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Jallianwalla Bagh Express

2026-04-30T23:50:31Z

MazidulIslamMilon: done

{{Short description|Train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Jallianwalla Bagh Express
| image = Jallianwala bagh express at amritsar.jpg
| caption = Jallianwalla Bagh Express At [[Amritsar Junction railway station]]
| type = [[Express trains in India|Express]]
| locale =
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2009|12|30}}
| last =
| operator = [[Eastern Railway zone|Eastern Railway]]
| ridership =
| start = {{stnlnk|Sealdah}} (SDAH)
| stops = 14
| end = {{stnlnk|Amritsar}} (ASR)
| distance = {{convert|1901|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 27 hours 10 minutes
| frequency = Weekly
| class = AC First Class, AC 2 Tier, AC 3 Tier, Sleeper Class, General Unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = Available
| observation = Large windows
| entertainment =
| baggage = Available
| otherfacilities = Below the seats
| stock = [[LHB coach]]
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm}}
| el =
| trainnumber = 12379 / 12380
| speed = {{convert|70|km/h|0|abbr=on}} average including halts.
| map =
| map_state =
}}

The 12379 / 12380 '''Jallianwalla Bagh Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|express]] train of the Indian Railways connecting {{stnlnk|Sealdah}} in [[West Bengal]] and {{stnlnk|Amritsar Junction}} of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. It is currently being operated with 12379/12380 train numbers on Friday of a week.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/community/train-services-to-be-hit-from-june-28-to-july-3/257111.html | title=Train services to be hit from June 28 to July 3 | date=26 June 2016 | newspaper=The Tribune | accessdate=26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://epaper.jagran.com/ePaperArticle/07-aug-2016-edition-Chandauli-page_9-2719-2516-52.html |title=22 trains approved for stoppage |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027125700/http://epaper.jagran.com/ePaperArticle/07-aug-2016-edition-Chandauli-page_9-2719-2516-52.html |archive-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Service==

The 12379 Jallianwala Bagh Express has an average speed of 62 km/h and covers 1901 km in 30 hrs 35 mins. 12380 Jallianwala Bagh Express has an average speed of 62 km/h and covers 1901 km in 30 hrs 35 mins.

== Route and halts ==

{| class="wikitable
|-
! style="background:gold;"| Station Code
!! style="background:gold;"| Station Name
!! style="background:gold;"| Arrival
!! style="background:gold;"| Departure
|-
| '''SDAH''' || '''Sealdah''' || --- || '''13:10'''
|-
| BWN || Barddhaman Junction || 14:39 || 14:41
|-
| DGR || Durgapur || 15:25 || 15:27
|-
| ASN || Asansol Junction || 16:02 || 16:07
|-
| KMME || Kumardubi || 16:30 || 16:31
|-
| DHN || Dhanbad Junction || 17:10 || 17:15
|-
| KQR || Koderma Junction || 18:30 || 18:32
|-
| GAYA || Gaya Junction || 20:00 || 20:05
|-
| SSM || Sasaram Junction || 21:03 || 21:05
|-
| DDU || Pt DD Upadhyaya Junction || 22:25 || 22:35
|-
| CNB || Kanpur Central || 03:10 || 03:15
|-
| DLI || Old Delhi Junction || 09:05 || 09:15
|-
| UMB || Ambala Cantt Junction || 11:50 || 11:55
|-
| LDH || Ludhiana Junction || 13:20 || 13:30
|-
| JUC || Jalandhar City Junction || 14:30 || 14:35
|-
| BEAS || Beas Junction || 15:03 || 15:05
|-
| '''ASR''' || '''Amritsar Junction''' || '''15:50''' || ---
|-
|}

==Coach composition==

The train has standard LHB rakes with max speed of 120 kmph. The train consists of 22 coaches:

* 1 AC First-class
* 1 AC II Tier
* 3 AC III Tier
* 11 Sleeper coaches
*1 Pantry car
* 3 General
* 2 EOGs

==Traction==

Both trains are hauled by a [[Electric Loco Shed, Howrah|Howrah Loco Shed]]-based [[WAP-7]] or [[WAP-4]] electric locomotive from Sealdah to Amritsar and vice versa.

==Rake sharing==

The train shares its rake with 12329/12330 [[West Bengal Sampark Kranti]].

== See also ==

* [[Sealdah railway station]]
* [[Amritsar Junction railway station]]
* [[West Bengal Sampark Kranti]]
* [[Tatanagar–Amritsar Jallianwalla Bagh Express]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== External links ==

* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/7845 12379/Jallianwalabagh Express]
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/jallianwalabagh-express-12380/7865/344/325 12380/Jallianwalabagh Express]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jallianwalla Bagh Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Amritsar]]
[[Category:Transport in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Bihar]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Delhi]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Haryana]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2009]]

{{India-express-train-stub}}

R. V. Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao

2026-04-23T06:11:54Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Starting the bio w/ sources

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = R. V. Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao
| office = [[Ministry of Mines and Geology|Minister of Mines and Geology]] [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]]
| governor = [[E. S. L. Narasimhan]]
| 1blankname = Chief Minister
| 1namedata = [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]]
| predecessor = Peethala Sujatha
| successor = [[Peddireddy Ramachandra Reddy]]
| term_start = 2 April 2017
| term_end = 29 May 2019
| office1 = Member of the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = 2004
| term_end1 = 2019
| predecessor1 = Jagan Mohana Rao Peddinti
| successor1 = [[S. V. China Appala Naidu]]
| constituency1 = [[Bobbili Assembly constituency|Bobbili]]
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]] (until 2014) 
[[YSR Congress Party]] (2014{{ndash}}2017)
| party = [[Telugu Desam Party]] (since 2017)
| birth_date =
}}
'''Ravu Venkata Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao''' (born 14 September 1969)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=Royal |date=2021-11-29 |title=Bobbili (Zamindari) |url=https://oroyalarchives.com/bobbili/ |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=Royal Archives |language=en-US}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Andhra Pradesh]]. He is a three time former member of the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]. He was elected in the [[Bobbili Assembly constituency]] in the 2004 and [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Indian National Congress]]. He won for a third time winning the 2014 Assembly election on the [[YSR Congress Party]] ticket. He later served as a Minister for Mines and Geology in the cabinet of [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]] from 2017 to 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=The Hans |date=2017-10-16 |title=Rift between Minister Sujay and MLAs |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2017-10-16/Rift-between-Minister-Sujay-and-MLAs/333490 |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=archive |first=From our online |date=2017-04-02 |title=Chandrababu Naidu's new cabinet: A combination of young blood and grey hair |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2017/Apr/02/chandrababu-naidus-new-cabinet-a-combination-of-young-blood-and-grey-hair-1589056.html |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Personal life and education ==
Ranga Rao hails from the [[Bobbili Estate|Bobbili Royal family]] who ruled [[Bobbili]], in the present [[Vizianagaram district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] from 1652-1948 until the zamindari were abolished. His grandfather [[Ramakrishna Ranga Rao of Bobbili]] was the chief-minister of [[Madras Presidency]] for two terms. His father Gopala Krishna Ranga Rao also served as [[Member of parliament, Lok Sabha]] in the [[3rd Lok Sabha]] securing 1,35,315 votes against Kerri Narayana Rao from Cheepurupalli Lok Sabha constituency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myneta.info/andhrapradesh2019/candidate.php?candidate_id=5464 |title= Affidavit of Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao for 2014 Andhra Pradesh Assembly Election}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/1962-election-results.html|title= 1962 Loksabha election result}}</ref>

He married Rani Venkata Anupama Ranga Rao and together they have a son and a daughter. He completed his BA at a college affiliated with Madras University, Chennai, in 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Venkata Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao Ravu(TDP):Constituency- BOBBILI(VIZIANAGARAM) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/andhrapradesh2019/candidate.php?candidate_id=5464 |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

== Political career ==
Being the head of the Bobbili family and the titular Raja of [[Bobbili Estate]], he is a three-time [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|M.L.A]]. from [[Bobbili (Assembly constituency)]] from 2004 to 2009 (gaining 53,581 votes),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/andhra-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/2004-election-results.html|title= 2004 assembly election result Andhra pradesh}}</ref> 2009-2014 (securing 75,697 votes),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/andhra-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/2009-election-results.html|title=2009 andhra pradesh assembly election results}}</ref> 2014-2019 (securing 83,587 votes)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/andhra-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/2014-election-results.html|title=2014 andhra pradesh assembly election results}}</ref> and lost in the 2019 election.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/royal-families-taste-defeat-in-vizianagaram-district/article27229126.ece|title= Royal families taste defeat in Vizianagaram|newspaper= The Hindu|date= 23 May 2019|last1= Rao|first1= K. Srinivasa}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Bobbili Estate]]
*[[Bobbili Fort]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rangarao, Ravu Venkata Sujay Krishna}}
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Telugu Desam Party politicians]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:People from Vizianagaram district]]
[[Category:Maharajas]]

Yadlapati Venkata Rao

2026-04-23T05:39:43Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added basic bio more to come.

{{Short description|Indian politician (1919–2022)}}
{{Family name hatnote|Yadlapati|lang=Telugu}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Yadlapati Venkata Rao
| caption = Rao in an interview with [[ABN Andhra Jyothi]] in 2018
| image = Yadlapati Venkat Rao.jpeg
| birth_date = {{birth date|1919|12|16|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Bodapadu, [[Madras Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2022|2|28|1919|12|16|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Hyderabad, Telangana]], India
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]]
| term_start = 22 June 1998
| term_end = 21 June 2004
| constituency = [[List of Rajya Sabha members from Andhra Pradesh|Andhra Pradesh]]
| predecessor = [[Renuka Chowdhury]]
| successor = [[Jairam Ramesh]]
| office1 = [[Marri Chenna Reddy|Minister for Agriculture, Law and Planning]] [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start1 = 6 March 1978
| term_end1 = 11 October 1980
| governor1 = [[Sharda Mukherjee]] [[K. C. Abraham]]
| 1blankname1 = Chief Minister
| 1namedata1 = [[Marri Chenna Reddy]]
| office2 = [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Member of Legislative Assembly Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start2 = 1967
| term_end2 = 1983
| constituency2 = [[Vemuru (Assembly constituency)|Vemuru]]
| predecessor2 = [[Kalluri Chandramouli]]
| successor2 = [[N. Bhaskara Rao]]
| party = [[Telugu Desam Party]] (1988–2022)
| other_party = [[Krishikar Lok Party]] [[Swatantra Party]] (1967-1978) [[Indian National Congress]] (1978–1988)
| spouse = Alavelu Mangamma
| children = 2
| alma_mater = [[Andhra Christian College]]
}}

'''Yadlapati Venkata Rao''' (16 December 1919 – 28 February 2022) was an Indian politician from the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Rao served as the Minister for Agriculture, Law and Planning in the [[united Andhra Pradesh]] from 1978 to 1980. He was elected thrice to the [[Vemuru (Assembly constituency)|Vemuru Assembly constituency]] of the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] as the [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA), and served as the [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha|Member of Parliament]] (MP) in [[Rajya Sabha]] representing Andhra Pradesh between 1998 and 2004.

A lawyer by profession, he entered active politics from the [[Krishikar Lok Party]]. He was first elected as an MLA from the [[Swatantra Party]] in 1967 and moved to the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1978. He founded Sangam Dairy, a farmers' cooperative, in 1977 and was crucial in establishing Jampani Sugar Factory. Rao joined the [[Telugu Desam Party]] in 1988, serving in its highest decision-making body and headed its farmers' division, [[Telugu Raithu|Telugu Rythu]]. During his term as an MP, Rao was a member of the committee on [[Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme]].

==Early life and education==
Yadlapati Venkat Rao was born on 16 December 1919 in Bodapadu village of Amruthalur mandal near [[Tenali]] in modern-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]. He was schooled at Turumilla. He studied for his B.A. at [[Andhra Christian College]] in [[Guntur]] before graduating in law in [[Madras]]. During his law education, he worked as the president of Andhra Association. He began his career as a lawyer in Tenali in 1945 before moving into active politics in 1962.<ref name="hindu">{{cite news |author=P. Samuel Jonathan |date=15 December 2018 |title=Yadlapati will turn 100 tomorrow |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/yadlapati-will-turn-100-tomorrow/article25749900.ece |access-date=18 December 2018}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Kota |first=Madhu |date=28 February 2022 |title=టీడీపీలో విషాదం.. 102ఏళ్ల సీనీయర్ నేత, మాజీ మంత్రి యడ్లపాటి వెంకట్రావు కన్నుమూత |trans-title=Tragedy in TDP.. 102-year-old senior leader, former minister Yedlapati Venkatrao passed away |url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/andhra-pradesh/ex-minister-former-mp-and-tdp-leader-yadlapati-venkatarao-passed-away-at-102-chandrababu-grief-mks-gnt-1217880.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[News18 Telugu]] |language=te}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Jonathan |first=P. Samuel |date=28 February 2022 |title=Former TDP MP Yadlapati Venkat Rao dies at 103 |language= |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/former-tdp-mp-yadlapati-venkat-rao-dies-at-103/article65093276.ece |access-date=23 March 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He participated in the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 February 2022 |title=Former MP Yadlapati Venkat Rao passes away |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/former-mp-yadlapati-venkat-rao-passes-away/article65092075.ece |access-date=28 February 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Career==

=== Early political career ===
Yadlapati Venkata Rao was a follower of [[N. G. Ranga]]. He played a crucial role and helped Ranga in establishing the [[Krishikar Lok Party]].<ref name="hindu" /> He later joined the [[Swatantra Party]]. He contested as a candidate from the Swatantra Party and lost as the [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] to the [[united Andhra Pradesh]] Legislative Assembly from the [[Vemuru (Assembly constituency)|Vemuru constituency]] in [[Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh]] in [[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]] elections and [[1965 elections in India|1965]] by-elections. He later won as the MLA in the [[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]] and [[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]] elections. In the 1972 elections, he became the sole winner from the Swatantra Party in [[Coastal Andhra]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Samdani |first=MN |title=Former Andhra Pradesh minister and Rajya Sabha member Yadlapati Venkatrao dies at 102 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/amaravati/former-andhra-pradesh-minister-and-rajya-sabha-member-yadlapati-venkatrao-dies-at-102/articleshow/89885846.cms |access-date=28 February 2022 |work=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

In 1977, he founded Sangam Dairy in Guntur district, now developed into a farmers' cooperative. He was also the founding president of the organization.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=28 February 2022 |title=Yadlapati Venkatarao: టీడీపీ నేత, మాజీ మంత్రి యడ్లపాటి వెంకట రావు కన్నుమూత, 102 ఏళ్ల వయసులో |trans-title=Yadlapati Venkatarao: TDP leader and former minister Yedlapati Venkata Rao's eyelid, 102 years old |url=https://telugu.abplive.com/telangana/hyderabad/tdp-leader-sangam-dairy-founder-yadlapati-venkatarao-dies-at-102-age-in-hyderabad-24125 |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=telugu.abplive.com |language=te}}</ref> He also played a crucial role in establishing Jampani Sugar Factory.<ref name="hindu" />

=== Indian National Congress ===
In 1978, Rao joined the [[Indian National Congress]] and won as the MLA from Vemuru constituency in the [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978 elections]].<ref name=":2" /> He was inducted into [[Marri Chenna Reddy]]'s cabinet and was allotted the ministries of agriculture, law and planning (1978–1980) and headed Andhra Pradesh Industrial Development Corporation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2022 |title=Yadlapati Venkatarao Passed away: విషాదం.. టీడీపీ సీనియర్‌ నేత, మాజీ మంత్రి యడ్లపాటి వెంకట్రావు కన్నుమూత |trans-title=Yadlapati Venkatarao Passed away: Tragedy.. TDP senior leader, former minister Yedlapati Venkatrao passed away |url=https://zeenews.india.com/telugu/ap/tdp-senior-leader-yadlapati-venkata-rao-demise-56534 |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[Zee News]] Telugu |language=te}}</ref><ref name="hindu" /> He was also given an additional charge of Department of Civil Supplies for three months during his tenure.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5g-CuiSEliw |title=TDP Ex-Minister Yadlapati Venkata Rao {{!}} Open Heart With RK {{!}} Full Episode {{!}} ABN Telugu |date=20 December 2018 |type=Television production |publisher=[[ABN Andhra Jyothi]]|people=[[Vemuri Radhakrishna]] and Yadlapati Venkata Rao |language=te}}</ref>

=== Telugu Desam Party ===
The [[Telugu Desam Party]] (TDP) won the [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983 elections]] and formed the government, while Rao contested and lost as a Congress candidate against [[Nadendla Bhaskara Rao]]. Despite initially rejecting on moral grounds, Rao, upon a request from [[N. T. Rama Rao]] in 1983, joined as a member of TDP's Karshaka Parishat, the party's famers' unit, while he was still a member of Congress. This move did not fare well within the Congress party.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2022 |title=Yadlapati: పార్టీ మారాలని ఎన్టీఆర్‌ చెప్పలేదు కదా.. అంగీకరించండి.. |trans-title=Yadlapati: NTR did not say to change party.. Accept the proposal..! |url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/politics/yadlapati-venkata-rao-handed-over-the-b-form-to-chandrababu/0500/122041320 |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[Eenadu]] |language=te}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

He later heeded a call by N. T. Rama Rao and joined TDP in 1988,<ref name=":4" /> resigning from Congress. He worked as a member of TDP's politburo, the highest decision-making body of the party,<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2022 |title=Veteran TDP leader Yadlapati Venkata Rao passes away |url=https://www.siasat.com/veteran-tdp-leader-yadlapati-venkata-rao-passes-away-2283193/ |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[The Siasat Daily]]}}</ref> and as the chairman of Karshaka Parishat<ref name=":4" /> and as the president of [[Telugu Raithu|Telugu Rythu]], a [[Front organization|frontal organization]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 May 2015 |title=TDP appoints leaders for its frontal wings |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/tdp-appoints-leaders-for-its-frontal-wings/article7243317.ece |access-date=28 February 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> of the party.<ref name="hindu" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=28 February 2022 |title=Veteran TDP leader Yadlapati Venkata Rao passes away |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/280222/veteran-tdp-leader-yadlapati-venkata-rao-passes-away.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |language=en}}</ref> He contested the [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989 elections]] and lost as a TDP candidate.<ref name=":3" />

He was elected Guntur [[District council (India)|Zilla Parishad]] Chairman (1995–1998) before he was elected to [[Rajya Sabha]] in 1998, in which position he continued until 2004.<ref name=":0" /> During his tenure, he was a member of the committee on [[Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Committee on Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme - 4th Report |url=http://164.100.47.5/rs/book2/reports/mplad/4threport.htm |access-date=28 February 2022 |publisher=[[Rajya Sabha]], [[Parliament of India]]}}</ref>

Rao retired from active politics in 2004; however, he continued to be a member of the Telugu Desam Party.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

==Personal life and death==
Rao married Alavelu Mangamma and had a son and a daughter.<ref name=":3" /> He wrote his autobiography titled ''Naa Jeevina Gamanam'' ({{Translation|''The Course of My Life''}}) in 2011.<ref name="hindu" /> He [[centenarian|turned 100]] in December 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last=VL Syamsundar |date=16 December 2018 |title=CM Naidu felicitates Yadlapati Venkata Rao couple |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2018-12-16/CM-Naidu-felicitates-Yadlapati-Venkata-Rao-couple/459813 |access-date=24 June 2019 |website=[[The Hans India]]}}</ref> He died at his daughter's home in Hyderabad, where he spent his later life post his wife's death in 2021,<ref name=":4" /> on 28 February 2022, at the age of 102.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 February 2022 |title=Veteran TDP leader Yadlapati Venkata Rao passes away |language=en-US |work=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |agency=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]] |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/veteran-tdp-leader-yadlapati-venkata-rao-passes-away-1503048916.html |access-date=28 February 2022}}</ref> His last rites were performed at Tenali on 2 March with State honours.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2 March 2022 |title=Last rites of Venkat Rao held with State honours |language= |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/last-rites-of-venkat-rao-held-with-state-honours/article65183587.ece |access-date=23 March 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Former chief minister of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and TDP's president, [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]], paid tributes to Rao by recalling his services as a farmer leader.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bandari |first=Pavan Kumar |date=28 February 2022 |title=Chandrababu Naidu pays tribute to Yedlapati Venkata Rao in Hyderabad |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/chandrababu-naidu-pays-tribute-to-yedlapati-venkata-rao-in-hyderabad-731251 |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[The Hans India]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yadlapati, Venkata Rao}}
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2022 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian men centenarians]]
[[Category:Rajya Sabha members from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 1967–1972]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 1972–1978]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 1978–1983]]
[[Category:Telugu Desam Party politicians]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Swatantra Party politicians]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]

Suhel Debbarma

2026-04-21T22:40:08Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added initial post v1

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Suhel Debbarma
| office = Executive Member of [[Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council]]
| constituency = Ramchandraghat
| party = [[Tipra Motha Party|TIPRA Motha Party]]
| alma_mater = RVS College of Engineering and Technology (Coimbatore), ICFAI University, Tripura
| portfolio =
| education = B. Tech (Information Technology), LL.B
| term_start = 19 April 2021
| preceded = Ranjit Debbarma
| 1blankname = Departments
| 1namedata = *Sports
*Youth Affairs
*Information and Cultural Affairs
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1989|06|06|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Langkapura, [[Khowai]]
| image = [[File:Suhel Debbarma in 2023.jpg|230px]]
| caption = Official portrait, 2023
| other_party = [[Indigenous People's Front of Tripura]] (formerly)
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Politician
*Lawyer
}}
}}

'''Suhel Debbarma''' (born 6 June 1989) is an Indian politician and executive member of the [[Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council]] (TTAADC).<ref>{{Cite web |title=CEM {{!}} Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council |url=https://ttaadc.gov.in/cem_em |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=ttaadc.gov.in}}</ref> He is a youth leader of the [[Tipra Motha Party|TIPRA Motha Party]].

== Education ==
After finishing his school education, Suhel studied B.Tech. (Information Technology) from RSV College of Engeenering and Technology, [[Anna University]] in [[Coimbatore]].

Further, in 2021, he completed his law (LLB) degree from ICFAI University, Tripura.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Debbarma |first=B. Motom |date=2021-11-19 |title=TTAADC EM Suhel Debbarma receives law degree |url=https://homchang.in/ttaadc-em-suhel-debbarma-receives-law-degree/ |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=Homchang |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Politics ==
Suhel Debbarma joined [[Pradyot Bikram Manikya Deb Barma]] TIPRA Motha Party in 2019 as a youth leader. In 2021, he was selected as a candidate for the [[2021 Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council election|TTAADC election]]. He contested from the 12 Ramchandra Ghat constituency against the former CEM Ranjit Debbarma and won.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}

He was swore in as an Executive Member with portfolios of Sports and Youth Affairs Department of Tripura Tribal Autonomous District Council on 17 April 2021. He is also one of the youngest member to be an executive member of the council.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Panday |first=Chandan |date=2021-04-24 |title=Tripura: CEM Purna Jamatia allocates portfolios; keeps finance, law, forest |url=http://www.eastmojo.com/tripura/2021/04/24/tripura-cem-purna-jamatia-allocates-portfolios-keeps-finance-law-forest/ |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=EastMojo |language=en-US}}</ref>

After the 2021 TTAADC Election, Debbarma became executive Member of TTAADC,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Who's Who |url=https://ttaadc.in/whoswho/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=TTAADC |language=en-US}}</ref> Tripura from Ramchandra Ghat Constituency.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ali |first=Syed Sajjad |date=2021-04-10 |title=Big win for TIPRA in Tripura tribal council election |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/big-win-for-tipra-in-tripura-tribal-council-election/article34291128.ece |access-date=2022-12-15 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Panday |first=Chandan |date=2021-04-24 |title=Tripura: CEM Purna Jamatia allocates portfolios; keeps finance, law, forest |url=http://www.eastmojo.com/tripura/2021/04/24/tripura-cem-purna-jamatia-allocates-portfolios-keeps-finance-law-forest/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=EastMojo |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=enewstime |title=Tripura District Council Polls: Find who wins from which constituency |url=https://enewstime.in/enews/tripura-district-council-polls-find-who-wins-from-which-constituency-12147.html |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=enewstime.in}}</ref>

Debbarma also runs a drugs awareness campaign for Tripura youth.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=North East |date=2022-02-22 |title=Tripura : Tribal Council Inks Pact With INTACH; For Revitalizing Cultural & Heritage Centre |url=https://www.northeasttoday.in/2022/02/22/tripura-tribal-council-inks-pact-with-intach-for-revitalizing-cultural-heritage-centre/ |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=Northeast Today |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Music career ==
Debbarma have written and performed Kokborok song. He also released a rendition of Bimal Debbarma in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Debbarma |first=Gobin |title=Suhel Debbarma: A Harmonious Symphony of Music, Cinema, and Politics in Tripura |url=https://www.kokthum.com/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=Kokthum The News |language=English}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Debbarma, Suhel}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Tipra Motha Party politicians]]
[[Category:Indigenous Peoples Front of Tripura politicians]]
{{improve categories|date=July 2023}}

Bellavi Assembly constituency

2026-04-17T00:46:51Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Entry...

{{Short description|Former Assembly constituency in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bellavi
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| district = [[Tumkur district|Tumkur]]
| division = [[Bangalore division|Bangalore]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Tumkur Lok Sabha constituency|Tumkur]]
| constituency_no =
| established = 1978
| reservation = None
| abolished = 2008
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year =
| electors =
}}
'''Bellavi Assembly constituency''' was one of the constituencies in [[Karnataka]] state assembly in India until 2008 when it was made defunct. It was part of [[Tumkur Lok Sabha constituency]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || G. S. Shivananjappa || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || T. H. H. Anumantharayappa || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || C. N. Bhaskarappa || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1989]] || rowspan="3" | R. Narayana || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
|-
| [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2004]] || [[K. N. Rajanna]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (Secular)}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Bellavi <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2004 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006204912/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[K. N. Rajanna]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 35,099 |percentage = 31.07% |change = {{increase}}23.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mahadevaiah. C. V |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 33,595 |percentage = 29.74% |change = {{increase}}8.78 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. Narayana |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 29,481 |percentage = 26.10% |change = {{decrease}}20.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Srinivas. B. P |party = Janata Party |votes = 7,343 |percentage = 6.50% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivanna. M. J |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,760 |percentage = 3.33% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kodiyala Krishnamurthy |party = Samajwadi Party |votes = 994 |percentage = 0.88% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dr B. Yellappa |party = Kannada Nadu Party |votes = 730 |percentage = 0.65% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,504 |percentage = 1.33% |change = {{decrease}}24.30 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 112,960 |percentage = 75.11% |change = {{increase}}1.09 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 112,960}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 150,402 |ref = |change = {{increase}}11.71 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Dal (Secular) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}15.53 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Bellavi <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006053217/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. Narayana |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 43,803 |percentage = 46.60% |change = {{increase}}22.06 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = V. N. Murthy |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 19,707 |percentage = 20.96% |change = {{increase}}6.26 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Lakshminarasimhaiah |party = Janata Dal (United) |votes = 14,353 |percentage = 15.27% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = T. R. Nagaraja |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 7,373 |percentage = 7.84% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sagaranahally Revanna |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,319 |percentage = 2.47% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. M. Nagaraj |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,747 |percentage = 1.86% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Lakshmi Devi |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,528 |percentage = 1.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivakumar |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,230 |percentage = 1.31% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Muniraju |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,100 |percentage = 1.17% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 24,096 |percentage = 25.63% |change = {{increase}}23.66 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 99,664 |percentage = 74.02% |change = {{increase}}0.28 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 94,004}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 5,660 |percentage = 5.68% |change = {{increase}}3.41 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 134,641 |ref = |change = {{increase}}4.51 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}22.06 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1994 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Bellavi <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006211324/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. Narayana |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 22,777 |percentage = 24.54% |change = {{decrease}}17.10 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C. N. Bhaskarappa |party = Janata Dal |votes = 20,946 |percentage = 22.56% |change = {{increase}}4.10 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = V. N. Murthy |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 13,645 |percentage = 14.70% |change = {{increase}}3.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. Mudligirigowda |party = Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee |votes = 10,792 |percentage = 11.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. Ramalingaiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 8,365 |percentage = 9.01% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = H. Ningaiah |party = Samajwadi Janata Party |votes = 6,648 |percentage = 7.16% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = J. V. Sadashivaiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 5,871 |percentage = 6.32% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Renuka Paramesh |party = Janata Party |votes = 1,150 |percentage = 1.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. Devaraju |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,033 |percentage = 1.11% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,831 |percentage = 1.97% |change = {{decrease}}21.21 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 94,995 |percentage = 73.74% |change = {{increase}}3.40 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 92,834}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,161 |percentage = 2.27% |change = {{decrease}}5.08 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 128,826 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.44 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}17.10 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1989 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Bellavi <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1989 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007070737/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. Narayana |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 32,846 |percentage = 41.64% |change = {{increase}}4.51 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C. N. Bhaskarappa |party = Janata Dal |votes = 14,560 |percentage = 18.46% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. Ramalingaiah |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 8,496 |percentage = 10.77% |change = {{increase}}7.41 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = D. B. Jayadevappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 7,169 |percentage = 9.09% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. C. Rangaswamy |party = Janata Party |votes = 4,868 |percentage = 6.17% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. M. Lingappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,116 |percentage = 3.95% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Puttathimmaiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,486 |percentage = 3.15% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. P. Puttushamaiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,054 |percentage = 2.60% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sanneerappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 534 |percentage = 0.68% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 18,286 |percentage = 23.18% |change = {{increase}}6.75 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 85,133 |percentage = 70.34% |change = {{decrease}}2.17 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 78,873}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 6,260 |percentage = 7.35% |change = {{increase}}5.80 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 121,028 |ref = |change = {{increase}}25.36 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}11.91 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Bellavi <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006143216/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = C. N. Bhaskarappa |party = Janata Party |votes = 36,909 |percentage = 53.55% |change = {{increase}}7.26 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C. Shivamurthy |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 25,586 |percentage = 37.13% |change = {{decrease}}10.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. S. Siddaraju |party = Lokdal |votes = 2,376 |percentage = 3.45% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. V. Krishnamurthy |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 2,314 |percentage = 3.36% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kempanna |party = Independent politician |votes = 649 |percentage = 0.94% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 11,323 |percentage = 16.43% |change = {{increase}}14.79 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 70,003 |percentage = 72.51% |change = {{increase}}0.61 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 68,918}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,085 |percentage = 1.55% |change = {{decrease}}0.72 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 96,541 |ref = |change = {{increase}}10.53 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}5.62 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Bellavi <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007124742/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = T. H. H. Anumantharayappa |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 29,418 |percentage = 47.93% |change = {{increase}}45.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C. N. Bhaskarappa |party = Janata Party |votes = 28,410 |percentage = 46.29% |change = {{decrease}}1.16 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. C. Narayanappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,554 |percentage = 2.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Krishnamurthy |party = Independent politician |votes = 850 |percentage = 1.38% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. D. Navarathnakumar |party = Independent politician |votes = 718 |percentage = 1.17% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. S. Chandraiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 423 |percentage = 0.69% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,008 |percentage = 1.64% |change = {{increase}}0.61 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 62,797 |percentage = 71.90% |change = {{decrease}}2.39 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 61,373}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,424 |percentage = 2.27% |change = {{decrease}}0.26 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 87,342 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.20 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}0.48 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Bellavi <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007164123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = G. S. Shivananjappa |party = Janata Party |votes = 27,736 |percentage = 47.45% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. Narayana |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 27,134 |percentage = 46.42% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = T. Govindaraju |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 1,543 |percentage = 2.64% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = T. V. N. Prasad Jain |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,013 |percentage = 1.73% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Chinnakotappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 550 |percentage = 0.94% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 602 |percentage = 1.03% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 59,972 |percentage = 74.29% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 58,455}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,517 |percentage = 2.53% |change = }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 80,724 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Janata Party |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Karnataka}}

{{Coord|13.415122|77.017489|region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Tumakuru district]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

Strategic Foresight Group

2026-04-15T10:24:39Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added the pg nd citations.

{{Short description|Global affairs think tank in Mumbai, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox organization
|name = Strategic Foresight Group
|abbreviation = SFG
|formation = 2002
|type = [[Think tank]]
|headquarters = [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
|location = India
|leader_title = President
|leader_name = [[Sundeep Waslekar]]
|website = {{URL|strategicforesight.com}}
}}

'''Strategic Foresight Group''' ('''SFG''') is a [[think tank]] based in India that works on [[global issues]]. It was established in 2002.

SFG has worked with governments and national institutions of 60 countries from around the world. It produces scenarios and policy concepts that have been discussed in the [[United Nations Security Council]], [[Parliament of India]], the [[European Parliament]], [[Oxford University]], [[Cambridge University]], [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom]], [[House of Lords]], [[World Bank]], [[World Economic Forum]], [[United Nations Alliance of Civilizations]], and others.

[[Sundeep Waslekar]] is the President of Strategic Foresight Group. Ilmas Futehally is the Vice President and Executive Director.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Aam_Aadmi/In_search_of_the_solution/id07articleshow/2271026.cms |title=In Search of Solution, The Times of India, 10 August 2007 |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725194912/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Aam_Aadmi/In_search_of_the_solution/id07articleshow/2271026.cms |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==History==
The founding of SFG coincided with a period of oscillating developments in India-Pakistan relations. SFG produced an assessment of the [[cost of conflict]] between the two countries. India's then External Affairs Minister [[Yashwant Sinha]], in a [[suo moto]] letter addressed to the President of SFG, described it as a valuable tool for the practitioners of foreign policy. SFG went on to undertake a similar exercise for [[Sri Lanka]]. This report too attracted considerable attention.<ref>{{Cite news | newspaper=Hindustan Times| date=September 2006 | title=Sri Lanka is the Most Militarised Society | url=http://www.strategicforesight.com/sfgnews_186.htm}}</ref> In 2005, its report, The Final Settlement<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strategicforesight.com/publications_research.htm|title=Strategic Foresight Group - Anticipating and Influencing Global Future|website=www.strategicforesight.com}}</ref> created a public debate; for the first time it identified the centrality of the water dimension in the [[India-Pakistan relations]].<ref>{{Cite web | title=Philip Bowring in the New York Times on SFG's report The Final Settlement | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/07/opinion/07iht-edbow.html | newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> It was translated into [[Urdu]] as well as [[Marathi language|Marathi]].

While SFG focused on [[South Asia]] including [[India]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2282296,prtpage-1.cms|title=How to ensure freedom from future shock - The Economic Times|work=The Economic Times|accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref> in its initial period, it has since widened the scope of its work to address [[terrorism]], [[clash of civilizations]], [[cost of conflict]], [[water security]] and global governance issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/indopak-conflict-positive-costs-zero-benefits/103689/|title=Indo-Pak Conflict: Positive Costs, Zero Benefits|work=The Financial Express|accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref>

In 2004, SFG convened a [[roundtable]] to prepare a common intellectual framework for deconstructing terror. Since then SFG has been invited by Prime Ministers, Ministers of Foreign Affairs and governments of several countries in [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and the [[Middle East]] for policy consultations.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Friedrich Naumann Stiftung and Alliance and Liberals and Democrats in the European Parliament | url=http://www.fnst-freiheit.org/uploads/1404/3rdRTReport.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=June 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref> In June 2005, SFG and the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats in Europe, jointly convened a roundtable at the [[European Parliament]], [[Brussels]], involving serving and former cabinet ministers and parliamentarians from the Middle East and [[Europe]]. The roundtable adopted the [http://www.strategicforesight.com/wir-secrt_brusselsconsensus.htm Brussels Consensus] on the principles and policies for a safer world. At the roundtable, Dr. Wolfgang Gerhardt, Chairman of the [[Friedrich Naumann Foundation]], said "Strategic Foresight Group has a track record in exploring value-based working solutions to the problems of society. This is their intention here (at the 3rd Roundtable). It is also our intention at the FNSt."<ref>{{Cite web | title=Dr. Wolfgang Gerhardt, Chairman of the Friedrich-Naumann-Foundation, speaking at the European Parliament, Brussels | date=26 November 2007 | url=http://www.fnst-freiheit.org/webcom/show_article.php/_c-705/_nr-135/printmode-true/i.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090119045303/http://www.fnst-freiheit.org/webcom/show_article.php/_c-705/_nr-135/printmode-true/i.html | archive-date=2009-01-19}}</ref>

==2006–2007: West-Islam relations==
The [http://www.strategicforesight.com/wir-thirdroundtable.htm Third International Roundtable] was organised by Strategic Foresight Group and the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] at the European Parliament, Brussels, on 26–27 November 2006. The Roundtable was endorsed by the [[League of Arab States]]. It engaged important public institutions from the Western and Islamic worlds.<ref>Comments on the theme paper of the Second International Roundtable on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing Terror {{cite web |url=http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2411/html/national.htm |title=Iran Daily - National - 10/27/05 |access-date=2009-07-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325221347/http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2411/html/national.htm |archive-date=25 March 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

About 40 leaders from Europe, Asia and the Middle East participated in the Roundtable. They included serving [[cabinet ministers]], former ministers, leaders of [[parliamentary]] groups, special envoys of the heads of [[multilateralism|multilateral]] organisations and directors of important institutions. The distinguished group recommended an Inclusive Semi Permanent Conference on Peace in the Middle East, Western Islamic Dialogue and Engagement Initiative, International Historical Study Group on Common Human Civilisation, Arab Islamic [[Renaissance]] Initiative and the promotion of the Compact of Dialogue-Democracy-Development. The Roundtable welcomed the Report of the High Level Group of the [[Alliance of Civilizations]] of the [[United Nations]].

At the beginning of 2007 Strategic Foresight Group brought out its global research report ''An Inclusive World: in which the West, Islam and the Rest have a stake''. Prof [[Shlomo Ben-Ami]], former Foreign Minister of [[Israel]] describes this "as the most comprehensive approach to solve the crisis of our time that has ever been proposed." Prof Kamel Abu Jaber, former Foreign Minister of [[Jordan]], calls it "hope in an otherwise hopeless international system." The philosophy of An Inclusive World could be subject of a new global debate to overcome the divides at the beginning of the 21st [[century]]. The report was debated by [[Oxford University]] at one of the famous Oxford Union debates in May. It also featured three times in the debates at the House of Commons. The European Parliament and the League of Arab States circulated it widely among their members. It was translated into Arabic by the [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]] based in Alexandria, [[Egypt]].

Speaking on the Middle East at the World Economic Forum's Middle East Summit, [[Sundeep Waslekar]] said that the region's primary risk is a "triple deficit" – a democratization deficit combined with a development deficit leads to a dignity deficit, often manifested in instability and violence.

One of the main conclusions of the Third International Roundtable was a proposal for the Inclusive Semi Permanent Conference for the Middle East. In 2008 SFG brought out a position paper on this subject, which was launched at the [[House of Lords]] in May 2008.

==2008: Peace and Security ==
In 2008, SFG continued its work in the [[Cost of conflict]] series, this time focussing on the Middle East,<ref>[http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/09/02/13/10285092.html Gulf News, 12 February 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520053309/https://gulfnews.com/news/mena/palestine/conflict-bleeds-middle-east-dry-1.51284 |date=20 May 2018 }}</ref> in alignment with its other work. The report on ''Cost of Conflict in the Middle East'' was launched at the United Nations office in Geneva in January 2009. It featured in floor debates in the House of Commons and House of Lords. It was discussed by a panel of ministers and senior diplomats at the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations when the latter hosted its forum in Istanbul in April 2009. The report was also discussed at the World Economic Forum Middle East summit at the Dead Sea in May 2009. It has since featured in several hundred newspapers, websites and blogs.<ref>{{Cite web | title=The Cost of Enduring Middle East Conflict is Prohibitive| author=Tom Dine | date=30 March 2009 | url=http://www.israelpolicyforum.org/blog/cost-enduring-middle-east-conflict-prohibitive | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505232356/http://www.israelpolicyforum.org/blog/cost-enduring-middle-east-conflict-prohibitive | archive-date=5 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yementimes.com/article.shtml?i=1231&p=business&a=1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608070405/http://www.yementimes.com/article.shtml?i=1231&p=business&a=1|url-status=dead |title=Review of Cost of Conflict in the Middle East in the Yemen Times|archivedate=8 June 2011}}</ref>

In 2008, SFG came out with a report on 20 trends that would affect global security and economy in the next 20 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiawaterportal.org/Network/interview/ngos/devika_eng.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715185212/http://indiawaterportal.org/Network/interview/ngos/devika_eng.html|url-status=dead|title=Interview with Devika Mistry on Water Scarcity|archivedate=15 July 2009}}</ref>

In June 2008, SFG expanded the scope of its work with an international conference on Responsibility to the Future. It was co-hosted by the [[United Nations Global Compact]], inaugurated by the [[President of India]] and attended by experts from 25 countries. Following the recommendations of the conference, SFG decided to address issues of water security in Asia<ref>[http://asiasecurity.macfound.org/news/entry/ Strategic Foresight Group Launches Project on Water Security] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727051824/http://asiasecurity.macfound.org/news/entry/ |date=27 July 2011 }}</ref> and the Middle East.

==2009–2014: Water security==
In 2009, SFG decided to focus on preventing conflicts arising out of resource scarcity, with focus on water.

An international workshop on Water Stress and Climate Change in the Himalayan River Basins was organised in August 2009 in [[Kathmandu]] bringing together experts and policy makers on water issues from [[China]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web | title=First International Workshop on Water Stress and Climate Change in Asia | url=http://www.strategicforesight.com/Kathmandu%20Report.pdf | publisher=Strategic Foresight Group}}</ref> The Second International Workshop was held in [[Dhaka]] in January 2010. It resulted in the Dhaka Declaration on [[Water Security]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bdnews24.com/details.php?id=151168&cid=2|title=bdnews24.com|publisher=|access-date=9 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220192301/http://www.bdnews24.com/details.php?id=151168&cid=2|archive-date=20 February 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The Dhaka Declaration highlights the significance of the rivers that flow from the [[Himalayas]] and the urgent need for cooperation between Basin countries. It has been predicted that due to the combined effect of melting of glaciers, extreme weather events and pollution, the rivers in the Eastern Himalayas will lose their flow from anywhere from 5 to 20 percent by 2050. This will have affect river flows mostly in the lean period, undermining plans to produce [[hydroelectricity]] and promote inland water navigation in the region.

The Dhaka Declaration proposes an exchange of scientific data, particularly in the low flow period and joint research projects. It underscores the risk of conflicts due to [[water scarcity]] and floods leading to migration on a large scale. A report titled ''The Himalayan Challenge: Water Security in Emerging Asia''<ref>[http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/85801himalayan-challenge.pdf The Himalayan Challenge: Water Security in Emerging Asia]</ref><ref>{{Cite news | newspaper=The Wall Street Journal | date=20 August 2010 | title=India can't talk away inflation | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703579804575441020169731944?mod=googlenews_wsj}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | newspaper=The Times of India | date=25 July 2010 | title=Water Wars: India, China and the Great Thirst | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916205028/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-25/special-report/28308457_1_water-wars-water-resources-water-deficit | archive-date=2012-09-16| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-25/special-report/28308457_1_water-wars-water-resources-water-deficit}}</ref> was published in June 2010. This report is the first of its kind which evaluates future water balance and risks in India, China, Nepal and Bangladesh until the year 2030. A second report titled ''Himalayan Solutions'' was published in January 2011.

In February 2010, an international initiative on Water Security in the Middle East was launched at Montreux, Switzerland, on 15–16 February, with two workshops attracting the participation of 60 leading policymakers, including members of Parliament, former Cabinet Ministers, senior leaders of Water Commissions and heads of research institutions from across the Middle East. In preparation for the workshops, SFG had held consultations with leaders in the Middle East, and distinguished experts from several countries in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.strategicforesight.com/conference_pdf/57307Montreux%20Report-Final%20-%20Feb.%202010.pdf|title=Strategic Foresight Group - Anticipating and Influencing Global Future}}</ref> A workshop was held in Sanliurfa, a town in [[Turkey]] close to the Syrian border to discuss collaborative solutions to the issue of water security in the Middle East. Participants at the level of former Ministers and heads of Departments in Water Ministries participated in the workshop. A report titled ''The Blue Peace: Rethinking Middle East Water'' was launched by the [[President of Switzerland]], [[Micheline Calmy-Rey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emwis.org/thematicdirs/news/2011/02/new-strategic-foresight-group-report-blue-peace-rethinking-middle-east-water|title=Euro-Mediterranean Information System on know-how in the Water sector - International portal|publisher=|accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/feb/20/arab-nations-water-running-out|title=What does the Arab world do when its water runs out?|author=John Vidal|work=the Guardian|date=20 February 2011|accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/?news=33830|title=Jordan Times|website=www.jordantimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Israel-in-worst-shape-for-water-resources-in-Mideast|title='Israel in worst shape for water resources in Mideast'|date=12 February 2011|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=433959&version=1&template_id=36&parent_id=16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923085529/http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=433959&version=1&template_id=36&parent_id=16|url-status=dead|title=Gulf Times, 11 May 2011|archivedate=23 September 2012}}</ref>

In April 2012, a High-Level Group was established under the Chairmanship of HRH Prince [[Hassan bin Talal of Jordan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.strategicforesight.com/HLG-+Jordan+Times.pdfSite_Id=1&lang=2&NewsID=66309&CatID=13&Type=Home&GType=1|title=Strategic Foresight Group - Anticipating and Influencing Global Future|website=www.strategicforesight.com}}</ref>

In 2012, SFG began addressing the issue of sustainable and collaborative solutions to the [[Nile River]] Basin in [[Africa]]. The Nile has been governed by agreements that date back to colonial times and give [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] majority share of water. The Nile Basin Countries have drafted a new Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) to replace the old agreements. This has created tensions between riparian countries. SFG organised a workshop in [[Zurich]] in early 2012 bringing together members of parliaments, diplomats and scholars from these regions to discuss current and future prospects for the River. It published a report ''Blue Peace for the Nile''<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/84153Blue%20Peace%20for%20the%20Nile.pdf | title=Blue Peace in the Nile| website=strategicforesight.com}}</ref> which was launched on 22 March 2013, that also happens to be [[World Water Day]].

SFG has developed the concept of Mega Arc of Hydro Insecurity, spanning from Vietnam and Thailand in the East across [[China]], [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]] to the [[Middle East]] and [[Turkey]] and further downwards from [[Egypt]] to [[Tanzania]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2011/11/19/unquenchable-thirst|title=Unquenchable thirst|newspaper=The Economist }}</ref><ref>Will Water Security Increase Tensions Across Asia, Forbes (India), 6 January 2012</ref>

HRH Hassan bin Talal, Chairman of the United Nations Secretary General’s Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation launched the SFG report ''Water Cooperation for a Secure World'' <ref>{{Cite web | url=http://strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/20795water-cooperature-sm.pdf | title=Focus on the Middle East | website=strategicforesight.com | publisher=Strategic Foresight Group}}</ref> in [[Amman]] on 28 November 2013. The report examines for the first time the relationship between water and peace around the world and is based on the study of 148 countries and 205 shared river basins. It concludes that any two nations engaged in active water cooperation do not go to war. Out of the 148 countries covered, 37 countries are not engaged in any significant degree of cooperation with their neighbouring countries. These 37 countries also face the risk of war.

In the report, SFG developed a new Water Cooperation Quotient,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/28799WCQ-web.pdf | title=Water Cooperation Quotient | website=strategicforesight.com | publisher=Strategic Foresight Group}}</ref> which is a measure of active cooperation by riparian countries in the management of water resources using 10 parameters including legal, political, technical, environmental, economic and institutional aspects. It is calculated on a scale of 0 to 100, with 100 being the best performance.

SFG also launched the report ''Rivers of Peace - Restructuring India-Bangladesh Relations'' <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://strategicforesight.com/publications_inner.php?id=33|title = SFG - Publications}}</ref> in 2013. This report provides a new formula to resolve the impasse over the Teesta River Agreement between India and Bangladesh.

A major breakthrough in developing consensus between multiple stakeholder representatives of Iraq and Turkey on a Plan of Action for promoting exchange and calibration of data and standards pertaining to Tigris river flows was achieved at a meeting organised by SFG in 2014. The outcome of the meeting which was held in Geneva has been referred to as the "Geneva Consensus On Tigris River".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orsam.org.tr/en/WaterResources/showAnalysisAgenda.aspx?ID=2735|title = ORSAM-Ortadoğu Araştırmaları Merkezi}}</ref>

The first annual High-Level Forum on Blue Peace in the Middle East at Istanbul in September 2014. About 90 policymakers, Members of Parliament, serving and former Ministers, media leaders, academics and water experts from across the Middle East came together for this event. Participants proposed concrete initiatives at bilateral as well as regional levels to promote cooperation and sustainable management of water resources in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-levant.com/blue-peace-initiative-continues-efforts-bring-peace-middle-east/|title="Blue Peace initiative" continues its efforts to bring peace to the Middle East|work=The Levant News|date=26 September 2014|accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref>

In March 2015, SFG launched two reports: ''The Hydro-Insecure: Crisis of Survival in the Middle East ''<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/19317hydro-insecure.pdf | title=The hydro-Insecure - Crisis of survival in the Middle east | website=strategicforesight.com}}</ref> and ''Water and Violence: Crisis of Survival in the Middle East'',<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/63948150123-web.pdf | title=Water and violence - Crisis of survival in the Middle east | website=strategicforesight.com}}</ref> which highlight the challenges of water security and the larger effect it has on the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americansecurityproject.org/the-middle-east-struggles-with-water-security/|title=The Middle East Struggles with Water Security|work=American Security Project|date=24 March 2015 |accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref>

For instance, the reports highlight that water insecurity is always accompanied by one or more issues such as poverty, war and conflict, low women's development and environmental degradation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/mena/jordan/refugees-exacerbate-water-crisis-in-middle-east-1.1475639|title=Refugees exacerbate water crisis in the Middle East|author=Jumana Khamis, Staff Reporter|date=22 March 2015 |publisher=|accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref> According to the 'Hydro Insecure: Crisis of Survival in the Middle East' report, 40 million people are hydro-insecure, out of the total population of Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, which is roughly 140 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/uae/environment/water-cooperation-key-to-ensuring-peace-1.1475648|title=Water cooperation key to ensuring peace|author=Jumana Khamis, Staff Reporter|date=22 March 2015 |publisher=|accessdate=9 July 2015}}</ref>

SFG also analyses major global changes and shares perspectives at international conferences.

==2015-2020: Global Water==
The [[Global High-Level Panel on Water and Peace]] was launched in Geneva in 2015. It was co-convened by 15 countries and chaired by [[Danilo Turk]], the former president of Slovenia and former Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations. Strategic Foresight Group was selected to help the Panel in developing political and substantive recommendations. The Panel launched its report in September 2017 which advocates a number of specific recommendations on protecting water infrastructure in conflict zones, preferential and concessional finance for trans-boundary water projects, new mechanisms for hydro-diplomacy.<ref>A Matter of Survival: Report of the High Level Panel on Water and Peace
[https://www.genevawaterhub.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/A_Matter_of_Survival_FINAL.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915183356/https://www.genevawaterhub.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/A_Matter_of_Survival_FINAL.pdf |date=15 September 2017 }}</ref>

After the report was launched, Strategic Foresight Group played a role in implementing the recommendations of the report, especially those relating to protection of water infrastructure in conflict zones and financing of joint water infrastructure. Strategic Foresight Group also produced the Blue Peace Bulletin that helped further disseminate the recommendations of the [[Global High-Level Panel on Water and Peace]].

==Since 2014: Critical Global Challenges==

SFG is addressing major paradigm shifts due to major scientific, technological, environmental, economic, social, and political factors.

In 2011, SFG published a document titled ''Big Questions of Our Time'' which addresses issues that will affect humanity in the next 50 years, approximately until 2060. It has since been involved in analysing critical global challenges and linkages between them.<ref>[http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/67141BQOT.pdf Big Questions of Our Time, Strategic Foresight Group, 2011]</ref>

In 2016, Strategic Foresight Group briefed the historic [[United Nations Security Council]] in [[New York City]]. It was for the first time that the UNSC had convened an open debate on "water, peace and security". SFG President [[Sundeep Waslekar]] was one of the four briefers along with UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]], Chairman of the [[Global High-Level Panel on Water and Peace]] [[Danilo Türk]] and ICRC Vice President [[Christine Beerli]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://webtv.un.org/watch/part-1-open-debate-on-water-peace-and-security-security-council-7818th-meeting/5221217671001|title = UN Web TV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://press.un.org/en/2016/sc12598.doc.htm|title=Secretary-General, in Security Council, Stresses Promotion of Water-resource Management as Tool to Foster Cooperation, Prevent Conflict | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|website=press.un.org}}</ref>

In 2017, Strategic Foresight Group launched the second edition of the Water Cooperation Quotient, a rare document analyzing water cooperation in all of the world's shared river basins. The [[InterAction Council of Former Heads of State and Government]] provided the Foreword, authored by its two co-chairs, Mr [[Bertie Ahern]], former Prime Minister of Ireland and President [[Olusegun Obasanjo]], former President of Nigeria.<ref>[http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/Water%20Cooperation%20Quotient%202017.pdf Water Cooperation Quotient 2017]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Democracy in India]]
* [[List of think tanks in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.strategicforesight.com/ Strategic Foresight Group]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070227215204/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1802479,001302310000.htm ''Lanka most militarised in South Asia: Study'', Hindustan Times, 21 September 2006]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120418230714/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2004-02-10/india/28348576_1_explosion-fireball-cst ''Price Mumbai will pay if nuked'', Times of India, 10 February 2004]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081012081433/http://thinktanks.fpri.org/strategic-foresight-group-international-center-peace-initiatives FPRI Think Tank Directory]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Organizations involved in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process]]
[[Category:Israeli–Palestinian peace process]]
[[Category:Research institutes of international relations]]
[[Category:Think tanks established in 2002]]
[[Category:Foreign policy and strategy think tanks in India]]
[[Category:2002 establishments in Maharashtra]]

Sanjay Raimulkar

2026-04-12T00:39:52Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added new post w/ refs

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Dr. Sanjay Raimulkar
| image =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1964|8|3|df=y}}
| birth_place = Nandra Dhande, Mehekar, Dist Buldhana, Maharashtra
| spouse = Ranjana S. Raimulkar
| children = 1 Son (Neeraj), 1 Daughter (Nayan)
| death_date =
| office = [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Member of Legislative Assembly]] of [[Maharashtra]]<ref name = MehkarMLA2019/>
| term_start = (2009-2014), (2014-2019), (2019
| term_end = 2024)
| constituency = [[Mehkar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mehkar]]
| party = [[File:Logo of Shiv Sena.svg|25px]] [[Shiv Sena]]
| alma_mater =
| website =
}}

'''Sanjay Bhashkar Raimulkar''' is a [[Balasahebanchi Shiv Sena|Shiv Sena]] politician from [[Buldhana district]], Maharashtra. He is a member of the 14th [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]. He represents the [[Mehkar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mehkar]] Assembly Constituency as member of [[Balasahebanchi Shiv Sena|Shiv Sena]].<ref name = MehkarMLA2019>{{cite web|url=http://results.eci.gov.in/ACOCT2019/ConstituencywiseS1325.htm?ac=25 | title = Mehkar Vidhan Sabha constituency result 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://shivsena.org/m/shivsena-mla|title=Shiv Sena MLAs 2014|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912025453/http://shivsena.org/m/shivsena-mla/|archivedate=12 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="IT-20141103">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2015/story/maharashtra-assembly-poll-results-bjp-shiv-sena-ncp-congress-223847-2014-10-19|title=Results of Maharashtra Assembly polls 2014|work=India Today|access-date=3 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027102948/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/maharashtra-assembly-poll-results-bjp-shiv-sena-ncp-congress/1/396659.html|archive-date=27 October 2014|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> He has been elected to [[Vidhan Sabha]] for two consecutive terms in 2009 and 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/maharashtra/assembly-constituencies/mehkar.html|title=Sitting and previous MLAs from Mehkar Assembly Constituency|access-date=22 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123012903/http://www.elections.in/maharashtra/assembly-constituencies/mehkar.html|archive-date=23 November 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Positions held==
* 2008: Sabhapati, Krishi Utpanna Bazaar Samiti, Mehkar
* 2009: Elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (1st term)
* 2014: Re-elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (2nd term)<ref name="Maharashtra Election Results 2019; Full List of Winners and Losers: Fadnavis, Thackeray, Chavan among victors; Pankaja Munde, six ministers taste defeat">{{cite news|url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/maharashtra-election-results-2019-full-list-of-winners-and-losers-fadnavis-thackeray-chavan-among-victors-pankaja-munde-six-ministers-taste-defeat-7551291.html|title=Maharashtra Election Results 2019; Full List of Winners and Losers: Fadnavis, Thackeray, Chavan among victors; Pankaja Munde, six ministers taste defeat|last1=Firstpost|date=24 October 2019|access-date=20 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120081215/https://www.firstpost.com/politics/maharashtra-election-results-2019-full-list-of-winners-and-losers-fadnavis-thackeray-chavan-among-victors-pankaja-munde-six-ministers-taste-defeat-7551291.html|archive-date=20 November 2022|language=en}}</ref>
* 2019: Re-elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (3rd term)<ref name = MehkarMLA2019/>

==See also==
* [[Buldhana (Lok Sabha constituency)|Buldhana Lok Sabha Constituency]]
* [[Mehkar Assembly constituency|Mehkar Vidhan Sabha Constituency]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19981202100332/http://www.shivsena.org/ Shiv Sena Official website]
* [[Balasahebanchi Shiv Sena]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Raimulkar, Sanjay Bhashkar}}
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Shiv Sena politicians]]
[[Category:People from Buldhana district]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:Marathi politicians]]
[[Category:1964 births]]

{{Maharashtra-SS-politician-stub}}

Dargah Sheikh Musa

2026-03-29T20:43:09Z

MazidulIslamMilon: put up new details - done

{{Short description|Sufi shrine in Nuh, Mewat, Haryana, India}}
{{infobox religious building
| religious_affiliation = [[Sunni Islam]]
| sect = [[Sufism|Sufi]] [[Chishti Order]]
| festivals = ''[[Urs]]'' 
| image =
| map_type = India Haryana
| map_size = 250
| map_relief = 1
| map_caption = Location of the dargah complex in [[Haryana]]
| coordinates = {{coord|28.1086067|76.9830277|region:IN-HR_type:landmark|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| location = Palla, [[Nuh district]], [[Mewat]], [[Haryana]], 624000
| country = [[India]]
| status = {{ubl|[[Dargah]]|[[Mosque]]|[[Madrassa]]}}
| functional_status = Active
| governing_body = Haryana Waqf Board
| architecture_type = {{nowrap|[[Mosque architecture]]}}
| architecture_style = {{ubl|[[Mughal architecture|Mughal]]|[[Rajput architecture|Rajput]]}}
| founded_by = [[Khilji Dynasty]]
| site_area = 24 Kanals
| minaret_quantity = Many
| dome_quantity = One {{small|(maybe more)}}
| shrine_quantity = One
| year_completed = {{AH|1142|link=y}}
| materials = Stone; brick; marble; lime
| religious_features = Hazrat Sheikh Musa
| religious_features_label = Dedication
}}

The '''Dargah Sheikh Musa''' or '''Sheikh Musa ki Dargah''' or '''Tomb of Sheikh Musa''' is a [[Sufism|Sufi]] [[dargah]] complex affiliated with the Chishti Order, located in Palla village, in the [[Nuh district]] of the state of [[Haryana]], India. The dargah contains the mausoleum of Hazrat Sheikh Musa, a 14th-century [[Sufi saint]]. Musa moved to [[Mewat]] from [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi]] to preach Islam. The building is recognised as a [[State Protected Monuments of India|State Protected Monument]] by the [[Government of Haryana]].

The Sheikh Musa Dargah complex is an expansive fortified area of 24 [[Kanal (unit)|Kanals]], that includes a [[mosque]], Sheikh Musa's residential quarters, and a grand gateway, along with several other related structures that predate the dargah itself. A [[madrasa]] is also situated within the complex. The main dargah contains the [[tomb|grave]] of the saint.

