ref name="Reforms" /> In his State of the Nation Address, he emphasised that "Kazakhstan must create a [[multi-party system]] to build a modern, effective state", also saying that the ruling [[Nur Otan]] party should collaborate more with other parties.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kazakhstan to strive for multi-party system: President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/kazakhstan-to-strive-for-multi-party-system-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev/articleshow/77983108.cms|access-date=2021-04-28|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424071159/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/kazakhstan-to-strive-for-multi-party-system-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev/articleshow/77983108.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=New reforms are taking place in Kazakhstan under the leadership of President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev|url=https://www.helsinkitimes.fi/world-int/18013-new-reforms-are-taking-place-in-kazakhstan-under-the-leadership-of-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev.html|access-date=2021-06-01|website=www.helsinkitimes.fi|language=en-gb|archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922022832/https://www.helsinkitimes.fi/world-int/18013-new-reforms-are-taking-place-in-kazakhstan-under-the-leadership-of-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===== The concept of a "Listening State" =====
One of the significant elements of the President's public policy was to propose the concept of a "Listening State", where the public administration would follow the basic principle of "not a citizen for the state, but a state for the citizen". Tokayev advocated political reforms that would promote the concept of a "state that listens" to civil society creating a constructive dialogue.<ref name="Tokayev20" /> Tokayev initiated the establishment of the new National Council of Public Trust to facilitate this dialogue.<ref name="Tokayev20" /> He also called for [[direct election]]s for the [[Akim|äkıms]] (local heads) of rural districts, townships, and villages to be held in 2021 to which he signed decree on 14 September 2020 of the implementation of National Plan of Measures which set tasks for the drafting of constitutional amendments that would allow for rural äkım direct elections as well as the development of local government and its functions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Указ Президента Республики Казахстан от 14 сентября 2020 года № 413 "О мерах по реализации Послания Главы государства народу Казахстана от 1 сентября 2020 года "Казахстан в новой реальности: время действий" |url=https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=33374726 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214158/https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=33374726 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-01 |website=online.zakon.kz |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=INFORM.KZ |title=Выборы сельских акимов в Казахстане пройдут в 2021 году |url=https://www.inform.kz/ru/article/3698565 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317113924/https://www.inform.kz/ru/vybory-sel-skih-akimov-v-kazahstane-proydut-v-2021-godu_a3698565 |archive-date=17 March 2022 |access-date=2021-06-01 |website=www.inform.kz |language=ru}}</ref>

After the [[2021 Kazakh legislative election|2021 legislative elections]] which saw three of five contesting parties retain their seats in the [[Mazhilis]], Tokayev at the opening first session of the [[7th Parliament of Kazakhstan|7th Parliament]] proposed to reduce the [[electoral threshold]] from 7% to 5%, stating it would encourage more registered parties to participate in the future parliamentary elections as well as the vote option "Against all" to be re-included in the ballots once again.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев счел необходимым снизить барьер для прохождения в парламент|url=https://www.interfax.ru/world/745248|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Interfax.ru|language=ru|archive-date=15 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315110235/https://www.interfax.ru/world/745248|url-status=live}}</ref> As the [[Parliament of Kazakhstan|Parliament]] ratified Tokayev's proposed constitutional amendments, he signed the laws into place on 25 May 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=New Law on Elections Aims to Engage Kazakh Citizens in Political Institutions, Experts Say|url=https://astanatimes.com/2021/05/new-law-on-elections-aims-to-engage-kazakh-citizens-in-political-institutions-experts-say/|access-date=2021-06-01|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526231335/https://astanatimes.com/2021/05/new-law-on-elections-aims-to-engage-kazakh-citizens-in-political-institutions-experts-say/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===== Resignation from the Amanat party =====
On 26 April 2022, he resigned from the Amanat party. Later, in a referendum held on 5 June 2022, a norm was introduced in the Constitution which stated that the President of Kazakhstan must not belong to a political party while exercising his powers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Шаяхметова |first=Жанна |title=President Tokayev Steps Down as Chairman of Kazakhstan’s Ruling Party Amanat Following Promise to Limit President’s Powers |url=https://astanatimes.com/2022/04/president-tokayev-steps-down-as-chairman-of-kazakhstans-ruling-party-amanat-following-promise-to-limit-presidents-powers/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref>

===== The establishment of the National Kurultai =====
On 14 June 2022, the President signed a decree establishing the National Kurultai, a new civic institution with more relevant and broader functions to replace the National Council of Public Trust (NCPT).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Айжан |title=National Kurultai established in Kazakhstan - Kazakh culture and traditions,Nature,Kazakh food,Nomads,Kazakhstan,Qazaqstan {{!}} Jibek Joly |url=https://jjtv.kz/en/news/society/21371-national-kurultai-established-in-kazakhstan |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Qazaq TV |language=en}}</ref> On 16 June 2022, the first meeting of the National Kurultai was held in [[Ulytau]].

===== Early presidential election, 20 November 2022 =====
On November 20, 2022, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev won the early presidential election with 81.31% of the vote and was re-elected as the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kazakh President Tokayev wins re-election with 81.3% of vote |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/tokayev-wins-kazakh-presidential-election-with-813-vote-2022-11-21/ |access-date=2023-03-27}}</ref> The inauguration ceremony was held on November 26, 2022.

==== Capital punishment ====
{{See also|Capital punishment in Kazakhstan}}
In December 2019, Tokayev announced that Kazakhstan would join the [[Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], after the issue was raised by Kazakh human rights activists and experts during discussions at the meetings of the National Council of Public Trust. From there, Tokayev set the task for the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] to start the process of joining the Second Optional Protocol which would set measures in abolishing of [[Capital punishment|death penalty]] in the country.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Shayakhmetova|first=Zhanna|title=Kazakhstan Joins Second Optional Protocol to ICCPR Aiming at Abolishing Death Penalty|url=https://astanatimes.com/2020/09/kazakhstan-joins-second-optional-protocol-to-iccpr-aiming-at-abolishing-death-penalty/|access-date=2021-06-01|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220036/https://astanatimes.com/2020/09/kazakhstan-joins-second-optional-protocol-to-iccpr-aiming-at-abolishing-death-penalty/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Kazakhstan abolishes death penalty|url=https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-abolishes-death-penalty/a-56117176|access-date=2021-06-01|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215944/https://www.dw.com/en/kazakhstan-abolishes-death-penalty/a-56117176|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the [[Seventy-fifth session of the United Nations General Assembly]], Tokayev spoke to the Assembly, saying that his decision was driven "to fulfill a fundamental right to life and human dignity." Kazakh Representative to the UN [[Kairat Umarov]] signed the protocol on 23 September 2020.<ref name=":1" /> On 2 January 2021, Tokayev signed decree approved by the Parliament in abolishing death penalty in Kazakhstan.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan scraps death penalty after nearly 20-year moratorium|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/2/kazakhstan-abolishes-death-penalty-after-near-20-year-moratorium|access-date=2021-06-01|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108071525/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/2/kazakhstan-abolishes-death-penalty-after-near-20-year-moratorium|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Economic reforms and policies ====
{{See also|Economy of Kazakhstan}}
During Tokayev's first months in office, in an attempt to reduce burden on socially vulnerable segments for the population; government bailouts for banks were put to an end and a system of loan forgiveness was implemented.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Gizitdinov|first1=Nariman|last2=Halpin|first2=Anthony|title=Kazakh Leader to Wipe Out Debt of the Poor, End Bank Rescues|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-26/kazakh-leader-to-wipe-out-debts-of-the-poor-end-bank-bailouts|access-date=2021-06-23|website=www.bloomberg.com|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624215140/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-26/kazakh-leader-to-wipe-out-debts-of-the-poor-end-bank-bailouts|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев подписал указ о списании части задолженности по кредитам для отдельных категорий граждан|url=https://rus.azattyq.org/a/30021698.html|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Радио Азаттык|language=ru|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203653/https://rus.azattyq.org/a/30021698.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, the salaries for teachers, doctors and social workers were increased.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Satubaldina|first=Assel|title=Tokayev Chairs Third Meeting of National Council of Public Trust to Restructure Education System|url=https://astanatimes.com/2020/05/Tokayev-chairs-third-meeting-of-national-council-of-public-trust-to-restructure-education-system/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214104/https://astanatimes.com/2020/05/Tokayev-chairs-third-meeting-of-national-council-of-public-trust-to-restructure-education-system/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In amidst of the [[COVID-19 recession|worsening economic situation]] worldwide as a result of [[COVID-19 pandemic]], Tokayev instructed the government to form an anti-crisis plan which would fulfill "all social obligations".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев после совещания с правительством заявил об "ухудшении экономической ситуации"|url=https://rus.azattyq.org/a/30477222.html|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Радио Азаттык|language=ru|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204423/https://rus.azattyq.org/a/30477222.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A series of packages were unveiled in response, which aimed at easing burden for private sector by providing cheaper credit, tax incentives, cutting back on audits and promoting employment.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kumenov|first=Almaz|title=Kazakhstan outlines plan to shelter economy from COVID-19|url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-outlines-plan-to-shelter-economy-from-covid-19|access-date=2021-06-23|website=eurasianet.org|language=en|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624211705/https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-outlines-plan-to-shelter-economy-from-covid-19|url-status=live}}</ref> As the pandemic progressed, inflation for goods began to grow leading to an increase in social and labour discontent particularly in western Kazakhstan.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kalmurzaeva|first=Elvira|title=Inflation Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic Fuels Labor Unrest in Kazakhstan|url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/08/inflation-amid-the-covid-19-pandemic-fuels-labor-unrest-in-kazakhstan/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-03|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903012225/https://thediplomat.com/2021/08/inflation-amid-the-covid-19-pandemic-fuels-labor-unrest-in-kazakhstan/}}</ref> Tokayev, in response, blamed the government and the central bank for being too "powerless" and from there, urged them to reduce the inflation rate, noting the surplus amount of the money supply that exists in the state budget.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев: Мы приняли решение – государство не должно помогать банкирам|url=https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-my-prinyali-reshenie-gosudarstvo-ne-dolzhno-pomogat-bankiram|access-date=2021-09-03|website=informburo.kz|language=ru|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903012226/https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-my-prinyali-reshenie-gosudarstvo-ne-dolzhno-pomogat-bankiram|url-status=live}}</ref>

