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Veppanahalli Assembly constituency

2026-05-08T05:17:43Z

MarcyThompson89: started new article - done

{{Short description|State Legislative Assembly Constituency in Tamil Nadu}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{coord|12.7021105|78.1927821|display=title|format=dms}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 54
| map_image = Constitution-Veppanahalli.svg
| district = [[Krishnagiri district|Krishnagiri]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Krishnagiri Lok Sabha constituency|Krishnagiri]]
| established = 2008
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| party = {{Party index link|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Secular Progressive Alliance}}
| mla = P. S. Srinivasan
| latest_election_year = 2026
| name = Veppanahalli
| electors = 246,093
| reservation =
}}

'''Veppanahalli''' is a [[Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|state assembly]] constituency of [[Tamil Nadu]], India, that was formed after constituency [[Electoral boundary delimitation|delimitation]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Constituencies, Post-Delimitation 2008|url=http://www.elections.tn.nic.in/forms/int3.pdf|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Tamil Nadu|access-date=29 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515102633/http://elections.tn.nic.in/forms/int3.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Its State Assembly Constituency number is 54. Located in [[Krishnagiri district]], it comprises portions of [[Hosur taluk|Hosur]], [[Denkanikottai taluk|Denkanikottai]], and [[Krishnagiri taluk]]s. The constituency is part of [[Krishnagiri Lok Sabha constituency]] for elections to the [[Parliament of India]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Tamilnadu/Final%20Notification%20&%20Order%20.pdf |title= Tamil Nadu - Final Notification & Order |website= Delimitation Commission of India |publisher= National Informatics Centre |access-date= 26 January 2017}}</ref> It is one of the 234 State Legislative Assembly Constituencies in Tamil Nadu in India.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Winner
! colspan="2" | Party
|-
| [[2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
| [[T. Senguttuvan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
| [[P. Murugan]]<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Election Commission of India |title=2016 Tamil Nadu General Election: Constituency Data Summary |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2016/09-Constitutional%20Data%20Summarytamil.pdf |access-date=27 May 2016|page=54}}</ref>
|-
| [[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| [[K. P. Munusamy]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| P. S. Srinivasan
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
|}

==Election results==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#2021|2021]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|45.87}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2016]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|46.01}}
{{bar percent|[[#2011|2011]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|45.09}}
}}

=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Veppanahalli}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=P. S. Srinivasan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|votes=74691 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. P. Munusamy]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|votes=74563 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Nagaraj |party=Naam Tamilar Katchi |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= Sambangi |party=Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam |votes= |percentage= |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=138 |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box turnout |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box rejected|votes=|percentage= }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 246093|change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|loser=AIADMK |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2021 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Veppanahalli<ref>{{cite web|title=Veppanahalli Election Result|url= https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/tamil-nadu/-s22a054|access-date= 2 Jul 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[K. P. Munusamy]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=94,104 |percentage=45.87 |change=+2.57 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Murugan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=91,050 |percentage=44.38 |change=-1.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Sakthivel |party=Naam Tamilar Katchi |votes=8,310 |percentage=4.05 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. M. Murugesan |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=3,601 |percentage=1.76 |change=-0.65 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Abdul Azeez Amanullah |party=Independent politician |votes=3,022 |percentage=1.47 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=1,662 |percentage=0.81 |change=+0.04 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,054 |percentage=1.49 |change= -1.22 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=205,141 |percentage=81.62 |change= -3.12 }}
{{Election box rejected|votes=322|percentage=0.16 }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 251,346 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -0.14 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2016 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Veppanahalli<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC20WISE20CANDIDATE20COUNT.pdf|access-date= 30 Apr 2022|archive-date= 30 Apr 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083638/https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC20WISE20CANDIDATE20COUNT.pdf|title=Assembly wise Candidate Valid Votes count 2016, Tamil Nadu|website=www.elections.tn.gov.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=P. Murugan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=88,952 |percentage=46.01 |change=+0.92 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. V. M. Madhu @ M. Hemnath |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=83,724 |percentage=43.31 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Tamil Selvi |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=5,476 |percentage=2.83 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Nagaraj |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=4,656 |percentage=2.41 |change=-37.89 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. S. Premanathan |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,966 |percentage=1.02 |change=-2.16 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=1,482 |percentage=0.77 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. B. Abbas Ali |party=FDLP |votes=1,373 |percentage=0.71 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,228 |percentage=2.70 |change= -2.09 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=193,325 |percentage=84.74 |change= -0.60 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 228,145 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 0.92 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2011 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Veppanahalli<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/Web/Index_card_TNLA2011/10-DETAILEDRESULT_ver4.3.pdf|title=Detailes Result 2011, Aseembly Election Tamil Nadu|work=Election Commission of Tamil Nadu|access-date=9 May 2021| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170215085458/http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/Web/Index_card_TNLA2011/10-DETAILEDRESULT_ver4.3.pdf| archive-date =15 February 2017}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[T. Senguttuvan]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=71,471 |percentage=45.09 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Kandan @ S. M. Murugesan |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=63,867 |percentage=40.29 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. Ranganathan |party=Ulzaipali Makkal Katchy |votes=8,943 |percentage=5.64 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. S. Premanathan |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=5,035 |percentage=3.18 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. V. Kalyani |party=Independent politician |votes=4,766 |percentage=3.01 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. L. Surya Prakash |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=2,732 |percentage=1.72 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. B. Abbas |party=Independent politician |votes=1,690 |percentage=1.07 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,604 |percentage=4.80 |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=158,504 |percentage=85.33 |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 185,746 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Krishnagiri district]]
[[Category:Politics of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

2025 Durand Cup

2026-05-07T09:36:03Z

MarcyThompson89:

{{Short description|Football competition in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox football tournament season
|title = IndianOil Durand Cup
|year = [[2025–26 in Indian football|2025]]
|image = 134th Durand Cup 2025 logo.jpg
|caption= Logo of the 134th Durand Cup, 2025
|country = [[India]]
|dates = 23 July – 23 August
|winners=[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]
|count=2
|second=[[Diamond Harbour FC|Diamond Harbour]]
|venue = [[Imphal]], [[Kokrajhar]], [[Kolkata]], [[Shillong]] and [[Jamshedpur]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-17 |title=Football: 2025 Durand Cup to be held in July-August|url=https://thebridge.in/football/2025-durand-cup-july-august-53250 |access-date=2025-05-17 |website=The Bridge |language=en}}</ref>
|num_teams = 24
|scoring_leader= {{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]] ([[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]) (8 goals)
|matches = 43
|goals = 147
|attendance = {{#expr:18546+17791+6000+14000+258+1925+11867+8500+24820+250+13500+6584+6782+182+1263+3000+214+3500+20180+3121+1343+500+6292+18150+348+5917+13900+12545+8592+22380+8395+1074+4439+19735+12540+8337+14970+11472+58676+14911+18960+16920}}
|prev_season = [[2024 Durand Cup|2024]]
|next_season = [[2026 Durand Cup|2026]]
}}

The '''2025 Durand Cup''' (also known as '''IndianOil Durand Cup''' due to sponsorship ties with the [[Indian Oil Corporation]]) was the 134th edition of [[Durand Cup]], the oldest [[Association football|football]] tournament in [[Asia]], and the fourth edition since it was supported by the [[Asian Football Confederation]]. The tournament is hosted by the Durand Football Tournament Society in co-operation with the [[All India Football Federation|AIFF]], [[Eastern Command (India)|Eastern Command]] of the [[Indian Armed Forces]] and the [[Government of West Bengal]], supported by the governments [[Government of Assam|Assam]], [[Government of Meghalaya|Meghalaya]], [[Government of Manipur|Manipur]] and [[Government of Jharkhand|Jharkhand]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-17 |title=Assam: Durand Cup 2025 to return to Kokrajhar; BTR gears up for another grand football celebration |url=https://www.indiatodayne.in/assam/story/assam-durand-cup-2025-to-return-to-kokrajhar-btr-gears-up-for-another-grand-football-celebration-1215124-2025-05-17 |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=India Today NE |language=hi}}</ref>

[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]] was the defending champions, having defeated [[Mohun Bagan Super Giant|Mohun Bagan]] in the [[2024 Durand Cup|2024]] final.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-03 |title=Mohun Bagan vs East Bengal Highlights, Durand Cup 2023 Final: Dimitri Petratos On Target As MBSG Clinch Record 17th Durand Cup Title |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/football/mohun-bagan-vs-east-bengal-live-durand-cup-2023-final-latest-updates-4355298 |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=NDTV Sports |language=en}}</ref>

==Teams==
The following teams had confirmed their participation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Durand Cup 2025 to go ahead as planned; Seven new teams set to participate |url=https://khelnow.com/football/indian-football-durand-cup-2025-new-teams-202507 |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Khel Now |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Durand Cup 2025: Indonesia Army, 1Ladakh among new teams; East Bengal, Mohun Bagan among six ISL clubs competing |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/durand-cup-2025-teams-schedule-venues-indian-football-update/article69772306.ece |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=sportstar.thehindu.com |language=en-us}}</ref> Initially, the [[Indonesian Army]] had assured to participate, but withdrew and was replaced by the Malaysian [[Armed Forces F.C.|Armed Forces]]-[[Malaysian Armed Forces Football Association|MAFFA]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Durand Cup 2025: Malaysia Army replaces Indonesia Army, Tribhuwan from Nepal the other army team |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/durand-cup-teams-malaysia-army-replaces-indonesia-nepal-tribhuwan-added-full-confirmed-team-list/article69790575.ece |access-date=2025-07-09 |website=sportstar.thehindu.com |language=en-us}}</ref>

{{location map+ |India3
|float=right
|width=420
|caption=Locations of the participating teams
|places=


{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=22.56933
|long=88.40908
|label_size=90
|label={{small|'''Kolkata'''}}
|mark=Red pog.svg
|position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3
|mark=TransparentPlaceholder.png
|marksize=1
|lat=18.20
|long=87.00
|label_size=90
|label=<div style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:85%; line-height:1.2">
'''[[Football in Kolkata|Kolkata]] teams:''' 
{{nowrap|[[File:Red pog.svg|8px]] [[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]]}} 
{{nowrap|[[File:Red pog.svg|8px]] [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]}} 
{{nowrap|[[File:Red pog.svg|8px]] [[Mohun Bagan Super Giant|Mohun Bagan]]}}
</div>
|position=right}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=22.79
|long=86.18
|mark=Red pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]}}}}
|position=left}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=26.17
|long=91.75
|mark=Red pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]}}}} │
|position=top}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=30.78
|long=76.70
|mark=Red pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[Punjab FC|Punjab]]}}}}
|position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=30.91
|long=75.85
|mark=Blue pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[Namdhari FC|Namdhari]]}}}}
|position=left}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=22.22
|long=88.41
|mark=Blue pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label=<div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;bottom:-5px;"><div style="font-size:75%;">{{nowrap|[[Diamond Harbour FC|Diamond Harbour]]}}</div></div>
|position=left}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=34.08
|long=74.79
|mark=Blue pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]}}}}
|position=left}}


{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=24.81
|long=93.94
|mark=Black pog.svg
|label=<div style="font-size:70%;">'''Imphal'''</div>
|position=right}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|mark=TransparentPlaceholder.png
|marksize=1
|lat=37
|long=87
|label=<div style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:85%; line-height:1.2">
'''[[Imphal]] teams:''' 
[[File:Pink pog.svg|8px]] [[NEROCA FC|NEROCA]] 
[[File:Green pog.svg|8px]] [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
</div>
|position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=25.58
|long=91.89
|mark=Black pog.svg
|label=<div style="font-size:70%;">'''Shillong'''</div>
|position=left}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|mark=TransparentPlaceholder.png
|marksize=1
|lat=33
|long=87
|label=<div style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:85%; line-height:1.2">
'''[[Shillong]] teams:''' 
[[File:Blue pog.svg|8px]] [[Shillong Lajong FC|Shillong Lajong]] 
{{nowrap|[[File:Green pog.svg|8px]] [[Rangdajied United FC|Rangdajied United]]}}
</div>
|position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=34.15
|long=77.58
|mark=Green pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[1 Ladakh FC|1 Ladakh]]}}}}
|position=right}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=26.40
|long=90.27
|mark=Green pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[Bodoland FC|Bodoland]]}}}}
|position=left}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=12.98
|long=77.59
|mark=Green pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[South United FC|South United]]}}}}
|position=left}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=25.83
|long=93.43
|label_size=90
|mark=Pink pog.svg
|label=<div style="font-size:75%;">{{nowrap|[[Karbi Anglong Morning Star FC|Morning Star]]}}</div>
|position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3
|mark=TransparentPlaceholder.png
|marksize=1
|lat=13
|long=87
|label_size=90
|label=<div style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:85%; line-height:1.2">
'''[[Services Sports Control Board|Armed Forces]] teams:''' 
[[File:White pog.svg|8px]] [[Indian Air Force football team|Indian Air Force]] 
[[File:White pog.svg|8px]] [[Army Red football team|Indian Army]] 
[[File:White pog.svg|8px]] [[Indian Navy Sports Club|Indian Navy]] 
{{nowrap|[[File:White pog.svg|8px]] [[Border Security Force Sporting Club|Border Security Force]]}} 
[[File:White pog.svg|8px]] [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police|ITBP]]
</div>
|position=right}}


{{Location map~ |India3
|lat=27.71
|long=85.32
|mark=Yellow pog.svg
|label_size=90
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[Nepal Army F.C.|Tribhuvan Army]]}}}}
|position=left}}

{{Location map~ |India3
|mark=TransparentPlaceholder.png
|lat=5.89976334202
|long=95.22291843228555
|label_size=75
|label={{small|{{nowrap|[[Armed Forces F.C.|Armed Forces]] (not on map)}}}}
|position=top}}
}}
{{Location map+|India Kolkata
|width=300
|float=right
|caption=Location of the Kolkata football club tents and stadiums
|alt=Kolkata football clubs
|places =
{{Location map~ |India Kolkata |lat=22.562633755728125 |long=88.34119992281009 |mark=Darkgreen pog.svg |label='''{{nowrap|[[Mohun Bagan Super Giant|Mohun Bagan]]}}'''|label_size=75|marksize=|position=left}}
{{Location map~ |India Kolkata |lat=22.560010936479717 |long=88.34308608418539 |mark=Red pog.svg |label='''[[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]]'''|label_size=75|marksize=|position=bottom}}
{{Location map~ |India Kolkata |lat=22.562050125834816 |long=88.34607009767757 |mark=Black pog.svg |label='''[[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]'''|label_size=75|marksize=|position=right}}
{{Location map~ |India Kolkata |lat=22.56934108780318 |long=88.40904429582604 |mark=Blue pog.svg |label='''[[Salt Lake Stadium|Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan]]'''|label_size=75|marksize=|position=right}}
{{Location map~ |India Kolkata |lat=22.4944903556598 |long=88.39452859397203 |mark=Blue pog.svg |label='''[[Kishore Bharati Krirangan]]'''|label_size=75|marksize=|position=right}}
}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Team
!Head coach
!Captain
!Location
|-
! colspan="4" |[[File:Red_pog.svg|8x8px]] [[Indian Super League]] teams
|-
|[[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[Oscar Bruzon]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Naorem Mahesh Singh]]
|[[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]
|-
|[[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Khalid Jamil]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Pronoy Halder]]
|[[Jamshedpur]], [[Jharkhand]]
|-
|[[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Mehrajuddin Wadoo]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Pukhrambam Dinesh Meitei
|[[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]
|-
|[[Mohun Bagan Super Giant|Mohun Bagan]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[José Francisco Molina]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Vishal Kaith]]
|[[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]
|-
|[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[Juan Pedro Benali]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[Míchel Zabaco]]
|[[Guwahati]], [[Assam]]
|-
|[[Punjab FC|Punjab]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|GRE}} [[Panagiotis Dilberis|Panagiotis Dilmperis]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Nikhil Prabhu]]
|[[Mohali]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|-
! colspan="4" |[[File:Blue_pog.svg|8x8px]] [[I-League]] teams
|-
|[[Shillong Lajong FC|Shillong Lajong]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Birendra Thapa
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Kenstar Kharshong]]
|[[Shillong]], [[Meghalaya]]
|-
|[[Namdhari FC|Namdhari]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Harpreet Singh
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|GHA}} [[Moro Lamine|Lamine Moro]]
|[[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|-
|[[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Ishfaq Ahmed]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Shahid Nazir
|[[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
|-
|[[Diamond Harbour FC|Diamond Harbour]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[Kibu Vicuna]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Jobby Justin]]
|[[Diamond Harbour, India|Diamond Harbour]], [[West Bengal]]
|-
! colspan="4" |[[File:Pink_pog.svg|8x8px]] [[I-League 2]] teams
|-
|[[NEROCA FC|NEROCA]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Gyan Moyon
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Angom Kinesh Singh
|[[Imphal]], [[Manipur]]
|-
|[[Karbi Anglong Morning Star FC|Morning Star]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} CA Laldinsang Pudaite
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Komalson Rongphar
|[[Diphu]], [[Assam]]
|-
! colspan="4" |[[File:Green_pog.svg|8x8px]] [[Indian State Leagues|State league]] teams
|-
|[[1 Ladakh FC|1 Ladakh]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Rajan Mani
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Karthik Govindswamy]]
|[[Leh]], [[Ladakh]]
|-
|[[Rangdajied United FC|Rangdajied United]]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Aiborlang Khongjee]]}}
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Balamlynti Khongjee
|[[Shillong]], [[Meghalaya]]
|-
|[[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Thangjam Saran Singh]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Shitaljit Atom
|[[Imphal]], [[Manipur]]
|-
|[[Bodoland FC|Bodoland]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Vikash Panthi
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Didwm Hazowary
|[[Kokrajhar]] ([[Bodoland Territorial Region|BTR]]), [[Assam]]
|-
|[[South United FC|South United]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Kaja Bhadussa
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Noel S.
|[[Bengaluru]], [[Karnataka]]
|-
! colspan="4" |[[File:White_pog.svg|8x8px]] [[Services Sports Control Board|Indian Armed Forces]] teams
|-
|[[Indian Air Force football team|Indian Air Force]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Priya Darshan
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Shibinraj Kunniyil]]
|[[New Delhi]], [[Delhi]]
|-
|[[Army Red football team|Indian Army]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Manish Wahi
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Sunil B.
|[[New Delhi]], [[Delhi]]
|-
|[[Indian Navy Sports Club|Indian Navy]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Raman Rai
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Bhaskar Roy
|[[Kochi]], [[Kerala]]
|-
|[[Indo-Tibetan Border Police|ITB Police]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Surojit Kumar Prodhani
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Subhendu Mandi
|[[Baddowal]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|-
|{{nowrap|[[Border Security Force Sporting Club|Border Security Force]]}}
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Gurjit Singh Atwal
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Md. Aasif
|[[Jalandhar]], [[Punjab]]
|-
! colspan="4" |[[File:Yellow e3e300 pog.svg|8x8px]] Guest invitees/Foreign armed forces teams
|-
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} [[Armed Forces F.C.|Armed Forces]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} Mohd Khairil Hafiz Zanggi
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} Affiq Asri
|[[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]
|-
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|NEP}} [[Nepal Army F.C.|Tribhuvan Army]]
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|NEP}} Meghraj KC
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|NEP}} [[George Prince Karki]]}}
|[[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]]
|}

==Venues==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |[[Kolkata]]
![[Jamshedpur]]
|-
|[[Salt Lake Stadium|Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan]]
|[[Kishore Bharati Krirangan]]
|[[JRD Tata Sports Complex]]
|-
|Capacity: '''68,000'''
|Capacity: '''12,000'''
|Capacity: '''24,424'''
|-
|[[File:2021 Durand Cup Final-2.jpg|300x300px]]
|
|[[File:J.R.D. Tata Stadium.jpg|300x300px]]
|-
![[Shillong]]
![[Kokrajhar]]
![[Imphal]]
|-
|[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Shillong)|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]]
|[[Sports Authority of India|SAI Stadium]]
|[[Khuman Lampak Main Stadium]]
|-
|Capacity: '''17,500'''
|Capacity: '''10,000'''
|Capacity: '''35,285'''
|-
|
|[[File:Kokrajhar_SAI.jpg|300x300px]]
|
|}

==Group stage==
{{Main|2025 Durand Cup group stage}}
===Group A===
{{:2025 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group A}}

===Group B===
{{:2025 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group B}}
===Group C===
{{:2025 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group C}}
===Group D===
{{:2025 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group D}}
===Group E===
{{:2025 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group E}}
===Group F===
{{:2025 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group F}}

===Ranking of second-placed teams===
{{:2025 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=2nd placed teams}}

==Knockout stage==
{{Main|2025 Durand Cup knockout stage}}
In the knockout stage, any draw matches would be directly decided by a [[Penalty shoot-out (association football)|penalty shootout]].

;Bracket
{{#lst:2025 Durand Cup knockout stage|Bracket}}

===Quarter-finals===
{{#lst:2025 Durand Cup knockout stage|QF}}

===Semi-finals===
{{#lst:2025 Durand Cup knockout stage|SF}}

=== Final ===
<section begin=Final/>
{{Main|2025 Durand Cup final}}
{{#lst:2025 Durand Cup final|Final}}<section end=Final/>

==Statistics==
=== Top scorers ===
{{updated|17 August 2025}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
!Rank
!Player
!Team
!Goals
|-
| rowspan="1" |1
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]]
| align="left" |NorthEast United
| rowspan="1" |8
|-
| rowspan="2" |2
| align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Liston Colaco]]
| align="left"|Mohun Bagan
| rowspan="2" |5
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|SVN}} [[Luka Majcen]]
| align="left" |Diamond Harbour
|-
| rowspan="2" |4
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|BRA}} [[Clayton (footballer, born 1995)|Clayton Silva]]
| align="left" |Diamond Harbour
| rowspan="2" |4
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Everbrightson Sana]]
| align="left" |Shillong Lajong
|-
| rowspan="3" |6
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Makakmayum Daniyal]]
| align="left" |South United
| rowspan="3" |3
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|GRE}} [[Dimitrios Diamantakos]]
| align="left" |East Bengal
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Sairuat Kima]]
| align="left" |{{nowrap|Diamond Harbour}}
|-
| rowspan="13" |9
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Phrangki Buam]]
|align="left"|Shillong Lajong
| rowspan="13" |2
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Anirudh Thapa]]
|align="left"|Mohun Bagan
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|BRA}} [[Dé (footballer, born 1998)|Dé]]
|align="left"|Namdhari
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Hamid Ahadad]]
|align="left"|East Bengal
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|NGA}} [[Joseph Olaleye]]
|align="left"|KAMS
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Sankit|Sankit Singh]]
|align="left"|{{nowrap|Indian Air Force}}
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Sahal Abdul Samad]]
| align="left" |Mohun Bagan
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|COL}} [[Robinson Blandón]]
| align="left" |Bodoland
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[Saúl Crespo]]
|align="left"|East Bengal
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Bipin Singh Thounaojam|Bipin Singh]]
|align="left"|East Bengal
|-
|align="left"|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[P Christopher Kamei]]}}
|align="left"|Indian Army
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Maharabam Maxion]]
|align="left"|Mohammedan
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Marat Tareck]]
|align="left"|Real Kashmir
|}

=== Hat-tricks ===
{|class="wikitable"
!Player
!For
!Against
!style="text-align:center" | Result
!Date
!Ref
|-
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Makakmayum Daniyal]]}}
|{{nowrap|South United}}
|{{nowrap|Indian Air Force}}
|align="center"|3–3
|{{dts|2025|07|27|format=dmy}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=53895 |title=Indian Air Force 3 – 3 South United |date=27 July 2025 |access-date=27 July 2025 |website=I-League}}</ref>
|-
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|BRA}} [[Clayton (footballer, born 1995)|Clayton Silva]] (4)
|{{nowrap|Diamond Harbour}}
|BSF FT
|align="center"|8–1
|{{dts|2025|08|01|format=dmy}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=53904 |title=Diamond Habour 8 – 1 BSF |date=1 August 2025 |access-date=1 August 2025 |website=I-League}}</ref>
|-
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]]
|NorthEast United
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} Armed Forces}}
|align="center"|3–1
|{{dts|2025|08|02|format=dmy}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=53906 |title=NorthEast United 3 – 1 Armed Forces |date=1 August 2025 |access-date=1 August 2025 |website=I-League}}</ref>
|}

=== Top assists ===
{{updated|12 August 2025}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
!Rank
!Player
!Team
!Assists
|-
|rowspan="1"|1
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Sahal Abdul Samad]]
|align="left"|Mohun Bagan
|rowspan="1"|4
|-
|rowspan="3"|2
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Girik Khosla]]
|align="left"|Diamond Harbour
|rowspan="3"|3
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Samuel Lalmuanpuia]]
|align="left"|Diamond Habour
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Vincy Barretto]]
|align="left"|Jamshedpur
|-
| rowspan="10" |5
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|BRA}} [[Miguel Figueira]]
|align="left"|East Bengal
| rowspan="10" |2
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Tangva Ragui]]
|align="left"|Mohammedan
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Lalthankima]]
|align="left"|Mohammedan
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Roshan Panna]]
|align="left"|Indian Navy
|-
|align="left"|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Yumnam Monis Singh]]}}
|align="left"|TRAU
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Treimiki Lamurong]]
|align="left"|Shillong Lajong
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|SEN}} [[Seila Troure]]
|align="left"|Real Kashmir
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Joby Justin]]
|align="left"|{{nowrap|Diamond Harbour}}
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[N Rohen Singh]]
|align="left"|Real Kashmir
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|BRA}} [[Clayton (footballer, born 1995)|Clayton Silva]]
|align="left"|Diamond Harbour
|}

=== Clean sheets ===
{{updated|8 August 2025}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!Rank
!Player
!Team
!Clean sheets
|-
|1
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Amrit Gope]]
| align="left" |Jamshedpur
|2
|-
| rowspan="12" |2
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Debjit Majumder]]
| align="left" |East Bengal
| rowspan="12" |1
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Prabhsukhan Singh Gill]]
| align="left" |East Bengal
|-
| align="left" |{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Ravi Kumar (footballer)|Ravi Kumar]]}}
| align="left" |Punjab
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Siwel Rymbai]]
|align="left"|Shillong Lajong
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Gagandeep Singh (footballer)|Gagandeep Singh]]
|align="left"|Army Red
|-
|align="left"|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Niraj Kumar]]
|align="left"|Namdhari
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Jetli Sorokhaibam]]
| align="left" |NEROCA
|-
| align="left" |{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} [[Mohammad Azarulhisham Anuar|Mohammad Azarulhisham]]}}
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} Armed Forces
|-
| align="left" |{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Bhaskar Roy]]}}
| align="left" |Indian Navy
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Vishal Kaith]]
| align="left" |Mohun Bagan
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|NEP}} [[Samit Shrestha]]
| align="left" |{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|NEP}} Tribhuvan Army}}
|-
| align="left" |{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Subhajit Bhattacharjee]]
| align="left" |Mohammedan
|}

== Awards ==
=== Prize money ===
The total pool of prize money for the 2025 edition is {{INRConvert|3|c}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Prize
!Recipient
!Amount
|-
!Champions
|[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]]
|{{INRConvert|1.21|c|lk=l}}
|-
!Runner-up
|[[Diamond Harbour FC|Diamond Harbour]]
|{{INRConvert|60|l|lk=l}}
|-
!Golden glove
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Gurmeet Singh (footballer)|Gurmeet Singh]] (NorthEast United)
| {{INRConvert|3|l|lk=l}}
|-
!Golden boot
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]]}} (NorthEast United)
| {{INRConvert|3|l|lk=l}} & a Car
|-
!Golden ball
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]] (NorthEast United)
| {{INRConvert|3|l|lk=l}} & a Car
|-
!{{nowrap|Quarter-finalists}}
|[[Bodoland FC|Bodoland]] [[Indian Navy Sports Club|Indian Navy]] [[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]] [[Mohun Bagan Super Giant|Mohun Bagan]]
| {{INRConvert|15|l|lk=l}}
|-
! Semifinalists
|[[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]] [[Shillong Lajong FC|Shillong Lajong]]
| {{INRConvert|25|l|lk=l}}
|}

=== Man of the match ===
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Match
! colspan="2" |Man of the match
! rowspan="2" |Match
! colspan="2" |{{nowrap|Man of the match}}
! rowspan="2" |Match
! colspan="2" |{{nowrap|Man of the match}}
|-
!Player
!Team
!Player
!Team
!Player
!Team
|-
|Match 1
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Mahesh Singh Naorem|Mahesh Singh]]
|East Bengal
|Match 16
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]]
|NorthEast United
|Match 31
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Ranjan Singh Salam|Ranjan Singh]]
|Real Kashmir
|-
|Match 2
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Manvir Singh (footballer, born 2001)|Manvir Singh]]
|Jamshedpur
|Match 17
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|BRA}} [[Dé (footballer, born 1998)|Dé]]
|Namdhari
|Match 32
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Subhajit Basu
|Indian Air Force
|-
|Match 3
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Phrangki Buam]]
|{{nowrap|Shillong Lajong}}
|Match 18
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Pramveer Singh]]
|Punjab
|Match 33
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Abhishekh Shankar Powar
|Indian Army
|-
|Match 4
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Hemraj Bhujel
|ITBP
|Match 19
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Rohen Singh
|Real Kashmir
|Match 34
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Manbhakupar Iawphniaw
|{{nowrap|Rangdajied United}}
|-
|Match 5
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Makakmayum Daniyal
|South United
|Match 20
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Liston Colaco]]
|Mohun Bagan
|Match 35
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Sreyas Gopalan
|Indian Navy
|-
|Match 6
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Sairuat Kima]]
|{{nowrap|Diamond Harbour}}
|Match 21
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} P Christopher Kamei
|Indian Army
|Match 36
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Pranjal Bhumij]]
|Bodoland
|-
|Match 7
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Mohammed Sanan|Mohammed Sanan K]]
|Jamshedpur
|Match 22
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} Nasir Yasa
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAS}} Armed Forces}}
|Match 37
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Everbrightson Mylliempdah}}
|Shillong Lajong
|-
|Match 8
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Gladdy Nelcen Kharbuli
|Shillong Lajong
|Match 23
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Donborlang Nongkynrih}}
|ITBP
|Match 38
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]]
|NorthEast United
|-
|Match 9
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Sapam Nongpoknganba Singh}}
|TRAU
|Match 24
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|PLE}} [[Mohammed Rashid]]
|East Bengal
|Match 39
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Sairuat Kima]]
|Diamond Harbour
|-
|Match 10
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Sunil Singh
|South United
|Match 25
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Adersh Mattummal
|Indian Navy
|Match 40
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|Greece}} [[Dimitrios Diamantakos]]
|East Bengal
|-
|{{nowrap|Match 11}}
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|COL}} Robinson Blandon
|Bodoland
|{{nowrap|Match 26}}
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Maharabam Maxiom
|Mohammedan
|{{nowrap|Match 41}}
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Redeem Tlang]]
|NorthEast United
|-
|Match 12
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Liston Colaco]]
|Mohun Bagan
|Match 27
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Praful Kumar
|Jamshedpur
|Match 42
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Mirshad Michu]]
|Diamond Harbour
|-
|Match 13
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Bhaskar Roy]]
|Indian Navy
|Match 28
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]]
|NorthEast United
|Match 43
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|MAR}} [[Alaaeddine Ajaraie]]
|NorthEast United
|-
|Match 14
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|BRA}} [[Clayton (footballer, born 1995)|Clayton Silva]]
|Diamond Harbour
|Match 29
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|COL}} Robinson Blandon
|Bodoland
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
|-
|Match 15
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} Prajal Tushir
|1 Ladakh
|Match 30
|{{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Liston Colaco]]
|Mohun Bagan
|}

== Broadcasting ==
[[Sony Sports Network]] have acquired the broadcasting rights starting from 2023. The 2025 edition is being live streamed on the network's [[Over-the-top media service|OTT]] platform [[SonyLIV]] as well as TV channels [[Sony Sports Network#Sony Sports Ten 2|Sony Ten 2]] and [[Sony Sports Network#Sony Sports Ten 2|Sony Ten 2 HD]].

==See also==
* '''Men'''
** [[2025–26 Indian Super League|2025–26 ISL]]
** [[2025–26 Indian Football League|2025–26 I-League]]
** [[2025–26 I-League 2]]
** [[2025–26 I-League 3]]
** [[2025–26 Indian State Leagues]]
** [[2025 AIFF Super Cup|2025 Kalinga Super Cup (April)]]
** [[2025–26 AIFF Super Cup|2025 Super Cup (October)]]
** [[2026 Reliance Foundation Development League|2026 RFD League]]

* '''Women'''
** [[2025–26 Indian Women's League|2025–26 IWL]]
** [[2025–26 Indian Women's League 2|2025–26 IWL 2]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://durandcup.in/}}
{{Portal bar|India|Association football}}

{{Durand Cup}}
{{2025–26 in Indian football}}
{{2024–25 in Asian football (AFC)}}

[[Category:2025 Durand Cup|2025 Durand Cup]]
[[Category:Durand Cup seasons]]
[[Category:2025 in domestic association football cups]]
[[Category:2025 in Asian domestic association football cups|Durand Cup]]
[[Category:2025–26 in Indian football|Durand Cup]]
[[Category:July 2025 sports events in India|Durand Cup]]
[[Category:August 2025 sports events in India|Durand Cup]]

M. L. Vijay Prabhu

2026-05-06T12:47:17Z

MarcyThompson89: creating first pg w/ sources.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2026}}

'''M. L. Vijay Prabhu''' (born 1989) is an Indian politician from [[Tamil Nadu]]. He is a member of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] from [[Madavaram Assembly constituency]] in the erstwhile [[Thiruvallur district]], presently in Chennai district, representing [[Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2026-05-04 |title=Madhavaram Election Result 2026 LIVE Updates: Tamil Nadu (Madhavaram) Assembly Election Results 2026 Winner, Vote Counting, Runner-up |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/madhavaram-election-result-live-updates-tamil-nadu-assembly-election-results-winner-10669544/ |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=M. L. Vijay Prabhu - Election 2026 |url=https://election.dailythanthi.com/candidate/9-m-l-vijay-prabhu |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=election.dailythanthi.com |language=ta}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Prabhu is from Thiruvallur, Tamil Nadu.<ref name=":0" /> He is the son of M. E Logabiraman. He passed Class 10 at St. Joseph's Higher Secondary Secondary School in 2005 and completed his Bachelor of Arts & Bachelor of Laws in 2022 at [[Vikrama Simhapuri University]], Andhra Pradesh. He also did a Diploma in Electrical Engineering at PD Chengalvaraya Nayakku Polytechnic College from 2005 to 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=M.L.Vijayprabhu(Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam):Constituency- MADHAVARAM(THIRUVALLUR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/TamilNadu2026/candidate.php?candidate_id=1031 |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Prabhu became an MLA for the first time winning on debut in the [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]] from Madavaram Assembly constituency representing Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam. He polled 1,90,462 votes and defeated his nearest rival, [[S. Sudharsanam|S.Sudharsanam]] of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]], by a margin of 94,985 votes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-05-04 |title=Madhavaram election results 2026: TVK’s Vijayprabhu wins by 94,985 votes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/news/madhavaram-election-results-2026/articleshow/130576728.cms |access-date=2026-05-05 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-04 |title=Madavaram Election Result 2026 Live: TVK's M.L. Vijayprabhu wins Madavaram with 190462 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/madavaram-assembly-election-results-2026-live-updates-tamil-nadu-vote-counting-seat-constituency-candidates-leading-trailing-tnaelb-2905803-2026-05-04 |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vijay Prabhu, M.L.}}
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:People from Tiruvallur district]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 2026–2031]]

Joshy Joseph

2026-05-02T05:56:07Z

MarcyThompson89: added

{{BLP sources|date=February 2026}}
{{Short description|Indian documentary filmmaker and film critic}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Joshy Joseph
| birth_date = 29 April 1962
| birth_place = Kochi
| image =
| parents =
|spouse = Bency (wife)<ref name="Mathrubhumi Books"/>
| children = son
| occupation = [[documentary filmmaker]], [[Film criticism|film critic]]
|years active = 1980s-present
| alma_mater =
| website = }}
'''Joshy Joseph''' is an Indian [[documentary filmmaker]] and [[Film criticism|film critic]] who has been active since the 1980s. He has won seven [[National Film Awards|national film awards]], including one for [[National Film Award for Best Film Critic|best film critic]]. Based in [[Kolkata]], Joseph heads the [[Films Division of India|Films Division]], Eastern Region, where he oversees documentary film production and related activities.<ref name="filmsdivision">{{Cite news|title=Citizen's Charter|url=https://filmsdivision.nfdcindia.com/citizens-charter.html|publisher=Films Division / NFDC India|date=18 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="Discursive">{{Cite news|title=Working Inside/Out Films Division: The Discursive Documentary Practices of Joshy Joseph
|author=Rajesh James |url=https://imphalreviews.in/working-inside-out-films-division-the-discursive-documentary-practices-of-joshy-joseph/|publisher=Imphal Review of Arts and Politics |date=3 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="Awards">{{Cite news|title=Joshy Joseph | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Joshy-Joseph/awards|publisher=Times of India|date=18 October 2025}}</ref>

Some of Joseph's notable works focus on the cultural, linguistic, ethnic, and political issues of India's [[Northeast India|northeastern states]], apart from [[Bengal]] and [[Odisha]]. These include ''And the Bamboo Blooms'' (1999), ''Wearing the Face'' (2000), ''One Day from a Hangman's Life'' (2005), ''Journeying with Mahasweta Devi'' (2009), ''With Quietude to Nirad'' (2015), and ''Laparoscopic Cinemascapes'' (2022).<ref name="Discursive"/>

Joseph has made multiple documentaries on the late Bengali writer and activist [[Mahasweta Devi]], based on his association with her from around 2004 until her death in 2016. These include ''Journeying with Mahasweta Devi'' (2009) and ''Mahasweta Devi – Close Up'' (2010).

==Early life and career==
Hailing from [[Kadamakkudy Islands|Kadamakkudy]], an island cluster about 15 km from [[Kochi]], Joshy Joseph attended the city's [[St. Albert's College]] and [[Union Christian College, Aluva|Union Christian College]], [[Aluva]]. He was an avid filmgoer during his college days. He aspired to join the [[Film and Television Institute of India]] (FTII) but did not clear the interview stage. However, he remained hopeful, and soon his writing skills earned him a position as a language translator at the Films Division in the 1980s. This job took him to [[Mumbai]].{{fact|date=March 2026}}

While working as a translator at the Films Division, Joseph also developed film scripts, some of which were initially rejected.{{fact|date=March 2026}}

Around 1996, he moved to Kolkata on promotion. While in Kolkata, he began to bring more commitment and focus to the craft of documentary filmmaking.{{fact|date=March 2026}}

''Streamlining Public Sector'' (1991) was one of his earliest documentaries for Films Division. Since then, he has directed more than 30 documentaries and experimental films, in addition to two feature films. He also worked as an assistant director on [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]'s ''[[Kathapurushan]]'' (1995).<ref name="FilmGrant">{{Cite news|title=Kerala's film grant for emerging talent: Allegations of corruption and call for project reform| author= V.K. Cherian|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/features/specials/keralas-film-grant-for-emerging-talent-allegations-of-corruption-and-call-for-project-reform-b5u0bvy0|publisher=Mathrubhumi|date=1 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="Mathrubhumi Books">{{Cite news|title=Joshy Joseph – Mathrubhumi Books| url=https://www.mbibooks.com/writer/joshy-joseph/ |publisher=MBI Books|date=17 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="KolkataTrilogy">{{Cite news|title=Joshy Joseph – Malayali with a Kolkata Trilogy|author=Shoma A. Chatterji |url=https://www.getbengal.com/details/joshy-joseph-the-malayali-with-a-kolkata-trilogy|publisher=MBI Books|date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="filmsdivision"/>

Besides working with the Films Division, Joseph has directed films for independent producers, such as Drik India, a photographic [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]. Notably, he produced the documentary ''One Day from a Hangman's Life'' (2005), which was backed by Drik India.<ref>{{Cite news|title=One Day from a Hangman's Life|url=https://www.cultureunplugged.com/documentary/watch-online/play/50438/one-day-from-a-hangman-s-life|publisher=Culture Unplugged|date=18 October 2025}}</ref> He has also self-produced films, once using money his father had given him for the purchase of a new house.<ref name="Discursive"/><ref name="KolkataTrilogy"/>

Though essentially a filmmaker, Joseph also provides thoughtful analyses and discussions on the medium of cinema as a film critic. His contributions in this field have earned him the [[National Film Award for Best Film Critic]]. He is the author of books in [[Malayalam]], including ''Kolkata Cocktail'' (2010) and ''Mahasweta Deviyodoppam - transl.: With Mahasweta Devi'' - (2012)<ref name="Mathrubhumi Books"/><ref name="SIFCCY">{{Cite news|title=We are honored to be a part of the distinguished film critics circle of India|url=https://www.facebook.com/siffcy/posts/we-are-honoured-to-be-a-part-of-the-distinguished-film-critics-circle-of-india-a/979513923541948/|publisher=SIFCCY|date=28 March 2024}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
{{BLP sources|section|date=October 2025}}
*''Sarang: Symphony in Cacophony'' (1997) - [[National Film Award for Best Promotional Film]]
*''N. M. No. 367 – Sentence of Silence'' (1998) - [[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film on Family Welfare]]
*''Status Quo'' (1999) - ASS- ASS - I- NATION - Selected for screening at the International Film Festival of India (IFFI) 2000<ref name="IFFI">{{Cite news|title=IFFI to open with Karunam|author=Onkar Singh |url=https://m.rediff.com/news/1999/nov/15ff.htm|publisher=Rediff |date=15 November 1999}}</ref>
*''Wearing the Face'' (2000) - [[National Film Award for Best Investigative Film]]
*''A Poet, A City & A Footballer'' (2014) - [[ National Film Award %E2%80%93 Special Jury Award (non-feature film)|National Film Award - Special Jury Award (Non-Feature Film)]]
*''And The Bamboo Blooms'' (1999) - [[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Environment/Conservation/Preservation Film]]
*[[National Film Award for Best Film Critic]] (2010)

==Filmography==
'''As director''' - ''documentaries''
*''Streamlining Public Sector'' (1991)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wheels of Change|url=https://filmsdivision.nfdcindia.com/shop/nm0297-wheels-of-change|publisher=Films Division / NFDC India |date=17 October 2015}}</ref>
*[[National Film Award for Best Promotional Film|''Sarang: Symphony in Cacophony'']] (1998)
*''Sentence of Silence'' (1999)<ref name="Discursive"/>
*''Status Quo'' (1999) - ASS- ASS - I- NATION<ref name="IFFI"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Status Quo|url=https://filmsdivision.nfdcindia.com/shop/status-quo|publisher=Films Division / NFDC India|date=17 October 2025}}</ref>
*''Wearing the Face'' (2000)<ref name="Discursive"/><ref>{{Cite video|title=Journey of an Indian Farmer (2004)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2VYA9BmXCnQ|publisher=MS Banesh|date=15 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One Day In the Life Of a Hangman|url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/9/11018/One-Day-In-the-Life-Of-a-Hangman|publisher=The Citizen|date=16 June 2017}}</ref>
*''One Day from a Hangman's Life'' (2005)<ref name="KolkataTrilogy"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Watch: In documentary from 2005, the story of another rape case and another hangman|author=Malavika Neurekar|url=https://scroll.in/reel/955933/in-documentary-from-2005-the-story-of-another-rape-case-and-another-hangman|publisher=Scroll|date=16 March 2020}}</ref>
*''Walking Dead'' (2007)<ref>{{Cite news|title=My Death Certificate: A Powerful Short Film|author=Shoma A. Chatterji |url=https://www.thecitizen.in/life/my-death-certificate-a-powerful-short-film-1041136 |publisher=The Citizen|date=19 June 2024}}</ref><ref name="KolkataTrilogy"/>
*''Making the Face'' (2007) – with Suvendu Chatterjee<ref>{{Cite news|title=Making the Face|url=https://www.nearchive.in/neiavavideos-1/making-the-face|publisher=NearArchive |date=17 October 2025}}</ref>
*''Journeying with Mahasweta Devi'' (2009)<ref>{{Cite news|author=Shoma A. Chatterji|title=A free spirit on celluloid |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090405/spectrum/main3.htm|publisher=Tribune India |date=5 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Remembering Mahasweta Devi, the Voice of the People|author=Gladwin Emmanuel| url=https://thefederal.com/features/remembering-mahasweta-devi-the-voice-of-the-people|publisher=The Federal |date=31 July 2021}}</ref>
*''Mahasweta Devi: Close Up'' (2010)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Through the looking glass|author=Shevlin Sebastian| url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/hindi/2016/Nov/19/through-the-looking-glass-1539762.html|publisher=The New Indian Express|date=17 October 2025}}</ref>
*''Barag and Babu Bilous''
*''Center for Silence''
*''Waiting the Face''<ref>{{Cite news|title=Joshy Joseph felicitated|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2011/Sep/15/joshy-joseph-felicitated-291264.html| publisher=The New Indian Express|date=16 May 2012}}</ref>
*''Song of Marbles'' (2015) - Curated by Joshy Joseph
*''Untitled'' (2015) - Curated by Joshy Joseph
*''A Misty Voyage'' (2015) - Curated by Joshy Joseph
*''Anungla'' (2015) - Curated by Joshy Joseph<ref>{{Cite news|title=Telling tales from the Northeast|author=Shoma Chatterji | url=https://indiatogether.org/telling-tales-from-the-northeast-media|publisher=IndiaTogether|date=24 May 2016}}</ref>
*''A Poet, a City and a Footballer'' (2015)<ref name="KolkataTrilogy"/>
*''With Quietude to Nirad'' (2015)<ref name="Discursive"/>
*''Trees of Tongues in Tripura'' (2016)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tree of Tongues in Tripura
|url=https://filmsdivision.nfdcindia.com/admin/the-fd-zone/tree-of-tongues-in-tripura.html|publisher=Films Division / NFDC India |date=18 October 2025}}</ref>
*''Echo from the Pukpui Skies'' (2020)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Echo From Pukpui Skies: Documentary Uncovers Unknown Mizo History|author=Shoma A. Chatterji
|url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/16/18293/Echo-From-Pukpui-Skies:-Documentary-Uncovers-Unknown-Mizo-History--|publisher=The Citizen|date=10 February 2020}}</ref>