== Culture ==
The tomb of Sheikh Musa is known for its water, which is believed to have the power to remove moles (massa, til) if one has faith in the Almighty and applies the holy water to the mole daily. Another interesting feature is the shaking minarets. If you enter one of the minarets and apply a bit of force to shake it, you will feel it moving, and a person standing in the other minaret can also sense the vibrations.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Trust for Rural Heritage and Development (ITRHD) |url=https://www.itrhd.com/projects1.asp?catid=1&subcatid=9 |access-date=2024-11-22 |website=www.itrhd.com}}</ref>

Before the [[Partition of India]], an annual ''[[Urs]]'' fair was held in his memory, but this tradition ceased after 1957 due to the rise of [[Deobandi movement|Deobandi]] influence in the region.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2023-06-02 |title=Aastha : सैंकड़ों साल बाद भी नहीं सुलझा हजरत शेख मूसा की दरगाह का रहस्य, एक मीनार को हिलाने से हिलती है दूसरी |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/dharm/haryana-nuh-mystery-of-the-shaking-minarets-of-hazrat-sheikh-musas-dargah-has-not-been-resolved-6381909.html |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref>

In 2023, the tradition of Urs was restored and the 712th death anniversary of the saint was celebrated in the Dargah complex with all the Sufi traditions and rites.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2023-12-12 |title=नूंह में हजरत शेख मूसा की दरगाह पर मनाया गया 712वां सालाना उर्स, उलेमा बोले- भाईचारा बहाल करने की कोशिश जारी |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/haryana/state/nuh/hazrat-sheikh-musa-annual-urs-nuh-hazrat-sheikh-musa-dargah-nuh-latest-news/haryana20231212210722714714531 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=hi}}</ref>

== History ==
Hazrat Khwaja Sheikh Musa was a grandson of [[Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar]] and a disciple of [[Nizamuddin Auliya|Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya]]. Upon the instruction of Hazrat Nizamuddin, Sheikh Musa introduced the [[Meo (ethnic group)|Meo community]] of the [[Mewat|Mewat region]] to Islam.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Jain |first=Shikha |date=10 December 2018 |title=Discovering the town of Nuh through its architectural heritage |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/gurgaon/discovering-the-town-of-nuh-through-its-architectural-heritage/story-GN1nZJDDc1IwQjWzfhBleM.html}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

Sheikh Musa was originally from Delhi, and his father, Maulana Badaruddin Ishaq, was a respected scholar. Both Maulana Badaruddin Ishaq and Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya were disciples of Baba Farid Ganj, who arranged the marriage of his daughter to Maulana Badaruddin Ishaq, resulting in the birth of Hazrat Khwaja Sheikh Musa and Hazrat Khwaja Muhammad Imam. Sheikh Musa lost both parents at a young age, and after their deaths, Nizamuddin Auliya took charge of their upbringing. He sent them on journeys across the country to promote [[Hindu–Muslim unity|Hindu-Muslim unity]] and the teachings of Islam.<ref name=":2" />

During one such journey while passing near the [[Aravalli Range|Aravalli Mountains]], a thorny bush caught his shawl. When he couldn’t free it, he understood the situation and paused there. The place where Hazrat Sheikh Musa’s shawl was caught is where Palla Village now stands. He gained popularity and spent the rest of his life in Mewat while propagating Islam. He died in {{AH|733|link=on}}, and the dargah was established by the [[Khalji dynasty|Khilji Dynasty]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

In 1956, a local cleric, Maulana Niyaz Muhammad, appointed an [[imam]] to lead prayers ([[Salah|Namaz]]) and call to prayer ([[Adhan|Azaan]]) at the dargah, and this practice continues to this day. The imam also oversees the dargah and related activities.<ref name=":2" />

In 1957, the annual Urs celebration at the Dargah was discontinued due to the rise of [[Deobandi movement|Deobandi]]-[[Fazail-e-Amaal|Tablighi]] influence in the Mewat region.<ref name=":2" />

The whereabouts of the precious [[topaz]] stone that adorned Hazrat Sheikh Musa's grave remain unknown. Experts suggest that its value was in the millions, and it is believed to have been stolen and sold. There are even claims that the topaz illuminated the dargah at night.<ref name=":2" />

In 2017, the [[Government of Haryana]] declared the site as one of the [[List of State Protected Monuments in Haryana|State Protected Monuments in Haryana]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Sheikh Musa's Tomb in Har village declared protected monument {{!}} India.com |url=https://www.india.com/news/agencies/sheikh-musas-tomb-in-har-village-declared-protected-monument-2195138/ |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=www.india.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
The dargah showcases a harmonious blend of [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] and [[Rajput architecture|Rajput architectural]] styles. The [[Minaret|minarets]] exemplify Mughal design, while the central [[Chhatri|chattri]] reflects Rajput influences. This combination was common during that period, as the Mughals adapted to local building styles, aided by local [[Artisan|artisans]] and craftsmen involved in the construction.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

The complex features twelve gateways, including the notable Shaking Minarets, that are {{convert|50|ft|m|order=flip}} and {{convert|30|ft|m|order=flip}} wide, supporting each other. Primarily built from locally sourced stone and lime, the structure's dome and chattri on the top floor incorporate decorative elements. This choice of materials likely reflects a shift in construction practices, as brick is easier to shape and lighter than stone.<ref name=":4" />

The mosque, entirely constructed from stone, features a tomb and an ancient well. The tomb, made of marble, is connected to an underground water source. From the mosque’s arches, one can glimpse the ruins of a nearby old fort.<ref name=":4" />

The construction date is noted as {{AH|1142}}. The minarets, arches, and gateways, date from the 18th to early 19th centuries.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2016-09-13 |title=Sheikh Musa's tomb to be preserved |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/sheikh-musas-tomb-to-be-preserved/articleshow/54302857.cms |access-date=2024-11-16 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=हरियाणा: शेख मूसा की दरगाह को संरक्षित क्षेत्र घोषित किया गया |url=https://ndtv.in/faith/haryana-declares-sheikh-musa-ka-dargah-jhulti-minar-as-protected-monuments-1707252 |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=ndtv.in |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-03 |title=Mewat: Once a region with mixed identities, now marred by communal tensions |url=https://www.firstpost.com/opinion/mewat-once-a-region-with-mixed-identities-now-marred-by-communal-tensions-13800520.html |access-date=2024-11-30 |website=Firstpost |language=en-us}}</ref>

== Location ==
Located in Palla Village in the [[Mewat]] region’s [[Nuh district|Nuh District]] of Haryana, India, the site is approximately {{convert|50|km}} from [[Delhi]]. It can be found at the base of the [[Aravalli Range|Aravalli range]] off the Nuh-[[Taoru]] road, near the Mewat Engineering College, and also houses a madrassa where many students reside and study.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2003-08-27 |title=Tomb of Sheikh Musa |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tomb-of-sheikh-musa/articleshow/148527.cms |access-date=2024-11-17 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{stack|{{Portal|India|Architecture|Islam}}}}
* [[Sufism in India]]
* [[List of mosques in India]]
* [[List of State Protected Monuments in Haryana]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links==
*[http://archaeologyharyana.nic.in/sites/default/files/Sheikh%20Mussa.pdf Directorate of Archaeology & Museums Government of Haryana]
*[https://www.itrhd.com/projects1.asp?catid=1&subcatid=9 Indian Trust for Rural Heritage and Development (ITRHD)]
*[https://vmis.in/ArchiveCategories/collection_gallery_parent?id=989&siteid=0&minrange=0&maxrange=0&count=24 Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds]

{{Mosques in India}}

[[Category:18th-century religious buildings and structures in India]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Haryana]]
[[Category:Chishti Order buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Dargahs in Haryana]]
[[Category:Mausoleums in India]]
[[Category:Mosque buildings with domes in India]]
[[Category:Mosque buildings with minarets in India]]
[[Category:Mosques in Haryana]]
[[Category:State Protected Monuments in Haryana]]
[[Category:Sufi mosques in India]]
[[Category:Sufi shrines in India]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Haryana]]

The River (1951 film)

2026-03-29T13:29:02Z

MazidulIslamMilon: updated page

{{Short description|1951 film by Jean Renoir}}
{{Infobox film
| name = The River
| image = La Fleuve 1951 film poster.jpg
| caption = French film poster
| director = [[Jean Renoir]]
| producer = Kenneth McEldowney
| writer = [[Rumer Godden]] Jean Renoir
| based_on = {{based on|''The River''|Rumer Godden}}
| narrator = [[June Tripp|June Hillman]]
| starring = [[Nora Swinburne]] [[Esmond Knight]] [[Arthur Shields]] Suprova Mukerjee Thomas E. Breen Patricia Walters [[Radha Burnier]] [[Adrienne Corri]]
| music = M. A. Partha Sarathy
| cinematography = [[Claude Renoir]]
| editing = George Gale
| studio = Oriental International Films
| distributor = [[United Artists]]
| released = {{Film date|1951|09|10|df=yes}}
| runtime = 99 minutes
| country = France USA
| language = English Bengali
| budget =
| gross = $1 million (US rentals)<ref>'Top Box-Office Hits of 1952', ''Variety'', January 7, 1953</ref>
}}
'''''The River''''' (French: '''''Le Fleuve''''') is a 1951 [[Technicolor]] [[drama (film and television)|drama]] [[romance film]] directed by [[Jean Renoir]] and produced by Kenneth McEldowney. The cast includes [[Esmond Knight]], [[Nora Swinburne]] and [[Arthur Shields]]. A fairly faithful dramatization of the 1946 novel of the same name by [[Rumer Godden]], the film's narrative follows a teenage girl's [[Coming-of-age story|coming of age]] and first love, with the eponymous river serving as both the backdrop and a central metaphor. The film was shot in [[Calcutta]], India, where Indian filmmaker [[Satyajit Ray]], who was then only a student of cinema, was able to meet Renoir for guidance.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/les-nuits-de-france-culture/nuit-satyajit-ray| title = Nuit Satyajit Ray – série de podcasts à écouter – France Culture}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Harriet is an upper-middle class [[English people|English]] teenage girl who lives with her family on the banks of the [[Ganges River]] in [[British Raj|British India]].{{efn|The time setting is not specified. [[British Raj|The Raj]] had ended by the time of the film's release, but the book was written in 1946. Harriet's character narrates the action as an older woman looking back on her earlier experiences.}} Her father runs a [[jute]] mill, and she has four sisters and one brother, all of whom are at least several years younger than her. The children are raised in a genteel, English environment, and even have the benefit of live-in [[Indian people|Indian]] employees, such as "Nan", their nanny.

The normal order of Harriet's life is shaken when her kindly Irish neighbor, Mr. John, invites his younger American cousin, Captain John, to come for a visit. When he arrives, the children discover Captain John has a prosthetic leg, having lost a leg in a war. Harriet, her sisters, and Harriet's somewhat older friend, Valerie, are all immediately intrigued by, and then smitten with, Captain John, and therefore invite him to their [[Diwali]] celebration. Eventually, Harriet gains the courage to show him her "secret book"—her diary. He politely acquiesces, but is then impressed by her poetry.

Later, eager to impress Captain John with her familiarity with the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religion, or perhaps to divert his attention from Valerie, Harriet tells him a marriage story she has written, in which the mundane identities of ordinary peasants are subject to divine change and transformation. In the tale, [[Krishna|Lord Krishna]] intervenes in a wedding ceremony to assume the identity of the groom, and a bride is temporarily transformed into [[Radha|Lady Radha]], Krishna's consort, who does an extended dance. After Harriet's story, Valerie steals the diary and reads lovelorn passages of it aloud in front of Captain John, greatly embarrassing Harriet.

Another of Harriet's friends is Melanie, the twenty-ish, bi-racial daughter from Mr. John's marriage to a now-deceased Indian woman. She also seems to be interested in Captain John, but pursues him less obviously than do Harriet or Valerie. Captain John and Melanie bond over discussing their experiences struggling with wartime injury and being bi-racial, respectively.

Bogey, Harriet's young brother, develops an obsession with [[Cobra|cobras]] after watching a [[Snake charming|snake charmer]] in the market. Harriet sees him playing a flute to a cobra in their garden one day and commands him to inform their parents of the dangerous snake's presence, but she does not tell them herself because she is delivering some flowers to Captain John. She sees Melanie leave Mr. John's house, followed by Captain John, and follows them. Melanie loses Captain John in the woods, but then Valerie, who has been following Harriet, goes over to him, and they end up sharing a passionate kiss, witnessed from afar by Harriet and Melanie. Bogey's body is found soon after, bitten by the cobra.

Overcome with jealousy and wracked with guilt over Bogey's death, Harriet loses the will to live. She runs away from home the night after the funeral and attempts to drown herself by taking an unattended boat out into the middle of the river and stepping overboard, but Bogey's friend Kanu alerts some local fishermen, who rescue her from the water. Once back ashore, Harriet refuses to return to her family, but Kanu gets Captain John, and he is able to ease her mind. He kisses her on the forehead, and she allows him to take her home.

In the spring, Harriet's mother gives birth to another baby girl. While they wait until they can go inside and meet her, Harriet, Valerie, and Melanie look at the river and take a moment to reflect on the cycles of life and death that take place on its banks.

== Cast ==
{{Castlist|
* [[Nora Swinburne]] as The Mother
* [[Esmond Knight]] as The Father
* [[Arthur Shields]] as Mr. John, a neighbor
* Suprova Mukerjee as "Nan", the children's nanny
* Thomas E. Breen as Capt. John, Mr. John's younger cousin
* Patricia Walters as Harriet
** [[June Tripp]] (credited as June Hillman) as the narrator, who is Harriet as an adult
* [[Radha Burnier]] as Melanie, Mr. John's half-Indian daughter
* [[Adrienne Corri]] as Valerie, the daughter of the owner of the jute press
;Uncredited
* Richard R. Foster as Bogey
* Penelope Wilkinson as Elizabeth
* Jane Harris as Muffie
* Jennifer Harris as Mouse
* Cecilia Wood as Victoria
* Sajjan Singh as Ram Singh, the gateman
* Nimai Barik as Kanu, Bogey's friend
* Trilak Jetley as Anil, Mr. John's friend and Melanie's suitor
}}

== Production ==

J. Kenneth McEldowney was the originating producer and primary organizing figure behind The River. After criticizing an MGM film, he accepted a dare from his wife, an MGM publicist, to make a better one. He sold their home and his chain of florist shops and, between 1947 and 1951, independently financed and oversaw the production of The River. The movie was produced by McEldowney with a largely amateur or little-known cast, while Godden wrote the screenplay and Renoir was engaged as director.<ref>https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-jan-16-me-passings16.2-story.html</ref> Both Renoir and McEldowney had previously read Rumer Godden’s novel. <ref>https://mookseandgripes.com/reviews/2015/04/21/jean-renoir-the-river/</ref>

As the film was shot in [[Technicolor]], the footage could not be reviewed in color until it came back from the lab five months later, things had to be done right the first time.

Renoir made use of nonprofessional actors in key roles, including those of Harriet and Captain John. Thomas E. Breen was a veteran of the [[United States Marine Corps]] who was injured during fighting on [[Guam]] in 1944, resulting in the amputation of his right leg. Renoir selected him to play the role of Captain John without knowing he was the son of [[Joseph Breen]], head of the [[Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America]], who was the chief censor of films in the U.S.<ref name="Doherty">{{cite book|last1=Doherty|first1=Thomas|title=Hollywood's censor : Joseph I. Breen and the Production Code Administration|date=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0231143592|pages=170, 282}}</ref>

The future Indian filmmaker [[Satyajit Ray]], who was then working in advertising, met Renoir while ''The River'' was in production, and the two men became close.<ref>Bert Cardullo (ed.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=fQYs4X5d9WAC&pg=PA64 22 ''Satyajit Ray: Interviews''], University of Mississippi Press, 2007, p.64-65</ref> During filming Ray met [[Subrata Mitra]], a production assistant on this film and later the cinematographer for several of Ray's films. The film's assistant director was Harisadhan Dasgupta, and the assistant art director was Bangshi Chandra Gupta.

== Awards, responses and preservation ==

McEldowney’s wife secured substantial publicity in major magazines such as Life and the Saturday Evening Post, contributing to the film’s commercial and critical success, including a record 34-week run in New York and worldwide earnings reported at more than $16 million. Having achieved his goal of producing a successful film, McEldowney returned to real estate and did not make another motion picture.<ref>https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-jan-16-me-passings16.2-story.html</ref>

At the [[12th Venice International Film Festival]], ''The River'' won the International Award.<ref>{{cite book|last=Faulkner|first=Christopher|title=Jean Renoir, a guide to references and resources|location=Boston, Mass|publisher=G.K. Hall & Company|year=1979|page=31}}</ref> The [[National Board of Review]] in the United States selected it as one of the five [[National Board of Review Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Top Foreign Films]] of 1951.<ref>[http://www.nbrmp.org/awards/past.cfm?year=1951] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526063848/http://www.nbrmp.org/awards/past.cfm?year=1951|date=May 26, 2013}}</ref>

[[Roger Ebert]] added the film to his "[[The Great Movies|Great Movies]]" list in 2006.<ref>Roger Ebert. [http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-the-river-le-fleuve-1951 The River (Le Fleuve)] February 12, 2006</ref>

The [[Academy Film Archive]], in conjunction with the [[British Film Institute]], preserved the film in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|title=Preserved Projects|url=https://www.oscars.org/academy-film-archive/preserved-projects?title=the+river&filmmaker=renoir&category=All&collection=All|website=Academy Film Archive}}</ref>

== Influence ==
At the 2007 [[New York Film Festival]], director [[Wes Anderson]], a great fan of Jean Renoir, discussed [[Martin Scorsese]] showing him a print of ''The River'', which is one of Scorsese's favourite films.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miramax.com/subscript/scorseses-favorite-films|title=Scorsese's 12 favorite films|publisher=Miramax.com|access-date=25 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226091025/http://www.miramax.com/subscript/scorseses-favorite-films|archive-date=26 December 2013}}</ref> Anderson credited this film, in addition to the films of [[Satyajit Ray]] and [[Louis Malle]]'s documentaries about India, with inspiring him to make a film in India, resulting in ''[[The Darjeeling Limited]]'' (2007).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F17mkXQIEpA |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/F17mkXQIEpA |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=Wes Anderson & Adrien Brody: Darjeeling Limited inspirations |publisher=YouTube |date=2007-09-29 |access-date=2013-03-21}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0043972}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes|the_river_1959}}
*[https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/357-the-river-a-new-authenticity ''The River: A New Authenticity''] an essay by [[Ian Christie (film scholar)|Ian Christie]] at the [[Criterion Collection]]
* [https://cineyrevolucion.blogspot.com/2010/03/el-rio-1950-de-jean-renoir-critica.html ''The River'' in ''Cine y Revolución''] {{in lang|es}}

{{Jean Renoir}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:River (1951 film), The}}
[[Category:1951 films]]
[[Category:1951 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films based on British novels]]
[[Category:Films based on works by Rumer Godden]]
[[Category:Films directed by Jean Renoir]]
[[Category:Films set in India]]
[[Category:Films set in the British Empire]]
[[Category:Films shot in India]]
[[Category:French coming-of-age films]]
[[Category:1951 French-language films]]
[[Category:French romantic drama films]]
[[Category:1951 French films]]
[[Category:French-language romantic drama films]]

Temple

2026-03-23T19:18:21Z

MazidulIslamMilon: brief refined section for consistency also and fixed typos per sources

{{Short description|Structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities}}
{{Redirect|Temples|the region of the forehead|Temple (anatomy)|other uses|Temple (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Ankor Wat temple.jpg|thumb|299x299px|The 12th-century [[Angkor Wat]] temple complex in [[Cambodia]] is the largest religious structure in the world<ref>{{cite web |title=Largest religious structure |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/largest-religious-structure |website=Guinness World Records |access-date=20 May 2025}}</ref> and is dedicated to the [[Hindu|Hindu deity]] [[Maha Vishnu|Vishnu]].]]
[[File:Panoramic views of Borobudur.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Borobudur]] temple, the largest [[Buddhist temple]] in the world, located in [[Central Java]], [[Indonesia]].]]
[[File:Athen Erechtheion BW 2017-10-09 13-58-34.jpg|thumb|300x300px|The [[Erechtheion]] in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], is associated with some of the most ancient and holy relics of the Athenians, such as the [[Palladion]], a ''[[xoanon]]'' of [[Athena Polias]]]]
[[File:Ram Janmbhoomi Mandir, Ayodhya Dham.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[Ram Mandir]] at [[Ayodhya]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]], dedicated to Hindu deity [[Rama]]. The temple was opened on 22 January 2024. ]]
[[File:Brihadisvara Temple during Maha Shivaratri-WUS03611 (edit).jpg|thumb|[[Brihadisvara Temple]] an example of Dravidian style temple ]]

A '''temple''' (from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|[[templum]]}}) is a [[place of worship]], a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as [[prayer]] and [[sacrifice]]. By convention, the specially built places of worship for some religions are commonly called "temples" in English, while those of other religions are not, even though they fulfill very similar functions.

The religions for which the terms are used include the great majority of ancient religions that are now extinct, such as the [[Ancient Egyptian religion]] and the [[Ancient Greek religion]]. Among religions still active: [[Hinduism]] (whose temples are called [[mandir]] or [[kovil]]), [[Buddhism]] (whose temples are called [[Vihāra|vihara]]), [[Sikhism]] (whose temples are called [[Gurdwara|gurudwara]]), [[Jainism]] (whose temples are sometimes called [[derasar]]), [[Zoroastrianism]] (whose temples are sometimes called [[agiary]]), the [[Baháʼí Faith]] (which are often simply referred to as [[Baháʼí House of Worship]]), [[Taoism]] (which are sometimes called [[daoguan]]), [[Shinto]] (which are often called [[Shinto shrine|jinja]]), [[Confucianism]] (which are sometimes called the [[Temple of Confucius]]).

Religions whose places of worship are generally not called "temples" in English include [[Christianity]], which has [[church (building)|churches]], [[Islam]] with [[mosques]], and [[Judaism]] with [[synagogues]] (although some of these use "temple" as a name).

The form and function of temples are thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be, in some sense, the "house" of one or more [[Deity|deities]]. Typically, offerings of some form are made to the deity, and other rituals are enacted, and a special group of [[clergy]] maintain and operate the temple. The degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly; often parts, or even the whole main building, can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a main building and a larger [[religious precinct|precinct]], which may contain many other buildings or may be a dome-shaped structure, much like an igloo.

The word comes from [[Ancient Rome]], where a {{Lang|la|templum}} constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or [[augur]].<ref>{{Cite book | title = Latin Dictionary and Grammar Aid | publisher = University of Notre Dame | date = 26 May 2009 | url = http://www.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/lookup.pl?stem=Templum&ending= | access-date = 24 July 2009}}</ref> It has the same root as the word "template", a plan in preparation for the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur.

==Indian temples==
===Hindu temple===
{{Main|Hindu temple}}
{{see also|List of Hindu temples}}
Hindu temples are known by many different names, varying on region and language, including Alayam,<ref>ALAYAM : The Hindu Temple; An Epitome of Hindu Culture; G.Venkataramana Reddy; Published by Adhyaksha; Sri Ramakrishna Math; {{ISBN|978-81-7823-542-4}} ; Page 1</ref> ''Mandir'', ''Mandira'', ''Ambalam'', ''Gudi'', ''Kavu'', ''Koil'', ''Kovil'', ''Déul'', ''Raul'', ''Devasthana'', ''Devalaya'', ''Devayatan'', ''Devakula'', ''Devagiriha'', ''Degul'', ''Deva Mandiraya'', and ''Devalayam''. Hindu temple architecture is mainly divided into the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style]] of the south and the [[Nagara architecture|Nagara]] style of the north, with other regional styles including those ancient Hemadpanthi, Bhumija, Solanki, Maratha, and Chalukya style.

The basic elements of the [[Hindu temple]] remain the same across all periods and styles. The most essential feature is the inner sanctuary, the ''[[garbhagriha]]'' or womb-chamber, where the primary ''[[murti]]'' or [[cult image]] of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. Around this chamber there are often other structures and buildings, in the largest cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like ''[[shikhara]]'', also called the ''[[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]]'' in the south. The shrine building may include an [[ambulatory]] for ''parikrama'' ([[circumambulation]]), one or more [[mandapa]]s or congregation halls, and sometimes an [[antarala]] antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa.

A Hindu temple is a symbolic house, the seat and dwelling of [[Hindu gods]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Stella|last=Kramrisch|title=The Hindu Temple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C|year=1946|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0223-0|pages=135, context: 40–43, 110–114, 129–139 with footnotes}}, Quote: "The [Hindu] temple is the seat and dwelling of God, according to the majority of the [Indian] names" (p. 135); "The temple as Vimana, proportionately measured throughout, is the house and body of God" (p. 133).</ref> It is a structure designed to bring human beings devotion and gods divine connection together according to [[Hinduism|Hindu faith]]. Inside its ''garbhagriha'' innermost sanctum, a Hindu temple contains a ''[[murti]]'' or Hindu god's image. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history. There is evidence of the use of sacred ground as far back as the [[Bronze Age]] and later during the [[Indus Valley civilization]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hinduism - Early Hinduism (2nd century bce–4th century ce) {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Early-Hinduism-2nd-century-bce-4th-century-ce |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Outside of the Indian subcontinent ([[India]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Nepal]]), Hindu temples have been built in [[List of Hindu temples outside India|various countries around the world]]. Either following the [[Indianized kingdom|historic diffusion of Hinduism across Asia]] (e.g. ancient stone temples of [[Cambodia]] and [[List of Hindu temples in Indonesia|Indonesia]]), or following the migration of the [[Indian diaspora|Indian Hindus' diaspora]], to Western Europe (esp. [[Great Britain]]), North America (the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]), as well as Australia, [[Malaysia]] and Singapore, Mauritius and [[South Africa]].

<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:Sripuram Temple Full View.jpg|The Golden temple of Mahalakshmi, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
File:Guruvayoor Temple 1.jpg|Famous [[Guruvayur Temple]], a Traditional Hindu Temple in Kerala, India.
File:Maa Naina Devi Temple, Mallital, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India.jpg|A view of the Maa Naina Devi Temple, Mallital, [[Nainital]], Uttarakhand, India
File:New Delhi Temple.jpg|[[Akshardham (Delhi)|Akshardham Temple]], a Hindu temple in [[New Delhi]], [[India]] built in 2005.
File:Dakshineswar Temple1.jpg|[[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]], a Hindu temple in [[Kolkata metropolitan area|Greater Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], India
File:Venkateshwara Temple.jpg[[Venkateshwara Temple]], a Hindu temple in [[Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
</gallery>

===Buddhist temples===
{{main|Buddhist temple}}
[[File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mahabodhi]] temple, [[Bihar, India]]]]

Buddhist temples include the structures called [[stupa]], [[wat]] and [[pagoda]] in different regions and languages. A Buddhist temple might contain a [[meditation]] hall hosting ''[[Buddharupa]]'', or the image of [[Buddha]], as the object of concentration and veneration during a meditation. The stupa domed structures are also used in a circumambulation ritual called ''[[Pradakshina]]''.

Temples in [[Buddhism]] represent the pure land or pure environment of a [[Buddha (general)|Buddha]]. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kadampanewyork.org/temple/ |title=New York Buddhist Temple for World Peace |publisher=Kadampanewyork.org |date=1997-08-01 |access-date=2012-06-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611060043/http://www.kadampanewyork.org/temple/ |archive-date=2012-06-11 }}</ref>

Three types of structures are associated with the [[Sacred architecture|religious architecture]] of [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]]: monasteries ([[vihara]]s), places to venerate relics ([[stupa]]s), and shrines or prayer halls ([[chaitya]]s, also called ''chaitya grihas''), which later came to be called temples in some places. The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupas.

The initial function of a stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The earliest archaeologically known example of a stupa is the relic stupa located in [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], [[Bihar]] in India.

In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (prayer halls). These are exemplified by the complexes of the [[Ajanta Caves]] and the [[Ellora Caves]] ([[Maharashtra]]). The [[Mahabodhi Temple]] at [[Bodh Gaya]] in [[Bihar]] is another well-known example.

As Buddhism spread, Buddhist architecture diverged in style, reflecting the similar trends in Buddhist art. Building form was also influenced to some extent by the different forms of Buddhism in the northern countries, practising [[Mahayana]] Buddhism in the main and in the south where [[Theravada]] Buddhism prevailed.

===Jain temples===
{{Main|Jain temple}}
{{see also|List of Jain temples}}
[[File:Jain Temple Ranakpur.jpg|thumb|[[Ranakpur Jain temple]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]].]]

A Jain temple, called a [[Derasar]], is the [[place of worship]] for [[Jainism|Jains]], the followers of [[Jainism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Babb |first=Lawrence, A |url=https://archive.org/details/absentlordasceti0000babb |title=Absent lord: ascetics and kings in a Jain ritual culture |publisher=Published [[University of California Press]] |year=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/absentlordasceti0000babb/page/66 66] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Some famous Jain temples are [[Shikharji]], [[Palitana temples]], [[Ranakpur Jain temple]], [[Shravan Belgola]], [[Dilwara Temples]] and [[Lal Mandir]]. Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, which in turn are quite different from Jain temples in West India. Additionally, a ''[[manastambha]]'' (literally 'column of honor') is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.

===Sikh temples===
{{Main|Gurdwara}}
[[File:Darbar Sahib 27 September 2018.jpg|thumb|[[Harmandir Sahib]] in [[Amritsar]], [[India]]]]

A Sikh temple is called a gurdwara, literally the "doorway to the Guru". Its most essential element is the presence of the Guru, [[Guru Granth Sahib]]. The gurdwara has an entrance from all sides, signifying that they are open to all without any distinction whatsoever. The gurdwara has a [[Darbar Sahib Hall|Darbar Sahib]] where the Guru Granth Sahib is seen and a [[Langar (Sikhism)|Langar]] where people can eat free food.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Gurdwara |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/ritesrituals/gurdwara_1.shtml |access-date=18 March 2013 |work=bbc.co.uk |publisher=BBC}}</ref> A gurdwara may also have a library, nursery, and classroom.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gurdwara Requirements |url=http://www.worldgurudwaras.com/gurudwaras/gurdwara-requirements |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220923/http://www.worldgurudwaras.com/gurudwaras/gurdwara-requirements |archive-date=4 October 2013 |access-date=18 March 2013 |work=worldgurudwaras.com}}</ref>

==Mesopotamian temples==
[[File:Ziggarat of Ur 001.jpg|thumb|[[Ziggurat of Ur]], [[Iraq]]]]
The temple-building tradition of [[Mesopotamia]] derived from the cults of gods and deities in the [[Mesopotamian religion]]. It spanned several civilizations; from [[Sumer]]ian, [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]], [[Assyria]]n, and [[Babylonia]]n. The most common temple architecture of Mesopotamia is the structure of sun-baked bricks called a [[ziggurat]], having the form of a terraced [[step pyramid]] with a flat upper terrace where the shrine or temple stood.

==Egyptian temples==
{{main|Egyptian temple}}
[[File:Philae temple at night.jpg|thumb|left|Temple of [[Philae]], [[Egypt]]]]

[[Ancient Egypt]]ian temples were meant as places for the [[Ancient Egyptian deities|deities]] to reside on earth. Indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, {{Lang|egy-latn|ḥwt-nṯr}}, means 'mansion (or enclosure) of a god'.<ref>Spencer 1984, p. 22, 44; Snape 1996, p. 9</ref>

A god's [[Divine presence|presence]] in the temple linked the human and divine realms and allowed humans to interact with the god through ritual. These rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were, therefore, a key part of the maintenance of ''[[maat]]'', the ideal order of nature and of human society in Egyptian belief.<ref>Dunand and Zivie-Coche 2005, pp. 89–91</ref> Maintaining {{Lang|egy-latn|maat}} was the entire purpose of [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian religion]],<ref>Assmann 2001, p. 4</ref> and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well.<ref>Shafer, Byron E., "Temples, Priests, and Rituals: An Overview", in Shafer 1997, pp. 1–2</ref>

[[Ancient Egypt]]ian temples were also of economic significance to Egyptian society. The temples stored and redistributed grain and came to own large portions of the nation's arable land (some estimate as much as 33% by the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] period).<ref>André Dollinger. The Ancient Egyptian Economy. pp. 5 [http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/The-Ancient-Egyptian-Economy.pdf] Retrieved June 19, 2012</ref> In addition, many of these Egyptian temples utilized the Tripartite Floor Plan in order to draw visitors to the center room.

In '''The Temple in Man''', a work by [[R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz]], the author explores the idea that Egyptian temples, particularly the [[Temple of Luxor]], are metaphysical representations of the human body. Schwaller de Lubicz suggests that these temples reflect the cosmic and spiritual order through their proportions and design. The author argues that the ancient Egyptians embedded knowledge of [[sacred geometry]] and [[spiritual awakening]] into their architecture, and that the human body itself is a temple that mirrors the harmony of the universe. The work connects the metaphysical symbolism of the temples to esoteric concepts, showing how the architecture reflects human anatomy and cosmic laws.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schwaller de Lubicz|first=R. A.|title=Il tempio nell'uomo|year=1957}}</ref>

==Greco-Roman temples==
{{Main|Greek temple|Roman temple}}
[[File:Parthenon (30276156187).jpg|thumb|The [[Parthenon]] on the [[Acropolis of Athens]]]]
Greek and Roman temples were originally built out of wood and mud bricks, but as the empires expanded, the temples grew to monumental size, made out of materials such as stone and marble on raised platforms. While the color has long since faded, The columns would have been painted in white, blue, red, and black. Above the columns would have been a sculpted or painted depiction of a myth or battle, with freestanding sculptures in the [[pediment]] triangles. The roofs were tiled and had sculptures of mythical animals or deities on the tops or corners. Greek temples also had several standard floor plans with very distinct column placement.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |author=Denova, Rebecca I. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1243160502 |title=Greek and Roman religions |year=2018 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-78785-765-0 |oclc=1243160502}}</ref>

Located in the front of the temple were altars intended for sacrifices or offerings. [[Olympic gods|Ouranic]] altars were usually square, lined with a metal pan for burnt offerings, and a flat top which was necessary for the ouranic gods to receive offerings. [[Chthonic]] altars, called [[bothros]], were pits dug into the earth for liquid libations of animal sacrifices, milk, honey, and wine. The building which housed the cult statue or ''[[Cult statue|agalma]]'' in its ''[[cella]]'' was located in the center of the temple in Greek architecture, while in Rome, the cella was in the back.<ref name=":0" /> Greek temple architecture had a profound influence on ancient architectural traditions.

Greco-Roman temples were built facing eastward, utilizing the rising sun in morning rituals. The location each temple was built also depended on many factors such as environment, myth, function, and divine experience. Most were built on sites associated with myths or a place a god had been believed to have performed a feat, or founded a town or city. Many Roman temples had close associations with important events in Roman history, such as military victories. Temples in cities were often dedicated to the founding deity of the city, but also served as civic and social centers. The [[Temple of Saturn]] even held the state treasury and treasury offices in its basement.<ref name=":0" />

==European polytheistic temples==
{{See also|List of modern pagan temples}}
[[File:Templo de Garni, Armenia, 2016-10-02, DD 94.jpg|thumb|[[Temple of Garni]], [[Armenia]]]]
The Romans usually referred to a holy place of a [[pagan]] religion as {{Lang|la|fanum}}; in some cases this referred to a sacred grove, in others to a temple. Medieval Latin writers also sometimes used the word ''{{Lang|la|templum}}'', previously reserved for temples of the ancient Roman religion. In some cases it is hard to determine whether a temple was a building or an outdoor shrine. For temple buildings of the [[Germanic peoples]], the [[Old Norse]] term ''[[Heathen hofs|hof]]'' is often used.

==Zoroastrian temples==
{{Main|Fire temple}}
[[File:Templo zoroastrista, Yazd, Irán, 2016-09-21, DD 45.jpg|thumb|The Yazd Atash Behram]]
A [[Zoroastrian]] temple may also be called a ''Dar-e-mehr'' and an ''[[Fire temple|Atashkadeh]]''. A fire temple in Zoroastrianism is the place of worship for Zoroastrians. Zoroastrians revere [[fire]] in any form, and their temples contains an [[eternal flame]], with ''[[Atash Behram]]'' (Fire of Victory) as the highest grade of all, as it combines 16 different types of fire gathered in elaborate rituals.

In the Zoroastrian religion, fire (''Atar''), together with clean water (''Aban''), are agents of ritual purity. Clean, white "ash for the purification ceremonies is regarded as the basis of ritual life," which, "are essentially the rites proper to the tending of a domestic fire, for the temple fire is that of the hearth fire raised to a new solemnity".{{Quote without source|date=September 2022}}

==Chinese temples==
{{main|Chinese temple architecture}}{{See also|Joss paper|Air pollution|Particulates}}
[[File:Hall of Prayer for Good Harvest.JPG|thumb|left|[[Temple of Heaven]], [[Beijing]]]]

Chinese temples refer to temples in accordance with [[Chinese culture]], which serve as a house of worship for Chinese faiths, namely [[Confucian Temple|Confucianism]], [[Taoist Temple|Taoism]], [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]] and [[Chinese folk religion]]. Chinese temples were born from the age-old religion and tradition of [[Chinese people]] since the ancient era of imperial [[China]], thus they are usually built in typical classical [[Chinese architecture]].

Other than the base constructed from an elevated platform of earth and stones, most parts of Chinese temples are made of timber carpentry, with parts of brick masonry and glazed ceramics for roofs and tile decorations. Typical Chinese temples have curved overhanging eaves and complicated carpentry of stacked roof construction. Chinese temples are known for their vivid colour and rich decorations. Their roofs are often decorated with mythical beasts, such as [[Chinese dragon]]s and [[qilin]]s, and sometimes also Chinese deities. Chinese temples can be found throughout [[Mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]], and also where [[Chinese emigration|Chinese expatriate]] communities have settled abroad; thus Chinese temples can be found in [[Chinatown]]s worldwide.

==Indonesian temples==
{{Main|Candi of Indonesia|Balinese temple}}
[[File:Sojiwan temple 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sojiwan]] temple, an example of typical 9th-century Javanese temple architecture.]]

[[Candi of Indonesia|''Candi'']] is an [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term to refer to ancient temples. Before the rise of Islam, between the 5th to 15th centuries, Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in the Indonesian archipelago, especially in [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]]. As a result, numerous Hindu temples, locally known as {{Lang|id|candi}}, were constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. The {{Lang|id|candi}} architecture follows the typical [[Indonesian architecture|Indonesian architectural]] traditions based on [[Vastu Shastra]]. The temple layout, especially in the [[Central Java]] period, incorporated [[mandala]] temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of [[Hindu]] temples. The ''{{Lang|id|candi}}'' was designed to mimic [[Mount Meru (mythology)|Meru]], the holy mountain and the abode of the gods. In contemporary [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Indonesian Buddhist]] perspective, ''{{Lang|id|candi}}'' refers to a shrine, either ancient or new. Several contemporary ''[[vihara]]s'' in Indonesia, for example, contain an actual-size replica or reconstruction of famous Buddhist temples, such as the replica of [[Pawon]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Replika Candi Pawon|work=Vihāra Jakarta Dhammacakka Jaya|url=http://www.dhammacakka.org/?channel=tentangkami&mode=detailfasilitas&id=93}}</ref> and [[Plaosan]]'s {{Lang|id|perwara}} (small) temples.

According to local beliefs, the Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples that co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in the massive eruption of [[Mount Merapi]] in 1006 CE.

==Mesoamerican temples==
{{main|Mesoamerican pyramids}}
[[File:Chichen Itza 2.jpg|thumb|[[El Castillo, Chichen Itza|Temple of Kukulcan]] in [[Chichen Itza]] located on top of Kukulcan pyramid.]]
Temples of the [[Mesoamerican]] civilization usually took the shape of [[Mesoamerican pyramids|stepped pyramids]] with temples or shrines on top of the massive structure. They are more akin to the ziggurats of Mesopotamia than to Egyptian ones. A single or several flight(s) of steep steps from the base lead to the temple that stood on the plateau on top of the pyramid. The stone temple might be a square or a rounded structure with a door opening leading to a cella or inner sanctum. The plateau on top of the pyramid in front of the temple is where the ritualistic sacrifice took place.

Some classic Mesoamerican pyramids are adorned with stories about the feathered serpent [[Quetzalcoatl]] or [[Mesoamerican creation myths]], written in the form of hieroglyphs on the rises of the steps of the pyramids, on the walls, and on the sculptures contained within.<ref>{{Cite book |title = Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs |last = Koontz|first = Rex |publisher = Thames and Hudson|year = 2013 |isbn = 9780500290767 |location = New York, New York}}
</ref> Notable example include [[Aztec]] [[Santa Cecilia Acatitlan|Acatitlan]] and [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] [[Chichen Itza]], [[Uxmal]] and [[Tikal]].

==Jewish synagogues and temples==
In [[Judaism]], the ancient Hebrew texts refer to a "sanctuary", "palace" or "hall" for each of the two ancient temples in [[Jerusalem]], called in the [[Tanakh]] {{Lang|he-latn|Beit YHWH}}, which translates literally as '[[YHWH]]'s House'. In English "temple" is the normal term for them.

The [[Temple Mount]] in [[Jerusalem]] is the site where the [[First Temple]] of Solomon and the [[Second Temple]] were built. At the center of the structure was the [[Holy of Holies]] where only the [[High Priest of Israel|High Priest]] could enter. The Temple Mount is now the site of the [[Islamic]] edifice, the [[Dome of the Rock]] ({{Circa|690 CE}}).

The Greek word ''[[synagogue]]'' came into use to describe Jewish (and [[Samaritanism|Samaritan]]) places of worship during [[Hellenistic]] times and it, along with the Yiddish term ''[[shul]]'', and the original Hebrew term ''[[Synagogue|Beit Knesset]]'' ('House of meeting') are the terms in most universal usage.

Since the 18th century, Jews in Western and Central Europe began to apply the name ''temple'', borrowed from the French where it was used to denote all non-Catholic prayer houses, to synagogues. The term became strongly associated with [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] institutions, in some of which both congregants and outsiders associated it with the elimination of the prayers for the restoration of the Jerusalem Temple, though this was not the original meaning—traditional synagogues named themselves "temple" over a century before the advent of Reform, and many continued to do so after.<ref>Michael A. Meyer, ''Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism'', Wayne State University Press, 1995. p. 42.</ref> In American parlance, ''temple'' is often synonymous with ''synagogue'', but especially non-Orthodox ones.

The term ''[[kenesa]]'', from the Aramaic for 'assembly', is used to describe the places of worship of [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite Jews]].

Example of such temple is the [[Sofia Synagogue]], [[Bulgaria]] the largest [[synagogue]] in [[Southeastern Europe]] and third-largest in [[Europe]].<ref>[http://www.dnes.bg/sofia/2009/09/06/100-godishnina-na-sinagogata-v-sofiia.77248 100-годишнина на синагогата в София], dnes.bg, September 6, 2009</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="145px">
File:Jerus-n4i.jpg|A model of [[Herod's Temple]] adjacent to the [[Shrine of the Book]] exhibit at the [[Israel Museum]], Jerusalem.
File:Kenessa Vilnius (5970197134).jpg|The Kenesa in [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]].
</gallery>

==Christian temples==
===Orthodox Christianity===
[[File:Russia-Moscow-Cathedral of Christ the Saviour-8.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]].]]

The word ''temple'' is used frequently in the tradition of [[Eastern Christianity]]; particularly the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], where the principal words used for houses of worship are ''temple'' and ''church''. The use of the word ''temple'' comes from the need to distinguish a building of the church vs. the church seen as the Body of Christ. In the [[Russian language]] (similar to other [[Slavic languages]]), while the general-purpose word for 'church' is ''[[Russian church architecture|tserkov]]'', the term {{Lang|ru-latn|khram}} ({{Lang|ru|Храм}}), 'temple', is used to refer to the church building as a temple of [[God]] ({{Lang|ru-latn|Khram Bozhy}}). The words ''church'' and ''temple'', in this case are interchangeable; however, the term ''church'' ({{langx|grc|ἐκκλησία}}) is far more common. The term ''temple'' ({{langx|grc|ναός}}) is also commonly applied to larger churches. Some famous churches which are referred to as temples include the [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Saint Basil's Cathedral]], [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia]], the [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour (Moscow)|Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] and the [[Temple of Saint Sava]] in [[Belgrade]], [[Serbia]].

===Catholicism===
[[File:Basilique du Sacré-Cœur IMG 1271.jpg|thumb|left|[[Basilique du Sacré-Coeur]] in [[Paris]]]]

The word ''temple'' has traditionally been rarely used in the English-speaking [[Western Christian tradition]]. In [[Irish language|Irish]], some [[East–West Schism|pre-schism]] churches use the word ''[[wiktionary:teampall|teampall]]''. The usual word for ''church'' in the [[Hungarian language]] is ''[[wiktionary:templom|templom]]'', also deriving from the same Latin root. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] distinguishes between the temple being the physical building for religious activity, and the church being both the physical building for religious activity and also the congregation of religious followers.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Baldayac|first1=Rafael|title=Iglesia y templo: diferencia|url=http://www.lainformacion.com.do/noticias/opinion/columnas/869/iglesia-y-templo:-diferencia|website=La Informacion|access-date=23 January 2018}}</ref>

The principal words typically used to distinguish houses of worship in Western Christian architecture are ''[[abbey]]'', ''[[basilica]]'', ''[[cathedral]]'', ''[[chapel]]'' and ''[[Church (building)|church]]''. The Catholic Church has used the word temple in reference of a place of worship on rare occasions. An example is the Roman Catholic [[Sagrada Familia]] Temple in Barcelona, Spain and the Roman Catholic [[Basilique du Sacré-Cœur]] Temple in Paris, France. Another example is the Temple or Our Lady of the Pillar, a church in [[Guadalajara]], [[Mexico]].

===Protestantism===
Some Protestant churches use this term; above the main entrance of the [[Lutheran]] Gustav Vasa church in Stockholm, [[Sweden]], is a [[cartouche]] in Latin which reads "this temple (...) was constructed by king Oscar II."

Beginning in the late 18th century, following the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], some Protestant denominations in France and elsewhere began to use the word ''temple'' to distinguish these spaces from Catholic churches. [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] and other Protestant churches make use of a wide variety of terms to designate their worship spaces, such as church, [[tabernacle]] or temple. Additionally, some breakaway Catholic churches such as the [[Mariavite Church]] in [[Poland]] have chosen to also designate their central church building as a temple, as in the case of the [[Temple of Mercy and Charity]] in [[Płock]].

===Latter Day Saint movement===
{{main|Temple (Latter Day Saints)}}
[[File:Kirtland Temple ext (7-25-18).jpg|thumb|[[Kirtland Temple]] in [[Kirtland, Ohio]]]]

According to [[Latter Day Saint]]s, in 1832, [[Joseph Smith]] received a [[Revelation#Latter-day Saint concept of revelation|revelation]] to [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restore]] the practice of [[Temple (Latter Day Saints)|temple worship]], in a "house of the Lord". The [[Kirtland Temple]] was the first temple of the [[Latter-day Saint movement]] and the only one completed in Smith's lifetime, although the [[Nauvoo Temple]] was partially complete at the time of [[death of Joseph Smith|his death]]. The [[schism (religion)|schisms]] stemming from a [[Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)|succession crisis]] have led to differing views about the role and use of temples between various groups with competing succession claims.

[[Book of Mormon|The Book of Mormon]], which Latter Day Saints believe is a companion book of scripture with the Bible, refers to temple building in the ancient Americas by a group of people called the [[Nephites]]. Though Book of Mormon authors are not explicit about the practices in these Nephite temples, they were patterned "after the manner of the temple of Solomon" (<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/2-ne/5?lang=eng |title=The Second Book of Nephi Chapter 5 - 5:16 |publisher=Lds.org |date=2012-02-21 |access-date=2012-06-20}}</ref>) and served as gathering places for significant religious and political events (e.g. Mosiah 1–6; 3rd Nephi 11–26).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.achoiceland.com/temples |title=Temples |publisher=Achoiceland.com |date=2010-10-01 |access-date=2012-06-20}}</ref>

====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints====
{{See also|Temple (LDS Church)|List of temples (LDS Church)}}
[[File:Salt Lake Temple, Utah - Sept 2004-2.jpg|thumb|[[Salt Lake Temple|LDS temple]] in Salt Lake City, Utah]]

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] is a prolific builder of temples. {{LDS Temple status}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lds.org/temples/chronological/0,11206,1900-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020214012225/http://www.lds.org/temples/chronological/0,11206,1900-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2002-02-14|title=List of Temples}}</ref> [[Temple (LDS Church)|Latter-day Saint temples]] are reserved for performing and undertaking only the most holy and sacred of covenants and [[Ordinance (Mormonism)|special of ordinances]]. They are distinct from [[meeting house]]s and [[chapel]]s where [[Worship services of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Weekly services|weekly worship services]] are held. The temples are built and kept under strict sacredness and are not to be defiled. Thus, strict rules apply for entrance, including church membership and regular attendance. During the open-house period after its construction and before its dedication, the temple is open to the public for tours.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lds.org/temples/faq/0,11264,1904-1,00.html#3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020214012007/http://www.lds.org/temples/faq/0,11264,1904-1,00.html#3|url-status=dead|archive-date=2002-02-14|title=Frequently Asked Questions}}</ref>

====Other Latter Day Saint denominations====
Various [[List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement|sects]] in the Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith have temples.<ref>Utah Attorney General's Office and Arizona Attorney General's Office. [http://attorneygeneral.utah.gov/cmsdocuments/The_Primer.pdf The Primer, Helping Victims of Domestic Violence and Child Abuse in Polygamous Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127133628/http://attorneygeneral.utah.gov/cmsdocuments/The_Primer.pdf |date=2013-01-27 }}. Updated June 2006. Page 23.</ref>
*The [[Church of Christ (Wightite)]], a Latter Day Saint denomination formed by [[Lyman Wight]] following the [[Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)|death of Joseph Smith]], built the first Mormon temple west of the Mississippi in [[Zodiac, Texas]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first1=Melvin C.|title=Polygamy on the Pedernales:Lyman Wight's Mormon Villages in Antebellum Texas, 1845-1858|date=2006|page=125|url=http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=usupress_pubs|access-date=6 February 2015|publisher=Utah State University Press|location=Logan, Utah}}</ref> about three miles from [[Fredericksburg, Texas|Fredericksburg]].
* In 1990 or earlier, a temple in [[Ozumba]], [[Mexico]], was built by the [[Apostolic United Brethren]].<ref name = Moore>Andrea Moore-Emmett. God's Brothel. Pince-Nez Press: June 1, 2004. {{ISBN|1-930074-13-1}}</ref>
*On April 17, 1994, the [[Independence Temple]] in [[Independence, Missouri]], was opened by the [[Community of Christ]] by then-church [[Prophet-President]] [[Wallace B. Smith]]. The Community of Christ also owned the original [[Kirtland Temple]], dedicated in 1836 by the [[Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)|Church of the Latter Day Saints]] (later renamed the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), in [[Kirtland, Ohio]]. On March 5, 2024, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints announced it had purchased the temple.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-06 |title=Church purchases Kirtland Temple, other historic buildings and artifacts from Community of Christ |url=https://www.thechurchnews.com/temples/2024/03/05/church-purchases-kirtland-temple-historic-buildings-artifacts-community-of-christ/ |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=Church News |language=en}}</ref>
*In 2005<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.myeldorado.net/YFZ%20Pages/YFZ010605.html | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050307015520/http://www.myeldorado.net/YFZ%20Pages/YFZ010605.html | url-status= dead | archive-date= March 7, 2005 | title= Jeffs dedicates FLDS temple site at YFZ Ranch | newspaper= [[The Eldorado Success]] | date= January 11, 2005 | access-date= April 6, 2008 }}</ref> construction on the [[YFZ| YFZ Ranch Temple]] by the [[Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] Church began. It is located just outside [[Eldorado, Texas|Eldorado]] in [[Schleicher County, Texas|Schleicher County]], [[Texas]].<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.deseretnews.com/article/635180342/FLDS-temple-appears-complete.html | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120503024527/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/635180342/FLDS-temple-appears-complete.html | url-status= dead | archive-date= May 3, 2012 | title= FLDS temple appears complete | publisher= [[Ben Winslow]] (AP) | date= 31 January 2006}}</ref> However, as of April 2014, the [[Texas|State of Texas]] took physical and legal possession of the property.<ref name="NBC">{{cite news |title= Texas Seizes Polygamist Warren Jeffs' Ranch |url= https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/texas-seizes-polygamist-warren-jeffs-ranch-n83736 |publisher= NBC News |agency= Associated Press |date= April 17, 2014 |access-date= April 18, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Carlisle">{{cite news |last1= Carlisle |first1= Nate |title= Texas takes possession of polygamous ranch |url = https://archive.sltrib.com/article.php?id=57832276&itype=CMSID |newspaper= [[The Salt Lake Tribune]] |date= April 17, 2014 |access-date= April 17, 2014}}</ref> as it was used to "commit or facilitate certain criminal conduct".<ref name="NBC"/><ref name="Carlisle"/>
* A pyramid-shaped temple near [[Modena, Utah]], was built by the [[Righteous Branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref name = Moore/>

===Esoteric Christianity===
* [[Mount Ecclesia]] [[Esoteric Christian]] Temple of the [[Rosicrucian Fellowship]] with its round 12-sided building architecture set on top of a [[mesa]] and facing east, the rising Sun. This modern-day temple is ornamented with [[Alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Astrology|astrological]] symbols.

[[File:temple99.JPG|thumb|center|[[Mount Ecclesia]]'s Temple]]

==Masonic temples==
[[File:Kimbolton Lodge 123.JPG|thumb|A typical Masonic Lodge]]

[[Freemasonry]] is a [[fraternal organization]] with its origins in the eighteenth century whose membership is held together by a shared set of moral and [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] ideals based on short role play narratives concerning the construction of King Solomon's Temple. Freemasons meet as a Lodge. Lodges meet in a [[Masonic Temple]] (in reference to King Solomon's Temple), Masonic Center or a Masonic Hall, such as [[Freemasons' Hall, London]]. Some confusion exists as Masons usually refer to a Lodge meeting as being ''in Lodge''.

==Others==
[[File:Temple of Neptune in Monrepos 1.jpg|thumb|The Temple of [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]] at the [[Monrepos Park]] in [[Vyborg|Vyborg, Russia]]]]
*''[[Göbekli Tepe]]'', located in southern [[Turkey]], was built between the 8th and 10th millennium BCE. Its circular compounds on top of a [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]] are composed by massive T-shaped stone [[pillar]]s decorated with abstract, enigmatic [[pictogram]]s and animal [[relief]]s.
*Temples of Sheikh, ancient temples in [[Sheikh, Somaliland]]
*Temple of Yeha, the oldest standing structure in [[Yeha]], [[Ethiopia]]; built around 700 BCE
*In the Star Wars films, the ''[[Jedi Temple]]'' is located on ''[[Coruscant]]''.
*[[Wolmyeongdong|Wolmyeongdong Natural Temple]], located in [[South Korea]], was developed beginning in 1990 and continues to this day.
*[[Pashupatinath Temple|Pashupatinath]] is one of the most famous temples<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.prasantbhatt.com/nepal-travel-trekking/9-amazing-nepali-temple-you-must-visit-before-you-die/|title=9 Amazing Nepali Temple You Should Visit Before You Die|date=2018-04-13|work=Prasant Bhatt|access-date=2018-04-13|language=en-US|archive-date=2018-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414092341/http://www.prasantbhatt.com/nepal-travel-trekking/9-amazing-nepali-temple-you-must-visit-before-you-die/|url-status=dead}}</ref> of [[Hinduism]], which is located at [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]].

Convention sometimes allows the use of temple in some of the following cases:

* [[Baháʼí Faith]] temple ([[Baháʼí House of Worship|Mashriqu'l-Adhkárs]] or 'Houses of Worship').
* Traditional [[Chinese folk religion|Chinese folk]] shrines are called ''[[Chinese temple architecture|miao]]'', or ''ancestral hall'' in English. ''Joss house'' is an obsolete American term for such kind of places of worship.
* [[Temple of Confucius|Confucian temple]]
* [[Mankhim]], the temple of the ethnic group the [[Rai (ethnic group)|Rai]], located at [[Aritar]], [[Sikkim]].
* [[Shinto]] ''[[Shinto shrine|jinja]]'' are normally called ''[[shrine]]s'' in English in order to distinguish them from Buddhist temples (''-tera'', ''-dera'').
* [[Taoism|Taoist]] temples and monasteries are called {{Lang|zh-latn|guan}} or ''[[daoguan]]'' ({{Lang|zh|道观}}, literally 'place of contemplation of the Tao') in Chinese, ''{{Lang|zh-latn|guan}}'' being the shortened version of {{Lang|zh-latn|daoguan}}.

==See also==
* [[Balinese temple]]
* [[candi of Indonesia]]
* [[Chinese pagoda]]
* [[Chinese temple]]
* [[Dravidian architecture]]
* [[Romano-Celtic temple]]
* [[Jangam]]
* [[list of temples of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[mandi (Mandaeism)]]
* [[mosque]]
* [[National Temple of Divine Providence]]
* [[place of worship]]
* [[Temple of Reason]]
* [[Jyotirlinga]]
* [[Shakta pithas]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Hani, Jean, ''Le symbolisme du temple chrétien'', G. Trédaniel (editor); [2. éd.] edition (1978), 207 pp., {{ISBN|2-85707-030-6}}

==External links==
{{commons|Temple}}
{{Wikiquote|temple}}
{{Wiktionary|temple}}
* [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=temple&searchmode=none Definition of 'temple'] at the ''[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]''
* [http://www.aldokkan.com/art/temple.htm Comparison between Egyptian and Greek temples]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Temples| ]]
[[Category:Building types]]
[[Category:Types of monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Sacral architecture]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures]]

Super Da

2026-03-21T14:39:52Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added basic info from scratch.

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Super Da
| image =

| caption =
| director = Azhagu Raja Sundaram
| producer = B. Sampoornam
| writer = V. Prabhakar (dialogues)
| screenplay = Azhagu Raja Sundaram
| starring = {{ubl|[[Ramki]]|[[Kunal (actor)|Kunal]]|Anusha|[[J. Livingston|Livingston]]|[[Sindhuri]]|[[Telangana Shakuntala]]|[[Paravai Muniyamma]]}}
| music = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| cinematography = A. Jerald
| editing = Mohan - Subbu
| distributor =
| studio = Sree Ashtalakshmi Films
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2004|06|25}}
| runtime = 130 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Super Da''''' ({{translation|Its super, man}}) is a 2004 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[comedy drama|comedy drama film]] directed by Azhagu Raja Sundaram. The film stars [[Ramki]], [[Kunal (actor)|Kunal]] and newcomer Anusha, with [[J. Livingston|Livingston]], [[Sindhuri]], [[Telangana Shakuntala]], and [[Paravai Muniyamma]] playing supporting roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=13388661|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=13 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040301222902/http://sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=13388661|archive-date=1 March 2004|title=Ramki- Kunal make a comeback
|date=13 February 2004}}</ref> The film, produced by Anusha's mother B. Sampoornam, was released on 25 June 2004.

==Plot==

Kathirvel comes to the city to live with his friend Subramani. While Reshma is a soft-spoken college student, her mother Gangamma is a heartless lady rowdy. Rahul, a college student, falls in love with Reshma at the first sight. Reshma also loves him but to save Rahul's life, she tries to avoid him. Finally, Reshma accepts his love. Gangamma, knowing their love affair, hurts Rahul heavily in front of Kathirvel and Subramani. They rush him to the nearby hospital. Reshma insults Kathirvel for being passive during the attack following which he tells his tragic past to Reshma. In the past, Kathirvel was in love with Reshma's sister Meenakshi. So Gangamma tried to kill Kathirvel but Meenakshi intervened and was accidentally killed by her mother. Before her death, Kathirvel promised Meenakshi to not kill her mother. Kathirvel is now determined to unite the lovers. What transpires later forms the crux of the story.

==Cast==

{{cast listing|
*[[Ramki]] as Kathirvel
*[[Kunal (actor)|Kunal]] as Rahul
*Anusha as Reshma
*[[J. Livingston|Livingston]] as Subramani
*[[Sindhuri]] as Meenakshi
*[[Telangana Shakuntala]] as Gangamma
*[[Paravai Muniyamma]] as Muniyamma
*[[Senthil]]
*[[Vaiyapuri]]
*[[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]] as Rasathi's father
*[[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]]
*[[Anuradha (actress)|Anuradha]]
*[[Shakeela]] as Meera Krishnan
*Sharmili as Sarasu
*[[Abhinayashree]]
*[[Ponnambalam (actor)|Ponnambalam]]
*[[Balu Anand]]
*[[Anu Mohan (Tamil actor)|Anu Mohan]]
*[[Uday Prakash (actor)|Uday Prakash]]
*K. Babu as a doctor
*V. S. Balamurugan as a postman
*C. J. Muthukumar as a marriage broker
*Azhagu Raja Sundaram as a snake charmer
*[[Aravind Akash]] in a guest appearance
}}

==Production==
The film was originally announced with Sathyaraj and Jai Akash as lead actors however Sathyaraj opted out of the film as he was unwilling to work in multiple hero subjects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/20062003-5.shtml|date=20 June 2003|access-date=6 February 2025|title=Sathyaraj opts out of 'Superdaa'! Two many heroes in the film.|website=Cinesouth|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030622112737/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/20062003-5.shtml|archive-date=22 June 2003}}</ref> Some scenes were shot in Chennai, at the Besant Nagar beach and on Anna Salai.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/tammov351.asp |title='Superda' |website=Chennai Online |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051204041559/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/tammov351.asp |archive-date=4 December 2005 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==

{{Infobox album
| name = Super Da
| type = [[soundtrack]]
| artist = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 21 May 2004
| recorded = 2004
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 24:35
| label =
| producer = Deva
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The film score and the soundtrack were composed by [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]. The soundtrack, released on 21 May 2004, features 5 tracks with lyrics written by Kalidasan, [[Piraisoodan]], Kalai Kumar, Tholkapiyan and Victordas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://play.raaga.com/tamil/album/Superda-songs-T0003864|title=Superda Songs|accessdate=2016-10-01|publisher=play.raaga.com|archive-date=27 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527205926/http://play.raaga.com/tamil/album/Superda-songs-T0003864|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Track !! Song !! Singer(s) !! Lyrics !! Duration
|-
|1 || "Koyambedu" || [[Anuradha Sriram]], [[Manikka Vinayagam]] || Kalidasan || 5:11
|-
|2 || "Iduppu Madippu" || [[Mathangi Jagdish]], [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]] || [[Piraisoodan]] || 4:32
|-
|3 || "Ichu Thaa" || [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Malathy Lakshman]] || Victordas || 4:13
|-
|4 || "Engappavukku" || Malathy Lakshman || Tholkapiyan || 5:19
|-
|5 || "Thulasi Chediyoram" || Anuradha Sriram || Kalai Kumar || 5:20
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2004 films]]
[[Category:2004 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2004 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian action films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Deva (composer)]]
[[Category:2004 action films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Punjab

2026-03-20T17:50:15Z

MazidulIslamMilon:

{{Short description|Geographical region in South Asia}}
{{About|the geographical region|the province of Pakistan|Punjab, Pakistan|the state in India|Punjab, India|other uses|Punjab (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Punjab
| native_name = {{lang|pa-Latn|Panjāb}} ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]])
| native_name_lang = pa
| settlement_type = [[Historical region]]
| flag_alt =
| image_seal =
| seal_alt =
| image_shield =
| shield_alt =
| nickname = Land of the Five Rivers Cradle of [[Sikhism]] [[Breadbasket]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]]
| motto =
| image_map = Punjab map (topographic) with cities.png
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location of Punjab in South Asia
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{Coord|31|74|scale:3000000|display=inline, title}}
| coor_pinpoint =
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Countries
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}} {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of cities in the Punjab region by population|Largest city]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Lahore]]
| subdivision_type3 = Second largest city
| subdivision_name3 = [[Faisalabad]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| government_footnotes =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| named_for = Five tributaries of the [[Indus River]]
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_footnotes = 
| demographics1_title1 = [[Ethnic groups]]
| demographics1_info1 = [[Punjabis]] ''Minor: [[Baloch people|Balochs]], [[Biharis]], [[Dogras]], [[Haryanvi people|Haryanvis]], [[Himachal Pradesh|Himachalis]], [[Hindkowans]], [[Kashmiris]], [[Muhajir (Urdu-speaking people)|Muhajirs]], [[Pashtuns]], [[Saraiki people|Saraikis]], [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Elections in Bihar, Campaigning in Punjab to Woo Bihari Migrants|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2015/oct/04/elections-in-bihar-campaigning-in-punjab-to-woo-bihari-migrants-824629.html|date=4 October 2015|quote=Punjab, as per official estimates, is home to some two million migrants from Bihar. They are engaged in various jobs and occupations in Punjab. Of this, over 1.3 million are living in and around the industrial hub of Ludhiana.|access-date=17 February 2024|archive-date=29 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329091742/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2015/oct/04/Elections-in-Bihar-Campaigning-in-Punjab-to-Woo-Bihari-Migrants-824629.html|url-status=live}}</ref>''
| demographics_type2 =
| demographics2_footnotes = 
| demographics1_title2 = Languages
| demographics1_info2 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Punjabi dialects and languages|its dialects and varieties]] and [[#Languages|others]]
| demographics_type3 =
| demographics3_footnotes = 
| demographics1_title3 = Religions
| demographics1_info3 = [[Punjabi Muslims|Islam]] (64.72%) [[Punjabi Hindus|Hinduism]] (23.38%) [[Sikhism]] (10.1%) [[Punjabi Christians|Christianity]] (1.49%) Others (0.31%)
| blank_name_sec1 =
| blank_info_sec1 =
| blank_name_sec2 =
| blank_info_sec2 =
| unit_pref = Metric

| area_footnotes =
| area_urban_footnotes = 
| area_rural_footnotes = 
| area_metro_footnotes = 
| area_magnitude = 
| area_note =
| area_water_percent =
| area_rank =
| area_blank1_title =
| area_blank2_title = 
| area_total_km2 = 458,354.5
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_urban_km2 =
| area_rural_km2 =
| area_metro_km2 =
| area_blank1_km2 =
| area_blank2_km2 = 
| area_total_ha =
| area_land_ha =
| area_water_ha =
| area_urban_ha =
| area_rural_ha =
| area_metro_ha =
| area_blank1_ha =
| area_blank2_ha =
| length_km =
| width_km =
| dimensions_footnotes =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_as_of = [[2011 Indian census|2011]] {{small|India}} & [[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017]] {{small|Pakistan}}
| population_total = {{circa|190|lk=yes}}&nbsp;million{{efn|name=2011&2017Census}} {{flag|Pakistan}} 115 million {{flag|India}} 75 million
| population_density_km2 =
| population_note =
| population_demonym = Punjabi
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST in India]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| timezone2 = [[Time in Pakistan|PKT in Pakistan]]
| utc_offset2 = +05:00
| timezone1_DST =
| utc_offset1_DST =
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| area_code_type =
| area_code =
| iso_code =
| website = 
| footnotes = Demographics based on [[Punjab Province (British India)|British Punjab]]'s colonial borders
}}
{{Punjabis}}
'''Punjab''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ʌ|n|ˈ|dʒ|ɑː|b}} {{respell|pun|JAHB}};<ref>{{Cite Dictionary.com|Punjab}}</ref> {{langx|pa-Latn|Panjāb}}, {{IPA|pa|pəɲˈd͡ʒaːb|pron|Punjab.ogg}}){{efn|From [[Persian language|Persian]] {{lang|fa|پنج}} ''{{lang|fa-Latn|panj}}''—meaning literally 'five'—and {{lang|fa|آب}} ''{{lang|fa-Latn|âb}}''—meaning literally 'water' or 'river', thus translating as 'five waters'.<ref name=EoS>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/PUNJAB.html |title=The Punjab |author=H K Manmohan Siṅgh |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism |publisher=[[Punjabi University]], Patiala|access-date=18 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062705/http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/PUNJAB.html |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref>}} is a [[geography|geographical]], [[ethnolinguistics|ethnolinguistic]], and [[historical region]] in [[South Asia]], located in its [[Northwestern South Asia|northwestern part]], comprising areas of modern-day [[Pakistan]] and [[Northwest India|northwestern]] [[India]]. It is primarily inhabited by the [[Punjabis|Punjabi people]]. [[Lahore]] is its largest city and historic capital, with other major cities including [[Faisalabad]], [[Rawalpindi]], [[Gujranwala]], [[Multan]], [[Sialkot]], [[Sargodha]], and [[Bahawalpur]] in Pakistan; alongside [[Ludhiana]], [[Amritsar]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Jalandhar]], [[Patiala]], [[Mohali]], [[Bathinda]], [[Firozpur]], and [[Fazilka]] in India.

Punjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to the [[Near East]] as early as the ancient [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley civilization]], dating back to {{BCE|3000|link=y}},<ref name="Nayar1">{{Cite book |last=Nayar |first=Kamala Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7pO-IZY218C&pg=PA7 |title=The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism |date=2012 |page=7|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-4070-5 |language=en}}</ref> followed by [[Indo-Aryan migration|migrations]] of the [[Indo-Aryan peoples]]. Agriculture has been the chief economic feature of the Punjab and formed the foundation of [[Punjabi culture]].<ref name="Nayar1"/> The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following the [[Green Revolution]] during the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, and has been described as the "[[breadbasket]] of both India and Pakistan."<ref name="Nayar1"/>

Following [[Alexander the Great]]'s invasion in the 4th century BCE, [[Chandragupta Maurya]] allied with Punjabi republics to establish the [[Maurya Empire]].<ref name="auto72">{{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radhakumud |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=yaudheyas+chandragupta&pg=PA22 |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |date=1 January 2016 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0433-3 |page=22 |language=en |quote=Rhys Davids [Buddhist India p. 267] points out that 'it was from the Panjab that Chandragupta recruited the nucleus of the force with which he besieged and conquered Dhana Nanda' |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314141224/https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=yaudheyas+chandragupta&pg=PA22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Successive reigns of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], [[Kushan Empire]], and [[Indo-Scythians]] followed, but were ultimately defeated by Eastern Punjab [[Janapada]]s such as the [[Yaudheya]], [[Trigarta Kingdom]], [[Audumbaras]], [[Arjunayanas]], and [[Kuninda Kingdom]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=Tarn |first=William Woodthorpe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HeJS3nE9cAC&pg=PA324 |title=The Greeks in Bactria and India |date=24 June 2010 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-108-00941-6 |page=324 |language=en |quote=Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas — began to coin in the first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms or republics; but the coins do not all tell the same story. Those of the two sounthernmost peoples begin somewhere about 100 BC and bear the legends 'Victory of the Arjunayanas' and (on their copper issue) 'Victory of the Yaudheyas', which point to their having won independence by the sword.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Majumdar |first1=Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&q=madra+republic |title=Vakataka gupta age: circa 200–550 |last2=Altekar |first2=Anant Sadashiv |date=1986 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0026-7 |page=31 |language=en |access-date=9 July 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004104524/https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&q=madra+republic |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Punjab faced devastating Hunnic invasions, yet the [[Vardhana dynasty]] emerged triumphant, ruling over [[Northern India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FN2vEAAAQBAJ&dq=alexander+cunningham+vardhana+empire&pg=PA280 |title=Archaeological Survey of India: Vol. 1 |date=23 February 2023 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-382-11929-4 |page=280 |language=en |access-date=9 July 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004104524/https://books.google.com/books?id=FN2vEAAAQBAJ&dq=alexander+cunningham+vardhana+empire&pg=PA280 |url-status=live }}</ref> The 8th century CE witnessed the [[Hindu Shahis]] rise, known for defeating the [[Persianate]] [[Saffarid dynasty]] and the [[Samanid Empire]]. Concurrently, the [[Tomara dynasty]] and [[Katoch Dynasty]] controlled eastern Punjab, resisting [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid]] invasions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hutchison |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3btDw4S2FmYC&q=diwan+i+salman+jalandhar |title=History of the Panjab Hill States |last2=Vogel |first2=Jean Philippe |date=1994 |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |isbn=978-81-206-0942-6 |page=123 |language=en |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=25 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325135205/https://books.google.com/books?id=3btDw4S2FmYC&q=diwan+i+salman+jalandhar |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Islam]] took hold in Western Punjab under Ghaznavid rule. The Delhi Sultanate then succeeded the Ghaznavids in which the [[Tughlaq dynasty]] and [[Sayyid dynasty]] [[Sultan]]s are described as Punjabi origin.<ref name="Easton2019">{{cite book |author-link=Richard M. Eaton |last=Easton |first=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |year=2019 |isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117 |publisher=University of California Press |language=en |quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...}}</ref><ref name="auto11">{{cite book |author=Fauja Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLW1AAAAIAAJ |title=History of the Punjab: A.D. 1000-1526. |date=1972 |page=152 |publisher=Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University |quote="The Tughlaqs had close links with the Punjab. According to Firishta and Sujan Rai Bhandari, Tughlaq, the founder of the dynasty, was born in the Punjab to a Jat mother" |access-date=9 July 2023 |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501193142/https://books.google.com/books?id=fLW1AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 15th century saw the emergence of the [[Langah Sultanate]] in south Punjab, acclaimed for its victory over the [[Lodi dynasty]].<ref name=":4" /> After the [[Mughal Empire]]'s decline in the 18th century, Punjab experienced a period of anarchy. 12 [[Sikh Confederacy|Sikh Misls]] along with Muslim Chattha, [[Sial dynasty|Sial]], [[Tarar (clan)|Tarar]], Chisti and [[Gakhars|Gakhar]] States fought for political ascendancy. In 1799 CE, the [[Sikh Empire]] established its rule, undertaking conquests into the [[Kashmir]]- and [[Durrani Empire]]-held territories.

The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century [[Mughal Empire]] the Punjab region was divided into three, with the [[Lahore Subah]] in the west, the Delhi [[Subah]] in the east and the [[Multan Subah]] in the south. Under the [[British Raj]] until the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] encompassed the present Indian [[States and union territories of India|states and union territories]] of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Chandigarh]], and [[Delhi]], and the [[Administrative units of Pakistan|Pakistani regions]] of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]].

The predominant [[ethnolinguistic group]] of the Punjab region are the [[Punjabi people]], who speak the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[Punjabi language]]. [[Punjabi Muslims]] are the majority in [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]] (Pakistan), while [[Punjabi Sikhs]] are the majority in [[Punjab India|East Punjab]] (India). Other religious groups include [[Punjabi Hindus|Hinduism]], [[Punjabi Christians|Christianity]], [[Jainism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Ravidassia]].

==Etymology==
The name Punjab is of [[Persian language|Persian]] origin, with its two parts ({{Langx|fa|پنج|translit=panj|label=none|lit=five}} and {{Langx|fa|آب|translit=āb|label=none|lit=water}}) being cognates of the [[Sanskrit]] words {{Langx|sa|पञ्‍च|translit=pañca|label=none|lit=five}} and {{Langx|sa|अप्|translit=áp|label=none|lit=water}}, of the same meaning.<ref name="EoS" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten|publisher=Aleph Book Company|year=2013|isbn=978-93-83064-41-0|location=New Delhi, India, Urbana, [[Illinois]]|page=1 ("Introduction")}}</ref> The word ''pañjāb'' is thus calque of Indo-Aryan "pañca-áp" and means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Sutlej]], and [[Beas River|Beas]].<ref>"Punjab." Pp. 107 in [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition|''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (9th ed.)]], vol. 20.</ref> All are [[Tributary|tributaries]] of the [[Indus River]], the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', in which one of the regions is named as ''Panchanada'' ({{Langx|sa|पञ्चनद|translit=pañca-nada|lit=five rivers}}).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GdKcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA199|title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|year=2010|isbn=978-1-61530-202-4|editor=Kenneth Pletcher|page=199|quote=The word's origin can perhaps be traced to panca nada, Sanskrit for "five rivers" and the name of a region mentioned in the ancient epic the Mahabharata.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rajesh Bala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzduAAAAMAAJ|title=Punjab History Conference, Thirty-seventh Session, March 18–20, 2005: Proceedings|publisher=Punjabi University|year=2005|isbn=978-81-7380-990-3|editor=Sukhdial Singh|page=80|chapter=Foreign Invasions and their Effect on Punjab|quote="The word Punjab is a compound of two words-Panj (Five) and aab (Water), thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers. This origin can perhaps be traced to panch nada, Sanskrit for "Five rivers" the word used before the advent of Muslims with a knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, before they joined the Indus."}}</ref> Earlier, the Punjab was known as [[Sapta Sindhu]] in the [[Rigveda]] or ''Hapta Hendu'' in [[Avestan geography|Avesta]], translating into "The Land of Seven Rivers", with the other two being Indus and [[Kabul river|Kabul]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Grenet|first=Frantz |editor-last1=Curtis|editor-first1=Vesta Sarkhosh|editor-last2=Stewart|editor-first2=Sarah |title=Birth of the Persian Empire Volume I|chapter=An Archaeologist's Approach to Avestan Geography |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2005|isbn=978-0-7556-2459-1|page=34}}</ref> The ancient [[Greek people|Greeks]] referred to the region as ''Pentapotamía'' ({{langx|el|Πενταποταμία}}), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab.<ref>[[Christian Lassen|Lassen, Christian]]. 1827. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA3 Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia Indica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118182901/https://books.google.ca/books?id=XbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA3&redir_esc=y |date=18 November 2022 }}'' [''A Geographical and Historical Commentary on Indian Pentapotamia'']. Weber. p. 4:

"That part of India which today we call by the Persian name <nowiki>''Penjab''</nowiki> is named ''Panchanada'' in the sacred language of the Indians; either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge, used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word, e.g., ''Doab'' and ''Nilab''. Therefore, it is probable that the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in the ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'', the most ancient Indian poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; for ''Panchála'', which English translations of the ''Ramayana'' render with Penjab...is the name of another region, entirely distinct from Pentapotamia...."{{whose translation|reason=has several mistakes – looks like Google translation|date=August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1-last=Latif|author-link=Syad Muhammad Latif |author1-first=Syad Muhammad|title=History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time|year=1891|publisher=Calcultta Central Press Company|page=1|quote=The Panjáb, the Pentapotamia of the Greek historians, the north-western region of the empire of Hindostán, derives its name from two Persian words, ''panj'' (five), an ''áb'' (water), having reference to the five rivers which confer on the country its distinguishing features." |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzBAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1}}</ref><ref name="Khalid">{{cite journal|author1-last=Khalid|author1-first=Kanwal|title=Lahore of Pre Historic Era|journal=Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan|volume=52|issue=2|page=73|year=2015|quote=The earliest mention of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was used, which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet. [...] In the later period, the word ''Pentapotamia'' was used by the Greeks to identify this land. (''Penta'' means 5 and potamia, water ___ the land of five rivers) Muslim Historians implied the word "Punjab" for this region. Again, it was not a new word because in Persian-speaking areas, there are references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes meet.|url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/7.%20Kanwal%20Khalid_v52_2_15.pdf|access-date=20 January 2019|archive-date=11 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811210654/http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/7.%20Kanwal%20Khalid_v52_2_15.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Taxila Pakistan juillet 2004.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Taxila]] in Pakistan is a [[World Heritage Site]].]]
{{Main|History of Punjab}}

=== Ancient period ===
The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley Civilization]] which flourished from about {{BCE|3000|link=y}} and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the [[Indo-Aryan migrations]] that overran the region in waves between {{BCE|1500}} and {{BCE|500}}.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257 |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 |pages=257–259 |language=en |access-date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082336/https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257 |url-status=live }}</ref> Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as [[Mahajanapadas]].<ref name=":9" /> The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the [[Mahabharata]].<ref name=":9" /> The epic battles described in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. The [[Gandhara]]s, [[Kambojas]], [[Trigartas]], [[Andhra in Indian epic literature|Andhra]], [[Pauravas]], [[Bahlikas]] ([[Bactrian people|Bactrian]] settlers of the Punjab), [[Yaudheya]]s, and others sided with the [[Kauravas]] in the great battle fought at [[Kurukshetra]].<ref>Buddha Parkash, ''Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab'', p 36.</ref> According to Fauja Singh and L.{{nbsp}}M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."<ref>Joshi, L. M., and Fauja Singh. ''History of Panjab'', Vol I. p. 4.</ref>

==== Invasions of Alexander the Great (c.&nbsp;4th century BCE) ====
[[File:Surrender of Porus to the Emperor Alexander.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.9|One of the first known kings of ancient Punjab, [[King Porus]], fought against Alexander the Great. His surrender is depicted in this 1865 engraving by [[Alonzo Chappel]].]]

The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as [[King Porus]], who fought the famous [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] against [[Alexander the Great]]. His kingdom spanned between rivers ''Hydaspes'' ([[Jhelum River|Jhelum]]) and ''Acesines'' ([[Chenab River|Chenab]]); [[Strabo]] had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Albert Brian |title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |pages=125–130 |chapter=The campaign of the Hydaspes}}</ref> He (alongside [[Abisares]]) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of [[Taxila]] which was ruled by his extended family.<ref name=":6" /> When the armies of Alexander crossed the Indus in its eastward migration, probably in [[Udabhandapura]], he was greeted by the ruler of Taxila, [[Taxiles|Omphis]].<ref name=":6" /> Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.<ref name=":6" /> This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus.<ref name=":6" /> Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BCE; the exact site remains unknown.<ref name=":6" /> The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive [[Greeks|Greek]] victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources that were exaggerated.<ref name=":6" />

Alexander later founded two cities—''[[Nicaea, Punjab|Nicaea]]'' at the site of victory and [[Alexandria Bucephalous|''Bucephalous'']] at the battle-ground, in memory of [[Bucephalus|his horse]], who died soon after the battle.<ref name=":6" />{{Efn|Craterus supervised the construction. These cities are yet to be identified.}} Later, [[tetradrachm]]s would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a ''sarissa'' and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |first=Frank Lee |title=Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions |publisher=University of California Press |year=2003}}</ref> Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.<ref name=":6" /> When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".<ref>Rogers, p.200</ref> Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Albert Brian |title=Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |chapter=From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Anson |first=Edward M. |title=Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2013 |isbn=9781441193797 |page=151}}</ref>{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=23–28}} Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.<ref name=":7" />

After Alexander's death in {{BCE|323}}, [[Perdiccas]] became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in {{BCE|321}}, [[Antipater]] became the new regent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heckel |first=Waldemar |title=Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire |publisher=Wiley |year=2006 |isbn=9781405112109}}</ref> According to [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the [[Indus River]]. However, [[Eudemus (general)|Eudemus]], who had served as Alexander's [[satrap]] in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Irfan Habib |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUvGQgAACAAJ |title=Mauryan India |author2=Vivekanand Jha |publisher=Aligarh Historians Society / [[Tulika Books]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-85229-92-8 |series=A People's History of India |page=16 |author1-link=Irfan Habib}}</ref>

==== Mauryan Empire (c. 320–180 BCE) ====
[[Chandragupta Maurya]], with the aid of [[Kautilya]], had established his empire around {{BCE|320}}. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in the [[University of Ancient Taxila|university at Taxila]] to educate him in the arts, sciences, logic, mathematics, warfare, and administration. [[Megasthenes]]' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which if true would mean his rule started earlier than {{BCE|321}}. As Alexander never crossed the [[Beas river|Beas River]], so his territory probably lay in the [[Punjab region]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.<ref name="auto7">{{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radhakumud |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=yaudheyas+chandragupta&pg=PA22 |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |date=2016-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0433-3 |page=22 |language=en |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314141224/https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=yaudheyas+chandragupta&pg=PA22 |url-status=live }}</ref> He then defeated the Nanda rulers in [[Pataliputra]] to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion of [[Bactria]], while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a [[Yaudheya]]n warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.<ref name="auto4">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Gyan Swarup |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjT9GG__nEC&dq=chief+of+the+mauryan+military+yaudheyas&pg=PA194 |title=India: From Indus Valley Civilisation to Mauryas |date=1999 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7022-763-2 |language=en |page=194 |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165611/https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjT9GG__nEC&dq=chief+of+the+mauryan+military+yaudheyas&pg=PA194 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto10">{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJQ6AAAAIAAJ&q=bijaygadh+pillar+inscription+yaudheyas |title=Corporate Life in Ancient India |date=1969 |publisher=Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay |page=222 |language=en |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314141256/https://books.google.com/books?id=VJQ6AAAAIAAJ&q=bijaygadh+pillar+inscription+yaudheyas |url-status=live }}</ref> The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radhakumud |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=mauryan+military+mostly+Punjabi&pg=PA27 |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |date=2016-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0433-3 |language=en |page=27 |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165613/https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=mauryan+military+mostly+Punjabi&pg=PA27 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed to [[Chanakya]], the author of the ''[[Arthashastra]].'' Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

=== Medieval period ===

==== Hindu Shahis (c. 820–1022 CE) ====
In the 9th century, the [[Hindu Shahis|Hindu Shahi]] dynasty originating from the region of [[Oddiyana]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rahman |first=Abdul |date=2002 |title=New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v15_37to42.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XV |pages=37–42 |quote=The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty. |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426060455/http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v15_37to42.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=2005 |title=The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v16_41to48.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XVI |pages=41–48 |quote=Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis". |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201184532/http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v16_41to48.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Rehman|1976}} replaced the Taank kingdom, ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan.<ref name=":9" /> The tribe of the [[Gakhars]]/[[Khokhars]], formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian [[Firishta]].{{sfn|Rehman|1976|pp=48–50}} The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to the [[Saffarid dynasty]].{{sfn|Rehman|1976}}{{page needed|date=January 2023}} He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of [[Amr ibn al-Layth|Amr al-Layth]]'s preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raiding [[Ghazna]] around 900 CE.{{sfn|Rehman|1976}}{{page needed|date=January 2023}}

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE.{{sfn|Rehman|1976}}{{page needed|date=January 2023}} [[Abu Ishaq Ibrahim of Ghazna|Abu Ishaq Ibrahim]] was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas.{{sfn|Rehman|1976}}{{page needed|date=January 2023}} This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).{{sfn|Rehman|1976}}{{page needed|date=January 2023}}

==== Turkic rule (c. 1030–1320 CE) ====
[[File:Khizr Khan (4).jpg|thumb|Silver copper coin of [[Khizr Khan]], founder of the [[Sayyid dynasty]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Richard M. Eaton |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |year=2019 |isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117 |publisher=University of California Press |language=en |quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...}}</ref>]]

The [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Ghaznavids]] in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab, gradually declining as a power until the [[Ghurid]] [[Siege of Lahore (1186)|conquest of Lahore]] by [[Muhammad of Ghor]] in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler [[Khusrau Malik]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehta |first=Jaswant Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUk5k5AN54sC&pg=PA76 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |date=1979 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-0617-0 |page=76 |language=en |access-date=9 September 2022 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082342/https://books.google.com/books?id=iUk5k5AN54sC&pg=PA76#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the death of [[Muhammad of Ghor]] in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the [[Delhi Sultanate]].

==== Tughlaq dynasty (c. 1320–1410 CE) ====
The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 in [[Delhi]] when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq]] after defeating [[Khusrau Khan]] at the [[Battle of Lahrawat]].

During Ghazi Malik's reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known as [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq]], to [[Deogir]] to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part of [[Telangana]]). His first attempt was a failure.<ref name="lowe296">William Lowe (Translator), {{Google books|RFNOAAAAYAAJ|Muntakhabu-t-tawārīkh|page=296}}, Volume 1, pages 296-301</ref> Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/historyindiaast06elligoog#page/n240/mode/2up Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi] Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 233-234</ref> This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking [[Shamsuddin Firoz Shah]], which he did over 1324–1325 CE,<ref name="lowe296" /> after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.

After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.<ref name="ebmit">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396460/Muhammad-ibn-Tughluq Muḥammad ibn Tughluq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427052630/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396460/Muhammad-ibn-Tughluq |date=27 April 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> He attacked and plundered [[Malwa]], [[Gujarat]], [[Lakhnauti]], [[Chittagong]], [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] and many other regions in India.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/historyindiaast06elligoog#page/n242/mode/2up Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi] Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 236–237</ref> His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions became commonplace all over the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="zbarni">[https://archive.org/stream/historyindiaast06elligoog#page/n242/mode/2up Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi] Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 235–240</ref> Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=162}} while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in [[Sindh]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref name="vsoxford3">Vincent A Smith, {{Google books|p2gxAQAAMAAJ|The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911|page=217}}, Chapter 2, pp. 242–248, Oxford University Press</ref>

After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, the Tughlaq empire was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence; it was at this point that [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]], Ghazi Malik's nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title ''[[Sipahsalar]]''. His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from [[Dipalpur]] and [[Abohar]] according to the historian [[William Crooke]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crooke |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tCc-AAAAYAAJ&dq=firoz+shah+tughlaq+mother&pg=PA144 |title=An Ethnographical Hand-book for the N.-W. Provinces and Oudh |date=1890 |publisher=North-Western provinces and Oudh government Press |page=144 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165612/https://books.google.com/books?id=tCc-AAAAYAAJ&dq=firoz+shah+tughlaq+mother&pg=PA144 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhFDAAAAYAAJ&q=bibi+naila+punjabi |title=Proceedings - Punjab History Conference |date=1966 |publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjab University |page=82 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165612/https://books.google.com/books?id=WhFDAAAAYAAJ&q=bibi+naila+punjabi |url-status=live }}</ref> The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh, while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured [[Cuttack]], desecrated the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] to pay tribute.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&dq=firoz+shah+orissa&pg=PA184 |title=A History of India |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32919-4 |page=184 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165612/https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&dq=firoz+shah+orissa&pg=PA184 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haque |first=Mohammed Anwarul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8eAAAAMAAJ&q=firoz+shah+cuttack |title=Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. |date=1980 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |page=20 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165610/https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8eAAAAMAAJ&q=firoz+shah+cuttack |url-status=live }}</ref> He also laid siege to the [[Kangra Fort]] and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jauhri |first=R. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToRHAAAAMAAJ&q=firoz+shah+tughluq+kangra |title=Firoz Tughluq, 1351-1388 A.D. |date=1990 |publisher=ABS Publications |isbn=978-81-7072-029-4 |page=74 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165613/https://books.google.com/books?id=ToRHAAAAMAAJ&q=firoz+shah+tughluq+kangra |url-status=live }}</ref> During this time, Tatar Khan of [[Greater Khorasan]] attacked Punjab, but he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by [[Feroz Shah Tughlaq]] to Raja [[Kailas Pal]] who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hutchison |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3btDw4S2FmYC&dq=kailas+pal&pg=PA221 |title=History of the Panjab Hill States |last2=Vogel |first2=Jean Philippe |date=1994 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0942-6 |page=221 |language=en |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708165611/https://books.google.com/books?id=3btDw4S2FmYC&dq=kailas+pal&pg=PA221 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Sayyid dynasty (c. 1410–1450 CE) ====
{{See also|Sayyid dynasty}}
[[Khizr Khan]] established the [[Sayyid dynasty]], the fourth dynasty of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] after the fall of the [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaqs]].<ref name=":02">{{cite book |author=Richard M. Eaton |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |year=2019 |isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117|publisher=University of California Press }}</ref>

Following [[Timur]]'s 1398 sack of [[Delhi]],{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=103}} he appointed [[Khizr Khan]] as deputy of [[Multan]] ([[Punjab region|Punjab]]).{{sfn|Kumar|2020|p=583}} He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kenneth Pletcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsujRFvaHI8C&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=PA132 |title=The History of India |date=2010 |page=132 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=9781615301225 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404112659/https://books.google.com/books?id=VsujRFvaHI8C&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=PA132 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=V. D. Mahajan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=RA1-PA229 |title=History of Medieval India |date=2007 |page=229 |publisher=S. Chand |isbn=9788121903646 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404112707/https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=RA1-PA229 |url-status=live }}</ref> Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty.{{sfn|Kumar|2020|p=583}} Khizr Khan did not take up the title of [[sultan]], but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as ''Rayat-i-Ala''(vassal) of the [[Timurids]] - initially that of Timur, and later his son [[Shahrukh Mirza|Shah Rukh]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OghDAAAAYAAJ&q=It+is+generally+acknowledged+that+Khizr+Khan+continued+to+recognise+Timur+and+his+successors+,+Shah+Rukh+,+as+his+nominal+overlords+.+But+later+on+under+his+succesor+,+Mubarak+Khan+,+this+%27+fiction+%27+of+allegiance+to+the+Timurid+rulers |title=Proceedings:Volume 55 |year=1995 |publisher=Indian History Congress |page=216 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404004957/https://books.google.com/books?id=OghDAAAAYAAJ&q=It+is+generally+acknowledged+that+Khizr+Khan+continued+to+recognise+Timur+and+his+successors+%2C+Shah+Rukh+%2C+as+his+nominal+overlords+.+But+later+on+under+his+succesor+%2C+Mubarak+Khan+%2C+this+%27+fiction+%27+of+allegiance+to+the+Timurid+rulers |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Mahajan|2007|page=237}} After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, [[Uttar Pradesh]] and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3QbAAAAIAAJ&q=khizr+khan+sindh |title=Rajasthan [district Gazetteers] Bharatpur |date=1971 |publisher=Printed at Government Central Press |page=52 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404112704/https://books.google.com/books?id=F3QbAAAAIAAJ&q=khizr+khan+sindh |url-status=live }}</ref> Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from [[Multan]] and [[Dipalpur]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lal |first=Kishori Saran |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate |title=Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398-1526 |date=1980 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=978-81-215-0227-6 |language=en |quote=This considerably depleted Iqbal's strength and encouraged Khizr Khan to collect his forces of Multan, Deopalpur and the Punjab |access-date=9 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309205559/https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate |url-status=live }}</ref>

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son [[Mubarak Shah (Sayyid dynasty)|Mubarak Shah]] after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as ''Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah'' on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.<ref>{{cite book |author=V. D. Mahajan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah+timur++caliph&pg=RA1-PA240 |title=History of Medieval India |date=2007 |page=240 |publisher=S. Chand | isbn=978-81-219-0364-6 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404112700/https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah+timur++caliph&pg=RA1-PA240 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzZFUcDpDzsC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah&pg=PA103 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |date=2008 |page=103 | publisher=Scarecrow Press | isbn=978-0-8108-5503-8 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404005001/https://books.google.com/books?id=pzZFUcDpDzsC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah&pg=PA103 |url-status=live }}</ref> He defeated the advancing [[Hoshang Shah|Hoshang Shah Ghori]], ruler of [[Malwa Sultanate]] and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lal |first=Kishori Saran |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate |title=Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398-1526 |date=1980 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=978-81-215-0227-6 |language=en |quote=Hoshang tried his luck against Sultan of Delhi but he was beaten back by Mubarak Shah Saiyyad to whom he had to pay a handsome tribute |access-date=9 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309205559/https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate |url-status=live }}</ref> Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion of [[Jasrat Khokhar|Jasrath Khokhar]] and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lal |first=Kishori Saran |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate |title=Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398-1526 |date=1980 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=978-81-215-0227-6 |page=109 |language=en |access-date=9 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309205559/https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate |url-status=live }}</ref>

The last ruler of the Sayyids, [[Alam Shah|Ala-ud-Din]], voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of [[Bahlul Khan Lodi]] on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.{{sfn|Mahajan|2007|page=244}}

==== Langah Sultanate (c. 1450–1530 CE) ====
In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of ''Langah'' (a [[Jat]] [[Zamindar]] tribe),<ref name="Ahmed 1984 pp. 428–434">{{cite journal |last=Ahmed |first=Iftikhar |year=1984 |title=Territorial Distribution of Jatt Castes in Punjab c. 1595 – c. 1881 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44140224 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |publisher=Indian History Congress |volume=45 |pages=429, 432 |issn=2249-1937 |jstor=44140224 |access-date=28 July 2022 |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728212635/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140224 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Mubārak Blochmann 1891 p.321">{{cite book |last1=Mubārak |first1=A.F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8IXAAAAYAAJ |title=The Ain I Akbari |last2=Blochmann |first2=H. |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal |year=1891 |series=Bibliotheca Indica |page=321 |access-date=28 July 2022 |issue=v. 2}}</ref><ref name="Lambrick p.212">{{cite book |last=Lambrick |first=H. T. |title=Sind : a general introduction |date=1975 |publisher=Sindhi Adabi Board |isbn=0-19-577220-2 |publication-place=Hyderabad |page=212 |oclc=2404471}}</ref><ref name="Roseberry 1987 p.177">{{cite book |last=Roseberry |first=J.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAMNAAAAIAAJ |title=Imperial Rule in Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818–1881 |publisher=Manohar |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-85054-28-5 |page=177 |access-date=28 July 2022}}</ref> established the [[Langah Sultanate]] in [[Multan]] after the fall of the [[Sayyid dynasty]]. Husseyn Langah I (reigned 1456–1502) was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate. He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and captured [[Chiniot]] and [[Shorkot]] from the Lodis. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led by [[Tatar Khan]] and [[Rukunuddin Barbak Shah|Barbak Shah]], as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Age of Achievement, 750 AD to the End of the 15th Century |editor1=M. S. Asimov |editor2=C. E. Bosworth |editor2-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |contribution=Chapter 15. The Regions Of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan And Kashmir: The Historical, Social And Economic Setting |contribution-url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_the%20regions%20of%20sind%2C%20baluchistan%2C%20multan%20and%20kashmir.pdf |page=305 |author1=N. A. Baloch |author2=A. Q. Rafiqi |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306193338/https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_the%20regions%20of%20sind%2C%20baluchistan%2C%20multan%20and%20kashmir.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Early modern period ===
==== Mughal Empire (c. 1530–1700 CE) ====
The [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] came to power in the early 16th century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital at [[Lahore]]. During the Mughal era, [[Saadullah Khan (Mughal Empire)|Saadullah Khan]], born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists<ref name="Journal of Central Asia 1992 p.842">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ml5xAAAAMAAJ |title=Journal of Central Asia |publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University |year=1992 |page=84 |quote=Sadullah Khan was the son of Amir Bakhsh a cultivator of Chiniot . He belongs to Jat family. He was born on Thursday, the 10th Safar 1000 A.H./1591 A.C. |access-date=2022-07-30 |issue=v. 15}}</ref> belonging to the [[Thaheem (tribe)|Thaheem tribe]]<ref name="Quddus 1992 p.402">{{cite book |last=Quddus |first=S.A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4y9zAAAAMAAJ |title=Punjab, the Land of Beauty, Love, and Mysticism |publisher=Royal Book Company |year=1992 |isbn=978-969-407-130-5 |page=402 |access-date=2022-07-29}}</ref> from [[Chiniot]]<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Siddiqui |first=Shabbir A. |title=Relations Between Dara Shukoh and Sa'adullah Khan |date=1986 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141552 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=47 |pages=273–276 |jstor=44141552 |issn=2249-1937 |access-date=11 August 2022 |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422052225/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141552 |url-status=live }}</ref> remained [[grand vizier]] (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656.<ref name=":13" /> Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include [[Wazir Khan (Lahore)|Wazir Khan]],<ref name="Koch">{{Cite book |last=Koch |first=Ebba |title=The complete Taj Mahal : and the riverfront gardens of Agra |date=2006 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |others=Richard André. Barraud |isbn=978-0-500-34209-1 |location=London |page=45 |oclc=69022179 }}</ref> [[Adina Beg|Adina Beg Arain]],<ref>{{Cite book |first=G.S. |last=Chhabra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkDi6rVbckoC&dq=adina+beg+punjab&pg=PA38 |title=Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707–1803) |date=2005 |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=978-81-89093-06-8 |page=38 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Shahbaz Khan Kamboh]].<ref>{{cite Banglapedia|article=Shahbaz Khan|author=Chisti, AA Sheikh Md Asrarul Hoque}}</ref> The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century.<ref name=":9" /> As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region.<ref name=":9" /> Contested by the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]] and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the [[misl]]s, who expanded and established the Sikh Confederacy as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab, [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], and territories north into the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=":9" />

==== Pakpattan state (c. 1700–1730 CE) ====
Following the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the shrine's ''Dīwān'' was able to forge a political independent state centered on Pakpattan.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara Daly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5-vzVq8hdkC&q=pakpattan&pg=PA349 |title=Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam |date=1984-01-01 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04660-3 |language=en}}</ref> In 1757, ''Dīwān'' 'Abd as-Subḥān gathered an army of his [[Jats|Jat]] [[Murid|murīds]], attacked the Raja of [[Bikaner]], and thereby expanded the shrine's territorial holdings for the first time east of the Sutlej.<ref name=":3" /> Around 1776, the ''Dīwān'', supported mainly by his [[Wattoo (surname)|Wattu]] [[Murid|murīds]], successfully repelled an attack by the Sikh [[Nakai Misl]], resulting in the death of the Nakai leader, [[Heera Singh Sandhu]].<ref name=":3" />

==== Sial dynasty (c. 1730–1799 CE) ====
{{See also|Sial dynasty}}
The [[Sial dynasty]] was established by the 13 Sial Chief Nawab Walidad Khan Sial in 1723.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilmartin |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfXLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |title=Blood and Water: The Indus River Basin in Modern History |date=2020-04-14 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-35553-8 |language=en}}</ref> He gradually gained control of the lower [[Rachna Doab|Rachna doab]], including the cities of [[Chiniot]], [[Pindi Bhattian]], [[Jhang]] and [[Mankera]].<ref name="Punjab Government 1883">{{Cite book |last=Punjab Government |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.105607 |title=Gazetteer Of The Jhang District |date=1883}}</ref>

Next chief, [[Inayatullah Khan Sial|Inayatullah Khan]] (r. 1747– 1787) was a successful general who won 22 battles against [[Bhangi Misl]] and the Multan chiefs.<ref name="Punjab Government 1883"/>

The Sikh Empire invaded Jhang multiple times from 1801 to 1816<ref name="Punjab Government 1883"/> and annexed by the dynasty; Ahmad Khan Sial was awarded a Jagir by [[Ranjit Singh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yasmin |first=Robina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRsCzwEACAAJ |title=Muslims Under Sikh Rule in the Nineteenth Century: Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Religious Tolerance |date=2022 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0-7556-4035-5 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Modern period ===
==== Sikh Empire (c. 1799–1849 CE) ====
{{See also|Sikh Empire}}
[[File:Maharaj Ranjit Singh.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Illustration of [[Ranjit Singh]], founder of the [[Sikh Empire]]]]
In the 19th century, Maharajah [[Ranjit Singh]] established the [[Sikh Empire]] based in the Punjab.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 September 2015 |title=Ranjit Singh: A Secular Sikh Sovereign by K.S. Duggal. (''Date:1989. ISBN 8170172446'') |url=http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/IDE822/ |access-date=2009-08-09 |publisher=Exoticindiaart.com |archive-date=17 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617232755/http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/IDE822/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured [[Lahore]], to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. It was forged on the foundations of the [[Khalsa]] from a collection of autonomous [[Sikhism|Sikh]] ''[[misl]]s''.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 1911 Page 892">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Ranjit Singh |volume=22 |page=892}}</ref><ref name="Grewal">{{cite book |last=Grewal |first=J. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab, Chapter 6: The Sikh empire (1799–1849) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-63764-3 |series=The New Cambridge History of India |access-date=29 October 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082839/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC |url-status=live }}</ref> At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the [[Khyber Pass]] in the west to western [[Tibet]] in the east, and from [[Mithankot]] in the south to [[Kashmir]] in the north. It was divided into four provinces: [[Lahore]], in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital; [[Multan]], also in Punjab; [[Peshawar]]; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5&nbsp;million in 1831 (making it the [[List of countries by population in 1800|19th most populous country at the time]]),<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Amarinder Singh]]'s The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar</ref> it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to [[Colonial India|be annexed]] by the [[British Empire]].

==== British Punjab (c. 1849–1947 CE)====
{{see also|Punjab Province (British India)}}
The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the [[First Anglo-Sikh War|First]] and [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |series=The New Cambridge History of India |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-63764-3 |pages=126–128 |edition=Revised |chapter=The Sikh empire (1799–1849) - Chapter 6}}</ref> Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small [[princely state]]s retained local rulers who recognized British authority.<ref name=":9" /> The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.<ref name=":9" /> Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and [[Rawalpindi]] became an important military installation.<ref name=":9" /> Most Punjabis supported the British during [[World War I]], providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities.<ref name="hibb 1980" />{{rp|163}} Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.<ref name=":9" /> At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.<ref name=":9" /> In 1919, Colonel [[Reginald Dyer]] ordered troops under command to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in [[Amritsar]]. The [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre|Jallianwala massacre]] fueled the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref name=":9" /> Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.<ref name=":9" /> When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.<ref name=":9" /> Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.<ref name=":9" /> At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.<ref name=":9" />

The [[British Raj]] had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the [[Indian independence movement|independence movement]], many Punjabis played a significant role, including [[Madan Lal Dhingra]], [[Sukhdev Thapar]], [[Sardar Ajit Singh|Ajit Singh Sandhu]], [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Udham Singh]], [[Kartar Singh Sarabha]], [[Bhai Parmanand]], [[Choudhry Rahmat Ali]], and [[Lala Lajpat Rai]]. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. [[East Punjab]] (48%) became part of India, while [[West Punjab]] (52%) became part of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pakgeotagging.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/partition-of-punjab-in-1947.html |title=Pakistan Geotagging: Partition of Punjab in 1947 |access-date=11 February 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208221714/http://pakgeotagging.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/partition-of-punjab-in-1947.html |archive-date=8 February 2016|date=3 October 2014 }}. Daily Times (10 May 2012). Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref> The Punjab bore the brunt of the [[Civil disorder|civil unrest]] following [[Partition of India|partition]], with casualties estimated to be in the millions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Talbot|first1=Ian|title=Partition of India: The Human Dimension|journal=Cultural and Social History|year=2009|volume=6|issue=4|pages=403–410|quote=The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims.|doi=10.2752/147800409X466254|s2cid=147110854 | issn=1478-0038 }}</ref><ref name="dcosta2011">{{Cite book|title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia|last=D'Costa|first=Bina|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=978-0415565660|page=53}}</ref><ref name="Silence2000">{{Cite book|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html|title=The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India|last=Butalia|first=Urvashi|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2000|access-date=1 September 2021|archive-date=25 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325043612/https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations|last=Sikand|first=Yoginder|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=978-1134378258|page=5}}</ref>

The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party–led independence movement.<ref name="autogenerated542">Pritam Singh, Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy, Routledge, 19 February 2008, p.54</ref> Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active [[Indian National Congress|National Congress]] supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the [[Akali movement]] whilst the Muslims eventually supported the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]].<ref name="autogenerated542" /> Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into [[West Punjab]] Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1946-1947.htm |title=Provincial Assembly of the Punjab |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207162416/http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1946-1947.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale [[Religious persecution#Religious cleansing|religious cleansing]] riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer [[Tim Dyson]], in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became [[Punjab, India|Indian Punjab]] following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became [[Punjab, Pakistan|Pakistani Punjab]], all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|pp=188–189}}

== Geography ==
The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century [[Mughal Empire]] it referred to a relatively smaller area between the [[Indus River|Indus]] and the [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]] rivers.<ref name="JS_Grewal_1998">{{cite book |author=J. S. Grewal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-63764-0 |edition=Revised |series=The New Cambridge History of India |page=1 |access-date=29 October 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082839/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Pearson2009">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9x5FX2RROZgC&pg=PA202 |title=Different Types of History |date=2009 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1818-6 |language=en |page=202}}</ref>

=== Sikh Empire ===
[[File:Map of India 1823.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Sikh Empire (green) in northwest India in 1823]]
At its height in the first half of the 19th century, the Sikh Empire spanned a total of over {{cvt|200,000|sqmi}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNveDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |title=Bayonet to Barrage Weaponry on the Victorian Battlefield |date=30 September 2020 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |page=9 |isbn=9781526777249 |quote="The Sikh kingdom expanded from Tibet in the east to Kashmir in the west and from Sind in the south to the Khyber Pass in the north, an area of 200,000 square miles" |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=sNveDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Barczewski |first=Stephanie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ixd8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=Heroic Failure and the British |date=22 March 2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300186819 |page=89 |quote="..the Sikh state encompassed over 200,000 square miles (518,000 sq km)" |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=ixd8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Khilani |first=N. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGEDAAAAMAAJ&q=punjab+of+over+200,000+square+miles+khilnani |title=British power in the Punjab, 1839–1858 |date=1972 |publisher=Asia Publishing House |isbn=9780210271872 |page=251 |quote="..into existence a kingdom of the Punjab of over 200,000 square miles" |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405041653/https://books.google.com/books?id=fGEDAAAAMAAJ&q=punjab+of+over+200,000+square+miles+khilnani |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Punjab was a region straddling India and the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]]. The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire:
* Punjab region, to [[Mithankot]] in the south
** [[Punjab, Pakistan]], excluding [[Bahawalpur State]]
** [[Punjab, India]], south to areas just across the [[Sutlej]] river
** [[Himachal Pradesh]], India, south to areas just across the [[Sutlej]] river
** [[Jammu Division]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India and Pakistan (1808–1846)
* [[Kashmir]] region, Pakistan/China<ref>{{cite book|title=The Masters Revealed: Madam Blavatsky and the Myth of the Great White Lodge |last=Johnson |first=K. Paul |author-link=K. Paul Johnson |year=1994 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-2063-8 |edition=1st |page=128}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Britain and Tibet 1765–1947 |last=Marshall |first=Julie G. |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-59997-9 |edition=1st |page=116}}</ref>
** [[Kashmir Valley]], India (1819–1846)
** [[Gilgit]], [[Gilgit–Baltistan]], Pakistan (1842–1846){{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
** [[Ladakh]], India (1834–1846)<ref>{{cite book |author1=Pandey, Dr. Hemant Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nn5IDwAAQBAJ&q=ladakh+1834+sikh&pg=PA57 |title=India's Major Military and Rescue Operations |author2=Singh, Manish Raj |publisher=Horizon Books |year=2017 |isbn=9789386369390 |page=57}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Deng |first1=Jonathan M. |date=2010 |title=Frontier: The Making of the Northern and Eastern Border in Ladakh From 1834 to the Present |url=https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1923&context=isp_collection |publisher=SIT Digital Collections Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. 920. |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=18 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218164514/https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1923&context=isp_collection |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Khyber Pass]], Pakistan/Afghanistan<ref>The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion, (Docherty, p. 187)</ref>
** [[Peshawar]], Pakistan<ref>The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion, (Docherty, pp. 185–187)</ref> (taken in 1818, retaken in 1834)
** [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] and the [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas]], Pakistan (documented from [[Hazara region|Hazara]], taken in 1818, again in 1836 to [[Bannu]])<ref>{{cite book|title=Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway|author=Sarina Singh|display-authors=etal|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2008|edition=7th|isbn=978-1-74104542-0|page=199}}</ref>
* Parts of [[Tibet|Western Tibet]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Real Ranjit Singh|author=Fakir Syed Waheeduddin|year=1981|publisher=[[Punjabi University]]|oclc=221246072|page=vii}}</ref> China ([[Sino-Sikh war|briefly]] in 1841, to [[Burang Town|Taklakot]])<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kartar Singh Duggal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4udb8LsF3-oC&q=tibet |title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Last to Lay Arms |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=2001 |isbn=9788170174103 |page=131}}</ref>
After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the [[East India Company]] to launch the [[First Anglo-Sikh War|First]] and [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]s. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate [[princely states]] and the [[Punjab (British India)|province of Punjab]]. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of [[the Crown]].<ref name="hibb 1980">{{cite book |last1=Hibbert |first1=Christopher |title=The great mutiny: India 1857 |date=1980 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-004752-3 |location=Harmondsworth}}</ref>{{rp|221}}

=== Punjab (British India) ===
{{See also|Punjab Province (British India)}}
In British India, until the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] was geographically a triangular tract of country of which the [[Indus River]] and its tributary the [[Sutlej]] formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the [[Lower Himalayan Range]] between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from [[Kashmir]] and [[Tibet]]. On the west it was separated from the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]] by the Indus, until it reached the border of [[Dera Ghazi Khan District]], which was divided from [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Baluchistan]] by the [[Sulaiman Range]]. To the south lay [[Sindh]] and [[Rajputana]], while on the east the rivers [[Jumna River|Jumna]] and [[Tons River|Tons]] separated it from the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]].<ref name="Chisholm 1911, p. 653">{{cite EB1911|Volume 22|wstitle=Punjab|page=653}}</ref> In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000&nbsp;km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.
[[File:Punjab 1909.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of the Punjab Province (British India)]]

It encompassed the present day [[States and union territories of India|Indian states]] of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], Haryana, [[Chandigarh]], Delhi, and some parts of [[Himachal Pradesh]] which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former [[princely state]]s which were later combined into the [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]]) and the Pakistani regions of the [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] and [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]].

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]]. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:<ref name="punjab1911">{{cite web |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report. |url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/ |access-date=21 July 2022 |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007223437/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|2}}<ref name="punjab1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB|access-date=19 August 2022|archive-date=11 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011130147/https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|4}}

# '''''Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division''''' (including [[Hisar district]], [[Loharu State]], [[Rohtak district]], [[Dujana|Dujana State]], [[Gurgaon district]], [[Pataudi State]], Delhi, [[Karnal district]], [[Jalandhar district]], [[Kapurthala State]], [[Ludhiana district]], [[Malerkotla State]], [[Firozpur district]], [[Faridkot State]], [[Patiala State]], [[Jind State]], [[Nabha State]], [[Lahore District]], [[Amritsar district]], [[Gujranwala District]], and [[Sheikhupura district]]);
# '''''Himalayan geographical division''''' (including [[Sirmur State|Nahan State]], [[Simla District]], [[Simla Hill States]], [[Kangra district]], [[Mandi State]], [[Suket State]], and [[Chamba State]]);
# '''''Sub-Himalayan geographical division''''' (including [[Ambala district]], [[Kalsia State]], [[Hoshiarpur district]], [[Gurdaspur District (British Punjab)|Gurdaspur District]], [[Sialkot District]], [[Gujrat District]], [[Jhelum District]], [[Rawalpindi District]], and [[Attock District]];
# '''''North-West Dry Area geographical division''''' (including [[Montgomery District]], [[Shahpur District]], [[Mianwali District]], [[Lyallpur District]], [[Jhang District]], [[Multan District]], [[Bahawalpur State]], [[Muzaffargarh District]], and [[Dera Ghazi Khan District]]).

=== Major cities ===
{{main|List of cities in the Punjab region by population}}

Historically, [[Lahore]] has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region, with a population of 11 million for the city proper. [[Faisalabad]] is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region. Other major cities are [[Rawalpindi]], [[Gujranwala]], [[Multan]], [[Ludhiana]], [[Amritsar]], [[Jalandhar]], and [[Chandigarh]] are the other cities in Punjab with a city-proper population of over a million.

== Climate ==
[[File:Himalayas, Punjab region.png|thumb|The snow-covered Himalayas]]The climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab, particularly for agriculture in the region. Climate is not uniform over the whole region, as the areas adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance.<ref>{{cite web|website=MapsofIndia.com |url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/punjab/geography-and-history/climate.html |title=Climate of Punjab |date=7 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030101212/http://www.mapsofindia.com/punjab/geography-and-history/climate.html |archive-date=30 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Köppen climate classification]] generally classifies Punjab as having either a [[Humid subtropical climate|monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: Cwa) or a [[hot semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: BSh).

There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During summer, from mid-April to the end of June, the temperature may reach {{convert|48|C}}. The [[monsoon season]], from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals and [[irrigation]] systems. The transitional period after the monsoon season is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to {{convert|5|C}} at night and {{convert|12|C}} by day. During the transitional period from winter to summer, sudden [[hailstorm]]s and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.<ref name=rgs>{{cite web|work=Royal Geographical Society |url=http://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/5F44251D-8FD1-4102-BCDB-240A4E9EA1B8/0/F3ClimateandLandscapeFactsheet.pdf |title=The Climate & Landscape of the Punjab – Fact Sheet|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430034607/http://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/5F44251D-8FD1-4102-BCDB-240A4E9EA1B8/0/F3ClimateandLandscapeFactsheet.pdf |archive-date=30 April 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Western Punjab ===
{{Islamabad weatherbox}}

=== Central Punjab ===
{{Lahore weatherbox}}

=== Eastern Punjab ===
{{Weather box
| location = Patiala (1991–2020, extremes 1901–2020)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan record high C = 28.4
| Feb record high C = 33.3
| Mar record high C = 37.8
| Apr record high C = 44.6
| May record high C = 47.0
| Jun record high C = 46.4
| Jul record high C = 45.0
| Aug record high C = 42.7
| Sep record high C = 40.6
| Oct record high C = 38.9
| Nov record high C = 35.4
| Dec record high C = 29.4
| year record high C = 47.0
| Jan high C = 18.7
| Feb high C = 22.5
| Mar high C = 28.0
| Apr high C = 35.2
| May high C = 39.3
| Jun high C = 38.3
| Jul high C = 34.4
| Aug high C = 33.4
| Sep high C = 33.1
| Oct high C = 32.6
| Nov high C = 27.7
| Dec high C = 21.2
| year high C = 30.3
|Jan mean C = 12.1
|Feb mean C = 15.9
|Mar mean C = 21.0
|Apr mean C = 27.0
|May mean C = 31.7
|Jun mean C = 31.9
|Jul mean C = 30.3
|Aug mean C = 29.2
|Sep mean C = 28.1
|Oct mean C = 24.7
|Nov mean C = 19.4
|Dec mean C = 14.0
| Jan low C = 6.7
| Feb low C = 9.5
| Mar low C = 14.1
| Apr low C = 19.3
| May low C = 24.2
| Jun low C = 26.5
| Jul low C = 27.0
| Aug low C = 26.3
| Sep low C = 24.3
| Oct low C = 18.2
| Nov low C = 11.9
| Dec low C = 7.8
| year low C = 18.0
| Jan record low C = -0.9
| Feb record low C = 0.1
| Mar record low C = 3.5
| Apr record low C = 7.7
| May record low C = 15.0
| Jun record low C = 18.2
| Jul record low C = 20.4
| Aug record low C = 20.1
| Sep record low C = 15.0
| Oct record low C = 10.0
| Nov record low C = 3.7
| Dec record low C = 0.4
| year record low C = -0.9
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 26.3
| Feb rain mm = 31.9
| Mar rain mm = 35.7
| Apr rain mm = 20.6
| May rain mm = 28.5
| Jun rain mm = 111.6
| Jul rain mm = 225.8
| Aug rain mm = 204.5
| Sep rain mm = 158.9
| Oct rain mm = 13.1
| Nov rain mm = 5.7
| Dec rain mm = 12.9
| year rain mm = 875.6
|unit precipitation days = 0.3 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 3.5
|Feb precipitation days = 4.8
|Mar precipitation days = 4.7
|Apr precipitation days = 4.0
|May precipitation days = 4.2
|Jun precipitation days = 7.2
|Jul precipitation days = 11.1
|Aug precipitation days = 11.2
|Sep precipitation days = 6.3
|Oct precipitation days = 1.5
|Nov precipitation days = 1.0
|Dec precipitation days = 1.5
|year precipitation days = 61.0
| time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 70
| Feb humidity = 62
| Mar humidity = 53
| Apr humidity = 33
| May humidity = 32
| Jun humidity = 46
| Jul humidity = 69
| Aug humidity = 75
| Sep humidity = 71
| Oct humidity = 59
| Nov humidity = 59
| Dec humidity = 69
| year humidity = 58
|source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| title = Station: Patiala Climatological Table 1981–2010
| work = Climatological Normals 1981–2010
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = January 2015
| pages = 597–598
| access-date = 20 January 2021}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M172
| access-date = 20 January 2021}}</ref>
|source 2 = Tokyo Climate Center (mean temperatures 1991–2020)<ref name=TCC1>
{{cite web
| url = https://ds.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/tcc/tcc/products/climate/normal/parts/NrmMonth_e.php?stn=42101
| title = Normals Data: Patiala – India Latitude: 30.33°N Longitude: 76.47°E Height: 251 (m)
| publisher = Japan Meteorological Agency
| access-date = 1 December 2022}}</ref>
}}

==Demographics==
{{Main|Punjabis}}

===Languages===
{{See also|Punjab_Province_(British_India)#1931_census|Punjabi dialects and languages|Punjab, Pakistan#language}}
[[File:Mother Tongue by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|
<div style="text-align: center">The dominant [[mother tongue]] in each [[District of Pakistan]], according to the [[2017 Pakistan Census]]</div>]]
The major language is [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], which is written in India with the [[Gurmukhi]] script, and in Pakistan using the [[Shahmukhi]] script.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/punjabi.htm|title=Punjabi language, alphabets and pronunciation|access-date=13 April 2020|archive-date=1 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101213732/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/punjabi.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab, whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by the [[Urdu]] language and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is seen as a vernacular language

Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the various parts of the region. [[Dogri language|Dogri]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dogri |url=http://lisindia.ciil.org/Dogri/Dogri.html |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=lisindia.ciil.org |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326023902/http://lisindia.ciil.org/Dogri/Dogri.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kangri language|Kangri]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Language {{!}} District Kangra, Government of Himachal Pradesh {{!}} India |url=https://hpkangra.nic.in/language/ |access-date=2022-08-17 |language=en-US |archive-date=16 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816202002/https://hpkangra.nic.in/language/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and other [[western Pahari]] dialects are spoken in the north-central and northeastern parts of the region, while [[Bagri language|Bagri]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 January 2013 |title=Bagri of Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana: A Sociolinguistic Survey |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/43105 |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=SIL International |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606040411/https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/43105 |url-status=live }}</ref> is spoken in south-central and southeastern sections. Meanwhile, [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] is generally spoken across a wide belt covering the southwest, while in the northwest there are large pockets containing speakers of [[Hindko]] and [[Pahari-Pothwari]].{{sfn|Shackle|1979|p=198}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Linguistic demographics of [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]]
! rowspan="2" |[[First language|Language]]
! colspan="1" |Percentage
|-
!1911<ref name="punjab1911" />{{rp|370}}
|-
! [[Punjabi dialects and languages|Punjabi]]{{efn|[[Standard Punjabi]]: 58.34% [[Lahnda]]:{{efn|name=lahnda|Western Punjabi languages and dialects including [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Hindko]] and [[Pahari-Pothwari]], and other related languages or dialects}} 17.59%}}
| 75.93%
|-
! [[Western Hindi]]{{efn|name=westernhindi|Including [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]), [[Braj Bhasha]], [[Haryanvi language|Haryanvi]], and other related languages or dialects}}
| 15.82%
|-
! [[Western Pahari]]
| 4.11%
|-
! [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]
| 3.0%
|-
! [[Balochi language|Balochi]]
| 0.29%
|-
! [[Pashto]]
| 0.28%
|-
! English
| 0.15%
|-
! Other
| 0.42%
|}

=== Religions ===
{{Main|Religion in the Punjab}}

==== Background ====
[[File:1500-1200 BCE Rigveda, manuscript page sample i, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), Adhyaya 1, lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg|thumb|[[Rig Veda]], the oldest known Hindu text, originated in the Punjab region.]]
The Punjab is predominantly [[Muslim]] though Hinduism is the oldest of the religions practised by Punjabi people, however, the term ''Hindu'' was also applied over a vast territory with much regional diversity.<ref name="Nayar12">{{Cite book |last=Nayar |first=Kamala Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7pO-IZY218C&pg=PA7 |title=The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism |date=2012 |page=7 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-4070-5 |language=en}}</ref> The [[historical Vedic religion]] constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the [[Vedic period]] ({{BCE|1500–500}}), centered primarily in the worship of [[Indra]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wheeler |first=James Talboys |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSFGIqjWG14C&q=punjab |title=The History of India from the Earliest Ages: Hindu Buddhist Brahmanical revival |date=1874 |publisher=N. Trübner |page=330 |language=en |quote=The Punjab, to say the least, was less Brahmanical. It was an ancient centre of the worship of Indra, who was always regarded as an enemy by the Bráhmans; and it was also a stronghold of Buddhism. |access-date=9 September 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003135341/https://books.google.com/books?id=xSFGIqjWG14C&q=punjab |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=W. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdv7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |title=The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products |date=2013-11-05 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-38301-4 |page=80 |language=en |quote=In the settlements of the Punjab, Indra thus advanced to the first place among the Vedic divinities. |access-date=9 September 2022 |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128002436/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdv7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Virdee |first=Pippa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYJIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |title=From the Ashes of 1947 |date=February 2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-42811-8 |page=24 |language=en |quote=The Rig Veda and the Upanishads, which belonged to the Vedic religion, were a precursor of Hinduism, both of which were composed in Punjab. |access-date=30 January 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=WYJIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Michaels|2004|p=38}}: "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (''karma''), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (''jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana''); the idea of the world as illusion (''maya'') must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (''asrama''), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions." {{cite web |first1=Stephanie |last1=Jamison |first2=Michael |last2=Witzel |year=1992 |title=Vedic Hinduism |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf |publisher=Harvard University |page=3 |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413055150/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf |url-status=live }}: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." See also {{harvnb|Halbfass|1991|pp=1–2}}</ref> The bulk of the [[Rigveda]] was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |url=https://archive.org/details/anintroductiontohinduismgavinfloodd.oupseeotherbooks_355_z/page/37/mode/2up |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |date=13 July 1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0}}</ref> while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the [[Yamuna]] and [[Ganges]] rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the [[Manusmriti]], developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward.<ref name="Nayar">{{Cite book |last=Nayar |first=Kamala Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7pO-IZY218C&pg=PA7 |title=The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism |date=2012 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-4070-5 |pages=7–8 |language=en}}</ref>

Later, the [[History of Buddhism in India|spread of Buddhisim]] and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] in the Punjab.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-03 |title=In ancient Punjab, religion was fluid, not watertight, says Romila Thapar |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/in-ancient-punjab-religion-was-fluid-not-watertight-says-romila-thapar-5709145/ |access-date= |website=The Indian Express |language=en |quote=Thapar said Buddhism was very popular in Punjab during the Mauryan and post-Mauryan period. Bookended between Gandhara in Taxila on the one side where Buddhism was practised on a large scale and Mathura on another side where Buddhism, Jainism and Puranic religions were practised, this religion flourished in the state. But after the Gupta period, Buddhism began to decline. |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503143856/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/in-ancient-punjab-religion-was-fluid-not-watertight-says-romila-thapar-5709145/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Islam]] was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.<ref name="oxford22">{{Cite book |last1=Rambo |first1=Lewis R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U03gAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion |last2=Farhadian |first2=Charles E. |date=2014-03-06 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971354-7 |pages=489–491 |language=en |quote=First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana). |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082337/https://books.google.com/books?id=U03gAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chhabra |first=G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vF9DAAAAYAAJ |title=Advanced History of the Punjab: Guru and post-Guru period upto Ranjit Singh |date=1968 |publisher=New Academic Publishing Company |page=37 |language=en |access-date=26 November 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082337/https://books.google.com/books?id=vF9DAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rambo |first1=Lewis R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U03gAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion |last2=Farhadian |first2=Charles E. |date=2014-03-06 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971354-7 |page=490 |language=en |quote=While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century. |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082337/https://books.google.com/books?id=U03gAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The region became predominantly [[Muslim]] due to missionary [[Sufi]] saints whose [[dargah]]s dot the landscape of the Punjab region.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nicholls |first1=Ruth J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdz0DwAAQBAJ&q=islam+punjab+sufi |title=Insights into Sufism: Voices from the Heart |last2=Riddell |first2=Peter G. |date=2020-07-31 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-5275-5748-2 |language=en |quote=With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers.}}</ref>

The rise of [[Sikhism]] in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.<ref name="Nayar" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Pritam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQpswqcdDLIC&pg=PA25 |title=Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy |date=2008-02-19 |page=25 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-04946-2 |language=en}}</ref> A number of Punjabis during the [[Colonial India|colonial period of India]] became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.<ref name="Nayar" />

==== Colonial era ====
{{Main|Religion in the Punjab#Subregions}}

A number of Punjabis during the [[Colonial India|colonial period of India]] became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.<ref name="Nayar2">{{Cite book |last=Nayar |first=Kamala Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7pO-IZY218C&pg=PA7 |title=The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism |date=2012 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-4070-5 |pages=7–8 |language=en}}</ref> Additionally during the colonial era, the practice of [[religious syncretism]] among [[Punjabi Muslims]] and [[Punjabi Hindus]] was noted and documented by officials in census reports:
{{blockquote|{{smaller|''"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab, [[Vaisakhi|Baisakhi]], the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions of [[tazia]]s, in [[Muharram]], with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment of [[Sebil (fountain)|Sabils]] (shelters where water and [[Sharbat (beverage)|sharbat]] are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the [[Mela Chiraghan|Chiraghan fair]] of [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalamar (Lahore)]] are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."''<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|174}} ''"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of [[Varnashrama Dharma]] were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... The [[Punjabi Saudagaran-e-Delhi|Shamsis]] are believers in [[Shamsuddin Sabzwari|Shah Shamas Tabrez]] of [[Multan]], and follow the [[Imam]], for the time being, of the [[Isma'ilism|Ismailia]] sect of [[Shias]]... they belong mostly to the [[Sunar|Sunar caste]] and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."''<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|130}}}}
|Excerpts from the [[Census of India]] ([[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]])|1911}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Population trends for major religious groups in the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] of the [[British Raj|British India]](1881–1941)<ref name="krishan2004">{{cite journal |url=http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume11/no1/6_krishan.pdf |title=Demography of the Punjab (1849–1947) |first=Gopal |last=Krishan |journal=Journal of Punjab Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=77–89 |access-date=16 August 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209003014/http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume11/no1/6_krishan.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="punjab1941"/>{{rp|46}}
|- style="text-align: left;"
! Religious group
! Population % 1881{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! Population % 1891
! Population % 1901{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! Population % 1911{{efn|name=Delhi|Including Delhi district, which was later made into a separate province in 1912, following [[Delhi#Colonial period|the transfer from Calcutta to Delhi as capital of India in 1911]].}}
! Population % 1921
! Population % 1931
! Population % 1941
|-
! style="background: green; color: white;"| Islam
| 47.6% || 47.8% || 49.2% || 50.8% || 51.1% || 52.4% ||53.2%
|-
! style="background: OrangeRed; color: white;"| Hinduism{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 43.8% || 43.6% || 41.8% || 36.3% || 35.1% || 31.7% || 30.1%
|-
! style="background: orange;"| Sikhism
| 8.2% || 8.2% || 8.5% || 11.9% || 12.4% || 14.3% || 14.9%
|-
! style="background: DodgerBlue; color: white;"| Christianity
| 0.1% || 0.2% || 0.3% || 0.8% || 1.3% || 1.5% || 1.5%
|-
! style="background: GreenYellow;"| Other religions / No religion
| 0.2% || 0.2% || 0.2% || 0.2% || 0.2% || 0.2% || 0.2%
|}
{{clear}}