In September 2021, Tokayev called for an increase of the [[Minimum wage in Kazakhstan|national minimum wage]] for the first time since 2018, citing the global pandemic that affected the purchasing power for citizens and asserted that it would lead to growth in domestic consumption.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan to raise minimum wage from 42,500 to 60,000, President orders|url=https://akipress.com/news:662032:Kazakhstan_to_raise_minimum_wage_from_42,500_to_60,000,_President_orders/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-03|website=akipress.com|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903012223/https://akipress.com/news:662032:Kazakhstan_to_raise_minimum_wage_from_42,500_to_60,000,_President_orders/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=ВААЛЬ|first=ТАМАРА|title=Минимальная зарплата в Казахстане с 1 января 2022 года вырастет до 60 тыс. тенге|url=https://vlast.kz/novosti/46448-minimalnaa-zarplata-v-kazahstane-s-1-anvara-2022-goda-vyrastet-do-60-tys-tenge.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-03|website=vlast.kz|language=ru|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219032111/https://vlast.kz/novosti/46448-minimalnaa-zarplata-v-kazahstane-s-1-anvara-2022-goda-vyrastet-do-60-tys-tenge.html}}</ref> In terms of wage fund, Tokayev instructed the government to implement soft measures in encouraging businesses to raise salaries for employees by pledging for state-supported benefits.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев поручил повысить минимальную заработную плату до 60 тысяч тенге со следующего года|url=https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-poruchil-povysit-minimalnuyu-zarabotnuyu-platu-do-60-tysyach-tenge-so-sleduyushego-goda|access-date=2021-09-03|website=informburo.kz|language=ru|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903012223/https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-poruchil-povysit-minimalnuyu-zarabotnuyu-platu-do-60-tysyach-tenge-so-sleduyushego-goda|url-status=live}}</ref>

===== Credit amnesty =====
On 26 June 2019, the President signed a Decree "On Measures to Reduce the Debt Burden of Citizens of the Republic of Kazakhstan" to provide timely assistance to citizens with financial difficulties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About 1.4 million citizens may receive a tax amnesty — Ministry of Finance - Official Information Source of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan |url=https://primeminister.kz/en/news/about-14-million-citizens-may-receive-a-tax-amnesty-ministry-of-finance-17799 |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=primeminister.kz |language=en}}</ref> The credit amnesty was a one-time measure and affected families with many children, disabled people, and recipients of state-targeted social assistance. The amount of loans to be written off had to be no more than 3 million tenge (around $6,500) as of 1 June 2019.

==== COVID-19 response ====
{{See also|COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan|COVID-19 vaccination in Kazakhstan}}

Due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Kazakhstan|outbreak of the COVID-19]] in Kazakhstan in March 2020, Tokayev enacted a state of emergency in the country on 15 March.<ref>{{Cite web |title=COVID-19: Current Situation and Implications for KAP |url=https://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/media/view/covid19_tekushchaya_situatsiya_i_posledstviya_dlya_kazatomproma |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=www.kazatomprom.kz |language=en}}</ref> During his national televised address, Tokayev stressed that he had signed a special decree on measures to ensure the stability of the state functioning, citing that the documents allow an increase the efficiency of state bodies, strengthen the vertical of power and make all necessary decisions promptly in a manual mode.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazakh President Addresses The Nation on State of Emergency |url=https://old.qazaqtv.com/en/view/society/page_209198_kazakh-president-addresses-the-nation-on-state-of-emergency |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=old.qazaqtv.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Қасым-Жомарт Тоқаев Қазақстан халқына үндеу жасады |url=https://baribar.kz/124978/qasym-zhomart-Tokayev-qazaqstan-halqyna-undeu-zhasady/ |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=Бәрі бар |language=kk}}</ref> In an attempt to curb the spread of the virus, Tokayev ordered the cancellations of both the [[Nowruz]] celebrations as well as the [[Victory Day (9 May)|Victory Day]] military parade in honour of the 75th anniversary of the end of [[World War II]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazakh President Qasym-Jomart Toqayev Cancels May 9 Parade Amid Concerns Over COVID-19– Spokesman |url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/amp/world/kazakh-president-qasym-jomart-toqayev-cancels-862235.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317062612/https://www.urdupoint.com/en/amp/world/kazakh-president-qasym-jomart-toqayev-cancels-862235.html |archive-date=17 March 2020 |access-date=2020-03-17 |website=UrduPoint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazakhstan Cancels Norouz, Military Celebrations To Ward Off Coronavirus |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-cancels-norouz-military-celebrations-to-ward-off-coronavirus/30483422.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507005709/https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-cancels-norouz-military-celebrations-to-ward-off-coronavirus/30483422.html |archive-date=7 May 2020 |access-date=2020-03-17 |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=В Казахстане из-за коронавируса отменили парад к 75-летию Победы– РИА Новости, 12.03.2020 |url=https://ria.ru/amp/20200312/1568475464.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611184427/https://ria.ru/amp/20200312/1568475464.html |archive-date=11 June 2020 |access-date=2020-03-17 |website=ria.ru}}</ref> During the period, the nationwide lockdowns were prolonged twice before being lifted in May 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kazakhstan ends state of emergency; provinces to oversee lifting of lockdown |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-kazakhstan-idUSKBN22N0S3 |access-date=2022-03-23}}</ref> Just a month later in July 2020, Tokayev reintroduced restrictions in Kazakhstan which lasted until August 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kazakhstan plans two-week lockdown from July 5 over COVID-19 |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-kazakhstan-idUSKBN2425Y6 |access-date=2022-03-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazakhstan to extend national lockdown by two weeks |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-07/29/c_139249277.htm |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=www.xinhuanet.com}}</ref> In autumn 2020, Tokayev assessed that the lockdowns would be avoided depending on the levels of public mask and social distancing compliance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Satubaldina |first=Assel |title=We Can Prevent Another Stringent Lockdown, Says Tokayev |url=https://astanatimes.com/2020/10/we-can-prevent-another-stringent-lockdown-says-Tokayev/ |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref>

As a proponent of [[COVID-19 vaccine|COVID-19 vaccination]], Tokayev blamed Healthcare Ministry and the entire government as during a slow jab pace in the early months of the [[COVID-19 vaccination in Kazakhstan|vaccine administering]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumenov |first=Almaz |title=Kazakhstan: Officials under fire over vaccination failures |url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-officials-under-fire-over-vaccination-failures |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}}</ref> In an effort to boost public confidence, Tokayev received his dose of a Kazakh-manufactured [[Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine|Sputnik V]] COVID-19 vaccine in April 2021, to which according to a spokesperson that Tokayev felt no side effects in result.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kazakh president get Russian COVID-19 vaccine shot |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/kazakhstan-president-vaccine-idUSL1N2LZ0R0 |access-date=2022-03-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Kazakh President Gets Vaccine To Boost Lagging Jab Drive |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/kazakh-president-gets-vaccine-to-boost-lagging-jab-drive-01617717605 |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=www.barrons.com |publisher=AFP-Agence France Presse |language=en-US}}</ref> Tokayev also vowed to crackdown on fraudulent [[Immunity passport|vaccine passports]] and provide Kazakh citizens broader options for different vaccine manufacturers.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=President Tokayev Promises Swift Clampdown on Fake Vaccination Passports, Demands Wider Choice of Vaccines |url=https://astanatimes.com/2021/07/president-Tokayev-promises-swift-clampdown-on-fake-vaccination-passports-demands-wider-choice-of-vaccines/ |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref>

==== Education ====
{{See also|Education in Kazakhstan}}
At the teacher's conference held in August 2019, Tokayev announced that the average salary for schoolteachers in Kazakhstan would be increased by double within four years. He also instructed the [[Ministry of Education and Science (Kazakhstan)|Ministry of Education and Science]] to develop and launch special programs to overcome the academic gap of children from low-income families and schools in socially troubled areas, noting the need of overcome educational inequality specially between rural and urban areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vassilenko|first=Diana|title=Kazakh President to increase teachers' salaries twofold to improve national education quality|url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/08/kazakh-president-to-increase-teachers-salaries-twofold-to-improve-national-education-quality/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214739/https://astanatimes.com/2019/08/kazakh-president-to-increase-teachers-salaries-twofold-to-improve-national-education-quality/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Energy and cryptocurrency ====
{{See also|Energy in Kazakhstan|Cryptocurrency mining}}
Tokayev expressed the need for Kazakhstan to have a nuclear power plant in April 2019, claiming that the country would face an electricity deficit by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Мемлекет басшысы Қасым-Жомарт Тоқаев Семей қаласының жұртшылық өкілдерімен кездесті |url=https://www.akorda.kz/kz/events/astana_kazakhstan/working_trips/memleket-basshysy-kasym-zhomart-tokaev-semei-kalasynyn-zhurtshylyk-okilderimen-kezdesti |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=Akorda.kz |language=kk}}</ref> From early 2021, energy consumption in Kazakhstan sharply rose by 8% as a result of increase in cryptocurrency mining from farmers fleeing China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumenov |first=Almaz |title=Kazakhstan seeks to buy electricity from Russia amid crypto shortages |url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-seeks-to-buy-electricity-from-russia-amid-crypto-shortages |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}}</ref>

In May 2021, Tokayev announced the Low-Carbon Development Concept, a national project which seeks to reduce Kazakhstan's dependency on coal by development electric power industry and the country's energy balance by 2035.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=President Tokayev Calls for More Sustainable Solutions in Extractive Industry |url=https://astanatimes.com/2021/05/president-Tokayev-calls-for-more-sustainable-solutions-in-extractive-industry/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214228/https://astanatimes.com/2021/05/president-Tokayev-calls-for-more-sustainable-solutions-in-extractive-industry/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref>