'''As director''' - ''experimental films''
*''Mobile'' (2001)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mrinal Sen, Ritwik Ghatak, Adoor Gopalakrishnan|author=Joshy Joseph
|url=https://countercurrents.org/2025/07/mrinal-sen-ritwik-ghatak-adoor-gopalakrishnan/|publisher=Counter Currents|date=8 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite video|title=Mobile- Short film by Joshy Joseph|author=Joshy Joseph|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tvvc3FS8AgY|publisher=MS Banesh |date=24 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=One Day In the Life Of a Hangman|url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/9/11018/One-Day-In-the-Life-Of-a-Hangman|publisher=The Citizen|date=16 June 2017}}</ref>
*''Old Man and the Swan''(2015)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Idea of Justice to a journey for Justice at Imphal |author=Joshy Joseph|url=https://theaidem.com/idea-of-justice-to-a-journey-for-justice/|publisher=The Aidem|date=13 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite video|title=Old man & the swan - A haiku film |author=Joshy Joseph|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JGhjRzId9tA|publisher=
MS Banesh|date=9 October 2021}}</ref>
*''Serendipity Cinema'' (2016)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mahasweta's last glance was all about life: Filmmaker Joshy Joseph|author=Joshy Joseph| url=https://www.business-standard.com/amp/article/news-ians/mahasweta-s-last-glance-was-all-about-life-film-maker-joshy-joseph-116072801499_1.html |publisher=Business Standard|date=28 July 2016}}</ref>
*''Manipur Mindscapes'' (2021)<ref>{{Cite news|title=One Day In the Life Of a Hangman|author=Amrit Ganger|url=https://imphalreviews.in/manipur-mindscapes-a-films-division-film-with-a-difference-by-joshy-joseph/|publisher=Imphal Reviews|date=4 June 2022}}</ref>
*''Laparoscopic Cinemascapes'' (2022)<ref name="Discursive"/>
*''Mizo Soundscapes''(2020)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Film review: Mizo Soundscapes|author=Amrit Ganger|url=https://northeastfilmjournal.com/mizo-soundscapes|publisher=North East Film Journal|date=3 April 2023}}</ref>
*''Bonafide Bonfires''
*''Interpretations''
*''Masterstroke''

'''As cinematographer''' - ''documentary''
*''Echo from the Pukpui Skies'' (2020)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Echo From Pukpui Skies: Documentary Uncovers Unknown Mizo History|author=Shoma A. Chatterji
|url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/16/18293/Echo-From-Pukpui-Skies:-Documentary-Uncovers-Unknown-Mizo-History--|publisher=The Citizen|date=10 February 2020}}</ref>

'''As director/writer''' - ''feature film''
*''Imaginary Line'' (2002)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Film buffs create a festival of 'choice'|author=Ratnottama Sengupta
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/film-buffs-create-a-festival-of-choice/articleshow/404617.cms|publisher=Times of India|date=5 January 2004}}</ref>
*Walking Over Water (2020)<ref name="KolkataTrilogy"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Kolkata Calling|author=Priya Sreekumar|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/mollywood/040918/kolkata-calling.html|publisher=Deccan Chronicle |date=3 September 2018}}</ref>

'''As assistant director''' – ''feature film''
*''Kathapurushan - The Man of the Story'' - (1995)<ref name="FilmGrant"/>

'''Books'''
*''Kolkata Cocktail'' (2010) by Joshy Joseph, Mathrubhumi Books.
*''Mahasweta Deviyodoppam'' (2012) — Translator: VM Girija. [[Malayalam]] translation of Joshy Joseph's screenplay ''Journeying with Mahasweta Devi'', Mathrubhumi Books.
*''Calcutta Films: A Joshy Joseph Trilogy'' (2022) by Vidyarthy Chatterjee, Cerebrum Books — Winner of the Chidananda Dasgupta Memorial Award for Best Writing on Cinema.<ref>{{Cite news|title=A cinephile, a city, and a filmmaker|author=C.S. Venkiteswaran|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/a-cinephile-a-city-and-a-film-maker-book-review-calcutta-films-a-joshy-joseph-trilogy-by-vidyarthy-chatterjee/article65646970.ece|publisher=Frontline|date=24 July 2022}}</ref><ref name="FilmGrant"/><ref name="Mathrubhumi Books"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Books by Author Joshy Joseph|url=https://keralabookstore.com/books-by/joshy-joseph/1934/|publisher=Kerala Book Store|date=18 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="SIFCCY"/>

==Community engagement and dialogue==
Joshy was the artistic director of the first edition of the Kadamakudy International Film Festival (KAIFF) held in August 2024. The festival was organized by the Kadamakudy Government Vocational Higher Secondary School, the [[Kerala State Chalachitra Academy]], and the Kadamakudy Grama panchayat. KAIFF aims to introduce the local community in the suburban village of [[Kadamakkudy Islands|Kadamakudy]] to alternative cinema while promoting village tourism.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kochi's Kadamakudy hosts a three-day international film festival|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/kochis-kadamakudy-hosts-a-three-day-international-film-festival|publisher=The News Minute |date=10 August 2024}}</ref>

==Public stance and activism==
Joseph was one of 46 writers, filmmakers, artists, and public figures who issued a statement in April 2024 condemning certain Christian churches for screening the propaganda film ''[[The Kerala Story]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|title='Church Must Not Fall Prey to Vulgar Propaganda'|url=https://thewire.in/communalism/church-must-not-fall-prey-to-vulgar-propaganda|publisher=The Wire|date=12 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title='Kerala story' screenings are 'misguided propaganda:' Intellectuals appeal for interfaith co-existence|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2024/Apr/12/kerala-story-screenings-are-misguided-propaganda-intellectuals-appeal-for-interfaith-co-existence|publisher=The New Indian Express|date=12 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Idukki diocese screens The Kerala Story for catechism students|author=Sandeep Vellaram| url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/idukki-diocese-screens-kerala-story-for-catechism-students/article68039891.ece|publisher=The Hindu|date=8 April 2024}}</ref>

In August 2024, Joseph affirmed his support for Bengali actor [[Sreelekha Mitra]]'s allegations of misconduct against a [[Malayalam]] film director.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ready to confront power groups to uphold testimony against Ranjith: Joshy Joseph |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/08/25/ready-confront-power-groups-uphold-testimony-against-sreelekha-mitra-johny-joseph-thilakan-hema-commission-report-ranjith-resignation.html|publisher=OnManorama|date=25 August 2024}}</ref>

==Personal==
Joseph's family includes his wife Bency and son.<ref name="Mathrubhumi Books"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=One Day In the Life Of a Hangman|url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/9/11018/One-Day-In-the-Life-Of-a-Hangman|publisher=The Citizen|date=16 June 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{imdb name|nm7476248}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Joseph, Joshy}}
[[Category:Indian documentary filmmakers]]
[[Category:Indian experimental filmmakers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Film directors from Kerala]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Indian film critics]]
[[Category:People from Kochi]]
[[Category:Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Writers from Kerala]]

Janalynn Castelino

2026-05-01T12:38:46Z

MarcyThompson89: article

{{Short description|Italian-Indian singer and songwriter (born 1998)}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Janalynn Castelino
| image = Janalynn Castelino at an event in 2023.jpg
| caption = Castelino in 2023
| birth_name = Janalynn Joseph Castelino
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1998|10|18}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|songwriter}}
| years_active = 2018–present
| website = {{URL|www.janalynncastelino.com}}
| module = {{Infobox musical artist
| embed = yes
| instruments = Vocals
| genre = {{hlist|[[Pop music|Pop]]|[[Contemporary R&B|R&B]]| [[Soul music|Soul]]}}
}}
}}

'''Janalynn Castelino''' (born 18 October 1998) is an Italian-Indian<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":11" /> pop singer-songwriter and doctor.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="americansongwriter.com">{{Cite web|date=2021-04-15|title=Bringin' it Backwards: Interview with Janalynn Castelino|url=https://americansongwriter.com/bringin-it-backwards-interview-with-janalynn-castelino/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=American Songwriter|language=en-US}}</ref> She made her international crossover debut in 2024, with the Spanish-language single "Drama".<ref name=":11" /> Her music has been described as [[Pop music|pop]] with [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]] elements.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2021-07-06|title=Janalynn Castelino Is Being More Focused On Herself|url=http://lideamagazine.com/janalynn-castelino-is-being-more-focused-on-herself/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=L'Idea Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> Castelino has recorded in many languages including English, Latin, Italian, Spanish and Hindi.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=On: Yorkshire |date=2024-04-16 |title=A Q&A with Janalynn Castelino |url=https://www.on-magazine.co.uk/arts/music/bands-artists/janalynn-castelino-interview/ |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=On: Yorkshire Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Janalynn Joseph Castelino was born on 18 October 1998<ref name=":7" /> in a Roman Catholic family, to parents Lorna and Joseph Castelino.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Crasto|first=Laura|date=2021-06-09|title=Janalynn Castelino: An Authentic Voice And A Unique Story|url=https://italicsmag.com/2021/06/09/janalynn-castelino-an-authentic-voice-and-a-unique-story/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Italics Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> She is of [[Italian descent|Italian]] and [[Indian ethnic groups|Indian]] descent.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=GirlTalkHQ |date=2024-10-15 |title=Singer/Songwriter Janalynn Castelino Embarks on A New Musical Chapter With Heartfelt Single 'Drama' |url=https://www.girltalkhq.com/singer-songwriter-janalynn-castelino-embarks-on-a-new-musical-chapter-with-heartfelt-single-drama/ |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=GirlTalkHQ |language=en-US}}</ref> She was involved in performing arts since the age of 3 and sang in the church choir.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2021-04-19|title=Q&A: Indian vocalist and doctor Janalynn Castelino breaking stereotypes|url=https://riffmagazine.com/qa/janalynn-castelino-breaking-stereotypes/|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Riff Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=Janalynn Castelino: Interview|url=http://www.unclearmag.com/music-posts/2021/6/22/janalynn-castelino-interview|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Unclear Magazine|date=23 June 2021 |language=en-US |quote=Rising Indian singer-songwriter Janalynn Castelino...}}</ref> As a student, Janalynn secured a merit of 96.36% in the 10th Grade [[Secondary School Certificate]], becoming the board exam topper of her school as well as the zone.<ref name=":1" />

Castelino excelled in studies and didn’t consider music as a profession thoughtfully, then.<ref name=":0" /> She graduated as a doctor and took further studies at the [[University of Michigan]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bartolozzi Bellantuono |first=Arianna |date=2025-04-03 |title=Intervista a Janalynn Castelino: il suo nuovo singolo But Without You, le sue radici italiane e la sua carriera |url=https://www.mediterraneangirlsinmusic.com/post/intervista-a-janalynn-castelino |access-date=2025-05-12 |website=MGIM |language=it}}</ref>

== Career ==

=== 2019–2024: Early career beginnings ===
Castelino uploaded covers to her YouTube Channel as a hobby while studying medicine.<ref name=":1"/> She gained popularity in 2018, after uploading the [[music video]] Binte Dil (Love Ballad) to her YouTube Channel that garnered over 22 Million views<ref>{{Citation|title=Binte Dil (Female Love-Ballad Version) {{!}} Janalynn Castelino| date=2 July 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GdVVUob8Hmo|language=en|access-date=2021-08-31}}</ref> on [[YouTube]], followed by her popular cover of [[Fire on Fire|Fire On Fire]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Popular YouTuber 'Janalynn Castelino' recreates 'Takeaway'|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/popular-youtuber-janalynn-castelino-recreates-takeaway|access-date=2021-08-31|website=Free Press Journal|language=en}}</ref> Her music videos featured on YouTube's trending charts in across more than 11 countries.<ref name=":0" /> Janalynn's rendition of Takeaway by [[the Chainsmokers]] was described by the media as a 'recreation with a pop twist'.<ref name=":2" />

Janalynn Castelino appeared in an interview on the [[American Songwriter]] Network in 2021, where she talked about her upcoming music projects.<ref name="americansongwriter.com" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Janalynn Castelino|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/janalynn-castelino-33198373/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=iHeartRadio|language=en}}</ref> In the same year, she featured on the English edition of the [[L'Idea Magazine|L'idea Magazine]].<ref name=":0" />

In 2023, Janalynn released her Italian-Folk ballad "Bella Ci Dormi"<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Bella Ci Dormi - Janalynn Castelino {{!}} Album {{!}} AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/bella-ci-dormi-mw0004123301 |access-date=2024-04-29 |language=en}}</ref> blending elements of [[world music]] with traditional folk, delivering the track in [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] dialect.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Room |first=World Music Central News |date=2023-08-10 |title=Janalynn Castelino Drops New Folk-Infused Single 'Bella Ci Dormi' {{!}} World Music Central |url=https://worldmusiccentral.org/2023/08/10/janalynn-castelino-drops-new-folk-infused-single-bella-ci-dormi/ |access-date=2024-04-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> The single was characterised by high-pitched vocals and layered harmonies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dyer |first=Harvey |date=2023-08-31 |title=Janalynn Castelino Releases Enchanting Italian-Folk Single "Bella Ci Dormi" |url=https://all-noise.co.uk/janalynn-castelino-bella-ci-dormi/56797/ |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=All-Noise |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== 2024: Religious music, Spanish debut single ‘Drama’ ===
In the first quarter of 2024, Castelino released three consecutive religious music singles during the [[Lent]]en season.<ref name=":4" /> These included "Jesu Salvator Mundi" that released on February 16, 2024<ref>{{Citation |title=Jesu Salvator Mundi - Single by Janalynn Castelino on Apple Music |date=2024-02-16 |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/jesu-salvator-mundi-single/1729406021 |access-date=2025-09-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> and "Parce Domine"<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Parce Domine - Single by Janalynn Castelino on Apple Music |date=2024-03-21 |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/parce-domine-single/1736308886 |access-date=2025-09-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> both of which were recorded in Latin and rendered in [[Baroque music|Baroque]] style with three voices soprano, alto and bass.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rabinowitz |first=Chloe |title=Janalynn Castelino Releases Polyphonic Latin Chant 'Jesu Salvator Mundi' |url=https://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwmusic/article/Janalynn-Castelino-Releases-Polyphonic-Latin-Chant-Jesu-Salvator-Mundi-20240216 |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=BroadwayWorld.com |language=en}}</ref> ''[[CCM Magazine]]'' described Janalynn's vocals on "Parce Domine" as impactful and encapsulating reverence.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Woolum |first=Brandon |date=2024-03-28 |title=Janalynn Castelino Releases ‘Parce Domine’ During The Holy Week |url=https://www.ccmmagazine.com/news/janalynn-castelino-releases-parce-domine-during-the-holy-week/ |access-date=2026-03-02 |website=CCM Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

These were followed by a soulful version of the Crucifixion hymn "[[The Old Rugged Cross]]" recorded in English.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Woolum |first=Brandon |date=2024-03-14 |title=Janalynn Castelino Releases Soulful Version Of 'The Old Rugged Cross' |url=https://www.ccmmagazine.com/news/janalynn-castelino-releases-soulful-version-of-the-old-rugged-cross/ |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=CCM Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 20 September that year, she marked her Spanish-language debut with pop single "[[Drama (Janalynn Castelino song)|Drama]]" that released during the Hispanic heritage month.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=mediterraneangirlsinmusic |date=2024-09-26 |title=Janalynn Castelino releases new single Drama |url=https://www.mediterraneangirlsinmusic.com/en/post/janalynn-castelino-releases-new-single-drama |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=MGIM |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=spanishcharts.com - Janalynn Castelino - Drama |url=https://spanishcharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Janalynn+Castelino&titel=Drama&cat=s |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=spanishcharts.com}}</ref> An official music video was released on 18 October 2024 via Janalynn’s YouTube channel, coinciding with her 26th birthday.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ingenthron |first=Blair |title=Video: Janalynn Castelino Unveils Music Video For New Single 'Drama' |url=https://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwmusic/article/Video-Janalynn-Castelino-Unveils-Music-Video-For-New-Single-Drama-20241019 |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=BroadwayWorld.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=shared&v=a_QrymkqyzM |title=Janalynn Castelino - Drama (Official Music Video) |date=2024-10-19 |last=Janalynn Castelino |access-date=2024-10-30 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

=== 2025: Expansion to pop career ===
Janalynn released her pop single [[But Without You]] on March 21, 2025.<ref>{{Citation |title=But Without You - Single by Janalynn Castelino on Apple Music |date=2025-03-22 |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/but-without-you-single/1798966713 |access-date=2025-03-25 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Janalynn Castelino Announces New Single 'But Without You': Here's the Release Date |url=https://journalofmusic.com/listing/12-03-25/janalynn-castelino-announces-new-single-without-you-here-s-release-date |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=The Journal of Music {{!}} Music in Ireland: News, Reviews and Opinion |language=en}}</ref> The song received positive response from media critics with her songwriting regarded as ‘emotive' drawing from soul,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Janalynn Castelino Releases 'But Without You' : A Soul-searching Exploration |url=https://journalofmusic.com/listing/21-03-25/janalynn-castelino-releases-without-you-soul-searching-exploration |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=The Journal of Music {{!}} Music in Ireland: News, Reviews and Opinion |language=en}}</ref> while Janalynn’s vocal style was described as being powerful yet deeply expressive.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Janalynn Castelino delivers dynamics of love and longing in new single 'But Without You' |url=https://www.music-news.com/news/Underground/180535/Janalynn-Castelino-delivers-dynamics-of-love-and-longing-in-new-single-But-Without-You |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=Music-News.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 20 February 2026, she released the dance-pop single, "Que Me Ha Pasado".<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=2026-02-25 |title=Global Popstar Janalynn Castelino Explores Infatuation In Her New Spanish Single “Que Me Ha Pasado” |url=https://www.girltalkhq.com/global-popstar-janalynn-castelino-explores-infatuation-in-her-new-spanish-single-que-me-ha-pasado/ |access-date=2026-03-02 |website=GirlTalkHQ |language=en-US|last=Dahya|first=Asha}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Janalynn Castelino releases “Que Me Ha Pasado” - A dance-fuelled infatuation anthem |url=http://www.music-news.com/news/Underground/187293/Janalynn-Castelino-releases-Que-Me-Ha-Pasado-A-dance-fuelled-infatuation-anthem |access-date=2026-03-02 |website=Music-News.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Recorded in Spanish, the song was based on an infatuation theme and influenced by Latin rhythms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joan |first=Naomi |date=2026-03-06 |title=Que Me Ha Pasado by Janalynn Castelino: Review |url=https://illustratemagazine.com/que-me-ha-pasado-by-janalynn-castelino-review/ |access-date=2026-03-29 |website=Illustrate Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> An official visual video was released soon after on 19 March 2026.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9IVPWc8QZBE |title=Janalynn Castelino - Que Me Ha Pasado (Official Visual Video) |date=2026-03-19 |last=Janalynn Castelino |access-date=2026-03-29 |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=USA |first=Editorial Staff |date=2026-03-19 |title=Pop Singer-Songwriter Janalynn Castelino Brings Global Star Energy To Her Music Era |url=https://lideamagazine.com/pop-singer-songwriter-janalynn-castelino-brings-global-star-energy-to-her-music-era/ |access-date=2026-03-29 |website=L'Idea Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Artistry ==

=== Voice ===
Janalynn has been described as a [[soprano]], gliding into upper vocal registers with ease.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Joan |first=Naomi |date=6 November 2025 |title=Janalynn Castelino Releases Sensational New Single But Without You |url=https://illustratemagazine.com/janalynn-castelino-releases-sensational-new-single-but-without-you/ |url-status=live |access-date=6 November 2025 |work=Illustrate Magazine}}</ref><ref name=":9" /> Critics have described her voice as emotive, luscious and high-pitched.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dyer |first=Harvey |date=2025-04-04 |title=Janalynn Castelino Explores Emotional Chaos with new single ‘But Without You’ |url=https://all-noise.co.uk/janalynn-castelino-but-without-you/57222/ |access-date=2025-11-06 |website=All-Noise |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> ''[[CCM Magazine]]'' described her vocals as 'impactful'.<ref name=":10" /> ''[[L'Idea|L'idea]]'' in its English edition mentioned Castelino's voice as sounding aesthetically powerful yet emotional.<ref>{{Cite web |last=USA |first=Editorial Staff |date=2021-07-06 |title=Janalynn Castelino Is Being More Focused On Herself |url=https://lideamagazine.com/janalynn-castelino-is-being-more-focused-on-herself/ |access-date=2026-03-02 |website=L'Idea Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Music style ===
Castelino is referred to as a pop artist who incorporates elements of R&B and soul.<ref name="americansongwriter.com" /><ref name=":8" /> Her music often carries linguistic diversity and cultural influences from her Italian-Indian ancestry.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bartolozzi |first=Arianna |date=3 April 2025 |title=Interviewing Janalynn Castelino: her Italian roots and her career |url=https://www.mediterraneangirlsinmusic.com/en/post/intervista-a-janalynn-castelino |url-status=live |access-date=6 November 2025 |website=Mediterranean Girls In Music}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Castelino is a practicing [[Roman Catholic]].<ref name=":12" /> As of 2021, she lived in [[Mumbai]].<ref name=":1" />

== Discography ==

=== Singles ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Discographie Janalynn Castelino - austriancharts.at |url=https://austriancharts.at/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Janalynn+Castelino |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=austriancharts.at}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Janalynn Castelino Songs, Albums, Reviews, Bio... |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/janalynn-castelino-mn0004212032 |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=AllMusic |language=en}}</ref>
!Title
!Language
!Release date
|-
|2023
|Bella Ci Dormi
|Italian
|4 August 2023
|-
|2023
|O Come All Ye Faithful
|English
|11 December 2023
|-
|2024
|Jesu Salvator Mundi
|Latin
|16 February 2024
|-
|2024
|The Old Rugged Cross
|English
|1 March 2024
|-
|2024
|Parce Domine
|Latin
|21 March 2024
|-
|2024
|Drama
|Spanish
|20 September 2024
|-
|2025
|[[But Without You]]
|English
|21 March 2025
|-
|2026
|Que Me Ha Pasado
|Spanish
|20 February 2026
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Janalynn Castelino}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.janalynncastelino.com Official website]
* [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm13742784/?ref_=nmbio_bio_nm Janalynn Castelino] at [[IMDb]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Castelino, Janalynn}}
[[Category:21st-century Indian women singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian pop singers]]
[[Category:Indian women singers]]
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Women singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Italian pop singers]]
[[Category:Italian women singers]]
[[Category:Italian women singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:21st-century Italian women singers]]
[[Category:Pop singers]]

Shiv Pal Singh Patel

2026-04-27T08:07:30Z

MarcyThompson89: started a biography - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image =
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| term_start = 4 June 2024
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Sangam Lal Gupta]]
| successor =
| office2 =
| prime_minister1 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| office3 =
| prime_minister3 =
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| predecessor3 =
| successor3 =
| constituency = [[Pratapgarh (Lok Sabha constituency)|Pratapgarh]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place = sadarpur, madhoganj distt.-hardoi UP
| occupation = Politician,teacher Business
| spouse =
| children =
| party = [[Samajwadi Party]]
| other_party =
| sibling =
}}

'''Shiv Pal Singh Patel''' is an [[Politics of India|Indian politician]] from [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Shiv Pal Singh was elected as a [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|member of parliament]] from [[Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency|Pratapgarh]] on 4 June 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-05 |title=Pratapgarh election results 2024: SP's Shiv Pal Singh wins |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/pratapgarh-election-results-2024-sps-shiv-pal-singh-patel-vs-bjps-sangam-lal-gupta/articleshow/110671380.cms |access-date=2024-06-05 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shiv Pal Singh Patel (Dr. S P Singh) , SP Election Results LIVE: Latest Updates On Shiv Pal Singh Patel (Dr. S P Singh) , Lok Sabha Constituency Seat - NDTV.com |url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections/lok-sabha-election-candidates-2024/shiv-pal-singh-patel-dr-s-p-singh-24039-3 |access-date=2024-06-05 |website=www.ndtv.com}}</ref><ref name="results.eci.gov.in">{{Cite web |title=General Election to Parliamentary Constituencies: Trends & Results June-2024 Parliamentary Constituency 39 - Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh) |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2439.htm |website=results.eci.gov.in}}</ref><ref name="Businessmen {{!}} In august company">{{cite news |last1=India Today |date=13 July 2024 |title=Businessmen {{!}} In august company |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-businessmen-in-august-company-2565840-2024-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807175452/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-businessmen-in-august-company-2565840-2024-07-13 |archive-date=7 August 2024 |access-date=7 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patel, Shiv Pal Singh}}
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Aftab Alam (judge)

2026-04-24T21:10:01Z

MarcyThompson89: created article...

{{Short description|Indian judge (born 1948)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Aftab Alam
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1948|04|19}}
| office = Judge of the [[Supreme Court of India]]
| term_start = 12 November 2007
| term_end = 18 April 2013
| office2 = Acting Chief Justice of [[Jammu and Kashmir High Court]]
| term_start2 = 7 June 2007
| term_end2 = 10 November 2007
| office3 = Judge of [[Jammu and Kashmir High Court]]
| term_start3 = 7 June 2007
| term_end3 = 11 November 2007
| office4 = Judge of [[Patna High Court]]
| term_start4 = 27 July 1990
| term_end4 = 6 June 2007
| birth_name = Syed Aftab Alam
| birth_place = [[Patna district|Patna]], [[Bihar]], India
| children = Shahrukh Alam<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pioneer|first=The|title=Teesta got hefty amount from US convict Chatwal|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2014/india/teesta-got-hefty-amount-from-us-convict-chatwal.html|access-date=2021-12-19|website=The Pioneer|language=en}}</ref>
}}

'''Aftab Alam''' (born 19 April 1948) is a retired judge of the [[Supreme Court of India]].

==Early life==
Alam was born in 1948 in [[Sheikhpura district]], [[Bihar]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Assets of Aftab Alam|url=https://api.sci.gov.in/pdf/ASSETS/aa.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219131543/https://main.sci.gov.in/pdf/ASSETS/aa.pdf |archive-date=19 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=salman_jobs|title=Bihar's bad roads irk a Supreme Court judge|url=https://archive.siasat.com/news/bihars-bad-roads-irk-supreme-court-judge-30799/|access-date=2021-12-19|website=The Siasat Daily – Archive|date=24 August 2009 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Krishnan|first=Murali|title=Supreme Court bids farewell to Justice Aftab Alam; SLPs major problem affecting the Supreme Court says Justice Alam|url=https://www.barandbench.com/news/supreme-court-bids-farewell-justice-aftab-alam-slps-major-problem-affecting-supreme|access-date=2021-12-19|website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news|date=18 April 2013 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=BBIS|date=2021-11-16|title=Sold the land of a relative of a retired Supreme Court judge, fraudsters played a big game in Sheikhpura, Bihar|url=https://www.theindiaprint.com/bihar-news-english/sold-the-land-of-a-relative-of-a-retired-supreme-court-judge-fraudsters-played-a-big-game-in-sheikhpura-bihar-130632|access-date=2021-12-19|website=THE INDIA PRINT|language=en}}</ref> He studied in [[Patna Collegiate School]].

== Career ==
After passing Law he was enrolled as an Advocate and practiced on Criminal, labour and Constitutional matters at the [[Patna High Court]]. Alam was designated a Senior Advocate at the age of 36. He became Additional Standing Counsel of the [[Government of India]] in the High Court on 7 September 1981 and served up to 6 September 1985. On 27 July 1990, Alam was elevated as a permanent Judge of the Patna High Court. He was transferred to [[Jammu and Kashmir High Court]] as acting chief justice 6 June 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|last=TwoCircles.net|date=2007-11-13|title=Justice Aftab Alam is appointed judge of the Supreme Court|url=http://twocircles.net/2007nov12/justice_aftab_alam_appointed_judge_supreme_court.html|access-date=2021-12-19|website=TwoCircles.net|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Former Judges of JK Highcourt|url=http://jkhighcourt.nic.in/formerJudges.php|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-19|website=jkhighcourt.nic.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170720200400/http://jkhighcourt.nic.in:80/formerJudges.php |archive-date=20 July 2017 }}</ref>

On 12 November 2007, he became the justice of the [[Supreme Court of India]]. After the retirement on 18 April 2013, Alam was appointed in the post of Chairperson of the [[Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/Justice-Aftab-Alam-likely-to-be-new-TDSAT-chairman/article20620341.ece|title=Justice Aftab Alam likely to be new TDSAT chairman|date=2 June 2013|newspaper=The Hindu Business Line|access-date=28 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tdsat.gov.in/writereaddata/Delhi/docs/organize_auth1.php|title=FORMER CHAIRPERSON, TDSAT|website=tdsat.gov.in|access-date=10 December 2018|archive-date=18 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018161009/http://www.tdsat.gov.in/writereaddata/Delhi/docs/organize_auth1.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Besides his legal career, he is an eminent scholar of classical [[Urdu]] having knowledge in [[Persian language|Persian]] Poetry and [[Sufism]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://164.100.107.37/judges/bio/141_aftabalam.htm|title=Former Judges|access-date=10 December 2018|archive-date=10 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210171152/http://164.100.107.37/judges/bio/141_aftabalam.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Alam, Aftab}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Patna]]
[[Category:Justices of the Supreme Court of India]]
[[Category:Judges of the Patna High Court]]
[[Category:Judges of the Jammu and Kashmir High Court]]
[[Category:Chief justices of the Jammu and Kashmir High Court]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian judges]]

Mohan Raj

2026-04-22T11:56:43Z

MarcyThompson89: creating some data w/ refs.

{{Short description|Indian actor (1955–2024)}}
{{for|the bishop|Mohan Manoraj}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=January 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mohan Raj
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Mohanarajan
| birth_date = 13 November 1955
| birth_place = [[Kanjiramkulam]], [[Thiruvananthapuram district|Trivandrum]], [[Kerala]], India
| death_date = {{death date and given age|2024|10|03|69|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Kanjiramkulam]]
| othername = Mohanraj, Keerikkadan Jose
| alma_mater = [[University of Kerala]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|assistant enforcement officer}}
| yearsactive = 1988–2024
| spouse = Usha
| children = 2
}}

'''Mohanarajan''' (13 November 1955 – 3 October 2024), professionally credited as '''Mohan Raj''', also known as '''Keerikkadan Jose''', was an Indian actor. He primarily worked in [[Malayalam]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] languages, and appeared in two [[Cinema of Japan|Japanese]] films. Raj acted in over 300 films.

==Early life==
Mohan Raj was born as the second son of Sukumaran Nadar and Pankajakshi. He had four brothers, Chandran, Sivaprasad, Jayakumar, and Premlal.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Express News Service |title=Malayalam actor Mohanraj passes away |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/2024/Oct/03/malayalam-actor-mohanraj-passes-away |access-date=3 October 2024 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=3 October 2024}}</ref> His real name is Mohanarajan. He was born and raised in [[Kanjiramkulam]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]] in the state of [[Kerala]], India. His schooling was at P. K. S. Higher Secondary School, Kanjiramkulam.<ref name="Mathrubhumi2">{{cite news |title=Suspended for acting in 'Kireedam', feared by many; memories fade in Mohanraj's final days |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/mohanraj-life-beyond-the-screen-1.9957505 |access-date=4 October 2024 |work=[[Mathrubhumi]] |date=4 October 2024}}</ref> He graduated with a degree in economics from [[Government Arts College, Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref name="Mathrubhumi">{{cite news|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/349388/#storycontent|title=കീരിക്കാടന്‍ അഥവാ ഗുഡിവാഡറായിഡു|work=[[Mathrubhumi]]|date=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326024751/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/349388/|archive-date=26 March 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

At age 20, he enlisted in the [[Indian Army]] and served for five years, but left due to a leg injury. Subsequently, he passed multiple [[competitive examination]]s. He first joined the [[Central Board of Excise and Customs]], where he worked two years. He had also attained second rank in the [[sub-inspector]] exam for the [[Kerala Police]]. However, after receiving a position as an assistant enforcement officer (AEO) in the [[Enforcement Directorate]], he left Customs. However, he was suspended from service after acting in the 1989 film ''[[Kireedam (1989 film)|Kireedam]]'' without permission. After a 20-year long legal battle, he was reinstated in 2010 and took voluntary retirement in 2015.<ref name="Mathrubhumi2"/>

==Personal life==
Mohan Raj was married to Usha. They have two daughters, Jaishma and Kaaviya. He settled in [[Chennai]] with his family.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/2024/Oct/03/malayalam-actor-mohanraj-passes-away | title=Malayalam actor Mohanraj passes away | date=3 October 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/legendary-actor-keerikkadan-mohan-raj-passes-away-at-70/articleshow/113915946.cms | title='Keerikkadan' Mohan Raj passes away | work=The Times of India | date=3 October 2024 }}</ref><ref name="marun1"/> Mohan Raj later worked as an assistant enforcement officer for the central government. Raj died on 3 October 2024, at the age of 69.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/mohan-raj-known-for-portrayal-of-keerikkadan-jose-passes-away-1.9954823 |title=Mohan Raj, known for his role as Keerikkadan Jose, passes away|date=3 October 2024 |publisher=Mathrubhumi English}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/10/03/mohanraj-famous-for-keerikadan-jose-dies.html|title=Mohanraj, popular for his role as 'Keerikadan Jose', passes away|publisher=onmanorama.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Malayalam actor Mohan Raj aka Keerikkadan Jose passes away |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/europe/?url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/entertainment/malayalam-actor-mohan-raj-aka-keerikkadan-jose-passes-away-article-12834985.html |access-date=3 October 2024 |publisher=Money Control |date=3 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/veteran-malayalam-actor-mohan-raj-dies-at-70-mohanlal-and-mammootty-pay-tribute-6712258|title=Veteran Malayalam Actor Mohan Raj Dies At 70. Mohanlal And Mammootty pay tribute|work=NDTV }}</ref><ref name="marun1">{{cite web|title=നമ്മുടെ കീരിക്കാടൻ ജോസ് ഇപ്പോൾ മധുര ഹൈവേയിലെ 'കീരിക്കാടൻ'മാരുടെപേടി സ്വപ്നം|url=http://www.marunadanmalayali.com/cinema/celluloid/kireedam-villain-mohanraj-is-a-polic-officer-in-madurai-5151|publisher=marunadanmalayali|date=15 October 2014}}</ref>

==Films==

===Malayalam===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1988 || ''[[Moonnam Mura]]'' || Gunda ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1989 || ''[[Kireedam (1989 film)|Kireedam]]'' || Keerikkadan Jose ||
|-
| ''[[Artham]]'' || Stanley ||
|-
| ''Naagapanchami'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 1990 || ''[[Aye Auto]]'' || Police Inspector ||
|-
| ''[[Vyooham (1990 film)|Vyooham]]'' || Ajith ||
|-
| ''[[Rajavazhcha]]'' || Karadi Vasu ||
|-
| ''[[Oliyampukal]]'' || Vasu ||
|-
| ''[[Naale Ennundengil]]'' || Gajaraja ||
|-
| ''[[Marupuram]]'' || Salim ||
|-
| ''Shesham Screenil'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Purappadu (1990 film)|Purappadu]]'' || Samuel ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1991 || ''[[Nagarathil Samsara Vishayam]]'' || Vikraman ||
|-
| ''[[Aanaval Mothiram]]'' || Guru ||
|-
| ''[[Mimics Parade]]'' || Hakkim ||
|-
| ''[[Koodikazhcha]]'' || 'Mortuary' Karunan ||
|-
| ''Cheppu Kilukkana Changathi'' || Kartha's Henchman ||
|-
| ''[[Amina Tailors]]'' || Malappuram Moideen ||
|-
| ''[[Kanalkkattu]]'' || Kareem Bhai ||
|-
| rowspan=3 |1992 || ''[[Kasarkode Khaderbai]]'' || Khader Bhai's right hand ||
|-
| ''Kavacham'' || ||
|-
| ''Marathon'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 1993 || ''[[Uppukandam Brothers]]'' || Uppukandam Paulachan ||
|-
| ''[[Pravachakan]]'' || Freddy ||
|-
| ''Porutham'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Customs Diary]]'' || Danny ||
|-
| ''[[Chenkol]]'' || Keerikkadan Jose ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1994 || ''Cabinet'' || Mahendran ||
|-
| ''Vishnu'' || 'Kallan' Raghavan ||
|-
| rowspan=3 |1995 || ''Arabikadaloram'' || Hassanbava ||
|-
| ''Mangalam Veettil Manaseswari Gupta '' || ||
|-
| ''Thacholi Varghese Chekavar'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1996 || ''[[Hitler (1996 film)|Hitler]]'' || Devarajan ||
|-
| ''Naalamkettile Nalla Thambimar'' || Britto ||
|-
| ''[[Yuvathurki]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rajaputhran]]'' || K. C. ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1997 || ''[[Aaraam Thampuran]]'' || Chenkalam Madhavan ||
|-
| ''[[Bhoopathi (1997 film)|Bhoopathi]]'' || Khader ||
|-
| ''[[Guru (1997 film)|Guru]]'' || Senadhipan ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Sooryaputhran]]'' || Narendran ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 1999 || ''[[Stalin Sivadas]]'' || BSS Leader ||
|-
| ''[[Vazhunnor]]'' || CI Sahadevan ||
|-
| ''[[Pathram]]'' || Chandan Bhai ||
|-
| ''[[Udayapuram Sulthan]]'' || Goon ||
|-
| ''[[Red Indians (film)|Red Indians]]'' || Hyder Marakkyar ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2000 || ''[[Narasimham (film)|Narasimham]]'' || Bhaskaran ||
|-
| ''[[Mark Antony (2000 film)|Mark Antony]]'' || Muthala Varkey ||
|-
| ''[[Thenkasipattanam]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2001 || ''Chenchayam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sharja To Sharja]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2003 || ''Janakeeyam'' || DYSP Mohandas ||
|-
| ''The Fire'' || Circle Inspector ||
|-
| ''[[Mr. Brahmachari]]'' || Masthan Majeedbhai ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Naran (film)|Naran]]'' || Kuttychira Pappan ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2006 || ''Highway Police'' || Khan Bhai ||
|-
| ''[[Balram vs. Tharadas]]'' || Anali Bhaskaran ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2007 || ''[[Mayavi (2007 film)|Mayavi]]'' || Yatheedran ||
|-
| ''[[Time (2007 film)|Time]]'' || Sunny Kuriachan ||
|-
| ''[[Hallo (film)|Hallo]]'' || Pattambi Ravi ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2008 || ''[[Aayudham (2008 film)|Aayudham]]'' || DYSP Hamza ||
|-
| ''[[Twenty:20 (film)|Twenty:20]]'' || Goon ||
|-
| ''[[Lollipop (2008 film)|Lollipop]]'' || Damu ||
|-
| rowspan=2 |2011 || ''Happy Darbar'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Uppukandam Brothers: Back in Action]]'' || ||
|-
| 2013 || ''KQ'' || ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Chirakodinja Kinavukal]]'' || Driver Jose ||
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Rorschach (film)|Rorschach]]'' || Sujatha's father ||
|-
|}

===Telugu===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1990 || ''Rowdyism Nasinchali'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Iddaru Iddare]]'' || Joseph ||
|-
| ''[[Lorry Driver (film)|Lorry Driver]]'' || Gudiwada Rowdy Rayudu ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1991 || ''[[Stuartpuram Police Station]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Assembly Rowdy]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1992 || ''Brahma'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chinarayudu]]'' || Pasupathi ||
|-
| ''[[Rowdy Inspector]]'' || Bobarlanka Ramabrahmam ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1993 || ''[[Mechanic Alludu]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Chittemma Mogudu]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Nippu Ravva]]'' || Gundappa ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1994 || ''Police Alludu'' || Peddanna ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Police Alludu (1994) |url=https://indiancine.ma/AIXF |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Bobbili Simham]]'' || Gajendra ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1995 || ''[[Pokiri Raja]]'' || Vicky ||
|-
| ''[[Khaidi Inspector]]'' || Beeda Seth||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khaidi Inspector |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/khaidi-inspector/cast/2030314922/ |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=TVGuide.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1996 || ''Soggaadi Pellam'' || Narasimham ||
|-
| ''[[Sarada Bullodu]]'' || Sangliyana ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Pelli Chesukundam]]'' || Kaali Charan ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1998 || ''[[Sivayya]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sri Ramulayya]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pavitra Prema]]'' || Narsingh ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Samarasimha Reddy]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2001 || ''[[Narasimha Naidu]]'' || Appala Naidu ||
|-
| ''Evadra Rowdy'' || Lal Darwaza Pandu ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evadra Rowdy (2001) |url=https://indiancine.ma/BEBE |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Adhipathi]]'' || Gajendra ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Chennakesava Reddy]]'' || Jai Reddy ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2003 || ''[[Seetayya]]'' || Choudappa ||
|-
| ''[[Palnati Brahmanayudu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sivamani (film)|Sivamani]]'' || Vasanta's father ||
|-
| ''[[Raghavendra (film)|Raghavendra]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2004 || ''[[Swamy (2004 film)|Swamy]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Siva Shankar]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vijayendra Varma]]'' || ||
|}

===Tamil===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1987 || ''[[Aankalai Nambathey]]'' || ||
|-
| 1988 || ''[[Kazhugumalai Kallan]]'' || ||
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Dharma Durai (1991 film)|Dharma Durai]]'' || Jose ||
|-
| 1993 || ''[[Thanga Pappa]]'' || Ananthu ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Karnaa]]'' || Devaraj ||
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Dhill]]'' || Minister Vedhanayagam ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Ezhumalai]]'' || Kalingarayan ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Chandramukhi]]'' || Nair ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Madrasi (2006 film)|Madrasi]]'' || Police Inspector ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Ameerin Aadhi-Bhagavan]]'' || Kondal Rao ||
|-
|}

=== Hindi ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role
|-
| 1988 || ''[[New Delhi (1988 Hindi film)|New Delhi]]'' ||
|-
|}

===Television serials===
====Malayalam====
* ''[[Kadamattathu Kathanar (TV series)|Kadamattathu Kathanar]]''
* ''[[Swami Ayyappan (TV series)|Swami Ayyappan]]''
* ''Moonumani''

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=1559469|name=Mohan Raj}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Raj, Mohan}}
[[Category:1950s births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam television]]
[[Category:People from Thiruvananthapuram district]]

Pradip Kumar Dishari

2026-04-20T08:36:45Z

MarcyThompson89: creating a bio

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Pradip Kumar Dishari
| birth_name =
| caption =
| image =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Member of Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Lanjigarh Assembly constituency|Lanjigarh]]
| term_start = 4 June 2024
| predecessor = Pradip Kumar Dishari
| constituency1 =
| term1 =
| term_end1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 =
| constituency2 =
| term_start2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| party = [[Biju Janata Dal]]
| other_party =
| website =
| alma_mater =
| profession = Politician
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}

'''Pradip Kumar Dishari''' is an Indian politician who was elected to the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]] from [[Lanjigarh Assembly constituency|Lanjigarh]] as a member of the [[Biju Janata Dal]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Pradip Kumar Dishari Election Affidavit |url=https://www.myneta.info/Odisha2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=25 |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=2 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Lanjigarh Election Result 2024 LIVE Updates Highlights: Pradip Kumar Dishari of BJD Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/lanjigarh-election-result-2024-live-updates-highlights-assembly-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8916551.html |website=News18 |publisher=Election Results Hub |access-date=2 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Odisha Assembly Election Result 2024: Full list of winners |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/odisha-assembly-election-result-2024-full-list-of-winners/3511557/ |website=Financial Express |publisher=India News Desk |access-date=2 October 2024}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dishari, Pradip Kumar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Biju Janata Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Odisha MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Odisha-BJD-politician-stub}}