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057656 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. I. |year=1881 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057657 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. II. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881C">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057658 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057658 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. III. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref>{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |jstor=saoa.crl.25363739 |access-date=10 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. [Vol. 17A]. Imperial tables, I-VIII, X-XV, XVII and XVIII for the Punjab, with the native states under the political control of the Punjab Government, and for the North-west Frontier Province. |year=1901 |archive-date=28 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128154853/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|34}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393788 |access-date=3 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |archive-date=9 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109220619/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.62718 |access-date=3 March 2024 |title=Census Of India 1911 Punjab Vol XIV Part II |year=1911 |author=Kaul, Harikishan}}</ref>{{rp|27}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=17 February 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326083309/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|29}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793242 |access-date=4 February 2024 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1931 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031110212/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|277}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215541 |jstor=saoa.crl.28215541 |access-date=22 July 2022 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 6, Punjab |year=1941 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002225000/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215541 |url-status=live |author1=India Census Commissioner |volume=6 }}</ref>{{rp|42}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 9,872,745
| {{Percentage | 9872745 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 12,183,345
| {{Percentage | 12183345 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 12,275,477
| {{Percentage | 12275477 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 12,813,383
| {{Percentage | 12813383 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 14,929,896
| {{Percentage | 14929896 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 18,259,744
| {{Percentage | 18259744 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931 & 1941 censuses: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| 9,095,175
| {{Percentage | 9095175 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 10,344,469
| {{Percentage | 10344469 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 8,773,621
| {{Percentage | 8773621 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 8,799,651
| {{Percentage | 8799651 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 9,018,509
| {{Percentage | 9018509 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 10,336,549
| {{Percentage | 10336549 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 1,706,165
| {{Percentage | 1706165 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 2,102,896
| {{Percentage | 2102896 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 2,883,729
| {{Percentage | 2883729 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 3,107,296
| {{Percentage | 3107296 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 4,071,624
| {{Percentage | 4071624 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 5,116,185
| {{Percentage | 5116185 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 42,572
| {{Percentage | 42572 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 49,983
| {{Percentage | 49983 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 46,775
| {{Percentage | 46775 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 41,321
| {{Percentage | 41321 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 43,140
| {{Percentage | 43140 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 45,475
| {{Percentage | 45475 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 28,054
| {{Percentage | 28054 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 66,591
| {{Percentage | 66591 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 199,751
| {{Percentage | 199751 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 332,939
| {{Percentage | 332939 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 419,353
| {{Percentage | 419353 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 512,466
| {{Percentage | 512466 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 3,251
| {{Percentage | 3251 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 6,940
| {{Percentage | 6940 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 7,690
| {{Percentage | 7690 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 5,912
| {{Percentage | 5912 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 7,753
| {{Percentage | 7753 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 854
| {{Percentage | 854 | 34309861 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 413
| {{Percentage | 413 | 20748432 | 3 }}
| 477
| {{Percentage | 477 | 24754737 | 3 }}
| 653
| {{Percentage | 653 | 24187750 | 3 }}
| 526
| {{Percentage | 526 | 25101060 | 3 }}
| 569
| {{Percentage | 569 | 28490857 | 3 }}
| 4,359
| {{Percentage | 4359 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 24
| {{Percentage | 24 | 24754737 | 4 }}
| 54
| {{Percentage | 54 | 24187750 | 4 }}
| 19
| {{Percentage | 19 | 25101060 | 4 }}
| 13
| {{Percentage | 13 | 28490857 | 4 }}
| 39
| {{Percentage | 39 | 34309861 | 4 }}
|-
! Others
| 57
| {{Percentage | 57 | 20748432 | 4 }}
| 12
| {{Percentage | 12 | 24754737 | 4 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 24187750 | 4 }}
| 13
| {{Percentage | 13 | 25101060 | 4 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 28490857 | 4 }}
| 34,190
| {{Percentage | 34190 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 20,748,432
! {{Percentage | 20748432 | 20748432 | 2 }}
! 24,754,737
! {{Percentage | 24754737 | 24754737 | 2 }}
! 24,187,750
! {{Percentage | 24187750 | 24187750 | 2 }}
! 25,101,060
! {{Percentage | 25101060 | 25101060 | 2 }}
! 28,490,857
! {{Percentage | 28490857 | 28490857 | 2 }}
! 34,309,861
! {{Percentage | 34309861 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|}
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in West Punjab (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/><ref name="Shakargarh1881">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35264 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Gazetteers Of Gurdaspur District, 1883-84 |year=1884}}</ref>{{efn|name=WestPunjab1881|1881 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), and one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1881 census data here:<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/> Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}<ref name="Shakargarh1901">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.105602 |access-date=10 March 2024 |title=Punjab District Gazetteers Gurdaspur District Vol.21 Statistical Tables |year=1913}}</ref>{{rp|62}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1901|1901 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]] (inscribed as the ''[[Punjab Canal Colonies#Chenab Colony|Chenab Colony]]'' on the 1901 census), [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1901 census data here:<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1911|1911 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1911 census data here:<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1921|1921 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Sheikhupura District|Sheikhupura]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1921 census data here:<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1931|1931 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Sheikhupura District|Sheikhupura]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1931 census data here:<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1941|1941 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Sheikhupura District|Sheikhupura]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1941 census data here:<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 6,201,859
|{{Percentage | 6201859 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 7,951,155
|{{Percentage | 7951155 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 8,494,314
|{{Percentage | 8494314 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 8,975,288
|{{Percentage | 8975288 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 10,570,029
|{{Percentage | 10570029 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 13,022,160
|{{Percentage | 13022160 | 17340103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 1,449,913
|{{Percentage | 1449913 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 1,944,363
|{{Percentage | 1944363 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 1,645,758
|{{Percentage | 1645758 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 1,797,141
|{{Percentage | 1797141 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 1,957,878
|{{Percentage | 1957878 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 2,373,466
|{{Percentage | 2373466 | 17340103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 272,908
|{{Percentage | 272908 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 483,999
|{{Percentage | 483999 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 813,441
|{{Percentage | 813441 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 863,091
|{{Percentage | 863091 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 1,180,789
|{{Percentage | 1180789 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 1,520,112
|{{Percentage | 1520112 | 17340103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 12,992
|{{Percentage | 12992 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 42,371
|{{Percentage | 42371 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 144,514
|{{Percentage | 144514 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 247,030
|{{Percentage | 247030 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 324,730
|{{Percentage | 324730 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 395,311
|{{Percentage | 395311 | 17340103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 4,352
|{{Percentage | 4352 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 5,562
|{{Percentage | 5562 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 5,977
|{{Percentage | 5977 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 5,930
|{{Percentage | 5930 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 6,921
|{{Percentage | 6921 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 9,520
|{{Percentage | 9520 | 17340103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 354
|{{Percentage | 354 | 7942399 | 3 }}
| 300
|{{Percentage | 300 | 10427765 | 3 }}
| 377
|{{Percentage | 377 | 11104585 | 3 }}
| 309
|{{Percentage | 309 | 11888985 | 3 }}
| 413
|{{Percentage | 413 | 14040798 | 3 }}
| 312
|{{Percentage | 312 | 17340103 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 7942399 | 4 }}
| 6
|{{Percentage | 6 | 10427765 | 4 }}
| 168
|{{Percentage | 168 | 11104585 | 3 }}
| 172
|{{Percentage | 172 | 11888985 | 3 }}
| 32
|{{Percentage | 32 | 14040798 | 4 }}
| 87
|{{Percentage | 87 | 17340103 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 9
|{{Percentage | 9 | 10427765 | 4 }}
| 36
|{{Percentage | 36 | 11104585 | 4 }}
| 16
|{{Percentage | 16 | 11888985 | 4 }}
| 6
|{{Percentage | 6 | 14040798 | 4 }}
| 7
|{{Percentage | 7 | 17340103 | 4 }}
|-
! Others
| 21
|{{Percentage | 21 | 7942399 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 10427765 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 11104585 | 4 }}
| 8
|{{Percentage | 8 | 11888985 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 14040798 | 4 }}
| 19,128
|{{Percentage | 19128 | 17340103 | 2 }}
|-
! Total Population
! 7,942,399
!{{Percentage | 7942399 | 7942399 | 2 }}
! 10,427,765
!{{Percentage | 10427765 | 10427765 | 2 }}
! 11,104,585
!{{Percentage | 11104585 | 11104585 | 2 }}
! 11,888,985
!{{Percentage | 11888985 | 11888985 | 2 }}
! 14,040,798
!{{Percentage | 14040798 | 14040798 | 2 }}
! 17,340,103
!{{Percentage | 17340103 | 17340103 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="14" | {{small|Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, Pakistan]] and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]].}}
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in East Punjab (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/><ref name="Shakargarh1881"/>{{efn|name=EastPunjab1881|1881 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Sirsa district|Sirsa]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], and [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1881 census data here:<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/> Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}<ref name="Shakargarh1901"/>{{rp|62}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1901|1901 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Nahan]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1901 census data here:<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1911|1911 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Nahan]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1911 census data here:<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1921|1921 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Nahan]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1921 census data here:<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1931|1931 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Sirmoor]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1931 census data here:<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1941|1941 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Sirmoor]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1941 census data here:<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 7,645,262
|{{Percentage | 7645262 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 8,400,106
|{{Percentage | 8400106 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 7,127,863
|{{Percentage | 7127863 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 7,002,510
|{{Percentage | 7002510 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 7,060,631
|{{Percentage | 7060631 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 7,963,083
|{{Percentage | 7963083 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 3,670,886
|{{Percentage | 3670886 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 4,232,190
|{{Percentage | 4232190 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 3,781,163
|{{Percentage | 3781163 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 3,838,095
|{{Percentage | 3838095 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 4,359,867
|{{Percentage | 4359867 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 5,237,584
|{{Percentage | 5237584 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 1,433,257
|{{Percentage | 1433257 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 1,618,897
|{{Percentage | 1618897 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 2,070,288
|{{Percentage | 2070288 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 2,244,205
|{{Percentage | 2244205 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 2,890,835
|{{Percentage | 2890835 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 3,596,073
|{{Percentage | 3596073 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 38,220
|{{Percentage | 38220 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 44,421
|{{Percentage | 44421 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 40,798
|{{Percentage | 40798 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 35,391
|{{Percentage | 35391 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 36,219
|{{Percentage | 36219 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 35,955
|{{Percentage | 35955 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 15,062
|{{Percentage | 15062 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 24,220
|{{Percentage | 24220 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 55,237
|{{Percentage | 55237 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 85,909
|{{Percentage | 85909 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 94,623
|{{Percentage | 94623 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 117,155
|{{Percentage | 117155 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 3,251
|{{Percentage | 3251 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 6,934
|{{Percentage | 6934 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 7,522
|{{Percentage | 7522 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 5,740
|{{Percentage | 5740 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 7,721
|{{Percentage | 7721 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 767
|{{Percentage | 767 | 16969758 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 59
|{{Percentage | 59 | 12806033 | 4 }}
| 177
|{{Percentage | 177 | 14326972 | 3 }}
| 276
|{{Percentage | 276 | 13083165 | 3 }}
| 217
|{{Percentage | 217 | 13212075 | 3 }}
| 156
|{{Percentage | 156 | 14450059 | 3 }}
| 4,047
|{{Percentage | 4047 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 15
|{{Percentage | 15 | 14326972 | 4 }}
| 18
|{{Percentage | 18 | 13083165 | 4 }}
| 3
|{{Percentage | 3 | 13212075 | 4 }}
| 7
|{{Percentage | 7 | 14450059 | 4 }}
| 32
|{{Percentage | 32 | 16969758 | 4 }}
|-
! Others
| 36
|{{Percentage | 36 | 12806033 | 4 }}
| 12
|{{Percentage | 12 | 14326972 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 13083165 | 4 }}
| 5
|{{Percentage | 5 | 13212075 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 14450059 | 4 }}
| 15,062
|{{Percentage | 15062 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|-
! Total Population
! 12,806,033
!{{Percentage | 12806033 | 12806033 | 2 }}
! 14,326,972
!{{Percentage | 14326972 | 14326972 | 2 }}
! 13,083,165
!{{Percentage | 13083165 | 13083165 | 2 }}
! 13,212,075
!{{Percentage | 13212075 | 13212075 | 2 }}
! 14,450,059
!{{Percentage | 14450059 | 14450059 | 2 }}
! 16,969,758
!{{Percentage | 16969758 | 16969758 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="14" | {{small|Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}
|}
{{clear}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in the Indo—Gangetic Plain West geographical division of [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/>
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 4,975,901
| {{Percentage | 4975901 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 5,825,964
| {{Percentage | 5825964 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 4,790,624
| {{Percentage | 4790624 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 4,735,960
| {{Percentage | 4735960 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 4,709,545
| {{Percentage | 4709545 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 5,314,610
| {{Percentage | 5314610 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 3,751,891
| {{Percentage | 3751891 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 4,481,366
| {{Percentage | 4481366 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 4,144,971
| {{Percentage | 4144971 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 4,350,186
| {{Percentage | 4350186 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 5,112,215
| {{Percentage | 5112215 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 6,247,791
| {{Percentage | 6247791 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 1,390,873
| {{Percentage | 1390873 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 1,605,457
| {{Percentage | 1605457 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 1,993,750
| {{Percentage | 1993750 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 2,186,429
| {{Percentage | 2186429 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 2,816,785
| {{Percentage | 2816785 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 3,576,659
| {{Percentage | 3576659 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 36,479
| {{Percentage | 36479 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 41,877
| {{Percentage | 41877 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 39,111
| {{Percentage | 39111 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 33,515
| {{Percentage | 33515 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 34,806
| {{Percentage | 34806 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 34,744
| {{Percentage | 34744 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 11,729
| {{Percentage | 11729 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 22,103
| {{Percentage | 22103 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 58,462
| {{Percentage | 58462 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 140,104
| {{Percentage | 140104 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 198,081
| {{Percentage | 198081 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 247,028
| {{Percentage | 247028 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 139
| {{Percentage | 139 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 299
| {{Percentage | 299 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 412
| {{Percentage | 412 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 318
| {{Percentage | 318 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 314
| {{Percentage | 314 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 235
| {{Percentage | 235 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 132
| {{Percentage | 132 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 184
| {{Percentage | 184 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 23
| {{Percentage | 23 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 39
| {{Percentage | 39 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 19
| {{Percentage | 19 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 28
| {{Percentage | 28 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 14
| {{Percentage | 14 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 30
| {{Percentage | 30 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 49
| {{Percentage | 49 | 10167062 | 2 }}
| 12
| {{Percentage | 12 | 11977100 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 11027490 | 2 }}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 11446716 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 12871774 | 2 }}
| 14,844
| {{Percentage | 14844 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population{{efn|name=GeoDivisionTotal|See total breakdowns in tables on [[Religion in the Punjab#Subregions|Religion in the Punjab]] page.}}
! 10,167,062
! {{Percentage | 10167062 | 10167062 | 2 }}
! 11,977,100
! {{Percentage | 11977100 | 11977100 | 2 }}
! 11,027,490
! {{Percentage | 11027490 | 11027490 | 2 }}
! 11,446,716
! {{Percentage | 11446716 | 11446716 | 2 }}
! 12,871,774
! {{Percentage | 12871774 | 12871774 | 2 }}
! 15,435,980
! {{Percentage | 15435980 | 15435980 | 2 }}
|}
The ''Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division'' included [[Hisar district]], [[Loharu State]], [[Rohtak district]], [[Dujana|Dujana State]], [[Gurgaon district]], [[Pataudi State]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district]], [[Jalandhar district]], [[Kapurthala State]], [[Ludhiana district]], [[Malerkotla State]], [[Firozpur district]], [[Faridkot State]], [[Patiala State]], [[Jind State]], [[Nabha State]], [[Lahore District]], [[Amritsar district]], [[Gujranwala District]], and [[Sheikhupura District]].<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|2}}<ref name="punjab1941"/>{{rp|4}}
{{clear}}

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in the Himalayan geographical division of [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/>
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 1,458,481
| {{Percentage | 1458481 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 1,598,853
| {{Percentage | 1598853 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 1,630,084
| {{Percentage | 1630084 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 1,642,176
| {{Percentage | 1642176 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 1,729,008
| {{Percentage | 1729008 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 1,929,634
| {{Percentage | 1929634 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 70,642
| {{Percentage | 70642 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 76,480
| {{Percentage | 76480 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 74,205
| {{Percentage | 74205 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 77,425
| {{Percentage | 77425 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 82,711
| {{Percentage | 82711 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 87,485
| {{Percentage | 87485 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 3,840
| {{Percentage | 3840 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 3,415
| {{Percentage | 3415 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 4,400
| {{Percentage | 4400 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 4,471
| {{Percentage | 4471 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 2,586
| {{Percentage | 2586 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 2,129
| {{Percentage | 2129 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 3,250
| {{Percentage | 3250 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 6,931
| {{Percentage | 6931 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 7,518
| {{Percentage | 7518 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 5,718
| {{Percentage | 5718 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 7,705
| {{Percentage | 7705 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 614
| {{Percentage | 614 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 2,680
| {{Percentage | 2680 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 3,897
| {{Percentage | 3897 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 7,894
| {{Percentage | 7894 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 7,610
| {{Percentage | 7610 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 8,948
| {{Percentage | 8948 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 12,245
| {{Percentage | 12245 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 536
| {{Percentage | 536 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 483
| {{Percentage | 483 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 358
| {{Percentage | 358 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 356
| {{Percentage | 356 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 291
| {{Percentage | 291 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 425
| {{Percentage | 425 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 4
| {{Percentage | 4 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 18
| {{Percentage | 18 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 40
| {{Percentage | 40 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 3,895
| {{Percentage | 3895 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 1539433 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 1690066 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 1724480 | 2 }}
| 4
| {{Percentage | 4 | 1737801 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 1831253 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population{{efn|name=GeoDivisionTotal}}
! 1,539,433
! {{Percentage | 1539433 | 1539433 | 2 }}
! 1,690,066
! {{Percentage | 1690066 | 1690066 | 2 }}
! 1,724,480
! {{Percentage | 1724480 | 1724480 | 2 }}
! 1,737,801
! {{Percentage | 1737801 | 1737801 | 2 }}
! 1,831,253
! {{Percentage | 1831253 | 1831253 | 2 }}
! 2,036,428
! {{Percentage | 2036428 | 2036428 | 2 }}
|}
The ''Himalayan geographical division'' included [[Sirmur State|Sirmoor State]], [[Simla District]], [[Simla Hill States]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur State]], [[Kangra district]], [[Mandi State]], [[Suket State]], and [[Chamba State]].<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|2}}<ref name="punjab1941"/>{{rp|4}}
{{clear}}

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in the Sub—Himalayan geographical division of [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/>
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 3,511,174
| {{Percentage | 3511174 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 3,741,759
| {{Percentage | 3741759 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 3,551,989
| {{Percentage | 3551989 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 3,587,246
| {{Percentage | 3587246 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 4,009,166
| {{Percentage | 4009166 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 4,751,911
| {{Percentage | 4751911 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 2,159,634
| {{Percentage | 2159634 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 2,042,505
| {{Percentage | 2042505 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 1,588,097
| {{Percentage | 1588097 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 1,556,703
| {{Percentage | 1556703 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 1,565,034
| {{Percentage | 1565034 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 1,799,915
| {{Percentage | 1799915 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 284,592
| {{Percentage | 284592 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 350,587
| {{Percentage | 350587 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 565,596
| {{Percentage | 565596 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 570,759
| {{Percentage | 570759 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 753,168
| {{Percentage | 753168 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 906,802
| {{Percentage | 906802 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 10,363
| {{Percentage | 10363 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 29,930
| {{Percentage | 29930 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 92,524
| {{Percentage | 92524 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 117,172
| {{Percentage | 117172 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 132,500
| {{Percentage | 132500 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 155,386
| {{Percentage | 155386 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 5,231
| {{Percentage | 5231 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 7,278
| {{Percentage | 7278 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 6,695
| {{Percentage | 6695 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 6,866
| {{Percentage | 6866 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 7,299
| {{Percentage | 7299 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 9,172
| {{Percentage | 9172 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 200
| {{Percentage | 200 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 117
| {{Percentage | 117 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 152
| {{Percentage | 152 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 111
| {{Percentage | 111 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 76
| {{Percentage | 76 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 141
| {{Percentage | 141 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 11
| {{Percentage | 11 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 8
| {{Percentage | 8 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 22
| {{Percentage | 22 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 171
| {{Percentage | 171 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 17
| {{Percentage | 17 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 5971195 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 6172187 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 5805081 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 5838869 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 6467272 | 2 }}
| 1,681
| {{Percentage | 1681 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population{{efn|name=GeoDivisionTotal}}
! 5,971,195
! {{Percentage | 5971195 | 5971195 | 2 }}
! 6,172,187
! {{Percentage | 6172187 | 6172187 | 2 }}
! 5,805,081
! {{Percentage | 5805081 | 5805081 | 2 }}
! 5,838,869
! {{Percentage | 5838869 | 5838869 | 2 }}
! 6,467,272
! {{Percentage | 6467272 | 6467272 | 2 }}
! 7,625,185
! {{Percentage | 7625185 | 7625185 | 2 }}
|}
The ''Sub−Himalayan geographical division'' included [[Ambala district]], [[Kalsia State]], [[Hoshiarpur district]], [[Gurdaspur district]], [[Sialkot District]], [[Gujrat District]], [[Jhelum District]], [[Rawalpindi District]], and [[Attock District]].<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|2}}<ref name="punjab1941"/>{{rp|4}}
{{clear}}

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in the North—West Dry Area geographical division of [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/>
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 2,539,038
| {{Percentage | 2539038 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 3,883,740
| {{Percentage | 3883740 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 4,504,312
| {{Percentage | 4504312 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 4,798,526
| {{Percentage | 4798526 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 5,725,804
| {{Percentage | 5725804 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 7,172,557
| {{Percentage | 7172557 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 501,159
| {{Percentage | 501159 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 877,147
| {{Percentage | 877147 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 764,816
| {{Percentage | 764816 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 864,812
| {{Percentage | 864812 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 1,014,922
| {{Percentage | 1014922 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 1,292,390
| {{Percentage | 1292390 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 28,020
| {{Percentage | 28020 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 142,955
| {{Percentage | 142955 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 316,489
| {{Percentage | 316489 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 342,498
| {{Percentage | 342498 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 492,723
| {{Percentage | 492723 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 620,479
| {{Percentage | 620479 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 2,122
| {{Percentage | 2122 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 11,143
| {{Percentage | 11143 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 44,365
| {{Percentage | 44365 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 71,192
| {{Percentage | 71192 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 86,186
| {{Percentage | 86186 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 107,923
| {{Percentage | 107923 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 326
| {{Percentage | 326 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 345
| {{Percentage | 345 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 611
| {{Percentage | 611 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 584
| {{Percentage | 584 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 744
| {{Percentage | 744 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 1,134
| {{Percentage | 1134 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 70
| {{Percentage | 70 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 54
| {{Percentage | 54 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 71
| {{Percentage | 71 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 57
| {{Percentage | 57 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 176
| {{Percentage | 176 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 88
| {{Percentage | 88 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 29
| {{Percentage | 29 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 30
| {{Percentage | 30 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 3070742 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 4915384 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 5630699 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 6077674 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 7320558 | 2 }}
| 17,664
| {{Percentage | 17664 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population{{efn|name=GeoDivisionTotal}}
! 3,070,742
! {{Percentage | 3070742 | 3070742 | 2 }}
! 4,915,384
! {{Percentage | 4915384 | 4915384 | 2 }}
! 5,630,699
! {{Percentage | 5630699 | 5630699 | 2 }}
! 6,077,674
! {{Percentage | 6077674 | 6077674 | 2 }}
! 7,320,558
! {{Percentage | 7320558 | 7320558 | 2 }}
! 9,212,268
! {{Percentage | 9212268 | 9212268 | 2 }}
|}
The ''North−West Dry Area geographical division'' included [[Montgomery District]], [[Shahpur District]], [[Mianwali District]], [[Lyallpur District]], [[Jhang District]], [[Multan District]], [[Bahawalpur State]], [[Muzaffargarh District]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District]], and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract.<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|2}}<ref name="punjab1941"/>{{rp|4}}

==== Post-partition ====
In the present-day, the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include significant minority faiths, such as Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, [[Hindus]], [[Sikhs]] and Christians.

Sikhism, founded by [[Guru Nanak]] is the main religion practised in the post-1966 Indian Punjab state. About 57.7% of the population of Punjab state is [[Sikh]], 38.5% is [[Hindu]], with the remaining population including [[Islam in Punjab, India|Muslims]], [[Christianity in Punjab, India|Christians]], and [[Jainism|Jains]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm| title=Census Reference Tables, C-Series Population by religious communities| publisher=Census of India| year=2001| access-date=25 July 2010| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701214405/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm| archive-date=1 July 2010}}</ref> Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of [[Amritsar]], [[Anandpur Sahib]], [[Tarn Taran Sahib]], [[Fatehgarh Sahib]] and [[Chamkaur Sahib]].

The Punjab was home to several [[List of Sufi saints|Sufi saints]], and Sufism is [[Sufism in Punjab|well established in the region]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.punjabics.com/SufiSaintsOfPunjab/ |title=Sufi Saints of the Punjab |website=Punjabics.com |access-date=1 July 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230010342/http://punjabics.com/SufiSaintsOfPunjab/ |archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref> Also, [[Kirpal Singh]] revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ruhanisatsangusa.org/indian/sant_kirpal_singh_history/punjab_home_of_master_saints.htm |title=The Punjab – Home of Master Saints |last1=Kirpal Singh |first1=Sant |access-date=1 July 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924092640/http://www.ruhanisatsangusa.org/indian/sant_kirpal_singh_history/punjab_home_of_master_saints.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015|author1-link=Kirpal Singh }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in the Punjab Region ([[2011 Census of India]] & [[2017 Census of Pakistan]])<ref name="WestPunjab&IslamabadReligions">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2017/tables/pakistan/Table09n.pdf|title=TABLE 9 - POPULATION BY SEX, RELIGION AND RURAL/URBAN|access-date=13 February 2023|archive-date=9 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809195627/https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2017/tables/pakistan/Table09n.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="EastPunjabReligions">{{cite web |title=Population by religion community – 2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923230423/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Haryana&Himachal&Delhi&ChandigarhReligions">{{cite web|title=Population by religion community – 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=Census of India, 2011 |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>{{efn|name=2011&2017Census|Estimates from combining [[2011 Indian census]] and [[2017 Pakistani Census|2017 Pakistani census]] with religious data amalgamated from [[Punjab, India]], [[Punjab, Pakistan]], [[Haryana]], [[Delhi]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Islamabad]], and [[Chandigarh]].<ref name="WestPunjab&IslamabadReligions"/><ref name="EastPunjabReligions"/><ref name="Haryana&Himachal&Delhi&ChandigarhReligions"/>}}
! rowspan="2" |Religious group
! colspan="2" |Punjab Region
! colspan="2" |[[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab (Pakistan)]]<ref name="WestPunjab&IslamabadReligions"/>
! colspan="2" |[[Punjab, India|Punjab (India)]]<ref name="EastPunjabReligions"/>
! colspan="2" |[[Haryana]]<ref name="Haryana&Himachal&Delhi&ChandigarhReligions"/>
! colspan="2" |[[Delhi]]<ref name="Haryana&Himachal&Delhi&ChandigarhReligions"/>
! colspan="2" |[[Himachal Pradesh|Himachal Pradesh]]<ref name="Haryana&Himachal&Delhi&ChandigarhReligions"/>
! colspan="2" |[[Islamabad Capital Territory|Islamabad]]<ref name="WestPunjab&IslamabadReligions"/>
! colspan="2" |[[Chandigarh]]<ref name="Haryana&Himachal&Delhi&ChandigarhReligions"/>
|-
!Total population
!Percentage
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
! 114,130,322
! {{Percentage | 114130322 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| 107,541,602
| {{Percentage | 107541602 | 109989655 | 2 }}
| 535,489
| {{Percentage | 535489 | 27743338 | 2 }}
| 1,781,342
| {{Percentage | 1781342 | 25351462 | 2 }}
| 2,158,684
| {{Percentage | 2158684 | 16787941 | 2 }}
| 149,881
| {{Percentage | 149881 | 6864602 | 2 }}
| 1,911,877
| {{Percentage | 1911877 | 2003368 | 2 }}
| 51,447
| {{Percentage | 51447 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
! 54,159,083
! {{Percentage | 54159083 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| 211,641
| {{Percentage | 211641 | 109989655 | 2 }}
| 10,678,138
| {{Percentage | 10678138 | 27743338 | 2 }}
| 22,171,128
| {{Percentage | 22171128 | 25351462 | 2 }}
| 13,712,100
| {{Percentage | 13712100 | 16787941 | 2 }}
| 6,532,765
| {{Percentage | 6532765 | 6864602 | 2 }}
| 737
| {{Percentage | 737 | 2003368 | 2 }}
| 852,574
| {{Percentage | 852574 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
! 18,037,312
! {{Percentage | 18037312 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 16,004,754
| {{Percentage | 16004754 | 27743338 | 2 }}
| 1,243,752
| {{Percentage | 1243752 | 25351462 | 2 }}
| 570,581
| {{Percentage | 570581 | 16787941 | 2 }}
| 79,896
| {{Percentage | 79896 | 6864602 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 138,329
| {{Percentage | 138329 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
! 2,715,952
! {{Percentage | 2715952 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| 2,063,063
| {{Percentage | 2063063 | 109989655 | 2 }}
| 348,230
| {{Percentage | 348230 | 27743338 | 2 }}
| 50,353
| {{Percentage | 50353 | 25351462 | 2 }}
| 146,093
| {{Percentage | 146093 | 16787941 | 2 }}
| 12,646
| {{Percentage | 12646 | 6864602 | 2 }}
| 86,847
| {{Percentage | 86847 | 2003368 | 2 }}
| 8,720
| {{Percentage | 8720 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|15px]]
! 267,649
! {{Percentage | 267649 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 45,040
| {{Percentage | 45040 | 27743338 | 2 }}
| 52,613
| {{Percentage | 52613 | 25351462 | 2 }}
| 166,231
| {{Percentage | 166231 | 16787941 | 2 }}
| 1,805
| {{Percentage | 1805 | 6864602 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 1,960
| {{Percentage | 1960 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Ahmadiyya]] [[File:Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya 1-2.svg|15px]]
! 160,759
! {{Percentage | 160759 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| 158,021
| {{Percentage | 158021 | 109989655 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 2,738
| {{Percentage | 2738 | 2003368 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma Wheel (2).svg|15px]]
! 139,019
! {{Percentage | 139019 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 33,237
| {{Percentage | 33237 | 27743338 | 2 }}
| 7,514
| {{Percentage | 7514 | 25351462 | 2 }}
| 18,449
| {{Percentage | 18449 | 16787941 | 2 }}
| 78,659
| {{Percentage | 78659 | 6864602 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 1,160
| {{Percentage | 1160 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|-
| Others
! 185,720
! {{Percentage | 185720 | 189795816 | 2 }}
| 15,328
| {{Percentage | 15328 | 109989655 | 2 }}
| 98,450
| {{Percentage | 98450 | 27743338 | 2 }}
| 44,760
| {{Percentage | 44760 | 25351462 | 2 }}
| 15,803
| {{Percentage | 15803 | 16787941 | 2 }}
| 8,950
| {{Percentage | 8950 | 6864602 | 2 }}
| 1,169
| {{Percentage | 1169 | 2003368 | 2 }}
| 1,260
| {{Percentage | 1260 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 189,795,816
! {{Percentage | 189795816 | 189795816 | 2 }}
! 109,989,655
! {{Percentage | 109989655 | 109989655 | 2 }}
! 27,743,338
! {{Percentage | 27743338 | 27743338 | 2 }}
! 25,351,462
! {{Percentage | 25351462 | 25351462 | 2 }}
! 16,787,941
! {{Percentage | 16787941 | 16787941 | 2 }}
! 6,864,602
! {{Percentage | 6864602 | 6864602 | 2 }}
! 2,003,368
! {{Percentage | 2003368 | 2003368 | 2 }}
! 1,055,450
! {{Percentage | 1055450 | 1055450 | 2 }}
|}

=== Tribes ===
{{See also|List of Punjabi tribes}}
<gallery widths="180" heights="240" caption="Ethnographic photographs from Punjab region (mid-19th century).">
File:JatsAroundDelhi1868.jpg|Jats in Delhi (1868)
File:Charles Shepherd and Arthur Robertson01.jpg|Rajputs in Delhi (1868)
File:Grey-scale scan of a painting of a Hindu official or courtier (possibly identifiable as Misr Diwan Chand) of the court of the Sikh Empire.jpg|Brahmin in Lahore (c. 1799–1849)
File:From left to right- A Gurkha, a Brahmin and a Sood.jpg|Left to right: Gurkha, Brahmin, and Shudra (Chuhra-Chamar) in Shimla (1868)
File:Arain men in Lahore.jpg|Arains in Lahore (1868)
File:Portrait of three unidentified Lahore carpenters (likely Tarkhan) with tools, ca.1862–72.png|Tarkhans in Lahore (c. 1862–1872)
File:Two Gurjar (also transliterated as Gujjar, Gujar, Gurjara, & Gujjer) Men on a Pavement and a Woman in a Doorway in Delhi, Shepherd & Robertson (possibly), ca.1859–69.png|Gujjars in Delhi (c. 1859–1869)
File:Portrait of an unidentified Arora Storekeeper from Lahore with coins in hand and in front of him, ca.1862–72.png|Arora in Lahore (c. 1862–1872)
File:Portrait of two unknown Kumhar potters from Lahore, ca.1859–69.png|Kumhars in Lahore (c. 1859–1869)
</gallery>

The Punjab region is diverse. Historic census reports taken in the [[British Raj|colonial era]] details the main [[Caste system in India|castes]] are represented, alongside numerous subcastes and [[List of Scheduled Tribes in India|tribes]] (also known as ''[[Jāti]]'' or ''[[Baradari (brotherhood)|Barādarī]]''), formed parts of the various ethnic groups in the region, contemporarily known as [[Punjabi people|Punjabis]], [[Haryanvi people|Haryanvis]], [[Hindkowans]], [[Saraiki people|Saraikis]], [[Dogras]], [[Mahasu (region)|Paharis]], and more.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Tribes of [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] (1881–1931)<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|478}}<ref name="punjab1921A">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430164 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430164 |access-date=26 March 2023 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 1, Report. |year=1921 |volume=15 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326083309/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430164 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|348}}<ref name="punjab1921B">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=26 March 2023 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921 |volume=15 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326083306/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|193–254}}<ref name="punjab1931A">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793222 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793222 |access-date=21 March 2023 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report. |year=1931 |volume=17 |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322030701/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793222 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|367}}<ref name="punjab1931B">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793242 |access-date=21 March 2023 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1931 |volume=17 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326084838/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|281–309}}
! rowspan="2" |Tribe
! colspan="2" |1881
! colspan="2" |1891
! colspan="2" |1901
! colspan="2" |1911
! colspan="2" |1921
! colspan="2" |1931
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Jats|Jat]]
| 4,223,885
| {{Percentage | 4223885 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 4,500,340
| {{Percentage | 4500340 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 4,884,285
| {{Percentage | 4884285 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 4,891,060
| {{Percentage | 4891060 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 5,453,747
| {{Percentage | 5453747 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 6,070,032
| {{Percentage | 6070032 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Rajput]]
| 1,648,426
| {{Percentage | 1648426 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,747,989
| {{Percentage | 1747989 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,784,402
| {{Percentage | 1784402 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 1,586,274
| {{Percentage | 1586274 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,853,025
| {{Percentage | 1853025 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 2,792,060
| {{Percentage | 2792060 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Brahmin|Brahman]]
| 1,040,771
| {{Percentage | 1040771 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,069,132
| {{Percentage | 1069132 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,077,252
| {{Percentage | 1077252 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 985,901
| {{Percentage | 985901 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 994,529
| {{Percentage | 994529 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 1,058,598
| {{Percentage | 1058598 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Chuhra]]
| 1,039,039
| {{Percentage | 1039039 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,175,504
| {{Percentage | 1175504 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,175,003
| {{Percentage | 1175003 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 912,998
| {{Percentage | 912998 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 750,596
| {{Percentage | 750596 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 681,359
| {{Percentage | 681359 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Chamar]]
| 1,033,727
| {{Percentage | 1033727 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,147,913
| {{Percentage | 1147913 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,172,118
| {{Percentage | 1172118 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 1,075,941
| {{Percentage | 1075941 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,134,700
| {{Percentage | 1134700 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 1,102,465
| {{Percentage | 1102465 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Arain]]
| 795,471
| {{Percentage | 795471 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 890,264
| {{Percentage | 890264 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,003,698
| {{Percentage | 1003698 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 973,888
| {{Percentage | 973888 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,086,455
| {{Percentage | 1086455 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 1,331,295
| {{Percentage | 1331295 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Julaha]]
| 593,199
| {{Percentage | 593199 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 620,401
| {{Percentage | 620401 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 651,800
| {{Percentage | 651800 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 626,960
| {{Percentage | 626960 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 643,403
| {{Percentage | 643403 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 672,243
| {{Percentage | 672243 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Tarkhan (Punjab)|Tarkhan]]
| 564,385
| {{Percentage | 564385 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 621,718
| {{Percentage | 621718 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 675,361
| {{Percentage | 675361 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 637,971
| {{Percentage | 637971 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 614,912
| {{Percentage | 614912 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 654,053
| {{Percentage | 654053 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Gurjar|Gujjar]]
| 539,251
| {{Percentage | 539251 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 600,198
| {{Percentage | 600198 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 611,904
| {{Percentage | 611904 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 595,598
| {{Percentage | 595598 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 627,451
| {{Percentage | 627451 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 696,442
| {{Percentage | 696442 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Arora]]
| 538,465
| {{Percentage | 538465 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 603,131
| {{Percentage | 603131 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 647,945
| {{Percentage | 647945 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 667,943
| {{Percentage | 667943 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 707,495
| {{Percentage | 707495 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 775,734
| {{Percentage | 775734 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kumhar]]
| 465,676
| {{Percentage | 465676 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 515,331
| {{Percentage | 515331 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 561,298
| {{Percentage | 561298 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 542,906
| {{Percentage | 542906 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 570,158
| {{Percentage | 570158 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 620,402
| {{Percentage | 620402 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Bania (caste)|Bania]]
| 437,000
| {{Percentage | 437000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 442,000
| {{Percentage | 442000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 452,000
| {{Percentage | 452000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 404,000
| {{Percentage | 404000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 374,169
| {{Percentage | 374169 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Jhinwar]]
| 418,499
| {{Percentage | 418499 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 458,702
| {{Percentage | 458702 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 450,362
| {{Percentage | 450362 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 331,951
| {{Percentage | 331951 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 371,418
| {{Percentage | 371418 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 281,512
| {{Percentage | 281512 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Khatri]]
| 392,413
| {{Percentage | 392413 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 418,517
| {{Percentage | 418517 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 433,579
| {{Percentage | 433579 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 423,704
| {{Percentage | 423704 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 452,902
| {{Percentage | 452902 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 516,207
| {{Percentage | 516207 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]]
| 350,848
| {{Percentage | 350848 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 389,402
| {{Percentage | 389402 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 420,504
| {{Percentage | 420504 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 425,450
| {{Percentage | 425450 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 439,975
| {{Percentage | 439975 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 539,242
| {{Percentage | 539242 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kanet]]
| 346,000
| {{Percentage | 346000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 370,000
| {{Percentage | 370000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 390,000
| {{Percentage | 390000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 404,000
| {{Percentage | 404000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 288,159
| {{Percentage | 288159 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 305,814
| {{Percentage | 305814 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Mochi (disambiguation)#People|Mochi]]
| 334,034
| {{Percentage | 334034 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 384,179
| {{Percentage | 384179 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 408,314
| {{Percentage | 408314 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 410,977
| {{Percentage | 410977 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 429,242
| {{Percentage | 429242 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 472,616
| {{Percentage | 472616 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Baloch people in Punjab|Baloch]]
| 331,851
| {{Percentage | 331851 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 383,138
| {{Percentage | 383138 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 466,645
| {{Percentage | 466645 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 530,976
| {{Percentage | 530976 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 531,084
| {{Percentage | 531084 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 624,695
| {{Percentage | 624695 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Nai (caste)|Nai]]
| 323,703
| {{Percentage | 323703 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 371,144
| {{Percentage | 371144 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 370,019
| {{Percentage | 370019 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 344,845
| {{Percentage | 344845 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 360,653
| {{Percentage | 360653 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 380,657
| {{Percentage | 380657 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Shaikhs in South Asia|Sheikh]]
| 293,606
| {{Percentage | 293606 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 287,778
| {{Percentage | 287778 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 264,656
| {{Percentage | 264656 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 276,687
| {{Percentage | 276687 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 244,800
| {{Percentage | 244800 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 414,623
| {{Percentage | 414623 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Lohar (caste)|Lohar]]
| 291,506
| {{Percentage | 291506 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 323,420
| {{Percentage | 323420 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 347,099
| {{Percentage | 347099 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 319,847
| {{Percentage | 319847 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 322,195
| {{Percentage | 322195 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 333,910
| {{Percentage | 333910 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Teli]]
| 250,544
| {{Percentage | 250544 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 291,513
| {{Percentage | 291513 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 309,433
| {{Percentage | 309433 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 284,505
| {{Percentage | 284505 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 305,122
| {{Percentage | 305122 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 346,342
| {{Percentage | 346342 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Pathans of Punjab|Pathan]]
| 210,613
| {{Percentage | 210613 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 221,262
| {{Percentage | 221262 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 246,790
| {{Percentage | 246790 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 272,547
| {{Percentage | 272547 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 261,729
| {{Percentage | 261729 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 350,008
| {{Percentage | 350008 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sayyid#South Asia|Sayyid]]
| 200,728
| {{Percentage | 200728 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 217,034
| {{Percentage | 217034 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 230,802
| {{Percentage | 230802 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 239,160
| {{Percentage | 239160 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 247,087
| {{Percentage | 247087 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 294,223
| {{Percentage | 294223 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Mirasi]]
| 192,107
| {{Percentage | 192107 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 230,700
| {{Percentage | 230700 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 244,506
| {{Percentage | 244506 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 223,093
| {{Percentage | 223093 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 232,280
| {{Percentage | 232280 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 244,726
| {{Percentage | 244726 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Machiyar|Machhi]]
| 167,882
| {{Percentage | 167882 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 196,574
| {{Percentage | 196574 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 236,122
| {{Percentage | 236122 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 239,702
| {{Percentage | 239702 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 280,956
| {{Percentage | 280956 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 314,862
| {{Percentage | 314862 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ahir]]
| 165,878
| {{Percentage | 165878 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 188,838
| {{Percentage | 188838 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 197,805
| {{Percentage | 197805 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 201,299
| {{Percentage | 201299 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 201,539
| {{Percentage | 201539 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 221,933
| {{Percentage | 221933 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kashmiris in Punjab|Kashmiri]]
| 149,733
| {{Percentage | 149733 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 141,280
| {{Percentage | 141280 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 189,878
| {{Percentage | 189878 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 175,334
| {{Percentage | 175334 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 166,449
| {{Percentage | 166449 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 202,920
| {{Percentage | 202920 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Saini]]
| 147,183
| {{Percentage | 147183 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 120,507
| {{Percentage | 120507 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 121,722
| {{Percentage | 121722 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 107,759
| {{Percentage | 107759 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 120,376
| {{Percentage | 120376 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 165,190
| {{Percentage | 165190 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sunar]]
| 145,903
| {{Percentage | 145903 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 164,087
| {{Percentage | 164087 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 174,628
| {{Percentage | 174628 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 155,993
| {{Percentage | 155993 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 127,090
| {{Percentage | 127090 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 159,655
| {{Percentage | 159655 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kamboj|Kamboh]]
| 129,468
| {{Percentage | 129468 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 150,646
| {{Percentage | 150646 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 173,780
| {{Percentage | 173780 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 171,536
| {{Percentage | 171536 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 180,870
| {{Percentage | 180870 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 239,582
| {{Percentage | 239582 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Dhobi]]
| 123,767
| {{Percentage | 123767 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 139,421
| {{Percentage | 139421 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 142,342
| {{Percentage | 142342 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 151,566
| {{Percentage | 151566 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 163,908
| {{Percentage | 163908 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 175,557
| {{Percentage | 175557 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Meo (ethnic group)|Meo]]
| 112,566
| {{Percentage | 112566 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 115,916
| {{Percentage | 115916 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 133,300
| {{Percentage | 133300 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 120,752
| {{Percentage | 120752 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 111,564
| {{Percentage | 111564 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 133,089
| {{Percentage | 133089 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Faqir (clan)|Faqir]]
| 111,995
| {{Percentage | 111995 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 300,214
| {{Percentage | 300214 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 362,266
| {{Percentage | 362266 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 262,511
| {{Percentage | 262511 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 270,070
| {{Percentage | 270070 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 287,445
| {{Percentage | 287445 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ghirth|Ghirath]]
| 110,507
| {{Percentage | 110507 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 118,631
| {{Percentage | 118631 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 121,718
| {{Percentage | 121718 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 121,107
| {{Percentage | 121107 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 117,949
| {{Percentage | 117949 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 124,340
| {{Percentage | 124340 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Chhimba]]
| 100,448
| {{Percentage | 100448 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 141,819
| {{Percentage | 141819 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 147,152
| {{Percentage | 147152 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 124,090
| {{Percentage | 124090 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 120,695
| {{Percentage | 120695 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 96,269
| {{Percentage | 96269 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Qassab]]
| 92,571
| {{Percentage | 92571 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 109,435
| {{Percentage | 109435 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 114,158
| {{Percentage | 114158 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 117,363
| {{Percentage | 117363 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 120,820
| {{Percentage | 120820 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 127,198
| {{Percentage | 127198 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Rath tribe|Rathi]]
| 82,957
| {{Percentage | 82957 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 100,656
| {{Percentage | 100656 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 37,793
| {{Percentage | 37793 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 97,763
| {{Percentage | 97763 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 118,015
| {{Percentage | 118015 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 134,096
| {{Percentage | 134096 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Dagi & [[Koli people|Koli]]
| 78,559
| {{Percentage | 78559 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 167,772
| {{Percentage | 167772 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 153,990
| {{Percentage | 153990 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 172,269
| {{Percentage | 172269 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 165,159
| {{Percentage | 165159 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 182,235
| {{Percentage | 182235 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Mughal people|Mughal]]
| 92,000
| {{Percentage | 92000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 118,000
| {{Percentage | 118000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 98,000
| {{Percentage | 98000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 99,000
| {{Percentage | 99000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 88,951
| {{Percentage | 88951 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Jogi (caste)|Jogi]]-[[Rawal (caste)|Rawal]]
| 90,000
| {{Percentage | 90000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 91,000
| {{Percentage | 91000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 76,000
| {{Percentage | 76000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 83,000
| {{Percentage | 83000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 80,577
| {{Percentage | 80577 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[List of Scheduled Castes|Dumna]]
| 66,169
| {{Percentage | 66169 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 64,046
| {{Percentage | 64046 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 53,394
| {{Percentage | 53394 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 72,250
| {{Percentage | 72250 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 36,669
| {{Percentage | 36669 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 37,541
| {{Percentage | 37541 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Dhanuk]]
| 66,000
| {{Percentage | 66000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 74,000
| {{Percentage | 74000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 77,000
| {{Percentage | 77000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 83,000
| {{Percentage | 83000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 87,278
| {{Percentage | 87278 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Dogar]]
| 63,000
| {{Percentage | 1881 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 70,000
| {{Percentage | 1891 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 75,000
| {{Percentage | 1901 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 68,000
| {{Percentage | 68000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 74,369
| {{Percentage | 74369 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Khoja]]
| 62,000
| {{Percentage | 62000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 90,000
| {{Percentage | 90000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 99,000
| {{Percentage | 99000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 63,000
| {{Percentage | 63000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 87,461
| {{Percentage | 87461 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Mallaah|Mallah]]
| 62,000
| {{Percentage | 62000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 77,000
| {{Percentage | 77000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 73,000
| {{Percentage | 73000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 78,000
| {{Percentage | 78000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 74,233
| {{Percentage | 74233 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Mali caste|Mali]]
| 58,672
| {{Percentage | 58672 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 95,989
| {{Percentage | 95989 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 105,956
| {{Percentage | 105956 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 96,883
| {{Percentage | 96883 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 92,933
| {{Percentage | 92933 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 85,758
| {{Percentage | 85758 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Bharai]]
| 56,000
| {{Percentage | 56000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 67,000
| {{Percentage | 67000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 66,000
| {{Percentage | 66000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 58,000
| {{Percentage | 58000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 61,721
| {{Percentage | 61721 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! Barwala
| 55,000
| {{Percentage | 55000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 64,000
| {{Percentage | 64000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 69,000
| {{Percentage | 69000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 64,000
| {{Percentage | 64000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 65,907
| {{Percentage | 65907 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Mahtam]]
| 50,313
| {{Percentage | 50313 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 56,982
| {{Percentage | 56982 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 82,719
| {{Percentage | 82719 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 81,805
| {{Percentage | 81805 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 94,325
| {{Percentage | 94325 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 65,262
| {{Percentage | 65262 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Labana]]
| 47,000
| {{Percentage | 47000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 55,000
| {{Percentage | 55000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 56,000
| {{Percentage | 56000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 58,000
| {{Percentage | 58000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 56,316
| {{Percentage | 56316 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Meghwal|Megh]]
| 37,373
| {{Percentage | 37373 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 41,068
| {{Percentage | 41068 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 44,315
| {{Percentage | 44315 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 39,549
| {{Percentage | 39549 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 30,465
| {{Percentage | 30465 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 23,207
| {{Percentage | 23207 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Khokhar]]
| 36,000
| {{Percentage | 36000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 130,000
| {{Percentage | 130000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 108,000
| {{Percentage | 108000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 60,000
| {{Percentage | 60000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 69,169
| {{Percentage | 69169 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Darzi]]
| 30,190
| {{Percentage | 30190 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 36,919
| {{Percentage | 36919 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 39,164
| {{Percentage | 39164 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 35,508
| {{Percentage | 35508 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 38,256
| {{Percentage | 38256 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 45,688
| {{Percentage | 45688 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Bawaria]]
| 22,013
| {{Percentage | 22013 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 26,420
| {{Percentage | 26420 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 29,112
| {{Percentage | 29112 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 32,849
| {{Percentage | 32849 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 34,807
| {{Percentage | 34807 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 32,527
| {{Percentage | 32527 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sansi people|Sansi]]
| 19,920
| {{Percentage | 19920 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 22,218
| {{Percentage | 22218 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 26,000
| {{Percentage | 26000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 24,439
| {{Percentage | 24439 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 17,402
| {{Percentage | 17402 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 165,190
| {{Percentage | 165190 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Orh|Od]]
| 15,652
| {{Percentage | 15652 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 22,450
| {{Percentage | 22450 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 26,160
| {{Percentage | 26160 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 31,690
| {{Percentage | 31690 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 28,502
| {{Percentage | 28502 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 32,719
| {{Percentage | 32719 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Saryara|Sarera]]
| 10,792
| {{Percentage | 10792 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 11,366
| {{Percentage | 11366 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 9,587
| {{Percentage | 9587 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 10,743
| {{Percentage | 10743 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 9,873
| {{Percentage | 9873 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 11,230
| {{Percentage | 11230 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Pakhiwara
| 3,741
| {{Percentage | 3741 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 3,674
| {{Percentage | 3674 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 3,595
| {{Percentage | 3595 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 3,711
| {{Percentage | 3711 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 2,801
| {{Percentage | 2801 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 4,540
| {{Percentage | 4540 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ghosi tribe|Ghosi]]
| 2,221
| {{Percentage | 2221 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 2,652
| {{Percentage | 2652 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 3,012
| {{Percentage | 3012 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 2,419
| {{Percentage | 2419 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 502
| {{Percentage | 502 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 3,853
| {{Percentage | 3853 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Harni]]
| 1,318
| {{Percentage | 1318 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 4,157
| {{Percentage | 4157 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 3,462
| {{Percentage | 3462 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 3,360
| {{Percentage | 3360 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 2,988
| {{Percentage | 2988 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 3,928
| {{Percentage | 3928 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Maliar]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 81,000
| {{Percentage | 81000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 90,000
| {{Percentage | 90000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 88,755
| {{Percentage | 88755 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Chuhra#In Islam|Mussalli]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 57,367
| {{Percentage | 57367 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 309,543
| {{Percentage | 309543 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 323,549
| {{Percentage | 323549 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 412,300
| {{Percentage | 412300 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Qureshi]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 53,000
| {{Percentage | 53000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 71,000
| {{Percentage | 71000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 97,625
| {{Percentage | 97625 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Agrawal|Aggarwal]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 339,494
| {{Percentage | 339494 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 349,322
| {{Percentage | 349322 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 379,068
| {{Percentage | 379068 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Bagaria
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 1,262
| {{Percentage | 1262 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,619
| {{Percentage | 1619 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 2,446
| {{Percentage | 2446 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ramdasia]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 126,487
| {{Percentage | 126487 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kahar]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 88,656
| {{Percentage | 88656 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Tank Kshatrya
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 37,376
| {{Percentage | 37376 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Dhiman Brahman
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 13,533
| {{Percentage | 13533 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! No tribe
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 6,816
| {{Percentage | 6816 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Total responses
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! 25,569,792
! {{Percentage | 25569792 | 28490869 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
! Total population
! 20,800,995
! {{Percentage | 20800995 | 20800995 | 2 }}
! 22,915,894
! {{Percentage | 22915894 | 22915894 | 2 }}
! 24,367,113
! {{Percentage | 24367113 | 24367113 | 2 }}
! 23,791,841
! {{Percentage | 23791841 | 23791841 | 2 }}
! 25,101,514
! {{Percentage | 25101514 | 25101514 | 2 }}
! 28,490,869
! {{Percentage | 28490869 | 28490869 | 2 }}
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Punjab, Pakistan|Economy of Punjab, India}}

The historical region of Punjab produces a relatively high proportion of the food output from India and Pakistan.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} The region has been used for extensive wheat farming. In addition, rice, cotton, [[sugarcane]], fruit, and vegetables are also grown.<ref name="Agropedia 2013" />

The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. The Indian state of Punjab is currently the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|16th richest state]] or the eighth richest large state of India. Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's foodgrain production.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infopak.gov.pk/punjab.aspx |title=Pakistani government statistics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308122328/http://www.infopak.gov.pk/punjab.aspx |archive-date=8 March 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=14 April 2007 |website=infopak.gov.pk}}</ref> Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.spdc.org.pk/Data/Publication/PDF/WP5.pdf |title=Provincial Accounts of Pakistan: Methodology and Estimates 1973–2000 |access-date=26 December 2017 |archive-date=26 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226234709/http://www.spdc.org.pk/Data/Publication/PDF/WP5.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and has the highest per capita of any province.

Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of the [[Rice production|world's rice]], 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.<ref name="Agropedia 2013">{{cite web |url=http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/punjab-leader-agricultural-sector |title=Punjab – The Leader in Agricultural Sector, Agriculture Today, 2013 |last=Yadav |first=Kiran |date=11 February 2013 |website=Agropedia |access-date=15 March 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306042334/http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/punjab-leader-agricultural-sector |archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghuman|first=Ranjit Singh|date=2005|title=Rural Non-Farm Employment Scenario: Reflections from Recent Data in Punjab|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4417268|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=40|issue=41|pages=4473–4480|jstor=4417268|issn=0012-9976|access-date=25 March 2021|archive-date=29 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929123841/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4417268|url-status=live}}</ref> In the Punjab region of Pakistan, 42.3% of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.agripunjab.gov.pk/overview | title=Agriculture Department, Overview | date=20 March 2014 | website=agripunjab.gov.pk |url-status=live |archive-date=23 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623161017/http://www.agripunjab.gov.pk/overview}}</ref>

Alternatively, Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in the [[private sector]]. Government schemes such as 'Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission' have brought enhanced employability in the private sector. {{as of|2019|10}}, more than 32,000 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12,000 have been skill-trained.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/punjab-govt-to-identify-poorest-among-unemployed-in-villages-amarinder-singh-1606817-2019-10-07|title=Punjab govt to identify poorest among unemployed in villages: Amarinder Singh|website=India Today|language=en|access-date=7 October 2019|date=7 October 2019|url-status=live|archive-date=10 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810105500/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/punjab-govt-to-identify-poorest-among-unemployed-in-villages-amarinder-singh-1606817-2019-10-07}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Punjab}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Chak (village)]]
* [[Dhani (settlement type)]]
* [[Jallianwala Bagh]]
* [[Music of Punjab]]
* [[Panjab Digital Library]]
* [[Punjabi cuisine]]
* [[Punjabi dance]]
* [[Sattagydia]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last=Dyson|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Dyson|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}
* {{cite book |chapter=The Delhi Sultanate as Empire |first=Sunil |last=Kumar |title=The Oxford World History of Empire |volume=2 |editor-first1=Peter Fibiger |editor-last1=Bang |editor-first2=C. A. |editor-last2=Bayly |editor-first3=Walter |editor-last3=Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-753276-8}}
* {{citation |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm | author-link = Wilhelm Halbfass |date=1991 |title=Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=0-7914-0362-9}}
* {{cite book |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |first=Peter |last=Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-40477-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Mahajan|first=Vidya Dhar|author-link=Vidya Dhar Mahajan|orig-year=1991|year=2007|title=History of Medieval India, Sultanate Period And Mughal Period|location=New Delhi|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=978-8-1-219-0364-6}}
* {{citation |last=Michaels |first=Alex |date=2004 |orig-date=1998 |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |translator=Barbara Harshaw |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0691089523}}
* {{Cite thesis|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Sahis: An analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and palaeography |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/11229 |publisher=Australian National University |date=January 1976 |language=en|first=Abdur|last=Rehman}}
* {{cite book | last=Roy |first=Kaushik |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |publisher=Permanent Black, India |pages=80–1 |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8|year=2004 }}
* {{cite journal| last = Shackle| first = Christopher| author-link = Christopher Shackle| title = Problems of classification in Pakistan Panjab| journal = Transactions of the Philological Society| date = 1979| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-968X.1979.tb00857.x| issn = 0079-1636| volume = 77| issue = 1| pages = 191–210}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* Condos, Mark. ''The Insecurity State: Punjab and the Making of Colonial Power in British India'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Insecurity-State-Punjab-Colonial-British/dp/1108407013/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118183411/https://www.amazon.com/Insecurity-State-Punjab-Colonial-British/dp/1108407013/ |date=18 November 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Narang |first1=K.S. |last2=Gupta |first2=Dr H.R. |date=1969 |title=History of the Punjab 1500–1858 |url=http://www.apnaorg.com/books/english/history-punjab-narang/history-punjab-narang.pdf |publisher=U. C. Kapur & Sons, Delhi |access-date=22 January 2014 |archive-date=25 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525030051/http://www.apnaorg.com/books/english/history-punjab-narang/history-punjab-narang.pdf |url-status=live }}
* [Quraishee 73] ''Punjabi Adab De Kahani'', Abdul Hafeez Quaraihee, Azeez Book Depot, Lahore, 1973.
* [Chopra 77] ''Punjab as a Sovereign State'', Gulshan Lal Chopra, Al-Biruni, Lahore, 1977.
* Patwant Singh. 1999. ''The Sikhs''. New York: Doubleday. {{ISBN|0-385-50206-0}}.
* ''The Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab'', 1971, Buddha Parkash.
* ''Social and Political Movements in ancient Panjab'', Delhi, 1962, Buddha Parkash.
* ''History of Porus'', Patiala, Buddha Parkash.
* ''History of the Panjab'', Patiala, 1976, Fauja Singh, L.{{nbsp}}M. Joshi (Ed).
* ''The Legacy of the Punjab'', 1997, R.{{nbsp}}M. Chopra.
* ''The Rise Growth and Decline of Indo-Persian Literature'', R.{{nbsp}}M. Chopra, 2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi. 2nd revised edition, published in 2013.
* Sims, Holly. "The State and Agricultural Productivity: Continuity versus Change in the Indian and Pakistani Punjabs." ''[[Asian Survey]]'', 1 April 1986, Vol. 26(4), pp.&nbsp;483–500.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Punjab}}
* {{Official website|http://punjabgovt.gov.in|name=Official website of Punjab, India}}
* {{Official website|http://www.punjab.gov.pk|name=Official website of Punjab, Pakistan}}

{{Punjab, India}}
{{Punjab, Pakistan topics}}
{{PunjabGeography}}
{{Historical regions of North India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Punjab| ]]
[[Category:Regions of India]]
[[Category:Regions of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Geography of South Asia]]
[[Category:Historical regions in India]]
[[Category:Historical regions of Pakistan]]

Middle Class Abbayi

2026-03-18T06:02:57Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Enhanced content and organization

{{Short description|2017 film directed by Venu Sriram}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Middle Class Abbayi
| image = Middle Class Abbayi poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Venu Sriram]]
| producer = [[Dil Raju]]
| writer = Venu Sriram
| starring = [[Nani (actor)|Nani]] [[Sai Pallavi]] [[Bhumika Chawla]] [[[Vijay Varma]]
| music = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| cinematography = [[Sameer Reddy]]
| editing = [[Prawin Pudi]]
| distributor = Sri Venkateswara Creations
| studio = [[Sri Venkateswara Creations]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2017|12|21}}
| country = India
| runtime = 144 mins.
| language = Telugu
| budget = {{INR}}25 [[crore]]<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/box-office/mca-box-office-collections-day-12-nani-sai-pallavi-and-bhumika-starrer-rakes-in-rs-60-cr-gross-worldwide/articleshow/62383068.cms | title='MCA' Box Office Collections Day 12: Nani, Sai Pallavi and Bhumika starrer rakes in Rs 60 Cr gross worldwide | website=[[The Times of India]] | last1=Nyayapati | first1=Neeshita }}</ref>
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INR}}70 crore<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/mca-movie-total-box-office-collection-middle-class-abbayi-turns-another-super-hit-nani-dil-raju-2017-758930|work=[[International Business Times]]|title=MCA movie total box office collection:Middle Class Abbayi turns another hit for Nani, Dil Raju in 2017|author=Shekhar H Hooli|date=31 January 2018|accessdate=2018-12-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-25 |title=MCA box office: Nani-Sai Pallavi film earns over Rs 10 crore |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/mca-box-office-nani-sai-pallavi-film-collects-earns-over-rs-35-crore4998358/ |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
}}

'''''Middle Class Abbayi''''' ({{translation|Middle class boy}}), also known as '''''MCA''''', is a 2017 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[action comedy film]] directed by [[Venu Sriram]] and produced by [[Dil Raju]]. The film stars [[Nani (actor)|Nani]], [[Sai Pallavi]], [[Bhumika Chawla]] and [[Vijay Varma]] in the lead roles.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Scroll Staff |title=Watch: Nani is a middle class hero who no one (except his family) can mess with in 'MCA' trailer |url=https://scroll.in/reel/861225/watch-nani-is-a-middle-class-hero-who-no-one-except-his-family-can-mess-with-in-mca-trailer |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pic.twitter.com/AWUaf4m8VV|title=#MCA #Nani20 Shooting in progress |last=Nani|publisher=|accessdate=10 October 2017}}</ref> [[Devi Sri Prasad]] composed the soundtrack and score, while [[Sameer Reddy]] and [[Prawin Pudi]] handled the cinematography and editing.

''Middle Class Abbayi'' was released theatrically on 21 December 2017 and received mixed reviews from critics, but became a commercial success.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adivi |first=Sashidhar |date=2017-12-26 |title=Nani, Sai Pallavi starrer MCA takes a great opening at the box office |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/261217/nani-sitting-pretty.html |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Back to |url=http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/mca-vs-hello-nani-and-akhil-akkinenis-films-all-set-to-clash-at-telugu-box-office-this-week-4269149.html |title=MCA vs Hello: Nani and Akhil Akkineni's films all set to clash at Telugu box office this week |publisher=Firstpost.com |date= 21 December 2017|accessdate=2018-01-30}}</ref> It was remade in [[Hindi]] as ''[[Nikamma]]'' (2022).

== Plot ==
Nani, a middle-class youth with an [[eidetic memory]], stays at his uncle's house in [[Hyderabad]]. He has issues with his brother's house because he dislikes his sister-in-law Jyothi, an [[Regional Transport Office|RTO]] officer. Ravi, Nani's elder brother, asks him to leave for [[Warangal]] to aid Jyothi in the new place. He falls for Pallavi, who proposes to him in the first encounter.