==== Environment ====
{{See also|Environment of Kazakhstan}}
In his inaugural speech, Tokayev called environmental issues "concerning" and proposed a unified policy by adopting a new code which would protect the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Севостьянова|first=Ирина|title="Граждане желают справедливости". Речь Токаева на вступлении в должность президента Казахстана|url=https://forbes.kz//process/nachalas_inauguratsiya_prezidenta_kazahstana/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=www.forbes.kz|language=ru|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215841/https://forbes.kz//process/nachalas_inauguratsiya_prezidenta_kazahstana/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Newly elected Kazakh President to focus on economic prosperity, multi-vector foreign policy and fight against corruption|url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/newly-elected-kazakh-president-to-focus-on-economic-prosperity-multi-vector-foreign-policy-and-fight-against-corruption/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215609/https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/newly-elected-kazakh-president-to-focus-on-economic-prosperity-multi-vector-foreign-policy-and-fight-against-corruption/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 17 June 2019, he signed a decree forming the [[Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources (Kazakhstan)|Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources]], appointing [[Magzum Myrzagaliev]] to the post.<ref>{{Cite web|last=tengrinews.kz|title=Министерство экологии, геологии и природных ресурсов создали в Казахстане|url=https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/ministerstvo-ekologii-geologii-prirodnyih-resursov-sozdali-371527/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Tengrinews.kz|language=ru|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215607/https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/ministerstvo-ekologii-geologii-prirodnyih-resursov-sozdali-371527/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Boteu|first=Saltanat|title=Kazakh President creates new trade and ecology ministries, appoints new ministers|url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/kazakh-president-creates-new-trade-and-ecology-ministries-appoints-new-ministers/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215608/https://astanatimes.com/2019/06/kazakh-president-creates-new-trade-and-ecology-ministries-appoints-new-ministers/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Ministry was given the authority to protect the environment, oversee the rational use of natural resources, geology and reproduction of the mineral and raw materials base, as well as the treatment of solid household waste, water and wastewater, and forestry.<ref>{{Cite web|title=В Казахстане появится министерство экологии, геологии и природных ресурсов|url=https://kapital.kz/naznacheniya/79094/v-kazakhstane-poyavitsya-ministerstvo-ekologii-geologii-i-prirodnykh-resursov.html|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Kapital.kz|language=ru|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215609/https://kapital.kz/naznacheniya/79094/v-kazakhstane-poyavitsya-ministerstvo-ekologii-geologii-i-prirodnykh-resursov.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Tokayev addressed the problems regarding the [[air pollution]] in [[Almaty]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Satubaldina|first=Assel|title=Kazakhstan to Increase Share of Renewable Energy to 15 Percent by 2030|url=https://astanatimes.com/2021/05/kazakhstan-to-increase-share-of-renewable-energy-to-15-percent-by-2030/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=1 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601150806/https://astanatimes.com/2021/05/kazakhstan-to-increase-share-of-renewable-energy-to-15-percent-by-2030/|url-status=live}}</ref> He instructed the government, city äkımat, and Samruk-Energy to implement final decision in the transformation of the Almaty-2 thermal power station to [[natural gas]] in order to limit harmful emissions that come from the plant which is estimated to be 30% of all other sources, warning that any delay would be "absolutely unacceptable."<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Transition of Almaty CHP-2 to gas. Most important points in brief.|url=https://www.samruk-energy.kz/en/press-center/company-news/23-news/665-perevod-almatinskoj-tets-2-na-gaz-korotko-o-samom-vazhnom|access-date=2021-06-01|website=samruk-energy.kz|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214144/https://www.samruk-energy.kz/en/press-center/company-news/23-news/665-perevod-almatinskoj-tets-2-na-gaz-korotko-o-samom-vazhnom|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 4 October 2021, Tokayev signed a bill aimed at protecting the ecosystem of the [[Caspian Sea]] by establishing a regular assessment for the state of marine environment and coastal areas of the sea, and an assessment to the level of sea pollution along the coastline.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев утвердил законопроект для защиты экосистемы Каспийского моря|url=https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-utverdil-zakonoproekt-dlya-zashity-ekosistemy-kaspijskogo-morya|access-date=2021-10-05|website=informburo.kz|language=ru|archive-date=5 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005185511/https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-utverdil-zakonoproekt-dlya-zashity-ekosistemy-kaspijskogo-morya|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Healthcare ====
{{See also|Healthcare in Kazakhstan}}
Tokayev supported a [[health insurance mandate]] in Kazakhstan as a way to improve the quality and accessibility of medical services as well as maintained funding for free medical care and the development of healthcare system.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=President of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev's State of the Nation Address, September 2, 2019 – Official website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan|url=https://www.akorda.kz/en/addresses/addresses_of_president/president-of-kazakhstan-kassym-jomart-Tokayevs-state-of-the-nation-address-september-2-2019|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Akorda.kz|language=en|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215004/https://www.akorda.kz/en/addresses/addresses_of_president/president-of-kazakhstan-kassym-jomart-Tokayevs-state-of-the-nation-address-september-2-2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 7 July 2020, Tokayev signed the new code "On public health and healthcare system" and law "On amendments and additions to certain legislative acts on healthcare issues" into place, which strengthened legal protection for medical personnel, introduced a differentiated approach to medical errors, and redefined a citizen's rights regarding vaccination. The code also restricted the consumption of e-cigarettes and introduced a ban on the import, production and distribution of snus and other non-smoking tobacco products, as well as introduced administrative responsibility for the sale of tobacco products to persons under the age of 21.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Yergaliyeva|first=Aidana|title=President Tokayev Signs New Public Health Code to Provide Extra Legal Protection For Kazakh Medical Workers|url=https://astanatimes.com/2020/07/president-Tokayev-signs-new-public-health-code-to-provide-extra-legal-protection-for-kazakh-medical-workers/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214159/https://astanatimes.com/2020/07/president-Tokayev-signs-new-public-health-code-to-provide-extra-legal-protection-for-kazakh-medical-workers/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Infrastructure ====
Tokayev pledged for the government to continue in investing for the development of infrastructure so that Kazakh citizens would have an access for clean drinking water, natural gas and public transport and continue in monitoring the implementation of the [[Nurly Zhol]] programme, of which was enacted by Nazarbayev.<ref name=":5" /> He called for the officials along with the Parliament and Accounts Committee to ensure the efficient use of budget funds.<ref name=":5" />

During a visit to [[Almaty]] in May 2020, Tokayev was presented with plans for the reconstruction of the [[Almaty International Airport]] which included a new terminal, from there he expressed his desire that the Almaty Airport would become largest aviation hub in Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kassym-Jomart Tokayev presented a number of infrastructure projects in Almaty|url=https://en.egemen.kz/article/234506-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-presented-a-number-of-infrastructure-projects-in-almaty|access-date=2021-06-02|website=en.egemen.kz|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220400/https://en.egemen.kz/article/234506-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-presented-a-number-of-infrastructure-projects-in-almaty|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Foreign policy===
{{Main|List of international presidential trips made by Kassym-Jomart Tokayev}}
[[File:Map of the international presidential trips made by Kassym-Jomart Tokayev.png|thumb|Map of the international presidential trips made by Tokayev]]
Tokayev pledged continuity of foreign policy initiated by his predecessor [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]. This means the continuation of measures to attract foreign investments, multi-vector foreign policy and ensuring security in the region.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Kazakh President sworn in, praises predecessor, pledges continuity |url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/03/new-kazakh-president-sworn-in-praises-predecessor-pledges-continuity/ |website=astanatimes.com |access-date=23 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330074003/https://astanatimes.com/2019/03/new-kazakh-president-sworn-in-praises-predecessor-pledges-continuity/ |archive-date=30 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> During his first month in office, he had met 4 world leaders, 2 of them abroad and the other two in [[Nur-Sultan]].

In April 2021, Tokayev signed a decree forming the Special Representative for International Cooperation, claiming that such post would increase attention of Kazakhstan's leadership to international cooperation concerns in the light of the dynamically changing global and regional agenda.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Kuyk|first=Abira|title=Tokayev's New Special Representative for International Cooperation Will Advance Kazakhstan's Leadership Agenda|url=https://astanatimes.com/2021/04/Tokayevs-new-special-representative-for-international-cooperation-will-advance-kazakhstans-leadership-agenda/|access-date=2021-06-05|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605215815/https://astanatimes.com/2021/04/Tokayevs-new-special-representative-for-international-cooperation-will-advance-kazakhstans-leadership-agenda/|url-status=live}}</ref> He appointed [[Erzhan Kazykhanov]] to the post, whom was instructed to deal with issues of expanding international cooperation in the humanitarian sphere, climate diplomacy, as well as promoting Kazakhstan's key foreign policy initiatives.<ref name=":11" />
[[File:Istanbul hosts 8th Summit of Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States (2).jpg|thumb|Tokayev at the 2021 [[List of Turkic Council summits|Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States]] in Istanbul, Turkey]]
During the sixth meeting of the [[Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia]] held on 10–11 October 2021, Tokayev proposed turning the intergovernmental forum into a full-fledged organisation, outlining that the transformation would emphasise Asia's new role in global affairs which in turn give the member states commitment to create "a truly common, indivisible, and comprehensive security architecture on the largest continent".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Satubaldina|first=Assel|title=President Tokayev Proposes Transforming CICA into Full-Fledged International Organization|url=https://astanatimes.com/2021/10/president-Tokayev-proposes-transforming-cica-into-full-fledged-international-organization/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-14|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=13 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013153309/https://astanatimes.com/2021/10/president-Tokayev-proposes-transforming-cica-into-full-fledged-international-organization/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Participation of ECO Secretary General at the 6th meeting of CICA Ministers of Foreign Affairs|url=https://www.eco.int/news/88704-Participation-of-ECO-Secretary-General-at-the-6th-meeting-of-CICA-Ministers-of-Foreign-Affairs.html?t=News|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-13|website=www.eco.int|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028171039/https://www.eco.int/news/88704-Participation-of-ECO-Secretary-General-at-the-6th-meeting-of-CICA-Ministers-of-Foreign-Affairs.html%3Ft%3DNews}}</ref>