Salghari–Zoom Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:34:34Z

MarcyThompson89: started new entry - done

{{Short description|Constituency of the Sikkim legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Salghari-Zoom
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 8
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Madan Cintury]]
|party = {{Party index link|Sikkim Krantikari Morcha}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
|latest_election_year = [[2024 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| state = [[Sikkim]]
| district = [[Soreng district|Soreng]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Sikkim (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sikkim]]
| established = 2008
| electors = 10,942<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceosikkim.nic.in/UploadedFiles/VoterTurnout/Voters%20Turnout%20Vidhan%20Sabha%20Elections%20Sikkim%202019.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219115258/https://ceosikkim.nic.in/UploadedFiles/VoterTurnout/Voters%20Turnout%20Vidhan%20Sabha%20Elections%20Sikkim%202019.pdf|archive-date=19 February 2024 |title=Vidhan Sabha Elections Sikkim 2019 - Voters Turnout Statistical Data|website=ceosikkim.nic.in |publisher= CEO of Sikkim |access-date= 1 January 2021}}</ref> {{update after|2024|05}}
| reservation = SC
}}

'''Salghari–Zoom Assembly constituency''' is one of the 32 assembly constituencies of [[Sikkim]] a north east state of [[India]]. Salghari-Zoom is part of [[Sikkim (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sikkim Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>[http://www.elections.in/sikkim/assembly-constituencies/salghari-zoom.html Sitting and previous MLAs from Salghari-Zoom Assembly constituency]</ref><ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/electionanalysis/AE/S02/Old/partycomp24.htm Election Commission of India]</ref><ref>[http://ceosikkim.nic.in/Files/Assembly_block.htm Assembly constituencies Revenue Blocks]</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[2009 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2009]] || [[Madan Cintury]] || {{Full party name with color|Sikkim Democratic Front|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2014 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2014]] || [[Arjun Kumar Ghatani]]
|-
| [[2019 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2019]] || [[Sunita Gajmer]] || {{Full party name with color|rowspan=2 |Sikkim Krantikari Morcha}}
|-
| [[2024 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2024]] || [[Madan Cintury]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2024 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2024 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Salghari–Zoom}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Madan Cintury]] |party=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |votes=5,678 |percentage=58.69% |change={{increase}}9.43 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Janga Bir Darnal |party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=2,966 |percentage=30.66% |change={{decrease}}17.57 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pahal Man Kami |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=555 |percentage=5.74% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kaushal Lohagan |party=Citizen Action Party – Sikkim |votes=400 |percentage=4.13% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=75 |percentage=0.78% |change={{decrease}}0.02 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,712 |percentage=28.03% |change= {{increase}}26.99 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=9,674 |percentage=82.73% |change= {{increase}}1.10 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 11,694 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.87 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |loser=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |swing= {{increase}}9.43 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2019 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2019 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Salghari–Zoom<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-24|title=Sikkim Assembly election results 2019: Full list of winners|url=https://zeenews.india.com/assembly-elections/sikkim-assembly-election-results-2019-full-list-of-winners-2205926.html|access-date=2020-08-15|website=Zee News|language=en|archive-date=6 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106160313/https://zeenews.india.com/assembly-elections/sikkim-assembly-election-results-2019-full-list-of-winners-2205926.html|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sunita Gajmer]] |party=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |votes=4,400 |percentage=49.27% |change={{increase}}6.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dhan Kumari Kami |party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=4,307 |percentage=48.23% |change={{decrease}}4.40 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ganga Maya Cintury |party=Indian National Congress |votes=119 |percentage=1.33% |change={{increase}}0.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=71 |percentage=0.79% |change={{decrease}}0.80 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=93 |percentage=1.04% |change= {{decrease}}8.60 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=8,931 |percentage=81.62% |change= {{decrease}}2.08 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 10,942 |ref = |change= {{increase}}13.40 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |loser=Sikkim Democratic Front |swing= {{decrease}}3.36 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Salghari–Zoom}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Arjun Kumar Ghatani]] |party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=4,250 |percentage=52.63% |change={{decrease}}12.51 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhanu Pratap Rasaily |party=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |votes=3,471 |percentage=42.98% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ranjit Kami |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=162 |percentage=2.01% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=129 |percentage=1.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kharka Bahadur Thatal |party=Indian National Congress |votes=64 |percentage=0.79% |change={{decrease}}30.61 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=779 |percentage=9.65% |change= {{decrease}}24.09 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=8,076 |percentage=83.70% |change= {{decrease}}0.92 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 9,649 |ref = |change= {{increase}}19.86 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Sikkim Democratic Front |loser=Sikkim Democratic Front |swing= {{decrease}}12.51 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2009 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2009 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Salghari–Zoom<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2009 to the Legislative Assembly of Sikkim |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2009/Stats_SK_April2009.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404202702/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2009/Stats_SK_April2009.pdf|archive-date=4 April 2014|access-date=15 February 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Madan Cintury]]|party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=4,437 |percentage=65.14% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Janga Bir Darnal |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,139 |percentage=31.40% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nirmala Kami |party=Sikkim Jan-Ekta Party |votes=104 |percentage=1.53% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Padam Bahadur Darnal |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes=57 |percentage=0.84% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Giri Kumar Pariyar |party=Sikkim Himali Rajya Parishad |votes=41 |percentage=0.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,298 |percentage=33.73% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,812 |percentage=84.62% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 8,050 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Sikkim Democratic Front |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==

* [[Salghari]]
* [[West Sikkim district]]
* [[List of constituencies of Sikkim Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Sikkim}}

{{coord|27.132|88.284|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salghari-Zoom Assembly constituency}}
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Sikkim]]
[[Category:Gyalshing district]]
[[Category:Politics of Sikkim]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Sikkim]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Sadhu Ramchand Murmu University of Jhargram

2026-04-17T00:51:42Z

MarcyThompson89: redirect created

#REDIRECT [[Higher education in West Bengal#Universities, state and private]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

Polba Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:49:31Z

MarcyThompson89: creating post

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Polba
| type= SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year =
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| district = [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Hooghly (Lok Sabha constituency)|Hooghly]]
| constituency_no = 190
| established = 1967
| electors =
| reservation = None
| abolished = 2011
}}

'''Polba Assembly constituency''' was an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Hooghly district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Overview==
As a consequence of the orders of the Delimitation Committee Polba Assembly constituency ceased to exist from 2011.<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf | title = Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 dated 15 February 2006 | access-date= 26 July 2015|work = West Bengal | publisher= Election Commission of India}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"ìÍĦĤĠčw
|-
! Election Year!!Constituency!!Name of M.L.A.!!Party affiliation
|-
|[[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]||Polba||B.Chattopadhyay||[[Indian National Congress]]<ref name=vidhansabha1967>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20report%20WB1967.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1967, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1969||||Braja Gopal Neogy||[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]<ref name=vidhansabha1969>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1969/StatReport_WB_69.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1969, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission |access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1971||||Braja Gopal Neogy||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=vidhansabha1971>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_WB_71.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1971, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No ?|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1972||||Bhawani Prasad Sinha Roy||Indian National Congress<ref name=vidhansabha1972>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_WB_72.pdf |title =General Elections, India, 1972, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1977||||Braja Gopal Neogy||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=vidhansabha1977>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportWestBengal77.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1977, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1982||||Braja Gopal Neogy||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=vidhansabha1982>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1982/StatisticalReportWestBengal82.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1982, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1987||||Braja Gopal Neogy||Communist Party of India (Marxist) <ref name=vidhansabha1987>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReportWestBengal87.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1987, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1991||||Braja Gopal Neogy||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=vidhansabha1991>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1991, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No | publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|1996||||Shakti Pada Khanra||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=vidhansabha1996>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-WB96.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1996, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 6 February 2015}}</ref>
|-
|[[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]||||Shakti Pada Khanra||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=vidhansabha2001>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/StatRept_WB_2001.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2001, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|[[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]||||Shakti Pada Khanra||Communist Party of India (Marxist)<ref name=vidhansabha2006>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_WB_2006.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2006, to the Legislativer Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data, AC No |publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 9 July 2015}}</ref>
|}

==Election results==
===1977-2006===
In [[2006 West Bengal state assembly election|2006]], 2001 and 1996 state assembly elections, Shaktipada Khanra of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] won the Polba assembly seat defeating Sk. Sahadat Ali of [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] in 2006,<ref name=vidhansabha2006/> Azizur Rahman of Trinamool Congress in 2001,<ref name=vidhansabha2001/> and Mainul Haque of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] in 1996.<ref name=vidhansabha1996/> Brojogopal Neogy of CPI(M) defeated Bhawani Prasad Sinha Roy of Congress in 1991,<ref name=vidhansabha1991/> Tapan Dasgupta of Congress in 1987,<ref name=vidhansabha1987/> Kamal Kumar Mukherjee of Congress in 1982<ref name=vidhansabha1982/> and Bhabani Prasad Sinha Roy of Congress in 1977.<ref name=vidhansabha1977/><ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/archive/ElectionAnalysis/AE/S25/Partycomp190.htm |title =190 - Polba Assembly Constituency |work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 1 December 2010}}</ref>

===1967-1972===
Bhawani Pd. Sinha Roy of Congress won in 1972.<ref name=vidhansabha1972/> Braja Gopal Neogy of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] won in 1971<ref name=vidhansabha1971/> and 1969.<ref name=vidhansabha1969/> B. Chattopadhyay of Congress won in 1967.<ref name=vidhansabha1967/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Hooghly topics}}
{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}
{{coords|22.96|88.31|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Polba Assembly constituency}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Hooghly district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2011]]
[[Category:2011 disestablishments in India]]

Deepthi Nambiar

2026-04-15T03:27:23Z

MarcyThompson89: Made new entry...

{{Short description|Indian film actress}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Deepthi Nambiar
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality =
| other_names =
| known_for =
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2009{{Endash}}2013
}}
'''Deepthi Nambiar''' is a former Indian actress, who worked in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Malayalam]] films.

==Life and career==
Deepthi Nambiar is a Pune-based Malayali and worked as an anchor in a Malayalam television channel.<ref name="I"/> She made her film debut through ''[[Pattalam (2009 film)|Pattalam]]'' before shooting for ''[[Yugam (film)|Yugam]]'' in 2010.<ref name="S">{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/Deepti-Nambiar-in--Cherukkanum-Pennum-news-malayalam-mdhjrydahdb.html |title=Deepti Nambiar in 'Cherukkanum Pennum' |work=[[Sify.com]] |date=7 March 2012 |url-status=dead |author=Moviebuzz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180226032707/https://www.sify.com/movies/Deepti-Nambiar-in--Cherukkanum-Pennum-news-malayalam-mdhjrydahdb.html|archive-date=26 February 2018|access-date=6 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Raghavan |first=Nikhil |date=18 September 2010 |title=Itsy-bitsy |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Itsy-bitsy/article15973603.ece |access-date=6 March 2026 |work=[[The Hindu]]|url-access= subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727081858/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Itsy-bitsy/article15973603.ece|archive-date=27 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/news-interviews/Deepthis-busy-with-Yugam/articleshow/6451827.cms?referral=PM|title=Deepthi's busy with Yugam|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=29 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826223823/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/news-interviews/Deepthis-busy-with-Yugam/articleshow/6451827.cms|archive-date=26 August 2014|access-date=6 March 2026}}</ref> A small role in [[A. R. Murugadoss]]' debut production ''[[Engeyum Eppodhum]]'' (2011), landed her a role in Murugadoss' ''[[Thuppakki]]'', in which she played Vijay's sister. According to both Murugadoss and Vijay, she was apt for the role with the latter stating that she resembled his sister Vidhya. Deepthi simultaneously worked on [[Pradeep Nair]]'s Malayalam film ''[[Cherukkanum Pennum]]'', [[Vincent Selva]]'s ''[[Thulli Vilayadu]]'', and the unreleased ''Ungal Viruppam'' in 2012.<ref name="I">{{cite web|title=I haven't watched Thuppakki yet: Deepthi|url=http://newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/article1355951.ece|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=27 November 2012|access-date=5 March 2026|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231165137/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/article1355951.ece|archive-date=31 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="S"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/movie-details/news-interviews/sreejith-is-my-friend-deepti-nambiar/articleshow/12134464.cms|title=Sreejith is my friend: Deepti Nambiar|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=5 March 2012|access-date=6 March 2026|last=Zachariah|first=Ammu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Vincent Selva returns|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/showbiz/kollywood/vincent-selva-returns-961|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|date=19 April 2012|first1=Ajay|last1=Reddy|first2=Anupama|last2=Subramanian|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422211311/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/showbiz/kollywood/vincent-selva-returns-961|archive-date=22 April 2012|access-date=6 February 2026}}</ref> While acting, she also pursued her [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]] in [[Human resources|HR]] and marketing.<ref name="I"/>

Regarding her performance in the 2012 release ''Yugam'', a critic wrote that she "handles her role competently, bringing in an element of fear in her expression".<ref>{{Cite web |title='Yugam' (Tamil) |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2012/aug/04/yugam-tamil-393752.html |website=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=4 August 2012|access-date=6 March 2026|first=Malini|last=Mannath}}</ref> Regarding her performance in the 2013 release ''Thulli Vilayadu'', a critic felt that she was "chubby" and "bubbly".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-29 |title=Thulli Vilaiyaadu (Tamil) |url=http://newindianexpress.com/entertainment/reviews/Thulli-Vilaiyaadu-Tamil/2013/06/29/article1657754.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130714163050/http://newindianexpress.com/entertainment/reviews/Thulli-Vilaiyaadu-Tamil/2013/06/29/article1657754.ece |archive-date=14 July 2013 |access-date=6 March 2026 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> ''Cherukkanum Pennum'' had a delayed release in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/cherukkanum-pennum-movie-release-oct-31-sfcm2iyt|title='ചെറുക്കനും പെണ്ണും' ഒക്ടോബര്‍ 31-ന്; സംവിധാനം പ്രദീപ് നായര്‍, നിര്‍മാണം സജി നന്ത്യാട്ട്|trans-title=''Cherukkanum Pennum'' on October 31; Directed by Pradeep Nair, produced by Saji Nanthiyattu|work=[[Mathrubhumi]]|date=15 October 2025|access-date=6 March 2026|language=ml}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Language !! Notes
|-
|| 2009 || ''[[Pattalam (2009 film)|Pattalam]]'' || Sophia || rowspan="5" | [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ||
|-
| rowspan="1" | 2011 || ''[[Engeyum Eppodhum]]'' || Pooja ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2012 || ''[[Yugam (film)|Yugam]]''|| Pooja||
|-
| ''[[Thuppakki]]'' || Sanjana||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Thulli Vilayadu]]''|| Yamuna||
|-
| 2025 || ''[[Cherukkanum Pennum]]'' || Ritha || [[Malayalam]]|| Delayed release
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=5117787|name=Deepthi Nambiar}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian actors]]
[[Category:People from Kerala]]
[[Category:Indian film actors]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:People from Pune]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Statue of Swami Vivekananda (Seattle)

2026-04-13T21:49:46Z

MarcyThompson89: Redirect page

#REDIRECT[[Westlake Square]]

Nimi (king)

2026-04-13T15:32:04Z

MarcyThompson89: creating new details

{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = Nimi
| image = 056 King Nemi (detail) (9192287834).jpg
| caption = Thai depiction of Nimi
| texts = [[Ramayana]]
| dynasty = [[Suryavamsha]] (Janaka vamsha of Janakpur)
| father = [[Ikshvaku]]
| children = [[King Mithi]]
}}{{short description|King featured in Hinduism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2017}}

'''Nimi''' ({{Langx|sa|निमि|translit=Nimi}}) is a king of the [[Solar dynasty|Suryavamsha]] (Solar dynasty) featured in [[Hindu mythology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garg |first=Gaṅgā Rām |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9pmo51lRnYC&dq=nimi+solar+dynasty&pg=PA262 |title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World |date=1992 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7022-374-0 |pages=16 |language=en}}</ref> He is considered to be the first king of the [[Videha]] kingdom and is regarded to be the ancestor to the Janaka lineage of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mani |first=Vettam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvXsDwAAQBAJ&dq=nimi+janaka&pg=PA344 |title=Puranic Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Work with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |date=2015-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0597-2 |pages=344 |language=en}}</ref> Nimi is the grandson of [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], and a son of [[Ikshvaku]].<ref>Anthropology of Ancient Hindu Kingdom. Author – Makhan Jha</ref> According to [[Vayu Purana]], King Nimi established a city known as ''Jayantapura'' near the [[Gautam Ashram]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgMxAQAAMAAJ&dq=Jayantapur+of+Mithila&pg=PA389 |title=Oriental Translation Fund |date=1840 |pages=389 |language=en}}</ref>

== Hinduism ==

=== Nimi's yajña ===
Once, Nimi performed a [[Yajna|yajña]] and invited Sage [[Vasishtha]] to be the main priest to conduct the ceremony. However, the sage had already committed to conduct a yajña for [[Indra]], and he told Nimi that he would officiate as the head priest after having conducted Indra's yajña. Nimi went away without replying. Sage Vashistha was under the impression that King Nimi has assented to wait for him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfZNoX09XNAC&dq=nimi+solar+dynasty&pg=PA60 |title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective |date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-531405-2 |pages=60 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rViYDwAAQBAJ&dq=king+nimi&pg=PA141 |title=The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume VII: Uttarakāṇḍa |date=2018-09-11 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18292-6 |pages=141 |language=en}}</ref>

The sage conducted Indra's yajña and rushed to preside at Nimi's yajña only to find that the yajña was already being conducted by Gautama. Sage Vasishtha got angry and cursed King Nimi that "he would cease to live in corporal form" while the king was asleep. Thus, King Nimi was left without his body to heaven with Indra, and stayed there for 9,000,000 years. After the yajña was conducted successfully, the priests asked the gods to return King Nimi to his corporal form. However, he refused to return to his bodily form. The account of Nimi is described by [[Rama]] to [[Lakshmana]] in the [[Ramayana|Uttara Kanda]] of Ramayana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2020-09-28 |title=The Story of Nimi [Chapter 55] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-ramayana-of-valmiki/d/doc424826.html |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

This episode is also detailed in the [[Vishnu Purana]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2014-08-30 |title=Sacrifice if Nimi, origin of Sita and story of Kushadhvaja's race [Chapter V] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/vishnu-purana-wilson/d/doc116001.html |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

== Buddhism ==
[[File:001 Determination, King Nimi is taken to see the Heavens and the Hells (9270945277).jpg|thumb|King Nimi is taken to see the Heavens and the Hells]]
In several traditions, a righteous and edifying Videhan King Nimi or Nemi is mentioned, who travels to [[heaven (Buddhism)|heaven]] and [[hell (Buddhism)|hell]] in a celestial chariot. The story is mentioned in one text of the [[Pāli Canon]], and two Pāli [[Atthakatha|post-canonical texts]]. The name Nimi or Nemi is explained as "he brings the lineage full circle like the rim ({{langx|pi|nemi|italic=yes}}) of a carriage wheel".{{sfn|Appleton|2016|pp=139–40, 164 n.9}} The story relates that a certain King Makhadeva tells his barber that the latter should warn him as soon as the king has his first grey hair, a common ''[[memento mori]]'' motif found in ancient Indian literature,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bloomfield|first1=Maurice|author-link=Maurice Bloomfield|title=On Recurring Psychic Motifs in Hindu Fiction, and the Laugh and Cry Motif|journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]]|date=1916|volume=36|pages=57–8|doi=10.2307/592669|jstor=592669}}</ref> which goes back to the ancient Indian [[āśrama|conception of stages of life]].{{sfn|Appleton|2016|p=140}} Later on, when his first hairs go grey, and his barber tells him about that, the king [[pabbajja|goes forth]] to lead a spiritual life as a [[Rishi#Ruesi in Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar and Laos|hermit]], but not before he entrusts his son to do the same when his hair goes grey. The former king is later reborn in a heavenly world. He sees that his descendants all follow the same tradition of becoming hermits when they became old. He then decides to be reborn as the next descendant of the same dynasty, and has the name King Nimi. The story then goes on to say that this king is able to travel to heaven and hell at the invitation of the god [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Sakka]]. At the end of the story, King Makhadeva, later reborn as Nimi, is identified as a previous birth of [[the Buddha]], and the barber and heavenly charioteer are identified as the disciple [[Ānanda]].{{sfn|Appleton|2016|p=139, 165 n.14}}

The story is mentioned in many other [[early Buddhist texts]], both canonical and post-canonical.<ref name="Analayo 2017" />{{sfn|Appleton|2016|p=139}} Translator [[C. A. F. Rhys Davids]] compared the legend with [[Dante]]'s [[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rhys Davids|first1=C. A. F.|authorlink1=C. A. F. Rhys Davids|title=Review: The Jātaka, or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births. Vol. VI. Translated by E. B. Cowell and W. H. D. Rouse, M.A., Litt.D. Cambridge, 1907.|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland]]|date=15 March 2011|volume=40|issue=2|page=595|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00080837 |s2cid=163337858 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1947783|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Analayo 2017">{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Mahinda|editor-first=D.|year=2017|encyclopedia=Justice and Statecraft: Buddhist Ideals Inspiring Contemporary World|publisher=Nāgānanda International Buddhist University|title=The Repercussions Of Lack Of Proper Governance|first=Bhikkhu|last=Analayo|author-link=Bhikkhu Analayo|url=https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/governance.pdf|pages=126–7}}</ref> The story of King Nimi visiting heaven and hell is iconic in traditional [[Thai art]], and is easily recognizable for the average Thai person.<ref>{{cite conference|last=Brereton|first=B.P.|year=1986|title=Images of Heaven and Hell in Thai Literature and Painting.|conference=Conference on Thai Studies in Honor of William J. Gedney|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/brereton1986images.pdf|pages=41–2}}</ref> This story, as well as many similar stories that deal with [[cakravartin]] kings, attempts to establish that the spiritual life of renunciation is superior to the worldly life, and the solitary life superior to a married life.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Analayo|last=Bhikkhu|author-link=Bhikkhu Analayo|title=The Buddha's past life as a princess in the Ekottarika-agama|journal=Journal of Buddhist Ethics|volume=22|year=2015|page=95|url=https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/buddha-princess.pdf}}</ref>{{sfn|Appleton|2016|p=144}} Moreover, Asian religion scholar Naomi Appleton argues that there is a connection between the stories of the Videhan renouncing kings and the ideal of the [[paccekabuddha|solitary Buddha]] in Buddhism. Solitary Buddhas are often depicted renouncing their worldly life because of certain signs in their environment or on their body, as in the case of Makkhadeva.{{sfn|Appleton|2016|p=144}} Finally, according to the scholar [[Padmanabh Jaini]], the story may also have influenced how Buddhist cosmology was interpreted.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jaini|first1=Padmanabh S.|author-link=Padmanabh Jaini|title=Ākāravattārasutta: An 'apocryphal' sutta from Thailand|journal=[[Indo-Iranian Journal]]|date=July 1992|volume=35|issue=2–3|page=198|doi=10.1007/BF00164932 |s2cid=161230878}}</ref>

In post-canonical [[Pāli]] works, the belief is expressed that King Nimi belongs to a long line of Kings descending from [[Mahāsammata]], the first king of humankind. The Buddha is believed to be a descendant of the same dynasty.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jory|first1=Patrick|title=The Vessantara Jataka, Barami, And The Bodhisatta-Kings: The Origin and Spread of a Thai Concept of Power|journal=Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|date=2002|volume=16|issue=2|pages=41–2|jstor=40860799}}</ref>

== Jainism ==
In [[Jain]] texts, a similar motif as in Buddhist texts can be found, of a king called Nami.{{sfn|Appleton|2016|p=140–1}}

== See also ==
* [[Book of Arda Viraf]]
* [[Divine Comedy]]
* [[Hekhalot literature]]
* [[Janaka]]
* [[Ikshvaku]]
* [[Dilīpa|Dilipa]]
* [[King Mithi]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation|last1=Appleton|first1=Naomi|title=Shared Characters in Jain, Buddhist and Hindu Narrative: Gods, Kings and Other Heroes|date=2016|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-05575-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VColDwAAQBAJ}}
{{refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nimi}}
[[Category:Mithila (region)]]
[[Category:Buddhist mythology]]
[[Category:Jain texts]]
[[Category:Solar dynasty]]
[[Category:Mythological kings of Videha]]

Matka gambling

2026-04-10T14:36:13Z

MarcyThompson89:

{{short description|Form of gambling}}
'''''Matka'' gambling''' or '''''satta''''' is a form of [[betting]] and [[lottery]]{{clarify|reason=All lotteries are betting. Which is it?|date=May 2023}} which originally involved{{clarify|reason = Lede changes tense mid-sentence. Does it still exist? Either way, fix it to be consistent|date=May 2023}} betting on the opening and closing rates of cotton transmitted from the [[New York Cotton Exchange]] to the [[Bombay Cotton Exchange]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/information/story/what-is-satta-matka-origin-of-matka-gambling-or-satta-2446507-2023-10-09 |title=What is Satta Matka? Origin of matka gambling or satta |website=India Today |publisher=India Today Group |date=2023-10-09 |language=en |access-date=2026-04-10}}</ref> It originates from before the [[Partition of India]] when it was known as ''Ankada Jugar'' ("figures gambling"). In the 1960s, the system was replaced with other ways of generating random numbers, including pulling slips from a large earthenware pot known as a ''[[Matki (earthen pot)|matka]]'', or dealing with playing cards.

Matka gambling is illegal in India.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Goa-BJP-MLA-Wants-Matka-Gambling-Legalized/2015/08/11/article2969103.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813214918/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Goa-BJP-MLA-Wants-Matka-Gambling-Legalized/2015/08/11/article2969103.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=August 13, 2015 | title=Goa BJP MLA Wants 'Matka' Gambling Legalized | work=The New Indian Express | date=11 August 2015 | access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref>

==History==
In the original form of the game, betting would take place on the opening and closing rates of cotton as transmitted to the [[Bombay Cotton Exchange]] from the [[New York Cotton Exchange]], via [[teleprinter]]s.

In 1961, the New York Cotton Exchange stopped the practice, which caused the punters to look for alternative ways to keep the matka business alive. A [[Sindhi people|Sindhi]] migrant from Karachi, Pakistan, [[Ratan Khatri]] introduced the idea of declaring opening and closing rates of imaginary products and playing cards. Numbers would be written on pieces of paper and put into a ''matka'', a large earthen pitcher. One person would then draw a chit and declare the winning numbers. Over the years, the practice changed, so that three numbers were drawn from a pack of playing cards, but the name "matka" was kept.<ref name="CITEREFDNAReport2"/>

In 1962, Kalyanji Bhagat started the [[Worli]] matka. Ratan Khatri then introduced the ''New Worli'' matka in 1964, with slight modifications to the rules of the game with odds that were more favourable to the public. Kalyanji Bhagat's matka ran every day of the week, whereas Ratan Khatri's matka ran only five days a week, from Monday to Friday and later as it gained immense popularity and became synonymous with his name, it began to be called [[Main Ratan]] matka.<ref name="CITEREFMidDayReport">{{cite web|last=Ranga|first=Ketan|url= http://archive.mid-day.com/news/2010/apr/130410-suresh-bhagat-slain-matka-king-witness-threatened.htm|title='Pay Rs 50 crore or Jaya stays in jail'|website=mid-day.com|date=13 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324170904/http://archive.mid-day.com/news/2010/apr/130410-suresh-bhagat-slain-matka-king-witness-threatened.htm|archive-date=24 March 2014}}</ref>

During the flourishing of textile mills in [[Mumbai]], many mill workers played matka, resulting in bookies opening their shops in and around the mill areas, predominantly located in Parel in Central Mumbai and [[Kalbadevi]] in [[South Mumbai]].

The decades of 1980s and 1990s saw the matka business reach its peak. Betting volumes in excess of Rs. 500 crore would be laid every month. The [[Mumbai Police]]’s massive crackdown on the matka dens forced dealers to shift their hideouts to the city’s outskirts. Many of them moved to Gujarat, Rajasthan and other states. With no major source of betting in the city, many punters were attracted to other forms of gambling such as online and zhatpat lotteries. Meanwhile, some rich punters began to explore betting on cricket matches.<ref name="CITEREFCricketBettingMidDay">{{cite web|url= https://www.mid-day.com/articles/history-of-cricket-betting-in-mumbai/218837|title= Mid-Day article - History of cricket betting in Mumbai}}</ref>

In 1995 there were more than 2,000 big and medium-time bookies in the city and neighboring towns, but since then the numbers have declined substantially to less than 300. During the 2000s, the average monthly turnover has remained around Rs. 100 crore.<ref name="CITEREFDNAReport2">{{cite web|url= http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-how-matka-business-started-1171479|title= DNA India – How Matka Business Started}}</ref> The modern matka business is centred around [[Maharashtra]].

== How to play ==
To play, a gambler chooses three numbers between 0 and 9. The three chosen numbers are added together and the second digit of this resulting number is noted down alongside the original three chosen numbers. This leaves the gambler with four numbers, from which point they may bet on the various likelihoods of the numbers or number sequences appearing or being chosen from the pot.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-30|title=Matka Gambling in India - Review of a Classic Game|url=https://www.casinoid.in/matka-gambling-in-india-review-of-a-classic-game/|access-date=2021-04-04|website=Casinoid.in|language=en-IN}}</ref>

==Matka kings==
The leader of a matka gambling syndicate is called a "matka king".

===Kalyanji Bhagat ===
Kalyanji Bhagat was born a farmer in the village of Ratadia, Games Wala in [[Kutch]], [[Gujarat]]. Kalyanji's family name was Gala and the name ''Bhagat'', a modification of ''bhakt'', was a title given to their family by the King of Kutch for their religiousness.

He arrived as a migrant in [[Mumbai|Bombay]] in 1941 and initially did odd jobs such as ''masala ferriwala'' (spice seller) to managing a grocery store. In the 1960s, when Kalyanji Bhagat was running a grocery shop in Worli, he began the first rudimentary form of matka gambling by accepting bets based on the opening and closing rates of [[cotton]] traded on the [[New York (state)|New York]] wholesale market. He used to operate from the compound of his building Vinod Mahal, in Worli. After his death in the early 1990s, his son Suresh Bhagat eventually took over his business.<ref name="CITEREFDNAReport1">{{cite web |title=The founders of satta matka Kalyanji Bhagat and Ratan Khatri |url=https://www.shrimatka.in/article/the-founders-of-satta-matka-kalyanji-bhagat--ratan-khatri-1740037980/}}</ref>

===Ratan Khatri===
Ratan Khatri, known as the original ''Matka King'', from the early 1960s to mid-1990s controlled a nationwide illegal gambling network with international connections which involved several lakh punters and dealt with crores of rupees.

Khatri's matka syndicate started in the bustling business area of Dhanji Street in [[Mumbadevi]] where idlers used to wager on the daily trickle of the fluctuating cotton rates from the New York market. Gradually, it became a big gambling hub as the quantum of bets and betters increased. Due to a row over a winning number plus the New York market's five-day week schedule, compulsive betters began looking for alternatives. Based on the requests of his friends, Khatri started his own syndicate and started drawing three cards to decide the day's number. Khatri used to draw three cards, twice daily at 9.00pm (the 'open') and at midnight (the 'close'). The value of the open and close cards would be totalled to arrive at a winning number. The numbers would be relayed all across the betting hubs in the country and overseas. For a 25 paise bet the returns were at least Rs. 2.25 or more.
Khatri's betting was considered more genuine as the cards were reportedly opened in the presence of patrons. During the [[The Emergency (India)|emergency in India]], Khatri was jailed and served 19 months behind bars. In the early 1990s, he retired from the gambling business and was living near [[Tardeo]]; however, he still continued to visit the [[Mahalaxmi Racecourse]] to bet on his favourite horses.<ref name="From Matka King to anonymous punter">{{cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/from-matka-king-to-anonymous-punter-life-s-come-a-full-circle-for-him/245717/|title= From Matka King to anonymous punter}}</ref> He died on May 9, 2020.<ref name="End of a bet-time story">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/matka-king-ratan-khatri-dies-in-mumbai/articleshow/75660878.cms/|title= End of a bet-time story – Matka King Ratan Khatri dies in Mumbai}}</ref>

== Terminology ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Term
!Meaning/Explanation
|-
|Matka
|The word ''matka'' is derived from a word for an earthen pot. Such pots were used in the past to draw the numbers.
|-
|Single
|Any digit between 0 and 9 which involves in betting.{{clarify|date=September 2015}}
|-
|Jodi/Pair
|Any pair of two digits between 00 and 99 involves in matka (e.g. : 52){{clarify|date=September 2015}}
|-
|Patti/Panna
|A three digit result comes as betting result. All three digit number is patti/panna. Only limited 3 digit numbers are used.{{clarify|date=September 2015}}
|-
|Open result / close result
|The outcome of matka betting is divided into two parts. The first part is called ''open result '' and the second part ''close result''.
|-
|SP/DP/TP
|''SP'' stands for Single Patti e.g. 123, ''DP'' stands for Double Patti e.g. 112, and ''TP'' stands for Triple Patti e.g. 111
|-
|Cycle Patti
|The last two digit of the patti is called the ''cycle patti'' or ''cp'' (e.g. if the patti is 128, the cycle patti is 28)
|-
|Farak
|The Farak is how many difference from close result to open result (e.g.if the jodi/pair is 57, 7–5; the farak is 2; some another: "73" is 13-7 - 6 )
|-
|Berij
|The Berij is last digit of jodi's/pair's sum. (e.g. if pair is 76, berij is 7+6 = 13; last digit is 3; means berij is 3)
|}

==Influence on Bollywood==
The matka business and the lives of the matka kings also had an influence on [[Bollywood]]. [[Prem Nath]] played Ratan Khatri in the [[Feroz Khan (actor, born 1939)|Feroz Khan]] film ''[[Dharmatma]]'', which was based on the life of Khatri.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/dharmatma-1975/article4316386.ece|title= Feroze Khans' Dharmatma (1975) based on Rattan Khatri}}</ref> Khatri himself financed and even acted in the movie ''[[Rangila Ratan]]''.<ref name="CITEREFCricketBettingMidDay" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Gambling in India]]

Middle Ages

2026-03-29T19:25:09Z

MarcyThompson89: fixed issues

{{Short description|European history from the 5th to 15th centuries}}
{{bots|deny=InternetArchiveBot,Citation bot}}
{{About|medieval Europe|a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries|Post-classical history|other uses|Middle Ages (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Medieval times|the dinner theatre|Medieval Times}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox historical era
| name = Middle Ages
| start = {{circa|AD 500}}
| end = 1500
| image = [[File:Canterbury Cathedral, window nXV detail (46220634195).jpg|290px|alt=See caption]]
| caption = A [[medieval stained glass]] panel from [[Canterbury Cathedral]], {{circa|1175|1180}}, depicting the [[Parable of the Sower]], a [[biblical]] narrative
| before = {{unbulleted list||[[Ancient history|Antiquity]]|[[Late antiquity]]}}
| after = {{unbulleted list|[[Early modern period]]|[[Renaissance]]|[[Age of Discovery]]}}
| including = {{hlist|[[Early Middle Ages]]|[[High Middle Ages]]|[[Late Middle Ages]]}}
| key_events = {{hlist|[[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]]|[[Spread of Islam]]|[[Treaty of Verdun]]|[[East–West Schism]]|[[Crusades]]|[[Magna Carta]]|[[Hundred Years' War]]|[[Black Death]]|[[Fall of Constantinople]]|[[Exploration of North America]]}}
| duration = {{circa|1000}} years
| location = [[Europe]]
}}

In the [[history of Europe]], the '''Middle Ages''' or '''medieval period''' lasted approximately from the 5th to late 15th centuries, comparable with the [[post-classical]] period of [[World history (field)|global history]]. The medieval period is the middle epoch of the three traditional divisions of Western history: [[classical antiquity]], the medieval period, and the [[modern period]]. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the [[Early Middle Ages|Early]], [[High Middle Ages|High]], and [[Late Middle Ages]].

The Middle Ages began with the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] and transitioned into the [[Modern era|Modern age]] during the [[Renaissance]], the [[Reformation]], the European [[European wars of religion|Wars of Religion]] and the [[Age of Discovery]]. [[Early modern period|Early Modernity]] is a single term adopted to describe this end-stage of the period, during which medieval Europes shades into the modern period.

[[Population decline]], [[counterurbanisation]], the collapse of centralised authority, invasions, and mass migrations of [[tribe]]s had begun in [[late antiquity]] ({{Circa|~3rd–8th centuries}}) and lasted into the Early Middle Ages ({{Circa|5th–10th centuries}}). The large-scale movements of the [[Migration Period]], including various [[Germanic peoples]], formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, [[North Africa]] and the Middle East—once part of the [[Byzantine Empire]]—came under the rule of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], an Islamic empire, after conquest by [[succession to Muhammad|Muhammad's successors]]. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with [[classical antiquity]] was incomplete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire, Rome's direct continuation, survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered in [[Northern Italy]] in the 11th century. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. [[Monastery|Monasteries]] were founded as campaigns to [[Christianise]] the [[paganism#Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe|remaining pagans across Europe]] continued. The [[Franks]], under the [[Carolingian dynasty]], briefly established the [[Carolingian Empire]] during the later 8th and early 9th centuries. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions: [[Vikings]] from the north, [[Hungarian invasions of Europe|Magyars]] from the east, and [[Saracen]]s from the south.

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased significantly as technological and [[Agriculture in the Middle Ages#Technological innovation|agricultural innovations]] allowed trade to flourish and the [[Medieval Warm Period]] climate change allowed crop yields to increase. [[Manorialism]], the organisation of [[peasant]]s into villages that owed rent and labour services to the [[nobles]], and [[feudalism]], the political structure whereby [[knight]]s and lower-status nobles owed military service to their [[overlord]]s in return for the right to rent from lands and [[Manorialism|manors]], were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages. This period also saw the collapse of the unified Christian church with the [[East–West Schism]] of 1054. The [[Crusades]], first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the [[Holy Land]] from [[Muslim]]s. Kings became the heads of centralised [[nation-states]], reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified [[Christendom]] more distant. Intellectual life was marked by [[scholasticism]], a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of [[universities]]. The theology of [[Thomas Aquinas]], the paintings of [[Giotto]], the poetry of [[Dante]] and [[Chaucer]], the travels of [[Marco Polo]], and the [[Gothic architecture]] of cathedrals such as [[Chartres Cathedral|Chartres]] are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages.

The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities, including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the [[Black Death]] killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, [[heresy]], and the [[Western Schism]] within the [[Catholic Church]] paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and [[Popular revolts in late-medieval Europe|peasant revolts]] that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the [[early modern period]].

== Terminology and periodisation ==
The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing [[European history]]: [[classical civilisation]] or [[Ancient history|antiquity]], the Middle Ages and the [[Modern Period|modern period]].<ref name=Power304>Power ''Central Middle Ages'' p. 3</ref> The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as ''media tempestas'' or "middle season".<ref name=Miglio112>Miglio "Curial Humanism" ''Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism'' p. 112</ref> In early usage, there were many variants, including ''medium aevum'', or "middle age", first recorded in 1604,<ref name=Albrow205>Albrow ''Global Age'' p. 205</ref> and ''media saecula'', or "middle centuries", first recorded in 1625.<ref name=Murray4 /> The adjective "medieval" (or sometimes "mediaeval"<ref name=Random1194 /> or "mediæval"),<ref name=OED290>"Mediaeval" ''Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary''</ref> meaning pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from {{lang|la|medium aevum}}.<ref name=Random1194>Flexner (ed.) ''Random House Dictionary'' p. 1194</ref>

Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "[[Six Ages]]" or the "[[Four Empires]]" and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world.<ref name=mommsen236>Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" ''Speculum'' pp. 238</ref> When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern".<ref name=Dailyx>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. x</ref> In the 1330s, the Italian humanist and poet [[Petrarch]] referred to pre-Christian times as {{lang|la|antiqua}} ('ancient') and to the Christian period as {{lang|la|nova}} ('new').<ref name=idea>Knox "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml History of the Idea of the Renaissance]"</ref> Petrarch regarded the post-Roman centuries as "[[Dark Ages (historiography)|dark]]" compared to the "light" of [[classical antiquity]].<ref name=Mommsen227>Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" ''Speculum'' pp. 227–228</ref> [[Leonardo Bruni]] was the first historian to use [[Late Middle Ages#Historiography and periodization|tripartite periodisation]] in his ''History of the Florentine People'' (1442), with a middle period "between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of city life sometime in late eleventh and twelfth centuries".<ref name=Brunixvii>Bruni ''History of the Florentine people'' pp. xvii–xviii</ref> Tripartite [[periodisation]] became standard after the 17th-century German historian [[Christoph Cellarius]] divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval, and modern.<ref name=Murray4>Murray "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?" ''Essays in Medieval Studies'' p. 4</ref>

The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is around 500,<ref>"[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Middle%20Ages Middle Ages]" Dictionary.com</ref> with the date of 476 first used by Bruni--mapping to the removal of the [[Romulus Augustulus|last (native) Roman emperor]] in the West from power and his replacement by [[Odoacer|a German chieftain]].<ref name="Brunixvii" />{{efn-ua|This is the year the last Western Roman Emperors were driven from Italy.<ref name=Wickham86 />}} Later starting dates are sometimes used in the outer parts of Europe.<ref>1. 'The Byzantine Exception'-By 475 the Roman Empire had been split in two, with the Eastern Empire being ruled from Constantinople which does not 'fall' in the sense that the Western division of the Empire did.

2. ''The Dimension of Mediterannean Trade''-In a [[Mohammed and Charlemagne|famously controversial thesis]], the medievalist [[Henri Pirenne]] claims that the Middle Ages as we understand them does not properly begin until the [[Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Ummayid conquest of the Visigoths (Spain]]) in [[AD 711|711]] cements the Caliphate's dominance of Mediterranean sea routes. Though fiercely criticized, aspects of this view have more recently been redeemed by later scholarship.*

3. ''Scnadinavia-''Also: For example, Scandinavia in Helle, Kouri, and Olesen (ed.) ''Cambridge History of Scandinavia Part 1'' where the start date is 1000 (on page 6) or Russia in Martin ''Medieval Russia 980–1584''

"Trade and the end of antiquity - Discussion Paper" (PDF). ''eprints.lse.ac.uk''. September 2024.</ref> For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages,<ref>See the titles of Watts ''Making of Polities Europe 1300–1500'' or Epstein ''Economic History of Later Medieval Europe 1000–1500'' or the end date used in Holmes (ed.) ''Oxford History of Medieval Europe''</ref> but there is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as the [[conquest of Constantinople]] by the Turks in 1453, [[Christopher Columbus]]'s [[Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus#First voyage (1492–1493)|first voyage]] to the [[Americas]] in 1492, or the [[Reformation]] in 1517 are sometimes used.<ref name=Davies291 /> English historians often use the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in 1485 to mark the end of the period.<ref>See the title of Saul ''Companion to Medieval England 1066–1485''</ref> For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] in 1516, the death of Queen [[Isabella I of Castile]] in 1504, or the [[conquest of Granada]] in 1492.<ref>Kamen ''Spain 1469–1714'' p. 29</ref> 1648, marking the end of [[European wars of religion|the European wars of religion]], might be considered an upper-bound that preserves the tripartite schema of the terminology (classical antiquity, the medieval, and the modern).<ref>[[Walter Benjamin]]. ''Origins of German Tragic Drama'' (1928). 76-77.</ref> [[Renaissance|The European Renaissance]], [[Reformation|the Reformation,]] and [[Early modern period|Early Modernity]] would, in that case, all refer to a transition between the Middle Ages and modernity in Western Europe instead of being counted as their own periods, similar to the way that the fall of the Western Roman Empire (occurring over a period of centuries) marks the beginning of the medieval period. By the end of the Thirty Years War, this transition has been accomplished in a [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] sense and the territory previously known as [[Christendom]] begins to be called [[Europe]].