Nani realizes that Pallavi is actually Jyothi's sister after she arrives to live with them. Pallavi tells him that she has seen him during his brother's wedding and has been in love with him. Jyothi learns about Nani and Pallavi's love towards each other and sends Pallavi back to her village, while secretly pursuing Pallavi's father to accept their relationship, but Pallavi's father refuses. Jyothi tries to make Nani to become a [[software engineer]], but to no avail.

Meanwhile, Jyothi seizes two buses with the same number which belongs to "Siva Shakti Travels", owned by Shiva Shakti alias "Warangal" Siva, a dangerous gangster. Siva threatens Jyothi with dire consequences. Nani learns about Jyothi's sacrifices and realizes his mistake. When Siva threatens Jyothi at the RTO office, Nani thrashes him in public and warns him. Nani and Siva agree to bet on Jyothi's life, without letting anyone know about the challenge.

Siva plans various strategies to finish Jyothi, but Nani intelligently rescues her. However, Siva kidnaps Jyothi and hides her in one of the bus, which she seized earlier. Nani asks Jyothi's whereabouts to Siva, who commits suicide and is taken to the hospital. Nani figures out the buses and saves Jyothi. Siva survives, but loses his memory and starts his life afresh. Nani marries Pallavi, while fooling her father that he is a software engineer.

== Cast ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Nani (actor)|Nani]] as Nani
* [[Sai Pallavi]] as Pallavi "Chinni", Jyothi's sister
* [[Bhumika Chawla]] as Jyothi, Nani's sister-in-law
* [[Vijay Varma]] as Shiva Shakti alias "Warangal" Shiva
* [[Rajeev Kanakala]] as Ravi, Nani's elder brother and Jyothi's Husband
* [[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]] as Nani's uncle
* [[Aamani]] as Nani's aunt
* [[Priyadarshi Pullikonda]] as Darshan alias Darshi
* [[Posani Krishna Murali]] as Pallavi's father
* [[Pavitra Lokesh]] as Siva's mother
* [[Vennela Kishore]] as a software consultant
* [[Mahadevan (actor)|Mahadevan]] as an RTO Officer
* Racha Ravi as Nani's friend
* Ashritha Vemuganti as a doctor
* [[Subhalekha Sudhakar]] as D. Srinivas
* Rakesh Varre as Rakesh
* [[Rupa Lakshmi]]
{{colend}}

== Music ==
The music was composed by [[Devi Sri Prasad]] and was distributed by [[Aditya Music]].

{{Infobox album
| name = Middle Class Abbayi
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 11 December 2017
| recorded = 2017
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Soundtrack]]
| length = 19:14
| label = [[Aditya Music]]
| producer = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| prev_title = [[Vunnadhi Okate Zindagi]]
| prev_year = 2017
| next_title = [[Rangasthalam]]
| next_year = 2018
}}

{{track listing
| all_writing =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = MCA Title Song
| length1 = 3:41
| lyrics1 = [[Chandrabose (lyricist)|Chandrabose]]
| extra1 = [[Nakash Aziz]]
| title2 = Kothaga
| length2 = 4:38
| lyrics2 = [[Sri Mani]]
| extra2 = [[Sagar (singer)|Sagar]], [[Priya Hemesh]]
| title3 = Yemaindho Teliyadu Naaku
| length3 = 4:10
| lyrics3 = [[Sri Mani]]
| extra3 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], Deepika V
| title4 = Family Party
| length4 = 4:01
| lyrics4 = [[Sri Mani]]
| extra4 = [[Jaspreet Jasz]]
| title5 = Yevandoi Nani Garu
| length5 = 4:30
| lyrics5 = Balaji
| extra5 = [[Divya Kumar (singer)|Divya Kumar]], [[Sravana Bhargavi]]
| total_length = 19:14
}}

==Release==
The film was released on 21 December 2017. ''[[The Times of India]]'' reported that the film was released in over 900 screens.<ref>{{Cite news |title='MCA' Box Office Collections Day 12: Nani, Sai Pallavi and Bhumika starrer rakes in Rs 60 Cr gross worldwide |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/box-office/mca-box-office-collections-day-12-nani-sai-pallavi-and-bhumika-starrer-rakes-in-rs-60-cr-gross-worldwide/articleshow/62383068.cms |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=The Times of India |language=en|last1=Nyayapati |first1=Neeshita }}</ref> The theatrical rights of the film were sold at a cost of ₹30 crore. BlueSky Cinemas have acquired the distribution rights of the film in the United States for ₹3.50 crore. [[Sakshi (newspaper)|''Sakshi Post'']] reported that the film was released in over 150 screens across [[North America]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-21 |title=Middle Class Abbayi Box Office Collections From US Premieres Phenomenal |url=https://english.sakshi.com/middle-class-abbayi-box-office-collections-from-us-premieres-phenomenal |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Sakshi Post |language=en}}</ref>

The film was also dubbed and released in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''Middle Class Aambala''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MCA came to Tamil as Middle Class Aambala |url=http://www.indiaherald.com/Movies/Read/291950/-MCA-came-to-Tamil-as-Middle-Class-Aambala- |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=indiaherald.com |language=en}}</ref> It was also dubbed in Kannada as ''Middle Class Huduga''.

== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
On its opening day, the film collected a total gross of ₹28 crore worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-23 |title=Nani's MCA takes exceptional opening, mints over Rs 15 crore on first day |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/nani-s-mca-takes-exceptional-opening-mints-over-rs-15-crore-on-first-day/story-tPiV987rM45ivcVME7p4BI.html |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> As of 8 January 2018, the film grossed US$1.07 million (₹6.85 crore) at the United States box office.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-09 |title=Middle Class Abbayi Total US Box office collections |url=https://english.sakshi.com/middle-class-abbayi-total-us-box-office-collections |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Sakshi Post |language=en}}</ref> By the end of its theatrical run, ''Middle Class Abbayi'' grossed ₹150 crore worldwide, with the distributors' share of ₹40 crore.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hooli |first=Shekhar H. |date=2018-01-31 |title=MCA movie total box office collection: Middle Class Abbayi turns another hit for Nani, Dil Raju in 2017 |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/mca-movie-total-box-office-collection-middle-class-abbayi-turns-another-hit-nani-dil-raju-2017-758930 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=www.ibtimes.co.in |language=en}}</ref>

=== Critical response ===
{{Rotten Tomatoes prose|score=60|count=5|average=5|ref=yes}}

Hemanth Kumar of ''[[Firstpost]]'' gave 3/5 stars and wrote "''MCA'' is not a bad film, but it also leaves you with a feeling that it could have been a lot more.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-21 |title=MCA movie review: Nani, Bhumika, Sai Pallavi breathe life into an unimaginative film |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/mca-movie-review-nani-bhumika-sai-pallavi-breathe-life-into-an-unimaginative-film-4269501.html |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref> ''[[Sify]]'' gave 2.75/5 stars and wrote "Nani and Sai Pallavi's romantic thread is the major highlight in this otherwise regular commercial movie that is too bland".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Middle Class Abbayi review: Sai Pallavi-Nani chemistry is the highlight |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/middle-class-abbayi-review-sai-pallavi-nani-chemistry-is-the-highlight-review-telugu-rmvpc5eadgabf.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222000335/http://www.sify.com/movies/middle-class-abbayi-review-sai-pallavi-nani-chemistry-is-the-highlight-review-telugu-rmvpc5eadgabf.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2017 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=[[Sify]] |language=en}}</ref>

Neeshita Nyayapati of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave 2.5/5 stars and wrote "MCA is good enough for a one-time watch, especially if you're a Nani fan or a sucker for family dramas".<ref>{{Citation |title=Middle Class Abbayi Review {2.5/5}: MCA is good enough for a one-time watch, especially if you're a Nani fan |newspaper=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/mca/movie-review/62191764.cms |access-date=2022-05-18}}</ref> Manoj Kumar R of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave 2.5/5 stars and wrote "Venu has banked heavily on the charming performances of Nani and Pallavi to make MCA click with the audience, as his writing is unambitious and mostly filled with clichés like his idea of middle class".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-23 |title=MCA movie review: Nani-Sai Pallavi's chemistry salvages Middle Class Abbayi |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/mca-middle-class-abbayi-movie-review-nani-sai-pallavi-film-star-rating-4992339/ |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Sowmya Rajendran of ''[[The News Minute]]'' wrote "Middle Class Abbayi is a middling entertainer with a lot of fresh ideas that unnecessarily turns into a routine drama".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-21 |title='Middle Class Abbayi' Review: This action drama is a squandered opportunity |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/middle-class-abbayi-review-action-drama-squandered-opportunity-73518 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote "Three versatile performers are the saving grace in this partly entertaining and partly middling film".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=2017-12-21 |title=Middle Class Abbayi review: For want of the zing factor |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/middle-class-abbayi-review-for-want-of-the-zing-factor/article22122973.ece |access-date=2022-05-18 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Remake ==
The film was remade in [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]] as ''[[Nikamma]]'' and was produced by Shabbir Khan Films and [[Sony Pictures Networks India|Sony Pictures India]]. The film was released on 17 June 2022.<ref>{{cite web |date=16 May 2022 |title=REVEALED: Abhimanyu Dassani's character in Nikamma has an Ajay Devgn connection |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/revealed-abhimanyu-dassanis-character-nikamma-ajay-devgn-connection/ |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=Bollywood Hungama}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=31 March 2022 |title=Abhimanyu Dassani, Shirley Setia and Shilpa Shetty starrer Nikamma to release on June 17, 2022 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/abhimanyu-dassani-shirley-setia-shilpa-shetty-starrer-nikamma-release-june-17-2022/ |access-date=31 March 2022 |work=Bollywood Hungama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=All you need to know about 'Nikamma' debutant Shirley Setia |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/all-you-need-to-know-about-nikamma-debutant-shirley-setia/articleshow/70750364.cms |website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|7516778}}

[[Category:2017 films]]
[[Category:2017 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Warangal]]
[[Category:Films set in Telangana]]
[[Category:2017 action comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian action comedy films]]
[[Category:Midlife crisis films]]
[[Category:Indian family films]]
[[Category:2017 masala films]]
[[Category:2017 comedy films]]
[[Category:Sri Venkateswara Creations films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Devi Sri Prasad]]
[[Category:Telugu films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Films about memory]]
[[Category:Films set in Warangal]]

Roopa Iyer

2026-03-13T17:16:17Z

MazidulIslamMilon:

{{Short description|Indian actor and film director}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Roopa Iyer
| image = Roopa Iyer.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1982|07|24|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Belakavadi]], [[Mandya district|Mandya]], [[Karnataka]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Film director, actor
| years_active =
| spouse = {{Marriage|Gautam Srivatsa|2014}}
}}

'''Roopa Iyer''' is a [[film director]] and [[actor]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-01 |title=This is not just cinema, it's a reminder of sacrifice, shares Roopa Iyer on Azad Bharath |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/bangalore/this-is-not-just-cinema-its-a-reminder-of-sacrifice-shares-roopa-iyer-on-azad-bharath/articleshow/126270565.cms |access-date=2026-01-09 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Career==
She played the lead actress in the movie ''Daatu''. She directed and wrote the movie ''[[Mukhaputa]]''.<ref>[https://www.deccanherald.com/content/9194/roopa-iyers-directorial-debut-highly.html Roopa Iyer's directorial debut highly praised] ''[[Deccan Herald]]''</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2009/oct/27/daatu-wins-zimbabwe-award-98671.html | title=Daatu wins Zimbabwe award | date=16 May 2012 }}</ref> In 2013, she directed & produced her bilingual big budget film ''[[Chandra (film)|Chandra]]'' in Kannada and [[Tamil language|Tamil]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/341513/a-touch-royalty.html | title=A touch of royalty }}</ref>

==Filmography==
*''Note: All films are in Kannada unless otherwise noted.''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Film
! Director
! Producer
! Screenwriter
! Actor
! Role
! Notes
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1998|| ''[[A (1998 Indian film)|A]]'' || {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}} || {{yes}} || ||
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2005|| ''[[Magic Ajji]]'' || {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}} || {{yes}} || Queen's granddaughter||
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2007|| ''Daatu'' || {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}} || {{yes}} || ||
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2010 || ''[[Mukhaputa]]'' || {{yes}}|| {{no}} ||{{yes}} || {{yes}} || Gowri||
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2013 || ''[[Chandra (film)|Chandra]]'' ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}} || {{no}}|| ||Simultaneously shot in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2026 || ''[[Azad Bharath]]'' ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}} ||{{yes}} || {{yes}}|| Neera Arya||[[Hindi]] film
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite news|title=Kannada star Roopa Iyer making film on HIV positive kids|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/cinema-news/regionalflavours/Kannada-star-Roopa-Iyer-making-film-on-HIV-positive-kids/Article1-388031.aspx|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=9 March 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605215925/http://www.hindustantimes.com/cinema-news/regionalflavours/Kannada-star-Roopa-Iyer-making-film-on-HIV-positive-kids/Article1-388031.aspx|archivedate=5 June 2011}}
* [https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/bringing-modi-on-screen/article23300855.ece Bringing Modi on screen] ''[[The Hindu]]''

== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.IndiaClassicArts.com}}
*{{IMDb name|3748543}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iyer, Roopa}}
[[Category:Female models from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Kannada film directors]]
[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1982 births]]
[[Category:Indian women film directors]]
[[Category:Film directors from Karnataka]]
[[Category:People from Mandya district]]
[[Category:Women artists from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Film producers from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Kannada film producers]]
[[Category:Kannada screenwriters]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Karnataka]]

Maniyanpilla Raju

2026-03-12T03:28:38Z

MazidulIslamMilon: updated intro further and improved wording

{{short description|Indian actor and producer}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Maniyanpilla Raju
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Sudheer Kumar
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1955|4|20}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140106184537/http://cinidiary.com/peopleinfo1.php?searchtext=Maniyanpilla%2BRaju&pigsection=Actor&picata=1&Search=Search Maniyanpilla Raju]. cinidiary.com</ref><ref name="youtube1">{{cite web|title=Jeevitham Ithuvare Maniyanpilla Raju episode|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvtbW8gzgZ8|publisher=jaihind.tv|access-date=16 September 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead YouTube link|date=February 2022}}</ref>
| birth_place = Thycaud, [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Thiruvananthapuram]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|[[Film producer]]}}
| years_active = 1976–present
| alma_mater = [[M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute]]
| othername =
| spouse = Indira
| children = Sachin & [[Niranj Maniyanpilla Raju|Niranj]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Maniyanpilla Raju's son gets married |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/movie-news/maniyanpilla-raju-s-son-gets-married-1.4454114 |publisher=mathrubhumi.com}}</ref>
| parents = {{ubl|Shekharan Nair|Saraswati Amma}}
}}

'''Sudheer Kumar''' (born 20 April 1955), better known by his [[stage name]] '''Maniyanpilla Raju''' ([[Malayalam]]: മണിയൻപിള്ള രാജു), is an Indian actor and producer who works in [[Malayalam film industry]].<ref>[http://malayalam.webdunia.com/entertainment/film/profile/0804/19/1080419051_1.htm മണിയന്‍പിള്ള എന്ന സുധീര്‍കുമാര്‍ | Webdunia Malayalam]. Malayalam.webdunia.com. Retrieved on 10 December 2015.</ref><ref name=r1>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140727014536/http://www.mangalam.com/life-style/success/190657?page=0%2C0 മലയാളി ദര്‍ബാറിലെ മണിയന്‍ പിള്ള]. mangalam.com. 3 June 2014</ref> His debut film was ''Mohiniyaattam'' in 1976. He has played a variety of roles as a character actor, appearing in over 400 films.<ref>[http://maniyanpillaraju.com/index.php/biography/as-an-actor maniyanpillaraju.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015025611/http://maniyanpillaraju.com/index.php/biography/as-an-actor |date=15 October 2012 }}</ref> His stage name was derived from the character he played in the film ''[[Maniyanpilla Adhava Maniyanpilla]]'' (1981), his break-through role.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.haplog.com/tag/maniyanpilla-adhava-maniyanpilla-maniyanpilla-raju/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 December 2008 |archive-date=26 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226194503/http://www.haplog.com/tag/maniyanpilla-adhava-maniyanpilla-maniyanpilla-raju/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Early life==
Raju was born as the youngest among four in 1955 to Shekharan Nair and Saraswati Amma at Thycaud, [[Thiruvananthapuram|Thiruvanathapuram]]. He has two sisters, Ramani and Radha, and a brother Surendran.<ref>[http://cinidiary.com/peopleinfo.php?pigsection=Actor&picata=1&no_of_displayed_rows=2&no_of_rows_page=10&sletter=M അച്ചന്‍കുഞ്ഞ്] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708154905/http://cinidiary.com/peopleinfo.php?pigsection=Actor&picata=1&no_of_displayed_rows=2&no_of_rows_page=10&sletter=M |date=8 July 2011 }}. Cinidiary. Retrieved on 10 December 2015.</ref> He had his primary education from Government Model Boys Higher Secondary School, [[Thiruvananthapuram|Thiruvanathapuram]]. He did his pre-degree in Victory Tutorial College.<ref name="youtube1"/> He learned acting through a diploma course during 1973–1975 from [[M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute|Adyar Film Institute]], [[Chennai|Madras]] (now Chennai).<ref>{{cite web|title=Jeevitham Ithuvare with Maniyanpilla Raju|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67ICU5dNZ40|publisher=jaihind.tv|access-date=16 September 2015}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead YouTube link|date=February 2022}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Maniyanpilla Raju married Indira in 1985, and the couple have two sons, Sachin and Niranj. The younger son, [[Niranj Maniyanpilla Raju|Niranj]], made his debut in Renjith's ''[[Black Butterfly (2013 film)|Black Butterfly]]''.<ref>[http://www.nowrunning.com/news/bollywood/maniyanpilla-rajus-son-as-hero-in-black-butterfly/57610/story.htm Maniyanpilla Raju's son as hero in 'Black Butterfly']. Nowrunning.com (3 October 2012). Retrieved 2015-12-10.</ref> He wrote a book titled ''Chirichum Chirippichum'' containing his memoirs in 2012. In 2019, he opened a restaurant, Be@Kiwizo, in Kannur, which is Kerala's first restaurant to use robots to serve customers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/india-news-excuse-me-you-are-on-my-way-this-kerala-restaurant-has-robot-waitresses/334368 | title=Excuse Me, You Are On My Way: This Kerala Restaurant Has Robot Waitresses | date=17 July 2019 }}</ref>

== Filmography ==
===As an actor===
==== 1970s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1976 || ''[[Mohiniyaattam (film)|Mohiniyaattam]]'' || Job hunter ||
|-
| ''[[Light House (1976 film)|Light House]]'' || Thankamma's brother ||
|-
| ''[[Chirikkudukka]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1977 || ''[[Neethipeedam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aval Oru Devaalayam]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1978 || ''[[Mudramothiram]]'' || Kuttappan ||
|-
| ''[[Jayikkaanaay Janichavan]]'' || Tharakan's sidekick ||
|-
| ''[[Kanalkattakal]]'' || Man at mental hospital ||
|-
| ''[[Kanyaka (film)|Kanyaka]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mattoru Karnan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thiranottam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aaravam]]'' || ||
|-
| 1979 || ''[[Maalika Paniyunnavar]]'' || Ouseph ||
|-
|}

==== 1980s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1980 || ''[[Theenalangal]]'' || Appu ||
|-
| ''[[Chamaram]]'' || Raju ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1981 || ''Chamayam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Theekkali]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Maniyan Pilla Adhava Maniyan Pilla]]'' || Maniyan Pilla ||
|-
| ''[[Tharattu]]'' || Viswanathan ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1982 || ''[[Football (film)|Football]]'' || Shivankutty ||
|-
| ''[[Ithu Njangalude Katha]]'' || Santhosh ||
|-
| ''Ithiri Neram Othiri Karyam'' || Raghu ||
|-
| ''[[Bheeman]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kattile Pattu]]'' || Raju ||
|-
| ''[[Aasha (1982 film)|Aasha]]'' || Sunil Kumar ||
|-
| ''[[Chiriyo Chiri]]'' || Santhosh ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1983 || ''[[Prem Nazirine Kanmanilla]]'' || Kidnapper (II) ||
|-
| ''Prasnam Gurutharam'' || Raju ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Madapravinte Katha]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mortuary (1983 Malayalam film)|Mortuary]]'' || Jacob ||
|-
| ''Sesham Kazhchayil'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pinnilavu]]'' || Sreedharan ||
|-
| ''[[Koodevide]]'' || Shankar ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 1984 || ''[[Onnanu Nammal]]'' || Hari ||
|-
| ''[[Thathamme Poocha Poocha]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[April 18 (film)|April 18]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Theere Pratheekshikkathe'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Koottinilamkili]]'' || Gopan ||
|-
| ''[[Ivide Thudangunnu]]'' || Peter ||
|-
| ''[[Itha Innu Muthal]]'' || 'Kailasam' Raju ||
|-
| ''[[Athirathram (film)|Athirathram]]'' || Anthony ||
|-
| ''[[Ariyaatha Veethikal]]'' || Soman ||
|-
| ''[[Arante Mulla Kochu Mulla]]'' || Rajappan ||
|-
| ''[[Adiyozhukkukal]]'' || Jayarajan ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 1985 || ''[[Akalathe Ambili]]'' || Maniyan ||
|-
| ''[[Vannu Kandu Keezhadakki]]'' || Suresh ||
|-
| ''[[Angadikkappurathu]]'' || Vasu ||
|-
| ''[[Nokkethadhoorathu Kannum Nattu]]'' || Abdu ||
|-
| ''[[Jeevante Jeevan]]'' || Prakash ||
|-
| ''[[Boeing Boeing (1985 film)|Boeing Boeing]]'' || Kuttappan ||
|-
| ''[[Aram + Aram = Kinnaram]]'' || Saravanan ||
|-
| ''[[Akkare Ninnoru Maran]]'' || Achuthan ||
|-
| ''[[Karimpinpoovinakkare]]'' || Raju ||
|-
| rowspan=12 | 1986 || ''[[Dheem Tharikida Thom]]'' || Siva Subrahmaniam ||
|-
| ''[[Yuvajanotsavam]]'' || Bhagaval Das ||
|-
| ''[[Nimishangal]]'' || Joseph ||
|-
| ''Ithramathram'' || Rajeevan ||
|-
| ''[[T. P. Balagopalan M. A.]]'' || Narayankutty ||
|-
| ''[[Katturumbinum Kathu Kuthu]]'' || Babu ||
|-
| ''[[Ponnum Kudathinum Pottu]]'' || College student ||
|-
| ''[[Thalavattam]]'' || Joseph ||
|-
| ''[[Hello My Dear Wrong Number]]'' || Ramadasan ||
|-
| ''[[Poovinu Puthiya Poonthennal]]'' || Alex ||
|-
| ''[[Ayalvasi Oru Daridravasi]]'' || Vidyadharan ||
|-
| ''[[Mazha Peyyunnu Maddalam Kottunnu]]'' || Damu ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 1987 || ''[[Poovizhi Vasalile]]'' || || Tamil film
|-
|''Ellavarkkum Nanmakal'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sarvakalashala]]'' || Chakkara ||
|-
| ''[[P.C. 369]]'' || Damodaran Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[January Oru Orma]]'' || Narayana Swamy ||
|-
| ''[[Ithrayum Kaalam]]'' || Unni Nampoothiri ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1988 || ''[[Vellanakalude Nadu]]'' || Gopi ||
|-
| ''[[Mukunthetta Sumitra Vilikkunnu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ayitham]]'' || Thankamani ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Muthassi Katha]]'' || Abdu ||
|-
| ''[[Chithram]]'' || Murugan ||
|-
| ''[[Aryan (1988 film)|Aryan]]'' || Adv. Radhakrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Kudumbapuranam]]'' || Murali ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 1989 || ''[[Mahayanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kireedam (1989 film)|Kireedam]]'' || Najeeb ||
|-
| ''[[Adhipan]]'' || Gopalakrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Vandanam]]'' || Hariharan Iyer ||
|-
| ''[[Season (film)|Season]]'' || Kanthi ||
|-
| ''[[Nair Saab]]'' || Cadet Chandran Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Naduvazhikal]]'' || Ravi ||
|-
| ''[[Nocturne Indien]]'' || Restaurant owner||
|-
|}

==== 1990s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=8 | 1990 || ''[[Kadathanadan Ambadi]]'' || Kandasseri ||
|-
| ''[[Aye Auto]]'' || Thangu ||
|-
| ''[[Malayogom]]'' || Dr. Sudhakaran ||
|-
| ''[[Kouthuka Varthakal]]'' || Ramamoorthy ||
|-
| ''[[His Highness Abdullah]]'' || Raja Raja Varma ||
|-
| ''[[Pavam Pavam Rajakumaran]]'' || Gangadharan ||
|-
| ''[[Akkare Akkare Akkare]]'' || Gopi ||
|-
| ''[[No.20 Madras Mail]]'' || Hitchcock Kanjikuzhi ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1991 || ''[[Ganamela]]'' || Kannan ||
|-
| ''[[Adhwaytham]]'' || Chithran Nampoothiri ||
|-
| ''[[Aakasha Kottayile Sultan]]'' || Murali ||
|-
| ''[[Anaswaram]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=10 | 1992 || ''[[Kizhakkan Pathrose]]'' || Mathai ||
|-
| ''[[Kudumbasametham]]'' || Sreedharan Kurup ||
|-
| ''[[Kallan Kappalil Thanne]]'' || Adv. Jose Kurien ||
|-
| ''[[Aham (film)|Aham]]'' || Marfee Markose ||
|-
| ''[[Vasudha]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Johnnie Walker (film)|Johnnie Walker]]'' || Professor ||
|-
| ''Neelakurukkan'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thalastaanam]]'' || Narendran Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Ellarum Chollanu]]'' || Mani ||
|-
| ''[[Ayalathe Adheham]]'' || Achuthan Singh ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 1993 || ''[[Sthalathe Pradhana Payyans]]'' || Thankachan ||
|-
| ''[[Ekalavyan (film)|Ekalavyan]]'' || Chandran Vallappuzha ||
|-
| ''Kudumbasneham'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chenkol]]'' || Najeeb ||
|-
| ''[[Butterflies (1993 film)|Butterflies]]'' || Krishnan Eradi ||
|-
| ''[[Paithrukam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mafia (1993 film)|Mafia]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Devasuram]]'' || Bharathan ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1994 || ''[[Ponthan Mada]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rudraksham]]'' || Appu ||
|-
| ''[[Kudumba Vishesham]]'' || Prasad M. Nair ||
|-
| ''[[Commissioner (film)|Commissioner]]'' || Gopinathan ||
|-
| ''[[CID Unnikrishnan B.A., B.Ed.]]'' || Prem Shankar ||
|-
| ''[[Minnaram]]'' || 'Mazhuvan' Manikantan / Lassar ||
|-
| ''Cabinet'' || Razzak ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 1995 || ''[[Simhavalan Menon]]'' || Patrick ||
|-
| ''[[Spadikam]]'' || Kunju Mohammad ||
|-
| ''Rajakeeyam'' || Pushpangathan ||
|-
| ''[[Agnidevan]]'' || Poojari Potti Kunju ||
|-
| ''[[Aadyathe Kanmani]]'' || Dineshan Unnithan ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Abhibhashakante Case Diary]]'' || Unni Thampuran ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1996 || ''[[Sathyabhamakkoru Premalekhanam]]'' || Shambu ||
|-
| ''[[Mahathma]]'' || Attorney Koshy ||
|-
| ''[[Kala Pani (1996 film)|Kala Pani]]'' || Nair ||
|-
| ''[[Aayiram Naavulla Ananthan]]'' || Madhavan ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 1997 || ''Sayaamees Irattakal'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Asuravamsam]]'' || Inspector ||
|-
| ''[[Chandralekha (1997 film)|Chandralekha]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Yathramozhi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aaraam Thampuran]]'' || Soman Pillai ||
|-
| ''Kannur'' || ||
|-
| ''Bharatheeyam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ullasapoongattu]]'' || Kuriyachan ||
|-
| ''[[Lelam]]'' || Umman ||
|-
| ''[[Kottappurathe Koottukudumbam]]'' || Mahadevan ||
|-
| ''[[Janathipathyam]]'' || SI Abootty ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 1998 || ''Aaraam Jaalakam'' || ||
|-
| ''Poothiruvathira Ravil'' || ||
|-
| ''Thirakalkkappuram'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Anuragakottaram]]'' || Private Detective Hentry ||
|-
| ''[[Harikrishnans]]'' || Kunjikuttan's Advocate ||
|-
| ''[[Kallu Kondoru Pennu]]'' || Mohanachandran ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 1999 || ''[[F. I. R. (1999 film)|F. I. R.]]'' || CI Gurumoorthy ||
|-
| ''[[Kannezhuthi Pottum Thottu]]'' || Mulaku ||
|-
| ''[[Stalin Sivadas]]'' || Mayor Anto ||
|-
| ''[[Ustaad (1999 film)|Ustaad]]'' || Adv. Abraham ||
|-
| ''[[Pallavur Devanarayanan]]'' || Manavedathan Nampoothiri ||
|-
| ''[[The Godman]]'' || SI Karippetti Marthandan ||
|-
|}

==== 2000s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2000 || ''[[Sahayathrikakku Snehapoorvam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Narasimham (film)|Narasimham]]'' || CI Habeeb ||
|-
| ''[[Swayamvara Panthal]]'' || S.I Vijayan ||
|-
| ''[[Sathyameva Jayathe]]'' || SI George ||
|-
| ''[[Pilots (film)|Pilots]]'' || Venkidi ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2001 || ''[[Sharja To Sharja]]'' || Sethu ||
|-
| ''[[Naranathu Thampuran]]'' || Mohandas ||
|-
| ''[[Raavanaprabhu]]'' || || Cameo
|-
| ''Suryachakram'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Nariman (film)|Nariman]]'' || Moytheen ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2002 || ''[[Thandavam]]'' || Pushpakumar ||
|-
| ''[[Chathurangam (2002 film)|Chathurangam]]'' || Alex ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2003 || ''Sahodaran Sahadevan'' || Balagopalan ||
|-
| ''Leader'' || Sadasivan ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 2004 || ''[[Njan Salperu Ramankutty]]'' || Sankaran ||
|-
| ''Kottaram Vaidyan'' || Thirumukham Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Vamanapuram Bus Route]]'' || Rajappan ||
|-
| ''[[Kerala House Udan Vilpanakku]]'' || Pisharadi ||
|-
| ''Udayam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mayilattam (film)|Mayilattam]]'' || Swaminathan ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2005 || ''[[Chandrolsavam]]'' || C.I. Sugathan ||
|-
| ''[[Rajamanikyam]]'' || Adv. Shivadaas Menon||
|-
| ''[[Anandabhadram]]'' || Police Constable ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2006 || ''[[Prajapathi]]'' || Kumaran ||
|-
| ''[[The Don (2006 film)|The Don]]'' || Abdullah ||
|-
| ''[[Pothan Vava]]'' || Paulachan ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 2007 || ''[[Pranayakalam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chotta Mumbai]]'' || Adv. Menon ||
|-
| ''[[Big B (film)|Big B]]'' || Dr. Venu ||
|-
| ''[[Nasrani (film)|Nasrani]]'' || Kunjachan ||
|-
| ''Akkare Ninnoru Sultan'' || ||
|-
| ''Janmam'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2008 || ''[[Pakal Nakshatrangal]]'' || Tharakan ||
|-
| ''[[One Way Ticket (2008 film)|One Way Ticket]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Malabar Wedding]]'' || Unni ||
|-
| ''[[Sound of Boot]]'' || Antony ||
|-
| ''[[Annan Thampi]]'' || Appu's and Achu's uncle ||
|-
| ''[[Twenty:20 (film)|Twenty:20]]'' || SI Gopi ||
|-
| ''[[Thalappavu]]'' || Shivan Pillai ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 2009 || ''[[Red Chillies (film)|Red Chillies]]'' || SI Palaniswamy ||
|-
| ''Perumaal'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Evidam Swargamanu]]'' || Adv. Jayaraj ||
|-
| ''[[Shudharil Shudhan]]'' || Kanaran ||
|-
| ''[[Dr. Patient]]'' || Shankaran ||
|-
| ''[[Calendar (2009 film)|Calendar]]'' || Fr. Thazhekkadan||
|-
| ''[[Duplicate (2009 film)|Duplicate]]'' || Devan ||
|-
| ''[[Kerala Cafe]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Gulumaal: The Escape]]'' || Rangaswami / Ahammedkutty ||
|-
|}

==== 2010s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2010 || ''Kanmazha Peyyum Munpe'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Plus Two (film)|Plus Two]]'' || Avarachan ||
|-
| ''[[Happy Husbands (2010 film)|Happy Husbands]]'' || Pazhakutti Pavithran ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Naal Varum]]'' || Ramesh ||
|-
| ''[[Elsamma Enna Aankutty]]'' || S.I. Sunandappan ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2011 || ''[[Kudumbasree Travels]]'' || Nettar ||
|-
| ''[[Ninnishtam Ennishtam 2]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Marubhoomikkadha]]'' || Jose ||
|-
| ''[[Rathinirvedam (2011 film)|Rathinirvedam]]'' || Pattalam Maman ||
|-
| ''[[Innanu Aa Kalyanam]]'' || Kuttichan ||
|-
| ''[[Vellaripravinte Changathi]]'' || Preman ||
|-
| ''Kunjettan'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sevenes]]'' || Habeebullah ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2012 || ''[[Thalsamayam Oru Penkutty]]'' || Ayyappan ||
|-
| ''[[Da Thadiya]]'' || John Prakash ||
|-
| ''[[Simhasanam (2012 film)|Simhasanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Diamond Necklace (film)|Diamond Necklace]]'' || V. K. Narayana Menon ||
|-
| ''[[Ustad Hotel]]'' || Chef Babu ||
|-
| ''[[Kunjaliyan]]'' || Vikrama Kurup ||
|-
| ''[[Cobra (2012 film)|Cobra: Kottayam Brothers]]'' || Balan ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2013 || ''[[Ardhanaari]]'' || Jameela ||<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metromatinee.com/News/%20ManiyanPilla%20Raju%20in%20'Ardhanari'.-4599-1 |title=ManiyanPilla Raju in 'Ardhanari'. :News - Movie News, Film News, Cinema News - Malayalam Movie News |website=www.metromatinee.com |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130128172831/http://www.metromatinee.com/News/%20ManiyanPilla%20Raju%20in%20'Ardhanari'.-4599-1 |archive-date=28 January 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Black Butterfly (2013 film)|Black Butterfly]]'' || Mahadevan ||
|-
| ''[[Radio (2013 film)|Radio]]'' || Priya's father ||
|-
| ''[[Lokpal (film)|Lokpal]]'' || Minister Anirudhan ||
|-
| ''Second Innings'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Tourist Home (film)|Tourist Home]]'' || Sathyanathan ||
|-
| ''[[Idukki Gold (film)|Idukki Gold]]'' || Madan ||
|-
| ''Namboothiri Yuvavu @ 43'' || Jayanthan Namboothiri ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 2014 || ''[[Samsaaram Aarogyathinu Haanikaram]]'' || Prabhakaran Thanchappuzha ||
|-
| ''My Dear Mummy'' || ||
|-
| ''Thamarassery to Thailand'' || ||
|-
| ''Bad Boys'' || ||
|-
| ''Close Friends'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Munnariyippu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Rosappookkaalam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Bangalore Days]]'' || Prakash ||
|-
| ''[[Tamaar Padaar]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 2015 || ''[[Thinkal Muthal Velli Vare]]'' || C. I. Dhanapalan ||
|-
| ''[[Premam]]'' || College Principal ||
|-
| ''[[Acha Dhin]]'' || SI Soman ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Second Class Yathra]]'' || ASI Johnson ||
|-
| ''[[Kanyaka Talkies]]'' || Sadanandan ||
|-
| ''Kukkiliyar'' || Raveendran ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2016 || ''[[Paavada]]'' || Adv. Gunasekharan Nair||
|-
| ''[[Ore Mukham]]'' || Older Ayyappadas ||
|-
| ''[[Anuraga Karikkin Vellam]]'' || Prakash Kopara ||
|-
| ''[[Karinkunnam 6's]]'' || Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Kochavva Paulo Ayyappa Coelho]]'' || Himself ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2017 || ''[[Sakhavu (2017 film)|Sakhavu]]'' || Rajan ||
|-
| ''[[Comrade in America]]'' || Babychan ||
|-
| ''[[Pullikkaran Staraa]]'' || Murali Nambiar ||
|-
| ''[[Adam Joan]]'' || Andrews ||
|-
| ''[[Lavakusha]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2018 || ''[[Shikkari Shambhu]]'' || Sahadevan ||
|-
| ''[[Mohanlal (film)|Mohanlal]]'' || Himself ||
|-
| ''[[Panchavarnathatha]]'' || Abraham ||
|-
| ''[[My Story (film)|My Story]]'' || Vishwan ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2019 || ''[[Pathinettam Padi]]'' || Sudheer Kumar ||
|-
| ''[[Finals (film)|Finals]]'' || Sports Minister Siva Shankara Pillai ||
|-
| ''[[Ganagandharvan]]'' || Kuttan ||
|-
| ''Thelivu'' || ||
|-
|}

==== 2020s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2022 || ''Viddikalude Maash'' || ||
|-
| ''Varayan'' || Isthaakki ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2023 || ''[[Poovan]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Antony Varghese's Poovan set for OTT release |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/mar/22/antony-vargheses-poovan-set-for-ott-release-41404.html |access-date=2023-05-12 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=22 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Maheshum Marutiyum]]'' || Padmanabhan 'Pappettan' ||<ref name="maheshummarutiyum">{{Cite web |title='Maheshum Maruthiyum' to release on March 10 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2023/feb/28/maheshum-maruthiyumto-release-on-march-10-2551489.html |access-date=2023-04-09 |website=The New Indian Express|date=28 February 2023 }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Enkilum Chandrike]]'' || Shambu ||
|-
| ''[[Corona Papers]]'' || Pillai ||<ref>{{Cite news |title='Corona Papers' censored with a U/A certificate; Film to release on April 6 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/corona-papers-censored-with-a-u/a-certificate-film-to-release-on-april-6/articleshow/99111339.cms |access-date=2023-04-06 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''Neymar'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-04 |title=Hit duo Mathew Thomas and Naslen K Gafoor set to return with Neymar |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/mathew-thomas-naslen-k-gafoor-latest-film-neymar-8591967/ |access-date=2023-05-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2024 || ''[[Iyer In Arabia]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-08 |title=Makers Of Dhyan Sreenivasan-starrer Iyer In Arabia Lock Release Date |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/makers-of-dhyan-sreenivasan-starrer-iyer-in-arabia-lock-release-date-8732420.html |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Gu (film)|Gu]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-05-06 |title=Gu Trailer: Saiju Kurup's film blends folk art, myths, and reality in a village setting |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/May/06/gu-trailer-saiju-kurups-film-blends-folk-art-myths-and-reality-in-a-village-setting |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''Kudumbasthreeyum Kunjadum'' || ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-05-26 |title=Dhyan Sreenivasan's comedy-drama 'Kudumbasthreeyum Kunjadum' gets a release date |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/dhyan-sreenivasans-comedy-drama-kudumbasthreeyum-kunjadum-gets-a-release-date/articleshow/110436132.cms |access-date=2024-05-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Paalum Pazhavum]]'' || Tamarakshan||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-08-10 |title=Meera Jasmine's Palum Pazhavum trailer out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Aug/10/meera-jasmines-palum-pazhavum-trailer-out |access-date=2024-08-21 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2025 || {{Pending film| [[Thudarum]]}} ||
* Kuttychan
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-04-07 |title=Mohanlal-starrer Thudarum gets a new release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Apr/07/mohanlal-starrer-thudarum-gets-a-new-release-date |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| {{TableTBA}} || {{Pending film| [[Bha. Bha. Ba.]]}} || Ravindran Thillenkery ||<ref>{{cite news|title=Dileep's Bha Bha Ba goes on floors|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jul/15/dileeps-bha-bha-ba-goes-on-floors|accessdate=30 August 2024|work=Cinema Express|date=15 July 2024}}</ref>
|-
|}

===As producer===

*''[[Hello My Dear Wrong Number]]'' (1985)
*''[[Vellanakalude Nadu]]'' (1988)
*''[[Aye Auto]]'' (1990)
*''[[Anaswaram]]'' (1991)
*''[[Kannezhuthi Pottum Thottu]]'' (1999)
*''[[Anandabhadram]]'' (2005)
*''[[Chotta Mumbai]]'' (2007)
*''[[Oru Naal Varum]]'' (2010)
*[[Black Butterfly (2013 film)|''Black Butterfly'']] (2013)
*[[Pavada (film)|''Pavada'']] (2016)
*''[[Panchavarnathatha]]'' (2018)
*[[Finals (film)|''Finals'']] (2019)
*''[[Maheshum Marutiyum]]'' (2023)<ref name="maheshummarutiyum"/>
*''[[Gu (film)|Gu]]'' (2024)

===Web series===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2024 || [[Jai Mahendran]] || Koshy Thomas Revenue Minister||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saiju Kurup's Sony LIV series Jai Mahendran gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/jan/07/saiju-kurups-sony-liv-series-jai-mahendran-gets-a-release-date-51039.html |access-date=2024-01-07 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=7 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Television==
===As judge===
*''Comedy Super Show'' ([[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers Tv]])
*''Comedy Stars Plus'' ([[Asianet Plus]])
*''Comedy Stars Season 2'' ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])
*''Comedy Stars'' ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])

===As host===
*Beautiful minds ([[YouTube]])
*''[[Laughing Villa]]'' ([[Surya TV]])
* ''Malayali Durbar''<ref name=r1/> ([[Amrita TV]])
*''Jambanum Thumbanum'' ([[Asianet Plus]])

===As actor===
* ''Ettu Sundarikalum Njanum'' ([[Surya TV]]) 2004-2005
* ''Mahatma Gandhi Colony'' ([[Surya TV]]) 2007-2008
* ''[[Kadamattathu Kathanar (TV series)|Kadamattathu Kathanar]]'' ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])- 2004-2005
* ''Sthree'' ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]) 1998-2000
* ''Laksharchana'' ([[Doordarshan]]) 1995-1996
*''Aarohanam'' ([[Kairali TV]]) 2013-2014
*''Akshayapatram'' ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])- 2001-2002

==Controversy==
Actress Minu Muneer accused Maniyanpilla Raju of harassment. He later denied it and said he would be fine with the investigations if true.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Malayalam actress Minu Muneer claims she faced sexual abuse from 4 Mollywood heavyweights |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/former-actress-minu-muneer-accuses-4-malayalam-heavyweights-of-sexual-abuse/articleshow/112799175.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-08-26 |newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?category=actors&artist=Maniyanpilla%20Raju&limit=162 Maniyanpilla Raju at MSI]
* {{IMDb name|id=0683477}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Raju, Maniyanpilla}}
[[Category:Male actors from Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Malayalam film producers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam television]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Film producers from Thiruvananthapuram]]

Kshatriya

2026-03-09T17:20:23Z

MazidulIslamMilon: improved article

{{short description|Ruling and warrior class of the Hindu varna system}}
{{For|the Bollywood film of the same name|Kshatriya (film)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Statue of Bhishma.jpg|thumb|[[Bhishma]], a kshatriya of the [[Lunar dynasty]] in Hindu literature.]]
{{Hinduism|expanded=Society}}'''Kshatriya''' ({{Langx|sa|क्षत्रिय|translit=Kṣatriya}}) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority"; also called '''Rajanya''')<ref>
*{{cite book|title=Political Violence in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&dq=kshatriya+and+rajanya+are+synonyms&pg=PA23|author=[[Upinder Singh]]|page=23|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017| isbn=9780674975279 }}
*{{cite book|title=The History of India|url=
https://books.google.com/books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC&dq=Kshatriya+formerly+known+as+rajanya&pg=PA207|page=207|author=John McLeod|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2002| isbn=9780313314599 }}</ref> is one of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]] (social orders, coming called castes) of [[Hindu]] society and is associated with the [[warrior]] [[aristocracy]].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=63}} The [[Sanskrit]] term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the context of later [[Vedic]] society wherein members were organised into four classes: ''[[brahmin]]'', kshatriya, ''[[vaishya]],'' and ''[[shudra]]''.<ref>Bujor Avari (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1e2V_4Um10C&dq=indo-aryan+society+kshatriya&pg=PA74 India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200]'', p. 89</ref>

==History==

===Early Rigvedic tribal monarchy===
The administrative machinery in Vedic India was headed by a tribal king called a Rajan whose position may or may not have been hereditary.<ref name=":VedicIndiaRenouKshatriyas">{{Cite book|last=Renou|first=Louis|url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6854|title=Vedic India|date=1957|pages=130}}</ref> The king may have been elected in a tribal assembly (called a Samiti), which included women.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shori|first=Maj Gen A. K.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRCiBQAAQBAJ&dq=The+king+was+elected+in+a+tribal+assembly+(called+Samiti)+which+%22included+women%22.&pg=PT87|title=Seven Shades of Rama|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-93-84391-74-4|language=en|chapter=Fifth Shade : Rama as A King}}</ref><ref name=":VedicIndiaRenouKshatriyas"/> The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle; was assisted by a priest; and did not maintain a standing army, though in the later period the rulership appears to have risen as a [[social class]]. The concept of the fourfold varna system is not yet recorded.<ref name=raj>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Ram Sharan|title=India's ancient past|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=the University of Michigan|isbn= 9780195667141|pages=110–112}}</ref>

===Later Vedic period===
The hymn ''[[Purusha Sukta]]'' in the ''[[Rigveda]]'' describes the symbolic creation of the four varnas through cosmic sacrifice (yajña). Some scholars consider the ''Purusha Sukta'' to be a late interpolation into the ''Rigveda'' based on the neological character of the composition, as compared to the more archaic style of the Vedic literature.<ref name=":RigvedaJamisonBreretonPurushaSukta">{{Cite book|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-PRAwAAQBAJ|title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel P.|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-937018-4|pages=57–58|language=en}}</ref> Since not all Indians were fully regulated under varna paradigm in Vedic society,<ref>David Kean (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=beJP_BOIhEcC&pg=PA26 Caste-based Discrimination in International Human Rights Law], p. 26. Ashgate Publishing Ltd.</ref> the ''Purusha Sukta'' was supposedly composed to secure Vedic sanction for the hereditary caste scheme.<ref name=":RigvedaJamisonBreretonPurushaSukta"/> An alternate explanation is that the word ''Shudra'' does not occur anywhere else in the ''Rigveda'' except the ''Purusha Sukta'', leading some scholars to believe the ''Purusha Sukta'' was a composition of the later Rigvedic period itself to denote, legitimise and sanctify an oppressive and exploitative class structure that had already come into existence.<ref>
Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=gwUF11NRyT4C&pg=PA37 Class and Religion in Ancient India], pp. 37–47. Anthem Press.</ref>

Although the ''Purusha Sukta'' uses the term ''rajanya'', not ''Kshatriya'', it is considered the first instance in the extant Vedic texts where four social classes are mentioned for the first time together.<ref name="Roy">Kumkum Roy (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TGzbPNdtJGsC&pg=PA148 Insights and Interventions: Essays in Honour of Uma Chakravarti], p. 148. Primus Books.</ref> Usage of the term ''Rajanya'' possibly indicates the 'kinsmen of the Rajan' (i.e., kinsmen of the ruler) had emerged as a distinct social group then,<ref name="Roy"/> such that by the end of the Vedic period, the term ''rajanya'' was replaced by ''Kshatriya''; where ''rajanya'' stresses kinship with the ''Rajan'' and ''Kshatriya'' denotes power over a specific domain.<ref name="Roy"/> The term ''rajanya'' unlike the word ''Kshatriya'' essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas ''Kshatra'', means "ruling; one of the ruling order".<ref>{{cite book
|last = Turner
|first = Sir Ralph Lilley
|author-link = Ralph Lilley Turner
|author2 = Dorothy Rivers Turner
|title = A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages.
|url = http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:81.soas
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20130825205232/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:81.soas
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 25 August 2013
|access-date = 23 October 2011
|edition = Accompanied by three supplementary volumes: ''indexes'', compiled by Dorothy Rivers Turner: 1969. – ''Phonetic analysis'': 1971. – ''Addenda et corrigenda'': 1985.
|orig-year = 1962
|date = January 2006
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|location = London
|pages = 189–190
}}</ref>
Jaiswal points out the term ''Brahman'' rarely occurs in the ''Rigveda'' with the exception of the ''Purusha Sukta'' and may not have been used for the priestly class.<ref name="Roy"/> Based on the authority of [[Pāṇini]], [[Patanjali]], [[Kātyāyana]] and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of political people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore, a democracy (with an elected ruler).<ref name="choudhary">
Radhakrishna Choudhary (1964). The Vrātyas in Ancient India, Volume 38 of Chowkhamba Sanskrit studies, p. 125. Sanskrit Series Office.</ref> Some examples were the [[Andhaka]] and [[Vrishni|Vrsni]] Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers.<ref name="Roy"/> Ram Sharan Sharma details how the central chief was elected by various clan chiefs or lineage chiefs with increasing polarisation between the ''rajanya'' (aristocracy helping the ruler) and the ''vis'' (peasants) leading to a distinction between the chiefs as a separate class (''raja, rajanya, kshatra, kshatriya'') on one hand and ''vis'' (clan peasantry) on the other hand.<ref name="sharma">Ram Sharan Sharma (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=9_E3K8fQoDgC&pg=PA172 Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, p. 172]. Motilal Banarsidass Publications.</ref>

The term ''kshatriya'' comes from ''kshatra'' and implies temporal authority and power which was based less on being a successful leader in battle and more on the tangible power of laying claim to sovereignty over a territory, and symbolising ownership over clan lands. This later gave rise to the idea of kingship.<ref name=raj1>{{cite book|last=Reddy|title=General Studies History 4 Upsc|year=2005|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn= 9780070604476|pages=78, 79, 33, 80, 27, 123}}</ref>

In the period of the [[Brahmana]]s (800 BCE to 700 BCE) there was ambiguity in the position of the varna. In the ''Panchavimsha Brahmana'' (13,4,7), the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In ''Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11'', the Rajanya are placed second. In ''Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12'' the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the Brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of [[dharmasutra]]s (450 BCE to 100 BCE).<ref>Upinder Singh (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA202 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, p. 202]. Pearson Education India.</ref> The kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles.<ref name=Auboyer>{{cite book|author=Jeanne Auboyer|title=Daily Life in Ancient India|year=1965|publisher=Phoenix Press|isbn=1-84212-591-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie0000aubo/page/26 26–27]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie0000aubo/page/26}}</ref> Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, but they generally acknowledged the superiority of the priestly class.<ref name=Auboyer/> The Kshatriyas also began to question the [[yajnas]] of the [[historical Vedic religion]], which led to religious ideas developed in the [[Upanishads]].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=129, 131}}

=== Hindu ritual duties===
The Kshatriyas studied Vedas, gave gifts and performed fire sacrifice.<ref name="ludo14"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vedic duties of twice-born Varnas<ref name="ludo14">{{cite book|author=Ludo Rocher|editor=Donald R. Davis Jr.|title=Studies in Hindu Law and Dharmaśāstra|chapter=9.Caste and occupation in classical India: The normative texts|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dziNBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA205|year=2014|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=205–206|isbn=9781783083152}}</ref>
|-
! !!''Adhyayan'' (Study Vedas)!!''Yajana'' (performing sacrifice for one's own benefit)!!Dana (Giving Gifts)!!Adhyapana (Teaching Vedas)!!Yaajana (Acting as Priest for sacrifice)!!''Pratigraha'' (accepting gifts)
|-
| Brahmin|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ ||✓ ||✓
|-
| Kshatriya|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || No||No||No
|-
| Vaishya|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || No||No||No
|-
|-
|}

=== Mahajanapadas ===
The ''gaṇa sangha'' form of government was an oligarchic republic during the period of the [[Mahajanapadas]] (c. 600–300 BCE), that was ruled by Kshatriya clans. However, these kshatriyas did not follow the Vedic religion, and were sometimes called degenerate Kshatriyas or Shudras by Brahmanical sources. The kshatriyas served as representatives in the assembly at the capital, debated various issues put before the assembly.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=146–150}} Due to the lack of patronage of Vedic Brahmanism, the kshatriyas of the gana sanghas were often patrons of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=170}} In the [[Pali canon]], Kshatriya is referred as ''khattiya''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gautama Buddha: The Life and Teachings of The Awakened One |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JKW8CgAAQBAJ&dq=Pali+canon+khattiya+kshatriya&pg=PT223 |page= |publisher=Hachette UK|year=2011|isbn=978-1849169233}}</ref>

In the kingdoms of the Mahajanapadas, the king claimed kshatriya status through the Vedic religion. While kings claimed to be kshatriya, some kings came from non-kshatriya origins.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=150–151}}

After the Mahajanapada period, most of the prominent royal dynasties in northern [[Indian subcontinent|India]] were not kshatriyas. The [[Nanda Empire]], whose rulers were stated to be shudras, destroyed many kshatriya lineages.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=155–156}}

=== Post-Mauryan Kshatriyas ===
After the collapse of the [[Maurya Empire]], numerous clan-based polities in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan claimed kshatriya status.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=211}}

The [[Shakas]] and [[Yavanas]] were considered to be low-status kshatriyas by Brahmin authors.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=227}}

In the third to fourth centuries CE, kingdoms in the [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and [[Godavari River|Godavari]] rivers claimed kshatriya status and performed [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic rituals]] to legitimate themselves as rulers.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=228–229}} During his visit to India in the 7th century, [[Hieun Tsang]] noted that ''kshatriya'' rulers were ruling the kingdoms like Kabul,<ref>{{cite book|title=India Ever Independent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvVBDwAAQBAJ&dq=Kabul+kshatriya+hiuen+tsang&pg=PT206|publisher=Balboa Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1504391702|author=Devi Dayal Aggarwal}}</ref> Kosala,<ref>{{cite book |ref=none |last= Mishra|first= Patit Paban|year=2005 |title= Cultural rapprochement between India and Southeast Asia|publisher=National Book Organisation |location= |pages=5–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P21wAAAAMAAJ|access-date= |isbn=8187521171|quote=Hsuan Tsang mentions the existence of kshatriya rulers by stating that the ruler of Kosala was a kshatriya and follower of Buddhism.}}</ref> Bhillamala,<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers: Jalor|quote=Hiuen Tsang, who visited Bhillamala in about 641 A.D. refers to it as the capital of the Gurjara kingdom . According to him the king of this place was a Kshatriya, a profound believer in Buddhism and a man of exceptional abilities.|year=1973|author=K.K Sehgal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAil1gRL4sYC}}</ref> Maharashtra<ref>{{cite book|title=Maratha-Rajput Relations from 1720 to 1795 A.D.|author=K.A Acharya|publisher=University of California|page=4|quote=Hiuen – Tsang (first half of seventh century) speaks Pulakeshi (Pu–lo–ki–she) as the great kshatriya king of Maharashtra.|year=1978|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Afu1AAAAIAAJ&q=Maharashtra+kshatriya+hiuen+tsang}}</ref> and Vallabhi.<ref>{{cite book|author=Vincent A. Smith|page=325|title=The Early History of India|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&dq=Valabhi+kshatriya+hiuen+tsang&pg=PA325|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=9788171566181 |quote=Sīlāditya, the former Raja of Valabhi and Mo-la-p'o, was considered to be a Kshatriya}}</ref>

=== Emergence of "Puranic" Kshatriyas ===
In the era from 300 to 700 CE, new royal dynasties were bestowed kshatriya status by Brahmins by linking them to the kshatriyas of the epics and Puranas. Dynasties began affiliating themselves with the [[Solar dynasty|Solar]] and [[Lunar dynasty|Lunar dynasties]] and this gave them legitimation as rulers. In return the newly christened kshatriyas would patronize and reward the Brahmins. The Sanskritic culture of the kshatriyas of this period was heavily influential for later periods and set the style that kshatriyas of later periods appealed to. This process took place both in North India and the Deccan.{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=320, 324, 341, 370}}

=== Modern era ===

Writing in the context of how the [[jajmani system]] operated in the 1960s, Pauline Kolenda noted that the "caste function of the Kshatriya is to lead and protect the village, and with conquest to manage their conquered lands. The Kshatriyas do perform these functions today to the extent possible, by distributing food as payments to ''kamins'' and providing leadership."<ref name="kolenda">{{cite journal |title=Toward a Model of the Hindu Jajmani System |first=Pauline Mahar |last=Kolenda |journal=Human Organization |volume=22 |issue=1 |date=Spring 1963 |pages=11–31 |doi=10.17730/humo.22.1.x01162046g995q1j |jstor=44124164}}</ref>

==Symbols==

In rituals, the ''nyagrodha'' (''[[Ficus indica]]'' or India fig or [[banyan]] tree) ''danda'', or staff, is assigned to the kshatriya class, along with a mantra, intended to impart physical vitality or 'ojas'.<ref>Brian K. Smith. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nkruE6UCz54C ''Reflections on Resemblance, Ritual, and Religion''], Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1998</ref>

==Lineage==

The Vedas do not mention kshatriya (or varna) of any ''vamsha'' (lineage). The lineages of the [[Itihasa]]-[[Purana]] tradition<ref name="indianhistory"/> are: the [[Solar dynasty]] (Suryavamsha);<ref name="indianhistory"/> and the [[Lunar dynasty]] (Chandravamsha/Somavamsha).<ref name="indianhistory"/>

There are other lineages, such as [[Agnivanshi]] ("fire lineage"), in which an eponymous ancestor is claimed from [[Agni]] (fire),<ref name="indianhistory">Indian History: Ancient and medieval, p. 22. Volume 1 of Indian History, Encyclopædia Britannica (India) Pvt. Ltd, 2003.</ref> and Nagavanshi (snake-born), claiming descent from the [[Nāga]]s, whose description can be found in scriptures such as [[Mahabharata]].<ref>Omacanda Hāṇḍā. Naga Cults and Traditions in the Western Himalaya, p. 251. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd50t19YpJEC&pg=PA251]</ref>

{{clear}}

==See also==
*[[Indian caste system]]
*[[Forward caste]]s
*[[Sanskritisation]]

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|title=History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&q=History+of+Early+India:+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300 |publisher=University of California Press|year=2004|isbn=0520242254}}

==Further reading==
*Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ''History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age''. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996. pp. 313–314

{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}

{{Hinduism footer small}}
{{Social class}}

[[Category:Kshatriya| ]]
[[Category:Varnas in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Warriors]]

Vellalanvilai

2026-03-09T05:37:00Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added first post nd citations.

{{more footnotes|date=August 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vellalanvilai
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type =
| image_skyline = Vellalanvilai.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|8.4701|N|78.0402|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Tuticorin
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1947
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 628219
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +91-4639
| registration_plate = TN 69
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Udangudi]], [[Tiruchendur]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]]
| blank2_info_sec1 = Tuticorin
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]]
| blank3_info_sec1 = Tiruchendur
| blank1_name_sec2 =
| blank1_info_sec2 =
| website = [https://www.facebook.com/holytrinitychurchvellalanvilai628219/ VELLALANVILAI]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Vellalanvilai''' is a village panchayat in [[Thoothukudi]] district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. As of 2011 India census, Vellalanvilai had a population of 1947. The nearby villages are Zion Nagar, Thandupathu, Vattanvilai and Mannadu. The nearby towns are [[Thoothukudi]](45 km), [[Tirunelveli]] (55 km), [[Tiruchendur]] (11 km) and [[Udangudi]] (5 km). The nearest harbor and airport is situated at Thoothukudi (45 km). [[Major District Roads in Tamilnadu#List of MDRs Major District Roads in Tamilnadu (Road Number MD-331)|Major District Road(MDR) 331]] is passing through Vellalanvilai and connecting Paramankurichi and [[Udangudi]]. Dedicated [https://pincode.net.in/628219 Post Office]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pin Code: 628219, List of Post Offices, TUTICORIN, TAMIL NADU Pincode.net.in|url=https://pincode.net.in/628219|access-date=2021-05-07|website=pincode.net.in}}</ref> is located in Vellalanvilai.

==Church==
It is famous for 'aSANAM' which is conducted every year in the month of May on the 3rd Sunday and Monday.{{cn|date=March 2026}}

==Schools and colleges==
Today Vellalanvilai offers a more modern, comprehensive education to an enlarged number of local youths.
[[File:BAM SCHOOL VELLALANVILAI.jpg|thumb|right|Bishop Azaiah Memorial Hr. Sec. School]]
*BISHOP AZARIAH Arts and Science College
*BISHOP AZARIAH Memorial Higher Secondary School, founded in 1963.
*BISHOP AZARIAH English Medium School.
*TDTA Primary School.

==History==
During the second half of the 19th century, the Nadars purchased most of the lands from Manadu Vellalar landlords. Thus the region is being called by Vellalanvilai. Agriculture is the major source of livelihood for the people. The first Vellalanvilai Nadars became Christians in the early 1840s. People in this region are mainly involved in cultivation of Coconuts, [https://www.vikatan.com/pasumaivikatan/2016-jan-25/yield/114522-betel-leaf-brings-profit-to-farmers.html Betel Leaf],<ref>{{Cite web|title=வெற்றி கொடுக்கும் வெற்றிலை!|url=https://www.vikatan.com/literature/agriculture/114522-betel-leaf-brings-profit-to-farmers|access-date=2021-05-07|website=www.vikatan.com/|language=ta}}</ref> Rice, Bananas and manufacturing of palmyra tree ([[Borassus]]) products. Around 2005, the salt water intrusion has put an end to farming in and around vellalanvilai.

==Weather==
The climate is very pleasant in rainy and winter season(temperature ranges between 22 °C to 27 °C), and very hot in summer (temperature ranges between 25 °C to 39 °C). A pleasant wind blows in the evening all around the year as it is very near to the Bay of Mannar.