==== Afghanistan ====
{{See also|Afghanistan–Kazakhstan relations}}
Following the [[2021 Taliban offensive]], Tokayev urged to take measures in ensuring safety of Kazakhstani citizens and diplomats within [[Afghanistan]], in which Kazakhstan would closely follow its developments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Токаев провёл совещание по ситуации в Афганистане |url=https://forbes.kz//process/tokaev_provel_soveschanie_po_situatsii_v_afganistane/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822002024/https://forbes.kz//process/tokaev_provel_soveschanie_po_situatsii_v_afganistane/ |archive-date=22 August 2021 |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=www.forbes.kz}}</ref> During a meeting with the EU Special Representative for Central Asia [[Terhi Hakala|Tehri Hakala]], Tokayev expressed concern in regards to the stability in Afghanistan, warning that entire region of Central Asian is facing a risk due to the conflict.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Токаев обсудил со спецпредставителем ЕС по Центральной Азии ситуацию в Афганистане |url=https://vlast.kz/novosti/46290-tokaev-obsudil-so-specpredstavitelem-es-po-centralnoj-azii-situaciu-v-afganistane.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822002026/https://vlast.kz/novosti/46290-tokaev-obsudil-so-specpredstavitelem-es-po-centralnoj-azii-situaciu-v-afganistane.html |archive-date=22 August 2021 |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=vlast.kz |language=ru}}</ref> On 18 August 2021, he instructed the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] to attempt to provide a maximum assistance in returning ethnic Kazakhs residing in Afghanistan, while noting that the issue of accepting Afghan refugees would not be considered.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Токаев поручил проработать вопрос возвращения этнических казахов из Афганистана |url=https://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/12161149 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822002026/https://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/12161149 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |access-date=2021-08-22 |website=ТАСС}}</ref>

==== Russia ====
{{See also|Kazakhstan–Russia relations}}
[[File:Владимир Путин и Касым-Жомарт Токаев 03 (19-08-2022).jpg|thumb|Tokayev and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] on 19 August 2022]]
According to political analyst Rico Isaacs, the decision in Tokayev replacing [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] was due to his own full will to not rapidly implement [[democratization|democratic reforms]], which would hurt Nazarbayev's legacy of stability and relations with Russia.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|last=Isaacs|first=Rico|title=Russia–Kazakhstan Relations and the Tokayev–Nazarbayev Tandem|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/305118582.pdf|journal=Russian Analytical Digest|location=University of Lincoln|volume=248|pages=3|access-date=5 June 2021|archive-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605205523/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/305118582.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Just two weeks after taking office, Tokayev visited [[Moscow]] in his first foreign [[state visit]] on 4 April 2019, meeting with Putin alongside other Russian officials.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan leader Tokayev in Moscow for first foreign visit|website=[[Fox News]]|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/kazakhstan-leader-Tokayev-in-moscow-for-1st-foreign-visit|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404132820/https://www.foxnews.com/world/kazakhstan-leader-Tokayev-in-moscow-for-1st-foreign-visit|archive-date=4 April 2019|access-date=4 April 2019|df=dmy-all}}</ref> During the visit, Putin offered Russian assistance to Tokayev in the construction of a proposed [[nuclear power plant]] in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Putin Offers Russian Help to Build Kazakh Nuclear Plant|url=https://www.rferl.org/amp/kazakhstan-putin-offers-russian-nuclear-plant-help/29865177.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407020529/https://www.rferl.org/amp/kazakhstan-putin-offers-russian-nuclear-plant-help/29865177.html|archive-date=7 April 2019|access-date=7 April 2019|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In June 2019, Tokayev stated that the decision of constructing a nuclear power plants would be made on decision by local matter, if by means of a [[referendum]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Айтжанова|first=Ботагоз|title=Токаев об АЭС: Если понадобится, проведем референдум|url=https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-ob-aes-esli-ponadobitsya-provedem-referendum-371061/|access-date=2021-06-05|website=Tengrinews.kz|language=ru|archive-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605214151/https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-ob-aes-esli-ponadobitsya-provedem-referendum-371061/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In late 2020, Russian lawmakers [[Vyacheslav Nikonov]] and [[Yevgeny Alexeyevich Fyodorov|Yevgeny Fyodorov]] made remarks on how the entire Kazakhstani territory was a gift given by the [[Soviet Union]] and that was currently being leased by Russia. This sparked backlash from the Kazakh [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] which warned about severing relations between both nations due to "provocative attacks".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Putz|first=Catherine|title=Kazakh President Chimes in on 'Gift' Controversy|url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/01/kazakh-president-chimes-in-on-gift-controversy/|access-date=2021-06-03|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603025852/https://thediplomat.com/2021/01/kazakh-president-chimes-in-on-gift-controversy/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pannier|first=Bruce|title=An Old Refrain: Russian Lawmakers Question Kazakhstan's Territorial Integrity, Statehood|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-lawmakers-question-kazakhstan-territorial-integrity-statehood/31003732.html|access-date=2021-06-03|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|language=en|archive-date=29 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329060559/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-lawmakers-question-kazakhstan-territorial-integrity-statehood/31003732.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In response to controversial statements, Tokayev in response on ''[[Yegemen Qazaqstan|Egemen Qazaqstan]],'' wrote that such words from "some foreign citizens" are aimed at "spoiling" relations between two states, insisting that "nobody from outside gave Kazakhs this large territory as a gift."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tokayev responds to Russian lawmaker who called territory of Kazakhstan a 'gift from Russia'|url=https://akipress.com/news:652887:Tokayev_responds_to_Russian_lawmaker_who_called_territory_of_Kazakhstan_a__gift_from_Russia_/|access-date=2021-06-03|website=akipress.com|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603025852/https://akipress.com/news:652887:Tokayev_responds_to_Russian_lawmaker_who_called_territory_of_Kazakhstan_a__gift_from_Russia_/|url-status=live}}</ref>

After [[2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine|Russia invaded its neighboring Ukraine]], Tokayev and Kazakh Foreign Minister [[Mukhtar Tleuberdi]] refused to recognize the Russian puppet states of [[Donetsk People's Republic]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic]].<ref name=doesnt>{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan Says It Does Not Recognize Separatist-Controlled Territories In Ukraine As Independent |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-ukraine-separatists-russia-recognition/31787134.html |website=Radio Free Europe }}</ref> He said that "we recognize neither [[Taiwan]], nor [[Kosovo]], nor [[South Ossetia]] and [[Abkhazia]]. In all likelihood, this principle will be applied to quasi-state entities, which, in our opinion, are Luhansk and Donetsk."<ref>{{cite news |title=President Tokayev Answers Tough Questions at Economic Forum in Russia |url=https://astanatimes.com/2022/06/president-Tokayev-answers-tough-questions-at-economic-forum-in-russia/ |work=Astana Times }}</ref> As a result, he refused to accept the [[Order of Alexander Nevsky]] from Putin.<ref>{{cite web |title=President of Kazakhstan refuses to accept Russian order of merit |url=https://tvpworld.com/60822948/president-of-kazakhstan-refuses-to-accept-russian-order-of-merit |website=[[Telewizja Polska]]}}</ref>

[[File:Мацква.ру, репортаж с Парада Победы 2023 на Красной площади, фото 21.jpg|thumb|Tokayev and other [[Post-Soviet states|post-Soviet]] leaders with Vladimir Putin at the [[2023 Moscow Victory Day Parade]]]]
Tokayev also emphasized that Kazakhstan would comply with Western sanctions imposed on Russia after its invasion of Ukraine, and that the country "will abide by the restrictions imposed on Russia and [[Belarus]]."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tokayev tells Russian TV Kazakhstan won’t break Western sanctions |url=https://www.intellinews.com/tokayev-tells-russian-tv-kazakhstan-won-t-break-western-sanctions-247682/ |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=www.intellinews.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top Official Says Kazakhstan Won't Help Russia Evade Western Sanctions |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-evade-sanctions-russia/31781750.html |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |language=en}}</ref> In September 2022, Kazakhstan closed a loophole through which Russian and Belarusian trucks were able to import goods from the European Union into the country without the necessary paperwork.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazakhstan closes sanctions-dodging loopholes for Russia, Belarus {{!}} Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-closes-sanctions-dodging-loopholes-for-russia-belarus |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}}</ref>

Following Tokayev’s electoral victory in November 2022, international observers expect him to maintain Kazakhstan's pivot towards the EU and China, and away from Russia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kazakhstan seen tilting to China after president's landslide win |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Kazakhstan-seen-tilting-to-China-after-president-s-landslide-win |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=Nikkei Asia |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Auyezov |first=Olzhas |title=Analysis: Shocked by Ukraine war, Russian neighbour Kazakhstan looks west |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/shocked-by-ukraine-war-russian-neighbour-kazakhstan-looks-west-2022-11-17/ |access-date=2022-12-20}}</ref>

In September 2022, Tokayev said that Kazakhstan would help Russians fleeing the [[ 2022 Russian mobilization|mobilization]] and war in Ukraine, saying that "most of them are forced to leave because of the current hopeless situation."<ref>{{cite news |title=Kazakh President Urges Calm and Care for Russians Fleeing Mobilization |work=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/09/kazakh-president-urges-calm-and-care-for-russians-fleeing-mobilization/}}</ref> However, in December 2022, Kazakhstan deported back to Russia a Russian citizen who fled mobilization.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russian officer sentenced to 6.5 years for deserting |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian-officer-sentenced-65-years-deserting-amid-war-he-opposed-2023-03-24/ |work=Reuters }}</ref> In January 2023, Kazakhstan announced they were tightening visa rules, a move that is expected to make it more difficult for Russians to remain in the country.<ref>{{Citation | vauthors=((Ebel, F.)) | newspaper=Washington Post | title=Kazakhstan tightens visa rules, setting limits for Russians fleeing war duty | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/17/kazakhstan-visas-russia-war-ukraine/ }}</ref>