Historians from [[Romance-speaking]] countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late".<ref name=Power304 /> In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the "[[Dark Ages (Europe)|Dark Ages]]", but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians.<ref name=mommsen226>Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" ''Speculum'' p. 226</ref>

== Later Roman Empire ==
{{Main|Later Roman Empire}}

[[File:Venice city scenes - in St. Mark's square - St Mark's Basilica (11002237996).jpg|thumb|A late Roman sculpture [[Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs|depicting the four Tetrarchs]], now in [[Venice]], Italy<ref name=Tansey242>Tansey, et al. ''Gardner's Art Through the Ages'' p. 242</ref>]]

The [[Roman Empire]] reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories.<ref name=Cunliffe391>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 391–393</ref> Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on the frontiers combined to create the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers.<ref name=Collins3>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 3–5</ref> Military expenses increased steadily during the 3rd century, mainly in response to the [[Roman–Persian Wars#Roman–Sassanid War|war]] with the [[Sasanian Empire]], which revived in the middle of the 3rd century.<ref name=Heather111 /> The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the [[Roman legion]] as the main tactical unit.<ref name=Brown24-25>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 24–25</ref> The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the [[curiales|curial]], or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns.<ref name=Heather111>Heather ''Fall of the Roman Empire'' p. 111</ref> More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax-collectors in the empire than tax-payers.<ref name=Brown24-25 />

The Emperor [[Diocletian]] (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered [[Byzantine Empire|eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire|western]] halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative [[promulgation]]s in one division were considered valid in the other.<ref name=Collins9>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 9</ref>{{efn-ua|This system, which eventually encompassed two senior co-emperors and two junior co-emperors, is known as the [[Tetrarchy]].<ref name=Collins9 />}} In 330, after a period of civil war, [[Constantine the Great]] (r. 306–337) refounded the city of [[Byzantium]] as the newly renamed eastern capital, [[Constantinople]].<ref name=Collins24>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 24</ref> Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others.<ref name=Cunliffe405>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 405–406</ref> Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing [[Barbarian#Modern academia|invaders]] to encroach.<ref name=Collins31>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 31–33</ref> For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier [[Culture of ancient Rome|classical period]], with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns.<ref name=Brown34>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' p. 34</ref> Another change was the [[Christianisation]], or conversion of the empire to [[Christianity]], a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries.<ref name=Brown65>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 65–68</ref><ref name=Brown82>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 82–94</ref>

[[File:Europe map 450.PNG|thumb|upright=1.6|left|Map of the approximate political boundaries in Europe around 450 AD]]

In 376, the [[Goths]], fleeing from the [[Huns]], received permission from Emperor [[Valens]] (r. 364–378) to settle in the Roman province of [[Thracia]] in the [[Balkans]]. The settlement did not go smoothly, and the Goths began to raid and plunder when Roman officials mishandled the situation.{{efn-ua|The commanders of the Roman military in the area appear to have taken food and other supplies intended to be given to the Goths and instead sold them to the Goths. The revolt was triggered when one of the Roman military commanders attempted to take the Gothic leaders hostage but failed to secure all of them.<ref name=Collins51>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 51</ref>}} Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] on 9 August 378.<ref name=Bauer47>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 47–49</ref> In addition to the threat from such tribal confederacies in the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems.<ref name=Bauer56>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 56–59</ref> In 400, the [[Visigoths]] invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 [[Sack of Rome (410)|sacked the city of Rome]].<ref name=Bauer80>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 80–83</ref> In 406 the [[Alans]], [[Vandals]], and [[Suevi]] crossed into [[Gaul]]; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the [[Pyrenees Mountains]] into modern-day Spain.<ref name=Collins59>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 59–60</ref> The [[Migration Period]] began, when various peoples, initially largely [[Germanic peoples]], moved across Europe. The [[Franks]], [[Alemanni]], and the [[Burgundians]] all ended up in northern Gaul while the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]] [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|settled in Britain]],<ref name=Cunliffe417 /> and the Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]].<ref name=Collins80>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 80</ref> In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king [[Attila]] (r. 434–453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452.<ref name=James67>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 67–68</ref> The Hunnic threat remained until Attila's death in 453, when the [[Huns#Unified Empire under Attila|Hunnic confederation]] he led fell apart.<ref name=Bauer117>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 117–118</ref> These invasions by the tribes completely changed the political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire.<ref name=Cunliffe417>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' p. 417</ref>

By the end of the 5th century, the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century.<ref name=Wickham79>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 79</ref> The deposition of the last emperor of the west, [[Romulus Augustulus]], in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.<ref name=Wickham86>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 86</ref>{{efn-ua|An alternative date of 480 is sometimes given, as that was the year Romulus Augustulus' predecessor [[Julius Nepos]] died; Nepos had continued to assert that he was the Western emperor while holding onto [[Dalmatia]].<ref name=Wickham86 />}} By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the [[Ostrogoths]].<ref name=Collins107>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 107–109</ref> The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The [[Byzantine emperors]] maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the [[Italian Peninsula]] ([[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic War]]) in the reign of [[Justinian]] (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.<ref name=Collins116>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 116–134</ref>

== Early Middle Ages ==
{{Main|Early Middle Ages}}

=== New societies ===
{{Main|Migration Period|fall of the Western Roman Empire}}

[[File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Barbarian kingdoms]] and tribes after the end of the Western Roman Empire]]

The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration.<ref name=Brown122>Brown, ''World of Late Antiquity'', pp. 122–124</ref> The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as [[Stilicho]] (d. 408), [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] (d. 454), [[Aspar]] (d. 471), [[Ricimer]] (d. 472), or [[Gundobad]] (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When the line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common.<ref name=Wickham95>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 95–98</ref> This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state.<ref name=Wickham100>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 100–101</ref> Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.<ref name=Collins100>Collins, ''Early Medieval Europe'', p. 100</ref> Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions.<ref name=Collins96>Collins, ''Early Medieval Europe'', pp. 96–97</ref> An important difference was the new polities' gradual loss of tax revenue. Many new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes; instead, they relied on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues, so the [[Roman Empire#Taxation|taxation systems]] decayed.<ref name=Wickham102>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 102–103</ref> Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural.<ref name=Backman86>Backman, ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'', pp. 86–91</ref>{{efn-ua|The English word "slave" derives from the Latin term for Slavs, ''slavicus''.<ref name=Dict261>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms'' p. 261</ref>}}

[[File:Theoderic Quarter Siliqua 80000847.jpg|thumb|left|A coin of the [[Ostrogoths|Ostrogothic]] leader [[Theoderic the Great]], struck in Milan, Italy, {{circa|AD 491–501}}]]

Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by the centralised Roman government.<ref name=Collins96 /> The [[Ostrogoths]], a Gothic tribe, settled in [[Roman Italy]] in the late fifth century under [[Theoderic the Great]] (d. 526) and set up a [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|kingdom]] marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric's reign.<ref name=James82>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 82–88</ref> The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436, formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today's [[Geneva]] and [[Lyon]], it grew to become the realm of [[Kingdom of Burgundy#First Kingdom of Burgundy (4th century – 534 AD)|Burgundy]] in the late 5th and early 6th centuries.<ref name=James77>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 77–78</ref> Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and [[Celtic Britons]] set up small polities. [[Francia]] was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is [[Childeric I]] (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its [[grave goods]], which included weapons and a large quantity of gold.<ref name=James79>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 79–80</ref>

Under Childeric's son [[Clovis I]] (r. 509–511), the founder of the [[Merovingian dynasty]], the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to the natives of [[Britannia]] – modern-day Great Britain – settled in what is now [[Brittany]].<ref name=James78>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 78–81</ref>{{efn-ua|Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.<ref name=James78 />}} Other monarchies were established by the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], the [[Suebi]] in northwestern Iberia, and the [[Vandal Kingdom]] in [[North Africa]].<ref name=James77 /> In the sixth century, the [[Lombards]] settled in [[Northern Italy]], replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of [[duchies]] that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the [[Kingdom of the Lombards]].<ref name=Collins196>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 196–208</ref>

The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul, for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north-east than in the south-west. [[Slavs]] settled in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] and the Balkan Peninsula. Changes in languages accompanied the settlement of peoples. [[Latin]], the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by [[vernacular languages]], which evolved from Latin but were distinct from it, collectively known as [[Romance languages]]. These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs added [[Slavic languages]] to Eastern Europe.<ref name=Davies235>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 235–238</ref>

=== Byzantine survival ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}}

[[File:Sanvitale03.jpg|A [[mosaic]] showing [[Justinian]] with [[Maximianus of Ravenna|the bishop]] of [[Ravenna]] (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers.<ref name=Adams158>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 158–159</ref>|thumb|right]]

As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the [[Sasanian Empire]], Rome's traditional enemy, lasted most of the 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and the Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of [[Roman law]]; the first effort—the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]''—was completed in 438.<ref name=Wickham81>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 81–83</ref> Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565), another compilation took place—the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''.<ref name=Bauer200>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 200–202</ref> Justinian also oversaw the construction of the [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths,<ref name=Bauer206 /> under [[Belisarius]] (d. 565).<ref name=Collins126>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 126, 130</ref> The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of [[Plague of Justinian|plague in 542]] led to the rest of Justinian's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests.<ref name=Bauer206>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 206–213</ref>

At the Emperor's death, the Byzantines had control of [[Exarchate of Ravenna|most of Italy]], North Africa, and a small foothold in southern Spain. Historians have criticised Justinian's reconquests for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the [[early Muslim conquests]], but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult.<ref name=Brown8>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 8–9</ref>

In the Eastern Empire, the Slavs' slow infiltration of the Balkans added further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s, Slavic tribes were in [[Thrace]] and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyrium]] and had defeated an imperial army near [[Edirne|Adrianople]] in 551. In the 560s, the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] began to expand from their base on the north bank of the [[Danube]]; by the end of the 6th century, they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796.<ref name=James95>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 95–99</ref>

An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a [[Khosrow II#Accession to the throne|succession dispute]]. This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|the Persians invaded]] and during the reign of Emperor [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and [[Anatolia]] until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628, the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered its lost territories.<ref name=Collins140>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 140–143</ref>

=== Western society ===
{{See also|Early medieval European dress|medieval cuisine}}

In Western Europe, some older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to [[Latin literature|Latin scholarship]] and [[Education in Ancient Rome|education]] mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, [[Jerome]] (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading [[Cicero]] than the [[Bible]]. By the 6th century, [[Gregory of Tours]] (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning [[shorthand]].<ref name=Brown174>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 174–175</ref> By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in the Church had become music and art rather than the book.<ref name=Brown181>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' p. 181</ref> Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some [[Early medieval literature|original works]] were created, along with now-lost oral compositions. The writings of [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] (d. 489), [[Cassiodorus]] (d. {{circa|585}}), and [[Boethius]] (d. c. 525) were typical of the age.<ref name=Brown45>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 45–49</ref>

Changes also occurred among laypeople, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported the entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces.{{efn-ua|Such entourages are named ''[[Comitatus (classical meaning)|comitatus]]'' by historians, although it is not a contemporary term. It was adapted in the 19th century from a word used by the 2nd-century historian [[Tacitus]] to describe the close companions of a lord or king.<ref name=Dict80>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms'' p. 80</ref> The ''comitatus'' comprised young men who were supposed to be utterly devoted to their lord. If their sworn lord died, they were also expected to fight to the death.<ref name=Geary56>Geary ''Before France and Germany'' pp. 56–57</ref>}} Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of feuds in aristocratic society, including those related by Gregory of Tours in [[Merovingian]] Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some [[weregild|compensation]].<ref name=Wickham189>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 189–193</ref> Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In [[Anglo-Saxon]] society, the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by [[abbess]]es of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative.<ref name=Wickham195>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 195–199</ref>

[[File:Frühmittelalterliches Dorf.jpg|Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in Bavaria, Germany|thumb|left]]

Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from [[archaeology]]; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either [[Code (law)|law codes]] or writers from the upper classes.<ref name=Wickham204>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 204</ref> [[Landholding]] patterns in the West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas, large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having great autonomy.<ref name=Wickham205>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 205–210</ref> Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of a few families and lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more systems.<ref name=Wickham211>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 211–212</ref> Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and a free peasant's family could rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord.<ref name=Wickham215>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 215</ref>

Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. For instance, Rome shrank from hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. [[Roman temple]]s were converted into [[Christianised sites|Christian churches]] and city walls remained in use.<ref name=Brown24-26>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 24–26</ref> In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals.<ref name=City3>Gies and Gies ''Life in a Medieval City'' pp. 3–4</ref> Although there had been [[Jews in the Roman Empire|Jewish communities in many Roman cities]], the [[Jews]] suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially, they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and were sometimes encouraged to settle in new areas.<ref name=Jews191>Loyn "Jews" ''Middle Ages'' p. 191</ref>

=== Rise of Islam ===
{{Main|Spread of Islam|Early Muslim conquests}}

[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|The [[early Muslim conquests]]
{{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632}}
{{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661}}
{{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}]]

Religious beliefs in the Eastern Roman Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. [[Judaism]] was an active proselytising faith, and at least one [[Arab]] political leader converted to it.{{efn-ua|[[Dhu Nuwas]], ruler of what is today [[Yemen]], converted in 525, and his subsequent persecution of Christians led to the invasion and conquest of his kingdom by the [[Axumite]]s of [[Ethiopia]].<ref name=Collins138>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 138–139</ref>}} In addition Jewish theologians wrote polemics defending their religion against Christian and Islamic influences.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199730049.001.0001 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973004-9 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Adele |editor-last2=Grossman |editor-first2=Maxine}}</ref>

Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians' [[Zoroastrianism]] in seeking converts, especially among residents of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. All these strands came together with the emergence of [[Islam]] in Arabia during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] (d. 632).<ref name=Collins143>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 143–145</ref> After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, starting with [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Syria]] in 634–635, continuing with [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] between 637 and 642, reaching [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]] in 640–641, [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]] in the later seventh century, and the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Iberian Peninsula]] in 711.<ref name=Collins149>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 149–151</ref> By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=Reilly52>Reilly ''Medieval Spains'' pp. 52–53</ref>

The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the [[Battle of Tours]] in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and its replacement by the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. The Abbasids moved their capital to [[Baghdad]] and were more concerned with the Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the [[Aghlabids]] controlled North Africa, and the [[Tulunids]] became rulers of Egypt.<ref name=Brown15>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 15</ref> By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old [[Roman economy]]. Franks traded timber, furs, swords, and enslaved people in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from the Arabs.<ref name=Cunliffe427>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 427–428</ref>

=== Trade and economy ===
{{Main|Medieval economic history}}

The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and, by the 7th century, found only in a few cities such as Rome or [[Naples]]. By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], African products were no longer found in Western Europe. Replacing goods from long-range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In northern Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around the Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium-range networks, not just produced locally.<ref name=Wickham218>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 218–219</ref>

The various Germanic states in the west all had [[coin]]ages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693–694, when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin was the [[denarius]] or [[French denier|denier]], while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a [[penny]]. From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe from 700 to 1000. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold, except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted.<ref name=Coin>Grierson "Coinage and currency" ''Middle Ages''</ref>

=== Church and monasticism ===
{{Main|Christianity in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|11th-century miniature of [[Gregory the Great]] dictating to a secretary]]

Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and [[liturgy]] from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century, issues such as [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]], [[clerical marriage]], and [[Caesaropapism|state control of the Church]] had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were more significant than the similarities.<ref name=Collins218>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 218–233</ref> A formal break known as the [[East–West Schism]] came in 1054, when the [[papacy]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|patriarchy of Constantinople]] clashed over [[papal supremacy]] and [[excommunicated]] each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches—the Western branch became the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the Eastern branch the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref name=Davies328>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 328–332</ref>

The [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|ecclesiastical structure]] of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the West mostly intact. Still, the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western [[bishop]]s looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. [[Byzantine Papacy|Many of the popes]] before 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of the letters, of Pope [[Gregory the Great]] (pope 590–604) survived. Of those 850 letters, most were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the [[Gregorian mission]] in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.<ref name=WIckham170>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 170–172</ref> [[Irish missionaries]] were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such [[monk]]s as [[Columba]] (d. 597) and [[Columbanus]] (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works.<ref name=Colish62>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 62–63</ref>

The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]] in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the [[Desert Fathers]] of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]]. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on the community experience of the spiritual life, called [[cenobitism]], which was pioneered by [[Pachomius]] (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through [[Hagiography|hagiographical literature]] such as the ''[[Life of Anthony]]''.<ref name=Lawrence10>Lawrence ''Medieval Monasticism'' pp. 10–13</ref> [[Benedict of Nursia]] (d. 547) wrote the [[Benedictine Rule]] for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an [[abbot]].<ref name=Lawrence18>Lawrence ''Medieval Monasticism'' pp. 18–24</ref> Monks and monasteries had a profound effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as [[land trust]]s for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation.<ref name=Wickham185>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 185–187</ref> They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin [[Classics#Classical Rome|classics]] were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages.<ref name=Hamilton43>Hamilton ''Religion in the Medieval West'' pp. 43–44</ref> Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as [[Bede]] (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries.<ref name=Colish64>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 64–65</ref>

=== Carolingian Europe ===
{{Main|Francia|Carolingian Empire}}

[[File:Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg|thumb|upright= 1.5|Map showing growth of Frankish power from 481 to 814|left]]

The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called [[Austrasia]], [[Neustria]], and [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] during the 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria.<ref name=Bauer246>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 246–253</ref> Such warfare was exploited by [[Pippin of Landen|Pippin I]] (d. 640), the [[Mayor of the Palace]] for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later, his family inherited the office and acted as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, [[Charles Martel]] (d. 741), won the [[Battle of Poitiers (732)|Battle of Poitiers]] in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees.<ref name=Bauer347>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 347–349</ref>{{efn-ua|Muslim armies had earlier [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquered the Visigothic kingdom]] of Spain, after defeating the last Visigothic King [[Ruderic]] (d. 711 or 712) at the [[Battle of Guadalete]] in 711, finishing the conquest by 719.<ref name=Bauer344>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' p. 344</ref>}} Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of [[Northumbria]], [[Mercia]], [[Wessex]], and [[East Anglia]] which descended from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and [[Picts]].<ref name=Wickham158>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 158–159</ref> Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under the control of kings. There were perhaps as many as [[List of Irish kingdoms|150 local kings]] in Ireland of varying importance.<ref name=Wickham164>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 164–165</ref>

The [[Carolingian dynasty]], as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by {{nowrap|[[Pippin III]]}} (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought and gained authority for this coup from Pope {{nowrap|[[Pope Stephen II|Stephen II]]}} (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great [[piety]]. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and [[Carloman I|Carloman]] (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or [[Charlemagne]], embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and [[Saxon Wars|Saxony]]. In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land.<ref name=Bauer371>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 371–378</ref> In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the [[Papal States]].<ref name=Brown20>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 20</ref>{{efn-ua|The Papal States endured until 1870, when the [[Kingdom of Italy]] seized most of them.<ref name=Davies824>Davies ''Europe'' p. 824</ref>}}

[[File:Aachener Dom Pfalzkapelle vom Münsterplatz 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Charlemagne's palace chapel]] at [[Aachen]], completed in 805<ref name=Stalley73>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' p. 73</ref>]]

The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors.<ref name=Backman109>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 109</ref> It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with the Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state.<ref name=Backman117>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 117–120</ref> There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants who settled on small farms. Little trade existed, and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean.<ref name=Backman109 /> The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called [[count]]s, who administered the [[counties]] the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as the imperial officials, called ''[[missi dominici]]'', who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters.<ref name=Davies302>Davies ''Europe'' p. 302</ref>

=== Carolingian Renaissance ===
{{Main|Carolingian Renaissance}}

[[File:Kloster Lorsch 07.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Lorsch Abbey]] gatehouse, {{circa|800|lk=no}}, an example of [[Carolingian architecture]]—a first, albeit isolated [[classical architecture]] movement]]

Charlemagne's court in [[Aachen]] was the centre of the cultural revival, sometimes referred to as the "[[Carolingian Renaissance]]". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, and liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk [[Alcuin]] (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the [[Northumbria's Golden Age|education]] available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]]—or writing office—made use of a new [[Writing system|script]] today known as [[Carolingian minuscule]],{{efn-ua|The [[Carolingian minuscule]] was developed from the [[uncial script]] of Late Antiquity, which was a smaller, rounder form of writing the [[Latin alphabet]] than the classical forms.<ref name=Davies241>Davies ''Europe'' p. 241</ref>}} allowing a standard writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in [[Christian liturgy|church liturgy]], imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the [[Gregorian chant]] in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was copying, correcting, and disseminating basic works on religious and secular topics to encourage learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced.<ref name=Colish66>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 66–70</ref> Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the [[Classical Latin]] of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical Latin that it was later called [[Medieval Latin]].<ref name=Lang>Loyn "Language and dialect" ''Middle Ages'' p. 204</ref>

=== Breakup of the Carolingian Empire ===
{{Main|Holy Roman Empire|Viking Age}}

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Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs but was unable to do so as only one son, [[Louis the Pious]] (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Numerous divisions of the empire marked Louis's reign of 26 years among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son {{nowrap|[[Lothair I]]}} (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy.{{efn-ua|Italy at the time did not include the entire peninsula but only part of the north.<ref name=Davies285>Davies ''Europe'' p. 285</ref>}} Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and [[Charles the Bald]] (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took [[East Francia]], comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles [[West Francia]] with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. [[Louis the German]] (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the [[wikt:suzerainty|suzerainty]] of his elder brother. The division was disputed. [[Pepin II of Aquitaine|{{nowrap|Pepin II}} of Aquitaine]] (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for [[Aquitaine]], while Louis the German tried to annexe all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.<ref name=Bauer427>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 427–431</ref>

A three-year civil war followed his death. By the [[Treaty of Verdun]] (843), a kingdom between the [[Rhine]] and [[Rhone]] rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German controlled Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. Charles the Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France.<ref name=Bauer427 /> Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost.<ref name=Backman139>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 139</ref>{{efn-ua|There was a brief re-uniting of the Empire by [[Charles the Fat|Charles III]], known as "the Fat", in 884. However, the actual units of the empire did not merge, and they retained their separate administrations. Charles was deposed in 887 and died in January 888.<ref name=Collins356>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 356–358</ref>}} In 987, the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of [[Hugh Capet]] (r. 987–996) as king.{{efn-ua|The Carolingian dynasty had earlier been displaced by King [[Odo of France|Odo]] (r. 888–898), previously [[Count of Paris]], who took the throne in 888.<ref name=Collins358>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 358–359</ref> Although members of the Carolingian dynasty became kings in the western lands after Odo's death, Odo's family also supplied kings—his brother [[Robert I of France|Robert I]] became king for 922–923, and then Robert's son-in-law [[Rudolph of France|Raoul]] was king from 929 to 936—before the Carolingians reclaimed the throne once more.<ref name=Collins360 />}}{{efn-ua|Hugh Capet was a grandson of Robert I, an earlier king.<ref name=Collins360 />}} In the eastern lands, the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with the death of [[Louis the Child]],<ref name=Collins360>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 360–361</ref> and the selection of the unrelated [[Conrad I of Germany|Conrad I]] (r. 911–918) as king.<ref name=Collins397>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 397</ref>

Invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes accompanied the break-up of the Carolingian Empire. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the [[Vikings]], who also raided the British Isles and settled there and in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain [[Rollo]] (d. c. 931) received permission from the Frankish King [[Charles the Simple]] (r. 898–922) to settle in what became [[Normandy]].<ref name=Backman141>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 141–144</ref>{{efn-ua|This settlement eventually expanded and sent out conquering expeditions to England, Sicily, and southern Italy.<ref name=Davies336>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 336–339</ref>}} The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual [[Hungarian people|Magyar]] assault until the invader's defeat at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] in 955.<ref name=Backman144>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 144–145</ref> The break-up of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms.<ref name=Bauer147>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 147–149</ref>

=== New kingdoms and Byzantine revival ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|First Bulgarian Empire|Christianisation of Bulgaria|Kingdom of Germany|Christianisation of Scandinavia|Christianisation of Kievan Rus'}}

{{See also|Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)|Byzantine–Bulgarian wars}}
[[File:Europe in 900 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Europe in 900]]

Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In [[Anglo-Saxon England]], King [[Alfred the Great]] (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in [[Danelaw|Danish settlements]] in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia.<ref name=Collins378>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 378–385</ref> By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain.<ref name=Collins387>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 387</ref> In northern Britain, [[Kenneth MacAlpin]] (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the [[Scottish people|Scots]] into the [[Kingdom of Alba]].<ref name=Davies309>Davies ''Europe'' p. 309</ref> In the early 10th century, the [[Ottonian dynasty]] had established itself in [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]], and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of {{nowrap|[[Otto I]]}} (r. 936–973) as [[Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref name=Collins394>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 394–404</ref> In 972, he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son [[Otto II]] (r. 967–983) to [[Theophanu]] (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor [[Romanos II]] (r. 959–963).<ref name=Davies317>Davies ''Europe'' p. 317</ref> By the late 10th century [[Kingdom of Italy (medieval)|Italy]] had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability;<ref name=Wickham435>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 435–439</ref> [[Otto III]] (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom.<ref name=Whitton152>Whitton "Society of Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 152</ref> The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.<ref name=Wickham439>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 439–444</ref>

[[File:Christ Magdeburg Cathedral Met 41.100.157.jpg|10th-century [[Ottonian art|Ottonian]] ivory plaque from the [[Magdeburg Ivories]]; Christ receiving a church from {{nowrap|[[Otto I]]}}|thumb|left|upright=0.7]]

[[Christianization of Scandinavia|Missionary efforts to Scandinavia]] during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as [[History of Sweden (800–1521)|Sweden]], [[History of Denmark|Denmark]], and [[History of Norway|Norway]], which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became [[Kyivan Rus'|Russia]] and [[Settlement of Iceland|Iceland]]. Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe and even attempted to seize Constantinople in [[Rus'–Byzantine War (860)|860]] and [[Rus'–Byzantine War (907)|907]].<ref name=Collins385>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 385–389</ref> Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturias]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]].<ref name=Wickham500>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 500–505</ref>

In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor [[Basil I]] (r. 867–886) and his successors [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]] (r. 886–912) and [[Constantine VII]] (r. 913–959), members of the [[Macedonian dynasty]]. Commerce revived, and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors [[John I Tzimiskes|John I]] (r. 969–976) and [[Basil II]] (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the [[Macedonian Renaissance]]. Writers such as [[John Geometres]] ([[fl.]] early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works.<ref name=Davies318>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 318–320</ref> Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the [[Moravians]], [[Bulgars]], [[Bohemian (demonym)|Bohemians]], [[Poles (people)|Poles]], Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the [[Kievan Rus']]. These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of [[Great Moravia|Moravia]], [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], [[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]], [[Poland in the Early Middle Ages|Poland]], Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'.<ref name=Davies321>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 321–326</ref> Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea.<ref name=Crampton12>Crampton ''Concise History of Bulgaria'' p. 12</ref> By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire.<ref name=Curta246>Curta ''Southeastern Europe'' pp. 246–247</ref>

=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Medieval art|Medieval architecture}}

{{See also|Migration Period art|Pre-Romanesque art and architecture|Carolingian art}}
{{multiple issues|{{Disputed section|1=The sentence about late antique architecture does not present the cited author's views. The list of artefacts is not verified by the cited source.|date=October 2025}}{{Expand section|1=information about everyday art and architecture.|date=October 2025}}}}

[[File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A page from the [[Book of Kells]], an [[illuminated manuscript]] created in the British Isles in the late 8th or early 9th century<ref name=Nees145>Nees ''Early Medieval Art'' p. 145</ref>]]

Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian [[basilica]]s of the 4th and 8th centuries, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries.{{failed verification|date=October 2025}} By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture.<ref name=Stalley29>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 29–35</ref> One feature of the basilica is the use of a [[transept]],<ref name=Stalley43>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 43–44</ref> or the "arms" of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long [[nave]].<ref name=Cosman247>Cosman ''Medieval Wordbook'' p. 247</ref> Other new features of religious architecture include the [[crossing tower]] and a monumental [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches#Façade|entrance to the church]], usually at the west end of the building.<ref name=Stalley49>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 45, 49</ref>

[[Carolingian art]] was produced for a small group of figures around the court and the monasteries and churches they supported. It was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and [[Byzantine art]] but was also influenced by the [[Insular art]] of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of [[Celtic art|Irish Celtic]] and [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon Germanic]] styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from the Early Middle Ages are mostly [[illuminated manuscript]]s and carved [[Ivory carving#Antiquity and the Early Medieval period|ivories]], originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down.<ref name=Kitzinger36>Kitzinger ''Early Medieval Art'' pp. 36–53, 61–64</ref><ref name=Henderson18>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 18–21, 63–71</ref> Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the [[Cross of Lothair]], several [[reliquaries]], and finds such as the Anglo-Saxon burial at [[Sutton Hoo]] and the [[hoard]]s of [[Treasure of Gourdon|Gourdon]] from Merovingian France, [[Guarrazar]] from Visigothic Spain and [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós|Nagyszentmiklós]] near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from the large [[brooch]]es in [[Fibula (brooch)|fibula]] or [[Celtic brooch|penannular]] form that were key pieces of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish [[Tara Brooch]].<ref name=Henderson36>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 36–42, 49–55, 103, 143, 204–208</ref>{{failed verification|date=October 2025}} Highly decorated books were mostly [[Gospel Book]]s and these have survived in [[List of illuminated manuscripts|larger numbers]], including the Insular [[Book of Kells]], the [[Book of Lindisfarne]], and the imperial [[Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram]], which is one of the few to retain its "[[treasure binding]]" of gold encrusted with jewels.<ref name=Benton41>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 41–49</ref> Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative [[monumental sculpture]] in [[Christian art]],<ref name=Lasko16>Lasko ''Ars Sacra'' pp. 16–18</ref> and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the [[Gero Cross]] were common in important churches.<ref name=Henderson233>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 233–238</ref>

=== Military and technological developments ===
During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force and the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured [[cataphract]]-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th-century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies.<ref name=NicolleWestern28>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 28–29</ref> During the early invasion period, the [[stirrup]] had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as [[shock troops]] because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider.<ref name=NicolleWestern30>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 30</ref> The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic [[composite bow]] in place of the earlier, and weaker, [[Scythia]]n composite bow.<ref name=NicolleWestern31>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 30–31</ref> Another development was the increasing use of [[longsword]]s<ref name=NicolleWestern34>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 34</ref> and the progressive replacement of [[scale armour]] by [[mail armour]] and [[lamellar armour]].<ref name=NicolleWestern39>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 39</ref>

The importance of infantry and light cavalry declined during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of [[Conscription|militia-type levies]] of the free population declined over the Carolingian period.<ref name=NicolleWestern58>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 58–59</ref> Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been [[mounted infantry]], rather than true cavalry.<ref name=NicolleWestern76>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 76</ref> One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the ''[[fyrd]]'', which were led by the local elites.<ref name=NicolleWestern67>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 67</ref> In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the [[crossbow]], which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages.<ref name=NicolleWestern80>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 80</ref> Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the [[horseshoe]], which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.<ref name=NicolleWestern88>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 88–91</ref>

== High Middle Ages ==
{{Main|High Middle Ages}}

=== Society and economic life ===
{{see|Agriculture in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Cleric, Knight, and Workman representing the Three Classes.jpg|Medieval French [[Illuminated manuscript|manuscript illustration]] of the three [[Social class|classes]] of medieval society: those who prayed (the [[clergy]]) those who fought (the [[knight]]s), and those who worked (the [[peasant]]ry).<ref name=Whitton134>Whitton "Society of Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 134</ref> The relationship between these classes was governed by [[feudalism]] and [[manorialism]].<ref name=Gainty352>Gainty and Ward ''Sources of World Societies'' p. 352</ref> (''Li Livres dou Sante'', 13th century)|thumb|left]]

===== Peasantry =====
The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous [[Medieval demography|population expansion]]. The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a [[Medieval Warm Period|more clement climate]] and the lack of invasion have all been suggested.<ref name=Jordan5>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 5–12</ref><ref name=Backman156>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 156</ref> As much as 90 per cent of the European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as [[Manorialism|manors]] or villages.<ref name=Backman156 /> These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services in a system known as [[manorialism]]. There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond,<ref name=Backman164>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 164–165</ref> with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in the north. The practice of [[assarting]], or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them, also contributed to population expansion.<ref name=Epstein52>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 52–53</ref>

The [[open-field system]] of agriculture was commonly practised in most of Europe, especially in "northwestern and central Europe".<ref name=Pounds166>Pounds ''Historical Geography of Europe'' p. 166</ref> Such agricultural communities had three essential characteristics: individual peasant holdings in the form of strips of land were scattered among the different fields belonging to the manor; crops were rotated from year to year to preserve soil fertility; and common land was used for grazing livestock and other purposes. Some regions used a three-field system of crop rotation; others retained the older two-field system.<ref name=Agri>Dawtry "Agriculture" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 15–16</ref>

===== Nobility, clergy, and townspeople =====
Other sections of society included the nobility, clergy, and townspeople. Nobles, both the titled [[nobility]] and simple [[knight]]s, exploited the manors and the peasants. However, they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of [[feudalism]]. During the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands, or [[fief]]s, came to be considered hereditary. In most areas, they were no longer divisible between all the heirs, as had been the case in the early medieval period. Instead, most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son.<ref name=Barber37>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 37–41</ref>{{efn-ua|This inheritance pattern is known as [[primogeniture]].<ref name=Wordbook193>Cosman ''Medieval Wordbook'' p. 193</ref>}} The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land, its military service as [[heavy cavalry]], control of [[castle]]s, and various immunities from taxes or other impositions.{{efn-ua|Heavy cavalry had been introduced into Europe from the Persian [[cataphract]] of the 5th and 6th centuries, but the addition of the [[stirrup]] in the 7th allowed the full force of horse and rider to be used in combat.<ref name=Davies311 />}} Castles, initially in wood but later in stone, began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time, and protected from invaders and allowing lords defence from rivals. Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords.<ref name=Davies311>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 311–315</ref> Nobles were stratified; kings and the highest-ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land, as well as other nobles. Beneath them, lesser nobles had authority over smaller land areas and fewer people. Knights were the lowest level of nobility; they controlled but did not own land and had to serve other nobles.<ref name=Daily3>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 3</ref>{{efn-ua|In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the ''[[ministerialis]]'', who were in effect, unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had served as warriors or government officials, whose increased status allowed their descendants to hold fiefs and become knights while still technically serfs.<ref name=Singman8>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 8</ref>}}

The clergy was divided into two types: the [[secular clergy]], who lived out in the world, and the [[regular clergy]], who lived isolated under a religious rule and usually consisted of monks.<ref name=Hamilton33>Hamilton ''Religion on the Medieval West'' p. 33</ref> Throughout the period, monks remained a tiny proportion of the population, usually less than one percent.<ref name=Daily143>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 143</ref> Most of the regular clergy were drawn from the nobility, the same social class that served as the recruiting ground for the upper levels of the secular clergy. The local [[parish]] priests were often drawn from the peasant class.<ref name=Barber33>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 33–34</ref> Townspeople were somewhat unusual, as they did not fit into the traditional three-fold division of society into nobles, clergy, and peasants. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the ranks of the townspeople expanded greatly as existing towns grew and new population centres were founded.<ref name=Barber48>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 48–49</ref> But throughout the Middle Ages, the population of the towns probably never exceeded 10 percent of the total population.<ref name=Daily171>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 171</ref>

[[File:Petrus alphonsi dialogues.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|13th-century illustration of a Jew (in pointed [[Jewish hat]]) and the Christian [[Petrus Alphonsi]] debating]]

===== Religious groups =====
Jews also [[Jews in the Middle Ages|spread across Europe]] during the period. Communities were established in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] and [[History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)|England]] in the 11th and 12th centuries, but [[History of the Jews in Spain#Toleration and Jewish immigration (1085–1212)|Spanish Jews]], long settled in Spain under the Muslims, came under Christian rule and increasing pressure to convert to Christianity.<ref name=Jews191 /> Most Jews were confined to the cities, as they were not allowed to own land or be peasants.<ref name=Epstein54>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 54</ref>{{efn-ua|A few Jewish peasants remained on the land under Byzantine rule in the East as well as some on Crete under Venetian rule, but they were the exception in Europe.<ref name=Epstein54 />}} Besides the Jews, there were other non-Christians on the edges of Europe—pagan Slavs in Eastern Europe and Muslims in Southern Europe.<ref name=Daily13>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 13</ref>

===== Women =====
[[Women in the Middle Ages]] were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Widows were often allowed much control over their lives, but they were still restricted legally. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks. Peasant women were usually responsible for caring for the household, child care, gardening, and animal husbandry near the house. They could supplement their household income by spinning or brewing at home. At harvest time, they were also expected to help with fieldwork.<ref name=Daily14>Singman ''Daily Life'' pp. 14–15</ref> Townswomen, like peasant women, were responsible for the household and could also engage in trade. The trades that were open to women varied by country and period.<ref name=Daily177>Singman ''Daily Life'' pp. 177–178</ref> Noblewomen were responsible for running a household and could occasionally be expected to handle estates in the absence of male relatives, but they were usually restricted from participation in military or government affairs. The only role open to women in the Church was that of [[nun]]s, as they could not become priests.<ref name=Daily14 />

In [[Central Italy|central]] and [[northern Italy]] and in [[Flanders]], the rise of towns that were, to a degree, self-governing stimulated economic growth and created an environment for new types of trade associations. Commercial cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the [[Hanseatic League]]. The Italian [[Maritime republics]] such as [[Venice]], [[Genoa]], and [[Pisa]] expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean.{{efn-ua|These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated in the Hanseatic League, contrasting with the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife.<ref name=Epstein81>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 81</ref>}} Great [[Fair|trading fairs]] were established and flourished in [[Champagne fairs|northern France]] during the period, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants.<ref name=Epstein82>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 82–83</ref> In the late 13th century new land and sea routes to the Far East were pioneered, famously described in ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' written by one of the traders, [[Marco Polo]] (d. 1324).<ref name=Barber60>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 60–67</ref> Besides new trading opportunities, agricultural and technological improvements increased crop yields, which allowed the trade networks to expand.<ref name=Backman160>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 160</ref> Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Italy and later in France and other countries. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, sharing risk among merchants. Accounting methods improved, partly through the use of [[double-entry bookkeeping]]; [[letters of credit]] also appeared, allowing easy transmission of money.<ref name=Barber74>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 74–76</ref>

=== Rise of state power ===
{{Main|England in the Middle Ages|France in the Middle Ages|Germany in the Middle Ages|Italy in the Middle Ages|Scotland in the Middle Ages|Spain in the Middle Ages|Poland in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Europe mediterranean 1190.jpg|Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190|thumb|upright=1.3]]

The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power and established lasting governing institutions.<ref name=Backman283>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 283–284</ref> New kingdoms such as [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]], after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers.<ref name=Barber365>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 365–380</ref> The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King [[Árpád]] (d. c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century.<ref name=Davies296>Davies ''Europe'' p. 296</ref> The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the [[Temporal power (papal)|Papal Monarchy]] reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of {{nowrap|[[Innocent III]]}} (pope 1198–1216).<ref name=Backman262>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 262–279</ref> [[Northern Crusades]] and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously [[pagan]] regions in the Baltic and [[Finland|Finnic]] north-east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.<ref name=Barber371>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 371–372</ref>

During the early High Middle Ages, Germany was ruled by the [[Ottonian dynasty]], which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over [[stem duchy|territorial duchies]], tracing back to the Migration period. In 1024, they were replaced by the [[Salian dynasty]], who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor {{nowrap|[[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]]}} (r. 1084–1105) over Church appointments as part of the [[Investiture Controversy]].<ref name=Backman181>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 181–186</ref> His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility. A period of instability followed the death of Emperor {{nowrap|[[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]]}} (r. 1111–1125), who died without heirs, until [[Frederick I Barbarossa|{{nowrap|Frederick I}} Barbarossa]] (r. 1155–1190) took the imperial throne.<ref name=Jordan143>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 143–147</ref> Although he ruled effectively, the basic problems remained, and his successors struggled into the 13th century.<ref name=Jordan250>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 250–252</ref> Barbarossa's grandson [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] (r. 1220–1250), who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother, clashed repeatedly with the papacy. His court was famous for its scholars, and he was often accused of [[Heresy in Christianity|heresy]].<ref name=Denley235>Denley "Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 235–238</ref> He and his successors faced many difficulties, including the invasion of the [[Mongols]] into Europe in the mid-13th century. Mongols first shattered the principalities of Kievan Rus' and then [[Mongol invasion of Europe|invaded Eastern Europe]] in 1241, 1259, and 1287.<ref name=Davies364>Davies ''Europe'' p. 364</ref>

[[File:Bayeux Tapestry scene44 William Odo Robert.jpg|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] (detail) showing [[William the Conqueror]] (centre), his half-brothers [[Robert, Count of Mortain]] (right) and [[Odo, Earl of Kent|Odo]], Bishop of [[Bayeux]] in the [[Duchy of Normandy]] (left)|thumb|left]]

Under the [[Capetian dynasty]] the French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility, growing out of the [[Île-de-France]] to exert control over more of the country in the 11th and 12th centuries.<ref name=Backman187>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 187–189</ref> They faced a powerful rival in the [[Dukes of Normandy]], who in 1066 under [[William the Conqueror]] (duke 1035–1087), conquered England (r. 1066–1087) and created a cross-channel empire that lasted, in various forms, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages.<ref name=Jordan59>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 59–61</ref><ref name=Backman189>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 189–196</ref> Normans also settled in Sicily and southern Italy, when [[Robert Guiscard]] (d. 1085) landed there in 1059 and established a duchy that later became the [[Kingdom of Sicily]].<ref name=Davies294>Davies ''Europe'' p. 294</ref> Under the [[Angevin kings of England|Angevin dynasty]] of {{nowrap|[[Henry II of England|Henry II]]}} (r. 1154–1189) and his son [[Richard I]] (r. 1189–1199), the kings of England ruled over England and large areas of France,<ref name=Backman263>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 263</ref>{{efn-ua|This grouping of lands is often called the [[Angevin Empire]].<ref name=Feudal285>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' pp. 285–286</ref>}} brought to the family by Henry II's marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] (d. 1204), heiress to much of southern France.<ref name=Eleanor>Loyn "Eleanor of Aquitaine" ''Middle Ages'' p. 122</ref>{{efn-ua|Eleanor had previously been married to [[Louis VII of France]] (r. 1137–1180), but their marriage was annulled in 1152.<ref name=Eleanor />}} Richard's younger brother [[John, King of England|John]] (r. 1199–1216) lost Normandy and the rest of the northern French possessions in 1204 to the French King [[Philip II Augustus]] (r. 1180–1223). This led to dissension among the English nobility. John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to ''[[Magna Carta]]'', a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. Under {{nowrap|[[Henry III of England|Henry III]]}} (r. 1216–1272), John's son, further concessions were made to the nobility, and royal power was diminished.<ref name=Backman286>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 286–289</ref> The French monarchy continued to make gains against the nobility during the late 12th and 13th centuries, bringing more territories within the kingdom under the king's personal rule and centralising the royal administration.<ref name=Backman289>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 289–293</ref> Under [[Louis IX]] (r. 1226–1270), royal prestige rose to new heights as Louis served as a mediator for most of Europe.<ref name=Davies355>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 355–357</ref>{{efn-ua|Louis was [[canonised]] in 1297 by Pope [[Boniface VIII]].<ref name=Hallam401>Hallam and Everard ''Capetian France'' p. 401</ref>}}

In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north-western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the ''[[Reconquista]]''.<ref name=Davies345>Davies ''Europe'' p. 345</ref> By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of [[Kingdom of León|León]], [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].<ref name=Barber341>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 341</ref> Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as ''[[taifa]]s'',<ref name=Davies345 /> who fought with the Christians until the [[Almohad Caliphate]] re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s.<ref name=Barber350>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 350–351</ref> Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of [[Seville]] in 1248.<ref name=Barber353>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 353–355</ref>

=== Crusades ===
{{Main|Crusades|Reconquista|Northern Crusades}}

{{See also|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty}}

[[File:Crac des chevaliers syria.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Krak des Chevaliers]] was built during the Crusades for the [[Knights Hospitaller]]s.<ref name=Fortress268>Kaufmann and Kaufmann ''Medieval Fortress'' pp. 268–269</ref>]]

In the 11th century, the [[Seljuk Turks]] took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] and captured the Byzantine Emperor [[Romanus IV]] (r. 1068–1071). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the [[Fatimids]] of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars.<ref name=Davies332>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 332–333</ref> The Byzantines also faced a revived [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.<ref name=Davies386>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 386–387</ref>

The Crusades were intended to seize [[Jerusalem]] from Muslim control. The [[First Crusade]] was proclaimed by Pope [[Urban II]] (pope 1088–1099) at the [[Council of Clermont]] in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] (r. 1081–1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised [[indulgence]] to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099.<ref name=MACrusades /> One feature of the crusades was the [[pogrom]]s against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade,<ref name=Jews191 /> when the Jewish communities in [[Cologne]], [[Mainz]], and [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] were destroyed, as well as other communities in cities between the rivers [[Seine]] and the Rhine.<ref name=Comp397>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 397–399</ref> Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the [[Military order (society)|military orders]] of the [[Templars]] and [[Hospitallers]], which fused monastic life with military service.<ref name=Barber145 />

The Crusaders consolidated their conquests into [[Crusader states]]. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between them and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from the crusader states to the papacy led to further crusades,<ref name=MACrusades>Riley-Smith "Crusades" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 106–107</ref> such as the [[Third Crusade]], called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by [[Saladin]] (d. 1193) in 1187.<ref name=Payne204>Payne ''Dream and the Tomb'' pp. 204–205</ref>{{efn-ua| Military religious orders such as the [[Knights Templar]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] were formed and went on to play an integral role in the crusader states.<ref name=Lock353>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 353–356</ref>}} In 1203, the [[Fourth Crusade]] was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]]<ref name=Lock156>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 156–161</ref> and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261 but never regained their former strength.<ref name=Backman299>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 299–300</ref> By 1291, all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland. However, a titular [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] survived on the island of [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]] for several years afterwards.<ref name=Lock122>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' p. 122</ref>

Popes called for crusades elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic.<ref name=MACrusades /> The Spanish crusades became fused with the ''Reconquista'' of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of [[Order of Calatrava|Calatrava]] and [[Order of Santiago|Santiago]] by the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=Lock205>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 205–213</ref> Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the [[Order of the Sword Brothers]]. Another order, the [[Teutonic Knights]], although founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225 and, in 1309, moved its headquarters to [[Malbork Castle|Marienburg]] in [[Prussia]].<ref name=Lock213>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 213–224</ref>