* [[Vedanayagam Samuel Azariah]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Azariah, Vedanayagam Samuel (1874-1945) {{!}} History of Missiology|url=http://www.bu.edu/missiology/missionary-biography/a-c/azariah-vedanayagam-samuel-1874-1945/|access-date=2021-05-07|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> first Indian Bishop in the churches of the [[Anglican Communion]].
* Immanuel, former panjayath president of Vellalanvilai
* Dr. Thambiraj
* [https://www.vikatan.com/pasumaivikatan/2016-jan-25/yield/114522-betel-leaf-brings-profit-to-farmers.html Armstrong], A successful farmer

==Snippets of Vellalanvilai history==
* First Gospel was announced by Nellai Appostalan Rev. C.T.E Renius
* First presbyter was Rev. T. Vedhanayagam Thomas.
* 1838 - Gospel announced by Nellai Appostalan Rev. John Thomas.
* 1841 - New Church was born.
* 1844 - Land was purchased for establishing church.
* 1879 - Church construction was completed.
* 06.04-1990 - The 111-year-old church collapsed.
* 14.05.1990 - Laid foundation of incumbent Church.
* 02.01.1991 - Laid foundation of incumbent Church Tower.
* 17.05.1993 - Incumbent Church was dedicated.
* 19.05.2007 - Incumbent Church Tower was dedicated.
* 21.05.2017 - Celebrated silver jubilee of incumbent Church.
* 19.05.2019 - Celebrated 175th dedication anniversary of St. Trinity Church.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* https://www.facebook.com/holytrinitychurchvellalanvilai628219/

[[Category:Thoothukudi district]]

List of people executed in India

2026-03-05T18:45:11Z

MazidulIslamMilon: fixed issues

{{short description|None}}

{{Update|date=February 2025}}
The number of people executed in [[India]] since [[Indian independence movement|independence]] in 1947 is a matter of dispute; official government statistics claim that only 57 people had been executed since independence. However, available information from other sources indicates that the official government figures are false, and the actual number of executions in India may run to several thousand.<ref name="indiatimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/number-of-executions-much-higher-than-55/articleshow/1046770.cms|title='Number of executions much higher than 55'|work=The Times of India|date=10 March 2005 |accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="telegraphindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050323/asp/atleisure/story_4524114.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050410221738/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050323/asp/atleisure/story_4524114.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 10, 2005|title=The Telegraph - Calcutta : At Leisure|work=telegraphindia.com|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>

Research by the [[People's Union for Democratic Rights]] (PUDR) has located government records of 1,422 executions in 16 states in the decade from 1953 to 1963 alone. PUDR located this information in an appendix of the 35th report of the [[Law Commission of India|Fourth Law Commission]] in 1967.<ref name="indiatimes.com"/><ref name="telegraphindia.com"/> In 2015, the [[National Law University, Delhi|National Law University Delhi]] compiled a list of persons executed in India since 1947 and found that at least 752 individuals had been executed, including the period from 1 January to 15 August 1947. Their report was compiled "as per responses received from Central prisons in India. Certain prisons have either provided information only for a limited period or refused to provide any information or did not have any records available." Therefore, the actual number of persons would be much more than 752. While information about the number of executions should be available with individual prison departments within each state, the government has been reluctant to share such information. For example, authorities in Kerala claimed that all records of executions had been destroyed by [[termite]]s. Andhra Pradesh gave the same reason for not furnishing post-1968 records. Bihar claimed that the state did not maintain records of executions, while Tamil Nadu's Additional Director General of Police (Prisons) refused to provide any records at all.<ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject">{{cite web |title=State-wise list of prisoners executed in India since 1947 |url=http://www.deathpenaltyindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/PrisonersExecutedinIndiasince-1947.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213158/http://www.deathpenaltyindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/PrisonersExecutedinIndiasince-1947.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |accessdate=29 January 2015 |website=deathpenaltyindia.com |publisher=National Law University Delhi}}</ref> According to Alexander Jacob, Additional Director General of Police (Prisons) of Kerala, "nearly 50 people had been executed in Kerala in the post-Independence period".<ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/in-abolishing-death-penalty-travancore-set-an-example/article4281579.ece|title=In abolishing death penalty, Travancore set an example|work=The Hindu|date=7 January 2013|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>

Rasha alias Raghuraj Singh, executed on 9 September 1947 at Jabalpur Central Jail, is presumed to be the first person executed in independent India.<ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/> [[2012 Delhi gang rape and murder|Akshay Thakur, Mukesh Singh, Pawan Gupta and Vinay Sharma]], who were hanged on 20 March 2020, were the last persons to be executed in India. Rattan Bai Jain, executed on 3 January 1955 at Tihar Jail, is presumed to be the first and only woman executed in independent India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11041533/Two-sisters-to-be-first-women-hanged-in-India.html|title=Two sisters to be first women hanged in India|date=18 August 2014|work=Telegraph.co.uk|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Two-sisters-from-Maharashtras-Kolhapur-may-become-the-first-women-to-be-hanged-in-India/articleshow/40249975.cms|title=Two sisters from Maharashtra's Kolhapur may become the first women to be hanged in India|work=The Times of India|date=14 August 2014 |accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>

==List==
This is not an exhaustive list of prisoners executed in independent India, and is not meant to be a reference for the total number of prisoners who have been executed in India since independence. There are no official collated figures available for executions in India, and this list has been compiled from multiple sources. Unless otherwise noted, all persons were executed by hanging.
{{dynamic list|date=January 2015}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center"
|-
!No.
!Name
!Date
!Age (at execution)
!Age (at offence)
!Location
!State
!Capital offence(s)
!Notes
!Source
|-
| 1
| Raghuraj Singh
| {{dts|9 September 1947}}
| 27
|
| Jabalpur Central Jail
|[[Central Provinces and Berar]]
| Murder
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 2
| Mahantappa Gangappa
| 30 December 1947
| 30
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
| [[Bombay State]]
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 3

| Singavarapu Mahalakshmudu
| {{dts|3 April 1948}}
| 32
|
| [[Rajahmundry Central Prison]]
|[[Madras Presidency]]
|
|
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 4
| Bhavana Venkadu
| {{dts|13 April 1948}}
| 40
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Madras Presidency
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 5
| Kancharagunta Subbaiah
| {{dts|24 April 1948}}
| 28
|
|Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Madras Presidency
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 6
| Kalidindi Venkata Narasimha Raju
| {{dts|17 May 1948}}
| 24
|
|Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Madras Presidency
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 7
| Basapppa Gundappa Hadignal
| 31 July 1948
| 35
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
| Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 8
| Uppara Bala Obigan Subanna
| rowspan="6" | {{dts|13 July 1949}}
| 60
|
| rowspan="6" |[[Rajahmundry Central Prison]]
| rowspan="6" |Madras Presidency
|
|
| rowspan="6" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 9
| Chenchu China Rami Reddy
| 35
|
|
|
|-
| 10
| Chenchu Peda Rami Reddy
| 48
|
|
|
|-
| 11
| Jamula Lakshmi Reddy
| 33
|
|
|
|-
| 12
| Poreddypedda Thippa Reddy
| 25
|
|
|
|-
| 13
| Uppara Chinna Pullappa
| 35
|
|
|
|-
| 14
| Jonada Musalaiah
| {{dts|10 October 1949}}
| 24
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Madras Presidency
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|15
|Hanmanth Bhimappa Bhaskari
|17 October 1949
|35
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
| Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|16
| [[Nathuram Godse]]
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|15 November 1949}}
| 39
| 37
| rowspan="2" | Ambala Central Jail
| rowspan="2" | [[East Punjab]]
| Murder
| rowspan = 2| [[Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi]]
|
|-
| 17
| [[Narayan Apte|Narayan Dattatraya Apte]]
| 39
| 37
| Conspiracy to murder
|
|-
|18
| Adyayya Parappa Ramgouda
| 16 January 1950
| 35
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|19
|Sanna Hanamappa Yamanappa
Gadgi
|20 February 1951
|55
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|20
|Vithoba Krishna Thorat
|8 February 1951
|62
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|21
|Roshonlal
|20 October 1951
|NA
|NA
| Alipore Jail
| West Bengal
| Murder
| Murders of Moni Sharma and Bela Sharma
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|22
|Sidappa Basavaneppa Shiddanavar
|17 December 1951
|25
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 22
| Shyama Charan Shukla/Sukul
| {{dts|21 June 1952}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Alipore Central Jail
|[[West Bengal]]
|
| First person executed in West Bengal
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal>{{cite web|title=Hangman gets his last chance|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040805/asp/calcutta/story_3583755.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050103054123/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040805/asp/calcutta/story_3583755.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 3, 2005|website=telegraphindia.com|publisher=The Telegraph|date=5 August 2004}}</ref>
|-
|23
|Dyayappa Adivappa Dadi
|22 August 1953
| 28
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|24
| Rattan Bai Jain
| {{dts|3 January 1955}}
| 35
|
| Tihar Jail
|New Delhi
| Murder of 3 girls
| First woman executed in independent India
| <ref>{{Cite news |date=4 January 1955 |title=Hanged for slaying 3 |url=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19550104-1.2.28?ST=1&AT=search&k=rattan%20bai%20jain&QT=rattan,bai,jain&oref=article |work=[[The Straits Times]] |pages=2}}</ref>
|-
|25
| Ram Chariter Show
| {{dts|7 January 1955}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|26
|Shivarudrappa Virbhadrappa
Bhandigani
|15 December 1955
| 21
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|27
|Hanmanth Bhimappa Sullanavar
|19 December 1955
| 40
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|28
|Yallappa Nilappa Annigeri
|30 December 1955
| 35
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 29
| Birendra Nath Dutta
| {{dts|28 January 1956}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Alipore Central Jail
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal/>
|-
|30
|Tippanna Ningappa Agsar
|16 May 1956
| 50
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|38

|Pandurang Tatyasaheb Shinde
|18 June 1956
| 40
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|32
|Sadashiv Satteppa Khanchanale
|9 July 1956
| 27
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|33
|Bhimappa Shivarayappa Nandi
| rowspan="3" |31 July 1956
| 39
|
| rowspan="3" | Belgaum Central Jail
| rowspan="3" |Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|34
|Yallappa Somappa Nandi
| 19
|
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|35
|Parasappa Somappa Nandi
| 28
|
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|36
|Dundappa Basappa Bhadrashetti
|11 September 1956
| 32
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Bombay State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 37
| Gopal Chandra Ghosh
| {{dts|8 February 1957}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 38
| Shew Prasad alias Lall
| {{dts|20 December 1957}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 39
| Shamsher Sheikh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|10 May 1958}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | Alipore Central Jail
| rowspan="2" |West Bengal
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal/>
|-
| 40
| Sher Mohammad
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 41
| Abdul Khaleque
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|12 May 1958}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | Presidency Correctional Home
| rowspan="2" |West Bengal
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 42
| Asgar Ali alias Ashu
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 43
| Gura Sahu/Guna Show
| {{dts|29 May 1958}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Alipore Central Jail
| West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal/>
|-
|44
| Bachan Singh
| {{dts|23 June 1958}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| [[Tihar Jail]], New Delhi
| [[Delhi]]
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory>{{cite web|title=Execution trajectory in India|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-execution-trajectory-in-india-1767833|website=DNA|accessdate=28 January 2015|date=21 November 2012}}</ref>
|-
| 45
| Ajit Bose
| {{dts|9 August 1958}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
| West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 46
| Dhanamath Guru alias Badis
| {{dts|18 August 1958}}
| 47
|
| Berhampore Circle Jail
|[[Odisha|Orissa]]
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 47
| Fakir Ahamed
| {{dts|8 November 1958}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
| West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 48
| Bipin Bihari Sarkar
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|24 January 1959}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | Presidency Correctional Home
| rowspan="2" | West Bengal
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 49
| Bishnu Charan Saha
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 50
| Pyare Lal
| {{dts|16 June 1959}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail, New Delhi
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 51
|Gurunath Govindrao Deshpande
|27 July 1959
|31
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|[[Mysore State]]
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 52
| Ram Gopal
| {{dts|21 September 1959}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail, New Delhi
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 53
| Bholanath Choudhury/Sadhukhan
| {{dts|23 September 1959}}
|
|
| Alipore Central Jail
| West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal/>
|-
| 54
|Yamanappa Tippanna Savadi
|29 February 1960
|35
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
| Mysore State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 55
| Chinthala Gangula Reddy
| {{dts|10 August 1960}}
| 30
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|[[Andhra Pradesh]]
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 56
| Pulagam Ramarao
| {{dts|12 September 1960}}
| 18
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 57
| Dhan Bhadur
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|11 October 1960}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | Jammu District Jail
| rowspan="2" |[[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 58
| Bhadur Singh
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 59
| Lalsing Mahasing Gurkha
| 21 November 1960
| 30
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
| Mysore State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 60
| Narain Singh
| {{dts|7 December 1960}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail, New Delhi
|Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 61
| Jampana Satyanarayana Raju
| {{dts|24 January 1961}}
| 30
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 62
| Sahidul Rahaman
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|1 April 1961}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | Dum Dum Central Correctional Home
| rowspan="2" | West Bengal
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 63
| Durga Prasad Katik
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 64
| Bandi Mungulu
| {{dts|11 April 1961}}
| 35
|
| [[Rajahmundry Central Prison]]
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 65
| Aditya Narayan Chatterjee
| {{dts|2 June 1961}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 66
| Boya Danja Yerramala
| {{dts|17 October 1961}}
| 24
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 67
| Md. Sharif
| {{dts|13 November 1961}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail, New Delhi
|Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 68
| Attar Singh
| {{dts|4 January 1962}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Jammu District Jail
|Jammu and Kashmir
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 69
| Ramdeo Kurmi
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|12 February 1962}}
|
|
| rowspan="2" | Alipore Central Jail
| rowspan="2" | West Bengal
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal/>
|-
| 70
| Sovan Mati/Shovan alias Palan Mali
|
|
|
|
|-
| 71
| Sudama Singh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|21 May 1962}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | Dum Dum Central Correctional Home
| rowspan="2" | West Bengal
| Murder
| Murders of two men
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 72
| Ram Sankar Singh
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 73
| Sanivarapu Venkateswarlu Reddy
| {{dts|26 May 1962}}
| 19
|
| [[Rajahmundry Central Prison]]
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 74
| Babulal Das alias Bhuku Das
| {{dts|8 June 1962}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
| West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 75
| Kummara Eswarppa
| {{dts|10 September 1962}}
| 40
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 76
|Ediga
|21 December 1962
|45
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|[[Mysore State]]
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 77
| Chintehalapudi Andiah
| {{dts|9 January 1963}}
| 40
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 78
| Sk. Babu Sahib
| {{dts|16 January 1963}}
| 30
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 79
| Hamam Singh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|19 June 1963}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | [[Tihar Jail]]
| rowspan="2" | Delhi
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 80
| Bhagwan Singh
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 81
| Arjunen alias Polka Damb
| {{dts|29 June 1963}}
| 22
|
| Berhampore Circle Jail
|Orissa
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 82
|Nagappa Sahebgoudar Patil
|26 July 1963
| 42
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Mysore State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 83
| Sitaram Kaher
| {{dts|1 September 1963}}
|
|
| Alipore Central Jail
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 84
| Sultan Mondal
| {{dts|22 October 1963}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 85
| Ram Singh
| {{dts|13 March 1964}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 86
| Sohan Singh
| {{dts|31 March 1964}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 87
| Boya Sanajjimmappa
| {{dts|8 May 1964}}
| 32
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 88
|Yashwant Bandu koli
|10 August 1964
| 45
|
| Belgaum Central Jail
|Mysore State
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 89
| Khetra Mohan Dhali
| {{dts|12 August 1964}}
|
|
| [[Alipore Jail|Alipore Central Jail]]
|West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 90
| Sathi Venkaiah
| {{dts|23 November 1964}}
| 50
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 91
| Bhramar Singh/Bhomour Singh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|1 April 1965}}
|
|
| rowspan="2" | [[Alipore Jail|Alipore Central Jail]]
| rowspan="2" |West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal/>
|-
| 92
| Suman Singh/Samundar Singh
|
|
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=HangingsinBengal/>
|-
| 93
| Gansa Pahan
| {{dts|7 June 1965}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Presidency Correctional Home
| West Bengal
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 94
| Jwala Ran
| {{dts|29 December 1965}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Patiala Central Jail
|
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 95
| Srichand
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|26 October 1966}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | [[Tihar Jail]]
| rowspan="2" | Delhi
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 96
| Manzoor Ahmad
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 97
| Lochan Pal
| {{dts|26 July 1967}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 98
|Hasansab Imamsab Jatagar
| rowspan="3" |17 August 1967
| 42
|
| rowspan="3" | Belgaum Central Jail
| rowspan="3" |[[Mysore State]]
|
|
| rowspan="3" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 99
|Maslansab Dadasab Jatagar
|40
|
|
|
|-
| 101
|Abdul Fakirsab Jatagar
|40
|
|
|
|-
| 102
| Polanki Ayyanna
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|28 February 1968}}
| 40
|
| rowspan="2" | Rajahmundry Central Prison
| rowspan="2" |[[Andhra Pradesh]]
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 103
| Kurra Chakram
| 30
|
|
|
|-
| 104
| Madkami Mala
| {{dts|18 May 1968}}
| 37
|
| Berhampore Circle Jail
|Orissa
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 105
| Rayi alias Rayi Narasaih
| {{dts|19 June 1968}}
| 50
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 106
| Penbnagonda Chinna Chenna Reddy
| {{dts|8 August 1968}}
| 42
|
| Rajahmundry Central Prison
|Andhra Pradesh
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|
|Sucha Singh Bassi
| rowspan="3" |21 September 1970
|
|
| rowspan="3" |Rohtak Central Prison
| rowspan="3" |Punjab
| rowspan="3" |Murder
| rowspan="3" |Assassination of [[Partap Singh Kairon]]
| rowspan="3" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-08-21 |title=55 years after former Punjab CM Partap Singh Kairon's assassination, son opens political conspiracy chapter |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/55-years-after-former-punjab-cm-partap-singh-kairon-s-assassination-son-opens-political-conspiracy-chapter/story-a4Mb8uwjPXB4ibNHb6vtYL.html |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|
|Nahar Singh "Fauji"
|
|
|-
|
|Baldev Singh
|
|
|-
| 107
| Dharam Singh
| {{dts|22 January 1971}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Patiala Central Jail
|
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 108
| Raghab Naik
| {{dts|3 August 1971}}
| 43
|
| Berhampore Circle Jail
|Orissa
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 109
| Jai Chand
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|7 October 1974}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | [[Tihar Jail]]
| rowspan="2" | Delhi
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
| 110
| Hukum Chand
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|
|-
| 111
|Malakendra Ramachandra Patil
| rowspan="6" |20 June 1975
|40
|
| rowspan="6" | Belgaum Central Jail
| rowspan="6" |[[Karnataka]]
|
|
| rowspan="6" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|112
|Sambhaji Vithal Patil
|26
|
|
|
|-
|113
|Shivaji Vithal Patil
|24
|
|
|
|-
|114
|Girimallappa Rudrappa Madgalli
|24
|
|
|
|-
|115
|Rajappa Pandappa Nannavar
|25
|
|
|
|-
|116
|Vemenappa Bhimappa Madar
|55
|
|
|
|-
| 117
| Mohinder Singh
| {{dts|6 February 1976}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Patiala Central Jail
|
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 118
| Laxman Ram
| {{dts|31 October 1976}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Jammu District Jail
|Jammu and Kashmir
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|119
| Amrit Bhushan Gupta
| {{dts|18 January 1977}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
|120
| Shiv Mohan
| {{dts|7 April 1977}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
|121
| Baksis Singh
| {{dts|1 December 1977}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Tihar Jail
| Delhi
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name=DNAExecutionTrajectory/>
|-
|122
| Joseph Peter alias Kumar
| {{dts|28 January 1978}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Central Jail, Aguada
|
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|123
|Sidrai Siddappa Sonnad
| rowspan="5" |18 March 1978
|34
|
| rowspan="5" |Belgaum Central Jail
| rowspan="5" |Karnataka
|
|
| rowspan="5" |<ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
|124
|Khubanna Jakkappa Godekar
|42
|
|
|
|-
|125
|Sabu Balappa Jaljannavar
|30
|
|
|
|-
|126
|Dundappa Kashappa Managadi
|35
|
|
|
|-
|127
|Basappa Shivappa Hadimani
|25
|
|
|
|-
|128
|[[Kampatimar Shankariya]]
|16 May 1979
|27
|
|Jaipur Central Jail
|Rajasthan
|Murder
|Murder of over 70 people in 1977–1978
|
|-
|129
|Azhakesan
|1979
|
|
|[[Central Prison, Poojappura]]
|[[Kerala]]
|Murder
|Killing of toddlers as part of [[black magic]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|agency=TNN|date=Apr 7, 2015|title=After 36 yrs, prison in Kerala all set to witness execution {{!}} Thiruvananthapuram News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/after-36-yrs-prison-in-kerala-all-set-to-witness-execution/articleshow/46836745.cms|access-date=2022-01-26|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|130
| [[Geeta and Sanjay Chopra kidnapping case|Kuljeet Singh alias Ranga]]
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|31 January 1982}}
|
|
| rowspan="2" | [[Tihar Jail]]
| rowspan="2" | Delhi
| rowspan="2" | Kidnapping and Murder
| rowspan="2" | [[Geeta and Sanjay Chopra kidnapping case]]
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" /><ref name="hindustantimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/ranga-billa-redux-how-rapists-were-sent-to-gallows/article1-986931.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150410091726/http://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/ranga-billa-redux-how-rapists-were-sent-to-gallows/article1-986931.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 10, 2015|title=Ranga-Billa redux: How rapists were sent to gallows|work=hindustantimes.com/|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|131
| [[Geeta and Sanjay Chopra kidnapping case|Jasbir Singh alias Billa]]
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name="hindustantimes.com"/>
|-
| 132
| Balbir Singh
| {{dts|27 April 1983}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Patiala Central Jail
|
|
|
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 133
| Mehar Chand
| {{dts|3 May 1983}}
| 63
| 57–62
| Jaipur Central Jail
| Rajasthan
| Murder
| Murder of 5 people of the same family over a property dispute
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 134
| Surjit Singh alias Jagjit Singh
| {{dts|6 May 1983}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Patiala Central Jail
|
|
|
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 135
| Ujagar Singh alias Santa Singh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|9 October 1983}}
|
|
| rowspan="2" | Tihar Jail
| rowspan="2" | Delhi
|
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" /><ref name="DNAExecutionTrajectory" />
|-
| 136
| Kartar Singh
|
|
|
|
|-
|137
|Hanamanth Laxmappa Mallyar
|9 November 1983
|27
|
|Belgaum Central Jail
|Karnataka
|
|
|<ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
|138
| Rajendra Jakkal
| rowspan="4" | {{dts|27 November 1983}}
|
|
| rowspan="4" | [[Yerwada Central Jail]]
| rowspan="4" | Maharashtra
| rowspan="4" | Murder
| rowspan="4" | [[Joshi-Abhyankar serial murders]]
| rowspan="4" |
|-

|139
| Dilip Dhyanoba Sutar
|
|
|-
|140
| Shantaram Kanhoji Jagtap
|
|
|-
|141
| Munawar Harun Shah
|
|
|-

|142
| [[Maqbool Bhat]]
| {{dts|11 February 1984}}
| 45
| 28
| Tihar Jail
| Delhi
| Murder
|
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 143
| Gulzar Singh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|14 June 1988}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| rowspan="2" | Patiala Central Jail
| rowspan="2" | Punjab
| rowspan="2" |Murder and treason
|
| rowspan="2" | <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 144
| Bhajan Singh
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
|
|-
| 145
| Raj Kumar
| {{dts|5 July 1988}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Patiala Central Jail
| Punjab
|
|
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 146
| Baba Balyogi alias Ganpat
| {{dts|14 July 1988}}
| 29
|
| Jaipur Central Jail
| Rajasthan
|Rape and murder
|
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 146
| Paramhans Yadav
| {{dts|1988}}
|
|
|
| [[Bihar]]
| Murder
| Convicted of killing Gopalganj DM MPN Sharma
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|147
| [[Satwant Singh]]
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|6 January 1989}}
| 27
| 22
| rowspan="2" | Tihar Jail
| rowspan="2" | Delhi
| Murder
| rowspan = 2| [[Assassination of Indira Gandhi]]
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|148
| [[Kehar Singh]]
|
|
| Conspiracy to murder
|-
| 149
| Gurcharan Singh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|16 June 1989}}
|
|
| rowspan="2" | Patiala Central Jail
| rowspan="2" | Punjab
| rowspan="2" | Murder
| rowspan = 2| Last persons to be executed in Punjab
| rowspan="2" | <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref name="tribuneindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20121125/kal.htm#2|title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Kaleidoscope|work=tribuneindia.com|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="specialcorrespondent">{{cite news |author= |date=15 March 2012 |title=Beant Singh's assassin to be hanged in Patiala on March 31 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/beant-singhs-assassin-to-be-hanged-in-patiala-on-march-31/article2996459.ece |work=The Hindu}}</ref>
|-
| 150
| Pritam Singh
|
|
|-
| 151
| Gulab Singh
| {{dts|28 June 1989}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Ambala Central Jail
| Haryana
| Murder
| Last person to be executed in Haryana
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20121125/kal.htm#4|title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Kaleidoscope|work=tribuneindia.com|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| 152
| Umaid Singh alias Umaida Ram
| {{dts|8 September 1989}}
| 45
|
| Jaipur Central Jail
| Rajasthan
|
|
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
|153
|V Balakrishnan
|16 March 1990
|32
|25
|[[Central Prison, Kannur]]
|[[Kerala]]
|Murder
|1984 Vakeri murder of 4 people
|<ref name="thehindu.com" /><ref>{{Cite web|author=Rejith Balakrishnan|date=Mar 22, 2020|title=Kerala has 16 convicts on death row {{!}} Thiruvananthapuram News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/kerala-has-16-convicts-on-death-row/articleshow/74754490.cms|access-date=2022-01-26|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|154
|[[Ripper Chandran|Muthukutty Chandran]]
|6 July 1991
|
|
|[[Central Prison, Kannur]]
|[[Kerala]]
|Murder and rape
|[[Serial killer]] in [[Kasaragod district]] and [[South Canara]] who murdered around 18 persons in the model of [[Jack the Ripper]]
|<ref>{{cite web|title=Killers on death row long for mercy|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article1274617.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930002331/http://newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article1274617.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 30, 2012|work=The New Indian Express|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2002-09-01|title=Ripper-style' murders on the rise|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2002/09/01/stories/2002090101360300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001140439/https://www.thehindu.com/2002/09/01/stories/2002090101360300.htm|archive-date=1 October 2018|work=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|155
| Kartick Seal/Sil
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|21 August 1991}}
|
|
| rowspan="2" | [[Alipore Jail|Alipore Central Jail]]
| rowspan="2" | West Bengal
| rowspan="2" | Murder
| rowspan="2" | Murder of 8 members of a family, including one woman and child, in 1987
| rowspan="2" | <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" /><ref name="amnesty.org">{{Cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/ar/library/asset/ASA20/039/1991/es/400235c5-f941-11dd-92e7-c59f81373cf2/asa200391991en.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-01-28 |archive-date=2015-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217191504/https://www.amnesty.org/ar/library/asset/ASA20/039/1991/es/400235c5-f941-11dd-92e7-c59f81373cf2/asa200391991en.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="indianexpress.com">{{cite web|url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=32742|title='I hanged my first victim when I was 16'|work=indianexpress.com|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|156
| Sukumar Burman alias Sutku
|
|
|-
| 157
| Ranjeet Singh
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|28 November 1991}}
| 32
|
| rowspan="2" | Jaipur Central Jail
| rowspan="2" | Rajasthan
| rowspan="2" |Murder
|Mass murder along with Syo Lal
| rowspan="2" | <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 158
| Syo Lal
| 76
|
|Murder of his brother and his family members for property dispute
|-
| 159
| Raj Gopal
| {{dts|10 February 1992}}
| {{n/a}}
| {{n/a}}
| Jammu District Jail
|Jammu and Kashmir
|Murder
|Murder of his father and step brother
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 160
| [[Sukhdev Singh Sukha]]
| rowspan="2" | {{dts|9 October 1992}}
| 30
| 23
| rowspan="2" | [[Yerwada Central Jail]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Maharashtra]]
| rowspan="2" | Murder
| rowspan="2" | Murder of [[Arun Shridhar Vaidya|Gen. Vaidya]], [[Lalit Maken]] and Arjan Dass
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| 161
| [[Harjinder Singh Jinda]]
| 31
| 24
|-
| 162
| Laxman Naik
| {{dts|16 July 1994}}
| 36
|
| Berhampore Circle Jail
|Orissa
| Rape and murder
| Rape and murder of minor girl in forest while being in drunkard state.
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 163
| Bheru Singh
| {{dts|20 August 1994}}
| 40
|
| Jaipur Central Jail
| Rajasthan
| Murder
| Murdered his wife Smt Kajodbai, his two daughters, one son
| <ref name=DeathPenaltyResearchProject/>
|-
| 164
| [[Auto Shankar]]
| {{dts|27 April 1995}}
| 41
| 34
| Salem Central Prison
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| Murder
| Murder of 6 persons, over a period of two years in 1988–1989
|
|-
| 165
| Suresh Chandra Bahri
| {{dts|12 June 1995}}
|
|
| Bhagalpur Central Jail
| [[Bihar]]
| Murder
| Multiple account of murders of family members, including his wife Usha Bahri and children with help of his two friends.
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suresh Chandra Bahri vs State of Bihar |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/144689/ |website=Indian Kanoon |quote=As cited by Supreme Court of India}}</ref>
|-
| 166
| Ramchandra alias Ravjee
| {{dts|4 May 1996}}
| 29
|
| Jaipur Central Jail
|
| Murder
| Murder of 5 persons, including his pregnant wife and 3 children on 6 May 1993
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://profit.ndtv.com/news/nation/article-kasabs-execution-second-fastest-in-the-country-313607|title=Kasabs execution second fastest in the country? - NDTVProfit.com|work=ndtv.com|date=21 November 2012 |accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="specialcorrespondent1">{{cite news |author= |date=22 August 2012 |title=Former judges call for commutation of death penalty |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/former-judges-call-for-commutation-of-death-penalty/article3804480.ece |work=The Hindu}}</ref>
|-
| 167
| Surja Ram
| {{dts|7 April 1997}}
| 52
|
| Jaipur Central Jail
| Rajasthan
| Murder
| Murder of 5 persons; his brother, sister-in-law, their 2 sons and an aunt
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" /><ref name="specialcorrespondent1" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deathpenaltyindia.com/executedprisoners/surja-ram/|title=Surja Ram - Death Penalty Project: India|work=deathpenaltyindia.com|accessdate=30 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|168
|Kanta Prasad Tiwari
|27 May 1997
|
|
|Jabalpur Central Prison
|Madhya Pradesh
|Rape and murder
|Rape and murder of 8 years old niece in state of being drunk.
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-08-08 |title=Man who beheaded 5 daughters to be hanged by Kasab's executioner today |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/Man-who-beheaded-5-daughters-to-be-hanged-by-Kasabs-executioner-today/articleshow/21680050.cms |access-date=2023-07-09 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| 169
| [[Dhananjoy Chatterjee]]
| {{dts|14 August 2004}}
| 39
| 25
| [[Alipore Jail]], Kolkata
| West Bengal
| Rape and Murder
| Rape and murder of 18-year-old Hetal Parekh on 5 March 1990
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" /><ref>{{cite court|url=https://api.sci.gov.in/jonew/judis/11728.pdf|litigants=Dhananjoy Chatterjee V. State of West Bengal|court=Supreme Court of India|date=11 January 1994}}</ref>
|-
| 170
| [[Mohammad Ajmal Amir Kasab]]
| {{dts|21 November 2012}}
| 25
| 21
| [[Yerwada Central Jail]]
| Maharashtra
| Murder, terrorist acts and waging war against the Government of India.
| [[2008 Mumbai attacks]]
| <ref>{{cite news |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Kaustubh |last2=Abbas |first2=Naeem |title=Mumbai attacker Ajmal Kasab executed secretly, sparks celebrations |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSDEE8AK01O/ |access-date=3 January 2024 |work=Reuters |date=21 November 2012}}</ref>
|-
| 171
| [[Afzal Guru]]
| {{dts|9 February 2013}}
| 43
| 32
| [[Tihar Jail]]
| Delhi
| Conspiracy of waging war against the Government Of India
| [[2001 Indian Parliament attack]]
| <ref name="DeathPenaltyResearchProject" />
|-
| 172
| [[Yakub Memon]]
| {{dts|30 July 2015}}
| 53
| 30
| Central Jail, Nagpur
| Maharashtra
| Conspiracy of waging war against the Government Of India
| [[1993 Bombay bombings]]
| <ref>{{cite news|title=Yakub Memon Hanged in Nagpur Jail|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/live-1993-mumbai-blasts-convict-yakub-memon-hanged-at-nagpur-jail/article1-1374497.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730100734/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/live-1993-mumbai-blasts-convict-yakub-memon-hanged-at-nagpur-jail/article1-1374497.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 30, 2015|accessdate=30 July 2015|publisher=Hindustan Times |date=30 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|173
|[[2012 Dehli gang rape|Mukesh Singh]]
| rowspan="4" |20 March 2020
|32
|25
| rowspan="4" |[[Tihar Jail]]
| rowspan="4" |Delhi
| rowspan="4" |Gang Rape and Murder
| rowspan="4" |[[2012 Delhi gang rape and murder]]
| rowspan="4" |<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 20, 2020|title=Justice for Nirbhaya: 4 men convicted for gang-rape hanged 7 years after brutal crime|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nirbhaya-gang-rape-murder-convicts-executed-hanged-delhi-tihar-jail-1657649-2020-03-20|access-date=2021-01-25|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|174
|[[2012 Dehli gang rape|Akshay Thakur]]
|31
|24
|-
|175
|[[2012 Dehli gang rape|Vinay Sharma]]
|26
|19
|-
|176
|[[Pawan Gupta (murderer)|Pawan Gupta]]
|26
|19
|}

==See also==
* [[Capital punishment in India]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.deathpenaltyindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/PrisonersExecutedinIndiasince-1947.pdf Death Penalty Research Project's list of prisoners executed in India since 1947]

{{DEFAULTSORT:People executed in India}}
[[Category:Capital punishment in India|Executed people]]
[[Category:Lists of executed people by country|India]]
[[Category:People executed by India|*Lists]]
[[Category:Lists of Indian people|Executed people]]

Kadhal Parisu

2026-03-03T05:14:18Z

MazidulIslamMilon: cleanup

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kadhal Parisu
| image = Kadhal Parisu.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[A. Jagannathan]]
| writer = {{plainlist|
* R. M. Veerapan
* A. L. Narayanan {{small|''(dialogue)''}}
}}
| producer = {{plainlist|
* G. Thyagarajan
* V. Thamizhagan
}}
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Kamal Haasan]]
* [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]]
* [[Radha (actress)|Radha]]
}}

| cinematography = [[B. S. Lokanath]]
| editing = K. R. Krishnan
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = Sathya Movies
| released = {{Film date|1987|01|14|df=yes}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Kadhal Parisu''''' ({{translation|Gift of Love}}) is a 1987 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by [[A. Jagannathan]], starring [[Kamal Haasan]], [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]] and [[Radha (actress)|Radha]] in the lead roles. The film was released on 14 January 1987, [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]] day and became a commercial success.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 January 2021 |title=ஜனவரி 14ம் தேதியில் வெளியான படங்கள்... |url=https://screen4screen.com/news/14-january-movies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121042342/https://screen4screen.com/news/14-january-movies |archive-date=21 January 2021 |access-date=7 June 2021 |website=Screen 4 Screen |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=தீனதயாளன் |first=ப. |date=5 March 2016 |title=அஞ்சலி தேவி: 5. சத்ய சாயீ! |language=ta |work=[[Dinamani]] |url=https://www.dinamani.com/junction/kanavukkannigal/2016/mar/05/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF-5.-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%80-1289593.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110091949/https://www.dinamani.com/junction/kanavukkannigal/2016/mar/05/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF-5.-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%80-1289593.html |archive-date=10 January 2019}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The film starts with Mohan getting released from prison after serving a sentence on a rape charge. Malini and Chitra are sisters and heirs to a wealthy business. Malini looks after the business after their parents died while Chitra is a student. Mohan meets Chitra and soon they fall in love, while Malini has sworn off all men. Malini and Chithra’s uncle is after their wealth.

When Chitra brings Mohan home to meet her sister, Mohan and Malini have a big fight which ends in Malini forbidding Chitra from seeing Mohan. Malini then reveals the reason behind the fight. Years earlier, Mohan and Malini were classmates and lovers. While on a class trip, Malini gives a note to Mohan that asks him to meet her in his room. Malini claims that, that night, Mohan entered her room and they had consensual sex, but Mohan denied it and refused to marry her. So she bought up rape charges against him and sent him to prison.

The truth comes out. During the class trip, Mohan never received the note which fell on Kailash's brother, Anand, who was their classmate. Anand, lusting after Malini, uses this opportunity to enter Malini's room on the pretext of being Mohan and has sex with her. Since Anand disconnected the electricity in her room and the room was very dark, Malini didn't know the difference as she was drugged by Anand because he mixed a pill in her softdrink at the party. Malini shoots Anand for his act and also herself as she cannot live the rest of her life with the guilt. Mohan forgives Malini and Malini allows Chitra to love Mohan. Malini then dies in Mohan's arms.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Kamal Haasan]] as Mohan
* [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]] as Malini
* [[Radha (actress)|Radha]] as Chitra
*[[Poornam Viswanathan]] as Malini's father
* [[Rajkumar Sethupathi]] as Anand
* [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] as Kailash
* [[Janagaraj]] as Malini's uncle
* [[Delhi Ganesh]] as Inspector
*[[Ravi Raghavendra]] as K. K. Bahadur
* Sivaraman
* Jeevan
* [[Kovai Sarala]] as Kanmani
* [[Disco Shanti]]
* [[Sujitha|Baby Sujitha]]
* [[T. K. S. Natarajan]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 May 2021 |title='என்னடி முனியம்மா' பாடல் மூலம் பிரபலமான நடிகர் டி.கே.எஸ். நடராஜன் காலமானார் |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/667327-singer-tks-natarajan-passes-away.html |access-date=14 May 2021 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514023346/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/667327-singer-tks-natarajan-passes-away.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

==Production==
The film was launched at Prasad Studios. The scenes of Haasan and Ambika were shot on that day with V. Thamilazhagan clapping the shot and R. M. Veerappan switching on the camera. The song "Hey Unnai Thane" was shot in a set inside [[AVM Studios]].<ref>{{cite news|work=Anna|language=ta|access-date=9 July 2025|via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]|url=https://eap.bl.uk/archive-file/EAP372-6-23-10-170|page=4|date=20 April 1986|title=காதல் மழையில் கமல்-ராதா }}</ref> An emotional scene of Haasan and Ambika was shot at Revathi Studios.<ref>{{cite news|work=Anna|language=ta|access-date=12 July 2025|url=https://eap.bl.uk/archive-file/EAP372-6-23-10-243|date=6 July 1986|page=3|via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]|title=வீடிழந்த கமலுக்கு ராதா செய்த உதவி }}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kadhal Parisu (1987) |url=http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=T0000073 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224183300/http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=T0000073 |archive-date=24 December 2013 |access-date=27 December 2013 |website=[[Raaga.com]] |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaadhal Parisu (1987)Tamil Super Hit Film LP Vinyl Record by Ilayaraja |url=https://dmcvinyl.com/collection/kaadhal-parisu1987-by-ilayaraja/ |access-date=27 February 2022 |website=Disco Music Center |language=en-US |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227125025/https://dmcvinyl.com/collection/kaadhal-parisu1987-by-ilayaraja/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The song "Purakkale Purakkale" was originally composed and picturised for [[Bharathiraja]]'s shelved film ''Top Tucker''.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hzGsoxKR6Y |title=மக்கள் திலகம் எம்.ஜி.ஆரின் பெருந்தண்மை - Bhagyaraj {{!}} Life History of Bharathiraja: Ep 61 |date=18 November 2020 |language=ta |publisher=En Iniya Tamil Makkale |time=7:20 to 8:00 |time-caption=From |access-date=27 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227171913/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hzGsoxKR6Y |archive-date=27 December 2022 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 26:37
| title1 = Hey Unnai Thaane Nee Endha
| note1 =
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
| lyrics1 = [[Vairamuthu]]
| length1 = 4:36
| title2 = Jaathi Illai
| note2 =
| extra2 = [[Malaysia Vasudevan]]
| lyrics2 = [[Gangai Amaran]]
| length2 = 4:23
| title3 = Kaadhal Maharaani Kavidhai
| note3 =
| extra3 = S. P. Balasubramanyam, S. Janaki
| lyrics3 = [[Muthulingam (poet)|Muthulingam]]
| length3 = 4:28
| title4 = Kanalukkul Meen Pidithen
| note4 =
| extra4 = [[P. Susheela]]
| lyrics4 = [[Na. Kamarasan]]
| length4 = 4:33
| title5 = Koo Koo Endru Kuyil Koovaadho
| note5 =
| extra5 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. Janaki
| lyrics5 = [[Pulamaipithan]]
| length5 = 4:26
| title6 = Puraakale Puraakale
| note6 =
| extra6 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[K. S. Chithra]]
| lyrics6 = Vairamuthu
| length6 = 4:11
}}
The movie was dubbed into Telugu as Kedi
{{Track listing
|extra_column= Singer(s)
|title1 = Jaathi Eandhi
|extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
|title2 = Kanule Palikene
|extra2 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
|title3 = Koo Koo Koyile
|extra3 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. P. Sailaja]]
|title4 = Hey Ninne Ninee
|extra4 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
|title5 = Amavasa Nisilo
|extra5 = [[S. Janaki]]
}}

== Reception ==
[[Subha (writers)|Jayamanmadhan]] of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' wrote that though the film had Haasan, Ambika, Radha, songs, dance, fights and chasing among others, it lacked completion.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜெயமன்மதன் |author-link=Subha (writers) |date=8 February 1987 |title=காதல் பரிசு |url=https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1987/feb/08-02-1987/p38.jpg |url-status=dead |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |language=ta |page=38 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220730033919/https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1987/feb/08-02-1987/p38.jpg |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=18 August 2023}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

{{A. Jagannathan}}

[[Category:1987 Indian films]]
[[Category:1987 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1987 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by A. Jagannathan]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Ira Sone

2026-02-24T02:27:29Z

MazidulIslamMilon: done

{{short description|Indian television actress}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{notability|Biographies|date=August 2014}}
{{BLP sources|date=December 2013}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ira Sone
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1989|07|04|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]],[[Maharashtra]], India
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2007{{endash}}present
}}

'''Ira Sone''' (previously '''Iira Soni''') is an Indian [[television]] [[actress]]. She played the role of Shanaya in Woodpecker (Ullu webseries) and Jeena in ''[[Desh Ki Beti Nandini]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131206094759/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-03/news/44709737_1_desh-ki-beti-nandini-rashmi-sharma-productions-saath-nibhana-saathiya Iira Soni back to TV with Desh Ki Beti Nandini - Indiatimes]</ref>

She has [[premature ovarian failure]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ira-sone-i-may-never-be-able-to-lead-a-normal-life-but-i-will-not-give-up/articleshow/67107977.cms |title=Ira Sone: I may never be able to lead a normal life, but I will not give up}}</ref>

== Television ==
* ''[[Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan]]'' as Neeti Damani / Neeti Rahul Wadhwa (2007–2008)
* ''[[Woh Rehne Waali Mehlon Ki]]'' as Riya Mehra
* ''[[Teen Bahuraaniyaan]]'' as Riya Gheewala
* ''[[Raja Ki Aayegi Baraat (TV series)|Raja Ki Aayegi Baraat]]'' as Rajkumari Nandini (2009)
* ''[[Saat Phere – Saloni Ka Safar]]'' as Kamini Singh (2009)
* ''[[Sabki Laadli Bebo]]'' as Simran Kapoor / Simran Karan Oberoi (2009)
* ''[[Saath Nibhaana Saathiya]]'' as Anita Mehta (2010; 2012)
* ''[[Geet – Hui Sabse Parayi]]'' as Nitya (2010)
* ''[[Sawaare Sabke Sapne... Preeto]]'' as Ishmeet "Ishu" Dhillon / Ishmeet Dhruv Ahluwalia (2011–2012)
* ''[[Desh Ki Beti Nandini]]'' as Jeena Khurana (2013)
*''[[Kundali Bhagya]]'' as Nidhi "Nidz" Hinduja Luthra (2023)

== Web Series ==
* [[Ullu]] ''Charmsukh - Sauda'' as Sumedha (2019)
* [[Ullu]] ''Woodpecker'' as Shanaya (2020)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|10158347}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sone, Ira}}
[[Category:Indian soap opera actresses]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1989 births]]

{{India-tv-actor-stub}}

Standard language

2026-02-13T13:39:36Z

MazidulIslamMilon:

{{Short description|Language variety with substantially codified usage}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
A '''standard language''' (or '''standard variety''', '''standard dialect''', '''standardized dialect''' or simply '''standard''') is any [[variety (linguistics)|language variety]] that has undergone substantial [[Codification (linguistics)|codification]] in its [[grammar]], [[lexicon]], [[writing system]], or other features and that stands out among related varieties in a community as the one with the highest status or [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige]].{{sfnp|Richards|Schmidt|2010|p=554}}{{sfnp|Finegan|2007|p=14}} Often, it is the prestige language variety of a whole country.{{sfnp|Richards|Schmidt|2010|p=554}}

In [[linguistics]], the process of a variety becoming organized into a standard, for instance by being widely expounded in [[grammar books]] or other reference works,{{sfnp|Finegan|2007|p=14}} and also the process of making people's language usage conform to that standard,{{sfnp|Richards|Schmidt|2010|p=552}} is called '''standardization'''. Typically, the varieties that undergo standardization are those associated with centres of commerce and government,{{sfnp|Auer|2011|pp=492–493}}{{sfnp|Finegan|2007|p=14}} used frequently by educated people and in [[news broadcasting]], and taught widely in schools and to non-native learners of the language.<ref name = "Trudgill">Trudgill, Peter (2009). ''Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society''. Penguin Books, 5–6.</ref>{{sfnp|Richards|Schmidt|2010|p=554}} Within a language community, standardization usually begins with a particular variety being selected (often towards a goal of further linguistic uniformity), accepted by influential people, socially and culturally spread, established in opposition to competitor varieties, maintained, increasingly used in diverse contexts, and assigned a high social status as a result of the variety being linked to the most successful people.{{sfnp|Milroy|Milroy|2012|p=22}} As a sociological effect of these processes, most users of a standard dialect—and many users of other dialects of the same language—come to believe that the standard is inherently superior to, or consider it the linguistic baseline against which to judge, the other dialects.{{sfnp|Davila|2016}} However, such beliefs are firmly rooted in social perceptions rather than any objective evaluation.<ref name = "Trudgill"/> Any varieties that do not carry high social status in a community (and thus may be defined in opposition to standard dialects) are called nonstandard or [[vernacular]] dialects.

The standardization of a language is a continual process, because language is always [[language change|changing]] and a language in use cannot be permanently standardized.{{sfnp|Williams|1983}} Standardization may originate from a motivation to make the written form of a language more uniform, as is the case of [[Standard English]].{{sfnp|Milroy|Milroy|2012|p=245}} Typically, standardization processes include efforts to stabilize the [[Orthography|spelling]] of the prestige dialect, to [[Codification (linguistics)|codify]] usages and particular ([[Denotation|denotative]]) meanings through formal [[grammar]]s and [[dictionary|dictionaries]], and to encourage public acceptance of the codifications as intrinsically correct.{{sfnp|Carter|1999}}{{sfnp|Bex|2008}} In that vein, a [[pluricentric language]] has interacting standard varieties.{{sfnp|Stewart|1968|p=534}}{{sfnp|Kloss|1967|p=31}}{{sfnp|Clyne|1992|p=1}} Examples are [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[German language|German]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Serbo-Croatian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Mandarin Chinese]].{{sfnp|Clyne|1992|pp=1–3}}{{sfnp|Kordić|2007}} Monocentric languages, such as [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], have one standardized idiom.{{sfnp|Clyne|1992|p=3}}

The term ''standard language'' occasionally refers also to the entirety of a language that includes a standardized form as one of its varieties.{{sfnp|Сулейменова|2006|pp=53–55}}{{sfnp|Kapović|2011|pp=46–48}} In Europe, a standardized [[written language]] is sometimes identified with the German word {{lang|de|Schriftsprache}} (written language). The term ''[[literary language]]'' is occasionally used as a synonym for ''standard language'', a naming convention still prevalent in the [[Slavic languages|linguistic traditions of eastern Europe.]]{{sfnp|Dunaj|1989|p=134}}{{sfnp|Соціологія}} In contemporary linguistic usage, the terms ''standard dialect'' and ''standard variety'' are neutral synonyms for the term ''standard language'', usages which indicate that the standard language is one of many dialects and varieties of a language, rather than the totality of the language, whilst minimizing the negative implication of [[Social stratification|social subordination]] that the standard is the only form worthy of the label "language".{{sfnp|Starčević|2016|p=69}}{{sfnp|Vogl|2012|p=15}}

== Linguistic standardization ==
The term ''standard language'' identifies a repertoire of broadly recognizable conventions in spoken and written communications used in a society; the term implies neither a socially ideal idiom nor a culturally superior form of speech.{{sfnp|Charity Hudley|Mallinson|2011}} These conventions develop from related dialects, usually by social action (ethnic and cultural unification) that elevate discourse patterns associated with perceived centres of culture, or more rarely, by deliberately defining the norms of standard language with selected linguistic features drawn from the existing dialects, as in the case of [[Modern Hebrew]].{{sfnp|McArthur|McArthur|1992|p=980}}{{sfnp|Ammon|2004|p=275}}

Either course of events typically results in a relatively fixed orthography codified in [[linguistic prescription|grammars]] and normative [[Dictionary|dictionaries]], in which users can also sometimes find illustrative examples drawn from literary, legal, or religious texts.{{sfnp|Ammon|2004|p=275}} Whether grammars and dictionaries are created by the state or by private citizens (e.g. ''[[Webster's Dictionary]]''), some users regard such linguistic codifications as authoritative for correcting the spoken and written forms of the language.{{sfnp|Ammon|2004|p=276}} Effects of such codifications include slowing the pace of [[Historical linguistics|diachronic]] change in the standardized variety and affording a basis for further linguistic development (''[[Ausbau]]'').{{sfnp|Ammon|2004|p=275}} In the practices of broadcasting and of official communications, the standard usually functions as a normalizing reference for speech and writing. In educational contexts, it usually informs the version of the language taught to non-native learners.{{sfnp|Trudgill|2006|p=119}}

In those ways, the standard variety acquires [[prestige (sociolinguistics)|social prestige]] and greater functional importance than [[nonstandard dialect]]s,{{sfnp|Trudgill|2006|p=119}} which depend upon or are [[autonomy and heteronomy|heteronomous]] with respect to the standard idiom. Standard usage serves as the linguistic authority, as in the case of specialist [[terminology]]; moreover, the standardization of spoken forms is oriented towards the codified standard.{{sfnp|Chambers|Trudgill|1998|p=9}} Historically, a standard language arises in two ways: (i) in the case of [[Standard English]], linguistic standardization occurs informally and piecemeal, without formal government intervention; (ii) in the cases of the French and Spanish languages, linguistic standardization occurs formally, directed by [[Linguistic prescription|prescriptive]] language institutions, such as the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie Française]]|italic=no}} and the [[Royal Spanish Academy]], which respectively produce ''Le bon français'' and ''El buen español''.{{sfnp|McArthur|McArthur|1992|p=290}}{{sfnp|Trudgill|2006|p=119}}

A standard variety can be conceptualized in two ways: (i) as the [[sociolect]] of a given [[Social stratification|socio-economic stratum]] or (ii) as the normative codification of a [[dialect]], an idealized abstraction.{{sfnp|Van Mol|2003|p=11}} Hence, the full standardization of a language is impractical, because a standardized dialect cannot fully function as a real entity, but does function as set of linguistic norms observed to varying degrees in the course of ''[[usus]]'' – of how people actually speak and write the language.{{sfnp|Starčević|2016|p=71}}{{sfnp|Romaine|2008|p=685}} In practice, the language varieties identified as standard are neither uniform nor fully stabilized, especially in their spoken forms.{{sfnp|Milroy|2007}} From that perspective, the linguist [[Suzanne Romaine]] says that standard languages can be conceptually compared to the [[imagined communities]] of ''nation'' and ''nationalism'', as described by the political scientist [[Benedict Anderson]],{{sfnp|Romaine|2008|p=685}} which indicates that linguistic standardization is the result of a society's history and sociology, and thus is not a universal phenomenon;{{sfnp|Romaine|2008|p=685}} of the approximately 7,000 contemporary spoken languages, most do not have a codified standard dialect.{{sfnp|Romaine|2008|p=685}}

Politically, in the formation of a nation-state, identifying and cultivating a standard variety can serve efforts to establish a shared culture among the social and economic groups who compose the new nation-state.{{sfnp|Inoue|2006|p=122}} Different national standards, derived from a [[dialect continuum|continuum of dialects]], might be treated as discrete languages (along with heteronomous vernacular dialects){{sfnp|Trudgill|2004}} even if there are [[mutually intelligible]] varieties among them,{{sfnp|Stewart|1968}}{{sfnp|Chambers|Trudgill|1998|p=11}} such as the [[North Germanic language]]s of Scandinavia (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish).{{sfnp|Chambers|Trudgill|1998|pp=3–4}} Moreover, in political praxis, either a government or a neighbouring population might deny the cultural status of a standard language.{{sfnp|Inoue|2006|pp=123–124}} In response to such political interference, linguists develop a standard variety from elements of the different dialects used by a society.

For example, when Norway became independent from Denmark in 1814, the only written language was Danish. Different Norwegian dialects were spoken in rural districts and provincial cities, but people with higher education and upper-class urban people spoke "Danish with a Norwegian pronunciation". Based upon the bourgeois speech of the capital [[Oslo]] (Christiania) and other major cities, several orthographic reforms, notably in 1907 and 1917, resulted in the official standard [[Riksmål]], in 1929 renamed [[Bokmål]] ('book tongue'). The philologist [[Ivar Aasen]] (1813–1896) considered urban and upper-class [[Dano-Norwegian]] too similar to Danish, so he developed [[Landsmål]] ('country tongue'), the standard based upon the dialects of western Norway. In 1885 the [[Storting]] (parliament) declared both forms official and equal. In 1929 it was officially renamed [[Nynorsk]] (New Norwegian).

Likewise, in [[Yugoslavia]] (1945–1992), when the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] (1963–1991) developed their national language from the dialect continuum demarcated by Serbia to the north and Bulgaria to the east, their [[Standard Macedonian]] was based upon vernaculars from the west of the republic, which were the dialects most linguistically different from standard [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], the previous linguistic norm used in that region of the [[Balkan peninsula]]. Although Macedonian functions as the standard language of the [[Republic of North Macedonia]], nonetheless, for political and cultural reasons, Bulgarians treat Macedonian as a Bulgarian dialect.{{sfnp|Trudgill|1992|pp=173–174}}

==Examples==
{{see also|List of language regulators}}

===Chinese===
[[Chinese language|Chinese]] consists of hundreds of [[varieties of Chinese|local varieties]], many of which are not mutually intelligible, usually classified into seven to ten major groups, including [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], [[Wu Chinese|Wu]], [[Yue Chinese|Yue]], [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] and [[Min Chinese|Min]].
Before the 20th century, most Chinese spoke only their local variety.
For two millennia, formal writing had been done in [[Classical Chinese]], a style modelled on the [[Chinese classics|classics]] and far removed from any contemporary speech.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=108–109, 245}}
As a practical measure, officials of the late imperial dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|common language based on Mandarin varieties]], known as ''Guānhuà'' (literally "speech of officials").{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=133, 136}}

In the early 20th century, many Chinese intellectuals argued that the country needed a standardized language.
By the 1920s, Literary Chinese had been replaced as the written standard by [[written vernacular Chinese]], which was based on Mandarin dialects.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=133–134}}
In the 1930s, [[Standard Chinese]] was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the [[Beijing dialect]], but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties and its syntax based on the written vernacular.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=135}}
It is the official spoken language of the [[China|People's Republic of China]] (where it is called ''Pǔtōnghuà'' "common speech"), the de facto official language of the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] governing Taiwan (as ''Guóyǔ'' "national language") and one of the official languages of [[Singapore]] (as ''Huáyǔ'' "Chinese language").{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=136–137}}
[[Standard Chinese]] now dominates public life, and is much more widely studied than any other [[Varieties of Chinese|variety of Chinese]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=247}}

===English in the United Kingdom===
{{Further|Standard English}}
In the United Kingdom, the standard language is [[British English]], which is based upon the language of the medieval [[court of Chancery]] of England and Wales.{{sfnp|Smith|1996}} In the late-seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, [[Standard English]] became established as the linguistic norm of the [[Social class in the United Kingdom|upper class]], composed of the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom|peerage]] and the [[gentry]].{{sfnp|Blake|1996}} Socially, the accent of the spoken version of the standard language then indicated that the speaker was a man or a woman possessed of a good education, and thus of high [[reputation|social prestige]].{{sfnp|Baugh|Cable|2002}} In England and Wales, Standard English is usually associated with [[Received Pronunciation]], "the standard accent of English as spoken in the [[Southern England|south of England]]", but it may also be spoken with other accents, and in other countries still other accents are used ([[Australian English|Australian]], [[Canadian English|Canadian]], [[American English|American]], [[Scottish English|Scottish]], etc.).{{sfnp|Pearsall|1999|p=xiv}}

===Greek===
The standard form of [[Modern Greek]] is based on the [[Varieties of Modern Greek#Modern varieties|Southern dialects]]; these dialects are spoken mainly in the [[Peloponnese]], the [[Ionian Islands]], [[Attica]], [[Crete]] and the [[Cyclades]].{{sfnp|Horrocks|1997}}

===Hindi–Urdu===
Two standardized [[register (sociolinguistics)|registers]] of the [[Hindustani language]] have legal status in India: [[Standard Hindi]] (one of 23 co-official national languages) and [[Urdu]] ([[Pakistan]]'s official tongue); as a result, Hindustani is often called "Hindi-Urdu".{{sfnp|Blum|2002}}

===Irish===
{{main article|An Caighdeán Oifigiúil}}
{{Lang|ga|[[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil]]}} ('The Official Standard'), often shortened to {{Lang|ga|An Caighdeán}}, is the official standard of the [[Irish language]]. It was first published by the translators in [[Dáil Éireann]] in the 1950s.{{sfnp|BBC|2005}} As of September 2013,{{sfnp|Ní Shúilleabháin|2012}} the first major revision of the Caighdeán Oifigiúil is available, both online{{sfnp|Eachach|2012}} and in print.{{sfnp|Foilseacháin Rialtais|2012|p=2|ps=: "M67B Gramadach na Gaeilge 9781406425766 390 10.00."}} Among the changes to be found in the revised version are, for example, various attempts to bring the recommendations of the Caighdeán closer to the spoken dialect of Gaeltacht speakers,{{sfnp|Eachach|2012|p=2|ps=: "Rinneadh iarracht ar leith san athbhreithniú seo foirmeacha agus leaganacha atá ar fáil go tréan sa chaint sna mórchanúintí a áireamh sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil Athbhreithnithe sa tslí is go mbraithfeadh an gnáthchainteoir mórchanúna go bhfuil na príomhghnéithe den chanúint sin aitheanta sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil agus, mar sin, gur gaire don ghnáthchaint an Caighdeán Oifigiúil anois ná mar a bhíodh."}} including allowing further use of the nominative case where the genitive would historically have been found.{{sfnp|Eachach|2012|p=7|ps=: "Triaileadh, mar shampla, aitheantas a thabhairt don leathnú atá ag teacht ar úsáid fhoirm an ainmnigh in ionad an ghinidigh sa chaint."}}

===Italian===
Standard [[Italian language|Italian]] is derived from the [[Tuscan dialect]], specifically from its [[Florentine dialect|Florentine variety]]—the Florentine influence upon early [[Italian literature]] established that dialect as base for the standard language of Italy.{{sfnp|Maiden|2014|p=3}}{{sfnp|Coletti|2011|p=318|ps=
, quote="L'italiano di oggi ha ancora in gran parte la stessa grammatica e usa ancora lo stesso lessico del fiorentino letterario del Trecento."}} In particular, Italian became the language of culture for all the people of Italy, thanks to the prestige of the masterpieces of Florentine authors like [[Dante Alighieri]], as well as to the political and cultural significance of Florence at the time and the fact that it was linguistically an intermediate between the northern and the southern Italian dialects.{{sfnp|Lepschy|Lepschy|1988|p=22}} It would later become the official language of all the [[Historical states of Italy|Italian states]], and after the [[Italian unification]] it became the [[national language]] of the [[Kingdom of Italy]].{{sfnp|Maiden|2014|pp=7–9}} Modern Standard [[Italian language|Italian]]'s lexicon has been deeply influenced by almost all [[Languages of Italy|regional languages of Italy]].

===Latin===
The standard language in the [[Roman Republic]] (509 BC – 27 BC) and the [[Roman Empire]] (27 BC – AD 1453) was [[Classical Latin]], the literary dialect spoken by upper classes of Roman society, whilst [[Vulgar Latin]] was the [[sociolect]] (colloquial language) spoken by the educated and uneducated peoples of the middle and the lower social classes of Roman society. The Latin language that Roman armies introduced to [[Gaul]], [[Hispania]], and [[Dacia]] had a grammar, syntax, and vocabulary different from the Classical Latin spoken and written by the statesman [[Cicero]].{{sfnp|Palmer|1988}}

===Portuguese===

====Brazil====
In Brazil, actors and journalists usually adopt an unofficial, but ''[[de facto]]'', spoken standard of [[Brazilian Portuguese]], originally derived from the middle-class dialects of [[Rio de Janeiro (city)|Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Brasília]], but that now encompasses educated urban pronunciations from the different speech communities in the southeast. This artificial accent is called [[:pt:Dialeto_neutro|''sotaque neutro'']]. In that standard, {{angbr|s}} represents the phoneme {{IPA|/s/}} when it appears at the end of a syllable (whereas in Rio de Janeiro this represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}) and the [[rhotic consonant]] spelled {{angbr|r}} is pronounced {{IPA|[h]}} in the same situation (whereas in [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]] this is usually an [[alveolar flap]] or [[alveolar trill|trill]]).