On 9 May 2023, he attended the [[Victory Day (9 May)|Victory Day]] parade in Moscow and met with Russian President Vladimir Putin.<ref>{{cite news |title=Central Asian Presidents Join Putin for May 9 Victory Day Parade |url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/05/central-asian-presidents-join-putin-for-may-9-victory-day-parade/ |work=The Diplomat }}</ref>

==== China ====
{{See also|China–Kazakhstan relations}}
[[File:Meeting of SCO leaders - 20190614 - 02.jpg|thumb|Tokayev at the 2019 [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]] summit]]
Tokayev paid a two-day state visit to China in September 2019. There, he met with President [[Xi Jinping]] in [[Beijing]] of which both leaders agreed to form a permanent comprehensive strategic partnership.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China, Kazakhstan agree to forge permanent comprehensive strategic partnership– Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-09/11/c_138384243_2.htm|access-date=2021-06-02|website=www.xinhuanet.com|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220026/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-09/11/c_138384243_2.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Tokayev vowed to triple wheat exports to China to 2 million tonnes possibly including salt, dairy products, meat and poultry as well.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Albert|first=Eleanor|title=Kazakh President Tokayev Goes to Beijing|url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/09/kazakh-president-Tokayev-goes-to-beijing/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220233/https://thediplomat.com/2019/09/kazakh-president-Tokayev-goes-to-beijing/|url-status=live}}</ref> During a visit to [[Peking University]], he met with his long-term intern language teacher Liu Shiqing as well as Kazakhstani students. Shiqing described Tokayev as "sociable, active, quick" who became fluent in Chinese and as "one of the best students."<ref>{{Cite web|last=|title=Токаев встретился со своим учителем в Пекине|url=https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-vstretilsya-so-svoim-uchitelem-v-pekine-378806/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Tengrinews.kz|language=ru|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220307/https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-vstretilsya-so-svoim-uchitelem-v-pekine-378806/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Former Soviet republics ====
{{See also|Commonwealth of Independent States|Kazakhstan–Kyrgyzstan relations|Kazakhstan–Uzbekistan relations|page 4=Kazakhstan–Uzbekistan relations}}
[[File:Official welcome ceremony was held for President of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev 13.jpg|thumb|Tokayev with Azerbaijani President [[Ilham Aliyev]] on 24 August 2022]]
On 14 April 2019, Tokayev visited neighboring [[Uzbekistan]] for talks with President [[Shavkat Mirziyoyev]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://president.uz/en/lists/view/2492 |title=The President of Kazakhstan arrives in Tashkent |access-date=14 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414235545/https://president.uz/en/lists/view/2492 |archive-date=14 April 2019 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On 16–17 May, Tokayev hosted foreign leaders such as [[Armen Sarkissian]] and [[Mamuka Bakhtadze]] in the capital for the 12th annual [[Astana Economic Forum]], the first to be hosted by its pioneer, President Nazarbayev.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.akorda.kz/en/events/akorda_news/meetings_and_receptions/head-of-state-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-meets-with-president-of-armenia-armen-sarkissian | title=Head of State Kassym-Jomart Tokayev meets with President of Armenia Armen Sarkissian | date=16 May 2019 | publisher=President of the Republic of Kazakhstan | access-date=10 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602014547/http://www.akorda.kz/en/events/akorda_news/meetings_and_receptions/head-of-state-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-meets-with-president-of-armenia-armen-sarkissian | archive-date=2 June 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref> He also hosted the regional leaders of Russia, [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Belarus]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Armenia]] and [[Moldova]] for the [[Eurasian Economic Union]] and [[Supreme Eurasian Economic Council]] summit on 29 May.

During a visit to Kyrgyzstan in late 2019, he visited the House-Museum of Kyrgyz writer [[Chingiz Aitmatov]] in [[Bishkek]], where he met with the late writer's wife and reminisced about his first encounters with Aitmatov in [[Beijing]] in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3589472|title=Kassym-Jomart Tokayev visited Chingiz Aitmatov House-Museum in Bishkek|website=www.inform.kz|access-date=28 December 2019|archive-date=17 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317113923/https://www.inform.kz/en/kassym-jomart-Tokayev-visited-chingiz-aitmatov-house-museum-in-bishkek_a3589472|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following the breakout of the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]], Tokayev called on [[Armenia]] to withdraw from the disputed territory, citing the [[United Nations Security Council]] accordance to which he claimed that the Armenian government failed to fulfill for its past 30 years.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kazakhstan's President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev said Armenia should withdraw from Nagorno-Karabakh|url=https://turkeygazette.com/kazakhstans-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-said-armenia-should-withdraw-from-nagorno-karabakh/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-18|website=turkeygazette.com|archive-date=18 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018182226/https://turkeygazette.com/kazakhstans-president-kassym-jomart-Tokayev-said-armenia-should-withdraw-from-nagorno-karabakh/}}</ref>

==== Europe ====
{{See also|Kazakhstan–European Union relations}}
[[File:Zelenskyi and Tokaev.jpg|left|thumb|216x216px|Tokayev (right) with Ukrainian President [[Volodymyr Zelensky]] at the U.N. General Assembly in [[New York City]], 25 September 2019]]
As a Foreign Minister, Tokayev visited [[Berlin]], Germany on 3–4 October 2006, where he addressed the [[European Parliament]]'s Foreign Affairs Committee on 3 October in an attempt to gain support amongst members of the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] for Kazakhstan's bid to lead the organisation in 2009. In his address he discussed the "fierce" competition between the [[European Union]], China, and India to secure energy sources, saying that Kazakhstan is "one of the very few countries capable of boosting its [[Petroleum|oil]] production and thus becoming an important alternative energy supplier to global and European markets." He expressed interest in the [[Burgas-Alexandroupoli pipeline|Burgas-Alexandroupoli]] and [[Odesa–Brody pipeline|Odesa-Brody-Gdansk pipeline]] projects, asking the EU for $80 billion in investment from 2006 to 2021. Tokayev criticised [[Lithuania]] for opposing a Russian offer for its [[Mažeikių Nafta|Mažeikių oil refinery]]. He also reaffirmed Kazakhstan's desire to join the [[European Neighbourhood Policy]]. Tokayev also rejected the proposed construction of the [[Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline]] to [[Azerbaijan]], in which the EU officials desired due to the likelihood of opposition from other nations bordering the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Lobjakas|first=Ahto|title=Kazakhstan: Foreign Minister Seeks EU Energy Links|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1071795.html|access-date=2021-06-04|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|language=en|archive-date=21 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321144902/https://www.rferl.org/a/1071795.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Gernot Erler]], an official in the [[Federal Foreign Office|German Federal Foreign Office]], announced his support for Kazakhstan leading the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE) for 2009. Portuguese Socialist MP [[Ana Gomes]] said to Tokayev, "Minister, you're bidding for the presidency of the OSCE. Yet, the OSCE gave a report on your last elections, on the observation of the elections, which said they failed to meet international standards for genuine elections in many important points. And we hear about political dissent being crushed, we hear even about religious groups being crushed." Tokayev replied that political opposition forces in Kazakhstan "cannot challenge the government" because of their own weaknesses, and that Kazakhstanis need to be "educated" about [[democracy]] because the concept is foreign, and the government considers [[religious tolerance]] a priority. He criticized the OSCE's election report for "technical irregularities" and biased targeting while calling for more of a "mutual understanding." He further stated that his government believes it would "contribute a lot as a representative, as a country which is located in [[Central Asia]]. The geographical dimension of the OSCE has changed [since Kazakhstan joined], this is a unique Eurasian, as well as [[Americas|Pan-American]] organization. So, the leadership, the presidency of this organization also must reflect this unique character, [this] unique dimension of the organization."<ref name=":7" /> He cited efforts to reform Kazakhstan's election process that included a "special program" to modernize the system and establishing "[[Political party|party]] dominance" in the [[Parliament of Kazakhstan|Parliament]] so that "parties [that] win the parliamentary elections, obtain [a] majority in the parliament" and "will be able to establish their own governments." He called creating a [[multi-party system]] in Kazakhstan a "huge step forward in the process of [[democratization]]."<ref name=":7" />