=== Intellectual life ===
{{Main|Renaissance of the 12th century|Medieval philosophy|Medieval literature|Medieval poetry|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}

During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was a debate between the [[Philosophical realism|realists]] and the [[nominalists]] over the concept of "[[universals]]". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of [[Aristotle]] and his emphasis on [[empiricism]] and [[rationalism]]. Scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] (d. 1142) and [[Peter Lombard]] (d. 1164) introduced [[Aristotelian logic]] into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries [[cathedral school]]s spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns.<ref name=Backman232>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 232–237</ref> Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the [[medieval university|universities]] established in major European cities.<ref name=Backman247>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 247–252</ref> Philosophy and theology fused in [[scholasticism]], an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason<ref name=MASchol>Loyn "Scholasticism" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 293–294</ref> and culminated in the thought of [[Thomas Aquinas]] (d. 1274), who wrote the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', or ''Summary of Theology''.<ref name=Colish295>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 295–301</ref>

[[File:Richard of Wallingford.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|A medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration]]

[[Chivalry]] and the ethos of [[courtly love]] developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the [[vernacular languages]] rather than Latin and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by [[troubadour]]s or [[Minnesänger]]s, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the ''[[chansons de geste]]'', or "songs of great deeds", such as ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' or ''[[Hildebrand|The Song of Hildebrand]]''.<ref name=Backman252>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 252–260</ref> Secular and religious histories were also produced.<ref name=Davies349>Davies ''Europe'' p. 349</ref> [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] (d. c. 1155) composed his ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', a collection of stories and legends about [[King Arthur|Arthur]].<ref name=SaulGeoffrey>Saul ''Companion to Medieval England'' pp. 113–114</ref> Other works were more clearly history, such as [[Otto von Freising]]'s (d. 1158) ''Gesta Friderici Imperatoris'' detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or [[William of Malmesbury]]'s (d. c. 1143) ''Gesta Regum'' on the kings of England.<ref name=Davies349 />

Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and [[canon law]], or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was significantly advanced by the discovery of the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' in the 11th century, and by 1100, Roman law was being taught at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]]. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140, a monk named [[Decretum Gratiani|Gratian]] (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the ''[[Decretum Gratiani|Decretum]]''.<ref name=Backman237>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–241</ref>

Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]], which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the [[Schola Medica Salernitana|school at Salerno]].<ref name=Backman241>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 241–246</ref>

=== Technology and military ===
{{Main|Medieval technology|Medieval warfare|History of science#Science in the Middle Ages}}

{{further|List of medieval European scientists}}
[[File:Tommaso da modena, ritratti di domenicani (Ugo di Provenza) 1352 150cm, treviso, ex convento di san niccolò, sala del capitolo.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Cardinal [[Hugh of Saint-Cher]] by [[Tommaso da Modena]], 1352, the first known depiction of [[spectacles]]<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp. 18–19</ref>]]

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Significant technological advances included the invention of the [[windmill]], the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of [[distilled spirits]], and the use of the [[astrolabe]].<ref name=Backman246>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 246</ref> Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp. 4–5, 49</ref>

The development of a three-field [[Crop rotation|rotation system]] for planting crops<ref name=Backman156 />{{efn-ua|It had spread to Northern Europe by 1000 and had reached Poland by the 12th century.<ref name=Epstein45>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 45</ref>}} increased the usage of land from one-half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production.<ref name=Epstein45 /> The development of the [[Plough|heavy plough]] allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the [[horse collar]], which led to the use of [[Working animal|draught horses]] in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.<ref name=Backman156-59>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 156–159</ref> Legumes – such as peas, beans, or lentils – were grown more widely as crops, in addition to the usual cereal crops of wheat, oats, barley, and rye.<ref name=Barber80>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 80</ref>

The construction of [[cathedral]]s and castles advanced building technology, developing large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and [[tithe barn]]s.<ref name=Barber68>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 68</ref> Shipbuilding improved with the use of the [[Boat building|rib and plank]] method rather than the old Roman system of [[mortise and tenon]]. Other improvements to ships included the use of [[lateen]] sails and the [[rudder#Medieval Europe|stern-post rudder]], both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.<ref name=Barber73>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 73</ref>

In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry [[crossbowmen]], as well as [[sapper]]s and engineers.<ref name=NicolleWestern125>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 125</ref> Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in [[siege]] warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name="NicolleWestern80" />{{efn-ua|Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges, slowness is not as big a disadvantage as the crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.<ref name=Daily124>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 124</ref>}} The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face [[Combat helmet|helmets]], heavy body armour, as well as [[horse armour]].<ref name=NicolleWestern130>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 130</ref> [[Gunpowder]] was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304. However, it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. [[Cannon]] were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.<ref name=Nicolle296 />

=== Architecture, art, and music ===
{{further|Medieval architecture|Medieval art|Medieval music}}
[[File:Maria Lach 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] Church of [[Maria Laach Abbey|Maria Laach]], Germany]]

In the 10th century, the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" was derived. Where available, Roman [[brick]] and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the [[First Romanesque]], the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000, a great wave of stone churches were being built all over Europe.<ref name=Benton55>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 55</ref> [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults.<ref name=Adams181>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 181–189</ref> The large [[Portal (architecture)|portal]] with coloured sculpture in [[Relief|high relief]] became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]] of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals.<ref name=Benton58to75>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 58–60, 65–66, 73–75</ref> According to art historian [[C. R. Dodwell]], "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive.<ref name=Dodwell37>Dodwell ''Pictorial Arts of the West'' p. 37</ref> Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed and became crucial to politics and warfare.<ref name=Benton295>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 295–299</ref>

Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in [[Mosan art]], in which distinct artistic personalities, including [[Nicholas of Verdun]] (d. 1205), become apparent. An almost [[Ancient Greek art|classical style]] is seen in works such as a [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|font at Liège]],<ref name=Lasko240>Lasko ''Ars Sacra'' pp. 240–250</ref> contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary [[Gloucester Candlestick]]. Large illuminated bibles and [[psalter]]s were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a ''[[Last Judgement]]'' on the west wall, a [[Christ in Majesty]] at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at [[Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe|Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]], on the [[barrel-vault]]ed roof.<ref name=Benton91>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 91–92</ref>

[[File:Nef cathédrale Laon.jpg|The [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] interior of [[Laon Cathedral]], France|thumb|left]]

From the early 12th century, French builders developed the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style, marked by the use of [[rib vault]]s, [[Ogive|pointed arches]], [[flying buttress]]es, and large [[stained glass]] windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals and continued until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include [[Chartres Cathedral]] and [[Reims Cathedral]] in France, as well as [[Salisbury Cathedral]] in England.<ref name=Adams195>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 195–216</ref> Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.<ref name=Benton185to271>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 185–190; 269–271</ref>

During this period, the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to [[Janetta Benton]] "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops",<ref name=Benton250>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 250</ref> and the [[book of hours]] developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork remained the most prestigious art form, with [[Limoges enamel]] a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses.<ref name=Benton245>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 135–139, 245–247</ref> In Italy the innovations of [[Cimabue]] and [[Duccio]], followed by the [[Trecento]] master [[Giotto]] (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of [[panel painting]] and [[fresco]].<ref name=Benton264>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 264–278</ref> Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many [[carved ivory]] objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.<ref name=Benton248>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 248–250</ref>

=== Church life ===
{{Main|Gregorian Reform|Church and state in medieval Europe}}

[[File:Bonaventura Berlinghieri Francesco.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Francis of Assisi]], depicted by [[Bonaventura Berlinghieri]] in 1235, founded the [[Franciscan]] Order.<ref name=Hamilton47>Hamilton ''Religion in the Medieval West'' p. 47</ref>]]

Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. [[Cluny Abbey]], founded in the [[Mâcon]] region of France in 909, was established as part of the [[Cluniac Reforms]], a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear.<ref name=Rhino>Rosenwein ''Rhinoceros Bound'' pp. 40–41</ref> Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.<ref name=Barber143>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 143–144</ref>

Monastic reform inspired change in the secular Church. The ideals upon which it was based were brought to the papacy by Pope [[Leo IX]] (pope 1049–1054) and provided the ideology of clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] (pope 1073–1085) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of [[investiture]], clerical marriage, and [[simony]]. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities and wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands. Still, the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122, known as the [[Concordat of Worms]]. The dispute represents a significant stage in creating a papal monarchy separate from and equal to [[laity|lay]] authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.<ref name=Rhino />

[[File:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg|[[Sénanque Abbey]], [[Gordes]], France|thumb|left]]

The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the [[Carthusian]]s and the [[Cistercians]]. The latter, in particular, expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who, along with those wishing to enter the religious life, wanted a return to the simpler [[hermit|hermetical]] monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostolic life]].<ref name=Barber145>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 145–149</ref> [[Christian pilgrimage|Religious pilgrimages]] were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela|Compostela]] received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as [[Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo|Monte Gargano]] and [[Basilica di San Nicola|Bari]] rose to prominence.<ref name=Morris199>Morris "Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 199</ref>

In the 13th century [[mendicant orders]]—the [[Franciscan]]s and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy.<ref name=Barber155>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 155–167</ref> Religious groups such as the [[Waldensians]] and the [[Humiliati]] also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. Others joined the [[Cathars]], another movement condemned as heretical by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the [[Albigensian Crusade]], which, in combination with the [[medieval Inquisition]], eliminated them.<ref name=Barber185>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 185–192</ref>

== Late Middle Ages ==
{{Main|Late Middle Ages}}

=== War, famine, and plague ===
{{Main|Crisis of the Late Middle Ages}}

The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317]].<ref name=MAFamine>Loyn "Famine" ''Middle Ages'' p. 128</ref> The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the [[Medieval Warm Period]] to the [[Little Ice Age]], which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures.<ref name=Backman373>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 373–374</ref> The years 1313–1314 and 1317–1321 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures.<ref name=Epstein41>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 41</ref> The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.<ref name=Backman370>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 370</ref>

[[File:Jacquerie Navarre.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.8|Execution of some of the ringleaders of the ''[[jacquerie]]'', from a 14th-century manuscript of the ''Chroniques de France ou de St Denis'']]

These troubles were followed in 1347 by the [[Black Death]], a [[pandemic]] that spread throughout Europe during the following three years.<ref name=MAPlague>Schove "Plague" ''Middle Ages'' p. 269</ref>{{efn-ua|The historical consensus for the last 100 years has been that the Black Death was a form of [[bubonic plague]], but some historians have [[Theories of the Black Death|begun to challenge this view]] in recent years.<ref name=Epstein171>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 171–172</ref>}} The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.{{efn-ua|One town, [[Lübeck]] in Germany, lost 90 percent of its population to the Black Death.<ref name=Daily189>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 189</ref>}} Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice fewer available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt they had a right to greater earnings, and [[Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe|popular uprisings]] broke out across Europe.<ref name=Backman374>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 374–380</ref> Among the uprisings were the ''[[jacquerie]]'' in France, the [[Peasants' Revolt]] in England, and revolts in the cities of [[Florence]] in Italy and [[Ghent]] and [[Bruges]] in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self-mortification of the [[flagellant]]s, and the [[Black Death Jewish persecutions|scapegoating of Jews]].<ref name=Davies412>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 412–413</ref> Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.<ref name=MAPlague />

=== Society and economy ===
Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned as the survivors could acquire more fertile areas.<ref name=Epstein184>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 184–185</ref> Although [[serfdom]] declined in Western Europe, it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free.<ref name=Epstein246>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 246–247</ref> Most peasants in Western Europe changed the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents.<ref name=Keen234 /> The percentage of serfs among the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 percent by the end of the period.<ref name=Singman8 /> Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders and joined to extort their governments' privileges. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death.<ref name=Keen234>Keen ''Pelican History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 234–237</ref> Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility's interest in chivalry.<ref name=Vale346>Vale "Civilization of Courts and Cities" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 346–349</ref>

Jewish communities were [[Edict of Expulsion|expelled from England]] in 1290 and from [[History of the Jews in France#The Great Exile of 1306|France in 1306]]. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not. Many Jews emigrated eastwards, [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history: 966–1385|settling in Poland]] and Hungary.<ref name=Jews192>Loyn "Jews" ''Middle Ages'' p. 192</ref> The Jews were expelled from [[Alhambra Decree|Spain in 1492]], and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland.<ref name=Jews191 /> The [[History of banking#Medieval Europe|rise of banking]] in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many banking firms loaned money to royalty at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.<ref name=Keen237>Keen ''Pelican History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–239</ref>{{efn-ua|As happened with the [[Bardi family|Bardi]] and [[Peruzzi]] firms in the 1340s when King [[Edward III of England]] repudiated their loans to him.<ref name=Keen237 />}}

=== State resurgence ===
[[File:Europe 1360.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Europe in 1360|left]]

Strong, royalty-based [[nation state]]s rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of France|France]], and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]]. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled.<ref name=Watts201>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 201–219</ref> Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased.<ref name=Watts224>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 224–233</ref> The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the [[English Parliament]] and the [[French Estates General]] to gain power and authority.<ref name=Watts233>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 233–238</ref>

[[File:Contemporaine afb jeanne d arc.png|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Joan of Arc]] in a 15th-century depiction]]

Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility.<ref name=Watts166>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 166</ref> They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the [[Hundred Years' War]],<ref name=Watts169>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 169</ref> waged from 1337 to 1453.<ref name=MA100>Loyn "Hundred Years' War" ''Middle Ages'' p. 176</ref> Early in the war the English under [[Edward III]] (r. 1327–1377) and his son [[Edward, the Black Prince]] (d. 1376),{{efn-ua|Edward's nickname probably came from his black armour, and was first used by [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] in the 1530s or 1540s.<ref name=BP242>Barber ''Edward'' pp. 242–243</ref>}} won the battles of [[Crécy]] and [[Battle of Poitiers|Poitiers]], captured the city of [[Calais]], and won control of much of France.{{efn-ua|Calais remained in English hands until 1558.<ref name=Davies545>Davies ''Europe'' p. 545</ref>}} The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war.<ref name=Watts180>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 180–181</ref> In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s, the military successes of [[Joan of Arc]] (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453.<ref name=Watts317>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 317–322</ref> The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars positively affected [[English national identity]], doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence.<ref name=Davies423>Davies ''Europe'' p. 423</ref> The dominance of the English [[longbow]] began during early stages of the Hundred Years' War,<ref name=Nicholle186>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 186</ref> and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.<ref name=Nicolle296>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 296–298</ref>

In modern-day Germany, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] continued to rule, but the elective nature of the imperial crown meant there was no enduring dynasty around which a strong state could form.<ref name=Watts170>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 170–171</ref> Further east, the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Poland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] grew powerful.<ref name=Watts173-75>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 173–175</ref> In Iberia, the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula;<ref name=Watts173>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 173</ref> Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century, while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns.<ref name=Watts327>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 327–332</ref><ref name=Watts340>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 340</ref> After losing the Hundred Years' War, England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the [[Wars of the Roses]], which lasted into the 1490s<ref name=Watts340 /> and only ended when [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]] (r. 1485–1509 as Henry VII) became king and consolidated power with his victory over [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] (r. 1483–1485) at [[Battle of Bosworth Field|Bosworth]] in 1485.<ref name=Davies426>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 425–426</ref> In Scandinavia, [[Margaret I of Denmark]] (r. in Denmark 1387–1412) consolidated Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the [[Union of Kalmar]], which continued until 1523. The major power around the Baltic Sea was the Hanseatic League, a commercial confederation of city-states that traded from Western Europe to Russia.<ref name=Davies431>Davies ''Europe'' p. 431</ref> Scotland emerged from English domination under [[Robert the Bruce]] (r. 1306–1329), who secured papal recognition of his kingship in 1328.<ref name=Davies408>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 408–409</ref>

=== Collapse of Byzantium ===
{{Main|Decline of the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|Byzantine–Ottoman Wars|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}}

Although the [[Palaeologi]] emperors recaptured Constantinople from the Western Europeans in 1261, they could never regain control of much of the former imperial lands. They usually controlled only a small section of the Balkan Peninsula near Constantinople, the city itself, and some coastal lands on the [[Black Sea]] and around the [[Aegean Sea]]. The former Byzantine lands in the Balkans were divided between the new [[Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)|Kingdom of Serbia]], the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]], and the city-state of [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]. A new Turkish tribe threatened the power of the Byzantine emperors, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], who established themselves in Anatolia in the 13th century and [[Byzantine–Ottoman Wars|steadily expanded]] throughout the 14th century. The Ottomans expanded into Europe, reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396; a great army was sent to the Balkans, where it was defeated at the [[Battle of Nicopolis]].<ref name=Davies385>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 385–389</ref> Constantinople was finally [[Fall of Constantinople|captured]] by the Ottomans in 1453.<ref name=Davies446>Davies ''Europe'' p. 446</ref>

=== Controversy within the Church ===
{{Main|Western Schism|Bohemian Reformation|Hussites}}

[[File:07 Grégoire XI (couronné par Guy de Boulogne).jpg|thumb|left|[[Guy of Boulogne]] crowning Pope Gregory XI in a 15th-century miniature from [[Froissart's Chronicles]]]]

During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the [[Avignon Papacy]] of 1309–1376,<ref name=Thomson170>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 170–171</ref> also called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy" (a reference to the [[Babylonian captivity]] of the Jews),<ref name=MAAvignon>Loyn "Avignon" ''Middle Ages'' p. 45</ref> and then to the [[Western Schism|Great Schism]], lasting from 1378 to 1418, when there were two and later three rival popes, each supported by several states.<ref name= MAGreat>Loyn "Great Schism" ''Middle Ages'' p. 153</ref> Ecclesiastical officials convened at the [[Council of Constance]] in 1414, and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes leaving only two claimants. Further depositions followed, and in November 1417, the council elected [[Martin V]] (pope 1417–1431) as pope.<ref name=Thomson184>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 184–187</ref>

Besides the schism, the Western Church was riven by theological controversies, some of which became heresies. [[John Wycliffe]] (d. 1384), an English theologian, was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the [[Eucharist]] that were contrary to Church doctrine.<ref name=Thomson197>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 197–199</ref> Wycliffe's teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages: [[Lollardy]] in England and [[Hussitism]] in Bohemia.<ref name=Thomson218>Thomson ''Western Church'' p. 218</ref> The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of [[Jan Hus]], who was burned at the stake in 1415 after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance. The Hussite Church, although the target of a crusade, survived beyond the Middle Ages.<ref name=Thomson213>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 213–217</ref> Other heresies were manufactured, such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312, and the division of their great wealth between the French King [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] (r. 1285–1314) and the Hospitallers.<ref name=Templars>Loyn "Knights of the Temple (Templars)" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 201–202</ref>

The papacy further refined the practice in the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in the Late Middle Ages, holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist. This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy. The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages, veneration of relics, and belief in the power of the Devil. Mystics such as [[Meister Eckhart]] (d. 1327) and [[Thomas à Kempis]] (d. 1471) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life, which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Besides mysticism, belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread. By the late 15th century, the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484 and the publication in 1486 of the ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'', the most popular handbook for witch-hunters.<ref name=Davies436>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 436–437</ref>

=== Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration ===
{{See also|Europeans in Medieval China}}
During the Later Middle Ages, theologians such as [[John Duns Scotus]] (d. 1308) and [[William of Ockham]] (d. c. 1348)<ref name=MASchol /> led a reaction against intellectualist scholasticism, objecting to the application of reason to faith. Their efforts undermined the prevailing [[Platonic idealism|Platonic]] idea of universals. Ockham's insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy.<ref name=Davies433>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 433–434</ref> Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by [[customary law]]. England was the lone exception to this trend, where the [[common law]] remained pre-eminent. Other countries codified their laws; legal codes were promulgated in Castile, Poland, and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]].<ref name=Davies438>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 438–439</ref>

[[File:Studying astronomy and geometry.jpg|thumb|Clerics studying [[astronomy]] and [[geometry]], French, early 15th century]]

Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the [[trivium]]—grammar, rhetoric, logic—were studied in cathedral schools or schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of 10 percent of males and 1 percent of females in 1500.<ref name=Singman224>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 224</ref>

[[File:Press -Bettman.jpg|thumb|[[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]] initiated the [[Global spread of the printing press|spread of printing]] from [[Mainz]], Germany]]

The publication of vernacular literature increased, with [[Dante]] (d. 1321), [[Petrarch]] (d. 1374) and [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] (d. 1375) in 14th-century Italy, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (d. 1400) and [[William Langland]] (d. c. 1386) in England, and [[François Villon]] (d. 1464) and [[Christine de Pizan]] (d. c. 1430) in France. Much literature remained religious, and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin, a new demand developed for saints' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages.<ref name=Davies438 /> This was fed by the growth of the ''[[Devotio Moderna]]'' movement, most prominently in the formation of the [[Brethren of the Common Life]], but also in the works of [[German mystic]]s such as Meister Eckhart and [[Johannes Tauler]] (d. 1361).<ref name=Keen282>Keen ''Pelican History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 282–283</ref> Theatre also developed in the guise of [[miracle plays]] put on by the Church.<ref name=Davies438 /> At the end of the period, the development of the [[printing press]] by [[Johannes Gutenberg]] in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500.<ref name=Davies445>Davies ''Europe'' p. 445</ref>

In the early 15th century, the countries of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe. Prince [[Henry the Navigator]] of Portugal (d. 1460) sent expeditions that discovered the [[Canary Islands]], the [[Azores]], and [[Cape Verde]] during his lifetime. After his death, exploration continued; [[Bartolomeu Dias]] (d. 1500) went around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1486, and [[Vasco da Gama]] (d. 1524) sailed around Africa to India in 1498.<ref name=Davies451>Davies ''Europe'' p. 451</ref> The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by [[Christopher Columbus]] (d. 1506) in 1492 that [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|discovered the Americas]].<ref name=Davies454>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 454–455</ref> The English crown under [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] sponsored the voyage of [[John Cabot]] (d. 1498) in 1497, which landed on [[Cape Breton Island]].<ref name=Davies511>Davies ''Europe'' p. 511</ref>

{{anchor|Agriculture}}

=== Technological and military developments ===
[[File:Crescenzi calendar.jpg|thumb|Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of [[Pietro de Crescenzi]]]]

One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry.<ref name=NicolleWestern180>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 180</ref> The English also employed longbowmen, but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success.<ref name=NicolleWestern183>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 183</ref> Armour continued to advance, spurred by the increasing power of crossbows, and [[plate armour]] was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand-held guns that were developed.<ref name=NicolleWestern188>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 188</ref> [[Pole arms]] reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears.<ref name=Nicolle185>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 185</ref>

In agriculture, the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun. In addition, the [[spinning wheel]] replaced the traditional [[distaff]] for spinning wool, tripling production.<ref name=Epstein193>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 193–194</ref>{{efn-ua|This wheel was still simple, as it did not yet incorporate a treadle-wheel to twist and pull the fibres. That refinement was not invented until the 15th century.<ref name=Daily36>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 36</ref>}} A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments, which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer.<ref name=Daily38>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 38</ref> Windmills were refined with the creation of the [[tower mill]], allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing.<ref name=Epstein200>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 200–201</ref> The [[blast furnace]] appeared around 1350 in Sweden, increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality.<ref name=Epstein203>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 203–204</ref> The first [[patent law]] in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions.<ref name=Epstein213>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 213</ref>

=== Late medieval art and architecture ===
[[File:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry février.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|February scene from the 15th-century illuminated manuscript [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]]]]
The Late Middle Ages in Europe correspond to Italy's Trecento and [[Renaissance|Early Renaissance]] cultural periods. Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles, which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century until almost the end. [[International Gothic]] was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing masterpieces such as the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]].<ref name=Benton253>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 253–256</ref> All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality. In the 15th century, the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, [[Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)|ivory caskets]], [[cassone]] chests, and [[maiolica]] pottery. These objects also included the [[Hispano-Moresque ware]] produced by mostly [[Mudéjar]] potters in Spain. Although royalty owned huge plate collections, little survives except for the [[Royal Gold Cup]].<ref>Lightbown ''Secular Goldsmiths' Work'' p. 78</ref> Italian silk manufacture developed so that Western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world. In France and Flanders, [[tapestry]] weaving of sets like ''[[The Lady and the Unicorn]]'' became a major luxury industry.<ref name=Benton257>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 257–262</ref>

The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the [[Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia (Giovanni Pisano)|Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea]]. Painted or carved wooden relief [[altarpiece]]s became common, especially as churches created many [[Chapel|side-chapels]]. [[Early Netherlandish painting]] by artists such as [[Jan van Eyck]] (d. 1441) and [[Rogier van der Weyden]] (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450, printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of [[incunabula]], or works printed before 1500,<ref name=BL>British Library Staff "[http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html Incunabula Short Title Catalogue]" ''British Library''</ref> by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small [[woodcut]]s, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive [[engraving]]s supplied a wealthier market with various images.<ref name=Griffiths17>Griffiths ''Prints and Printmaking'' pp. 17–18; 39–46</ref>

== Modern perceptions ==
{{See also|Dark Ages (historiography)|List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages|Medieval studies|Middle Ages in popular culture}}

[[File:Gossuin de Metz - L'image du monde - BNF Fr. 574 fo42.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Medieval illustration of the [[spherical Earth]] in a 14th-century copy of ''[[Gautier de Metz|L'Image du monde]]'']]

The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of ignorance and superstition" that placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity."<ref>Lindberg "Medieval Church Encounters" ''When Science & Christianity Meet'' p. 8</ref> This is a legacy from both the [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.<ref name=Davies291>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 291–293</ref>

Others argue that reason was held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian [[Edward Grant]] writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century], they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".<ref name=Grant9>Grant ''God and Reason'' p. 9</ref> Also, contrary to common belief, [[David C. Lindberg|David Lindberg]] writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".<ref name=QPeters>Quoted in Peters "Science and Religion" ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' p. 8182</ref>

The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century<ref name=flat>Russell ''Inventing the Flat Earth'' pp. 49–58</ref> and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the [[Myth of the flat Earth|Earth was flat]].<ref name=flat /> This is untrue, as lecturers in medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere.<ref>Grant ''Planets, Stars, & Orbs'' pp. 626–630</ref> Lindberg and [[Ronald Numbers]], another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference".<ref>Lindberg and Numbers "Beyond War and Peace" ''Church History'' p. 342</ref> Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", or "the medieval Christian Church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by historical research.<ref name=Numberslect>Numbers "[https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022345/https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective]" ''Lecture archive'' Archived 11 October 2017</ref>

== Notes ==
{{notelist-ua|60em}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Barber |first=Richard |title=Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine: A Biography of the Black Prince |author-link=Richard Barber |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |year=1978 |isbn=0-684-15864-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/edwardprinceofwa00barb}}
* {{cite book |last=Barlow |first=Frank |title=The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042–1216 |author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |edition=Fourth |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=0-582-49504-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Bauer |first=Susan Wise |author-link=Susan Wise Bauer |title=The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade |publisher=W. W. Norton |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-05975-5 |year=2010}}
* {{cite book |last=Benton |first=Janetta Rebold |author-link=Janetta Rebold Benton |title=Art of the Middle Ages |year=2002 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |series=World of Art |location=London |isbn=0-500-20350-4}}
* {{cite web |publisher=[[British Library]] |url=http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html |title=Incunabula Short Title Catalogue |date=8 January 2008 |access-date=8 April 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The World of Late Antiquity AD 150–750 |publisher=W. W. Norton |location=New York |year=1989 |isbn=0-393-95803-5 |series=Library of World Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/worldoflateantiq0000brow}}
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* {{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Alexander |title=Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished? |journal=Essays in Medieval Studies |volume=21 |year=2004 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1353/ems.2005.0010}}
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{{refend}}{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Cantor |first=Norman F. |author-link=Norman Cantor |title=Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century |year=1991 |publisher=W. Morrow |location=New York |isbn=978-0-688-09406-5}}
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* {{citation |last1=Holmes |first1=Catherine |last2=Standen |first2=Naomi |author-link2=Naomi Standen |title=Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages |journal=Past & Present |volume=238 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gty030 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Julia |title=Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000 |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-924427-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Stuard |first=Susan Mosher |title=Women in Medieval History and Historiography |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1987 |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8122-1290-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/womeninmedievalh0000unse_n1j5}}
* {{cite book |last=Wickham |first=Chris |title=Medieval Europe |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2016 |location=New Haven and London |isbn=978-0-300-22221-0}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.netserf.org/ NetSERF] - The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History]
* [http://www.medievalmap.org/ Medievalmap.org] - Interactive maps of the medieval era (Flash plug-in required).
* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/medieval/medievalrealms.html Medieval Realms] - Learning resources from the British Library, including studies of beautiful medieval manuscripts.
* [http://www.medievalists.net/ Medievalists.net] - News and articles about the period
* [http://medieval-history.org/ Medieval History Database (MHDB)]
* [[Medieval Worlds]], [https://medieval.vlg.oeaw.ac.at/ Official website] - articles about the period
* [http://www.the-orb.net/ ORB The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies] - Academic peer-reviewed articles and encyclopedia
* [https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/ The Labyrinth] - Resources for Medieval Studies

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Gini coefficient

2026-03-29T14:03:52Z

MarcyThompson89: improve details for accuracy

{{Short description|Measure of inequality of a statistical distribution}}
{{distinguish|text=[[Decision tree learning#Gini impurity|Gini impurity]]}}
{{For|the list of countries sorted by the Gini coefficient of income|List of countries by income inequality}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}

[[File:Global map of high inequality countries, 2022.png|alt=|thumb|400px|World map of Gini coefficients (as a %), 2022, according to the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP)<ref>{{cite web |author=Haddad, Cameron Nadim; Mahler, Daniel Gerszon; Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina; Hill, Ruth; Lakner, Christoph; Ibarra, Gabriel Lara |title=Inside the World Bank's new inequality indicator: The number of countries with high inequality |publisher=World Bank |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/inside-the-world-bank-s-new-inequality-indicator--the-number-of- |date=2024-06-17 |access-date=2024-10-25}}</ref>
{{legend-col|{{Legend|#2d6da6|<30}}|{{Legend|#91c4d9|30-35}}|{{Legend|#f2ddb6|35-40}}|{{Legend|#f2a488|40-45}}|{{Legend|#d66552|45-50}}|{{Legend|#a6243c|50+}}}}]]

{{Economics sidebar}}

In [[economics]], the '''Gini coefficient''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|iː|n|i}} {{Respell|JEE|nee}}), also known as the '''Gini index''' or '''Gini ratio''', is a [[measure of statistical dispersion]] intended to represent the [[income distribution|income inequality]], the [[wealth distribution|wealth inequality]], or the [[consumption inequality]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/gender-statistics/series/SI.POV.GINI | title=Glossary | DataBank }}</ref> within a nation or a [[social group]]. It was developed by Italian statistician and sociologist [[Corrado Gini]].

The Gini coefficient measures the [[economic inequality|inequality]] among the values of a [[frequency distribution]], such as [[income]] levels. A Gini coefficient of 0 reflects perfect equality, where all income or wealth values are the same. In contrast, a Gini coefficient of 1 (or 100%) reflects maximal inequality among values, where a single individual has all of the income while all others have none.<ref name="US Census Bureau">{{cite web |title=Current Population Survey (CPS) – Definitions and Explanations |url=https://www.census.gov/topics/income-poverty/income-inequality/about/metrics/gini-index.html |publisher=US Census Bureau}}</ref><ref>Note: The Gini coefficient could be near one only in a large population where a few persons have all the income. In the special case of just two people, where one has no income, and the other has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5. For five people, where four have no income, and the fifth has all the income, the Gini coefficient is 0.8. See: [https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/am352e Bellù, L.G. and Liberati, P. 2006. ''Inequality Analysis: The Gini Index''. EASYPol: Resources for policy making. Rome, FAO.]</ref>

Corrado Gini proposed the Gini coefficient as a measure of [[social inequality|inequality]] of [[income inequality metrics|income]] or [[Wealth concentration|wealth]].<ref>Gini, Corrado (1936). "On the Measure of Concentration with Special Reference to Income and Statistics", Colorado College Publication, General Series No. 208, 73–79.</ref> For [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD countries]] in the late 20th century, considering the effect of [[tax]]es and [[transfer payments]], the income Gini coefficient ranged between 0.24 and 0.49, with [[Slovakia]] being the lowest and [[Mexico]] the highest.<ref name=OECD1>{{cite web|title=Income distribution – Inequality: Income distribution – Inequality – Country tables |publisher=OECD |year=2012 |url=http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109193609/http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?QueryId=26068 |archive-date=9 November 2014 }}</ref> African countries had the highest pre-tax Gini coefficients in 2008–2009, with [[South Africa]] having the world's highest, estimated to be 0.63 to 0.7.<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=South Africa Snapshot, Q4 2013 |url=http://www.kpmg.com/Africa/en/KPMG-in-Africa/Documents/2013%20Q4%20snapshots/KPMG_South%20Africa%202013Q4.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402034218/http://www.kpmg.com/Africa/en/KPMG-in-Africa/Documents/2013%20Q4%20snapshots/KPMG_South%20Africa%202013Q4.pdf |archive-date=2016-04-02 |publisher=KPMG |df=dmy-all}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gini Coefficient|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=2012|url=https://data.undp.org/dataset/Income-Gini-coefficient/36ku-rvrj|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712032137/https://data.undp.org/dataset/Income-Gini-coefficient/36ku-rvrj|archive-date=12 July 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> However, this figure drops to 0.52 after social assistance is taken into account and drops again to 0.47 after taxation.<ref name="moneywebSA">{{cite web | url=http://www.moneyweb.co.za/moneyweb-economic-trends/the-gini-is-still-in-the-bottle | title=The Gini is still in the bottle | publisher=Money Web | date=16 July 2014 | access-date=24 November 2014 | last=Schüssler | first=Mike}}</ref> Slovakia has the lowest Gini coefficient, with a Gini coefficient of 0.232.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2023-05-09 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> Various sources have estimated the Gini coefficient of the global income in 2005 to be between 0.61 and 0.68.<ref name=fao2009>{{cite web|title=Poverty, Growth, and Inequality over the Next 50 Years|first=Evan|last=Hillebrand|publisher=FAO, United Nations – Economic and Social Development Department|date=June 2009|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak968e/ak968e00.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020065423/ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak968e/ak968e00.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-20|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=undp10 />

There are multiple issues in interpreting a Gini coefficient, as the same value may result from many different distribution curves. The demographic structure should be taken into account to mitigate this. Countries with an aging population or those with an increased birth rate experience an increasing pre-tax Gini coefficient even if real income distribution for working adults remains constant. Many scholars have devised over a dozen variants of the Gini coefficient.<ref>{{cite journal|title=More than a Dozen Alternative Ways of Spelling Gini|first=Shlomo|last=Yitzhaki|journal=Economic Inequality|volume=8|year=1998|pages=13–30|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/morethan2002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160610/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/morethan2002.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Population Aging, Mobility of Quarterly Incomes, and Annual Income Inequality: Theoretical Discussion and Empirical Findings|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=f1a2990b709b7be14bbe46fb7fd38dfc0a780b02|publisher=Korea Institute of Public Finance|first=Myung Jae|last=Sung|date=August 2010|citeseerx=10.1.1.365.4156}}</ref><ref name=blomq81 />

==History==
The Italian statistician [[Corrado Gini]] developed the Gini coefficient and published it in his 1912 paper ''Variabilità e mutabilità'' ({{langx|en|variability and mutability}}).<ref>Gini, C. (1909). "Concentration and dependency ratios" (in Italian). English translation in ''Rivista di Politica Economica'', '''87''' (1997), 769–789.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gini |first=C |title=Variabilità e Mutuabilità. Contributo allo Studio delle Distribuzioni e delle Relazioni Statistiche |publisher=C. Cuppini |year=1912 |location=Bologna}}</ref> Building on the work of American economist [[Max O. Lorenz|Max Lorenz]], Gini proposed using the difference between the hypothetical straight line depicting perfect equality and the actual line depicting people's incomes as a measure of inequality.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Who, What, Why: What is the Gini coefficient? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 |access-date=30 March 2022 |website=BBC News}}</ref> In this paper, he introduced the concept of simple mean difference as a measure of variability.

He then applied the simple mean difference of observed variables to income and wealth inequality in his work ''On the measurement of concentration and variability of characters'' in 1914. Here, he presented the concentration [[ratio]], which further developed into today's Gini coefficient. Secondly, Gini observed that improving methods introduced by Lorenz, Chatelain, or Séailles could also achieve his proposed ratio.

In 1915, [[Gaetano Pietra]] introduced a geometrical interpretation between Gini's proposed ratio and between the observed area of concentration and maximum concentration. This altered version of the Gini coefficient became the most commonly used inequality index in upcoming years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pellegrino |first=Simone |date=December 2020 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics – Universit`a degli Studi di Torino |title=The Gini Coefficient: Its Origins |url=https://www.bemservizi.unito.it/repec/tur/wpapnw/m70.pdf}}</ref>

According to data from the [[OECD]], the Gini coefficient was first officially used country-wide in [[Canada]] in the 1970s. Canadian index of income inequality ranged from 0.303 to 0.284 from 1976 to the end of the 1980s. The OECD has published more data on countries since the start of the 21st century. The Central European countries of [[Slovenia]], [[Czech Republic|Czechia]], and [[Slovakia]] have had the lowest inequality index of all OECD countries ever since the 2000s. [[Scandinavia]]n countries also frequently appeared at the top of the equality list in recent decades.<ref name="data.oecd">{{Cite web |title=Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=theOECD |language=en}}</ref>

== Definition ==
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.40|The Gini coefficient is equal to the area marked ''A'' divided by the total area of ''A'' and ''B'', i.e. <math>\text{Gini}=\tfrac{A}{A+B} </math>. The axes run from 0 to 1, so ''A'' and ''B'' form a triangle of area <math>\tfrac{1}{2} </math> and <math>\text{Gini} = 2A = 1-2B </math>.]]

The Gini coefficient is an index for the degree of inequality in the distribution of income/wealth, used to estimate how far a country's wealth or income distribution deviates from an equal distribution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Glossary {{!}} DataBank |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/SI.POV.GINI |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=databank.worldbank.org}}</ref>

The Gini coefficient is usually defined [[mathematics|mathematically]] based on the [[Lorenz curve]], which plots the proportion of the total income of the population (y-axis) that is cumulatively earned by the bottom ''x'' of the population (see diagram).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Gini Coefficient |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}</ref> The line at 45 degrees thus represents perfect equality of incomes. The Gini coefficient can then be thought of as the ratio of the area that lies between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve (marked ''A'' in the diagram) over the total area under the line of equality (marked ''A'' and ''B'' in the diagram); i.e., {{nowrap|G {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}. If there are no negative incomes, it is also equal to 2''A'' and {{nowrap|1 − 2''B''}} due to the fact that {{nowrap|''A'' + ''B'' {{=}} 0.5}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=5. Measuring inequality: Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients – Working in Excel |url=https://www.core-econ.org/doing-economics/book/text/05-02.html |access-date=2023-04-26 |website=www.core-econ.org |language=en}}</ref>

Assuming non-negative income or wealth for all, the Gini coefficient's theoretical range is from 0 (total equality) to 1 (absolute inequality). This measure is often rendered as a percentage, spanning 0 to 100. However, if negative values are factored in, as in cases of debt, the Gini index could exceed 1. Typically, we presuppose a positive mean or total, precluding a Gini coefficient below zero.<ref>{{Cite web |title=cumulative distribution function - How to compute the Wealth Lorenz curve with negative values? |url=https://stats.stackexchange.com/q/235470 |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Cross Validated |language=en}}</ref>

An alternative approach is to define the Gini coefficient as half of the [[relative mean absolute difference]], which is equivalent to the definition based on the [[Lorenz curve]].<ref>{{citation | last = Sen | first = Amartya | author-link = Amartya Sen | title = On Economic Inequality | publisher = Oxford University Press | place = Oxford | edition = 2nd | year = 1977}}</ref> The mean absolute difference is the average [[absolute difference]] of all pairs of items of the population, and the relative mean [[absolute difference]] is the mean absolute difference divided by the [[arithmetic mean|average]], <math>\bar{x}</math>, to normalize for scale. If ''x''''i'' is the wealth or income of person ''i'', and there are ''n'' persons, then the Gini coefficient ''G'' is given by:

:<math>G = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n^2 \bar{x}}} = \frac{\displaystyle{\sum_{i=1}^n \sum_{j=1}^n \left| x_i - x_j \right|}}{\displaystyle{2 n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i}} </math>

When the income (or wealth) distribution is given as a continuous [[probability density function]] ''p''(''x''), the Gini coefficient is again half of the relative mean absolute difference:

:<math>G = \frac{1}{2\mu}\int_{-\infty}^\infty\int_{-\infty}^\infty p(x)p(y)\,|x-y|\,dx\,dy</math>

where <math>\textstyle\mu=\int_{-\infty}^\infty x p(x) \,dx</math> is the mean of the distribution, and the lower limits of integration may be replaced by zero when all incomes are positive.<ref>Dorfman, Robert. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” ''The Review of Economics and Statistics'', vol. 61, no. 1, 1979, pp. 146–49. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/1924845}}. Accessed 2 Jan. 2023.</ref>

== Calculation ==
[[File:Gini coefficient for distribution with only two income or wealth levels.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Richest ''u'' of population (red) equally share ''f'' of all income or wealth; others (green) equally share remainder: {{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} ''f'' − ''u''}}. A smooth distribution (blue) with the same ''u'' and ''f'' always has {{nowrap|''G'' > ''f'' − ''u''}}.|right]]

While the income distribution of any particular country [[All models are wrong|will not correspond perfectly to the theoretical models]], these models can provide a qualitative explanation of the income distribution in a nation given the Gini coefficient.

=== Example: Two levels of income ===
The extreme cases are represented by the most equal possible society in which every person receives the same income ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 0}}), and the most unequal society (with ''N'' individuals) where a single person receives 100% of the total income and the remaining {{nowrap|''N'' − 1}} people receive none ({{nowrap|''G'' {{=}} 1 − 1/''N''}}).

A simple case assumes just two levels of income, low and high. If the high income group is a proportion ''u'' of the population and earns a proportion ''f'' of all income, then the Gini coefficient is {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}}. A more graded distribution with these same values ''u'' and ''f'' will always have a higher Gini coefficient than {{nowrap|''f'' − ''u''}}.

For example, if the wealthiest ''u ='' 20% of the population has ''f ='' 80% of all income (see [[Pareto principle]]), the income Gini coefficient is at least 60%. In another example,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Treanor |first1=Jill |date=2015-10-13 |title=Half of world's wealth now in hands of 1% of population |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report}}</ref> if ''u ='' 1% of the world's population owns ''f ='' 50% of all wealth, the wealth Gini coefficient is at least 49%.

=== Alternative expressions ===

In some cases, this equation can be applied to calculate the Gini coefficient without direct reference to the [[Lorenz curve]]. For example, (taking ''y'' to indicate the income or wealth of a person or household):
* For a population of ''n'' individuals with values <math>y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n </math>,<ref name="Wolfram Mathworld">{{cite web |title=Gini Coefficient |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GiniCoefficient.html |publisher=Wolfram Mathworld}}</ref>
::<math>G = \frac{1}{n}\left ( n+1 - 2 \left ( \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i} \right ) \right ). </math>
:This may be simplified to:
::<math>G = \frac{2 \sum_{i=1}^n i y_i}{n \sum_{i=1}^n y_i} -\frac{n+1}{n}.</math>

The Gini coefficient can also be considered as half the [[relative mean absolute difference]]. For a random sample ''S'' with values <math>y_1 \leq y_2\leq \cdots \leq y_n </math>, the sample Gini coefficient
:<math>G(S) = \frac{1}{n-1}\left (n+1 - 2 \left ( \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n (n+1-i)y_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right ) \right )</math>

is a [[consistent estimator]] of the population Gini coefficient, but is not in general [[estimator#Point estimators|unbiased]]. In simplified form:

:<math>G(S) = 1 - \frac{2}{n-1}\left ( n - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n iy_i}{\sum_{i=1}^n y_i}\right ). </math>

There does not exist a sample statistic that is always an unbiased estimator of the population Gini coefficient.