The [[sociolect]] of [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige]] of ''[[mineiro]]'' spoken in the capital of [[Minas Gerais]], [[Belo Horizonte]], is the accent from Brazilian Portuguese that is the nearest to ''sotaque neutro''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vieira Lima Neto |first=Newton |date=2018 |title=BRASÍLIA, SUA GENTE, SEUS SOTAQUES: DIFUSÃO CANDANGA E FOCALIZAÇÃO BRASILIENSE NA CAPITAL FEDERAL |url=http://icts.unb.br/jspui/bitstream/10482/34808/1/2018_NewtonVieiraLimaNeto.pdf |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=University of Brasília |archive-date=14 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914230041/http://icts.unb.br/jspui/bitstream/10482/34808/1/2018_NewtonVieiraLimaNeto.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Africa and Europe====
European and African dialects have differing realizations of {{IPA|/ʁ/}} than Brazilian dialects, with the former using {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[r]}} and the latter using {{IPA|[x]}}, {{IPA|[h]}}, or {{IPA|[χ]}}.{{sfnp|Mateus|d'Andrade|2000|pp=5–6, 11}}

===Serbo-Croatian===
Four standard variants of the [[Pluricentric language#Serbo-Croatian|pluricentric Serbo-Croatian]] are spoken in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Serbia]].{{sfnp|Kordić|2007}}{{sfnp|Šipka|2019|pp=166,206}} They all have the [[Language secessionism#In Serbo-Croatian|same dialect]] basis ([[Shtokavian dialect|Štokavian]]).{{sfnp|Blum|2002}}{{sfnp|Brozović|1992|pp=347–380}}{{sfnp|Kristophson|2000|pp=178–186}} These variants do differ slightly, as is the case with other pluricentric languages,{{sfnp|Blum|2002}}{{sfnp|Kordić|2009}} but not to a degree that would justify considering them as [[Language secessionism#In Serbo-Croatian|different languages]]. The differences between the variants do not hinder mutual intelligibility and do not undermine the integrity of the system as a whole.{{sfnp|Pohl|1996|p=214, 219}}{{sfnp|Kordić|2004}}{{sfnp|Kafadar|2009|p=103}} Compared to the differences between the variants of English, German, French, Spanish, or Portuguese, the distinctions between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant.{{sfnp|Thomas|2003|p=314}}{{sfnp|Methadžović|2015}}Nonetheless, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro have all named the language differently in their constitutions.{{sfnp|Gröschel|2009|p=344–350}}

===Somali===
In [[Somalia]], [[Somali language#Varieties|Northern Somali]] (or North-Central Somali) forms the basis for [[Somali language|Standard Somali]],{{sfnp|Dalby|1998|p=571}} particularly the [[Mudug]] dialect of the northern [[Darod]] clan. Northern Central Somali has frequently been used by famous [[List of Somali poets|Somali poets]] as well as the political elite, and thus has the most prestige among other Somali dialects.{{sfnp|Saeed|1999|p=5}}

==Encoding==
The [[Unicode]] [[Common Locale Data Repository]] uses {{code|001}} as the region subtag for a standardized form such as {{code|ar-001}} for [[Modern Standard Arabic]].<ref name="TR35">{{cite web |last1=Davis |first1=Mark |title=Unicode Locale Data Markup Language (LDML) |url=https://unicode.org/reports/tr35/#unicode_region_subtag_validity |website=unicode.org |access-date=13 December 2023 |language=en |date=2023-10-25}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Classical language]]
* [[Covert prestige]]
* [[Koiné language]]
* [[Language secessionism]]
* [[Literary language]]
* [[National language]]
* [[Nonstandard dialect]]
* [[Official language]]
* [[Vernacular]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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|language=pl
}}
*{{cite book
|editor-last=Eachach
|editor-first=Vivian Uíbh
|title=An Caighdeán Oifigiúil—Caighdeán Athbhreithnithe
|year=2012
|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/michelle/Final-Version.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506010907/http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/michelle/Final-Version.pdf
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=2013-05-06
|publisher=Seirbhís Thithe an Oireachtais
|access-date=2012-08-02
|language=Irish
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Finegan
|first=Edward
|year=2007
|title=Language: Its Structure and Use
|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth
|location=Boston, MA
|edition=5th
|isbn=978-1-4130-3055-6
}}
*{{cite web
|title=Foilseacháin Rialtais / Government Publications—Don tSeachtain dar críoch 25 Iúil 2012 / For the week ended 25 July 2012
|url=http://www.opw.ie/en/media/wl25072012.pdf
|publisher=Rialtas na hÉireann
|access-date=2012-08-02
|language=Irish, en
|date=27 July 2012
|quote=M67B Gramadach na Gaeilge 9781406425766 390 10.00
|ref={{harvid| Foilseacháin Rialtais|2012}}
}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite book
|last=Gröschel
|first=Bernhard
|author-link=Bernhard Gröschel
|year=2009
|language=de
|title=Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit
|trans-title=Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute
|series=Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics
|volume=34
|location=Munich
|publisher=Lincom Europa
|isbn=978-3-929075-79-3
|oclc=428012015
|lccn=2009473660
|ol=15295665W
}}
*{{cite book
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|first=Geoffrey
|year=1997
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|publisher=Longman
|edition=1st
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}}
* {{cite book
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|first=M.
|year=2006
|chapter=Standardization
|pages=121–127
|title=Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
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|editor-first=Keith
|editor-last=Brown
|publisher=Elsevier
|edition=2nd
|isbn=978-0-08-044299-0
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Kafadar
|first=Enisa
|editor1-last=Henn-Memmesheimer
|year=2009
|editor1-first=Beate
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|chapter=Bosnisch, Kroatisch, Serbisch – Wie spricht man eigentlich in Bosnien-Herzegowina?
|trans-chapter=Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian – How do people really speak in Bosnia-Herzegovina?
|title=Die Ordnung des Standard und die Differenzierung der Diskurse; Teil 1
|publisher=Peter Lang
|pages=95–106
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}}
*{{cite journal
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|title=Slavistische Linguistik 2002: Referate des XXVIII. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens, Bochum 10.-12. September 2002
|series=Slavistishe Beiträge; vol. 434
|publisher=Otto Sagner
|pages=97–148
|language=de
|chapter=Pro und kontra: "Serbokroatisch" heute
|trans-chapter=Pro and contra: "Serbo-Croatian" nowadays
|chapter-url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF
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|pages=71–78
|language=fr
|chapter=La langue croate, serbe, bosniaque et monténégrine
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|chapter-url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/429734.LA_LANGUE_CROATE_SERBE.PDF
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*{{cite book
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|first = Snježana
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|editor3-first = Josip
|title = Jezični varijeteti i nacionalni identiteti
|publisher = Disput
|pages = 83–108
|language = sh
|chapter = Policentrični standardni jezik
|trans-chapter = Polycentric Standard Language
|chapter-url = http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/426269.POLICENTRICNI_STANDARDNI.PDF
|url-status = live
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|isbn = 978-953-260-054-4
|oclc = 437306433
|ssrn = 3438216
|id = {{CROSBI|426269}}
|archive-date = 4 August 2012
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}}
* {{cite book
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|year=2010
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|url-status=live
|series=Rotulus Universitas
|location=Zagreb
|publisher=Durieux
|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3467646
|isbn=978-953-188-311-5
|lccn=2011520778
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}}
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|trans-title=Scientific truth
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|editor3-first=Peter
|title=The Routledge Companion to Sociolinguistics
|location=London
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|access-date=2012-08-02
|newspaper=Gaelport.com
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}}
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* {{cite book
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|year=1999
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*{{cite book
|last=Pohl
|first=Hans-Dieter
|year=1996
|editor-last=Ohnheiser
|editor-first=Ingeborg
|chapter=Serbokroatisch - Rückblick und Ausblick
|title=Wechselbeziehungen zwischen slawischen Sprachen, Literaturen und Kulturen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart: Akten der Tagung aus Anlaß des 25jährigen Bestehens des Instituts für Slawistik an der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 25. - 27. Mai 1995
|series=Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Slavica aenipontana
|volume=4
|publisher=Non Lieu
|pages=205–221
|language=de
|trans-chapter=Serbo-Croatian – Looking backward and forward |location=Innsbruck
|oclc=243829127
}}
*{{Cite book
|last1=Richards
|first1=Jack Croft
|last2= Schmidt
|first2= Richard W.
|year=2010
|title=Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
|publisher=Pearson Education Limited
|isbn=978-1-4082-0460-3
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Romaine
|first=Suzanne
|year=2008
|chapter=Linguistic Diversity and Language Standardization
|editor-last=Hellinger
|editor-first=Marlis
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|editor2-first=Anne
|title=Handbook of Language and Communication: Diversity and Change
|isbn=9783110198539
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
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}}
* {{cite book
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*{{cite book
|last=Silverstein
|first=Michael
|year=1996
|chapter=Monoglot 'Standard' in America: Standardization and Metaphors of Linguistic Hegemony
|editor-last= Brennis
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|editor2-last= Macaulay
|editor2-first= Ronald H.S
|title=The Matrix of Language
|publisher=Routledge
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*{{cite book
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|year=2019
|title=Lexical layers of identity: words, meaning, and culture in the Slavic languages
|location=New York
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|doi=10.1017/9781108685795
|isbn=978-953-313-086-6
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}}
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|url=https://stud.com.ua/76146/sotsiologiya/literaturna_mova_standart
|work=Соціологія
|access-date=2019-01-13
|language=uk
|ref={{harvid|Соціологія}}
}}
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|journal=Suvremena Lingvistika
|volume=81
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|publisher=University of Zagreb
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|last=Stewart
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|author-link=William Alexander Stewart
|year=1968
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|title=Readings in the Sociology of Language
|publisher=Mouton
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|chapter=A Sociolinguistic Typology for Describing National Multilingualism
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|year=2006
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|publisher=Российская академия наук. Институт языкознания. Российская академия лингвистических наук
|location=Moscow
|language=ru
}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Thomas
|first=Paul-Louis
|year=2003
|title=Le serbo-croate (bosniaque, croate, monténégrin, serbe): de l'étude d'une langue à l'identité des langues
|trans-title=Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, Serbian): from the study of a language to the identity of languages
|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/slave_0080-2557_2002_num_74_2_6801
|language=fr
|journal=Revue des études slaves
|volume=74
|issue=2–3
|pages=311–325
|doi=10.3406/slave.2002.6801
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}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Trudgill
|first=Peter
|author-link=Peter Trudgill
|title=Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe
|journal=International Journal of Applied Linguistics
|year=1992
|volume=2
|number=2
|pages=167–177
|doi=10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Trudgill
|first=Peter
|year=2004
|chapter = Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe
|editor= Anna Duszak, Urszula Okulska
|title =Speaking from the margin: global English from a European perspective
|location= Frankfurt
|publisher =Peter Lang
|pages=35–49
|language=en
|isbn=9783631526637
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Trudgill
|first=Peter
|year=2006
|chapter=Standard and Dialect Vocabulary
|pages=119–121
|title=Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
|volume=12
|editor-first=Keith
|editor-last=Brown
|publisher=Elsevier
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}}
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|last=Van Mol
|first=Mark
|year=2003
|title=Variation in Modern Standard Arabic in Radio News Broadcasts: A Synchronic Descriptive Investigation into the Use of Complementary Particles
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|last=Vogl
|first=Ulrike
|year=2012
|editor-last=Hüning
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|editor3-last=Moliner
|editor3-first=Olivier
|chapter=Multilingualism in a Standard Language Culture
|title=Standard Languages and Multilingualism in European History
|series=Multilingualism and diversity management
|volume=1
|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZqBCTDxqcgC
|isbn=9789027200556
}}
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|last=Williams
|first=Raymond
|year=1983
|chapter=Standards
|title=Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society'
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|pages=296–299
}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|last=Ammon
|first=Ulrich
|year=1995
|language=de
|title=Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietäten
|trans-title=German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties
|location=Berlin & New York
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
|oclc=33981055
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Joseph
|first=John E.
|year=1987
|title=Eloquence and Power: The Rise of Language Standards and Standard Languages
|location=New York
|publisher=Blackwell
|isbn=978-1-55786-001-9
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kloss
|first=Heinz
|chapter=Abstandsprachen und Ausbausprachen
|trans-chapter=Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages
|editor1-last=Göschel
|editor1-first=Joachim
|editor2-last=Nail
|editor2-first=Norbert
|editor3-last=van der Elst
|editor3-first=Gaston
|title=Zur Theorie des Dialekts: Aufsätze aus 100 Jahren Forschung
|publisher=F. Steiner
|pages=301–322
|series=Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, Beihefte, n.F., Heft 16
|location=Wiesbaden
|year=1976
|oclc=2598722
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|standard language|standard variety|standard dialect|literary language}}
*{{Commonscatinline|Standard languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Standard languages| ]]
[[Category:Language]]
[[Category:Language varieties and styles]]
[[Category:Promotion of national languages|*]]
[[Category:Diglossia]]
[[Category:Dialectology]]
[[Category:Sociolinguistics]]
[[Category:Linguistics terminology]]

Ramesan Mullassery

2026-02-07T22:33:20Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Starting basic data first draft...

{{Infobox writer
| name = Ramesan Mullassery
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| pseudonym =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Piravom]], [[Kerala]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Writer, short story writer, novelist
| period =
| genre =
| subject =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents =
| movement =
| notableworks = {{ubl|''Gobaraha''|''Shootout''|''Mudiyett- Oru Padanam''}}
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards = {{ubl|[[Vettoor Raman Nair|Vettoor Raman Nair Katha Sammanam]] (2023)|[[M. P. Paul |M. P. Paul Short story Special Jury Prize]] (2025)}}
| signature =
| website =
}}

'''Ramesan Mullassery''' is an Indian writer, short story writer and novelist who writes in [[Malayalam]] language. He has written a number of books, covering children's literature, mythological and biblical stories, sports -based novels and studies in ancient art forms and culture. He received the [[Vettoor Raman Nair|Vettoor Raman Nair Katha Sammanam]] in 2023.<ref name="Author profile - Keralaliterature.com">{{Cite news |last=admin |date=February 18, 2025 |title=Author Profile - Keralaliterature.com |url=https://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250327231212/https://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF/ |archive-date=2025-03-27 |access-date=2025-10-21 |work=Keralaliterature.com |language=en-US}}</ref> He is also a recipient of the 2025 [[M. P. Paul |M. P. Paul Short story Special Jury Prize]].<ref name="MP Paul Short Story Award presented to Ash Ashita">{{Cite web |date=July 12, 2025 |title=MP Paul Short Story Award presented to Ash Ashita |url=https://newspaper.mathrubhumi.com/kottayam/news/kottayam-1.10742214 |access-date=2025-10-21 |website=Newspaper |language=en}}</ref>

Mullassery, born in [[Piravom]], in [[Ernakulam district]] of the south Indian state of [[Kerala]], served in [[Government of Kerala|Kerala Government]] service and superannuated from service as [[Tehsildar]].<ref name="Present day relevance of Charvaka">{{Cite web |title=Present day relevance of Charvaka |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/literature/literaryworld/2022/01/15/kadhayude-vazhi-column-by-ravivarma-thampuran-on-writer-ramesan-mullassery.html |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Manorama Online |language=ml}}</ref> His first book, ''Injury Time''<ref name="Injury Time">{{Cite web |title=Injury Time |url=https://keralabookstore.com/book/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%82/10305/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=KeralaBookStore.com |language=ml}}</ref> was published in 2017, a novel with football as background which was followed by ''Arjuna Kathakal'',<ref name="Arjunakathakal">{{Cite web |title=Arjunakathakal |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/105695858-arjunakathakal |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> published the next year, which is a compilation of stories from [[Mahabharata]] for children. ''Barbareekam'', a novel based on a character of Mahabharata,<ref name="Barbareekam">{{Cite web |title=Barbareekam |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/105695843-barbareekam |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> named [[Barbarika|Barbareekan]], ''Kalamboor Republic'', a novel on the pre-independent Kerala,<ref name="Kalamboor Republic">{{Cite web |title=Kalamboor Republic |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/43814948-kalamboor-republic |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> ''Shootout'',<ref name="Rameshan Mullassery's Novel Shootout">{{Cite web |date=October 21, 2022 |title=Rameshan Mullassery's Novel Shootout |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/books/excerpts/excerpts-from-the-novel-shootout-by-ramesan-mullasery-mathrubhumi-books-1.7977973 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Shootout">{{Cite web |title=Shootout |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/206123630-shootout |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> another novel with football as the background, ''Gobaraha'', inspired by the life of [[Palwankar Baloo]], the legendary cricketer and political activist,<ref name="Cricket and Caste {{!}} A novel called 'Gobaraha' written by Ramesan Mullassery {{!}} Madhyamam">{{Cite web |last=Neelakandan |first=C R |date=March 10, 2024 |title=Cricket and Caste {{!}} A novel called 'Gobaraha' written by Ramesan Mullassery {{!}} Madhyamam |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/culture/books/a-novel-called-gobaraha-written-by-ramesan-mullassery-1266114 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=www.madhyamam.com |language=ml}}</ref><ref name="The Times of a Dalit Cricketer and Questions of Human Dignity">{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Dr Vinil |date=December 5, 2023 |title=The Times of a Dalit Cricketer and Questions of Human Dignity - Truecopy Think |url=https://truecopythink.media/dalit/ramesan-mullasserys-goberaha-book-review-vinil-paul |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=truecopythink.media |language=en-us}}</ref> ''Namaan, Sandehiyude Suvisesham'' a novel fashioned out of the [[Old Testament]] story of Namaan,<ref name="Naaman Sandehiyude Suvisesham ">{{Cite web |date=September 6, 2025 |title=Naaman Sandehiyude Suvisesham |url=https://www.amazon.in/Naaman-Sandehiyude-Suvisesham-Ramesan-Mullassery/dp/9394315365/ref=sr_1_5?dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.JeXSLnxdBXkc_fJqqjhpnwbW56srasJelhU-TUmAsEcO58z_udYlr9ze-tzcN7P_ZBElxCf-FUsUocYv0HiF9Q8aFHGlLzxAusL4nDn0Dju9_DOxOoOPdQZYhnZ1IrngTvNMXpnIYyK6iznTDVCezw.T6Oe--jMUz8bT_pvvKBkRQLO-7b5BmxN5ltJcboe_Ic&dib_tag=se&qid=1757166000&refinements=p_27%3ARamesan+Mullassery&s=books&sr=1-5 |website=Amazon}}</ref> and another novel by name, ''Bhoopadathil Illathe Poyavar'', based on nomadic lives,<ref name="Bhoopadangalil Illaathepoyavar">{{Cite web |title=Bhoopadangalil Illaathepoyavar |url=https://www.bookbangtheory.co.in/product/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD-%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC/?srsltid=AfmBOorkjeCiUn7sIa_Nyl56irv1I7hB5lp_y-ce3XV9MdCvS4elQZmP |access-date=September 6, 2025 |website=Book Bang Theory}}</ref> ''Charvakanmar Undakunnathu'', a short story anthology are his other works.<ref name="Present day relevance of Charvaka" /> He has also written a book, ''Mudiyett - Oru Padanam'', which is a study on an ancient Kerala artform of the [[Mudiyett|same name]] and published by [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi|Kerala Sahithya Akademi]].<ref name="Mudiyett - Oru Padanam">{{Cite web |title=Mudiyett - Oru Padanam |url=https://keralabookstore.com/book/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D-%E0%B4%92%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81-%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82/1004343/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=KeralaBookStore.com |language=ml}}</ref> Mullassery, who lives in Piravom, has also written several short stories and articles in contemporary periodicals.<ref name="Ritual forms based on the Kali-Darika mythology">{{Cite web |title=Ritual forms based on the Kali-Darika mythology |url=https://themalabarjournal.com/post/tmj-outlook-ritual-forms-based-on-kali-darika-mythology-ramesan-mullassery |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=The Malabar Journal}}</ref><ref name="Jatropha milk, green lime and coconut flower bunch; Vaikom Satyagraha leaves the remaining questions - Truecopy Think">{{Cite web |last=Mullassery |first=Ramesan |date=April 5, 2023 |title=Jatropha milk, green lime and coconut flower bunch; Vaikom Satyagraha leaves the remaining questions - Truecopy Think |url=https://truecopythink.media/society/vaikom-satyagraha-ramesan-mullassery-writes |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=truecopythink.media |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="https://thasrak.com/author/ramesan-mullassery/">{{Cite web |date=July 7, 2020 |title=Thasrak |url=https://thasrak.com/author/ramesan-mullassery/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Thasrak |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="The Last Bus">{{Cite web |last=Mullaserry |first=Ramesan |title=The Last Bus |url=https://malayalam.indianexpress.com/literature/ramesan-mullassery-short-story-avasanathe-bus-4757723 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=malayalam.indianexpress.com |language=ml}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="width:75%"
! scope="col" style="width:40%" | Title
! scope="col" style="width:10%" | Year
! scope="col" style="width:25%" | Genre
|-
| ''Injury Time''<ref name="Injury Time" /> || 2017 || Novel
|-
| ''Arjuna Kathakal''<ref name="Arjunakathakal" /> || 2018 || Children's literature
|-
| ''Barbareekam''<ref name="Barbareekam" /> || 2018 || Short story anthology
|-
| ''Kalamboor Republic''<ref name="Kalamboor Republic" /> || 2018 || Novel
|-
| ''Charvakanmar Undakunnathu''<ref name="Present day relevance of Charvaka" /> || 2022 || Short story anthology
|-
| ''Shootout''<ref name="Shootout" /> || 2022 || Novel
|-
| ''Namaan, Sandehiyude Suvisesham''<ref name="Naaman Sandehiyude Suvisesham " /> || 2022 || Novel
|-
| ''Gobaraha''<ref name="The Times of a Dalit Cricketer and Questions of Human Dignity" /> || 2023 || Novel
|-
| ''Bhoopadathil Illathe Poyavar''<ref name="Bhoopadangalil Illaathepoyavar" /> || 2023 || Novel
|-
| ''Mudiyett''<ref name="Mudiyett - Oru Padanam" /> || 2025 || Classical study
|}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=40em}}
* [[Karunakaran (Malayalam writer)]]
* [[Palwankar Baloo]]
{{div col end}}
{{portal|India|Literature}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Cite web |title=Ramesan Mullassery |url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/18844144.Ramesan_Mullassery |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=www.goodreads.com}}
* {{Cite web |title=Ramesan Mullassery - author profile |url=https://www.saikathambooks.com/index.php?route=product/manufacturer/info&manufacturer_id=440 |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=www.saikathambooks.com |language=en}}
* {{Cite web |date=September 6, 2025 |title=Ramesan Mullassery |url=https://www.amazon.in/Books-Ramesan-Mullassery/s?rh=n%3A976389031%2Cp_27%3ARamesan%2BMullassery |website=Amazon}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite web |last=Mullaserry |first=Ramesan |title=Ragam Nalinakanthi |url=https://malayalam.indianexpress.com/literature/ramesan-mullasserry-short-story-ragam-nalinakanthi-521809/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=malayalam.indianexpress.com |language=ml}}
* {{Cite web |date=July 7, 2020 |title=Ramesan Mullassery writings |url=https://thasrak.com/author/ramesan-mullassery/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=Thasrak |language=en-US}}
* {{Cite web |title=Kadhayude Vazhi - column by Ravivarma Thampuran - on writer Ramesan Mullassery |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/literature/literaryworld/2022/01/15/kadhayude-vazhi-column-by-ravivarma-thampuran-on-writer-ramesan-mullassery.html |access-date=2025-10-21 |website=Manorama Online |language=ml}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mullassery, Ramesan}}
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian writers]]
[[Category:People from Kerala]]
[[Category:People from Ernakulam district]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian short story writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:Novelists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Malayalam short story writers]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language novelists]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language writers]]

Armida Fernandez

2026-01-31T11:19:23Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Stub

{{Short description|Indian neonatologist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Armida Fernandez
| image = Armida Fernandez in 2026.png
| alt = 
| caption = Fernandez in 2026
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{birth based on age as of date | 83 | 2026 | 7 | }}
| birth_place = [[Dharwad]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| father = [[Armando Menezes]]
| relatives = [[George Menezes]] (brother){{br}}[[Nicolau Menezes]] (uncle)
| occupation = [[Neonatologist]] and Pediatrician
| years_active =
| known_for = Asia's first [[human milk bank]]
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] (2026)
}}

'''Armida Fernandez''' (born {{birth based on age as of date | 83 | 2026 | 7 | |noage=yes}}) is an Indian [[neonatologist]] and pediatrician who drastically cut infant mortality.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carvalho |first=Nirmala |date=26 January 2026 |title=Catholic doctor, Armida Fernandez, receives the Padma Shri Award |url=https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Catholic-doctor-Armida-Fernandez-receives-the-Padma-Shri-Award-64718.html |access-date=28 January 2026 |work=PIME ASIA NEWS}}</ref> She is known for establishing [[Asia]]'s first [[human milk bank]] at the [[Lokmanya Tilak Municipal General Hospital]] (Sion Hospital) in [[Mumbai]] in 1989.<ref name="TOI25">{{Cite news |date=2026-01-26 |title=Goan doc who started Asia’s 1st human milk bank gets Padma Shri |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/goan-doc-who-started-asias-1st-human-milk-bank-gets-padma-shri/articleshow/127497701.cms |access-date=2026-01-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In 2026, she was awarded the [[Padma Shri]], India's fourth-highest civilian honor, for her contributions to medicine.<ref name="IE25">{{Cite web |date=2026-01-26 |title=Dr Armida Fernandez, neonatologist behind Asia’s first human milk bank, awarded Padma Shri |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/dr-armida-fernandez-neonatologist-padma-shri-10494935/ |access-date=2026-01-27 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Armida Fernandez was born in {{birth based on age as of date | 83 | 2026 | 7 | |noage=yes}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-26 |title=First human milk bank doctor on Padma Shri: ‘Mother’s milk is the first immunisation a child receives’ |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/health-wellness/first-human-milk-bank-doctor-on-padma-shri-mothers-milk-is-the-first-immunisation-a-child-receives-10495440/ |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> She is the daughter of [[Armando Menezes]], an Indian civil servant, writer, academic and poet who wrote in English. She was born in [[Dharwad]] in [[Karnataka]]. She completed her MBBS in [[Hubli]] and her post-graduation at [[KEM Hospital]], Bombay.<ref name="TOI25" />

==Career==
Fernandez joined the [[Lokmanya Tilak Municipal General Hospital]] (Sion Hospital). In 1977, she becomes the head of the Department of Neonatology<ref>{{Cite news|last=Vyawahare |first=Malavika |date=27 June 2014 |title=After 25 Years, Modest Gains at Mumbai Breast Milk Bank |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/india.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/after-25-years-modest-gains-at-mumbai-breast-milk-bank/ |access-date=28 January 2026 |work=achieved: THE NEW YORK TIMES}}</ref>. During her tenure, she observed high mortality rates among infants whose mothers could not breastfeed due to illness or other complications. At the time, infants were often fed commercial formula or cow's milk, which frequently led to infections.<ref name="IE25" />

In 1989, she founded Asia's first [[human milk bank]] at Sion Hospital<ref>{{Cite news |last=SS |first=Sneha |date=27 January 2026 |title=Dr Armida Fernandez Of India’s First Human Milk Bank Wins Padma Shri |url=https://www.shethepeople.tv/women-in-stem/dr-armina-fernandez-milk-bank-11034047 |access-date=28 January 2026 |work=shethepeople – A GLOBAL MOVEMENT BY & FOR WOMEN}}</ref>. The facility was designed to collect, pasteurize, and store donated breast milk to provide essential nutrition to premature and vulnerable infants. Despite initial skepticism from the medical community regarding the safety and cultural acceptance of donated milk, the initiative proved successful in reducing infant infection rates at the hospital.<ref name="IE25" /><ref name="TOI25" />

After retiring from Sion Hospital, in 1999, Fernandez founded SNEHA (Society for Nutrition, Education and Health Action),<ref>{{Cite web |title=SNEHA – Our Story |url=https://www.snehamumbai.org/our-story/ |access-date=28 January 2026 |website=SNEHA – Raising Health For All}}</ref> a non-profit organization focused on improving health outcomes for women and children in urban slums.<ref>{{Cite web |last=D'Souza |first=Vanessa |last2=Fernandez |first2=Armida |title=Scaling With Evidence |url=https://ssir.org/articles/entry/scaling_with_evidence#bio-footer |access-date=28 January 2026 |website=Stanford Social Innovation Review}}</ref> In 2000, Fernandez she was chosen as the president of the [[Indian Academy of Pediatrics]] in Mumbai.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PAST OFFICE BEARER: Indian Academy of Pediatrics Mumbai |url=https://iapmumbai.org/past-office-bearers/ |access-date=28 January 2026 |website=IAP Mumbai: Indian Academy of Pediatrics Mumbai}}</ref>

==Awards and Recognition==
* [[Padma Shri]] (2026) – Awarded by the [[Government of India]] for her pioneering work in neonatology and public health.<ref name="TOI25" />
* IAP-FIAB (2005) – Indian Academy of Pediatrics (IAP) Fellowship of the Indian Academy of Pediatrics (FIAP) Awardee<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Academy of Pediatrics (IAP) – Fellowship of the Indian Academy of Pediatrics (FIAP) (Awardees) |url=https://iapindia.org/fiap-past-members/ |access-date=29 January 2026 |website=Indian Academy of Pediatrics}}</ref>
* Ashoka Fellow (2004) – Ashoka | United States<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ashoka – United States |url=https://www.ashoka.org/en-us/fellow/armida-fernandez |access-date=29 January 2026 |website=ASHOKA – UNITED STATES}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Medicine}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fernandez, Armida}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian paediatricians]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in medicine]]
[[Category:People of Goan descent]]
[[Category:People from Dharwad]]
[[Category:Neonatology]]

John Bellasis (East India Company officer)

2026-01-28T21:49:56Z

MazidulIslamMilon: expanded content

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
[[Major-General]] '''John Bellasis''' (16 July 1743 – 11 February 1808) was a British officer who was commanding the forces at [[Bombay]].

==Early life==
Bellasis was born on 16 July 1743 at [[Long Marton]], [[Westmorland]] (now [[Cumbria]]). He was a son of Joseph Bellasis (1691–1766) and Margaret ({{nee}} Hill) Bellasis (d. 1787).<ref name="Brown2023">{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Steve |title=King George's Army - British Regiments and the Men Who Led Them 1793-1815: Volume 1: Administration and Cavalry |date=29 August 2023 |publisher=Helion and Company |isbn=978-1-80451-601-0 |page=76 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/King_George_s_Army_British_Regiments_and/_l8IEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA76 |access-date=9 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref> His elder brother, the Rev. George Bellasis, rector of [[Yattendon, Berkshire]], was father to Gen. Joseph Harvey Bellasis of the Indian Army.<ref name="mq"/>

==Career==
Bellasis first went to India in 1763.<ref name="Forrest1979">{{cite book |last1=Forrest |first1=Denys Mostyn |title=The Oriental: Life Story of a West End Club |date=1979 |publisher=Batsford |isbn=978-0-7134-2149-1 |page=211 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Oriental/tWgsAQAAMAAJ |access-date=9 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref> He began his military service with the [[East India Company]] in 1769 and eventually became [[Major-General]] commanding the British forces at [[Bombay]].<ref>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Bellasis, Edward|volume=4}}</ref>

==Personal life==
On 3 June 1776, Bellasis was married to Ann Martha Hutchins, daughter of [[John Hutchins (historian)|John Hutchins]] and Anne ({{nee}} Stephens) Hutchins (a daughter of Thomas Stephens, rector of [[Pimperne]], [[Dorset]]). Before her death in Bombay in 1797,<ref>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Hutchins, John}}</ref> they lived at Randall Lodge and were the parents of one daughter and five sons, including:<ref name="opcdorset">{{cite web |title=REV. JOHN HUTCHINS – The History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset |url=https://www.opcdorset.org/WarehamFiles/WarehamHutchins.htm |website=www.opcdorset.org |access-date=9 December 2024}}</ref>

* Helen Hutchins Bellasis (1777–1840),<ref name="Gunther1914">{{cite book |last1=Gunther |first1=Robert Theodore |last2=Günther |first2=Amy Neville Rolfe |title=Rolfe Family Records: Volume II |date=1914 |page=205 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Rolfe_Family_Records/hEQbAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA205 |access-date=9 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref> who married [[Henry Fawcett (MP)|Henry Fawcett]], MP for [[Grampound (UK Parliament constituency)|Grampound]] and [[Carlisle (UK Parliament constituency)|Carlisle]], in 1794. After his death in 1816, she married Barrington Tristram.<ref name="Nichols1812">{{cite book |last1=Nichols |first1=John |title=Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century: Account of the gentlemen's society at Spalding. History of the Peterborough society. Letters on the origin of the Society of antiquaries. Memoirs |date=1812 |page=420 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Literary_Anecdotes_of_the_Eighteenth_Cen/JU0UAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA420 |access-date=9 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Clarendon1987">{{cite book |title=Architectural Drawings: An Exhibition of 18th and 19th Century British and Continental Architectural Drawings, Topographical Watercolours and Interiors : October 28 to November 21, 1987 at Shepherd Gallery Associates, New York City |date=1987 |publisher=Clarendon Gallery |page=9 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Architectural_Drawings/nBhQAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
* George Hutchins Bellasis (1778–1822), a noted amateur artist;<ref name="dcms">{{cite web |title=George Hutchins Bellasis |url=https://artcollection.dcms.gov.uk/person/bellasis-george-hutchins/ |website=artcollection.dcms.gov.uk |publisher=[[Government Art Collection]] |access-date=9 December 2024}}</ref> he married Charlotte Maude, youngest daughter of Joseph Maude, of Kendal, in 1805.<ref name="mq">{{cite web |title=Lachlan and Elizabeth Macquarie Archive: George Hutchins Bellasis - Biography |url=https://www.mq.edu.au/macquarie-archive/lema/biographies/profiles/bellasisgeorge.html |website=www.mq.edu.au |publisher=[[Macquarie University]] |access-date=9 December 2024}}</ref>
* Daniel Hutchins Bellasis (1785–1836), a Colonel of Infantry in the [[Bombay Army]]; he married Mary Tadman, a daughter of Lance Tadman of New House, Gravesend, Kent.<ref name="christies">{{cite web |title=Andrew Geddes, A.R.A. (1783-1844) Portrait of Flora Bellasis, three-quarter-length, in Indian Parsi dress |url=https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-4796161 |website=www.christies.com |publisher=[[Christie's]] |access-date=9 December 2024}}</ref>
* John Hutchins Belasis (1792–1837), who married Ellen Maria Ashman.

He died, suddenly, in Bombay on 11 February 1808 at age 64.<ref name="GBIO1819">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3VQTAAAAYAAJ|author=Great Britain India Office|title=The India List and India Office List|volume=I|year=1819|publisher=Harrison|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3VQTAAAAYAAJ 127]|accessdate=2009-01-08}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bellasis, John}}
[[Category:1808 deaths]]
[[Category:British East India Company Army generals]]
[[Category:Belasyse family|John]]
[[Category:1743 births]]

Arumbakkam metro station

2026-01-06T18:35:50Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added info

{{Short description|Chennai Metro's Green Line metro station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:Chennai Metro logo.svg|50px]] Arumbakkam
| type = {{Chennai Metro Infobox station line|line = Green|line2 = Inter}}
| style = Chennai Metro
| image = Arumbakkam metro station.jpg
| image_caption = Arumbakkam metro station
| address = Jawaharlal Nehru Rd, Vinayagapuram, Arumbakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600106
| coordinates = {{coord|13|3|44|N|80|12|42|E|display=inline,title}}
| line = {{rcb|Chennai Metro|Green|croute}} {{color box|#{{rail color|Chennai Metro|Green}}; font-size:100%|[[Green Line (Chennai Metro)#Inter Corridor Line|'''Inter Corridor Line''']]|}}
| other =
| structure = [[Elevated]], [[Double-track railway|Double Track]]
| platform = [[Side platform]] 
Platform-1 → [[St. Thomas Mount railway station#Integrated Terminus for suburban.2C MRTS .26 METRO metro station|St. Thomas Mount]] Platform-2 → [[Chennai Central metro station|M.G.R Chennai Central]]
| depth =
| levels = 2
| tracks = 2
| parking = {{parking symbol}} Available
| bicycle = Free Bicycle {{parking symbol}} Available
| opened = {{start date and age|2015|June|29}}
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = [[Single-phase electric power|Single-phase]] {{25 kV 50 Hz}} [[overhead catenary]]
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| code = SAR
| owned = [[Chennai Metro]]
| operator = Chennai Metro Rail Limited (CMRL)
| zone =
| smartcardname =
| smartcardstatus =
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{adjacent stations|system=Chennai Metro|line=Green|left=CMBT|right=Vadapalani|line2=Blue|left2=CMBT|to-left2=Chennai Central|note-mid2=''(Inter-Corridor Service)''|right2=Vadapalani|to-right2=Kilambakkam}}
| route_map = {{Chennai Metro Green Line Route}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Chennai Metro|Green}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Arumbakkam''' is an elevated metro station on the South-East Corridor of the [[Green Line (Chennai Metro)|Green Line]] of [[Chennai Metro]] in [[Chennai]], India. This station will serve the neighbourhoods of [[Vinayagapuram]], [[Choolaimedu]] and [[MMDA Colony]].

==Construction history==
[[File:Arumbakkam metro station 02.jpg|thumb|left|220px|A view of the platforms inside the station]]
The station was constructed by Consolidated Constructed Consortium (CCCL). The station attained structural completion in September 2013. The consolidated cost of the station along with the stations of [[Koyambedu metro station|Koyambedu]], [[CMBT metro station|CMBT]], [[Vadapalani metro station|Vadapalani]] and [[Ashok Nagar metro station|Ashok Nagar]] was {{INR}} 1,395.4 million.<ref name="Hindu_ArukbnakkamStnAlmostComplete">{{cite news| title = Arumbakkam metro station almost complete| newspaper = The Hindu| location = Chennai | date = 10 September 2013|url =http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/arumbakkam-metro-station-almost-complete/article5110276.ece| access-date = 2 Feb 2015}}</ref>

==The station==
The station is being constructed as an elevated station on the arterial [[Inner Ring Road, Chennai|Inner Ring Road]]. The station will have ground, concourse and platform levels. The station will have four entry and exit points, four lifts and eight escalators; there will also be a ramp to facilitate the movement of disabled people from the ground level to the concourse level.<ref name="Hindu_ArukbnakkamStnAlmostComplete"/> Elevation of the platforms will be about 15 m from the ground level and the total length of the platforms will be 140 m.<ref name="TOI_AllRoadsLeadToMetro">{{cite news| last = Hemalatha| first = Karthikeyan| author2 = V Ayyappan| title = All roads to lead to metro stations| newspaper = The Times of India| location = Chennai| publisher = The Times Group| date = 17 January 2013| url = http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOICH/2013/01/17&PageLabel=2&EntityId=Ar00200&ViewMode=HTML| access-date = 18 Jan 2013| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150201161554/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOICH%2F2013%2F01%2F17&PageLabel=2&EntityId=Ar00200&ViewMode=HTML| archive-date = 1 February 2015| url-status = dead}}</ref>

===Station layout===
{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = Arumbakkam track layout
| title-bg = #{{rail color|Chennai Metro|Green}}
| title-color = white
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = vCONTgfa
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to [[CMBT metro station|Jayalalithaa CMBT]]
*'''P1'''\cPLT\vSTR\cPLT\*'''P2'''
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to [[Vadapalani metro station|Vadapalani]]
vCONTgfe
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and two side platforms</div>
}}}}
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;border-top:solid 1px gray;" width=50 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=100 valign=top|Street Level
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/Entrance
|-
|valign=top|'''L1'''
|valign=top|Mezzanine
|valign=top|Fare control, station agent, Metro Card vending machines, crossover 
|-
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=50 rowspan=4 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=100|'''Platform 2''' '''Northbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|Towards → [[Chennai Central metro station|Chennai Central]] '''Next Station:''' [[CMBT metro station|Puratchi Thalaivi Dr. J.Jayalalithaa CMBT]]
|-
|'''Platform 1''' '''Southbound'''
|Towards ← [[St. Thomas Mount railway station#Integrated Terminus for suburban.2C MRTS .26 METRO|St. Thomas Mount]] '''Next Station:''' [[Vadapalani metro station|Vadapalani]]
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=50 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=100|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|
|-
|}

===Facilities===
* Elevator
*Ticket booking Machines
*Refreshmentaries
*Atm

==Commercial hub==
[[File:Arumbakkam Metro Station.jpg|thumb|Entrance of the Arumbakkam Metro Station]]
Arumbakkam station is one of the five stations in the first phase of the Chennai Metro project identified to be converted into commercial hubs, the others being [[CMBT metro station|CMBT]], [[Alandur metro station|Alandur]], [[Ekkattuthangal metro station|Ekkattuthangal]], and [[Ashok Nagar metro station|Ashok Nagar]]. Two nine-floor buildings, measuring 51,379 sq ft and 32,721 sq ft, are proposed to be built at the Arumbakkam station.<ref>{{cite news| last = TNN | title = In less than a year, you can park, shop and ride at metro rail stations | newspaper = The Times of India | location = Chennai
| publisher = The Times Group | date = 23 September 2014 | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/In-less-than-a-year-you-can-park-shop-and-ride-at-metro-rail-stations/articleshow/43194300.cms| access-date = 3 February 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
{{stack|{{Portal|India|Trains}}}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[List of Chennai metro stations]]
* [[Chennai Metro]]
* [[Railway stations in Chennai]]
* [[Chennai Mass Rapid Transit System]]
* [[Chennai Monorail]]
* [[Chennai Suburban Railway]]
* [[Transport in Chennai]]
* [[List of metro systems in India]]
* [[Rapid transit in India|List of rapid transit systems in India]]
* [[List of metro systems]]
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://chennaimetrorail.org/}}
{{Commons|Chennai Metro}}
{{Wikivoyage|Chennai}}
* [http://www.urbanrail.net ''UrbanRail.Net''] – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.
*{{Google maps|url=https://www.google.co.in/maps/place/Arumbakkam+Metro+Station/@13.0617483,80.2094757,766m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x3a526695c69e55ff:0x528a44c32e30d7cb!8m2!3d13.0617431!4d80.2116644|title= Arumbakkam metro station}}

{{Chennai Topics}}
{{Chennai Metro|green line=yes}}
{{Transport in Chennai}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2015]]
[[Category:Chennai Metro stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Chennai]]

Gautam Chowdhuri

2026-01-02T20:08:30Z

MazidulIslamMilon: put up data - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}

'''Gautam Chowdhuri''' (born 1973)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Gautam Chowdhuri(All India Trinamool Congress(AITC)):Constituency- HOWRAH UTTAR(HOWRAH) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/WestBengal2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=510 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[West Bengal]]. He is a member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from Howrah Uttar Assembly constituency in [[Howrah district]]. He won the [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] representing the All India Trinamool Congress.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-02 |title=Howrah Uttar, West Bengal Assembly election result 2021 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/howrah-uttar-west-bengal-assembly-election-result-2021-live-updates-1797250-2021-05-01 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Chowdhuri is from [[Howrah]], West Bengal. He is the son of late Narayan Chowdhuri. He passed Class 12 in 1993 from [[Bihar School Examination Board]], [[Patna]].<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Chowdhuri won from [[Howrah Uttar Assembly constituency]] representing [[Trinamool Congress]] in the 2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election. He polled 71,575 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Umesh Rai of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], by a margin of 5,522 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Howrah Uttar Election Result 2021 Live Updates: Gautam Chowdhury of TMC Secures Victory |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/howrah-uttar-election-result-2021-live-updates-howrah-uttar-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-3696626.html |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Live |first=A. B. P. |title=Howrah-uttar Election Results 2021 LIVE, Vote Counting, Leading, Trailing , Winners West bengal Howrah-uttar Constituency Election News LIVE |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/west-bengal-election-results-2021/wb-howrah-uttar-constituency-170.html |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Howrah Uttar Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/howrahuttar-west-bengal-assembly-constituency |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chowdhuri, Gautam}}
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2021–2026]]
[[Category:People from Howrah]]

{{WestBengal-AITC-politician-stub}}

Munshiganj Raebareli massacre

2025-12-14T07:24:15Z

MazidulIslamMilon: adding basic page and citations

{{Sources exist|date=October 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}

The '''Munshiganj Raebareli massacre''' was a massacre perpetrated by the [[Indian Imperial Police]] on 7 January 1921 at Munshiganj, [[Raebareli]], India.<ref name="nic">{{cite web |last1=NIC |title=DISTRICT RAEBARELI |url=https://raebareli.nic.in/history/ |website=raebareli.nic, Govt website |access-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> The official death toll as per British historians was minimal, while other estimates put the death toll in the hundreds.<ref name=nic/>

A large mob assembled in Raebareli, demanding release of their leaders. Veer Pal Singh opened fire and on hearing the firing sound, a detachment of [[mounted police]] fired randomly at crowd, killing many.<ref name=nic/>

The total number of deaths are not recorded, although it was reported that the nearby Sai river turned red from the blood. This massacre is considered the second-biggest massacre by British colonial authorities, after only [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] in 1919.<ref name="ir">{{cite web |title=Raebarali Munshiganj Massacre which reminded of Jallianwala Bagh |url=https://irshadgul.com/raebarali-munshiganj-massacre-which-reminded-of-jallianwala-bagh/ |website=I G News |access-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> ''National Herald'' newspaper reported 13 deaths. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was present there and wrote in National Herald that ".. police had to fire though no one ordered to do so".<ref name="nehru">{{cite news |title=Nehru among the Kisans: The Rae Barely Tragedy |url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/blog/nehrus-word-1921-kisans-have-been-far-too-peaceful-in-rae-bareli |access-date=16 August 2022 |publisher=National Herald |date=26 July 2020}}</ref> A memorial of the massacre stands in Munshiganj.<ref name=ir/> The British Governor of Uttar Pradesh Sir [[Harcourt Butler]] congratulated Sirdar Birpal Singh, the Taluqdar who opened fire on farmers and Commissioner and Deputy Commissioners also congratulated the Taluqdar for the incident.<ref name=nehru/> A memorial was erected in Raebareli in memory of the victims killed by police.<ref name=nic/>

==See also==

* Massacre of Indian civilians by British Colonial troops
** [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]]
** [[Qissa Khwani massacre]]
** [[Salanga massacre]]
** [[Spin Tangi massacre]]
** [[Takkar massacre]]
** [[Vellaloor massacre]]
** [[Vidurashwatha massacre]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Indian independence movement}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1921]]
[[Category:Massacres in 1921]]
[[Category:1921 in British India]]
[[Category:Protests in British India]]
[[Category:Massacres in British India]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Political repression in British India]]
[[Category:1921 in India]]
[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:June 1921]]
[[Category:Police brutality in India]]
[[Category:Massacres of protesters in India]]
[[Category:Raebareli]]
[[Category:20th century in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Murder in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:20th-century mass murders in India]]

National Highway 2B (India, old numbering)

2025-10-24T06:15:05Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Redirect page

#REDIRECT [[National Highway 114 (India)]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R with history}}
}}

[[Category:National highways in West Bengal]]

Jatla Siddartha

2025-10-03T08:23:52Z

MazidulIslamMilon: done

{{Short description|Indian filmmaker}}
{{use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{use Indian English|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name =
| image = 
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = 
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = Filmmaker
| years_active = 2012–
| known_for =
| notable_works = ''Love and Shukla'' (2017) ''In the Belly of a Tiger'' (2024).
}}

'''Jatla Siddartha''', also credited as '''Siddartha Jatla''' (sometimes spelt '''Siddhartha Jatla'''), is an Indian film director and [[cinematographer]]. He is known for his feature films ''Love and Shukla'' (2017) and ''In the Belly of a Tiger'' (2024).

==Early life and education==
Siddartha Jatla was born and raised in India.<ref name=interview2024/> His father was a film director, and his mother an actress.<ref name=lgo2023>{{cite web |title=Jatla Siddartha |website=Le Groupe Ouest |date=25 May 2023 |url=https://www.legroupeouest.com/en/les-auteures/jatla-siddartha/ |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> His father used to take him at the age of six to film clubs showing serious films by independent filmmakers, which he found boring. After seeing ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', he wanted to be like [[Steven Spielberg]], and he later admired the Chinese director [[Zhang Yimou]]. His mother encouraged him to study cinematography, but he always wanted to be a director.<ref name=interview2024/>

He graduated in cinematography from the [[Film and Television Institute of India]], after spending five and a half years there.<ref name=interview2024/> He was then admitted to the cinematography program at the Asian Film Academy as part of cultural exchange program of the [[Busan Film Festival]].<ref name=lgo2023/>

==Career==
The filmmaker has been variously referred to as "Siddartha Jatla"<ref name=berlinale2024>{{cite web |title=Berlinale |date=18 February 2024 |url=https://www.berlinale.de/en/2024/programme/202408962.html |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Siddartha Jatla |website=[[Mubi (streaming service)|MUBI]] |url=https://mubi.com/en/cast/siddartha-jatla |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=acf>{{cite web |title=In the Belly of a Tiger |website=Asian Cinema Fund |url=https://acf.biff.kr/eng/html/projects/development_view.asp?section=DEVELOPMENT&dv_year=2018&gotoPage=1&idx=355 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> "Siddhartha Jatla",<ref name=firstpost2024/> and "Jatla Siddartha",<ref name=lgo2023/><ref name=aff2024/> but he appears to refer to himself in the latter way.<ref name=interview2024>{{cite interview |first=Jatla |last=Siddartha |date=29 April 2024 |interviewer-last=Rauch |interviewer-first=Cosima |title=A Conversation with: Jatla Siddartha |url=https://www.bohema-wien.com/artikel/a-conversation-with-jatla-siddartha |website=Bohema Magazin Wien |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Although most sources seem to suggest that Siddartha is more often used as a given name, and Jatla as surname, he refers to himself as Jatla Siddartha in an interview at the Berlinale, as does the official programme,<ref name=berlinale2024/> his LinkedIn profile,<ref>{{cite web |title=Jatla Siddartha |url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/jatla-siddartha-00195670 |publisher=[[LinkedIn]] |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> and IMDb.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jatla Siddartha |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm5859905/ |publisher=[[IMDb]] |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref>}}

Siddartha's first short film, ''The Artist'', premiered at the Busan Film Festival in 2012.<ref name=lgo2023/><ref name=firstpost2024/>

He was cinematographer, director, co-producer, co-writer, and co-editor of his first feature film, ''Love and Shukla'' (originally titled ''Haanduk''<ref name=netpac>{{cite web |title=Love and Shukla |url=https://netpacasia.org/item789-Love-and-Shukla |website=Network for the Promotion of Asia Pacific Cinema |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref>) which premiered at Busan in 2017. It screened at the [[Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival]], [[Shanghai International Film Festival]], and over 40 other international film festivals, before being sold to [[Netflix]],<ref name=lgo2023/> where it was highly successful.<ref name=firstpost2024/> Amanda Mooney co-wrote, co-produced, and co-edited the film.<ref name=firstpost2024/>

His second feature film is ''In the Belly of a Tiger'', which had its world premiere in the Forum section at the [[Berlin International Film Festival]] in February 2024,<ref name=firstpost2024>{{cite web |title=Siddhartha Jatla's 'In the Belly of a Tiger' set for its world premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/siddhartha-jatlas-in-the-belly-of-a-tiger-set-for-its-world-premiere-at-the-berlin-international-film-festival-13739068.html |website=[[Firstpost]] |date=19 February 2024 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=berlinale2024/> where it garnered excellent reviews.<ref name=interview2024/> It also screened at the [[Adelaide Film Festival]] in October 2024,<ref name=aff2024>{{cite web |title=In the Belly of a Tiger |url=https://www.adelaidefilmfestival.org/program/2024/in-the-belly-of-a-tiger |website=[[Adelaide Film Festival]] |date=26 October 2024 |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref> where it won the Feature Fiction Award.<ref name=affffa>{{cite web |title=AFF 2024 Award Winners |url=https://www.adelaidefilmfestival.org/info/awards/2024-winners |website=Adelaide Film Festival |date=28 October 2024 |access-date=4 November 2024}}</ref> The film is co-written by Siddhartha and Amanda Mooney. While its cast consists mostly of non-professional actors, its technical crew features some big names in cinema, including Japanese composer [[Umebayashi Shigeru]], sound designer [[Resul Pookutty]] (''[[Slumdog Millionaire]]''), and [[Color grading|colour grading]] by the Chinese studio owned by director [[Wuershan]].<ref name=firstpost2024/> Siddhartha has said that the film is very personal to him, and that the main character (the son) represents his feelings. The idea for the plot came from what turned out to be a fabricated story about young people sending their parents into the forest to be killed by a tiger so that they could claim compensation, but this led him to do a lot of research into the poverty experienced by rural communities in India, and he wanted to make a film about social issues.<ref name=interview2024/> The film came about after a US producer contacted him after seeing his first film on Netflix, and various other producers came on board from China, Taiwan, and Indonesia, so it became an international production.<ref name=interview2024/>

In 2025, he also co-wrote and produced "Whisperings of the Moon", the debut film of mainland Chinese filmmaker Lai Yuqing, a co-production between India, Hongkong, mainland China and Cambodia. It screened at Busan International Film Festival 2025 in the Windows of Asian Cinema Section.

Jatla Siddartha is working on his third feature film, "If Ever You Shall be", a love story based in Cambodia and showing the Indian diaspora there. It is an India, Hongkong China, and Cambodia co-production.<ref name=interview2024/>

==Recognition and awards==

Awards received for his films include:
*2017: [[NETPAC Award]] at the [[Jogja-NETPAC Asian Film Festival]], for ''Love and Shukla''<ref name=netpac/><ref name=lgo2023/>
*2017: [[SIGNIS Awards (Sri Lanka)|SIGNIS Award]], for ''Love and Shukla''<ref name=lgo2023/>
*2024: Feature Fiction Award " In the Belly of a Tiger" at [[Adelaide Film Festival]]<ref name=affffa/>

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|5859905|Jatla Siddartha}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siddartha, Jatla}}
[[Category:Indian film directors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Eleven vows

2025-10-01T14:50:22Z

MazidulIslamMilon: put up new pg

{{Short description|Part of the ethical system prescribed by Mahatma Gandhi}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
'''Eleven vows''' (''Ekadash vrat'') were part of the ethical system prescribed by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] mainly for all those residing in the ashram.

Gandhi insisted on observance of these eleven vows in Ashram.
<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parikh |first1=Nilam |title=Gandhi wrote to his sons and daughter-in-law |date=2008 |publisher=National Gandhi Museum |location=[[Raj Ghat and associated memorials|Rajghat]] |isbn=978-81-87458-17-3 |page=194 |edition=First}}</ref>

==The vows==
A book originally published in Gujarati and later in English titled 'Character And Nation Building' is a summary of 'Ashram observances and constructive programme' discusses these vows.<ref>{{cite book|title=Character and Nation Building|isbn=81-7229-093-4 |last =Gandhi |first= M.K.|publisher= Navjivan Trust|date=1959}}</ref>
The eleven vows were:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Mahatma |title=The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi: Apr. 25-Sept. 30, 1935 |date=1975 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |pages=44–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_BsrZtWvFEC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=James | first=G.A. | title=Ecology Is Permanent Economy: The Activism and Environmental Philosophy of Sunderlal Bahuguna | publisher=State University of New York Press | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-4384-4674-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VAGMXm3_cn4C&pg=PA209 | access-date=2023-08-05 | page=209}}</ref>

=== Ahimsa ([[non-violence]])===
The vow of non-killing or love for all. For Gandhi, 'ahinsa' meant universal love, love for the oppressed as well as the oppressor, love for the labourer as well as the landlord.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/voiceoftruth/meaningofnonviolence.htm|title=Gandhi ji's views on non-violence }}</ref>

=== [[Satya]] (truth)===
Truth was paramount for Gandhi. He equated it with God.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mkgandhi.org/faq/q9.php|title=Eleven vows}}</ref>

=== [[Asteya]] (Non-Stealing) ===
Mahatma Gandhi sums up this vow as : {{blockquote|I suggest that we are thieves in a way. If I take anything that I do not need for my own immediate use and keep it, I thieve it from somebody else.{{sfn|Prabhu|p=293}}}}

=== [[Brahmacharya]] (self-control)===
Celibacy towards other women and men and even towards one's own partner, seeing him/her as a lifelong friend.

===Asangraha ([[Non-possession|renunciation of possession]])===
Gandhi asked for progressive simplication of one's life by renouncing things that one doesn't need.

===Sharir shram (Bread labour)===
Gandhi ji writes ::{{quote|Man can be saved from injuring society as well as himself only if he sustains his physical existence by physical labour.{{sfn|Gandhi|pp=11}}}}

===Asvada (control of the palate)===
For strict observance of brahmacharya, this vow was found to be important. It meant abstinence from delicacies and feasts etc.

===Swadeshi (self-reliance)===
Men can best serve the world by serving his neighbour.

===Sarv Dharma Sambhav (equal respect for all religions)===

===Abhaya (fearlessness on all occasions)===
Fear hinders spiritual progress and therefore observance of this vow was mentioned separately.

===Asparsh (no [[untouchability]])===
No one was treated as an untouchable at the Ashram.

== Speech and book ==
In 1915 Gandhi delivered an address to the students at Madras in which he discussed these vows. It was later published as "The Need of India".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Mohandas K. |title=Mahatma Gandhi, his life, writings and speeches |url=https://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Mahatma_Gandhi,_his_life,_writings_and_speeches/The_Need_of_India&oldid=4687397 |chapter=The Need of India}}</ref>
He would deliver a speech on the Ashram vows every Tuesday after prayers. These speeches were published as a book ''[[Mangal Prabhat]]''<ref>{{cite book|author=Pyarelal|title=Mahatma Gandhi: Salt satyagraha: the watershed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yRFWAAAAYAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Navajivan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7229-133-4|page=xvii}}</ref> in 1958.

== See also ==
* [[Practices and beliefs of Mahatma Gandhi]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
* {{cite book|title=The mind of Mahatma Gandhi|last=Prabhu|first=R.K. and U.R. Rao|url=https://www.gandhiashramsevagram.org/mind-of-mahatma-gandhi/the-ashram-vows.php}}

{{Mohandas K. Gandhi}}

[[Category:Mahatma Gandhi]]

Kumudendu

2025-09-21T07:18:57Z

MazidulIslamMilon: expand information

#REDIRECT [[Kumudendu Muni]]

Subaskaran Allirajah

2025-09-17T15:54:25Z

MazidulIslamMilon: starting a data needs work

#REDIRECT [[Allirajah Subaskaran]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Amita Chatterjee

2025-09-07T18:28:29Z

MazidulIslamMilon: improve intro per sources and corrected details

{{Short description|Former vice-chancellor of Presidency University, Kolkata}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Amita Chatterjee
| image = Amita_Chatterjee.png
| alt =
| caption = Chatterjee in 2025
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1950|9|13}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| alma_mater = [[Presidency College, Kolkata]], [[University of Calcutta]]<ref>[http://twocircles.net/2010oct06/amita_chattopadhyay_first_vice_chancellor_presidency_university.html TwoCircles.net, India News; 6 October 2010]; [https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/comfort-factor-confines-presidency-to-home-pool-amita-chatterjee-retired-philosophy-professor-named-vice-chancellor-of-new-varsity/cid/472644 The Telegraph India; 6 October 2010]</ref><ref>[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/author/37065282000 ieeeexplore.org, India News; 6 October 2010]</ref>
| office = 1st Vice-Chancellor of [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency University]]<ref>[https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/presi-vc-to-stay-for-now/cid/342711 Telegraph India website: Vice Chancellor]</ref><ref>[https://digitallearning.eletsonline.com/2010/10/presidency-university-gets-its-first-vice-chancellor/ eletsonline India website: Vice Chancellor]</ref>
| governor = [[M.K. Narayanan]] [[D. Y. Patil]] ''(additional charge)'' [[Keshari Nath Tripathi]] [[Jagdeep Dhankhar]]
| term_start = 5 October 2010
| term_end = 5 October 2011
| predecessor =
| successor = Prof. [[Malabika Sarkar]]
| awards =
| native_name_lang = অমিতা চ্যাটার্জি
| chancellor = [[Governor of West Bengal]]
| office2 = 2nd Vice-President of [[International Union of History and Philosophy of Science]]<ref>[https://dlmps.org/pages/history/past-council-members.php DLMPST website: Past Council Members]</ref>
| termend2 = 2019
| termstart2 = 2016
}}

'''Amita Chatterjee''' (born 13 September 1950<ref>[http://dlmps.org/pages/history/past-council-members.php DLMPST website: Past Council Members]</ref>) is a [[philosopher of science]] and [[logician]], first vice-chancellor of [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency University]] Kolkata<ref>{{Cite web |last=TwoCircles.net |date=2010-10-06 |title=Amita Chattopadhyay first vice chancellor of Presidency University |url=https://twocircles.net/2010oct06/amita_chattopadhyay_first_vice_chancellor_presidency_university.html |access-date=2025-01-08 |website=TwoCircles.net |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-10-27 |title=The new vice-chancellor of Presidency university - Amita Chatterjee visited the campus on Tuesday. She met principal Amitava Chatterjee along with a few alumni association members. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/the-new-vice-chancellor-of-presidency-university-amita-chatterjee-visited-the-campus-on-tuesday-she-met-principal-amitava-chatterjee-along-with-a-few-alumni-association-members-/articleshow/6820712.cms |access-date=2025-01-08 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-09-19 |title=All not well at Presidency |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/all-not-well-at-presidency/ |access-date=2025-01-08 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> and is professor [[Emeritus|emerita]] at the School of Cognitive Science of [[Jadavpur University]] in [[Kolkata]], [[India]]. In 2019 her contributions to [[philosophy]] were recognized with the publication of a 2-volume [[festschrift]] in her honour: ''Mind and Cognition- An Interdisciplinary Sharing (Essays in Honour of Amita Chatterjee)'' by Kuntala Bhattacharya, Madhucchanda Sen and Smita Sirker.<ref name="Bhattacharya">{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Kuntala |last2=Sen |first2=Madhucchanda |last3=Sirker |first3=Smita |title=Mind and cognition : essays in honour of Amita Chatterjee |date=2019 |publisher=D.K. Printworld |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-8124609507}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CHAMAC-13 |title=Mind and Cognition, an Interdisciplinary Sharing: Essays in Honour of Amita Chatterjee |date=2019 |publisher=DK Printworld |editor-last=Chatterjee |editor-first=Amita |location=New Delhi |editor-last2=Bhattacharya |editor-first2=Kuntala |editor-last3=Sen |editor-first3=Madhucchanda |editor-last4=Sirker |editor-first4=Smita}}</ref>

== Biography ==

Chatterjee studied at [[Presidency College, Kolkata]]<ref>[http://twocircles.net/2010oct06/amita_chattopadhyay_first_vice_chancellor_presidency_university.html TwoCircles.net, India News; 6 October 2010];
[https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/comfort-factor-confines-presidency-to-home-pool-amita-chatterjee-retired-philosophy-professor-named-vice-chancellor-of-new-varsity/cid/472644 The Telegraph India; 6 October 2010]</ref> and she received her Ph.D. from [[University of Calcutta]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amita Chatterjee- IEEE |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/author/37065282000 |access-date=2025-01-08 |website=ieeexplore.ieee.org |language=en-US}}</ref> She was a professor of [[philosophy]] at [[Jadavpur University]] from 1979 to 2010. During this time, she co-ordinated the ''Centre for Cognitive Science'' at Jadavpur University and was the Head of the Department of Philosophy. From 2010 to 2011, she was the first [[Vice Chancellor]] of [[Presidency University, Kolkata]]. After this, she returned to [[Jadavpur University]]. From 2016 to 2019, she served as Second Vice President of the [[DLMPST|Division for Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science and Technology]]. She served as editor for numerous academic journals, among them [[Philosophy East and West]], and has been an important member of the ''Calcutta Logic Circle'' a group of logicians from mathematics, philosophy and computer science in [[West Bengal]].<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/schoolnewsite/emeritus School of Cognitive Science, Jadavpur University]</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chatterjee, Amita}}
[[Category:Philosophers of science]]
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Jadavpur University]]
[[Category:West Bengal academics]]

{{India-academic-bio-stub}}

Virender Singh (wrestler, born 1970)

2025-08-16T20:13:16Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added a bio nd citations

{{short description|Indian wrestler}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2017}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| headercolor =
| name = Virender Singh
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| fullname =
| nickname = Dheeraj
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| nationality = Indian
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1971|3|16}}
| birth_place = [[Jharsa]] [[Gurgaon]], [[Haryana]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| height = {{convert|172|cm|ftin|abbr=on}}
| children = Priyank Thakran
| weight =
| country = India
| sport = Wrestling
| spouse =
| event = [[Freestyle wrestling|74 kg; freestyle]]
| collegeteam =
| universityteam =
| club = [[Guru Hanuman]]
| team =
| turnedpro =
| partner =
| former_partner =
| coach = Guru Hanuman ([[Dronacharya awardee]])
| retired =
| coaching =
| worlds =
| regionals =
| nationals =
| olympics =
| highestranking =
| show-medals =
| updated = 29 November 2014
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalCountry | {{IND}} }}
{{MedalSport|Men's [[Freestyle Wrestling]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[FILA World Championships|World Championships]]}}
{{MedalBronze| [[World Wrestling Championships|1992 Cali]] | 74 kg}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Commonwealth Wrestling Championship|Commonwealth Championship]]}}
{{MedalSilver| [[Commonwealth Wrestling Championships|1995 Melbourne]] | 74 kg}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[South Asian Games|SAF Games]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[1995 South Asian Games|1995 Chennai (IND)]] | 74 kg}}
}}
'''Virender Thakran''' (born 1970) is a former Indian wrestler. He won a bronze medal in the [[World Wrestling Championship]] in 1992 at Cali. He won a silver medal in [[Commonwealth Championship]] in 1995 (Senior, 74 kg, Freestyle). He was a Gold Medallist in the South Asian Championship (SAF Games). He is very popular by nickname Dheeraj Pahalwan in the rural tournaments of wrestling.

==Born==
He was born at village [[Jharsa]] near [[Gurgaon]]. His father Bharat Singh Thakran was a farmer. His sister Smt. [[Pritam Rani Siwach]] was the captain of the Indian women's hockey team. He was fond of wrestling in his early childhood. He had started his practice in Nehru Stadium Gurgaon at the age of 10.