On 4 December 2019, on the eve of a state visit to Germany, he gave an interview to ''[[Deutsche Welle]]'', in which he called Germany a "key European partner for Kazakhstan".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inform.kz/en/article/3591394|title=Kassym-Jomart Tokayev gives interview to Deutsche Welle|website=www.inform.kz|access-date=28 December 2019|archive-date=17 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317113926/https://www.inform.kz/en/kassym-jomart-Tokayev-gives-interview-to-deutsche-welle_a3591394|url-status=live}}</ref> In that same interview, he drew controversy by saying that he did not believe that the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation]] was an invasion while also saying that he believed in the "wisdom of the Russian leadership", drawing condemnation from the Ukrainian [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ukraine)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], who issued a [[demarche]] in response.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unian.info/politics/10780781-ukraine-warns-kazakhstan-of-demarche-over-president-Tokayev-s-denial-of-crimea-annexation-by-russia-mfa.html|title=Ukraine warns Kazakhstan of demarche over president Tokayev's denial of Crimea annexation by Russia – MFA|website=www.unian.info|access-date=28 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221120154/https://www.unian.info/politics/10780781-ukraine-warns-kazakhstan-of-demarche-over-president-Tokayev-s-denial-of-crimea-annexation-by-russia-mfa.html|archive-date=21 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== United States ====
[[File:Condoleezza Rice and Kassym-Jomart Tokayev.jpg|thumb|233x233px|U.S. Secretary of State [[Condoleezza Rice]] with Tokayev, 25 September 2006]]
Tokayev met with United States Secretary of State [[Condoleezza Rice]] and [[Barry Lowenkron]], the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights, on 25 September 2006 in Rice's suite at the [[Waldorf-Astoria]] hotel. According to Anne Gearan, a diplomatic writer for the ''[[Associated Press]]'', the U.S. wanted to improve its relations with Kazakhstan despite, according to some analysts, a worsening state of [[Political repression|political oppression]]. Kazakh oil output was expected to significantly increase, along with other [[Central Asian]] countries whom were "more authoritarian, too unstable, too poor, or a combination of all three." Prior to her meeting with Tokayev, when Rice was asked whether [[human rights]] or [[energy]] "would top the agenda" for the meeting with Tokayev, she refused to answer. The [[United States State Department]] released a statement saying the diplomats discussed Kazakhstan's cooperation in [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Afghanistan]] and [[War in Iraq|Iraq]] and expressed hope for "a multidimensional relationship with Kazakhstan, which includes U.S. encouragement for continuing reforms."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gearan|first=Anne|title=Bush administration pursues ties to oil-rich Kazakhstan despite backslide on democracy {{!}} Taiwan News {{!}} 2006-09-26 02:48:49|url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/228948|access-date=2021-06-04|website=Taiwan News|publisher=Associated Press|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604012709/https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/228948|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Secretary Blinken Meets with Kazah President Tokayev in Astana (52717462009).jpg|thumb|233x233px|Tokayev with U.S. Secretary of State [[Antony Blinken]], 28 February 2023]]
After becoming president, Tokayev maintained strong relations with Kazakhstan's strategic allies, including the United States. On 2 February 2020, he met with U.S. Secretary of State [[Mike Pompeo]] during his visit to [[Nur-Sultan]] where both sides expressed the importance of deepening bilateral ties across the entire spectrum of cooperation, including trade, investment, IT technologies, promoting democratic values and combating international terrorism. Pompeo wished for Tokayev in his success in implementing political reforms with an [[open skies]] agreement being signed which created a legal basis for launching direct regular flights between Kazakhstan and U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Tokayev holds talks with U.S. Secretary of State Michael Pompeo|url=https://akipress.com/news:634027:President_Tokayev_holds_talks_with_U_S__Secretary_of_State_Michael_Pompeo/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=akipress.com|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214345/https://akipress.com/news:634027:President_Tokayev_holds_talks_with_U_S__Secretary_of_State_Michael_Pompeo/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to some analysists, Pompeo's visit to Kazakhstan was seen as an attempt to counter China's influence within the country as he had met with ethnic Kazakh families of whom were victims of the [[Xinjiang internment camps]] and urged for Tokayev to pressure China over its persecution of ethnic Uyghur and Kazakhs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gadimova|first=Nazrin|title=Mike Pompeo Urges Kazakhstan To Pressure China Over Muslims In Xinjiang|url=https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/mike-pompeo-urges-kazakhstan-to-pressure-china-over-muslims-in-xinjiang-2020-2-4-1/|access-date=2021-06-02|website=caspiannews.com|language=en|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214301/https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/mike-pompeo-urges-kazakhstan-to-pressure-china-over-muslims-in-xinjiang-2020-2-4-1/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Imamova|first=Navbahor|title=Pompeo, in Central Asia, Seeks to Counter China {{!}} Voice of America– English|url=https://www.voanews.com/south-central-asia/pompeo-central-asia-seeks-counter-china|access-date=2021-06-02|website=www.voanews.com|language=en|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215433/https://www.voanews.com/south-central-asia/pompeo-central-asia-seeks-counter-china|url-status=live}}</ref>

In June 2020, U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] congratulated President Tokayev on his one-year anniversary of presidency. In his congratulatory letter, Trump expressed his support for the reforms that had been undertaken in Kazakhstan, and reaffirmed his intention to further develop strategic partnership between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump praises President Tokayev for rapid steps taken to combat COVID-19 in Kazakhstan |url=https://www.inform.kz/en/trump-praises-president-Tokayev-for-rapid-steps-taken-to-combat-covid-19-in-kazakhstan_a3665102 |website=Kazinform |access-date=26 June 2020 |archive-date=25 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625072028/https://www.inform.kz/en/trump-praises-president-Tokayev-for-rapid-steps-taken-to-combat-covid-19-in-kazakhstan_a3665102 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Political positions ==
Tokayev is described as a "moderate conservative" with years of political experience domestically and internationally.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Krikorian|first=Lena|title=Explaining the Results of the Kazakh Elections: Not so Quiet on the Eastern Front?|url=https://www.polemics-magazine.com/int/kazakh-elections-eastern-front|access-date=2021-08-28|website=Polemics|language=en-US|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828212031/https://www.polemics-magazine.com/int/kazakh-elections-eastern-front|url-status=live}}</ref> Nevertheless, in an interview with ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', Tokayev referred himself as a "reformer", stressing that without political reforms, there wouldn't be progress in economic reforms.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Simmons|first=Ann M.|title=Kazakhstan's Newly Elected Leader Calls Himself a 'Reformer'|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/kazakhstans-newly-elected-leader-calls-himself-a-reformer-11560452047|access-date=2021-08-28|issn=0099-9660|archive-date=7 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107012207/https://www.wsj.com/articles/kazakhstans-newly-elected-leader-calls-himself-a-reformer-11560452047|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to ''[[The Diplomat]]'', Tokayev's political capital was seen to not extend beyond the support by Nazarbayev, which enabled him to garner support and trust from business elites, civil servants, and political institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Niyazbekov|first=Nurseit|title=Democracy, the Tokayev Way|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/democracy-the-Tokayev-way/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-28|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204120839/https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/democracy-the-Tokayev-way/}}</ref> Because of that, Tokayev has been described as "Nazarbayev's political birthchild",<ref>{{Cite web|last=Michalopoulos|first=Sarantis|title=Tokayev triumphs in Kazakh elections amid tensions|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/central-asia/news/Tokayev-triumphs-in-kazakh-elections-amid-tensions/|access-date=2021-08-28|website=www.euractiv.com|language=en-GB|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828201103/https://www.euractiv.com/section/central-asia/news/Tokayev-triumphs-in-kazakh-elections-amid-tensions/|url-status=live}}</ref> while his opponents and critics referred him as "furniture" ([[Russian language|Russian]]: мебель, ''mebel''), a ridicule term first coined by exiled Kazakh businessman [[Mukhtar Ablyazov]] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Мостовая|first=Екатерина|title="Не желаете почистить мебель после старых хозяев?": Что пишут президенту Казахстана в его свежесозданном аккаунте Instagram|url=https://newtimes.kz/vlast/88273-ne-zhelaete-pochistit-mebel-posle-starykh-khozyaev-chto-pishut-prezidentu-kazakhstana-v-ego-svezhesozdannom-akkaunte-instagram|access-date=2021-08-28|website=Newtimes.kz|language=ru-RU|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828201103/https://newtimes.kz/vlast/88273-ne-zhelaete-pochistit-mebel-posle-starykh-khozyaev-chto-pishut-prezidentu-kazakhstana-v-ego-svezhesozdannom-akkaunte-instagram|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Дуумвират, Айсултангейт, протесты и либерализация. Итоги года президентства Токаева|url=https://belsat.eu/ru/news/duumvirat-ajsultangejt-protesty-i-liberalizatsiya-itogi-goda-prezidentstva-tokaeva/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-28|website=belsat.eu|language=ru|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828201054/https://belsat.eu/ru/news/duumvirat-ajsultangejt-protesty-i-liberalizatsiya-itogi-goda-prezidentstva-tokaeva/}}</ref>

=== Authoritarianism ===
Tokayev expressed his point of view on the political system of Kazakhstan in which he favoured a "strong President, authoritative Parliament, accountable Government."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Успех развития страны зависит от качества управления государством, а не формы правления - Токаев|url=https://www.zakon.kz/4670367-uspekh-razvitija-strany-zavisit-ot.html|access-date=2020-12-16|website=zakon.kz|language=ru|archive-date=24 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124051136/https://www.zakon.kz/4670367-uspekh-razvitija-strany-zavisit-ot.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2005, at the business conference of the Asian Society held in [[Almaty]], Tokayev clashed with [[George Soros]] after his remarks about Kazakhstan sliding towards [[authoritarianism]], calling it "unreasonable to demand from a country that recently celebrated its 13th anniversary to achieve the democratic values inherent in states with centuries-old traditions of building a free society."<ref name=":0" />

=== Climate change ===
{{See also|Climate change in Kazakhstan}}
Tokayev expressed support for the tackling of [[climate change]], calling it "urgent and existential."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Satubaldina |first=Assel |title=Tokayev Announces Kazakhstan's Pledge to Reach Carbon Neutrality by 2060 |url=https://astanatimes.com/2020/12/Tokayev-announces-kazakhstans-pledge-to-reach-carbon-neutrality-by-2060/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121135205/https://astanatimes.com/2020/12/Tokayev-announces-kazakhstans-pledge-to-reach-carbon-neutrality-by-2060/ |archive-date=21 January 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref> At the Climate Ambitions Summit in which was held remotely on 12 December 2020, Tokayev pledged for Kazakhstan to reach carbon neutrality by 2060 with a development and adoption of a long-term development strategy to lower emissions and de-carbonisation of the economy. He said that Kazakhstan is "highly [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] as a landlocked and developing state" with a heavy reliance on fossil fuels and proposed for the planting for two billion trees within the country in order increase carbon absorption and curb looming desertification problems.<ref name=":2" />