=== Discrete probability distribution ===

For a [[discrete probability distribution]] with probability mass function <math>f ( y_i ),</math> <math qid=Q120636410>i = 1,\ldots, n</math>, where <math>f ( y_i )</math> is the fraction of the population with income or wealth <math>y_i >0 </math>, the Gini coefficient is:
:<math>G = \frac{1}{2\mu} \sum\limits_{i=1}^n \sum\limits_{j=1}^n \, f(y_i) f(y_j)|y_i-y_j|</math>
where
:<math>\mu=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n y_i f(y_i).</math>
If the points with non-zero probabilities are indexed in increasing order <math>(y_i < y_{i+1})</math>, then:
:<math>G = 1 - \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n f(y_i)(S_{i-1}+S_i)}{S_n}</math>
where
:<math>S_i = \sum_{j=1}^i f(y_j)\,y_j\,</math> and <math>S_0 = 0.</math> These formulas are also applicable in the limit, as <math>n\rightarrow\infty.</math>

=== Continuous probability distribution ===

When the population is large, the income distribution may be represented by a continuous [[probability density function]] ''f''(''x'') where ''f''(''x'') ''dx'' is the fraction of the population with wealth or income in the interval ''dx'' about ''x''. If ''F''(''x'') is the [[cumulative distribution function]] for ''f''(''x''):

:<math>F(x)=\int_0^x f(t)\,dt</math>

and ''L''(''x'') is the Lorenz function:

:<math>L(x)=\frac{\int_0^x t\,f(t)\,dt}{\int_0^\infty t\,f(t)\,dt}</math>

then the [[Lorenz curve]] ''L''(''F'') may then be represented as a function parametric in ''L''(''x'') and ''F''(''x'') and the value of ''B'' can be found by [[integral|integration]]:

:<math>B = \int_0^1 L(F) \,dF. </math>

The Gini coefficient can also be calculated directly from the [[cumulative distribution function]] of the distribution ''F''(''y''). Defining ''μ'' as the mean of the distribution, then specifying that ''F''(''y'') is zero for all negative values, the Gini coefficient is given by:
:<math>G = 1 - \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty (1-F(y))^2 \,dy = \frac{1}{\mu}\int_0^\infty F(y)(1-F(y)) \,dy</math>
The latter result comes from [[integration by parts]]. ''(Note that this formula can be applied when there are negative values if the integration is taken from minus infinity to plus infinity.)''

The Gini coefficient may be expressed in terms of the [[quantile function]] ''Q''(''F'') ''(inverse of the cumulative distribution function: Q(F(x)) = x)''
: <math>G=\frac{1}{2 \mu}\int_0^1 \int_0^1 |Q(F_1)-Q(F_2)|\,dF_1\,dF_2 .</math>

Since the Gini coefficient is [[income inequality metrics|independent of scale]], if the distribution function can be expressed in the form ''f(x,φ,a,b,c...)'' where ''φ'' is a scale factor and ''a, b, c...'' are dimensionless parameters, then the Gini coefficient will be a function only of ''a, b, c...''.<ref name="McDonald1974">{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=James B |last2=Jensen |first2=Bartell C. |date=December 1979 |title=An Analysis of Some Properties of Alternative Measures of Income Inequality Based on the Gamma Distribution Function |url= |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |volume=74 |issue=368 |pages=856–860 |doi= 10.1080/01621459.1979.10481042|access-date=}}</ref> For example, for the [[exponential distribution]], which is a function of only ''x'' and a scale parameter, the Gini coefficient is a constant, equal to 1/2.

For some functional forms, the Gini index can be calculated explicitly. For example, if ''y'' follows a [[log-normal distribution]] with the standard deviation of logs equal to <math>\sigma</math>, then <math>G = \operatorname{erf}\left(\frac{\sigma }{2 }\right)</math> where <math>\operatorname{erf}</math> is the [[error function]] ( since <math> G=2 \Phi \left(\frac{\sigma }{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1</math>, where <math>\Phi</math> is the cumulative distribution function of a standard normal distribution).<ref name='LNdist'>Crow, E. L., & Shimizu, K. (Eds.). (1988). Lognormal distributions: Theory and applications (Vol. 88). New York: M. Dekker, page 11.</ref> In the table below, some examples for probability density functions with support on <math>[0,\infty)</math> are shown. The Dirac delta distribution represents the case where everyone has the same wealth (or income); it implies no variations between incomes.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

:{| class="wikitable" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em;"
|-
! Income Distribution function !! PDF(x) !! Gini Coefficient
|-
| [[Dirac delta function]] || <math>\delta(x-x_0),\, x_0>0</math> || 0
|-
| [[Uniform distribution (continuous)|Uniform distribution]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Uniform Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}</ref>
||<math>\begin{cases}
\frac{1}{b-a} & a\le x\le b \\ 0 & \mathrm{otherwise}
\end{cases}</math>
|| <math>\frac{(b-a)}{3(b+a)}</math>
|-
| [[Exponential distribution]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exponential Distribution {{!}} Definition {{!}} Memoryless Random Variable |url=https://www.probabilitycourse.com/chapter4/4_2_2_exponential.php |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.probabilitycourse.com}}</ref>
||<math>\lambda e^{-x\lambda},\,\,x>0</math>
||<math>1/2</math>
|-
| [[Log-normal distribution]]<ref name='LNdist'/><ref>For the log-normal with <math>\sigma</math> = 0, <math>\textrm{erf}(0)</math> = 0; <math>2 \Phi(0)-1 = 2(0.5)-1</math> = 0.</ref>
||<math>\frac{1}{x\sigma\sqrt{2\pi}} e^{-\frac 12 \left(\frac{\ln\,(x)-\mu}{\sigma}\right)^2}</math>
||<math>\textrm{erf}(\sigma/2)=2 \Phi \left(\frac{\sigma }{\sqrt{2}}\right)-1</math>
|-
| [[Pareto distribution]]<ref name="mathworld.wolfram.com">{{Cite web |title=Wolfram MathWorld: The Web's Most Extensive Mathematics Resource |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}</ref>
||<math>\begin{cases}
\frac{\alpha k^\alpha}{x^{\alpha+1}} & x\ge k\\0 & x < k
\end{cases}</math>
||<math>\begin{cases}
1 & 0<\alpha < 1\\ \frac{1}{2\alpha -1} & \alpha \ge 1
\end{cases}</math>
|-
| [[Chi distribution]]<ref name="mathworld.wolfram.com"/>
||<math>f(x;k) = \begin{cases}
\dfrac{x^{k-1}e^{-x^2/2}}{2^{k/2-1}\Gamma\left(\frac{k}{2}\right)}, & x\geq 0 \\ 0, & x<0
\end{cases}
</math>
||<math>(-1)^k \left| I_{-1}(k,\tfrac{1}{2})\right|</math>
|-
| [[Chi-squared distribution]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chi-Squared Distribution -- from Wolfram MathWorld |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Chi-SquaredDistribution.html |access-date=2023-01-11 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}</ref>
||<math>\frac{2^{-k/2} e^{-x/2} x^{k/2 - 1}}{\Gamma(k/2)}</math>
||<math>\frac{2\,\Gamma\left(\frac{1+k}{2}\right)}{k\,\Gamma(k/2)\sqrt{\pi}}</math>
|-
| [[Gamma distribution]]<ref name=McDonald1974/>
||<math>\frac{e^{-x/\theta}x^{k-1}\theta^{-k}}{\Gamma(k)}</math>
||<math>\frac{\Gamma\left(\frac{2k+1}{2}\right)}{k\,\Gamma(k)\sqrt{\pi}}</math>
|-
| [[Weibull distribution]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weibull Distribution: Characteristics of the Weibull Distribution |url=https://www.weibull.com/hotwire/issue14/relbasics14.htm |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.weibull.com}}</ref>
||<math>\frac {k} {\lambda}\, \left(\frac {x}{\lambda} \right)^{k-1} e^{-(x/\lambda)^k}</math>
||<math>1-2^{-1/k}</math>
|-
| [[Beta distribution]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Beta Distribution |url=https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=mathworld.wolfram.com |language=en}}</ref>
||<math>\frac {x^{\alpha-1}(1-x)^{\beta-1}} {B(\alpha,\beta)}</math>
||<math>\left(\frac{2}{\alpha}\right)\frac{B(\alpha+\beta,\alpha+\beta)}{B(\alpha,\alpha)B(\beta,\beta)}</math>
|-
|[[Log-logistic distribution]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Log-Logistic Distribution |url=https://www.randomservices.org/random/special/LogLogistic.html |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=www.randomservices.org}}</ref>
|<math>\frac{ (\beta/\alpha)(x/\alpha)^{\beta-1} }
{ \left (1+(x/\alpha)^{\beta} \right)^2 }</math>
|<math>1/\beta</math>
|}
{{clear}}

* <math>\Gamma(\,)</math> is the [[Gamma function]]
* <math>B(\,)</math> is the [[Beta function]]
* <math>I_k(\,)</math> is the [[Beta function|Regularized incomplete beta function]]

=== Other approaches ===

Sometimes the entire Lorenz curve is not known, and only values at certain intervals are given. In that case, the Gini coefficient can be approximated using various techniques for [[interpolation|interpolating]] the missing values of the Lorenz curve. If (''X''''k'', ''Y''''k'') are the known points on the Lorenz curve, with the ''X''''k'' indexed in increasing order (''X''''k'' – 1 < ''X''''k''), so that:
* ''X''''k'' is the cumulated proportion of the population variable, for ''k'' = 0,...,''n'', with ''X''0 = 0, ''X''''n'' = 1.
* ''Y''''k'' is the cumulated proportion of the income variable, for ''k'' = 0,...,''n'', with ''Y''0 = 0, ''Y''''n'' = 1.
* ''Y''''k'' should be indexed in non-decreasing order (''Y''''k'' > ''Y''''k'' – 1)
If the Lorenz curve is approximated on each interval as a line between consecutive points, then the area B can be approximated with [[Trapezoidal rule|trapezoids]] and:
:<math>G_1 = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n} (X_{k} - X_{k-1}) (Y_{k} + Y_{k-1})</math>

is the resulting approximation for G. More accurate results can be obtained using other methods to [[Numerical integration|approximate the area]] B, such as approximating the Lorenz curve with a [[Simpson's rule|quadratic function]] across pairs of intervals or building an appropriately smooth approximation to the underlying distribution function that matches the known data. If the population mean and boundary values for each interval are also known, these can also often be used to improve the accuracy of the approximation.

The Gini coefficient calculated from a sample is a statistic, and its standard error, or confidence intervals for the population Gini coefficient, should be reported. These can be calculated using [[Resampling (statistics)#Bootstrap|bootstrap]] techniques, mathematically complicated and computationally demanding even in an era of fast computers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abdon |first=Mitch |date=2011-05-23 |title=Bootstrapping Gini |url=https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Statadaily: Unsolicited advice for the interested |language=en-US |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112225703/https://www.statadaily.com/bootstrapping-gini/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Economist [[Tomson Ogwang]] made the process more efficient by setting up a "trick regression model" in which respective income variables in the sample are ranked, with the lowest income being allocated rank 1. The model then expresses the rank (dependent variable) as the sum of a constant ''A'' and a [[normal distribution|normal]] error term whose variance is inversely proportional to ''y''''k'':

:<math>k = A + \ N(0, s^{2}/y_k) </math>

Thus, ''G'' can be expressed as a function of the weighted [[Least-squares estimation|least squares estimate]] of the constant ''A'' and that this can be used to speed up the calculation of the [[Resampling (statistics)#Jackknife|jackknife]] estimate for the standard error. Economist David Giles argued that the [[standard error]] of the estimate of ''A'' can be used to derive the estimate of ''G'' directly without using a jackknife. This method only requires using ordinary least squares regression after ordering the sample data. The results compare favorably with the estimates from the [[Jackknife resampling|jackknife]] with agreement improving with increasing sample size.{{sfnp|Giles|2004}}

However, it has been argued that this depends on the model's assumptions about the error distributions and the independence of error terms. These assumptions are often not valid for real data sets. There is still ongoing debate surrounding this topic.

[[Guillermina Jasso]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jasso|first=Guillermina|year=1979|title=On Gini's Mean Difference and Gini's Index of Concentration|journal=American Sociological Review|volume=44|issue=5|pages=867–870|jstor=2094535|doi=10.2307/2094535}}</ref> and [[Angus Deaton]]{{sfnp|Deaton|1997|p=139}} independently proposed the following formula for the Gini coefficient:

:<math>G = \frac{N+1}{N-1}-\frac{2}{N(N-1)\mu}(\sum_{i=1}^n P_iX_i)</math>

where <math>\mu</math> is mean income of the population, Pi is the income rank P of person i, with income X, such that the richest person receives a rank of 1 and the poorest a rank of ''N''. This effectively gives higher weight to poorer people in the income distribution, which allows the Gini to meet the [[Income inequality metrics#Transfer principle|Transfer Principle]]. Note that the Jasso-Deaton formula rescales the coefficient so that its value is one if all the <math>X_i</math> are zero except one. Note however Allison's reply on the need to divide by N² instead.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Reply to Jasso|first=Paul D.|last=Allison|journal=American Sociological Review|volume=44|issue=5|year=1979|pages=870–872|jstor=2094536|doi=10.2307/2094536}}</ref>

[[FAO]] explains another version of the formula.<ref name="fao gini">{{cite web|title=Inequality Analysis – The Gini Index|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations|first1=Lorenzo Giovanni|last1=Bellù|first2=Paolo|last2=Liberati|year=2006|url=http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040EN.pdf|access-date=31 July 2012|archive-date=13 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713164057/http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/329/gini_index_040en.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Generalized inequality indices ==
{{See also|Generalized entropy index}}

The Gini coefficient and other standard inequality indices reduce to a common form. Perfect equality—the absence of inequality—exists when and only when the inequality ratio, <math>r_j = x_j / \overline{x}</math>, equals 1 for all j units in some population (for example, there is perfect income equality when everyone's income <math>x_j</math> equals the mean income <math>\overline{x}</math>, so that <math>r_j=1</math> for everyone). Measures of inequality, then, are measures of the average deviations of the <math>r_j=1</math> from 1; the greater the average deviation, the greater the inequality. Based on these observations the inequality indices have this common form:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Firebaugh |first=Glenn |year=1999 |title=Empirics of World Income Inequality |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1597–1630 |doi=10.1086/210218 |s2cid=154973184 }}. See also {{Cite book |chapter=Inequality: What it is and how it is measured |first=Glenn |last=Firebaugh |author-mask=3 |title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01067-3}}</ref>

:<math>\text{Inequality} = \sum_j p_j \, f(r_j), </math>

where ''p''''j'' weights the units by their population share, and ''f''(''r''''j'') is a function of the deviation of each unit's ''r''''j'' from 1, the point of equality. The insight of this generalized inequality index is that inequality indices differ because they employ different functions of the distance of the inequality ratios (the ''r''''j'') from 1.

== Of income distributions ==
{{See also|List of countries by income equality}}
{{Lorenz curve global income 2011.svg}}

Gini coefficients of income are calculated on a market income and a disposable income basis. The Gini coefficient on market income—sometimes referred to as a pre-tax Gini coefficient—is calculated on income before taxes and transfers. It measures inequality in income without considering the effect of taxes and social spending already in place in a country. The Gini coefficient on disposable income—sometimes referred to as the after-tax Gini coefficient—is calculated on income after taxes and transfers. It measures inequality in income after considering the effect of taxes and social spending already in place in a country.<ref name=OECD1 /><ref>{{cite journal|title=Applications of Lorenz Curves in Economic Analysis|first=N. C.|last=Kakwani|journal=Econometrica|volume=45|issue=3|date=April 1977|pages= 719–728|jstor=1911684|doi=10.2307/1911684}}</ref><ref name=imf2000>{{cite web|title=Income Distribution and Tax and Government Social Spending Policies in Developing Countries|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=March 2000|last1=Chu|first1=Ke-young|last2=Davoodi|first2=Hamid|last3=Gupta|first3=Sanjeev|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830022345/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp0062.pdf |archive-date=2000-08-30 |url-status=live}}</ref>

For [[OECD]] countries over the 2008–2009 period, the Gini coefficient (pre-taxes and transfers) for a total population ranged between 0.34 and 0.53, with South Korea the lowest and Italy the highest. The Gini coefficient (after-taxes and transfers) for a total population ranged between 0.25 and 0.48, with Denmark the lowest and Mexico the highest. For the United States, the country with the largest population among OECD countries, the pre-tax Gini index was 0.49, and the after-tax Gini index was 0.38 in 2008–2009. The OECD average for total populations in OECD countries was 0.46 for the pre-tax income Gini index and 0.31 for the after-tax income Gini index.<ref name=OECD1 /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&radioindic=158&idDomain=3 |title=Monitoring quality of life in Europe – Gini index |work=Eurofound |date=26 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201193249/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/qualityoflife/eurlife/index.php?template=3&radioindic=158&idDomain=3 |archive-date=1 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Taxes and social spending that were in place in 2008–2009 period in OECD countries significantly lowered effective income inequality, and in general, "European countries—especially Nordic and Continental [[welfare states]]—achieve lower levels of income inequality than other countries."<ref>{{cite journal|title=The redistributive effect of social transfer programmes and taxes: A decomposition across countries|first1=Chen|last1=Wang|first2=Koen|last2=Caminada|first3=Kees|last3=Goudswaard |journal=International Social Security Review|volume=65|issue=3|pages=27–48|year=2012|doi=10.1111/j.1468-246X.2012.01435.x|s2cid=154029963|hdl=1887/3207160|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Using the Gini can help quantify differences in [[Welfare spending|welfare]] and [[living wage|compensation]] policies and philosophies. However, it should be borne in mind that the Gini coefficient can be misleading when used to make political comparisons between large and small countries or those with different immigration policies (see [[#Limitations|limitations]] section).

The Gini coefficient for the entire world has been estimated by various parties to be between 0.61 and 0.68.<ref name=fao2009 /><ref name=undp10>{{cite book|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, 2010|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|pages=72–74|isbn= 978-0-230-28445-6|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429050250/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011|last1=Nations |first1=United }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621041257/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDECINEQ/Resources/PSBSutcliffe.pdf |archive-date=2007-06-21 |url-status=live|title=Postscript to the article 'World inequality and globalization' (Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Spring 2004)
|first=Bob|last=Sutcliffe|date=April 2007|access-date=13 December 2007}}</ref> The graph shows the values expressed as a percentage in their historical development for a number of countries.
[[File:Gini since WWII.svg|thumb|center|upright=3.25|alt=The change in Gini indices has differed across countries. Some countries have change little over time, such as Belgium, Canada, Germany, Japan, and Sweden. Brazil has oscillated around a steady value. France, Italy, Mexico, and Norway have shown marked declines. China and the US have increased steadily. Australia grew to moderate levels before dropping. India sank before rising again. The UK and Poland stayed at very low levels before rising. Bulgaria had an increase of fits-and-starts. .svg alt text]]

=== Regional income Gini indices ===
According to UNICEF, Latin America and the Caribbean region had the highest net income Gini index in the world at 48.3, on an unweighted average basis in 2008. The remaining regional averages were: sub-Saharan Africa (44.2), Asia (40.4), Middle East and North Africa (39.2), Eastern Europe and Central Asia (35.4), and High-income Countries (30.9). Using the same method, the United States is claimed to have a Gini index of 36, while South Africa had the highest income Gini index score of 67.8.<ref name=unicef2011>{{cite web|title=Global Inequality: Beyond the Bottom Billion|publisher=UNICEF|date=April 2011|first1=Isabel|last1=Ortiz|first2=Matthew|last2=Cummins|page=26|url=http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=12 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812232455/http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Global_Inequality_REVISED_-_5_July.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== World income Gini index since 1800s ===
Taking income distribution of all human beings, worldwide income inequality has been constantly increasing since the early 19th century (and will keep on increasing over the years) . There was a steady increase in the global income inequality Gini score from 1820 to 2002, with a significant increase between 1980 and 2002. This trend appears to have peaked and begun a reversal with rapid economic growth in emerging economies, particularly in the large populations of [[BRIC (economics term)|BRIC]] countries.<ref>{{cite journal|title=More or Less|journal=Finance & Development|date= September 2011|volume= 48|issue= 3|first=Branko|last=Milanovic|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/milanovic.htm}}</ref>

The table below presents the estimated world income Gini coefficients over the last 200 years, as calculated by Milanovic.<ref>{{Cite web |last= Milanovic |first= Branko |year= 2009 |title= Global Inequality and the Global Inequality Extraction Ratio |publisher=World Bank|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111142720/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/09/09/000158349_20090909092401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5044.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Income Gini coefficient - World, 1820–2005
|-
! Year !! World Gini coefficients<ref name=fao2009 /><ref name=unicef2011 /><ref>{{cite web|title=Riding the Elephants: The Evolution of World Economic Growth and Income Distribution at the End of the Twentieth Century (1980–2000)|first1=Albert|last1=Berry |first2=John|last2=Serieux |publisher=United Nations (DESA Working Paper No. 27)|date=September 2006|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217064745/http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2006/wp27_2006.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-17 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 1820 || 0.43
|-
| 1850 || 0.53
|-
| 1870 || 0.56
|-
| 1913 || 0.61
|-
| 1929 || 0.62
|-
| 1950 || 0.64
|-
| 1960 || 0.64
|-
| 1980 || 0.66
|-
| 2002 || 0.71
|-
| 2005 || 0.68
|}

More detailed data from similar sources plots a continuous decline since 1988. This is attributed to [[globalization]] increasing incomes for billions of poor people, mostly in countries like China and India. Developing countries like Brazil have also improved basic services like health care, education, and sanitation; others like Chile and Mexico have enacted more [[progressive tax]] policies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2017/01/25/511594991/what-the-stat-about-the-8-richest-men-doesnt-tell-us-about-inequality|title=What The Stat About The 8 Richest Men Doesn't Tell Us About Inequality| website=NPR | date=25 January 2017 | last1=Gharib | first1=Malaka }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Income Gini coefficient - World, 1988–2013
|-
!Year
!World Gini coefficients<ref>{{cite web| title= Poverty and Prosperity 2016 / Taking on Inequality |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115132032/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-15 |url-status=live |author=World Bank|author-link=World Bank }}. Figure O.10
Global Inequality, 1988–2013</ref>
|-
|1988 || 0.80
|-
|1993 || 0.76
|-
|1998 || 0.74
|-
|2003 || 0.72
|-
|2008 || 0.70
|-
|2013 || 0.65
|}
[[File:Global Income Inequality (Gini Index) Over Time.jpg|center|thumb|699x699px]]

== Of social development ==
The Gini coefficient is widely used in fields as diverse as sociology, economics, health science, ecology, engineering, and agriculture.<ref name="Sadras 2004 303–310">{{cite journal |last1=Sadras |first1=V. O. |last2=Bongiovanni |first2=R. |year=2004 |title=Use of Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients to assess yield inequality within paddocks |journal=Field Crops Research |volume=90 |issue=2–3 |pages=303–310 |doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2004.04.003 |bibcode=2004FCrRe..90..303S }}</ref> For example, in social sciences and economics, in addition to income Gini coefficients, scholars have published education Gini coefficients and opportunity Gini coefficients.

=== Education ===
Education Gini index estimates the inequality in education for a given population.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Vinod|last1=Thomas|first2=Yan|last2=Wang|first3=Xibo|last3=Fan|title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |date=January 2001|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-2525|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605143955/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/02/17/000094946_01020605310354/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2013|series=Policy Research Working Papers|hdl=10986/19738|citeseerx=10.1.1.608.6919|s2cid=6069811}}</ref> It is used to discern trends in social development through educational attainment over time. A study across 85 countries by three [[World Bank]] economists, Vinod Thomas, Yan Wang, and Xibo Fan, estimated Mali had the highest education Gini index of 0.92 in 1990 (implying very high inequality in educational attainment across the population), while the United States had the lowest education inequality Gini index of 0.14. Between 1960 and 1990, China, India and South Korea had the fastest drop in education inequality Gini Index. They also claim education Gini index for the United States slightly increased over the 1980–1990 period.

Though India's education Gini Index has been falling from 1960 through 1990, most of the population still has not received any education, while 10 percent of the population received more than 40% of the total educational hours in the nation. This means that a large portion of capable children in the country are not receiving the support necessary to allow them to become positive contributors to society. This will lead to a deadweight loss to the national society because there are many people who are underdeveloped and underutilized.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Vinod |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVkVi5bzEQkC&dq=gini+coefficient&pg=PA3 |title=Measuring Education Inequality: Gini Coefficients of Education |last2=Wang |first2=Yan |last3=Fan |first3=Xibo |date=2001 |publisher=World Bank Publications |language=en}}</ref>

=== Opportunity ===
Similar in concept to the Gini income coefficient, the Gini opportunity coefficient measures inequality in opportunities.<ref name=roemer06>{{cite report|title=Economic development as opportunity equalization|first=John E.|last=Roemer|date=September 2006|publisher=Yale University|ssrn=931479|citeseerx=10.1.1.403.4725}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Generalized Gini Indices of Equality of Opportunity|last=Weymark|first=John|journal=Journal of Economic Inequality|volume=1|year=2003|pages=5–24|doi=10.1023/A:1023923807503|issue=1|s2cid=133596675}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Measurement of Inequality in Human Development – A Review|last=Kovacevic|first=Milorad|publisher=United Nations Development Program|date=November 2010|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923141455/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/papers/HDRP_2010_35.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2011}}</ref> The concept builds on [[Amartya Sen]]'s suggestion<ref>{{cite journal|title=The contributions of Amartya Sen to Welfare Economics|first=Anthony B.|last=Atkinson|journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=173–190|year=1999|url=http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513233332/http://ias7.berkeley.edu:80/academics/courses/center/fall2007/sehnbruch/atkinson%201998%20contributions%20of%20sen%20to%20welf%20economics.pdf |archivedate=2014-05-13|doi=10.1111/1467-9442.00151|jstor=3440691}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> that inequality coefficients of social development should be premised on the process of enlarging people's choices and enhancing their capabilities, rather than on the process of reducing income inequality. Kovacevic, in a review of the Gini opportunity coefficient, explained that the coefficient estimates how well a society enables its citizens to achieve success in life where the success is based on a person's choices, efforts and talents, not their background defined by a set of predetermined circumstances at birth, such as gender, race, place of birth, parent's income and circumstances beyond the control of that individual.

In 2003, Roemer<ref name=roemer06 /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Roemer|first1=John E.|title=To what extent do fiscal regimes equalize opportunities for income acquisition among citizens?|journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=87|issue=3–4|date=March 2003|pages=539–565|doi=10.1016/S0047-2727(01)00145-1|last2=Aaberge|first2=Rolf|last3=Colombino|first3=Ugo|last4=Fritzell|first4=Johan|last5=Jenkins|first5=Stephen P|last6=Lefranc|first6=Arnaud|last7=Marx|first7=Ive|last8=Page|first8=Marianne|last9=Pommer|first9=Evert|display-authors=1|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.6220}}</ref> reported Italy and Spain exhibited the largest opportunity inequality Gini index amongst advanced economies.

=== Income mobility ===
In 1978, [[Anthony Shorrocks]] introduced a measure based on income Gini coefficients to estimate income mobility.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Shorrocks | first = Anthony | title = Income inequality and income mobility | journal = Journal of Economic Theory | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 376–393 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(78)90101-1 | date = December 1978 }}</ref> This measure, generalized by Maasoumi and Zandvakili,<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Esfandiar|last1=Maasoumi|first2=Sourushe|last2=Zandvakili| year=1986|title=A class of generalized measures of mobility with applications|journal=Economics Letters|volume= 22|issue=1|pages= 97–102|doi=10.1016/0165-1765(86)90150-3}}</ref> is now generally referred to as [[Shorrocks index]], sometimes as Shorrocks mobility index or Shorrocks rigidity index. It attempts to estimate whether the income inequality Gini coefficient is permanent or temporary and to what extent a country or region enables economic mobility to its people so that they can move from one (e.g., bottom 20%) income quantile to another (e.g., middle 20%) over time. In other words, the Shorrocks index compares inequality of short-term earnings, such as the annual income of households, to inequality of long-term earnings, such as 5-year or 10-year total income for the same households.

Shorrocks index is calculated in several different ways, a common approach being from the ratio of income Gini coefficients between short-term and long-term for the same region or country.<ref name=kss2010>{{cite journal|title=Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data Since 1937|first1=Wojciech|last1=Kopczuk |first2=Emmanuel|last2=Saez |first3=Jae|last3=Song |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2010|volume= 125|issue=1|pages= 91–128|doi=10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91|jstor=40506278|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513122750/http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~saez/kopczuk-saez-songQJE09SSA.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=live}}</ref>

A 2010 study using social security income data for the United States since 1937 and Gini-based Shorrock's indices concludes that income mobility in the United States has had a complicated history, primarily due to the mass influx of women into the American labor force after World War II. Income inequality and income mobility trends have been different for men and women workers between 1937 and the 2000s. When men and women are considered together, the Gini coefficient-based Shorrocks index trends imply long-term income inequality has been substantially reduced among all workers, in recent decades for the United States.<ref name=kss2010 /> Other scholars, using just 1990s data or other short periods have come to different conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Cross-national Differences in Income Mobility: Evidence from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Germany |first=Wen-Hao|last=Chen|s2cid=62886186|journal=Review of Income and Wealth|volume=55|issue=1|pages=75–100|date= March 2009|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00307.x}}</ref> For example, Sastre and Ayala conclude from their study of income Gini coefficient data between 1993 and 1998 for six developed economies that France had the least income mobility, Italy the highest, and the United States and Germany intermediate levels of income mobility over those five years.<ref>{{cite web|title=Europe vs. The United States: Is There a Trade-Off Between Mobility and Inequality?|first1=Mercedes|last1=Sastre|first2=Luis|last2=Ayala |publisher=Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060612200520/http://www.ucm.es/info/econeuro/documentos/documentos/dt192002.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-12 |url-status=live|year=2002}}</ref>

== Features ==
{{Expand section|date=March 2023}}
The Gini coefficient has features that make it useful as a measure of dispersion in a population, and inequalities in particular.<ref name="fao gini" /> The coefficient ranges from 0, for perfect equality, to 1, indicating perfect inequality. The Gini is based on the comparison of cumulative proportions of the population against cumulative proportions of income they receive.<ref name="data.oecd"/>

== Limitations ==

===Relative, not absolute===
The Gini coefficient is a relative measure. The Gini coefficient of a developing country can rise (due to increasing inequality of income) even when the number of people in absolute poverty decreases.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dramatic Poverty Reduction in the Third World: Prospects and Needed Action|first=John W.|last=Mellor|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|date=2 June 1989|pages=18–20|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160551/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK503.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This is because the Gini coefficient measures relative, not absolute, wealth.

Gini coefficients are simple, and this simplicity can lead to oversights and can confuse the comparison of different populations; for example, while both Bangladesh (per capita income of $1,693) and the Netherlands (per capita income of $42,183) had an income Gini coefficient of 0.31 in 2010,<ref name=undp2010a>{{cite web|title=The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development (2010 Human Development Report – see Stat Tables)|pages=152–156|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2011|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2010/chapters/}}</ref> the quality of life, economic opportunity and absolute income in these countries are very different, i.e. countries may have identical Gini coefficients, but differ greatly in wealth. Basic necessities may be available to all in a developed economy, while in an undeveloped economy with the same Gini coefficient, basic necessities may be unavailable to most or unequally available due to lower absolute wealth.

===Mathematical limitations===
Gini has some mathematical limitations as well. It is not additive and different sets of people cannot be averaged to obtain the Gini coefficient of all the people in the sets.

{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Table A. Different income distributions with the same Gini index<ref name="fao gini"/>
|-
! style=max-width:4em | Household group !! style=max-width:5em | Country A annual income ($) !! style=max-width:5em | Country B annual income ($)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || 9,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000 || 40,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || 48,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000 || 48,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || 55,000
|-
| Total income || $200,000 || $200,000
|-
| Country's Gini || '''0.2''' || '''0.2'''
|}

Even when the total income of a population is the same, in certain situations two countries with different income distributions can have the same Gini index (e.g. cases when income Lorenz Curves cross).<ref name="fao gini"/> Table A illustrates one such situation. Both countries have a Gini coefficient of 0.2, but the average income distributions for household groups are different. As another example, in a population where the lowest 50% of individuals have no income, and the other 50% have equal income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5; whereas for another population where the lowest 75% of people have 25% of income and the top 25% have 75% of the income, the Gini index is also 0.5. Economies with similar incomes and Gini coefficients can have very different income distributions. Bellù and Liberati claim that ranking income inequality between two populations is not always possible based on their Gini indices.<ref name=Maio2007>{{cite journal|title=Income inequality measures|first=Fernando G.|last=De Maio|journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health|year=2007|volume=61|issue=10|pages=849–852|doi=10.1136/jech.2006.052969|pmid=17873219|pmc=2652960}}</ref> Similarly, computational social scientist Fabian Stephany illustrates that income inequality within the population, e.g., in specific socioeconomic groups of same age and education, also remains undetected by conventional Gini indices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stephany |first=Fabian |date=2017-12-01 |title=Who are Your Joneses? Socio-Specific Income Inequality and Trust |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=877–898 |doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1460-9 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=5684274 |pmid=29187771}}</ref>

===Income Gini can conceal wealth inequality===
A Gini index does not contain information about absolute national or personal incomes. Populations can simultaneously have very low income Gini indices and very high wealth Gini indexes. By measuring inequality in income, the Gini ignores the differential efficiency of the use of household income. By ignoring wealth (except as it contributes to income), the Gini can create the appearance of inequality when the people compared are at different stages in their life. Wealthy countries such as Sweden can show a low Gini coefficient for the disposable income of 0.31, thereby appearing equal, yet have a very high Gini coefficient for wealth of 0.79 to 0.86, suggesting an extremely unequal wealth distribution in its society.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Inequality Trends in Sweden 1978–2004|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Martin|last2=Flodén|journal= Review of Economic Dynamics|volume=13|issue=1|year=2010|pages=179–208|doi=10.1016/j.red.2009.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.629.9417}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Accounting for Swedish wealth inequality|first1=David|last1=Domeij|first2=Paul|last2=Klein|date=January 2000|url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/repec/es2000/0883.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030519155531/https://www.econometricsociety.org/meetings/wc00/pdf/0883.pdf|archive-date=May 19, 2003}}</ref> These factors are not assessed in income-based Gini.

===Country size and granularity bias===
Gini index has a downward-bias for small populations.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Small-Sample Bias of the Gini Coefficient: Results and Implications for Empirical Research|journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics|first=George|last=Deltas|date=February 2003|volume= 85|issue=1|pages=226–234|doi=10.1162/rest.2003.85.1.226|jstor=3211637|s2cid=57572560}}</ref> Counties or states or countries with small populations and less diverse economies will tend to report small Gini coefficients. For economically diverse large population groups, a much higher coefficient is expected than for each of its regions. For example, taking the world economy as a whole and income distribution for all human beings, different scholars estimate the global Gini index to range between 0.61 and 0.68.<ref name=fao2009 /><ref name=undp10 />
As with other inequality coefficients, the Gini coefficient is influenced by the [[granularity]] of the measurements. For example, five 20% quantiles (low granularity) will usually yield a lower Gini coefficient than twenty 5% quantiles (high granularity) for the same distribution. Philippe Monfort has shown that using inconsistent or unspecified granularity limits the usefulness of Gini coefficient measurements.<ref>{{cite web|title=Convergence of EU regions: Measures and evolution|first=Philippe|last=Monfort|publisher=European Union – Europa|page=6|year=2008|url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/200801_convergence.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Changes in population===
Changing income inequality, measured by Gini coefficients, can be due to structural changes in a society such as growing population (increased birth rates, aging populations, emigration, immigration) and income mobility.<ref name=Kwok10>{{cite web|title=Income Distribution of Hong Kong and the Gini Coefficient|author=KWOK Kwok Chuen|year=2010|publisher=The Government of Hong Kong, China|url=http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227043822/http://www.eabfu.gov.hk/en/pdf/income.pdf|archive-date=27 December 2010}}</ref>

Another limitation of the Gini coefficient is that it is not a proper measure of [[egalitarianism]], as it only measures income dispersion. For example, suppose two equally egalitarian countries pursue different [[immigration law|immigration policies]]. In that case, the country accepting a higher proportion of low-income or impoverished migrants will report a higher Gini coefficient and, therefore, may exhibit more income inequality.

===Household vs individual===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float: right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Table B. Same income distributions, but different Gini Index
|-
! style=max-width:4em | Household number !! style=max-width:5em | Country Annual Income ($) !! style=max-width:5em |Household combined number !! style=max-width:5em |Country A combined Annual Income ($)
|-
| 1 || 20,000 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 1 & 2 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 50,000
|-
| 2 || 30,000
|-
| 3 || 40,000 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 3 & 4 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 90,000
|-
| 4 || 50,000
|-
| 5 || 60,000 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 5 & 6 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 130,000
|-
| 6 || 70,000
|-
| 7 || 80,000 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 7 & 8 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 170,000
|-
| 8 || 90,000
|-
| 9 || 120,000 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 9 & 10 || rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 270,000
|-
| 10 || 150,000
|-
| Total Income || $710,000 || || $710,000
|-
| Country's Gini || '''0.303''' || ||'''0.293'''
|}
The Gini coefficient measure gives different results when applied to individuals instead of households, for the same economy and same income distributions. If household data is used, the measured value of income Gini depends on how the household is defined. The comparison is not meaningful when different populations are not measured with consistent definitions. Furthermore, changes to the household income Gini can be driven by changes in household formation, such as increased divorce rates or [[extended family]] households splitting into [[Nuclear family|nuclear families]].

Deininger and [[Lyn Squire|Squire]] (1996) show that the income Gini coefficient based on individual income rather than household income is different. For example, for the United States, they found that the individual income-based Gini index was 0.35, while for France, 0.43. According to their individual-focused method, in the 108 countries they studied, South Africa had the world's highest Gini coefficient at 0.62, Malaysia had Asia's highest Gini coefficient at 0.5, Brazil the highest at 0.57 in Latin America and the Caribbean region, and Turkey the highest at 0.5 in OECD countries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deininger |first1=K. |last2=Squire |first2=L. |title=A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality |journal=The World Bank Economic Review |date=September 1996 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=565–591 |doi=10.1093/wber/10.3.565 }}</ref>

Billionaire [[Thomas Kwok]] claimed the income Gini coefficient for Hong Kong has been high (0.434 in 2010<ref name=undp2010a />), in part because of structural changes in its population. Over recent decades, Hong Kong has witnessed increasing numbers of small households, elderly households, and elderly living alone. The combined income is now split into more households. Many older people live separately from their children in Hong Kong. These social changes have caused substantial changes in household income distribution. The income Gini coefficient, claims Kwok, does not discern these structural changes in its society.<ref name=Kwok10 /> Household money income distribution for the United States, summarized in Table C of this section, confirms that this issue is not limited to just Hong Kong. According to the US Census Bureau, between 1979 and 2010, the population of the United States experienced structural changes in overall households; the income for all income brackets increased in inflation-adjusted terms, household income distributions shifted into higher income brackets over time, while the income Gini coefficient increased.<ref name=uscb2011 /><ref name=cbo.p.10>[http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=12485 Congressional Budget Office: Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007]. October 2011. see pp. i–x, with definitions on ii–iii</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float: left; margin-right:1em;"
|+ Table C. Household money income distributions and Gini Index, US<ref name=uscb2011>{{cite web|title=Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2010 (see Table A-2)|date=September 2011|publisher=Census Bureau, Dept of Commerce, United States|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/p60-239.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923022827/http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/p60-239.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-23 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! style=max-width:6em | Income bracket (in 2010 adjusted dollars)!! style=max-width:4em | % of Population 1979 !! style=max-width:4em | % of Population 2010
|-
| Under $15,000 || 14.6% || 13.7%
|-
| $15,000 – $24,999 || 11.9% || 12.0%
|-
| $25,000 – $34,999 || 12.1% || 10.9%
|-
| $35,000 – $49,999 || 15.4% || 13.9%
|-
| $50,000 – $74,999 || 22.1% || 17.7%
|-
| $75,000 – $99,999 || 12.4% || 11.4%
|-
| $100,000 – $149,999 || 8.3% || 12.1%
|-
| $150,000 – $199,999 || 2.0% || 4.5%
|-
| $200,000 and over || 1.2% || 3.9%
|-
| Total Households || 80,776,000 || 118,682,000
|-
| United States' Gini on pre-tax basis || '''0.404''' || '''0.469'''
|}

===Instantaneous inequality vs lifetime inequality===
The Gini coefficient is unable to discern the effects of structural changes in populations.<ref name=Kwok10 /> Expanding on the importance of life-span measures, the Gini coefficient as a point-estimate of equality at a certain time ignores life-span changes in income. Typically, increases in the proportion of young or old members of a society will drive apparent changes in equality simply because people generally have lower incomes and wealth when they are young than when they are old. Because of this, factors such as age distribution within a population and mobility within income classes can create the appearance of inequality when none exist, taking into account demographic effects. Thus a given economy may have a higher Gini coefficient at any timepoint compared to another, while the Gini coefficient calculated over individuals' lifetime income is lower than the apparently more equal (at a given point in time) economy's.{{Clarify|date=September 2022}}<ref name=blomq81>{{Cite journal |first=N. |last=Blomquist |s2cid=154519005 |year=1981 |title=A comparison of distributions of annual and lifetime income: Sweden around 1970 |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1981.tb00227.x}}</ref> Essentially, what matters is not just inequality in any particular year but the distribution composition over time.

===Benefits and income in kind===
Inaccuracies in assign monetary value to [[income in kind]] reduce the accuracy of Gini as a measurement of true inequality.

While taxes and cash transfers are relatively straightforward to account for, other government benefits can be difficult to value. Benefits such as subsidized housing, medical care, and education are difficult to value objectively, as it depends on the quality and extent of the benefit. In absence of a free market, valuing these income transfers as household income is subjective. The theoretical model of the Gini coefficient is limited to accepting correct or incorrect subjective assumptions.

In subsistence-driven and [[informal economies]], people may have significant income in other forms than money, for example, through [[subsistence farming]] or [[barter]]ing. These forms of income tend to accrue to poor segments of populations in emerging and transitional economy countries such as those in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe. Informal economy accounts for over half of global employment and as much as 90 percent of employment in some of the poorer sub-Saharan countries with high official Gini inequality coefficients. Schneider et al., in their 2010 study of 162 countries,<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Friedrich|last1=Schneider|first2=Andreas|last2=Buehn|first3=Claudio E.|last3=Montenegro|s2cid=56060172|year=2010|title= New Estimates for the Shadow Economies all over the World|journal=International Economic Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=443–461|doi=10.1080/10168737.2010.525974|hdl=10986/4929}}</ref> report about 31.2%, or about $20 trillion, of world's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] is informal. In developing countries, the informal economy predominates for all income brackets except the richer, urban upper-income bracket populations. Even in developed economies, 8% (United States) to 27% (Italy) of each nation's GDP is informal. The resulting informal income predominates as a livelihood activity for those in the lowest income brackets.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Informal Economy|publisher=International Institute for Environment and Development, United Kingdom|year=2011|url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/15515IIED.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160544/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/15515IIED.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live|isbn=978-1-84369-822-7}}</ref> The value and distribution of the incomes from informal or underground economy is difficult to quantify, making true income Gini coefficients estimates difficult.<ref name=mfeld>{{cite web|title=Is income inequality really the problem? (Overview)|first=Martin|last=Feldstein|date=August 1998|publisher=US Federal Reserve|url=http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|access-date=2 August 2012|archive-date=3 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160558/http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/1998/S98feldstein.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=tandw>{{cite book|title=Principles of Microeconomics: Global Financial Crisis Edition|first1=John|last1=Taylor|first2=Akila|last2=Weerapana|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4390-7821-1|pages=416–418|publisher=Cengage Learning }}</ref> Different assumptions and quantifications of these incomes will yield different Gini coefficients.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Income Inequality and the Informal Economy in Transition Economies|first1=J. Barkley Jr. |last1=Rosser|first2=Marina V.|last2=Rosser |first3=Ehsan|last3=Ahmed |s2cid=49552052 |journal=Journal of Comparative Economics|date=March 2000|volume= 28|issue=1|pages=156–171|doi=10.1006/jcec.2000.1645}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Earnings inequality and the informal economy: evidence from Serbia|first1=Gorana|last1=Krstić |first2=Peter|last2=Sanfey |publisher=European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|date=February 2010|url=http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803160550/http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/economics/workingpapers/wp0114.pdf |archive-date=2012-08-03 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|title=The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003|first=Friedrich|last=Schneider|date=December 2004|ssrn=636661|hdl=10419/20729}}</ref>

== Alternatives ==
Given the limitations of the Gini coefficient, other statistical methods are used in combination or as an alternative measure of population dispersity. For example, ''entropy measures'' are frequently used (e.g. the [[Atkinson index]] or the [[Theil Index]] and [[Mean log deviation]] as special cases of the [[generalized entropy index]]). These measures attempt to compare the distribution of resources by intelligent agents in the market with a maximum [[information entropy|entropy]] [[random distribution]], which would occur if these agents acted like non-interacting particles in a closed system following the laws of statistical physics.