==Career==
The [[Haryana]] state is known as the birthplace of wrestlers in India. There are many wrestlers of Haryana who gave the proud to India in the field of wrestling. His father friend Mr. [[Hansram Pahalwan]] gave the suggestion to send him in [[Guru Hanuman]] Akhara Delhi because Mr. Hansram was also a pupil of Guru Hanuman in his early age. The Guru Hanuman is the most popular trainer of wrestlers. He had won bronze medal in World Wrestling Championship in 1992 at Cali. He had won silver medal in [[Commonwealth Championship]] in 1995 (Senior, 74 kg, Freestyle). He had secured 7th position in [[World Wrestling Championship]] in year 1992 (Junior, 74 kg, Freestyle). He also secured 4th position in [[Commonwealth Championship]] in the year 1993 (Senior, 74 kg, Freestyle).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030925101004/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2003/06/07/stories/2003060705381900.htm Indian grapplers up their performance By Kirti Patil]
* [http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20011113/sports.htm NR bag wrestling trophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528133716/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20011113/sports.htm |date=28 May 2014 }} Tribune News Service
* [http://wrestlingfederationofindia.com/images/pdf/International_Upto_Feb2014.pdf]
* [http://unitedworldwrestling.org/database world wrestling database]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Virender}}
[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male sport wrestlers]]
[[Category:People from Gurgaon district]]
[[Category:Sport wrestlers from Haryana]]
[[Category:South Asian Games gold medalists for India]]
[[Category:South Asian Games medalists in wrestling]]
[[Category:World Wrestling Championships medalists]]

Lal Bagh

2025-08-14T18:12:27Z

MazidulIslamMilon:

{{Other uses|Lalbagh (disambiguation){{!}}Lalbagh}}

{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Lalbagh Botanical Garden
| other_name =
| nickname = Lalbagh
| settlement_type = Botanical Garden
| image_skyline = Glasshouse and fountain at lalbagh.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = The Lalbagh Glass House in the Botanical Garden
| pushpin_map = India Bengaluru
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bengaluru, India
| coordinates = {{coord|12.95|N|77.59|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Bengaluru Urban
| subdivision_type3 = Metro
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bengaluru]]
| established_title =
| established_date = 1760
| founder = Gurdian of Mysore with writ from Wadiyars [[Hyder Ali]]
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 0.971
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
| official_name =
}}
[[File:Lal bagh band stand.JPG|thumb|The bandstand]]
'''Lalbagh Botanical Garden''' or simply '''Lalbagh''' ({{literal translation|red garden}}), is a [[botanical garden]] in [[Bengaluru]], [[India]]. It was originally built by [[Hyder Ali]] in 1760, during the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Sultanate of Mysore]] . The garden was later managed under numerous British superintendents before Indian Independence. It was responsible for the introduction and propagation of numerous ornamental plants as well as those of economic value. It also served a social function as a park and recreational space, with a central [[Greenhouse|glass house]] dating from 1890 which was used for flower shows. In modern times, it hosts two flower shows coinciding with the week of [[Republic Day (India)|Republic Day]] (26 January) and [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] (15 August). As an [[urban green space]] along with [[Cubbon Park]], it is also home to numerous wild species of birds and other wildlife. The garden also has a lake adjoining a large rock on which a watchtower had been constructed during the reign of Kempegowda II.

== History ==
[[File:Lalbagh Garden Beauty.JPG|230px|thumb|Lalbagh Botanical Garden Glass House, dating from 1889]]
[[File:Lal bagh gardens1794.jpg|thumb|Lalbagh Gardens of [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]] were originally laid out by King [[Hyder Ali]] and were modeled on gardens in [[Sira, Karnataka|Sira]]<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last1=Vinoda |first1=K |title=The Lalbagh - A History |date=October 1989 |page=[https://archive.org/details/TheLalbaghAHistoryByKVinoda/page/n9 5] |url=https://archive.org/details/TheLalbaghAHistoryByKVinoda |access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref> laid out by its last [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Subedar]], Dilawar Khan (r.1726–1756).]]
[[File:Lalbagh Glasshouse night panorama.jpg|230px|thumb|right|The Lalbagh Glasshouse at night]]
King [[Hyder Ali]] commissioned the building of this garden in 1760, but his son, King [[Tipu Sultan]], completed it. A ''Bagh'' is Hindustani for garden while the reference of the prefix ''Lal'' is debated and could refer to the colour red due to its original floral composition but ''Lal'' also means "beloved". King Hyder Ali decided to create this garden on the lines of the [[Mughal Gardens]] that were gaining popularity during his time. King Hyder Ali laid out these famous botanical gardens and his son King Tipu Sultan added horticultural wealth to them by importing trees and plants from several countries. King Hyder Ali and King Tipu Sultan's Lalbagh gardens were managed by Mohammed Ali and his son Abdul Khader, and were based on design of the Mughal Gardens that once stood at [[Sira, India|Sira]], at a distance of 120 km from Bengaluru. At that time, Sira was the headquarters of the strategically important southernmost Mughal "suba" (province) of the Deccan before the British Raj.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mysore: A Gazetteer Compiled for the Government, Volume I, Mysore In General, 1897a|last=Benjamin Rice|first=Lewis|publisher=Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company|year=1897|page=834}}</ref>

The Lalbagh gardens were commissioned by the 18th century; over the years, it acquired India's first lawn-clock and the subcontinent's largest collection of rare plants.<ref name= "history 2010"/> After the British conquest of [[Kingdom of Mysore]] in 1799, the garden was under the charge of Major Gilbert Waugh, Company paymaster and in 1814 its control was transferred to the Government of Mysore with an appeal by Waugh to the Marquis of Hastings that it should be under the botanical garden at Fort William, Calcutta. This was accepted and the charge for supervision was given to Nathaniel Wallich on 24 April 1819. This continued until 1831 when charge moved to the Mysore Commissioner. An Agricultural and Horticultural Society had been formed with William Munro, an army officer and amateur botanist in charge of the Bengaluru chapter. The Society wrote to the Mysore Commissioner, Sir Mark Cubbon, requesting charge of the Lalbagh garden. Cubbon granted control and during this period it was used for horticultural training. The Bengaluru chapter of the Society was dissolved in 1842, leaving the gardens unmanaged.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

In 1855, Hugh Cleghorn, was appointed as a botanical advisor to the Commissioner of Mysore. Cleghorn and Jaffrey, superintendent of the Madras Agri-Horticultural Society looked at various sites for a horticultural garden and found that Lalbagh suited their purpose despite being located at a distance from the Cantonment, the British centre of the city. He suggested that a European Superintendent be appointed with control under the Chief Commissioner. Cleghorn was against the use of Lalbagh for commercial enterprise and instead suggested that it should aim to improve the use of indigenous plants, aid in introducing useful exotic species and help in the exchange of plant and seed materials with other gardens at Madras, Calcutta and Ooty. Under Cubbon's orders, Lalbagh was made into the Government Botanical Garden in August 1856 and a professional horticulturist was sought from Kew. William New was recommended and he arrived at Bengaluru on 10 April 1858. New's contract ended in 1863-64 and he was replaced by Allan Adamson Black who worked at the [[Kew Herbarium]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

Black, however, suffered from poor health and resigned in 1865. He died after visiting his brother in Rangoon aboard HMS Dalhousie, off the Coco Islands on 4 December 1865.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Death|date=1866-01-23|newspaper=Greenock Telegraph and Clyde Shipping Gazette|page=3}}</ref> New was then re-appointed. In his 1861 catalogue of the plants of Lalbagh, there were numerous economic and ornamental plants including Cinchona, coffee, tea, macadamia nuts, hickory, pecan, rhododendrons, camellias, and bougainvilleas. New died in 1873 and was followed by John Cameron, also from Kew. Cameron had the additional support of the Maharaja of Mysore who was appointed in 1881 and introductions included Araucarias (''A. cookii'' and ''A. bidwilli''), cypresses (''[[Cupressus sempervirens]]''), topiaries made from ''[[Hamelia patens]]''.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Columbarium lalbagh bangalore.jpg|thumb|The Dovecote, a circular turret shaped structure built in 1893 houses 200 birds. Located on the Royal Palm Avenue South of the Glass House.]]
In 1890-91, a central bandstand and the glasshouse (for flowershows) made with iron pillars cast by Walter Macfarlane and Company of Glasgow were added. Cameron also helped introduce commercial crops like cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, radish, rhubarb, celery, and kohlrabi. Trees introduced included the [[Adansonia|baobab]] from Africa, ''[[Brownea rosea]]'' from the Caribbean, and ''[[Catha edulis]]'' from Yemen.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924000622252/page/n3|title=Catalogue of plants in the Botanical Garden, Bangalore and its vicinity|edition=2|author=Cameron, John|year=1891|publisher=Government Press|place=Bangalore}}</ref> Cameron retired in 1908 and was followed by [[Gustav Hermann Krumbiegel|Gustav Herman Krumbiegel]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Bowe|first=Patrick|date=2012|title=Lal Bagh - The botanical garden of Bangalore and its Kew-trained gardeners|journal=Garden History|volume=40|issue=2|pages=228–238|issn=0307-1243|jstor=41719905}}</ref> A menagerie and an aviary had been established in the 1860s. A 15 ft high pigeon house or dovecote for 200 birds was built in 1893 south of the Glass House.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thiruvady V R |url=https://library.icts.res.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=3123 |title=Lalbagh: Sultan's Garden to Public Park |date=2020 |publisher=Bangalore Environment Trust |isbn=9798189650949 |location=Bangalore}}</ref> Following the plague the maintenance deteriorated and there was a proposal to close the menagerie and aviary in the 1900s. in 1914. [[Stanley Smyth Flower|Captain S.S.Flower]] reported that it included a court built between 1850 and 1860 having tigers and rhinoceros; an aviary; a monkey house with an orangutan; a paddock with blackbuck, chital, [[Sambar deer]], barking deer, and a pair of emus; a bear house and a peacock enclosure.<ref>{{cite book| title=Report on a Zoological mission to India | author=Flower, S.S.|author-link=Stanley Smyth Flower| year= 1914| publisher=Government Press|place=Cairo|pages=40–41 |url=https://archive.org/stream/flowerzoologicalmissi1913#page/40/mode/2up/}}</ref><ref>Vinoda, K. (1989) [[iarchive:TheLalbaghAHistoryByKVinoda|The Lalbagh - A history 1760-1932.]] Department of History, Bangalore University.</ref>

In 1874, Lalbagh had an area of {{convert|45|acre|sqm}}. In 1889, 30 acres were added to the eastern side, followed by 13 acres in 1891 including the rock with Kempegowda tower and 94 acres more in 1894 on the eastern side just below the rock bringing it to a total of {{convert|188|acre|sqm}}.<ref name="deccglas" /> The foundation stone for the Glass House, modeled on [[London| London's]] [[The Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]] was laid on 30 November 1889 by [[Prince Albert Victor]] and was built during the time of John Cameron.<ref name="deccglas">{{cite news|title=A jewel in Lalbagh's crown|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/114905/a-jewel-lalbaghs-crown.html|access-date=23 November 2010|newspaper=Deccan Herald}}</ref><ref name="hac">{{cite book |first=Kumar |last=Suresh Singh |url=http://www.biblio.com/book/people-india-karnataka-vol-xxvi-k/d/15395449 |title=People of India: Karnataka Vol. xxvi |publisher=Affiliated East-West Press (Pvt.) Ltd. |isbn=978-8-1859-3898-1|year=2003 }}</ref> It was built with cast iron from the [[Saracen Foundry]] in Glasgow UK. This structure was extended in 1935, this time with steel from the Mysore Iron and Steel Company at Bhadravathi.<ref name=":0" />

The Horticultural Department decided to close Lalbagh Botanical Garden on Saturday 21 March 2020, in order to avoid public gatherings in the wake of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-03-22|title=COVID-19: Cubbon Park and Lalbagh Garden in Bengaluru closed|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/covid-19-cubbon-park-and-lalbagh-garden-bengaluru-closed-120833|access-date=2021-08-17|work=The News Minute|language=en}}</ref> In the third week of May the government allowed parks to be open only from 7 a.m. to 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. to 7 p.m.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Walkers throng Bengaluru's Cubbon Park, Lalbagh, officials have tough time|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2020/may/20/walkers-throng-bengalurus-cubbon-park-lalbagh-officials-have-tough-time-2145528.html|access-date=2021-08-17|work=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

The COVID-19 pandemic forced the cancellation of the Lalbagh flower show on Independence Day in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Y Maheswara Reddy|date=Jul 6, 2020|title=Covid-19 forces flower show at Lalbagh Botanical Garden to be called off|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/after-world-war-ii-covid-19-forces-flower-show-to-be-called-off/articleshow/76804032.cms|access-date=2021-08-17|work=Bangalore Mirror|language=en}}</ref> Due to the pandemic, mango and jackfruit melas were also not conducted at Lalbagh in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|author=((Special Correspondent))|date=2020-07-05|title=Independence Day flower show at Lalbagh cancelled|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/independence-day-flower-show-at-lalbagh-cancelled/article31996778.ece|access-date=2021-08-17|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Overview==
Lalbagh is a {{convert|240|acre|sqkm}} garden and is located in south [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]]. It holds two flower shows and has over 1,000 species of plants with many trees that are more than a hundred years old.<ref>{{citation |title=Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore |url=https://horticulturedir.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/Parks%20and%20Gardens/Lalbagh%20Catalogue%20English.pdf|publisher=Department of Horticulture, Bangalore |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502070958/https://horticulturedir.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/Parks%20and%20Gardens/Lalbagh%20Catalogue%20English.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2023}}</ref><ref name=lalbagh>{{cite web |title=Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore |url=http://horticulture.kar.nic.in/lalbagh.htm|website=Department of Horticulture, Bangalore|access-date=20 August 2015| date= |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050205024323/http://horticulture.kar.nic.in:80/lalbagh.htm|archive-date=5 February 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bowe |first1=Patrick |title=Charles Maries: Garden Superintendent to Two Indian Maharajas |journal=Garden History |date=2002 |volume=30 |issue=1: Spring |pages=84−94 |doi=10.2307/1587328}}</ref>

The garden adjoins one of the towers erected by the founder of [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]], [[Kempe Gowda]]. The park has some rare species of plants brought from [[Persia]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[France]]. With an intricate watering system for irrigation, this garden is aesthetically designed, with lawns, flowerbeds, lotus pools and fountains. Most of the centuries-old trees are labelled for easy identification. [[Peninsular Gneiss|''The Lalbagh Rock'']], one of the most ancient rock formations on earth, dating back to 3,000 million years, is another attraction that attracts the crowds.<ref name=lalbagh/>

===Gates===
Lalbagh has four gates numbered 1 to 4. Gates 1 and 2 are on the north side. Gate 3 is to the east and Gate 4 is to the west. The eastern gate is situated near Siddapura Circle (K.H Circle - K.H Double Road) and one can enter this gate and enjoy the sylvan atmosphere of the garden. The northwestern wall adjoins Krumbiegal Road named after G.H. Krumbiegal, the last pre-Independence Superintendent.

The western gate has a wide road with [[Jayanagar, Bangalore|Jayanagar, Bengaluru]] close by. The southern gate is often referred to as a small gate and opens near Ashoka pillar. The northern gate is a fairly wide and big road leading to the Glass House and serves as the primary entrance.<ref name= "history 2010">{{Cite web |url=http://www.horticulture.kar.nic.in/Design_final/lalbagh/History_of_Lalbagh.html |title=History of Lalbagh Botanical Garden |date=2010 |access-date=21 August 2015 |publisher=Directorate of Horticulture, Government of Karnataka |archive-date=14 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814094723/http://www.horticulture.kar.nic.in/Design_final/lalbagh/History_of_Lalbagh.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Tourism and eco-development ==
Flower shows are conducted every year during the week of Republic day and Independence day, to educate people about the variety of flora and develop public interest in plant conservation and cultivation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lalbagh.org/|title=Lal Bagh Flower Show 2008 Ticket Booking|access-date=2009-03-01|archive-date=10 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310140723/http://www.lalbagh.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In August 2022, on the occasion of 75th Independence Day, flower show was conducted in the honour of [[Rajkumar (actor)|Rajkumar]] and [[Puneeth Rajkumar]] depicting their life journey. It was attended by 8.34 lakh people.<ref>{{cite news|date=16 August 2022 | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2022/Aug/16/record-834-lakh-people-flock-to-flower-show-revenue-touches-rs-333-crore-2487906.html | title=Record 8.34 lakh people flock to flower show, revenue touches Rs 3.33 crore |work=The New Indian Express |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425132538/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2022/aug/16/record-834-lakh-people-flock-to-flower-show-revenue-touches-rs-333-crore-2487906.amp |archive-date=25 April 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Lalbagh view.jpg|thumb|]]

A bonsai garden has been added in 2002. Apart from this, there is a Topiary Garden, Rose Garden and Lotus Garden inside Lalbagh.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

An artificial waterfall has been commissioned in 2017 at the far eastern edge of the lake.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2019/jun/20/double-joy-visitors-to-lalbagh-can-now-enjoy-two-waterfalls-1992631.html |title=Double joy: Visitors to Lalbagh can now enjoy two waterfalls |work=The New Indian Express |access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref>

Lalbagh is a good place for bird watching both in the lake and on the ground.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Lalbagh also has a "Garden centre" where citizens can buy ornamental plants. This is managed by Nursery Men's Cooperative society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Nurserymen Co-Operative Society Ltd. |url=http://ncslalbagh.com/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=ncslalbagh.com}}</ref>

A geological monument for the [[Peninsular Gneiss|peninsular gneiss]] formation is also a tourist attraction at the gardens. This monument has been designated by the [[Geological Survey of India]] on the Lalbagh hill which is made up of 3,000 million-year-old peninsular gneissic rocks. One of the four cardinal towers erected by Kempegowda II, also a major tourist attraction, is seen above this hillock. This tower gives a view of Bengaluru from the top.<ref name="monument">{{cite web|url=http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,529567&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL|title=Peninsular Gneiss|publisher=Geological Survey of India|access-date=2009-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721161351/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,529567&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="GSI">{{cite journal|title=National Geological Monuments, pages 96, Peninsular Gneiss, page29-32|journal=Special Publication Series|publisher=Geological Survey of India,27, Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Kolkata-700016|issn=0254-0436|year=2001|url=http://www.vedamsbooks.com/no24484.htm|archive-date=30 March 2009|access-date=2 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330120907/http://www.vedamsbooks.com/no24484.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Lalbagh management and public protests ==
The Lalbagh botanical gardens is managed by the Department of Horticulture and is no longer maintained as a botanical garden and is not a member of the [[Botanic Gardens Conservation International]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lalbagh Botanical Garden |url=https://tools.bgci.org/garden.php?id=452 |website=BGCI |publisher=[[Botanic Gardens Conservation International]]}}</ref> With an increasing pressure to serve as a park and social space, much of the garden has been converted into walking paths and lawns. Morning walkers throng Lalbagh every morning. Many tree have been trimmed or cut down to make way for public amenities or due to perceptions that falling branches may threaten visitors.<ref>{{cite news |title=No more tree felling at Lalbagh: Minister |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/86743/no-more-tree-felling-lalbagh.html |work=Deccan Herald |date=7 August 2010 |language=en}}</ref> A part of the garden was taken over and many trees cut down amid protests for construction of the [[Lalbagh metro station|Lalbagh Metro Station]] as part of the [[Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd|Bengaluru Metro Rail Corporation Ltd]]. Entry fees of INR 25 with a camera fee of INR 60 have also been a point of contention.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kidiyoor |first1=Suchith |title=Entry, parking fees at Lalbagh set to go up |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/entry-parking-fees-at-lalbagh-set-to-go-up/article25151627.ece |work=The Hindu |date=7 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427101048/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/entry-parking-fees-at-lalbagh-set-to-go-up/article25151627.ece |archive-date=27 April 2019 |language=en-IN}}</ref> There have been repeated proposals to build various recreational amenities such as rock gardens, fountains and boating facilities. Some of these proposals of the management have been halted in the past due protests from enlightened public who have pointed out the impacts these have on the environment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Saswati |title=Making Lalbagh see green |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Making-Lalbagh-see-green/articleshow/38766428.cms |work=The Times of India |date=21 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101143941/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/making-lalbagh-see-green/articleshow/38766428.cms |archive-date=1 November 2022}}</ref>

==Connectivity==
[[Lalbagh metro station]] connects with the [[Green Line (Namma Metro)|Greenline]] of [[Namma Metro]].<ref>{{Cite news|agency=TNN|date=May 3, 2017|title=Nagasandra-Puttenahalli Metro line: Nagasandra-Puttenahalli Metro line to open by May-end, says KJ George |id=Bengaluru News|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/nagasandra-puttenahalli-metro-line-to-open-by-may-end-says-george/articleshow/58484491.cms|access-date=2021-08-02|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

Lalbagh is also connected by [[Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation|Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation]] buses from [[Kempegowda Bus Station]]/Shivaji Nagar. All buses towards [[Jayanagar, Bangalore|Jayanagar]]/[[Banashankari]] areas pass through one of the four gates of Lalbagh.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

== Preservation Act, 1979 ==
The Preservation Act, 1979 passed by the Government of Karnataka to preserve the uniqueness of the park is under the provision of Karnataka Government Park (Preservation) Act, 1975, which states:<blockquote>''Accordingly, it is directed that neither any land should be granted to nor any further constructions be permitted whether temporary or permanent by any organization or individuals in the [[Cubbon Park]] and Lalbagh areas except the constructions taken up by the Horticulture Department in furtherance of the objectives of the department.''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-11-13|title=GOVERNMENT OF KARNATAKA|url=http://www.esgindia.org/campaigns/cubbonpark/docs/Annexures%20to%20IA.htm|access-date=2021-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113121211/http://www.esgindia.org/campaigns/cubbonpark/docs/Annexures%20to%20IA.htm|archive-date=13 November 2008}}</ref></blockquote>

==Gallery==
<gallery class="center" widths="200" heights="150" perrow="4" caption="Lalbagh Gallery">
File:Lalbagh bangalore.jpg|Lalbagh or Lalbagh Botanical Gardens is a well known botanical garden in southern Bengaluru, India.
File:Kempegowda tower in Lal Bagh.jpg|Kempegowda tower
File:Fav Lalbagh W.jpg|Side view of Glass House
File:Lalbaghglasshouse.JPG|Interior view of the Glass house
File:Bombax LalBagh.JPG|Largest known ''[[Bombax malabaricum]]'',<ref name=":2"/>{{rp|23}} 'red silk-cotton' or 'kapok' specimen, (sometimes listed as ''Ceiba pentandra'') located in Lalbagh
File:Lake inside Lalbagh Botanical Garden Bangalore An Evening View.jpg|Evening View of the Lake
File:Lalbaghdecojapan.JPG|A Japanese decorative monument found in Lalbagh
File:Lake - Lal Bagh, Bangalore II..JPG|Lalbagh Lake pathway
File:Lalbaghstatue.JPG|A statue of Sri Chamarajendra Wodeyar, ex-ruler of Mysore at Lalbagh. He also sponsored the famous journey of Swami Vivekananda to Chicago in 1893.
File:Lalbagh lake view.jpg|A view of the lake at Lalbagh
File:Lalbaghbanglore.jpg|Lawn inside Lalbagh
File:Lotus Pond, Lalbagh Botanical Garden.jpg|Lotus Pond
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Lalbagh Botanical Garden}}
* [https://archive.org/details/cu31924000622252 Catalogue of plants in 1891]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120217040111/http://www.horticulture.kar.nic.in/lalbagh.htm Official Website]
* [https://archive.org/details/TheLalbaghAHistoryByKVinoda The Lalbagh - A History]
* [https://travel2karnataka.com/lalbagh.htm Lalbagh Flower Show January 2025]

{{Bangalore topics}}

[[Category:Kingdom of Mysore]]
[[Category:History of Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Tourism in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Botanical gardens in India]]
[[Category:Parks in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Greenhouses]]
[[Category:Aquaria in India]]

Devji Shrimali

2025-06-28T16:50:36Z

MazidulIslamMilon: put up bio - done

{{Short description|Indian painter and mixed media artist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}

'''Devji A. Shrimali''' is an Indian painter and [[mixed media]] artist, best known for his [[Watercolor painting|water colour]] and [[oil painting]]s, [[digital art]], and [[pyrography]]. A graduate of the [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]], his works have been exhibited at the [[Nehru Centre]] and the [[Darpan Art Gallery]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sabarimala |first1=Maniilal |author1-link=Maniilal Sabarimala |title=Absolute: Painters and Paintings |date=30 April 2018 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-64249-445-7 |page=132 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bose |first1=Ishani |title=Delving into the woman's mind |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/pune/report-delving-into-the-woman-s-mind-1867776 |access-date=24 February 2024 |work=DNA India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Architecture Fantasy: Exhibition in Pune, Darpan Art Gallery |url=https://www.whatshot.in/pune/architecture-fantasy-exhibition-e-324530 |access-date=24 February 2024 |work=Whats Hot |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shrimali, Devji}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian artists]]
[[Category:Indian painters]]
[[Category:Indian watercolourists]]
[[Category:Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-artist-stub}}

75 Medium Regiment (India)

2025-06-10T11:55:51Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Stub...

{{Short description|Indian Army artillery unit}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = 75 Medium Regiment
| image =
| caption =
| dates = 1966–present
| country = [[India]]
| allegiance = {{flag icon|India}}
| branch = [[File:Flag of Indian Army.svg|24px]] [[Indian Army]]
| type = [[File:Regiment of Artillery Insignia (India).svg|20px]] [[Artillery]]
| role =
| size = Regiment
| command_structure =
| equipment = [[130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46)|130 mm towed M-46 field guns]]

| Past Commanders =
| ceremonial_chief =
| colonel_of_the_regiment = Maj Gen BK Guha, VSM
| notable_commanders = Brigadier K N Thadani {{small|VSM}} Brigadier A N Suryanarayanan Brigadier JPS Ahluwalia Major General B K Guha {{small|VSM}}

| identification_symbol = 75 Med Regt
| identification_symbol_label = Abbreviation

| nickname = ''MVC Regiment''
| patron =
| motto = Sarvatra, Izzat-O-Iqbal (Everywhere with Honour and Glory)
| colors = Red & Navy Blue
| march =
| mascot =
| battles = [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] [[Battle of Basantar]] [[Operation Meghdoot]] [[Indian Army operations in Jammu and Kashmir|Operation Rakshak]] [[Kargil War]] [[2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff|Operation Parakram]] [[2020–2021 China–India skirmishes|Operation Snow Leopard]]
|anniversaries = Raising Day - 18 January Battle Honour Day - 16 December<ref name="IARM">{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Gautam|title= Indian Army, a Reference Manual|page=63|publisher= Reliance Publishing House|year=2000|isbn= 978-8175101142}}</ref>
| decorations = [[Maha Vir Chakra]] 1 [[Vir Chakra]] 1 [[Vishisht Seva Medal]] 2 [[Sena Medal]] 3 [[Mentioned in Dispatches]] 3 [[Commendation Card (Indian Army)|GOC-in-C Commendation Card]] 5
| battle_honours = Basantar River
}}
'''75 Medium Regiment''' is part of the [[Regiment of Artillery (India)|Regiment of Artillery]] of the [[Indian Army]].

== Formation and history==
The regiment was raised as '''75 Medium Regiment''' on 18 January 1966 at [[New Delhi]]. The unit was equipped with the [[130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46)|130 mm towed M-46 field guns]] and has always been designated as a medium regiment. The first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Sarvjit Puri.<ref name="IARM"/>

In addition to the 130 mm towed M-46 field guns, the regiment has also used [[BL 5.5-inch medium gun|5.5-inch howitzers]] and [[Haubits FH77|155 mm FH 77 B howitzers]].<ref name="GJ">{{cite web|url=https://rejinces.net/2018/04/20/golden-jubilee-75-medium-regiment-basantar-river/|title=Golden Jubilee – 75 Medium Regiment (Basantar River)|date=2018-04-20|access-date=2024-01-12}}</ref> The regiment presently consists of headquarters, 751, 752 and 753 medium batteries.

==Class composition==
At raising, the regiment had a battery each of North Indian [[Brahmin]]s, [[Jats]] and [[South India]]n classes. At present, it is an all India, all class regiment.<ref name="GJ"/>

==Operations==
===Indo-Pakistani War of 1971===
{{Main|Battle of Basantar}}
During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Operation Cactus Lily]], 75 Medium Regiment was equipped with the 130 mm towed M-46 field guns and commanded by Lieutenant Colonel K N Thadani. It saw action in the [[Shakargarh]] sector of the western front. The unit was part of the divisional artillery of [[54th Infantry Division (India)|54 Infantry Division]] and was in direct support of its 16 (Independent) Armoured Brigade.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Jagjit Singh |title=Indian Gunners at War the Western Front-1971 |page=142 |url=https://songramernotebook.com/archives/425487 |access-date=2024-01-09 |website=songramernotebook.com |date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109123634/https://songramernotebook.com/archives/425487 |archive-date=2024-01-09 }}</ref> The Commanding officer, Observation Post officers, Gun Position officers and all gunners tirelessly provided fire support to the advancing Indian Armour and Infantry during actions at Thakurdwara, Chakra, Jarpal and the [[Battle of Basantar#75 Medium Regiment at the Battle of Basantar|Battle of Basantar]] and engaged enemy targets, inflicting heavy casualties on their enemy. Captain Satish Chander Sehgal and Gunner VK Premachandran were killed in action during the Battle of Basantar.<ref name="amarjawan">{{Cite web |title=75 Medium Regt, Regiment O, 1971 Bangladesh War |website=Amar Jawan |url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/amarjawan/index.php?qname=&qwar=1971%20Bangladesh%20War&cur=0&qunit=75%20Medium%20Regt&qnum=&qregt=Regiment%20Of%20Artillery&qdate= |publisher=Bharat Rakshak |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106145944/https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/amarjawan/index.php?qname=&qwar=1971%20Bangladesh%20War&cur=0&qunit=75%20Medium%20Regt&qnum=&qregt=Regiment%20Of%20Artillery&qdate= |archive-date= Jan 6, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/remembering-a-1971-war-hero/|title=Remembering a 1971 war hero|date=2024-08-08|access-date=2025-06-10}}</ref>

The Regiment was awarded the battle honour title "''Basantar River''" in recognition of extraordinary heroism and exemplary combat performance, while in direct support of the 16 (Independent) Armoured Brigade during the war.<ref name="battlehonour">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Sarbans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ATfAAAAMAAJ&q=75+Medium+Regiment+(Basantar+River) |title=Battle Honours of the Indian Army, 1757-1971 |date=1993 |publisher=Vision Books |isbn=978-81-7094-115-6 |pages=142}}</ref>

===Operation Meghdoot===
{{Main|Operation Meghdoot}}
The regiment has sent number of parties to the [[Siachen Glacier]] during [[Operation Meghdoot#Aftermath|Operation Meghdoot]]. Captain Pratap Singh while gallantly performing duties of Observation Post officer in the protection of Bana post, was killed in action in May 1988.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Captain Pratap Singh {{!}} Killed In Action {{!}} Amar Jawan |url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/amarjawan/index.php?qname=&qwar=Siachen%20Operations&cur=0&qunit=75%20Med%20Regt&qnum=&qregt=Regiment%20Of%20Artillery&qdate=1988 |website=www.bharat-rakshak.com}}</ref> Subsequently, in 2004, Subedar Rajender Pal was awarded the GOC-in-C Northern Command Commendation Card.

===Operation Rakshak===
The regiment had three tenures during [[Indian Army operations in Jammu and Kashmir|Operation Rakshak]] (1987–90, 1990–96 and 2003–05), in Jammu and Kashmir. The regiment carried out trans-LoC firing, establishing company operating base, convoy protection, road opening and protection of pilgrims visiting Amarnath shrine during these tenures.

===Kargil War===
During [[Kargil War|Operation Vijay]], the regiment provided a gun battery to 25 Infantry Division Sector, and was kept on stand by for the operation.

===Operation Parakram===
When the Indian Army was mobilized in December 2001 during [[2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff|Operation Parakram]], so was the regiment. It moved from its peace time location in [[Ambala Cantonment|Ambala]], to its operational location in [[Rajasthan]], where it remained till December 2002.

===Operation Snow Leopard===
The regiment was mobilized during [[2020–2021 China–India skirmishes|Operation Snow Leopard]] and fully deployed at [[Daulat Beg Oldi]], on the Karakoram Pass-Depsang Plains alignment at an altitude of 16,800 feet.

==Gallantry awards==
*'''[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistan War of 1971]]'''
**[[Battle honour|Battle Honour]] - "Basantar River"<ref name="battlehonour" />
**[[Vir Chakra]] - Captain Satish Chander Sehgal (posthumous)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/2491|title=Captain Satish Chander Sehgal|access-date=2024-01-12}}</ref>
**[[Vishisht Seva Medal]] - Lieutenant Colonel K N Thadani<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.csl_weekly.1972-09-02.O-1321-1972-0036-58849/|title=Gazette of India, No 36, page 982|date=1972-09-02|access-date=2024-01-12}}</ref>
**[[Sena Medal]] - Major Manmohan Singh Brar<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.242971/|title=Indian Armed Forces Year Book 1971|access-date=2024-01-12}}</ref>
**[[Mentioned in dispatches|Mentioned-in-Dispatches]] - Captain Madhu Mahbubani, Captain Mohan Krishnan, Subedar Major Mohindar Singh<ref>{{cite web|url=https://egazette.gov.in/WriteReadData/1974/O-1253-1974-0019-55503.pdf|title=Gazette of India, No 19, page 535|date=1974-05-11|access-date=2024-01-12}}</ref>
*'''[[Operation Meghdoot]]'''
**[[Maha Vir Chakra]] - Captain Pratap Singh (posthumous)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Captain Pratap Singh {{!}} Maha Vir Chakra |url=https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/1487 |website=Gallantry Awards |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222182930/https://www.gallantryawards.gov.in/awardee/1487 |archive-date= Dec 22, 2023 }}</ref>
**[[Commendation Card (Indian Army)|GOC-in-C Commendation Card]] - Subedar Rajender Pal
*'''[[Indian Army operations in Jammu and Kashmir|Operation Rakshak]]'''
**[[Sena Medal]] - 2
**[[Commendation Card (Indian Army)|GOC-in-C Commendation Card]] - 4

==See also==
* [[List of regiments of the Indian Army#Artillery|List of artillery regiments of Indian Army]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:75 Medium Regiment (Basantar River)}}
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1966]]
[[Category:Artillery regiments of the Indian Army after 1947]]

Kikkli

2025-04-13T06:13:27Z

MazidulIslamMilon: general corrected page for clarity further and cleaned formatting per standard format

{{Short description|Punjabi folk dance}}
{{Infobox dance
| name = Kikli
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| etymology =
| image = Kikli and salwar suits.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| genre = [[Folk dance]]
| signature =
| instruments =
| inventor =
| year =
| origin = Punjab
}}{{Punjabis}}
{{Punjabis}}
'''Kikkli''' (pronounced: kick-lee), also spelled as '''Kikli''', is one of the folk dances of [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] women and girls<ref name="fp">{{cite web|url=http://folkpunjab.com/encyclopedia/dances-of-punjab/ |title=Kikli |publisher=www.folkpunjab.com |access-date=March 19, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130123124120/http://folkpunjab.com/encyclopedia/dances-of-punjab/ |archive-date=January 23, 2013 }}</ref> performed by two girls holding hands and twirling each other in circle and balancing their positions in circular motions.<ref name="ds">{{cite book | title=In the Days of Love | author=Singh, Durlabh | year=2011 | pages=155}}</ref> It is generally popular in young girls and performed in pairs.<ref name="yk">{{cite book | title=The Women Of Punjab | author=Kohli, Yash | year=1983 | pages=120}}</ref><ref name="ag">{{cite web | url=http://dance.anantagroup.com/kikli-dance/ | title=Kikli dance | publisher=www.dance.anantagroup.com | access-date=March 19, 2012}}</ref> A variety of songs are used with clapping.

==Dancing style==
[[File:Photograph of Punjabi women performing 'Kikkli', a traditional Punjabi folk dance.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Punjabi women performing 'Kikkli', a traditional Punjabi folk dance]]
It is more of a sport than a dance for young girls.<ref name=ag/> Two girls stands face to face close to each other and hold their hands crossing arms with their bodies inclined back;<ref name=fp/><ref name=ds/><ref name="pj">{{cite web | url=http://punjabijanta.com/lok-virsa/kikli-34402/?nowap | title=Kikli | publisher=www.punjabijanta.com | access-date=March 19, 2012}}</ref> in this position their arms are stretched to the maximum and hands interlock firmly.<ref name=pj/> Then they wheel round fast continuously with their ''dupatta''s floating in the air and anklets making tinkling sound.<ref name=ag/><ref name=pj/> The other ladies encourages them to go faster and faster by singing songs with clapping.<ref name=ds/> Sometimes it is done by four girls. The folk song related to the dance has much variety.

==See also==
* [[Fugdi]]

==References==

{{reflist}}
{{Dance in India}}
[[Category:Punjabi culture]]
[[Category:Folk dances of Punjab]]

Edappal

2025-01-24T12:51:26Z

MazidulIslamMilon:

{{original research|date=June 2021}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Edappal
| native_name = 
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Census Town
| image_skyline = Edappal 2.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Edappal town
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|10.7837|N|76.0076|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Malappuram District|Malappuram]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 22.2
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 32,550
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 679576
| area_code = 0494
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = KL-54
| website =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], English
}}
'''Edappal''' is a town which lies near to the town of [[Ponnani]] in [[Ponnani taluk]], [[Malappuram district]], [[Kerala]], [[India]]. Edappal at the junction of Thrissur-Kuttippuram and Palakkad-Ponnani state highways, is located {{cvt|45|km}} from Malappuram. Edappal lies in two panchayaths (local body jursidcitions), Vattamkulam, and Edappal. Edappal shares borders with Thuyyam, Polpakkara, Ayilakkadu, Vattamkulam, and Annakampadu. [[Sukapuram]] (also known as ''Chowwara''), one of the earliest [[Brahmin]] settlements in Kerala, lies in Edappal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Menon, A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=9788126415786}}</ref> The ''[[Azhvanchery Thamprakkal]]'' of [[Athavanad]] (originally [[Maranchery]]), had influence over the [[Nambudiri]]s of [[Sukapuram]] (''Chowwara''), while the ''Kalpakanchery Thamprakkal'' of [[Kalpakanchery]] influenced the rival [[Nambudiris]] of [[Kumbidi|Panniyoor]].<ref>{{cite book
| author = K. V. Krishna Iyer
| title = Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806
| publisher = Norman Printing Bureau, Kozhikode
| url = https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3379
| year = 1938}}</ref> Edappal forms a portion of the [[Malappuram metropolitan area]] as of [[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]].<ref name="Malappuram metropolitan area">{{cite web |url=https://kerala.gov.in/documents/10180/622777/urban |website=kerala.gov.in |title=Constituents of Malappuram metropolitan area |access-date=31 January 2021 |archive-date=30 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230044541/https://kerala.gov.in/documents/10180/622777/urban |url-status=dead }}</ref> Edappal lies in [[Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands|Ponnani Kole Wetlands]] and is surrounded by the Biyyam backwater lake of [[Ponnani]].

== Notable people ==
*[[Namboothiri (artist)|Artist Namboothiri]]
*[[Sukumaran]] (Actor)
*[[Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri]]
*[[P.P. Ramachandran]]
*[[Chekannur Maulavi]]
*[[Edasseri Govindan Nair]]
*[[Devdutt Padikkal]] (Cricketer)
*[[P Surendran]](Writer)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Edappal}}

{{Malappuram district}}
{{Malabar}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Malappuram district]]
[[Category:Populated waterside places in India]]
[[Category:Kuttippuram area]]

Risala Weekly

2025-01-19T00:44:51Z

MazidulIslamMilon: refine page per sources

#REDIRECT [[Sunni Students' Federation]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

Anavrtti

2024-11-07T12:44:31Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Notability|date=November 2021}}

{{Hindu philosophy}}
'''Anavrtti''' ({{Langx|sa|अनावृत्ति}}) is a [[Vedic]] term which means – non-return to a body, final emancipation. This word refers to the [[Jivanmukta]].

==Overview==

'''Anavrtti''' means path of no return.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Bhagavad Gita|publisher=Shambala Publications|page=480|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=V0exkVFiyvcC&q=anavrtti&pg=PA480|isbn=9781590308936|year=2011}}</ref> It indicates the non-return of the soul to a new body, and refers to the end of the seemingly endless vicious cycle of birth, death and rebirth, the transmigration of soul from one body to another. [[Badarayana]] concludes with the statement: - अनावृत्तिः शब्दादनावृत्तिः शब्दात् || ([[Brahma Sutras|Brahma sutra]] IV.iv.22) – "There is no return for the released souls on the strength of the upanishadic declaration".<ref>{{cite book|title= Brahma sutra – the philosophy of spiritual life |author=Badarayana|publisher=Harper|page=911|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=U-gAAAAAMAAJ&q=anavrtti |year=1960|isbn=9780042940434}}</ref> This word, characterized by no return, is very common in [[Vedanta]] literature.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Linguistics Vol.16|publisher=Linguistic Society of India|page=319|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLISAAAAIAAJ&q=anavrtti|year=1955}}</ref>

==Upanishadic connection==

Before concluding his deliberation on [[Brahman]], Badarayana explains that the released souls are of two kinds – with or without bodies and senses; that the released soul gets all the divine powers except running the universe, and that Brahman does not abide in the effect as shown by [[Chandogya Upanishad]] (III.xii.6) –

:तावानस्य महिमा ततो ज्यायाश्च पूरुषः |
:पादोऽस्य सर्वा भूतानि त्रिपादस्यामृतं दिवि ||

:" His divine majesty spreads that far; the whole universe of all these beings is but a quadrant of His. But Purusa (the infinite Being) is greater than that, His three immortal quadrants being established in His own effulgence."

He states that Brahman is the supreme Light beyond all changing things with which there is equality of experience alone. Having reached that state there is no return for the released soul. In this context [[Adi Sankara|Sankara]] states that Badarayana reiterates - तेषां न पुनरावृत्तिः ("They no more return to this world") ([[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] VI.ii.15) or न च पुनरावर्तते ("He does not return again") ([[Chandogya Upanishad]] VIII.xv.1), and adds that non-return stands as an accomplished fact for those from whom the darkness of ignorance has been completely removed as a result of their full illumination and who therefore cling to that liberation as their highest goal which exists ever as an already established fact; the non-return of those who take refuge in the qualified Brahman becomes a fact only because they too have that unconditioned Brahman as their ultimate resort.<ref>{{cite book|title=Brahma Sutra Bhasya of Sankaracarya|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|pages=904–912|url=https://advaitaashrama.org/Book/Detail/8121|access-date=2014-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224112052/https://advaitaashrama.org/Book/Detail/8121|archive-date=2013-12-24|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Rig Vedic connection==

The concept of Anavrtti has a direct relation with the concept of Transmigration of Souls. [[Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade]] in his book, [[A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy]] finds the concept of [[Reincarnation|Transmigration of Souls]] developing in the [[Rig Veda]]. He draws our attention to the following [[mantra]]s of Sukta 164 of [[Rishi]] [[Dirghatamas]]:-

:को ददर्श प्रथमं जायमानमस्थन्वन्तं यदनस्था बिभर्ति |
:भूम्या असुरसृगात्मा क्वं स्वित्को विद्वांसमुपगात्प्रष्टमेतत् ||

whereby the Rishi asks, who has ever seen the precise mode in which the boneless soul, the very life-blood and informing spirit of the earth, comes to inhabit a bony tenement? And if a man did not know this himself, who has ever moved out of himself and gone to the wise man to receive illumination on it? ([[Rig Veda]] I.164.4), that

:अनच्छये तुरगातु जीवमेजद्ध्रुवं मध्य आ पस्त्यानाम् |
:जीवो मृतस्य चरति स्वधाभिरमत्र्यो मत्र्येना सयोनिः ||

this breathing, speedful, moving life-principle is firmly established inside these tenements ([[Rig Veda]] I.164.30), that

:अपाङ् प्राङेति स्वधया गृभीतोऽमत्र्यो मत्रेना सयोनिः |
:ता शश्वन्ता विषूचीना वियन्तान्य१न्यं चिक्युर्न नि चिक्युरन्यम् ||

the immortal principle, conjoined with the mortal one, moves backwards and forwards by virtue of its natural power; these two elements keep moving ceaselessly in opposite directions, with the result that people are able to see the one but are unable to see the other ([[Rig Veda]] I.164.38); that

:अपश्यं गोपामनिपद्यमानमा च परा च पथिभिश्चरन्तम् |
:स सध्रीचोः स विषूचीर्वसान आ वरीवर्त्ति भुवनेष्वन्तः ||

the Rishi tells us he himself saw (with his mind’s eye) the guardian of the body, moving unerringly by backward and forward paths, clothed in collected and diffusive splendor, only to keep returning frequently inside the mundane regions ([[Rig Veda]] I.164.31);

:ये अर्वाञ्च्स्ताँ उ पराच आहुर्ये पराञ्च्स्ताँ उ अर्वाच आहुः |
:इन्द्रश्च वा चक्रथुः सोम तानि धुरा न युक्ता रजसो वहन्ति ||

and talks of those who come hither as those who are moving away, and those who are moving back as already returning hither ([[Rig Veda]] I.164.19)<ref>{{cite book|title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy 1986 Ed.|author=R.D.Ranade|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|pages=108–109|url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL11038873W/A_constructive_survey_of_Upanishadic_philosophy_being_an_introduction_to_the_thought_of_the_Upanisha }}</ref>

==Implication==

[[Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade]] clarifies that whenever there is recognized the possibility of the soul coming to inhabit a body as a god-like principle from without, wherever it is supposed that the soul could likewise part from the body as it came, wherever it is thought that the soul after parting from the body could lead a life of disembodied existence, and wherever it is supposed to return again to the earth and inhabit any form of existence whatsoever, there is a kind of undying life conceived for the soul.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy 1986 Ed.|author=R.D.Ranade|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|page=109|url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL11038873W/A_constructive_survey_of_Upanishadic_philosophy_being_an_introduction_to_the_thought_of_the_Upanisha }}</ref> [[Adi Sankara|Sankara]] explains that the competent man, while performing all prescribed things in the householders life itself, living in the way described, to the end of his life, attains after death the world of Brahman and does not return again for becoming embodied. From the negation of return (न च पुनरावर्तते) which must occur as a matter of course, it follows that having reached the world of [[Hiranyagarbha]] through the Path of Light etc., he stays there as long as the world of Hiranyagarbha lasts, i.e. before that he does not return.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chandogya Upanishad First edition|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|page=673|url=https://advaitaashrama.org/Book/Detail/264|access-date=2014-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022110628/http://advaitaashrama.org/Book/Detail/264|archive-date=2014-10-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> The choice is the psychic death, the death that means the business of realization of our otherness out of love of true liberation, which is achieved by knowledge that even transcends abstract reason.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upanishads Vol.3|author=Swami Parameshwaranad|publisher=Sarup & Sons|page=368|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-7PpmaKjLvUC&q=anavrtti&pg=PA369 |isbn=9788176251488|year=2000}}</ref>

==Nature of Liberation==

The [[Jivanmukta]] on exhaustion of the [[Prarabdha karma]] attains [[Videha mukti]] (freedom from the body) at death and becomes one with [[Brahman]]. At the time of death the functions of the organs (Speech etc.) are merged in the mind ([[Brahma Sutras]] IV.ii.1). Then the mind is merged in [[Prana]], and the Prana (the vital force) gets merged in the [[Jiva]] (the individual Soul) ([[Brahma Sutras]] IV.ii.3-4). This mode of departure is common for both the knower of the [[Saguna brahman|Saguna Brahman]] and the ignorant up to the beginning of their ways leading to immortality because it is something pertaining to this life. The subtle body lasts up to the attainment of Brahman. Pranas of the knower of the [[Nirguna Brahman]] do not depart from the individual soul, the soul passes out of the body with the Pranas which become merged in Brahman, and absolute non-distinction with Brahman takes place – अविभागः, वचनात् (Brahma Sutras IV.ii.16). The soul of the knower of the Saguna Brahman comes to the heart at the time of death and thence goes out through the Susumna; it then follows the rays of the sun after death and goes to [[Brahmapura|Brahmaloka]] – रश्म्यनुसारी (Brahma Sutras VI.ii.18). The texts refer to different paths and give their descriptions but [[Badarayana]] tells us that they refer to and give only different particulars of the same path – अर्चिरादिना, तत्प्रथितेः (Brahma Sutras IV.iii.1)<ref>{{cite book|title=Brahma Sutras|author=Badarayana|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|pages=426–439, 443|url=http://advaitaashrama.org/Book/Search/Author=Swami%20Vireswarananda|access-date=2014-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413142529/http://advaitaashrama.org/Book/Search/Author=Swami%20Vireswarananda|archive-date=2014-04-13|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Impersonal immortality==

[[Mundaka Upanishad]] (III.ii.6-9) states that at the supreme moment of final departure having become identified with the supreme Immortality (Brahman) they pure in mind become freed on every side. To their resources repair the fifteen constituents (of the body) and to their respective gods go all the gods (of the senses), and the karmas and the soul that stimulates the intellect, all become unified with the supreme Undecaying (परेऽव्यये). As rivers, flowing down, become indistinguishable on reaching the sea by giving up their names and forms, so also the illumined soul, having become freed from name and form, reaches the self-effulgent Purusa that is higher than the higher Immutable; this Self is not attained by one devoid of strength, nor through delusion, nor through knowledge unassociated with monasticism, but the Self of that knower, who strives through these means, enters into the abode that is Brahman (ब्रह्मधाम).<ref>{{cite book|title=Eight Upanishads|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|pages=163–169|url=http://library.techworm.co.in/selected-picks/eight-upanishads-with-the-commentary-of-sankaracharya-translated-by-swami-gambhirananda }}</ref> This is absorption in divinity, this is the Doctrine of Impersonal Immortality. [[Kaushitaki Upanishad]] (I.4) tells us that when the soul comes to the Path of the Gods, the soul first goes to the world of Fire, then to the world of the Wind, to the world of Varuna, to that of the Sun, of Indra, of Prajapati, and finally to the world of Brahman. The soul knowing Brahman crosses the Ageless river merely by the motion of the mind and being free from good and free from evil moves towards Brahman.

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Indian philosophy|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Upanishadic concepts]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]

Naupada Junction railway station

2024-07-29T02:31:21Z

MazidulIslamMilon: adding new data from scratch

{{short description|Railway station in Andhra Pradesh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Naupada Junction
| native_name =
| type = [[Indian Railways]]
[[junction station]]
| style = Indian Railways
| image = File:Naupada junction railway station name board 2.jpg
| image_caption = Naupada station platform 1
| address = Nuapada, Srikakulam District. PH.No. 08945-249728 State: Andhra Pradesh
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coord|18.57906|N|84.28294|E|type:railwaystation_region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| elevation = {{convert|12|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| line = [[Khurda Road–Visakhapatnam section]] of [[Howrah–Chennai main line]] [[Naupada–Gunupur branch line]]
| other =
| structure = Standard on ground station
| platform = 3
| tracks = {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}} [[broad gauge]]
| parking = Available
| bicycle =
| opened = 1893–96
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = 1998–99
| accessible =
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = NWP
| zone = [[East Coast Railway zone|ECoR]]
| division =
}}
| owned = Indian Railways
| operator = Zone: [[East Coast Railway zone|ECoR]]
| status = {{color|green|Functioning}}
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| map_type = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh##Location in India
}}
'''Naupada Junction railway station''' (station code:NWP), located in the Indian state of [[Andhra Pradesh]], serves [[Naupada]] in [[Srikakulam district]]. It is a junction station with a branch line to [[Gunupur]] in [[Rayagada district]] of [[Odisha]] which was built by Maharaja of [[Paralakhemundi]].Former it was known as [[Parlakimedi Light Railway]].

==History==
During the period 1893 to 1896, {{convert|1287|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} of railway tracks covering the entire coastal stretch from {{stnlnk|Cuttack}} to [[Vijayawada Junction|Vijayawada]], was built and opened to traffic by [[East Coast State Railway]].<ref name=ser>{{cite web | url = http://www.ser.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1 | title = Major Events in the Formation of S.E. Railway | publisher = South Eastern Railway | access-date = 2013-01-02 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130401151628/http://www.ser.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C1 | archive-date = 1 April 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=waltair>{{cite web | url = http://www.mannanna.com/mannannaArt1.html | title = History of Waltair Division | publisher = Mannanna.com | access-date = 2013-01-02 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121011235936/http://www.mannanna.com/mannannaArt1.html | archive-date = 11 October 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>[[Bengal Nagpur Railway]]'s line to Cuttack was opened on 1 January 1899.<ref name=ser/> The southern part of the East Coast State Railway (from Waltair to Vijayawada) was taken over by Madras Railway in 1901.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-history3.html |title = IR History: Part III (1900–1947)| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 2013-01-19}}</ref> The {{convert|514|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}-long northern portion of the East Coast line to Cuttack, including the branch line to {{stnlnk|Puri}}, was taken over by [[Bengal Nagpur Railway]] in 1902.<ref name=waltair/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.eastcoastrail.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,261 | title = History | publisher = East Coast Railway | access-date = 2013-01-02 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110131114416/http://www.eastcoastrail.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C1%2C261 | archive-date = 31 January 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

The Paralakhemedi Light Railway opened Naupada–Gunupur line in 1900.<ref name=ser/><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.indianexpress.com/news/rail-trail/466993/1 |title = Paralakhemedi Light Railway |work=The Indian Express|date=28 May 2009| access-date = 2012-12-10 }}</ref> The line was converted to broad gauge in 2011.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.eastcoastrail.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&id=0,6,338,646&dcd=573&did=13339748308319C148E1216987466056FE87C93D0A9D3.web91 |title = Performance of Waltair Division in 2011–12 | publisher= Waltair Division of East Coast Railway| access-date = 2012-11-27 }}</ref>

===Railway reorganization===
The [[Bengal Nagpur Railway]] was nationalized in 1944.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-history3.html |title = IR History: Part – III (1900–1947)| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 2012-11-21}}</ref> [[Eastern Railway zone|Eastern Railway]] was formed on 14 April 1952 with the portion of [[East Indian Railway Company]] east of [[Mughalsarai]] and the Bengal Nagpur Railway.<ref name=zones>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-geog.html#newzone |title = Geography – Railway Zones| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 2012-11-21 }}</ref> In 1955, [[South Eastern Railway zone|South Eastern Railway]] was carved out of Eastern Railway. It comprised lines mostly operated by BNR earlier.<ref name=zones/><ref name=railhist>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-history4.html |title = IR History: Part – IV (1947–1970)| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 2012-11-21 }}</ref> Amongst the new zones started in April 2003 were [[East Coast Railway zone|East Coast Railway]] and [[South East Central Railway zone|South East Central Railway]]. Both these railways were carved out of South Eastern Railway.<ref name=zones/>

== Infrastructure ==
Naupada Junction lies on the Palasa–Tilaru section, which was electrified in 1999–2000.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://irfca.org/docs/electrification-history.html|title = History of Electrification| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 2013-02-19 }}</ref> Government has allotted {{INRConvert|4|l}} for the development of infrastructure in the station along with [[Srikakulam Road railway station]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/drm-promises-more-passenger-amenities/article7280095.ece|title=DRM promises more passenger amenities|date=2015-06-04|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-04-29|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Railway stations in Andhra Pradesh}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1893]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Srikakulam district]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Waltair railway division]]

Hamsa Geethe (novel)

2024-05-05T21:21:35Z

MazidulIslamMilon: minor update

{{Short description|Book by T. R. Subba Rao}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox book|
| name = Hamsa Geethe
| image =
| caption =
| author = [[T. R. Subba Rao]]
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Kannada]]
| genre = [[Fiction]]
| published = 1952
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover]] & [[Paperback]])
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
| isbn =
}}
'''''Hamsa Geethe''''' is a 1952 [[Kannada]] novel by [[T. R. Subba Rao]] about the life of an Indian classical musician in the context of [[Chitradurga]] being passed from the hands of the [[Polygar|Palegaras]] to [[Tippu Sultan]]. The 1956 [[Hindi]] film, ''[[Basant Bahar (film)|Basant Bahar]]'', and the 1975 Kannada film ''[[Hamsageethe]]'' are based on this novel. It contains good descriptions of [[Chitradurga Fort|Chitradurga's fort]] and its history.<ref>{{cite web|url =http://www.raveeshkumar.com/2009/04/hamsageethe-tarasu-novel-kannada.html|title=Hamsageethe TaRaSu Novel|website=raveeshkumar.com}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Novels in Kannada]]
[[Category:1952 Indian novels]]
[[Category:Indian novels adapted into films]]

{{1950s-novel-stub}}

Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya

2024-02-24T21:04:09Z

MazidulIslamMilon: basic refine article for consistency also and cleaned formatting to improve readability

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
'''Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya''' was a [[pandit]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc/page/179 179] |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/peasantsmonksinb0000pinc|url-access=registration }}</ref> and one of a group of Hindu nationalists who held a benevolent view of the traditional role of caste in Indian society at a time, in the late nineteenth century, when social reformers were challenging the concept. He called the traditional [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] system, comprising a four-tier ritual hierarchy, a "golden chain" that had been willingly worn by the population, and he expounded on his beliefs in an 1896 book - ''Hindu Castes and Sects'' - which was, in the opinion of [[Susan Bayly]], "one of the first modern anthropological treatises to be produced by an Indian scholar."<ref name=Bayly2001pp163-165>{{cite book |first=Susan |last=Bayly |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |pages=163–165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC}}</ref> He had previously written ''Commentaries on Hindu Law'' and it was that which provided the impetus for his 1896 work.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu Castes and Sects: An Exposition of the Origin of the Hindu Caste System and the Bearing of the Sects toward Each Other and toward Other Religious Systems |first=Jogendra Nath |last=Bhattacharya |location=Calcutta |publisher=Thacker, Spink |year=1896 |url=https://archive.org/details/hinducastesands00bhatgoog |page=iii}}</ref>

Bhattacharya had graduated from the [[University of Calcutta]]. He became president of the Bengal Brahman Sabha, an organisation that claimed to represent a wide range of [[Brahmin|Brahmins]] within its territorial remit. He also headed a Brahmin organisation that claimed to provide rulings regarding what it considered to be matters of Hindu tradition, and which was known as the Nadia College of Pandits.<ref name=Bayly2001pp163-165 />

While many social reformers of the time saw caste as an outmoded and pernicious institution that served to restrict the development of India as a nation, Bhattacharya was among those who saw its traditional form as a glorious institution that was symbolic of and central to the entire concept of Hinduism and also to the country as an entity. The traditional caste-related notions, including that of varna, were things that in the past had marshalled the country into an orderly togetherness despite its diversity and the frequency with which it was invaded. To Bhattacharya and similarly conservative-minded people, caste in its age-old application was therefore a good thing, although they did not dispute that the contemporary reality of caste sometimes differed from its traditional roots. He "embraced assertive nationalist ideals, yet spoke from the platform of a 'modern' Hindu 'revivalist' organisation, not as a would-be caste reformer but as a passionate defender of established Brahmanical norms."<ref name=Bayly2001pp163-165 />

Bayly and others see a philosophical link from Bhattacharya through [[Swami Vivekananda]] and then on to [[Gandhi]] and those who embraced the [[Arya Samaj]], based on similar notions of "national pride, social service and revived Hindu faith", as well as a recognition of the essential role that the varna system had played and could in future play in the development of the nation.<ref name=Bayly2001pp165>{{cite book |first=Susan |last=Bayly |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |page=165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Caste-based discrimination in international human rights law |first=David |last=Keane |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7546-7172-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beJP_BOIhEcC |page=51}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhattacharya, Jogendra Nath}}
[[Category:Indian Indologists]]
[[Category:Indian sociologists]]
[[Category:Indian anthropologists]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Indian scholars]]
[[Category:Scholars from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]

Nalhati–Azimganj branch line

2024-02-16T13:07:43Z

MazidulIslamMilon:

{{more citations needed|date=July 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}

{{Infobox rail line
| box_width = 28em
| name = Nalhati–Azimganj branch line
| color =
| logo =
| logo_width = 100 px
| image =
| image_width = 300px
| caption =
| type =
| system = Broad gauge
| status = Operational
| locale = [[West Bengal]]
| start = [[Nalhati Railway Station]]
| end = [[Azimganj Junction railway station]]
| stations = 9
| routes =
| open = 1863
| close =
| owner = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Eastern Railway Zone (India)|Eastern Railway]]
| character =
| depot =
| stock =
| linelength = {{convert|45|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
| tracklength =
| gauge = {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}} [[broad gauge]]
| minradius =
| event1label = Electrification
| event1 = 1 November 2018
| speed = {{cvt|80|km/h}}
| elevation =
| website =
| map =
| map_state =
}}
{{Barharwa-Azimganj-Katwa loop|collapse=yes}}

'''Nalhati–Azimganj branch line''' is a railway line connecting [[Nalhati Junction railway station|Nalhati Junction]] and [[Azimganj Junction railway station|Azimganj Junction]].

==History==
In 1863, the Indian Branch Railway Company, a private company opened the Nalhati–Azimganj branch line.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bengal (India)|first1=West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzpuAAAAMAAJ&q=Nalhati+Azimganj+1863|title=West Bengal District Records, New Series: Burdwan|last2=Operations|first2=West Bengal (India) Office of the Superintendent of Census|date=1979|publisher=State editor, West Bengal District Gazetteers|language=en}}</ref> The 27 kilometres (17 mi) track was initially a 4' gauge line. The track was subsequently converted to 5' 6" broad gauge. The Indian Branch Railway Company was purchased by the Government of India in 1872 and the line was renamed Nalhati State Railway. It became a part of the [[East Indian Railway Company]] in 1892.

==Doubling and Electrification==
Starting from [[Nalhati]] Junction to Azimganj (AZ) line doubling and electrification project has been completed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eastern Railway|url=https://er.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?fontColor=black&backgroundColor=LIGHTSTEELBLUE&lang=0&id=0,6,441,721,733,1793|access-date=2021-06-03|website=er.indianrailways.gov.in}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nalhati-Azimganj branch line}}
[[Category:5 ft 6 in gauge railways in India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]
[[Category:1863 establishments in India]]

North–South Corridor (Ahmedabad Metro)

2023-07-13T03:26:56Z

MazidulIslamMilon: Redirect page

#REDIRECT [[Red Line (Ahmedabad Metro)]]

Sulwade Barrage Dam

2022-04-25T14:39:41Z

MazidulIslamMilon: added some post nd citations

{{Infobox dam
| name = Sulwade Barrage
| image =
| image_caption =
| name_official =
| dam_crosses = [[Tapi River, India|Tapi River]]
| location = Sindkheda
| dam_type = [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]]
| dam_length = {{convert|503|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="wris"/>
| dam_height = {{convert|13|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="wris"/>
| dam_width_base =
| dam_elevation_crest =
| dam_volume = {{convert|226|km3|abbr=on}}
| spillway_type =
| spillway_capacity =
| construction_began =
| opening = 1999<ref name="wris">{{cite web |title=Sulwade Barrage B00498 |url=http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Sulwade_Barrage_B00498 |publisher=India-WRIS |accessdate=30 December 2018}}</ref>
| demolished = N/A
| cost =
| owner = [[Government of Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| res_name =
| res_capacity_total = {{convert|62110|km3|abbr=on}}
| res_catchment =
| res_surface = {{convert|11870|km2|abbr=on}}
| res_max_depth =
| plant_operator =
| plant_turbines =
| plant_capacity =
| plant_annual_gen =
| plant_type =
| plant_commission =
| plant_decommission =
| location_map = India Maharashtra
| location_map_caption =
| location_map_size =
| coordinates = {{coord|21.3020295|74.8005867|type:landmark|display=inline}}
| website =
| extra =
}}

'''Sulwade Barrage Dam''' is an [[dam#Earth-fill dams|earthfill]] dam on the [[Tapi River, India|Tapi River]] near [[Shirpur]], [[Dhule district]] in the state of [[Maharashtra]], India.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Sulwade_Barrage_Medium_Irrigation_Project_JI00575 | title=Sulwade Barrage Medium Irrigation Project JI00575 | accessdate=March 26, 2013}}</ref>

==Specifications==
The height of the dam above lowest foundation is {{convert|27.73|m|abbr=on}} while the length is {{convert|688|m|abbr=on}}. The volume content is {{convert|226|km3|abbr=on}} and gross storage capacity is {{convert|63640.00|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/National%20Register%20of%20Large%20Dams%202009.pdf Specifications of large dams in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721165130/http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/National%20Register%20of%20Large%20Dams%202009.pdf |date=2011-07-21 }}</ref>

==Purpose==
* Irrigation

==See also==
* [[Dams in Maharashtra]]
* [[List of reservoirs and dams in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Dams in Dhule district]]
[[Category:Dams on the Tapti River]]
[[Category:1999 establishments in Maharashtra]]