=== Corruption ===
{{See also|Corruption in Kazakhstan}}
Tokayev described his vision regarding corruption, calling it a "direct damage to national security" and advocated for the need of accountability for implementation of state programs and the use of budget funds by [[Akim|äkıms]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Қазақстан Президенті Қасым-Жомарт Тоқаевтың төрағалығымен сыбайлас жемқорлыққа қарсы іс-қимыл мәселелері жөнінде кеңес өтті |url=https://www.akorda.kz/kz/events/akorda_news/meetings_and_sittings/kazakstan-prezidenti-kasym-zhomart-tokaevtyn-toragalygymen-sybailas-zhemkorlykka-karsy-is-kimyl-maseleleri-zhoninde-kenes-otti |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215609/https://www.akorda.kz/kz/events/akorda_news/meetings_and_sittings/kazakstan-prezidenti-kasym-zhomart-tokaevtyn-toragalygymen-sybailas-zhemkorlykka-karsy-is-kimyl-maseleleri-zhoninde-kenes-otti |archive-date=4 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-04 |website=Akorda.kz |language=kk}}</ref> On 28 November 2019, he signed the "On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Civil Service and Anti-Corruption Issues" law into place, which obliged government ministers and äkıms to resign if the top officials within institutions are found guilty of corruption.<ref>{{Cite web |last=tengrinews.kz |title=Токаев подписал закон об ответственности министров за коррупцию подчиненных |url=https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-podpisal-zakon-otvetstvennosti-ministrov-korruptsiyu-385185/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215610/https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/tokaev-podpisal-zakon-otvetstvennosti-ministrov-korruptsiyu-385185/ |archive-date=4 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-04 |website=Tengrinews.kz |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Khassenkhanova |first=Galiya |title=Tokayev signs law making ministers and governors responsible for corruption among subordinates |url=https://astanatimes.com/2019/12/Tokayev-signs-law-making-ministers-and-governors-responsible-for-corruption-among-subordinates/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604215609/https://astanatimes.com/2019/12/Tokayev-signs-law-making-ministers-and-governors-responsible-for-corruption-among-subordinates/ |archive-date=4 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-04 |website=The Astana Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Islam ===
In the aftermath of the [[Orlando nightclub shooting|2016 Orlando nightclub shooting]] event, Tokayev proclaimed the incident as a "signature dish", calling it "another manifestation of [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic radicalism]]."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Гареева|first=Мария|title=Токаев назвал стрельбу в гей-клубе Орландо|url=https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-nazval-strelbu-v-gey-klube-orlando-firmennym-blyudom-islamskogo-radikalizma.html|access-date=2021-06-02|website=informburo.kz|language=ru|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603050734/https://informburo.kz/novosti/tokaev-nazval-strelbu-v-gey-klube-orlando-firmennym-blyudom-islamskogo-radikalizma.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the Forum of Muslim Scientists of Eurasia which was held in [[Astana]] in March 2018, Tokayev addressed the audience the need for the country to have "enlightened Islam" by strengthening science and cultural traditions in the Islamic civilization.<ref>{{Cite web|last=tengrinews.kz|title="Мы хотим иметь просвещенный ислам". Токаев обратился к мусульманским ученым|url=https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/myi-hotim-imet-prosveschennyiy-islam-tokaev-obratilsya-338950/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=Главные новости Казахстана - Tengrinews.kz|language=ru|archive-date=26 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826114949/https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/myi-hotim-imet-prosveschennyiy-islam-tokaev-obratilsya-338950/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Russian language ===
As president, Tokayev encouraged the Kazakhstani public to learn Kazakh, calling it a "duty of every citizen of Kazakhstan".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Учить казахский язык призвал казахстанцев Токаев|url=https://vlast.kz/novosti/43213-ucit-kazahskij-azyk-prizval-kazahstancev-tokaev.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-28|website=vlast.kz|language=ru|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828201104/https://vlast.kz/novosti/43213-ucit-kazahskij-azyk-prizval-kazahstancev-tokaev.html}}</ref> At the same time, he believed that strengthening the role of the Kazakh language shouldn't infringe on the Russian language, warning that improper handling of the issue would lead to "irreparable consequences" in which he compared to Ukraine that faced interethnic conflicts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев пояснил, как следует решать языковой вопрос в Казахстане|url=https://eurasia.expert/tokaev-poyasnil-kak-sleduet-reshat-yazykovoy-vopros-v-kazakhstane/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-28|website=eurasia.expert|language=ru|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828201055/https://eurasia.expert/tokaev-poyasnil-kak-sleduet-reshat-yazykovoy-vopros-v-kazakhstane/}}</ref>

During the 2021 State of the Nation Address, Tokayev noted that Russian is an official language within Kazakhstan, adding that its use can't be hindered in accordance to the law and from there, he obliged to punish to any person taking part in discriminating on the basis of "linguistic and national grounds", a move that was viewed to have occurred in result of a backlash by Russian officials after a viral incident on [[YouTube]] showing Kostanay native Quat Ahmetov visiting places and forcing employees to speak Kazakh which led to a series of criminal cases by security agencies and Ahmetov fleeing the country.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Orisbayev|first=Zholdas|title=Kazakh language police trigger Russian politicians|url=https://eurasianet.org/kazakh-language-police-trigger-russian-politicians|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-02|website=eurasianet.org|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902234712/https://eurasianet.org/kazakh-language-police-trigger-russian-politicians}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Токаев высказался о статусе русского языка, обещает наказывать за ущемление по языковому и национальному признаку|url=https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31438233.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-02|website=Радио Азаттык|language=ru|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902234713/https://rus.azattyq.org/a/31438233.html}}</ref>

=== Nationalism ===
In a written article for ''The Astana Times'', Tokayev warned against nationalism becoming "a resurgent and dominant global phenomenon", upon which he cited [[Donald Trump]]'s victory in the [[2016 United States presidential election]], suggesting it would result in a strong impact on world politics, as well as on the domestic situation in many nations including European nations.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tokayev|first=Kassym-Jomart|title=Global Agenda Requires New Approaches|url=https://astanatimes.com/2016/11/global-agenda-requires-new-approaches/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-29|website=The Astana Times|language=en|archive-date=29 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229194230/https://astanatimes.com/2016/11/global-agenda-requires-new-approaches/}}</ref>

Tokayev expressed a negative attitude towards [[nationalism]] which he claimed to have gained traction in the midst of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], criticising the ideology for provoking conflict between nations that would result in economic losses for Kazakhstan.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Касым-Жомарт Токаев обеспокоился ростом национализма в международных отношениях|url=https://ehonews.kz/kasym-zhomart-tokaev-obespokoilsya-rostom-natsionalizma-v-mezhdunarodnyh-otnosheniyah/|access-date=2021-08-28|website=Эхо Казахстана|language=ru-RU|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828201104/https://ehonews.kz/kasym-zhomart-tokaev-obespokoilsya-rostom-natsionalizma-v-mezhdunarodnyh-otnosheniyah/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Awards and achievements==
===Kazakh===
* [[Order of the Golden Eagle]] (2019)
* [[Order of Otan]] (2014)
* [[Order of Nazarbayev]] (2004)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nomad.su/?a=19-200412160521 |title=Награды ко Дню независимости |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091441/http://nomad.su/?a=19-200412160521 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* [[Order of Parasat]] (1996)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kazakhstan.news-city.info/docs/sistemsk/dok_oedyli.htm |title=Указ Президента Республики Казахстан от 9.12.1996 за № 3266 |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201142605/http://kazakhstan.news-city.info/docs/sistemsk/dok_oedyli.htm |archive-date=1 February 2017 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* {{ill|Astana Medal|ru|Медаль «Астана»|vertical-align=sup}}
* Medal "25 years of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan"
* Medal "10 years of Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan"
* Medal "10 years to the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan"
* [[Medal "10 years of Astana"]] (2018)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/nazarbaevu-vruchili-medal-20-let-astane-348450/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091527/https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/nazarbaevu-vruchili-medal-20-let-astane-348450/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 March 2019|title=Назарбаеву вручили медаль "20 лет Астане" – новости Казахстана – Tengrinews|access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref>

===Foreign===
* [[Order of Honour (Russia)|Order of Honour]] (Russia, 2017)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/View/0001201703020004?index=0&rangeSize=1 |title=Указ Президента Российской Федерации от 1 марта 2017 года № 93 "О награждении государственными наградами Российской Федерации" |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327092552/http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/View/0001201703020004?index=0&rangeSize=1 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* [[Order of Friendship]] (Russia, 2004)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pravoteka.ru/pst/1040/519885.html |title=Указ Президента Российской Федерации от 12 декабря 2004 года № 1552 "О награждении орденом Дружбы граждан Республики Казахстан" |access-date=26 March 2019 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* [[Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise]], III Degree (Ukraine, 2008)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1542008-7193 |title=Указ Президента Украины от 25 февраля 2008 года № 154 "О награждении государственными наградами Украины граждан Республики Казахстан" |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327090142/https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1542008-7193 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* [[Commonwealth Order]] ([[Commonwealth of Independent States]], 2007)
* [[Order of the Serbian Flag]], 1st Class (2016)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nikolić odlikovao kazahstanskog političara|url=http://www.blic.rs/vesti/politika/nikolic-odlikovao-kazahstanskog-politicara/yfq48zr|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325092538/https://www.blic.rs/vesti/politika/nikolic-odlikovao-kazahstanskog-politicara/yfq48zr|archive-date=25 March 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* Jubilee Medal "20 Years of the [[Federation Council]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iacis.ru/pressroom/news/sovet_mpa_sng/kasym_zhomart_tokaev_kazakhstan_i_rossiya_tesno_vzaimodeystvuyut_v_ramkakh_mpa_sng/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091659/http://iacis.ru/pressroom/news/sovet_mpa_sng/kasym_zhomart_tokaev_kazakhstan_i_rossiya_tesno_vzaimodeystvuyut_v_ramkakh_mpa_sng/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 March 2019|title=Касым – Жомарт Токаев: Казахстан и Россия тесно взаимодействуют в рамках МПА СНГ|access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref>
* Tree of Friendship Medal (CIS, 2003)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pravo.levonevsky.org/bazaby/org505/basic/text0128.htm |title=Resolution of the Council of the Interparliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States, November 14, 2003 |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325084616/http://pravo.levonevsky.org/bazaby/org505/basic/text0128.htm |archive-date=25 March 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* CIS Diploma<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cis.minsk.by/page.php?id=19215 |title=Museum of the History of the CIS |access-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091719/http://www.cis.minsk.by/page.php?id=19215 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* Bitaraplyk Order (Turkmenistan, 2021) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://turkmenportal.com/blog/40779/prezident-kazahstana-nagrazhden-ordenom-turkmenistana-bitaraplyk|title=Президент Казахстана награждён Орденом Туркменистана|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=25 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025225547/https://turkmenportal.com/blog/40779/prezident-kazahstana-nagrazhden-ordenom-turkmenistana-bitaraplyk|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Titles and Honors===
* Full member of the World Academy of Humanities and Natural Sciences, member of the "Council of Wise Men" of the [[Munich Security Conference]].
* Honorary Professor of [[Shenzhen University]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.akorda.kz/en/president/president|title=The President of the Republic of Kazakhstan|website=www.akorda.kz}}</ref>
* Honorary Professor and Honorary Doctor of the [[Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation]], as well as a member of its board of trustees.
* Honorary President of the Kazakhstan Council on International Relations.
* Diploma of the "Academicus" of the [[University of Geneva]].
* S. N. Roerich Memorial Medal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://roerich.kz/publication-rm/mcr/tokaev.htm|title=Вручение Касым-Жомарту Токаеву памятной медали С.Н. Рериха и памятного знака "Знамя Мира"|website=roerich.kz|access-date=2022-11-10}}</ref>
* According to the Russian Biographical Society, he entered the list of laureates of the "Person of the Year — 2018".
* Ranked among [[The 500 Most Influential Muslims]] in the annual edition of The Muslim 500.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://liter.kz/kasym-zhomart-tokaev-i-dimash-kudaibergen-voshli-v-top-500-vliiatelnykh-musulman-mira-1668004552/|title=Токаев и Димаш вошли в топ-500 влиятельных мусульман мира|website=liter.kz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://themuslim500.com/books/The%20Muslim%20500%202023%20edition%20-%20Free%20eBook.pdf|title=Muslim 500}}</ref>

== Personal life ==

Now divorced, Tokayev was married to [[Nadezhda Tokayeva]], with whom he had one son.<ref name="akorda">{{Cite web |url=http://www.akorda.kz/ru/republic_of_kazakhstan/president |title=Президент Республики Казахстан — Официальный сайт Президента Республики Казахстан |access-date=29 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329063023/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/republic_of_kazakhstan/president |archive-date=29 March 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> His son Timur (born in 1984) is an oil entrepreneur who currently resides in [[Geneva]], Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tikhonov|first= Alexei|title=The Presidents' Beloved City|url=https://kz.expert/en/news/analitika/1466_the_presidents_beloved_city|access-date=2020-10-17|website=kz.expert|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305162320/https://kz.expert/en/news/analitika/1466_the_presidents_beloved_city|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tikhonov|first= Alexei|title=The Tokayevs' Business-Empire|url=https://kz.expert/en/news/analitika/1435_the_Tokayevs_business_empire|access-date=2020-10-17|website=kz.expert|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110071210/https://kz.expert/en/news/analitika/1435_the_Tokayevs_business_empire|url-status=live}}</ref> His brother-in-law Temirtai Izbastin (married to Tokayev's sister Karlyga Izbastina) is currently Kazakhstan's Ambassador to [[Bulgaria]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kazakh President appoints his brother-in-law as Ambassador to Bulgaria|url=https://akipress.com/news:627941:Kazakh_President_appoints_his_brother-in-law_as_Ambassador_to_Bulgaria/|access-date=2020-10-17|website=akipress.com|archive-date=26 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826115117/https://akipress.com/news:627941:Kazakh_President_appoints_his_brother-in-law_as_Ambassador_to_Bulgaria/|url-status=live}}</ref> Tokayev is a [[Multilingualism|polyglot]], fluent in Kazakh, Russian, English, Chinese and French.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=30100479|title=Токаев Касым-Жомарт Кемелевич - персональная справка|website=Информационная система ПАРАГРАФ}}</ref>

He was President of the [[Table tennis|Table Tennis]] Federation of Kazakhstan for 13 years.<ref name="akorda"/>

He has made it a point not to mark his birthday with celebrations, with his press secretary saying in 2020 that he "does not like to celebrate this day because his family has never celebrated the birthdays of either the children or parents".<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://astanatimes.com/2020/05/president-Tokayev-celebrates-67th-birthday-in-lockdown-because-of-coronavirus/|title = President Tokayev Celebrates 67th Birthday in Lockdown Because of Coronavirus|date = 18 May 2020|access-date = 4 June 2020|archive-date = 4 June 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200604035935/https://astanatimes.com/2020/05/president-Tokayev-celebrates-67th-birthday-in-lockdown-because-of-coronavirus/|url-status = live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Government of Kazakhstan]]
* [[Parliament of Kazakhstan]]
* [[Politics of Kazakhstan]]
* [[Tokayev Cabinet]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

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{{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|years=1994–1999}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Erlan Idrissov]]}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Nurlan Balgimbayev]]}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Abish Kekilbayev]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[State Secretary of Kazakhstan]]|years=2002–2003}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Erlan Idrissov]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kazakhstan)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|years=2002–2007}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Marat Tazhin]]}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of Kazakhstan]]|years=2019–present}}
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{{s-bef|before=Nursultan Nazarbayev}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chairman of [[Amanat (political party)|Amanat]]|years=2021–2022}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Erlan Qoşanov]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Heads of state of Kazakhstan}}
{{Prime Ministers of Kazakhstan}}
{{Heads of state of republics}}
{{Current CIS Leaders}}
{{Current ECO Leaders}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tokayev, Kassym-Jomart}}
[[Category:1953 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nur Otan politicians]]
[[Category:People from Astana]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Chairmen of the Senate of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Presidents of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Government ministers of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Foreign ministers of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Kazakhstani Muslims]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 3rd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Honour (Russia)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Parasat]]
[[Category:Deputy Prime Ministers of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Moscow State Institute of International Relations alumni]]

Honey Singh

2022-05-04T12:35:22Z

Mmeshi: Yo Yo Honey Singh

#REDIRECT [[Yo Yo Honey Singh]]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Honey}}

Amir Amanullah Khan Award

2022-03-26T17:15:46Z

Mmeshi: Started an original page.

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{more citations needed}}

{{Infobox order
|title = State Order of ''Ghazi Amir'' Amanullah Khan
|image =
|caption =
|awarded_by ={{Flag|Islamic Republic of Afghanistan}}
|type = [[Order (decoration)|Order]]
|motto =
|day =
|eligibility =
|for =
|status = Currently constituted
|head_title =
|head =
|house =
|chancellor =
|commander =
|grades =
|former_grades =
|date =
|first_induction =
|last_induction =
|total =
|established = 2006
|recipients =
|individual =
|higher =
|lower =
|image2 = [[File:Ghazi Amanullah Khan Medal (Afghanistan) - ribbon bar.png|100px]]
|caption2 = Ribbon bar of the order
|}}
The '''Amir Amanullah Khan Award''' is the highest civilian award of the [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]]. It was instituted in 2006 and is bestowed by the [[Politics of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan#Executive branch|Government of Afghanistan]] to [[Afghans|Afghan]] and foreign nationals in recognition of their services to [[Afghanistan]]. The award is named for ''[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]'' [[Amanullah Khan]], the Sovereign of the [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]] from 1919 to 1929. The citation on the reverse of the medal states, "''Nishan-e dawlati'' ''Ghazi Amir Amanullah Khan''", meaning "State Order of Ghazi Amir Amanullah Khan."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/pm-narendra-modi-afghanistan-highest-civilian-award-amir-amanullah-khan-award-2834312/|title=PM Modi conferred Afghanistan's highest civilian honour|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-highest-civilian-afghan-award-to-pm-modi-is-an-honour-for-india-says-fm-jaitley-2220162|title=Highest civilian Afghan award to PM Modi is an honour for India, says FM Jaitley - Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|publisher=}}</ref><ref name="pib.nic.in">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=145981|title=PM Narendra Modi conferred with the Highest Civilian Honour of Afghanistan|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/printpage.php?idno=2818130&sr_no=0|title=Print :'Honour for all Indians': BJP leaders congratulate PM Modi on Afghanistan's highest civilian award|publisher=}}</ref>

==Notable recipients==
* [[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]]<ref name="pib.nic.in"/>
* [[President of the United States|US President]] [[George W. Bush]]
* [[List of leaders of Kazakhstan|Kazakh President]] [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nomad.su/?a=3-201507100029 |title=Участие во встрече с лидерами БРИКС |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808152537/http://nomad.su/?a=3-201507100029 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[President of Turkey|Turkish President]] [[Recep Tayyip Erdogan]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan's contribution to the birth of Turkey in 1920 is unforgettable |url=https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/news/542/3322/afghanistans-contribution-to-the-birth-of-turkey-in-1920-is-unforgettable |access-date=31 March 2022 |work=Presidency Of The Republic Of Turkey |issue=18 October 2014}}</ref>
* [[President of Indonesia|Indonesian President]] [[Joko Widodo]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/3243080/berani-upayakan-perdamaian-jokowi-dapat-penghargaan-tertinggi|title=Berani Upayakan Perdamaian, Jokowi Dapat Penghargaan Tertinggi|first=Nila Chrisna |last=Yulika|website=liputan6.com}}</ref>
* [[NATO|NATO General]] [[James L. Jones|James Logan Jones]]
* [[President of Afghanistan|Afghan President]] spiritual leader [[Sibghatullah Mojaddedi|Sibghatullah Mujaddedi]]
* [[Chief Justice of Afghanistan|Afghan Chief Justice]] [[Abdul Salam Azimi]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Awards established in 2006]]
[[Category:2006 establishments in Afghanistan]]

{{Afghanistan-stub}}
{{Orders-medals-stub}}