The Ortego two-parameter model<ref name="ortega,1991">{{cite journal | last1=Ortega | first1=P. | last2=Martín | first2=G. | last3=Fernández | first3=A. | last4=Ladoux | first4=M. | last5=García | first5=A. | title=A New Functional Form for Estimating Lorenz Curves | journal=Review of Income and Wealth | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=1991 | issn=0034-6586 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1991.tb00383.x | pages=447–452}}</ref> may be superior to the GINI index.<ref name="Blesch,2022">{{cite journal | last1=Blesch | first1=Kristin | last2=Hauser | first2=Oliver P. | last3=Jachimowicz | first3=Jon M. | title=Measuring inequality beyond the Gini coefficient may clarify conflicting findings | journal=Nature Human Behaviour | volume=6 | issue=11 | date=2022 | issn=2397-3374 | pmid=36038775 | pmc=7614289 | doi=10.1038/s41562-022-01430-7 | pages=1525–1536}}</ref>

The Gini coefficient was found to be oversensitive to changes in the middle of the distribution, an alternative are [[median income]]-based approaches.<ref name="u376">{{cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=Is the Gini Index of Inequality Overly Sensitive to Changes in the Middle of the Income Distribution? | journal=Statistics and Public Policy | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2017 | issn=2330-443X | doi=10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | pages=1–11 | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2330443X.2017.1360813 | access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>

== Relation to other statistical measures ==
There is a summary measure of the diagnostic ability of a binary classifier system that is also called the ''Gini coefficient'', which is defined as twice the area between the [[receiver operating characteristic]] (ROC) curve and its diagonal. It is related to the [[Receiver operating characteristic#Area under the curve|AUC]] ([[Integral|Area Under]] the ROC Curve) measure of performance given by <math>AUC = (G+1)/2</math><ref name=hand>{{cite journal |last1=Hand |first1=David J. |last2=Till |first2=Robert J. |title=A Simple Generalisation of the Area Under the ROC Curve for Multiple Class Classification Problems |journal=Machine Learning |date=2001 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1023/A:1010920819831 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and to [[Mann–Whitney U]]. Although both Gini coefficients are defined as areas between certain curves and share certain properties, there is no simple direct relationship between the Gini coefficient of statistical dispersion and the Gini coefficient of a classifier.

The Gini index is also related to the Pietra index — both of which measure statistical heterogeneity and are derived from the Lorenz curve and the diagonal line.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Iddo I.|last1=Eliazar |first2=Igor M.|last2=Sokolov |year=2010 |title=Measuring statistical heterogeneity: The Pietra index|journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications|volume=389|issue= 1|pages= 117–125|doi= 10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.006|bibcode=2010PhyA..389..117E}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Wen-Chung |title=Probabilistic analysis of global performances of diagnostic tests: interpreting the Lorenz curve-based summary measures |journal=Statistics in Medicine |date=28 February 1999 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=455–471 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19990228)18:4<455::aid-sim44>3.0.co;2-a |pmid=10070686 }}</ref><ref name="McDonald1974"/>

In certain fields such as ecology, inverse Simpson's index <math>1/\lambda</math> is used to quantify diversity, and this should not be confused with the [[Diversity index#Simpson index|Simpson index]] <math>\lambda</math>. These indicators are related to Gini. The inverse Simpson index increases with diversity, unlike the Simpson index and Gini coefficient, which decrease with diversity. The Simpson index is in the range [0, 1], where 0 means maximum and 1 means minimum diversity (or heterogeneity). Since diversity indices typically increase with increasing heterogeneity, the Simpson index is often transformed into inverse Simpson, or using the complement <math>1 - \lambda</math>, known as the Gini-Simpson Index.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Measurement of Species Diversity|first=Robert K.|last=Peet|s2cid=83517584|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=5|year=1974 |issue=1 |pages= 285–307|jstor=2096890|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.001441|bibcode=1974AnRES...5..285P }}</ref>

The [[Lorenz curve]] is another method of graphical representation of wealth distribution. It was developed 9 years before the Gini coefficient, which quantifies the extent to which the Lorenz curve deviates from the perfect equality line (with [[slope]] of 1). The [[Hoover index]] (also known as Robin Hood index) presents the percentage of total population's income that would have to be redistributed to make the Gini coefficient equal to 0 (perfect equality).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hoover Index |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/hoover-index/ |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Gini coefficients for pre-modern societies ==
In recent decades, researchers have attempted to estimate Gini coefficients for pre-20th century societies. In the absence of household income surveys and income taxes, scholars have relied on proxy variables. These include wealth taxes in medieval European city states, patterns of landownership in [[Roman Egypt]], variation of the size of houses in societies from ancient Greece to Aztec Mexico, and inheritance and dowries in Babylonian society. Other data does not directly document variations in wealth or income but are known to reflect inequality, such as the ratio of rents to wages or of labor to capital.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Walter Scheidel]]|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2017|isbn=978-0-691-16502-8|pages=15–16}}</ref>

== Other uses ==
Although the Gini coefficient is most popular in economics, it can, in theory, be applied in any field of science that studies a distribution. For example, in ecology, the Gini coefficient has been used as a measure of [[biodiversity]], where the cumulative proportion of species is plotted against the cumulative proportion of individuals.<ref name=natureArticle>{{cite journal | last1 = Wittebolle | first1 = Lieven | title = Initial community evenness favours functionality under selective stress | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2009 | volume = 458 | issue = 7238 | pmid = 19270679 | pages = 623–626 | doi = 10.1038/nature07840| display-authors = 2 | last2 = Marzorati | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Balloi | first3 = Annalisa | last4 = Daffonchio | first4 = Daniele | last5 = Heylen | first5 = Kim | last6 = De Vos | first6 = Paul | last7 = Verstraete | first7 = Willy | last8 = Boon | first8 = Nico | bibcode = 2009Natur.458..623W | s2cid = 4419280 }}</ref> In health, it has been used as a measure of the inequality of health-related [[quality of life]] in a population.<ref name=popHealthArticle>{{cite journal | last=Asada | first=Yukiko | title = Assessment of the health of Americans: the average health-related quality of life and its inequality across individuals and groups | journal = Population Health Metrics | year = 2005 | volume = 3 | pmid=16014174 | page = 7 | pmc=1192818 | doi = 10.1186/1478-7954-3-7 | doi-access=free }}</ref> In education, it has been used as a measure of the inequality of universities.<ref name=MinervaArticle>{{cite journal | last1= Halffman | first1= Willem | last2= Leydesdorff | first2= Loet | title = Is Inequality Among Universities Increasing? Gini Coefficients and the Elusive Rise of Elite Universities | journal = Minerva | year = 2010 | volume = 48 | pmid= 20401157 | issue= 1 | pages = 55–72 | pmc= 2850525 | doi = 10.1007/s11024-010-9141-3| arxiv= 1001.2921 }}</ref> In chemistry it has been used to express the selectivity of [[protein kinase inhibitors]] against a panel of kinases.<ref name=JMedChemArticle>{{cite journal | last = Graczyk | first = Piotr | title = Gini Coefficient: A New Way To Express Selectivity of Kinase Inhibitors against a Family of Kinases | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | year = 2007 | volume = 50 | issue = 23 | pmid = 17948979 | pages = 5773–5779 | doi = 10.1021/jm070562u}}</ref> In engineering, it has been used to evaluate the fairness achieved by Internet routers in scheduling packet transmissions from different flows of traffic.<ref name=GreedyFairQueueing>{{Cite book |first1=Hongyuan |last1=Shi |first2=Harish |last2=Sethu |contribution=Greedy Fair Queueing: A Goal-Oriented Strategy for Fair Real-Time Packet Scheduling |pages=345–356 |title=Proceedings of the 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium |publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society]] |isbn=978-0-7695-2044-5 |year=2003}}</ref> In [[machine learning]], it has been used as a unified metric for evaluating many-versus-many (all-to-all) similarity in vector spaces across various data types, including images and text, and to show their effectiveness in guiding machine learning training sample selection, especially in sparse information settings.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Fauber | first1 = Ben | title = Gini Coefficient as a Unified Metric for Evaluating Many-versus-Many Similarity in Vector Spaces. | date = 2024 | volume = abs/2411.07983 | arxiv = 2411.07983 }}</ref>

The Gini coefficient is sometimes used for the measurement of the discriminatory power of [[credit rating|rating]] systems in [[credit risk]] management.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Analytics of Risk Model Validation (Quantitative Finance)|editor1-first=George A.|editor1-last=Christodoulakis|editor2-first=Stephen|editor2-last=Satchell|isbn=978-0-7506-8158-2|date=November 2007|publisher=Academic Press}}</ref>

In 2004, a paper by [[Jennifer Lotz]] used the Gini coefficient as a measure of "the relative distribution of the galaxy pixel flux values," finding it to be a reliable way to separate [[ULIRG]]s from normal galaxies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lotz |first=Jennifer M. |last2=Primack |first2=Joel |last3=Madau |first3=Piero |date=July 2004 |title=A New Nonparametric Approach to Galaxy Morphological Classification |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AJ....128..163L/abstract |journal=The Astronomical Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1086/421849 |issn=0004-6256|arxiv=astro-ph/0311352 }}</ref> The Gini coefficient has since been used extensively in [[Galaxy morphological classification]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Florian |first=Michael K. |last2=Li |first2=Nan |last3=Gladders |first3=Michael D. |date=2016-11-30 |title=The Gini Coefficient As a Morphological Measurement of Strongly Lensed Galaxies in the Same Plane |url=https://validate.perfdrive.com/fb803c746e9148689b3984a31fccd902/?ssa=8b938914-b9c4-40fa-b7b6-f3092ccfb65f&ssb=79598267588&ssc=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.3847%2F0004-637X%2F832%2F2%2F168&ssi=84314456-cnvj-4cb3-b121-c2d72253fd48&ssk=botmanager_support@radware.com&ssm=53853155343987438101350278259624&ssn=068641711c75e5c1d45215e6ebb8b2a4f466833c7002-4c46-4318-ba3d66&sso=c090eeb6-0e545fc725645493012638906fcfeb0e44042a4cb1af3e43&ssp=67342223251771107537177113828657390&ssq=13983169797578816853097975307538584572607&ssr=MjA4LjgwLjE1My43Mg==&sst=Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_15_7) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/110.0.0.0 Safari/537.36 Citoid/WMF (mailto:noc@wikimedia.org)&ssu=&ssv=&ssw=&ssx=eyJ1em14IjoiN2Y5MDAwNzhlZWQ2NzctNTExNS00YjM4LWI4YTgtMTY2NjQ0NjQ2MjEzMS0xNzcxMTk3OTc1OTg5MC0xZTA3YThiZjczYTJkOWVjMTAiLCJyZCI6ImlvcC5vcmciLCJfX3V6bWYiOiI3ZjkwMDA4MzNjNzAwMi00YzQ2LTQzMTgtYmViNi0wZTU0NWZjNzI1NjQxLTE3NzExOTc5NzU5ODkwLTAwMmFkNGQ3ZjNmYjhmNGJmNTAxMCJ9 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=832 |issue=2 |pages=168 |doi=10.3847/0004-637X/832/2/168 |doi-access=free|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=1511.03617 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rodriguez-Gomez |first=Vicente |last2=Lotz |first2=Jennifer |last3=Snyder |first3=Greg |date=January 2022 |title=statmorph: Non-parametric morphological diagnostics of galaxy images |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ascl.soft01010R/abstract |journal=Astrophysics Source Code Library |language=en |pages=ascl:2201.010}}</ref>

A 2005 study accessed US census data to measure home computer ownership and used the Gini coefficient to measure inequalities amongst whites and African Americans. Results indicated that although decreasing overall, home computer ownership inequality was substantially smaller among white households.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chakraborty|first1=J|last2=Bosman|first2=MM|title=Measuring the digital divide in the United States: race, income, and personal computer ownership|journal=Prof Geogr|year=2005|volume=57|issue=3|pages=395–410|doi=10.1111/j.0033-0124.2005.00486.x|bibcode=2005ProfG..57..395C|s2cid=154401826}}</ref>

A 2016 peer-reviewed study titled Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks<ref>{{cite journal|last1=van Mierlo|first1=T|last2=Hyatt|first2=D|last3=Ching|first3=A|title=Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment-focused Digital Health Social Networks|journal=Netw Model Anal Health Inform Bioinforma|date=2016|volume=5|issue=32|pages=32|doi=10.1007/s13721-016-0140-7|pmid=27840788|pmc=5082574}}</ref> illustrated that the Gini coefficient was helpful and accurate in measuring shifts in inequality, however as a standalone metric it failed to incorporate overall network size.

Discriminatory power refers to a credit risk model's ability to differentiate between defaulting and non-defaulting clients. The formula <math>G_1</math>, in the calculation section above, may be used for the final model and at the individual model factor level to quantify the discriminatory power of individual factors. It is related to the accuracy ratio in population assessment models.

The Gini coefficient has also been applied to analyze inequality in [[Online dating application|dating apps]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-03-25|title=Tinder Experiments II: Guys, unless you are really hot you are probably better off not wasting your…|url=https://medium.com/@worstonlinedater/tinder-experiments-ii-guys-unless-you-are-really-hot-you-are-probably-better-off-not-wasting-your-2ddf370a6e9a|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Kopf|first=Dan|title=These statistics show why it's so hard to be an average man on dating apps|url=https://qz.com/1051462/these-statistics-show-why-its-so-hard-to-be-an-average-man-on-dating-apps/|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Quartz|date=15 August 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

Kaminskiy and Krivtsov<ref>{{cite book |last1= Kaminskiy |first1= M.P.|last2= Krivtsov|first2= V.V.|date= 2011|chapter= A Gini-Type Index for Aging/Rejuvenating Objects|title= Mathematical and Statistical Models and Methods in Reliability|location= Birkhäuser Boston|url = https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780817649708| publisher= Springer|pages= 133–140|isbn=978-0-8176-4970-8}}</ref> extended the concept of the Gini coefficient from economics to [[reliability theory]] and proposed a Gini-type coefficient that helps to assess the degree of aging of non-repairable systems or aging and rejuvenation of repairable systems. The coefficient is defined between −1 and 1 and can be used in both empirical and parametric life distributions. It takes negative values for the class of decreasing failure rate distributions and point processes with decreasing failure intensity rate and is positive for the increasing failure rate distributions and point processes with increasing failure intensity rate. The value of zero corresponds to the [[Exponential distribution|exponential life distribution]] or the [[Poisson point process#Homogeneous Poisson point process|Homogeneous Poisson Process]].

== See also ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Diversity index]]
* [[Economic inequality]]
* [[Great Gatsby curve]]
* [[Herfindahl–Hirschman Index]]
* [[Hoover index]] (a.k.a. Robin Hood index)
* [[Human Poverty Index]]
* [[Income inequality metrics]]
* [[Kuznets curve]]
* [[List of countries by income inequality]]
* [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted Human Development Index]]
* [[List of countries by wealth inequality]]
* [[List of U.S. states by Gini coefficient]]
* [[Lorenz curve]]
* [[Matthew effect]]
* [[Pareto distribution]]
* [[ROC analysis]]
* [[Suits index]]
* [[The Elephant Curve]]
* [[Utopia]]
* [[Welfare spending|Welfare]]
* [[Welfare economics]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Amiel | first1=Y. | last2=Cowell | first2=F. A. | year=1999 | title=Thinking about Inequality | publisher=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-46696-7}}
* {{Cite book | first=Sudhir | last=Anand | year=1983 | title=Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0-19-520153-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Brown | first=Malcolm | title=Using Gini-Style Indices to Evaluate the Spatial Patterns of Health Practitioners: Theoretical Considerations and an Application Based on Alberta Data | journal=Social Science & Medicine | year=1994 | volume=38 | pages=1243–1256 | doi=10.1016/0277-9536(94)90189-9 | pmid=8016689 | issue=9}}
* {{Cite book | first=S. R. | last=Chakravarty | year=1990 | title=Ethical Social Index Numbers | publisher=Springer-Verlag | location=New York | isbn=978-0-387-52274-6 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Angus | last=Deaton | year=1997 | title=Analysis of Household Surveys | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | location=Baltimore MD | isbn=978-0-585-23787-9 }}
* {{Cite journal | title=Bootstrapping the Gini coefficient of inequality | journal=Ecology | year=1987 | volume=68 | pages=1548–1551 | doi=10.2307/1939238 | jstor=1939238 | issue=5 |last1 = Dixon| first1=Philip M. | last2=Weiner | first2=Jacob | last3=Mitchell-Olds | first3=Thomas | last4=Woodley | first4=Robert | bibcode=1987Ecol...68.1548D | s2cid=84940050 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Dorfman | first=Robert | title=A Formula for the Gini Coefficient | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1979 | volume=61 | pages=146–149 | doi=10.2307/1924845 | jstor=1924845 | issue=1 }}
* {{Cite book | first=Glenn | last=Firebaugh | year=2003 | title=The New Geography of Global Income Inequality | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn=978-0-674-01067-3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gastwirth | first=Joseph L. | title=The Estimation of the Lorenz Curve and Gini Index | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1972 | volume=54 | pages=306–316 | doi=10.2307/1937992 | jstor=1937992 | issue=3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Giles | first=David | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=425–433 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00086.x | url=http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | citeseerx=10.1.1.202.6462 | s2cid=16972099 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040505124219/http://web.uvic.ca/econ/ewp0202.pdf | archive-date=5 May 2004 }}
* {{Cite book | last=Gini | first=Corrado | year=1912 | title=Variabilità e mutabilità | bibcode=1912vamu.book.....G }} Reprinted in {{cite book | title=Memorie di metodologica statistica | editor1-last=Pizetti | editor1-first=E. | editor2-last=Salvemini | editor2-first=T. | location=Rome | publisher=Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi | year=1955}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Gini | first=Corrado | title=Measurement of Inequality of Incomes | journal=The Economic Journal | year=1921 | volume=31 | pages=124–126 | doi=10.2307/2223319 | jstor=2223319 | issue=121 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449432 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Giorgi | first=Giovanni Maria | year=1990 | title=Bibliographic portrait of the Gini concentration ratio | journal=Metron | volume=48 | pages=183–231 | url=http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804055002/http://econwpa.repec.org/eps/em/papers/0511/0511004.pdf | archive-date=4 August 2016 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Karagiannis | first1=E. | last2=Kovacevic | first2=M. | title=A Method to Calculate the Jackknife Variance Estimator for the Gini Coefficient | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=119–122 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00163}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Mills | first1=Jeffrey A. | last2=Zandvakili | first2=Sourushe | title=Statistical Inference via Bootstrapping for Measures of Inequality | journal=Journal of Applied Econometrics | year=1997 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=133–150 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199703)12:2<133::AID-JAE433>3.0.CO;2-H | jstor=2284908 | url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718000000/http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp136.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-18 |url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.172.5003 | hdl=10419/186818 }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Modarres | first1=Reza | last2=Gastwirth | first2=Joseph L. | title=A Cautionary Note on Estimating the Standard Error of the Gini Index of Inequality | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2006 | volume=68 | issue=3 | pages=385–390 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2006.00167.x| s2cid=122716409 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Morgan | first=James | title=The Anatomy of Income Distribution | journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics | year=1962 | volume=44 | pages=270–283 | doi=10.2307/1926398 | jstor=1926398 | issue=3 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=A Convenient Method of Computing the Gini Index and its Standard Error | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2000 | volume=62 | pages=123–129 | doi=10.1111/1468-0084.00164 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Ogwang | first=Tomson | title=Calculating a Standard Error for the Gini Coefficient: Some Further Results: Reply | journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics | year=2004 | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=435–437 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2004.00087.x| s2cid=122160535 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Kuan |title=How has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? |date=January 2004 | url=http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928082244/http://economics.dal.ca/RePEc/dal/wparch/howgini.pdf | access-date=1 June 2006 | archive-date=28 September 2006 |journal=[[Social Science Research Network|SSRN Electronic Journal]] |doi=10.2139/ssrn.423200 |series=Economics Working Paper |at=[[Dalhousie University]]}} The Chinese version of this paper was published as {{cite journal | last=Xu | first=Kuan | title=How Has the Literature on Gini's Index Evolved in the Past 80 Years? | journal = China Economic Quarterly | year=2003 | volume=2 | pages=757–778 }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Yitzhaki | first=Shlomo | title=Calculating Jackknife Variance Estimators for Parameters of the Gini Method | journal=Journal of Business and Economic Statistics | year=1991 | volume=9 | pages=235–239 | doi=10.2307/1391792 | jstor=1391792 | issue=2 }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* Deutsche Bundesbank: [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218111312/http://www.bundesbank.de/download/bankenaufsicht/dkp/200503dkp_b.pdf Do banks diversify loan portfolios?], 2005 (on using e.g. the Gini coefficient for risk evaluation of loan portfolios)
* [https://www.forbes.com/forbes/2003/0317/098.html Forbes: In praise of inequality]
* [http://www.theresearchkitchen.com/archives/219 Measuring Software Project Risk With The Gini Coefficient], an application of the Gini coefficient to software
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html The World Bank: Measuring Inequality]
* [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/tutorials/theo_basic_ineq_measures.doc Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project:The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures], online computation of examples: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=7,*18000|10,*22000|280,*25000|15,*35000|15,*40000|50,*60000|10,*75000|6,*80000|4,*120000|2,*200000|1,1000000 1A], [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=12,*15000|25,*20000|1000,*30000|35,*35000|100,*45000|80,*50000|10,*60000|25,*80000|8,*175000|4,*250000|1,5000000 1B]
* [https://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Guardian/documents/2009/03/13/inequality.pdf Article from The Guardian analysing inequality in the UK 1974–2006]
* [https://www.wider.unu.edu/project/wiid-world-income-inequality-database World Income Inequality Database]
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-magazine-monitor-31847943 BBC News: What is the Gini coefficient?]
* [http://www.oecd.org/els/social/inequality/GU Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries]
* [http://inequality.org/unequal-americas-income-distribution/ U.S. Income Distribution: Just How Unequal?]

{{Globalization}}
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{{Poverty}}
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[[Category:1912 introductions]]
[[Category:1912 in economic history]]
[[Category:Concentration indicators]]
[[Category:Demographic economics]]
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Shudra

2026-03-29T07:54:46Z

MarcyThompson89: brief adjusted intro to improve readability additionally and added references

{{Short description|One of four varnas (classes) in Hinduism}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Hinduism small}}

'''Shudra''' or ''Shoodra''<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/eastern-religions/hinduism/sudra| title = Sudra |website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> ([[Sanskrit]]: ''{{IAST|Śūdra}}''{{sfn|Sharma|1990|pp=60–61, 192–200, 261–267 with footnotes}}) is one of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]] of the Hindu class and social system in [[ancient India]].<ref name=davis51/>{{sfn|Varadaraja V. Raman|2006|pp= 200–204}} Some sources translate it into English as a [[caste]],{{sfn|Varadaraja V. Raman|2006|pp= 200–204}} or as a social class. Theoretically, Shudras constituted a class like workers.{{sfn|Sharma|1990|pp=60–61, 192–200, 261–267 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Ghurye|1969|pp=15–17|ps=: "This was only generally true, for there were groups of occupations like trading, agriculture, labouring in the field and doing military service which were looked upon as anybody's, and most caste were supposed to be eligible for any of them."}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Gombrich|author-link=Richard Gombrich|title=Buddhist Precept & Practice|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uZQrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA343 |year=2012|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-15616-8|pages=343–357|chapter=Chapter 8. Caste in the Monastery}}</ref>

According to [[Richard Gombrich]]'s study of [[Buddhist texts]], particularly relating to castes in [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Buddhist]] and [[Tamil Hindu]] society, {{quote|The terms Vaisya and Sudra did not correspond to any clear-cut social units, even in the ancient period, but various groups were subsumed under each term [...]; In medieval times (say AD 500–1500) though society was still said to consist of the four classes, this classification seems to have become irrelevant[.]}}

The word ''Shudra'' appears in the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and it is found in other Hindu texts such as the ''[[Manusmriti]]'', ''[[Arthashastra]]'', [[dharmaśāstra]]s and [[jyotiḥśāstra]]s. In some cases, Shudras participated in the coronation of kings, or were [[amatya]] "ministers" and [[raja]]s "kings" according to early Indian texts.<ref name=jabbar148/>{{sfn|Sharma|1990|pp=54–61, 267–268 with footnotes}}

==History==
===Vedas===
The term ''śūdra'' appears only once in the ''Rigveda''.{{sfn|Basham|1989|pp=25-26}}{{Sfn|Sharma|1990|p=33}} This mention is found in the mythical story of creation embodied in the ''[[Purusha Sukta|Puruṣasuktam]]''. It describes the formation of the four varnas from the body of a [[Purusha|primeval man]]. It states that the [[brahmin]] emerged from his mouth, the [[kshatriya]] from his arms, the [[vaishya]] from his thighs and the shudra from his feet. According to historian [[Ram Sharan Sharma]], the purpose of this verse may have been to show that shudras had the same lineage as the other varnas and hence were a section of society in the [[Vedic period]]. On the other hand, it could also represent an attempt to provide a common mythical origin for the heterogenous Brahminical society.{{sfn|Sharma|1990|p=32}}<ref name="Sharma1983">{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Ram Sharan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN_ZAAAAMAAJ|title=Material culture and social formations in ancient India|publisher=Macmillan|year=1983|isbn=9780333904169|page=51|author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma}}</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/36 36-37]}}

While the ''Rigveda'' was most likely compiled between c. 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995|p=4}} John Muir in 1868 suggested that the verse that mentions the four varnas has "every character of modernness both in its diction and ideas".<ref>{{cite book |last=Muir |first=John |title=Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and Institutions, Volume 1|date=1868|publisher=Trubner and Co|location= London|page= 12|edition=2nd|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=K5ooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12}}</ref> The ''Purusha Sukta'' verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a [[Origin myth|charter myth]].{{sfn|Stephanie Jamison|Joel Brereton|2014|pages=57–58}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Moriz Winternitz |author-link1=Moriz Winternitz |author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA59 |year=1996 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0264-3 |pages=59–60}}</ref>

According to [[Stephanie W. Jamison]] and Joel Brereton, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".{{sfn|Stephanie Jamison|Joel Brereton|2014|pages=57–58}} Historian [[Ram Sharan Sharma]] states that "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth... [it] was primarily organised based on kin, tribe and lineage."{{sfn|Sharma|1990|p=10}}

According to Sharma, nowhere in the ''Ṛgveda'' or ''Atharvaveda'' "is there any evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage either between the Dasa and Aryan, or between the Shudra and the higher varnas". Further, adds Sharma, in late Atharva Veda, "Shudra does not come in for notice, probably because his varna did not exist at that stage".{{sfn|Sharma|1990|p=44–45}}

According to [[Romila Thapar]], the Vedic text's mention of Shudra and other varnas has been seen as its origin, and that "in the varna ordering of society, notions of purity and pollution were central and activities were worked out in this context" and it is "formulaic and orderly, dividing society into four groups arranged in a hierarchy".{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=63}} According to Sharma, the Shudra class originated from [[Aryan#Proto-Indo-Iranians|Indo-Aryans and non-Indo-Aryans]] who were relegated to that position due "partly through external and partly through internal conflicts".{{Sfn|Sharma|1990|p=45}}

The word ''pusan'' appears in a Vedic-era [[upanishad]] meaning "nourisher" and associates it with the creation of earth and production activities that nourishes the whole world, and the text calls this ''Pusan'' as Shudra.<ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Olivelle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC|title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-535242-9|page=49|author-link=Patrick Olivelle}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|1990|pp=49–50}} The term ''Pusan'', in Hindu mythology, is the charioteer of the sun who knows the paths thereby bringing light, knowledge and life to all.<ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Olivelle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC|title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-535242-9|pages=483, 636|author-link=Patrick Olivelle}}</ref> The same word ''pusan'' is, however, associated in a [[Brahmana]] text to [[Vaishya]].{{sfn|Sharma|1990|pp=49–50}}

===Arthashastra===
The ancient Hindu text ''Arthashastra'' states, according to Sharma, that ''Aryas'' were free men and could not be subject to slavery under any circumstances.{{sfn|Sharma|1958|p=163 (1990:177)}} The text contrasts ''Aryas'' with ''Shudra'', but neither as a hereditary slave nor as an economically closed social stratum in a manner that the term Shudra later was interpreted.{{sfn|D. R. Bhandarkar|1989|p=9}}{{sfn|Sharma|1958|p=163 (1990:177)}}{{sfn| Roger Boesche | 2013|pp= 103-104}} According to Rangarajan, the law on labour and employment in ''Arthashastra'' has led to a variety of different interpretations by different translators and commentators, and "the accepted view is that slavery, in the form it was practised in contemporary Greece, did not exist in Kautilyan India".{{sfn|LN Rangarajan|1992|p=411}}

[[Kautilya]] argued for the rights of Shudras and all classes to participate as warriors. Roger Borsche says that this is so because it is in the self-interest of the ruler to "have a people's army fiercely loyal to him precisely because the people had been treated justly".{{sfn| Roger Boesche|2013|pp= 103-104}}

===Manusmriti===
The ''Manusmriti'' predominantly discusses the code of conduct (dharma rules) for the Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class).{{sfn|Patrick Olivelle|2005|pp=16, 62-65}} The text mentions Shudras and Vaishyas, but this part is its shortest section. Sections–of the ''Manusmriti'' state eight rules for Vaishyas and two for Shudras.{{sfn|Patrick Olivelle|2005|pp= 16, 8-14, 206-207}}

According to [[Indologist]] [[Patrick Olivelle]], the ''Manusmriti'' says Brahmins may seize property from Shudras (because Shudras own nothing)<ref>Patrick Olivelle 2005, page 189.</ref> and that Shudras should not accumulate wealth as if they become wealthy they could gain undue power.<ref>Patrick Olivelle 2005, page 214.</ref>

In sections 10.43 - 10.44, Manu lists [[Kshatriya]] tribes who, neglecting the priests and their rites, had fallen to the status of Shudras. These are: [[Pundravardhana|Pundrakas]], Codas, [[Dravida kingdom|Dravidas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Yavana]]s, [[Saka]]s, [[Parada kingdom|Paradas]], [[Pahlavas]], [[Chinas]], [[Kirata]]s, [[Daradas]] and [[Khas people|Khasas]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Deshpande |first1=Madhav|last2=Hook |first2=Peter Edwin|title=Aryan and Non-Aryan in India |year=1979 |publisher=University of Michigan |isbn=0891480145 |page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpz6CpO4XhwC&q=Cinas,+Kir%C4%81tas+and+Daradas|access-date=24 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Baldwin |first1=John Denison |title=Pre-Historic Nations |year=1871 |publisher=Sagwan Press |isbn=1340096080 |page=290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oz5HAQAAMAAJ&q=shudras+Cinas%2C+Kir%C4%81tas+and+Daradas&pg=PA290|access-date=25 June 2018}}</ref>

===Yajnavalkya smriti and Grhyasutras===
According to [[Laurie L. Patton|Laurie Patton]], a professor of religion specialising in early Indian religions, the rights and status of Shudra vary widely across early Indian texts.{{sfn|Laurie Patton|2002|p=90}} The ''Apastamba Grhysutra'' excludes the Shudra students from hearing or learning the Vedas.{{sfn|Laurie Patton|2002|p=90}} ''[[Yajnavalkya Smriti]]'' in contrast, mentions Shudra students, and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' states that all four varnas, including the Shudras, may hear the Vedas.{{sfn|Laurie Patton|2002|pp=90-91}}{{sfn|Sharma|1990|p=293}} Other Hindu texts go further and state that the three varnas – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya – may acquire knowledge from Shudra teachers, and the ''[[yajna]]'' sacrifices may be performed by Shudras.{{sfn|Laurie Patton|2002|p=91}} These rights and social mobility for Shudras may have arisen in times of lower societal stress and greater economic prosperity, periods that also saw improvement in the social conditions of women.{{sfn|Laurie Patton|2002|pp=90-91}}

===Medieval Upanishads===
Medieval era texts such as ''[[Vajrasuchi Upanishad]]'' discuss varna and include the term Shudra.<ref>Mariola Offredi (1997), The banyan tree: essays on early literature in new Indo-Aryan languages, Volume 2, Manohar Publishers, {{oclc|46731068}}, {{ISBN|9788173042775}}, page 442</ref><ref>M.V. Nadkarni (2005), [http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf Review Articles: Perspectives on Dalit Problems and Solutions] {{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Journal of Social and Economic Development, Vol. 7, No. 1, page 99</ref> According to Ashwani Peetush, a professor of philosophy at the Wilfrid Laurier University, the ''Vajrasuchi Upanishad'' is a significant text because it assumes and asserts that any human being from any social background can achieve the highest spiritual state of existence.<ref>Ashwani Peetush (2011), Justice and Religion: Hinduism, in Encyclopedia of Global Justice, Springer Netherlands, {{ISBN|978-1402091599}}, pages 596–600</ref>

===Non-Hindu texts===
Outside of the conflicting stances within the Hindu texts, non-Hindu texts present a different picture about the Shudras. A Buddhist text, states Patton, "refers to Shudras who know the Vedas, grammar, [[Mimamsa]], [[Samkhya]], [[Vaisheshika]] and [[lagna]]".{{sfn|Laurie Patton|2002|p=90}}

According to [[Johannes Bronkhorst]], a professor of Indology specialising in early Buddhism and Hinduism, the ancient Buddhist canon is predominantly devoid of varna discussions, and the varnas are rarely referred to in its ancient discourses.{{sfn|Johannes Bronkhorst| 2011|p=34 with footnotes}} The Buddhist texts do not describe the Indian society as divided into the four varṇas of "Brahmins, Ksạtriyas, Vaiśyas and Śūdras". Instead, states Bronkhorst, the bulk of society is described as consisting of "householders" (Pāli: ''gahapati''), without internal distinctions.{{sfn|Johannes Bronkhorst| 2011|p=34 with footnotes}} Even where the Brahmins are mentioned in such a context, they too are referred to as householders, or ''Brāhmaṇa-gahapati''.{{sfn|Johannes Bronkhorst| 2011|pp=34-35}} The term ''vaṇṇa'' does appear in the Buddhist texts as few exceptions, but states Bronkhorst, only in the context of abstract divisions of society and it seems to "have remained a theoretical concept without any parallel in actual practice".{{sfn|Johannes Bronkhorst| 2011|p=35}}

== Disabilities ==
The Śāstra literature lists various disabilities of śūdras.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kane |first=Pandurang Vaman |title=History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediæval Religious and Civil Law) |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |year=1941 |series=Government Oriental Series Class B, No 6 |volume=II, Part I |location=Poona |pages=154–164}}</ref>

# Barred from studying and hearing the [[Vedas]]. The prohibition was based on Vedic passages, but Kane notes in ancient times was the prohibition not as "absolute and universal". Śūdras were permitted to hear the [[Itihāsa]] and [[Puranas|Purāṇa]] texts.<ref name=":0" />
# Barred from performing [[Vedic sacrifice|Vedic sacrifices]] and instituting sacred Vedic fires. Śūdras were permitted to perform pūrta-dharma (building wells, tanks, temples, parks, and distributing charity), to perform the five daily Mahāyajñas in ordinary fire, perform the [[Śrāddha]], all without Vedic mantras and speaking only "namaḥ".<ref name=":0" />
# There exist conflicting opinions regarding [[Samskara (rite of passage)|saṁskāras]]. The most restrictive text, the Mānava Dharmaśāstra, bars śūdras from all saṁskāras. The most liberal texts allow performance of the childhood saṁskāras preceding Vedic study along with vivāha ("marriage"), all without the use of Vedic mantras.<ref name=":0" />
# Higher punishments for certain offenses such as sexual intercourse, adultery, rape, slander, or libel of a person of higher varṇa. For some certain offenses such as theft a śūdra received less punishment than higher varṇas.<ref name=":0" />
# Longer impurity of one month during death and birth in the family.<ref name=":0" />
# Barred from being a judge or propounding dharma.<ref name=":0" />
# Barred from giving gifts to brāhmaṇas except in extreme situations.<ref name=":0" />
# Brāhmaṇas generally prohibited from taking food from śūdras unless the śūdra be in the brāhmaṇa's employ.<ref name=":0" />
# Texts vary on whether or not a śūdra may touch a brāhmaṇa without expiation on the brāhmaṇa's part.<ref name=":0" />
# A śūdra was only entitled to the [[Grihastha|gr̥hastha]] ("householder") [[āśrama (stage)]].<ref name=":0" />
# The penance for killing a śūdra was less than a person of the higher varṇas.<ref name=":0" />

Kane notes that despite these disabilities the śūdras had many advantages; they were free from the minutiae of rules, regulations, and constant rituals required of the higher varnas.<ref name=":0" />

==Education==
Historian R. S. Sharma, after discussing several examples concludes that the dharmaśāstras did not allow the Shudras access to [[literacy]] but allowed them to learn arts and crafts such as elephant training, etc. He also adds that texts denied them Vedic education as it was believed to impede agriculture and vice versa. While the other varnas showed varying degrees of literacy, the Shudras were generally illiterate.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1990|p=134}}</ref> The social reformer [[Jyotirao Phule]] blamed the deterioration of the Shudras on illiteracy and emphasised education for them.<ref name="JyotiraoPhuleonShudra">
*{{cite book|author=Angus J. L. Menuge|title=Religious Liberty and the Law: Theistic and Non-Theistic Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NMItDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT272|date=20 July 2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-98266-5|pages=272–}}
*{{cite book|author1=J. S. Rajput|author2=National Council of Educational Research and Training (India)|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Education: A-K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGYOAQAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=NCERT|isbn=978-81-7450-303-9|page=22|quote=Although varying degrees of literacy were present among the first three castes, there was absolute illiteracy among Shudras.}}
*{{cite book|author1=Michael D. Palmer|author2=Stanley M. Burgess|title=The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=miXfxNiFghcC&pg=PT210|date=12 March 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5537-6|pages=210|quote=His emphasis on the education of the Shudras is well explained in his own words: For want of education intellect deteriorated, For want of intellect morality decayed, For want of morality progress stopped, For want of progress wealth vanished, For want of wealth Shudra perished and all these sorrows sprang from illiteracy.}}</ref>

==Occupation==
[[File:From left to right- A Gurkha, a Brahmin and a Sood.jpg|thumb|From left to right: A [[Gurkha]], a Brahmin, and a Shudra, Simla, 1868.]]
Traditionally, Shudras were [[peasant]]s and [[artisan]]s. The ancient texts designate the Shudra as a peasant. Shudras were described as the giver of grain and ancient texts describe a Shudra's mode of earning as being "by the sickle and ears of corn". The ancient precept, "Vedas are destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is destroyer of Vedas", is shown as one of the reasons as to why the Shudras were not allowed to learn Vedas. The fact that peasants were held as Shudras is also documented by Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] in the [[7th century]]. Also, an "outcaste" who entered the profession of agriculture would be absorbed in the Shudra varna.<ref name="ShudraPeasantSources">Shudra peasant :
*{{cite book | last=Barrett | first=Ronald L. | title=Aghor Medicine: Pollution, Death, and Healing in Northern India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnIlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 | date=4 March 2008 | publisher=University of California Press | isbn=978-0-520-25218-9 | page=68 | quote=Among the most vocal of these supporters was Dr. Shastri, a professor of Ayurvedic medicine at a well-known university, who associated the Caraka Samhita use of shudra for lesser conditions with the shudra (peasant) castes, linking both.}}
*{{cite book | last=Krishnan-Kutty | first=G. | title=Peasantry in India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8lOrdSYJiLwC&pg=PA47 | year=1986 | publisher=Abhinav Publications | isbn=978-81-7017-215-4 | page=47 | quote=The ancient texts designate the sudra as a peasant. The distinction between the all-India category of varna and the local and omnipresent category of jati is well brought out by M. N. Srinivas in his famous book ''The Remembered Village''.}}
*{{cite book | last=Sisson | first=Richard | title=The Congress Party in Rajasthan: Political Integration and Institution-building in an Indian State | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNn0L9BmCQcC&pg=PA33 | year=1971 | publisher=University of California Press | isbn=978-0-520-01808-2 | page=33 | quote=The Shudra included peasants and artisans.}}
*{{cite book | last=Gadkari | first=Jayant | title=Society and Religion: From Rugveda to Puranas | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zst_7qaatp8C&pg=PA76 | date=October 1996 | publisher=Popular Prakashan | isbn=978-81-7154-743-2 | page=76 | quote=An extract from Pali work Majjima Nikaya tells us... shudras [live] by the sickle and ears of corn. A large number of Shudras appear to be agricultural laborers. Shudras were not entitled to learn Vedas, and a precept says, 'Vedas are the destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is the destroyer of Vedas.'}}
*{{cite book | last=Kumar | first=Sangeet | title=Changing Role of the Caste System: A Critique | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=guhtAAAAMAAJ | date=1 January 2005 | publisher=Rawat Publications | isbn=978-81-7033-881-9 | page=144 | quote=In some texts, the pure Shudras were described as giver of grain (annada) and householder (grhastha). The reason was that the actual cultivation was generally done by peasants belonging to the Shudra caste.}}
*{{cite book | last=Grewal | first=J. S. | title=The State and Society in Medieval India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgluAAAAMAAJ | year=2005 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-566720-2 | page=156 | quote=At its beginning or a little before the millennium, the Manusmriti considers the pursuit of agriculture blameworthy because the 'wooden [plough] with the iron point injures the earth and the [beings] living in the earth'. Thus, by an appeal to the doctrine of ahimsa, so much promoted by Buddhism and Jainism, the plough became unclean, and the peasant who worked the plough earned opprobrium that has stuck till our own times. R. S. Sharma shows how in the legal texts, peasants were generally regarded not as Vaishyas as earlier, but as Shudras. This is confirmed in the seventh century by Xuan Zhuang (Hsuan Tsang) who found that in India peasants were held to be Shudras. Such varna ranking of most peasant castes (now usually given the designation of 'Other Backward Castes') is thus more than 1300 years old, and was in place by the early medieval times. If certain older communities were thus reduced in status, it is possible that other communities, previously held to be outside the pale of the varna system, were absorbed as Shudra castes once they took to agriculture. We have such an example in the Kaivartas.}}
*{{cite book | last=Jha | first=Dwijendra Narayan | title=Early India: A Concise History | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUpuAAAAMAAJ | date=1 January 2004 | publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors | isbn=978-81-7304-587-5 | page=196 | quote=For the shudras now took their position as cultivators and the origin of the modern peasant castes of kurmis in Bihar and kunbis in Maharashtra may be traced back to the early medieval period.}}
</ref>

The Shudra, states Marvin Davis, are not required to learn the [[Vedas]]. They were not ''[[dvija]]'' or "twice-born", and their occupational sphere stated as service (''seva'') of the other three varna.<ref name=davis51>{{cite book |title=Rank and Rivalry: The Politics of Inequality in Rural West Bengal |first=Marvin |last=Davis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1983 |page=51 |isbn=9780521288804 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kw4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52}}</ref>{{Sfn|Thapar|2004|p=63}} The word ''Dvija'' is neither found in any [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishads]], nor is it found in any Vedanga literature such as the Shrauta-sutras or Grihya-sutras.<ref name="DIntinoGuenzi2012p117">{{cite book|author=Patric Olivelle|editor=Silvia D'Intino, Caterina Guenzi|title=Aux abords de la clairière: études indiennes et comparées en l'honneur de Charles Malamoud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9UIMwEACAAJ|series=Volume 7 of Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Sciences Religieuses: Série Histoire et prosopographie|year=2012|publisher=Brepols, Belgium|isbn=978-2-503-54472-4|pages=117–132}}</ref> The word is almost entirely missing, in any context, from ancient Sanskrit literature composed before the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and it scarcely appears in the dharmasutras.<ref name="DIntinoGuenzi2012p117"/> Increasing mentions of it appear in the dharmasastras of mid to late 1st millennium CE. The presence of the word ''dvija'' is a marker that the text is likely a medieval-era text.<ref name="DIntinoGuenzi2012p117"/>

The traditional occupation of Shudra as described by Ghurye is agriculture, trade and crafts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingold |first=Tim |title=Companion encyclopedia of anthropology |publisher=Routledge |location=London New York |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-415-28604-6 |page=1026}}</ref> However, this categorisation varies by scholar.{{sfn|Ghurye|1969|pp=63-64, 102 Quote: "treat both the Vaishyas and the Shudras as almost indistinguishable. The occupations prescribed by Parashara, who is par excellence the mentor of the age, for both of them are the same, viz. agriculture, trade and crafts"}} As per Drekmeier state "Vaishya and Shudra actually shared many occupations and were frequently grouped together".<ref name="Drekmeier1962p85">{{cite book|author=Charles Drekmeier|title=Kingship and Community in Early India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmurAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85 |year=1962|publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-0114-3|pages=85–86}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|1990|pp=263–269, 342–345}}

The ''Arthashastra'' mentions Shudra as artisans while the ''Vishnusmriti'' (3rd century) states all arts to be their occupational domain. In contrast, the ''Parasarasmriti'' and other texts state that arts and crafts are the occupational domain of all four varnas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=Exploring India'S Sacred Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxPeWwFz9MkC&pg=PA60 |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1208-6|pages=60–61}}</ref>

Other sources state that this statement of occupations of Shudra is a theoretical discussion found in select texts, it is not historical. Other Hindu texts such as the epics, states Naheem Jabbar, assert that Shudras played other roles such as kings and ministers.<ref name=jabbar148>{{cite book|author=Naheem Jabbar|title=Historiography and Writing Postcolonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wt6AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA148| year=2009| publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1-134-01040-0|pages=148–149}}</ref> According to Ghurye,{{sfn|Ghurye|1969|pp=15–16}} in reality, the hereditary occupation aspect of Shudra and other varnas was missing from large parts of India, and all four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) were agriculturalists, traders or became warriors in large numbers depending on economic opportunity and circumstantial necessities.{{sfn|Ghurye|1969|pp=16–17}} According to Ghurye:

{{Blockquote|
Though theoretically the position of the Shudras was very low, there is evidence to show that many of them were well-to-do. Some of them succeeded in marrying their daughters in royal families. Sumitra, one of the 3 wives of king Dasharatha, was a Shudra. Some of them even worked their way up to throne.
|G. C. Ghurye|''Caste and Race in India''{{sfn|Ghurye|1969|p=63}}|source=}}

===Bali, Indonesia===
Among the Hindu communities of Bali, Indonesia, the Shudra (locally spelled ''Soedra'') have typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be a Brahmin (Brahmana), Kshatriya (Ksatrya) or Vaishya. In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite ''meweda'' (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.<ref>Jane Belo (1953), Bali: Temple Festival, Monograph 22, American Ethnological Society, University of Washington Press, pages 4-5</ref>

===Historical evidence===
Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of ''varna'' and ''jati'' in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence of ''varna'' and ''jati'' systems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has emerged.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|pp=50–51}}{{sfn|Orr|2000|pp=30–31}}

''Varna'' is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of [[Andhra Pradesh]], for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of history and Asian studies, to question whether ''varna'' was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention of ''jati'' is even rarer, through the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|pp=50–51}}

Richard Eaton, a professor of history, writes, "anyone could become a warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the ''jati'' appear as features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid." Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited" in the Hindu [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya]] population in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region between the 11th and 14th centuries.{{sfn|Eaton|2008|pp=15-16}}

According to Johannes Bronkhorst, none of Ashoka's inscriptions mention the terms Kshatriyas, Vaishyas or Shudras, and only mention Brahmins and [[Śramaṇa]]s.{{sfn|Johannes Bronkhorst| 2011|pp=32, 36}}

Several popular medieval era [[Bhakti movement]] poet-saints and religious leaders were born in a Shudra family. Examples include [[Tukaram]] and [[Namdev]].<ref>Richard M. Eaton (2005), ''A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521716277}}, pages 129-130</ref>{{sfn|Novetzke|2013|pp=54-55}} The compositions of Namdev have been popular not only in the Hindu community of [[Maharashtra]], but also in the Sikh community. Sixty of his compositions were included by the Sikh Gurus of Punjab region as they compiled the [[Sikhism]] scripture the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pashaura Singh|title=The Bhagats of the Guru Granth Sahib: Sikh Self-definition and the Bhagat Bani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMrXAAAAMAAJ |year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-566269-6 |pages=11–15, 105–107, 119–120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kerry Brown|title=Sikh Art and Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ddgO-DldmSwC |year=2002|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-63136-0|page=114}}</ref>

==Commentary==
[[File:Women of all nations; a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs and influence (1908) (14596144980).jpg|thumb|A 1908 photo of a [[bride]] and [[bridegroom]] of the sudra caste in a [[horse-drawn vehicle]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Women of all nations, a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs and influence |year=1908|first=Thomas Athol |last=Joyce|author-link=Thomas Athol Joyce|url=https://archive.org/details/womenofallnation00joyc}}</ref>]]
[[B. R. Ambedkar|Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar]], a social reformer, believed that there were initially only three varnas: the [[Brahmin]], [[Kshatriya]] and [[Vaishya]], and that the Shudras were the Kshatriyas who were denied the [[Upanayana]], an initiation ritual, by the Brahmins.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ambedkar|first1=B.R.|title=Who were the Shudras|year=1970|publisher=Thackers|location=Bombay|page=xiv|url=http://164.100.47.134/plibrary/ebooks/Jagjivan%20Ram/(sno%207)jagjivan%20ram%201.pdf|access-date=17 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819103958/http://164.100.47.134/plibrary/ebooks/Jagjivan%20Ram/(sno%207)jagjivan%20ram%201.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> This claim has been contested by historians such as [[Ram Sharan Sharma|R. S. Sharma]]. Sharma criticised Ambedkar for relying solely on translations of texts for his information, and stated Ambedkar wrote the book with the sole purpose to prove Shudras were of high caste origin, which was very popular among the highly educated parts of the lower castes during that time period.{{sfn|Sharma|1990|p=5}}

[[Sri Aurobindo]] states Shudra and the other varna is a concept found in all human beings in different proportions. He states that this was externalised and mechanised into a system quite different from what it was intended.{{sfnp|Aurobindo|1996|pages=740-747|ps=}}

The tenets of Vedic Hinduism in north India held less sway in the south, where the societal divisions were simply three distinguishable classes, the [[Brahmins]], the non-Brahmins and the [[Dalit]]s. The two intermediate [[dvija]] varnas—the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas—did not exist.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ayesha |last=Jalal |title=Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNJHlFTPBT0C&pg=PA204 |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-47862-5 |page=204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Jean Alphonse |last=Bernard |title=From Raj to the Republic: A Political History of India, 1935–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP9tAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Har Anand Publications |page=37|isbn=9788124107669 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=M. P. |last=Joseph |title=Legitimately Divided: Towards a Counter Narrative of the Ethnographic History of Kerala Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNLYAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Christava Sahitya Samithi |isbn=978-81-7821-040-7 |page=62}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Tapan |last1=Raychaudhuri |first2=Irfan |last2=Habib |author-link2=Irfan Habib |first3=Dharma |last3=Kumar |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India: c.1200–c.1750 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA26 |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press Archive |isbn=978-0-521-22692-9 |page=27}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Sat-Sudra]]
* [[Chuhra]]
* [[Other Backward Class]]
* ''[[Who Were the Shudras?]] (Book)''

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}

=== General and cited references ===
* {{Cite book |last=Basham |first=Arthur Llewellyn |author-link=Arthur Basham |title=The Origin and Development of Classical Hinduism |edition=Reprinted |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-19-507349-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC}}
* {{Cite book |author=D. R. Bhandarkar |title=Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUAvuYu-otEC |year=1989 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0457-5}}
* {{Cite book |author=Johannes Bronkhorst |title=Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BaX58-E5-3MC&pg=PA32 |year=2011 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-20140-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard |title=A social history of the Deccan, 1300–1761 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-51442-2}}
*{{Citation |last=Flood |first=Gavin D. |author-link=Gavin Flood |year=1996 |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521438780}}
*{{citation |author-link=Roger Boesche |author=Roger Boesche |year=2013 |title=The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra |publisher=Lexington |isbn=978-0739104019}}
* {{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development |chapter=Hinduism |author=Varadaraja V. Raman |editor=Elizabeth M. Dowling & W. George Scarlett |year=2006 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0761928836 |doi=10.4135/9781412952477.n114}}
* {{Cite web |title=Shudra: Hindu Class |author=Encyclopedia Britannica |year=2010 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shudra |publisher=The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica}}
*{{citation |last=Ghurye |first=G. S. |author-link=G. S. Ghurye |year=1969 |orig-year=first published 1932 |edition=Fifth |title=Caste and Race in India |publisher=Popular Prakashan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWkjsvf6_vsC |isbn=978-81-7154-205-5}}
* {{Cite book |author1=Stephanie Jamison |author2=Joel Brereton |title=The Rigveda: the earliest religious poetry of India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-937018-4}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqUdRVOv9TUC |title=Religion and Public Memory: A Cultural History of Saint Namdev in India |first=Christian Lee |last=Novetzke |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-23151-256-5}}
* {{Cite book |author=Patrick Olivelle |author-link=Patrick Olivelle |year=2005 |title=Manu's Code of Law |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195171464}}
* {{Cite book |last=Orr |first=Leslie |title=Donors, devotees, and daughters of God temple women in medieval Tamilnadu |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-509962-1}}
* {{Cite book |author=Laurie Patton |title=Jewels of Authority: Women and Textual Tradition in Hindu India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iB3-v90z3SwC |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513478-0}}
* {{Cite book |author=LN Rangarajan |year=1992 |title=The Arthashastra |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0140446036}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=R. S. |author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma |title=Śūdras in Ancient India |publisher=Motilal Banarasi Dass |location=Delhi |year=1958 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16085 |via=archive.org}}
** {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Ram Sharan |title=Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC |edition=Third |year=1990 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. |isbn=978-81-208-0706-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Talbot |first=Cynthia |title=Precolonial India in practice society, region, and identity in medieval Andhra |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513661-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ofGLngEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |first=Romila |last=Thapar |author-link=Romila Thapar |publisher=University of California Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780520242258 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |journal=EJVS |volume=1 |issue=4 }}

[[Category:Shudra castes| ]]
[[Category:Varnas in Hinduism]]

Kasaragod North

2026-03-22T19:19:25Z

MarcyThompson89: added...

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kasaragod North
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Mogral, Kumbla
| nickname =
| settlement_type = town
| image_skyline = File:Lake Temple, Kumbla.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Lake Temple, Kumbla
| pushpin_map = India Kerala
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|12.54032|N|74.96058|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =[[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kasargod district|Kasargod]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = [[Panchayati raj|Panchayat]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 671321
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 4998
| registration_plate = KL-14
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Mangaluru]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Kasaragod (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kasaragod]]
| blank3_name_sec1 =
| blank3_info_sec1 =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

[[File:Maippady Palace, Kasaragod.jpg|thumbnail|Maippady Palace, Kumbla]]
[[File:Olayam Masjidh, Kasargod, Kerala, India. (4804983754).jpg|thumbnail|Olayam Dargah, Shiriya]]
[[File:Uppala2011 cente2418.JPG|thumbnail|Uppala Town]]

'''Kasaragod North''' is a suburb of Kasaragod city in north [[Kerala]]. It is located at the mouth of a lagoon formed by the ''Shiriya river''. The following townships, suburbs and villages are part of Kasaragod North:
* [[Kumbla]]
* [[Mogral]]
* [[Shiriya]]
* Aripady
* [[Mangalpady]]
* [[Uppala]]

==History==
Kumbla was once the seat of the '''Kumbla Kings'''<ref>[http://kerala-info.newkerala.com/Kerala/Kasargod-District-Information.html Kasaragod District Information]</ref> l, who ruled the southern part of [[Tuluva]] Kingdom. It was a small port in ancient times. In the 16th century A.D. (1514), ''Duarte Barbosa'', the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] traveller, visited Kumble and he had recorded that he had found people exporting rice to the [[Maldives]] in exchange of [[coir]]<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news|url=http://www.ksd.kerala.gov.in/hist.htm |title=Kasaragod History |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925134038/http://www.ksd.kerala.gov.in/hist.htm |archivedate=25 September 2008 }}</ref> When [[Tippu Sultan]] captured [[Mangaluru]], the Kumble Raja fled to [[Thalassery]]; but he returned in 1799 and after an unsuccessful fight for independence, submitted to the [[British Empire]] and accepted a small pension of Rs. 11,788 per annum in 1804.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> ''Parthisubba'', the great [[Yakshagana]] exponent, known as ''Father of Yakshagana'' was born here in the 18th century.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

==Uppala==
'''Uppala''' is a town in Kasaragod North and it is situated between [[Kasaragod Town|Kasaragod]] and [[Mangalore]]. It is around 22 km north to the Kasaragod town and 30 km south to [[Mangalore]] city. Uppala is located about 586 km north to the state capital, [[City|Thiruvananthapuram]]. [[NH 17|National Highway 66]], which used to be known as NH 17, passes through the town. Uppala used to be known as Kurchipalla.
According to census, the town has a population of 41,212 with the density around 1650 per square kilometre.
As Uppala is located very near to the [[Arabian Sea]], it has a very low elevation of nine metres. The town is densely populated near the National Highway 66.
Uppala is a major infrastructural hub in the district and is noted for jewellery shops, fast food restaurants and high residential flats which lies across the town. High rises can be seen in town. It is the major destination for retail shopping in the district. Many projects are active in the town. It is also a major business hub in the district and also contributed for the rise in remittance in the state, in the most prevalent sectors like real estate, infrastructure, financial institutions, hospitality and healthcare.
The locals speaks many languages such as Malayalam, [[Tulu language|Tulu]], Hindi, Urdu and Kannada. It has been selected as the centre of Urdu language in the region.

==Mogral==
'''Mogral''' ('''മൊഗ്രാല്‍''') is a [[village]] in [[Kasaragod district]] in the state of [[Kerala]], [[India]]. Mogral is part of [[Kumbla]] [[gram panchayat]]. The [[Mogral River]] flows in southern border of Mogral.
{{As of|2001}} India [[census]], Mogral had a population of 7449 with 3647 males and 3802 females.<ref name="censusindia">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/Population_data/Population_5000_and_Above.aspx |title=Census of India : Villages with population 5000 & above |author=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |accessdate=2008-12-10 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208044522/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/Population_data/Population_5000_and_Above.aspx |archivedate=8 December 2008 }}</ref> Mogral has one government school, GVHSS Mogral. Other schools include Essa English Medium High School.

A regional center for Study Mappila pattu and folk Arts was set up at Mogral 2009 under Mahakavi Mohin Kutty Vaidyar Memorial Center Kondotty Malappuram.

Govternment Unani hospital Mogral The only one hospital for under govt of kerala. 1985 ( Unani medicine)
Mogral Sports Club (MSC) is one of the oldest (started 1918) sports clubs. There are sports clubs like Deenar Gally, Rising Stars, Citizen Kadavath, Koppalam F C, Rovers Mogral, Perwad Sports Club, Nadupallam FC and Priyadharsini sports club (1985) kekepuram. Nangi Club.

MSC is about 100-year-old sports club which is popular for its football team which have won major titles in Kasaragod District and adjacent districts.

MSL was the grand event of football which took place at Mogral. Tournament was an Indian Premier League (IPL) meets English Premier League(EPL) style 7-a-side football tournament organised by the Mogral Sports Club U A E committee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/mogral-soccer-league-people-in-mogral-want-to-become-like-mohammed-rafi-and-not-like-sachin-tendulkar|title=Mogral Soccer League: "People in Mogral want to become like Mohammed Rafi and not like Sachin Tendulkar"|author=Vishaal Loganathan|date=28 February 2013|work=sportskeeda.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=Mogral Soccer League - For the football crazy village of Mogral | url=http://lockerdome.com/6223638433115457/6963572446078228 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412052346/http://lockerdome.com/6223638433115457/6963572446078228 | access-date=2025-11-16 | archive-date=2015-04-12}}</ref>

Players were selected by teams through auction which was a new experience to the people gathered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kasargodvartha.com/2012/12/mogral-soccer-league-auction-for-players.html|title=താരലേലം ഫുഡ്‌ബോള്‍ പ്രേമികള്‍ക്ക് നവ്യാനുഭവമായി|author=Kasaragodvartha|work=kasargodvartha.com|date=23 April 2023 }}</ref>



==Transport==
* Kasaragod North is situated on [[National Highway 17|NH-17]]. There are frequent State-owned bus services ( both by Karnataka & Kerala ) that connect Kumbla and Mogral to [[Kasaragod]] and [[Mangaluru]]
*Indian Railways passes through Kumbla and does have a small train station, connecting the town to the Malabar region in Kerala and to nearest big city Mangaluru (Mangalore). As of now, 14 trains<ref>[http://traintime.in/railway-stations/kumbla-railway-station-train-time.html Kumbla Railway station Train Time]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> including 8 express trains and 6 local trains stop in Kumble.
*The nearest airport is in Mangaluru. The old name of the airport [[Bajpe]]. [[Mangalore|Mangaluru]], approximately about 45 Kilometers (30 Miles) from Kumbla, connected through local taxies and buses.
*To the east, a local road, winds through Ananthapuram, Neerchal, Badiyadka all the way up to Puttur and beyond.

==Educational Institutions==
{{see also|List of schools in Uppala}}

*Govt.Senior Basic School, an upper primary school situated near the heart of Kumbla Town. Over a century old, and has a number of experienced hands in teaching.
*Govt. Higher Secondary School, situated near Kumbla Police Station, the only Govt. Higher Secondary in Kumbla.
*College of Applied Science Manjeshwer, an Institute managed by IHRD Kerala. Offering Under Graduate and Post Graduate Degrees in Computer Science and Electronics.
*Holy Family Aided Senior Basic School is situated at Badiadka Road, which celebrated its 75 years (Diamond Jubilee) in 2010.
*Khansa Women's College for Advanced Studies, Situated in Kumbla
*Essa English Secondary School, Pervad, Kumbla.
*Kumbla Academy of Higher Education, Kumbla. The Managing Director of Kumbla Academy is Ibrahim Kaleel Nellikunnu, who is well known for his teaching, social service and commitment to the society.

==See also==
*[[Manjeshwar]]
*[[Perla, Kasaragod|Perla]]

==Image gallery==
<gallery>
File:CPCRI Kasaragod, Kerala, India.jpg|CPCRI on Kumbla Road
File:Arikkady Temple, Kumbla.jpg|Arikkady Temple, Kumbla, Kasaragod
File:Coconut Research Centre (4583152197).jpg|CPCRI
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Kumbla}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150214023216/http://kumblenayakaru.in/kumbla.html Kumbla Town]

{{Kasaragod district}}

[[Category:Suburbs of Kasaragod]]

Veraval Junction railway station

2026-03-21T09:08:03Z

MarcyThompson89: slightly correct content based on references

{{short description|Railway Station in Gujarat, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Veraval Junction
| symbol_location = 362266
| style = Indian Railways
| type = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] [[Indian Railways]] station
| image = Veraval Railway Station - Veraval Gujarat - DSC0001.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Veraval Junction
| address = Junction Road, [[Veraval, Gujarat]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|20.912396|70.370880|format=dms|display=inline}}
| elevation = 7m
| owned = [[Ministry of Railways (India)|Ministry of Railways]], [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Western Railway zone|Western Railway]]
| line = [[Rajkot–Somnath line]] Amreli–Veraval line Veraval–Delvada section
| distance =
| platforms = 5
| tracks = 5
| train_operators =
| connections =
| structure = Standard (on ground)
| parking = Available
| accessible = {{access icon|20px}} Available
| electrified = {{Start date and age|2023|10|22}}
| status = {{color|green|Functioning}}
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = VRL<ref name="stn_code" />
| zone = [[Western Railway zone|Western Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Bhavnagar}}
}}
| website =
| opened = {{start date and age|1897}}
| former = [[Junagadh & Veraval Railway]]
| closed =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| services =
| mapframe = Yes
| mapframe-caption = Interactive Map
| mapframe-custom = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-align=center|frame-width=300|frame-height=180|zoom=14|type=point|marker=rail}}
| map_locator =
| map_type = India#India Gujarat
| map_dot_label = Veraval Junction
| map_size = 300
}}

'''Veraval Junction railway station''' (station code: VRL<ref name="stn_code">{{cite web |title=Station Code Index |url=https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/coaching/pdf/Station_code.pdf |website=Portal of Indian Railways |publisher=Centre For Railway Information Systems |access-date=23 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216225807/https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/coaching/TAG_2023-24/Station_Code_Index.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2024 |page=8 |date=2023–24}}</ref>) is a railway station in the city of [[Veraval]], [[Gujarat]]. It is under [[Bhavnagar railway division]] of [[Western Railway Zone]] of Indian Railways. It is one of the major railway stations in [[Kathiawar|Saurashtra]]. Veraval Junction is "A" category station of Bhavnagar railway division of Western Railway zone.

It is located at 7 m above sea level and has five platforms. As of 2024, a single electric broad-gauge railway line and a single diesel meter-gauge line exists. Fourteen trains terminate & originate, at this station. [[Diu Airport]] is 73 km away.<ref>{{cite web|title=VRL/Veraval Junction|url= http://indiarailinfo.com/departures/2123? |access-date=27 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/list-of-43-new-trains-announced-in-rail-budget-39568-2009-02-13| title=List of 43 new trains announced in rail budget| website=India Today}}</ref>

==History==

In the late 1800s, Gujarat’s princely states—[[Junagadh State|Junagadh]], [[Gondal State|Gondal]], [[Bhavnagar State|Bhavnagar]], [[Morvi State|Morvi]], etc.—built metre‑gauge networks to connect towns economically. These were small‑scale, cost‑effective lines built to meet modest traffic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Government of India |url=http://archive.org/details/BombayBarodaAndCentralIndiaRailwaySystem |title=Bombay Baroda And Central India Railway System |date=1918}}</ref>

Finally, Junagadh State Railway (also Junagadh & Veraval Railway) inaugurated the Junagadh–Veraval metre‑gauge link in 1888–89.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Government of India |url=http://archive.org/details/BombayBarodaAndCentralIndiaRailwaySystem |title=Bombay Baroda And Central India Railway System |date=1918}}</ref> Around the same time, the Rajkot–Jetalsar Railway was launching its Rajkot–Jetalsar stretch (also metre gauge), which linked with the Junagadh–Veraval section, fully connecting Rajkot to Veraval by 1890. Collectively, this interlocking network, built by princely railways, integrated into the Rajkot–Junagadh–Veraval trunk line, establishing Veraval as a vital junction for town's pilgrim-bound passengers and freight heading to the coast and beyond.

In April 1948, these princely metre‑gauge lines merged into [[Saurashtra Railway]], and by November 1951, were absorbed into [[Western Railway zone|Western Railway]]. Decades later, recognizing the need for standardized, higher‑capacity tracks, the Rajkot–Veraval metre gauge was converted between 1996–2003, culminating in full broad-gauge connectivity by 2003.

==Major trains==
The following trains start from Veraval Junction railway station:
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
!! style="background-color:#FFD700" | Train no.
!! style="background-color:#FFD700" | Train name
!! style="background-color:#FFD700" | Destination
|-
|26901/02
|[[Sabarmati (Ahmedabad) – Veraval Vande Bharat Express|Sabarmati–Veraval Vande Bharat Express]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-24 |title=PM to flag off new Vande Bharat between Ahmedabad’s Sabarmati and Gir Somnath’s Veraval on Monday |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/pm-to-flag-off-new-vande-bharat-between-ahmedabads-sabarmati-and-gir-somnaths-veraval-on-monday-10026726/ |access-date=2025-07-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|{{stnlnk|Sabarmati Junction}}
|-
|19319/20
|[[Veraval–Indore Mahamana Express]]<ref>{{cite web |date=29 June 2018 |title=Indore–Veraval Mahamana Express all set to flag-off by Sumitra Mahajan; check schedule, stations of new train |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/railways/indore-veraval-mahamana-express-all-set-to-flag-off-by-sumitra-mahajan-check-schedule-stations-of-new-train/1224739/ |website=Financial Express}}</ref>
|{{stnlnk|Indore Junction}}
|-
|16333/34
|[[Thiruvananthapuram–Veraval Express|Thiruvananthapuram Veraval Express]]
|{{stnlnk|Thiruvananthapuram Central}}
|-
|19217/18
|Saurashtra Janta Express
|{{stnlnk|Bandra Terminus}}
|-
|12945/46
|[[Veraval–Banaras Weekly Superfast Express|Veraval–Banaras Superfast Express]]
|{{stnlnk|Banaras}}
|-
|11087/88
|[[Veraval–Pune Express]]
|{{stnlnk|Pune Junction}}
|-
|22957/58
|[[Somnath Superfast Express]]
|{{stnlnk|Gandhinagar Capital}}
|-
|19203/04
|[[Bandra Terminus–Veraval Weekly Superfast Express]]
|{{stnlnk|Bandra Terminus}}
|-
|11463/64
|[[Somnath–Jabalpur Express (via Itarsi)]]
|{{stnlnk|Jabalpur Junction}}
|-
|11465/66
|[[Somnath–Jabalpur Express (via Bina)]]
|{{stnlnk|Jabalpur Junction}}
|-
|19251/52
|[[Somnath–Okha Express]]
|{{stnlnk|Okha}}
|-
|19119/20
|[[Ahmedabad–Somnath Intercity Express]]
|{{stnlnk|Gandhinagar Capital}}
|-
|59558/59
|Veraval−Bhavnagar Passenger
|{{stnlnk|Bhavnagar Terminus}}
|-
|59421/22
|[[Rajkot–Veraval Passenger]]
|{{stnlnk|Rajkot Junction}}
|-
|59423/24
|[[Rajkot–Veraval Passenger]]
|{{stnlnk|Rajkot Junction}}
|}

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="180">
Veraval Junction.webp|Station Board
Veraval Railway Station - panoramio.jpg|Station in 2010
VRL - TVC Exp. (27949349703).jpg|Thiruvananthapuram Central–Veraval Express
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Junagadh State Railway]]
* [[Jamnagar & Dwarka Railway]]
* [[Somnath railway station|Somnath Terminus]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/2123 Veraval Junction railway station] at the India Rail Info

{{Railway stations in Gujarat |state=expanded}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1897]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Gir Somnath district]]
[[Category:Bhavnagar railway division]]
[[Category:Railway junction stations in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Transport in Veraval]]

{{Gujarat-railstation-stub}}

Rosario Rodrigues

2026-03-16T12:40:18Z

MarcyThompson89: creating article

{{Short description|Indian playwright and director (1944–2003)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rosario Rodrigues
| image = Rosario Rodrigues Portrait (cropped).jpg
| caption = Rodrigues during his youth
| birth_name = Rosario Lourenço Santana Rodrigues
| birth_date = {{birth date|1944|10|24|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Benaulim]], [[Goa]], [[Portuguese India]], [[Portuguese Empire]]
| other_names = Dr. Rosario Rodrigues
| death_place = Benaulim, Goa, India
| death_date = {{death date and age|2003|8|5|1944|10|24|df=y}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Playwright|director|comedian|composer}}
| years_active = 1970s–1990s
| spouse = {{marriage|Carmina Fernandes|1979}}
| children = 1
| known_for = Founder of non-stop drama or show format
}}

'''Rosario Lourenço Santana Rodrigues''' (24 October 1944 – 5 August 2003) was an Indian playwright, theatre director, comedian, and composer known for his work in ''[[Tiatr#Khell tiatr|khell tiatr]]'' productions and non-stop dramas. Referred to as the "[[Goan]] [[Shakespeare]]"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Navhind |date=2018-10-28 |title=TAG to remember tiatr artistes of yesteryears on October 29 – The Navhind Times |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2018/10/28/magazines/buzz/tag-to-remember-tiatr-artistes-of-yesteryears-on-october-29/ |access-date=2024-05-31 |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531194317/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2018/10/28/magazines/buzz/tag-to-remember-tiatr-artistes-of-yesteryears-on-october-29/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and "Father of ''khell tiatr''",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Late khell tiatr legend Rosario remembered |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/%EF%BB%BFlate-khell-tiatr-legend-rosario-remembered/60789.html |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531194316/https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/%EF%BB%BFlate-khell-tiatr-legend-rosario-remembered/60789.html |url-status=live }}</ref> he founded the "non-stop drama" format, alike to [[one-act play]] of three hours duration in the 1970s, from the traditional two [[act (drama)|act]] plays of ''khell tiatr''. His drama format had its peak period between 1970 and 2000.

==Early life==
Rosario Lourenço Santana Rodrigues was born on 25 October 1944 in [[Benaulim]], [[Goa]], which was part of [[Portuguese India]] during the [[Portuguese Empire]]. He was born into a [[Goan Catholic]] family, the eldest of four siblings. His parents were Rosario Filipinho Rodrigues, a musician, and Natalia Tereza Furtado, a [[homemaker]]. Rodrigues had three sisters - Maria (born 1951), Martinho (born 1954), and Aninha (born 1957) - as well as a younger brother, David (born 1945).<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=30 June 2006 |title=Registo De Nascimento |url=https://goaonline.gov.in/Appln/UIL/BirthDeathCertificate_af?__Key=&_Mode=B&__cscKey= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131321/https://goaonline.gov.in/HomePage |archive-date=10 August 2023 |access-date=10 August 2023 |website=Goa Online}}</ref> During his schooling at Holy Trinity High School in Benaulim, Rodrigues was described as an academically gifted student who demonstrated a strong interest in [[dramatics]]. Benaulim was known for its literate and illiterate ''khell [[tiatrist]]s'', a local cultural tradition.<ref name=":3" /> Rodrigues first pursued his education in the Portuguese language before advancing his studies in English. He served as an [[accountancy]] instructor at the Carvalho Institute in [[Margão]] for an extended period.<ref name=":0" />

In his youth, Rodrigues would stage informal ''[[tiatr]]'' productions in the [[chicken coop]] behind his home after school had ended for the day. For these makeshift performances, he enlisted the assistance of his neighbor Seby Carvalho, a [[Konkani language|Konkani]] singer and actor, as well as other local residents. Their roles included tasks such as raising and lowering bed sheets that served as improvised curtains. As Rodrigues' involvement in ''tiatr'' deepened, he began teaching a form of [[street play|street theater]] known as ''zomnivhele khell'' to the youth of Benaulim. These sessions took place at the Holy Trinity chapel in the village.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Overcoming stage fright to shine on stage |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Review/Voice-Of-Tiatr/Overcoming-stage-fright-to-shine-on-stage-/115695 |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531194315/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Review/Voice-Of-Tiatr/Overcoming-stage-fright-to-shine-on-stage-/115695 |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[Trinity Sunday|annual chapel feast]], Rodrigues would compose original ''[[tiatr]]'' plays, with the local youth-including future popular ''[[tiatrist]]s'' like [[Nelson Afonso]] and [[A. S. Conception]]-joining the [[theatrical troupe|performance troupe]]. Rodrigues also played a role in providing performance opportunities and cultivating new talent. When some actors failed to show up for rehearsals, Rodrigues would call upon Seby to step in and learn the lines quickly, allowing him to gain acting experience through these ''tiatr'' productions.<ref name=":2" /> In this manner, Rodrigues helped lay the groundwork for the ''tiatr'' theater tradition that would take root and flourish in [[Benaulim]] and across the broader [[Goan]] region.<ref name=":1" />

==Career==
Rodrigues initiated his journey in the [[performing arts]] field by creating music and showcasing his performances at community gatherings in nearby villages. He also engaged in [[scriptwriting]] for individuals requiring assistance in developing their theatrical works. Over time, he transitioned to composing scripts for [[street play]]s known as ''khells'', which were then performed by other individuals. Around 1962, he transitioned to writing and producing a type of short theatrical performance also known as ''khells''. Rodrigues encountered opposition from his father, [[mistri|mestre]] Filipino Rodrigues, a popular [[bandleader]] and [[clarinet]] player, due to his engagement in this particular style of theatrical endeavor. Despite this lack of parental support, Rodrigues continued to write and sell individual [[Act (drama)|acts or "''one partes''"]] of these ''khell'' productions for around {{INRConvert|10|year=1962}} each, making his first sale in 1962. In 1971, he established his own group of performers and staged his inaugural full-length ''khell'' theatre performance named ''Meenakxi Surya''. This two-part theatrical work had a total runtime of three hours.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fernandes |first=André Rafael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKAbygAACAAJ |title=When the Curtains Rise--: Understanding Goa's Vibrant Konkani Theatre |date=2010 |publisher=Tiatr Academy of Goa |isbn=978-93-80739-01-4 |pages=156 |language=en |access-date=2024-05-31 |archive-date=2023-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126045216/https://books.google.com/books?id=vKAbygAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Rodrigues also participated in competitive showings of ''[[Tiatr#Khell tiatr|khell tiatr]]'', a related dramatic form. During these contests, two directors would present their ''khell'' productions, and the audience would vote by a [[Show of hands (politics)|show of hands to decide the victor]]. Throughout his career, Rodrigues engaged in competition with popular ''khell tiatr'' directors like [[Antonio Moraes]], Vitorino Pereira, Menino Alfonso, and Soccoro de Verna.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fernandes |first=Wiliam |title=TIATR 125th Anniversary Commemorative Volume |publisher=[[Tiatr Academy of Goa]] |year=2019 |location=[[Panaji, Goa]] |pages=206–207}}</ref>

In the early 1970s, [[Goan]] theater underwent a significant transformation with the emergence of a new dramatic format pioneered by Rodrigues. Dubbed "''khell-tiatr''," these productions differed from the traditional ''[[tiatr]]'' by featuring a shorter runtime of approximately 90 minutes. Rodrigues himself was at the forefront of this innovation, writing and directing several popular ''khell tiatr'' productions, including ''Ekech Rati'' (In One Night) and ''Ami Fator'' (We are Stones), in 1972. The success of Rodrigues' ''khell tiatrs'' inspired other directors to adopt a similar approach, leading to the proliferation of this format across the Goan theater landscape. Beyond his work in the ''khell tiatr genre'', Rodrigues went on to script and produce a diverse range of 90-minute productions. These included works such as ''12 Vorsanni'' (12 Years), ''Patang'' (Kite), ''Patkin'' (Sinner), ''Tem'' (She), ''Chedde Cheddvam'' (Boys and Girls), ''Ekleanuch Poila'' (Witnessed by Oneself), ''Hindustani Cheddvam'' (Hindustani Girls), and ''Frank Sinatra'', among others, which have become recognized as some of his acclaimed creations. In the year 1976, Rodrigues revolutionized ''khell tiatr'' by introducing an element called the ''non-stop drama''. Departing from the conventional ''tiatr'' structure of two separate plays, Rodrigues presented a single, full-length production titled ''Fattim Paulo'' (I've reached Back) that ran for three hours. This production featured a revolving [[stage set]], [[special effect]]s, and [[stage lighting|lighting]], marking a significant stylistic departure from the traditional format. Rodrigues' success with the "non-stop drama" inspired other directors to follow suit, contributing to the increasing popularity and recognition of this new theatrical approach. Historically, ''tiatrs'' had been primarily enjoyed by the [[Roman Catholic Brahmin|educated elite]], while ''khell tiatrs'' appealed more to the masses. However, Rodrigues' pioneering work in elevating the status and production values of the non-stop drama helped to bridge this divide, making the format accessible and appealing to a wider range of audiences across [[Caste system in Goa|different socioeconomic groups]] in [[Goa]].<ref name=":0" />

Rodrigues frequently collaborated with fellow actor Vithal Fernandes, performing [[comedy sketch]]es in the production of ''Fattim Paulo''. In this collaborative agreement, Rodrigues and Fernandes agreed to shave their heads. As a result, Rodrigues decided to wear a wig for the duration of his professional career. As a [[theatre practitioner]], Rodrigues introduced several technical innovations to the commercial stage. He substituted the conventional whistle typically employed to indicate the commencement and conclusion of curtain movements with a torchlight. Furthermore, Rodrigues employed an electric bulb to signal musicians to perform the "''[[Tiatr#Songs|cantos]]''" (songs). His productions incorporated various stage effects, such as trick scenes, a [[revolving stage]], a folding stage, and [[DJ lighting|disco lighting]]. Rodrigues was a playwright who authored several well-received non-stop dramas. Some of his acclaimed works include ''Fattim Paulo'', ''Uzvadd Paloilo'' (Lights Out), ''Mhoje Voniecho To'', ''Aum Vatt Chuklom'' (I've forgotten the way), ''Anga To Ietolo'' (Here He'll Come), ''Bhuk'' (Hunger), ''Mhozo Uzvadd'' (My Light), ''Mhaka Jieunk Diat'' (Let Me Eat), ''Fulam Ani Kolle'', ''Hanvuch To'' (It Is Me), and ''Yeunk Nam'' (Didn't Come), among others. He frequently incorporated popular ''[[tiatr]]'' artists, such as [[Betty Naz]], [[Jessie Dias]], [[Antonette Mendes]], [[Fatima D'Souza]], [[Ophelia Cabral]], and Bab Peter, into his productions. Rodrigues played a pivotal role in the dissemination of the ''[[Tiatr#khell tiatr|khell tiatrs]]'' and non-stop dramas across Goa and other parts of India, contributing to the popularity and evolution of the ''tiatr'' genre.<ref name=":0" />

Rodrigues played a crucial role in elevating the status and popularity of ''khell tiatrs'' to be on par with the more established ''tiatr'' format. He introduced several innovations to the ''khell tiatr genre''. He was a writer and director, authoring and directing over 75 [[dramatic work]]s. He staged performances not only throughout the state of [[Goa]], but also in other parts of India such as [[Bombay]], [[Poona]], and the border regions of [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]]. Rodrigues even took ''khell tiatrs'' to the [[Gulf countries]], expanding the reach of this theatrical form.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=de Sa |first=Victor |date=18 October 2010 |title=TAG to Remember Late Dr. Rosario Rodrigues |url=http://goa-world.com/index.html |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=Goa World|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201130111/http://goa-world.com/index.html |archive-date=2011-02-01 }}</ref> Rodrigues implemented a unique method by personally transporting his [[Scenic design|stage setting]]s between various venues to streamline the production of his theatrical works.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Khell Tiatr' - the musical drama of Goa |url=https://www.thegoan.net//khell-tiatr-the-musical-drama-of-goa/1442.html |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531194315/https://www.thegoan.net//khell-tiatr-the-musical-drama-of-goa/1442.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[Konkani language|Konkani]] historian [[Wilson Mazarello]], "Rodrigues was a reasonably well-educated and intelligent writer" who introduced an innovative concept to the ''khell tiatr'' tradition. He observed that the conventional format of two separate plays within a single program placed an unnecessary cognitive burden on the audience, who had to remember two distinct narratives. He proposed a novel solution - the non-stop drama format, which featured a single, continuous narrative. This innovation was a significant contribution that distinguished Rodrigues' work and approach within the ''khell tiatr'' tradition.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Mazarello |first=Wilson |title=Konkani Khell Tiatr |date=10 March 2018 |publisher=[[Dalgado Konknni Akademi]] |location=Panaji, Goa |pages=20–21}}</ref>

According to accounts by Mazarello, Rodrigues crafted a ''[[Tiatr#Khell tiatr|khell tiatr]]'' named ''Meenaxi'' with a distinctive format of a single 3-hour play (''parti'') with an interval, departing from the conventional style of multiple shorter plays. Rodrigues chose to exclude unrelated songs (''[[Tiatr#Songs|kantaram]]'') within the performance, apart from an [[Theme music|opening song]]. The play featured 14-15 ''cantos'' ([[Sequence (musical form)|musical sequence]]s) that were integral to the performance. Rodrigues integrated the traditional ''[[tiatr]]'' elements and advancements attributed to [[Antonio Moraes]] into the ''khell tiatr'' format, a novel approach that garnered acclaim from audiences, especially in [[South Goa]]. Building on this success, he further expanded his [[repertoire]] with the play ''Fattim Paulo'', showcasing a cohesive storyline presented in a single 3-hour performance encompassing approximately 15 ''cantos''. However, he chose to rebrand the performance, shifting from the term "''khell tiatr''" to "non-stop drama." This new designation proved equally appealing to audiences, who flocked to the shows in ever-increasing numbers. Rodrigues received acclaim for his talent in engaging audiences with [[storytelling]] techniques, dialogues, and the incorporation of "''cantos''" that enriched the theatrical experience. Both the ''Meenaxi'' and ''Fattim Paulo'' productions were hailed as unprecedented successes in the evolution of the [[Goan]] theatrical landscape.<ref name=":1" />

The "non-stop drama" format emerged as a prominent trend within the Goan theatrical tradition of ''khell tiatr'' in the early 21st century. Traditionally, ''khell tiatr'' productions had consisted of two separate plays performed in a single performance. However, a shift occurred where many ''khell tiatr'' playwrights began to focus on writing continuous, single- play productions that ran for approximately three hours, divided into 14 to 15 distinct [[Act (drama)|acts]] or "''cantos''". This new format was pioneered by Rodrigues and soon adopted by a number of other popular Goan ''khell tiatr'' writers. These included figures such as [[Antonio Moraes]], [[Patrick Dourado]], Succur Piedae Fernandes, and Vitorino Pereira, as well as emerging playwrights like Ligorio Fernandes, Minino de Bandar, R. Moraes, A. M. Pacheco, Rosario Dias, Christopher Leitao, and Pascoal Rodrigues. These writers came to view the non-stop drama format as the future direction for the ''khell tiatr'' genre. Rodrigues himself became particularly prolific in crafting these extended, single-play productions, which were often praised for their high-quality scripts. Several of Rodrigues' non-stop dramas, including titles such as ''Meenaxi'', ''Fattim Paulo'', Uzvadd Paloulo, ''Ekech Ratri'', ''Hanga tho Etolo'', ''Mhaka Jieunk Dieat'', ''Patkin'', ''Ghara Ea'', ''Mhojem Kitem Kortat'' and ''Thank you Doctor'', proved to be popular successes with Goan theater audiences.<ref name=":1" />

==Personal life==
Details about Rodrigues's personal life outside of his professional activities are limited. However, records indicate that on 29 May 1979, he married Carmina Fernandes at the Igreja de São João Baptist church, now known as St. John the Baptist Church, in the [[Goan]] town of [[Benaulim]]. Their [[civil marriage]] had been registered six days earlier in [[Margão]], also in [[Goa]]. At the time of his marriage, Rodrigues was not only involved in [[Konkani language|Konkani]] theatre productions, but also worked as a [[businessman]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pereira |first=Joaquim |date=1979 |title=Registo De Casamento Canónico |url=https://goaonline.gov.in/AllServices?cat=allZUeFHBL0zH_B_o_qI0Yn9nWEpm_kl2vuh1xW8sAol-2ZD-iDWhXpXWE_eMk/t-bc8/9nW91 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520212143/https://goaonline.gov.in/AllServices?cat=allZUeFHBL0zH_B_o_qI0Yn9nWEpm_kl2vuh1xW8sAol-2ZD-iDWhXpXWE_eMk/t-bc8/9nW91 |archive-date=20 May 2024 |access-date=14 December 2023 |website=Goa Online}}</ref> Together, Rodrigues and his wife Carmina had one child, a son named Floyd (born 1980).<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 1980 |title=Directorate of Planning, Statistics and Evaluation and Office of the Chief Registrar of births and deaths |url=https://rbd.goa.gov.in/Certificate/CertificateSelect_goaonline.aspx |access-date=30 December 2022 |website=Goa Online |archive-date=27 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027073241/https://rbd.goa.gov.in/Certificate/CertificateSelect_goaonline.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Carmina herself was a stage actor and composer who had been active in the early 1970s. She had made her debut in two ''[[Tiatr#khell tiatr|khell tiatr]]'' productions directed by Rodrigues - ''Ekech Ratri'' and ''Ami Fator''. It is likely that the couple met through their shared involvement in Goa's theatrical scene during this period. After marrying Rodrigues, Carmina largely withdrew from her performance career, though she occasionally continued to participate in productions.<ref name=":1" />

Rodrigues exerted influence over his contemporaries and amateur artists involved in this dramatic tradition. One of his most prominent protégés was the Konkani singer Antonio Vital Furtado. Furtado was regarded as a devoted follower and long-standing collaborator of Rodrigues, having participated in 57 of the latter's ''[[tiatr]]'' productions since the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A true friendship in the world of tiatr |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Voice-Of-Tiatr/A-true-friendship-in-the-world-of-tiatr-/95892 |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531194315/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Voice-Of-Tiatr/A-true-friendship-in-the-world-of-tiatr-/95892 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another Konkani comedian, known by the [[stage name]] "Comedian Jesus" (Jose Antao), also identified Rodrigues as his preferred ''tiatr'' playwright.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Navhind |date=2016-08-28 |title=Comedian Jesus enthralls his fans with his witty answers – The Navhind Times |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2016/08/28/magazines/buzz/comedian-jesus-enthralls-his-fans-with-his-witty-answers/ |access-date=2024-05-31 |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531194319/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2016/08/28/magazines/buzz/comedian-jesus-enthralls-his-fans-with-his-witty-answers/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Insights into Rodrigues's [[scriptwriting]] process have been provided by J. P. Pereira of ''[[The Navhind Times]]''. Pereira reported that Rodrigues would routinely consult with fellow writer Tertuliano "Tedol" Fernandes to develop the narratives and [[Plot (narrative)|plot]]s for his ''khell tiatr'' works.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=N. T. |date=2019-07-21 |title=For the love of the stage – The Navhind Times |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2019/07/21/magazines/buzz/for-the-love-of-the-stage-2/ |access-date=2024-05-31 |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531194319/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2019/07/21/magazines/buzz/for-the-love-of-the-stage-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On 5 August 2003, Rodrigues, aged 58, died at his residence in Mazilvaddo, Benaulim.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 August 2003 |title=Directorate of planning, statistics and evaluation and office of the chief registrar of births and deaths |url=https://rbd.goa.gov.in/Certificate/DeathCertificate.aspx#aSearch |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123154022/https://rbd.goa.gov.in/ErrorPage/500.htm?aspxerrorpath=/Certificate/DeathCertificate.aspx#aSearch |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=Goa Online}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rodrigues, Rosario}}
[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:Tiatrists]]
[[Category:People from South Goa district]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Goa]]

Xavier Gomes

2026-03-15T09:08:03Z

MarcyThompson89: started post

{{Short description|Indian singer and playwright (born 1949)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Xavier Gomes
| image = Xavier Gomes at tiatr Dabolim vo Mopa Ho Lok Sangtolo (cropped).jpg
| caption = Gomes at a ''[[tiatr]]'' production, 2013
| birth_name = Jose Xavier Gomes
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1949|12|3|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[St Estevam|Santo Estêvão]], [[Goa]], [[Portuguese India]], [[Portuguese Empire]]
| other_names = X. Gomes<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jose Xavier Gomes ( X. Gomes ) {{!}} Directorate of Art and Culture, Government of Goa, India |url=https://www.artandculture.goa.gov.in/en/jose-xavier-gomes-x-gomes |access-date=2024-06-17 |website=www.artandculture.goa.gov.in |archive-date=2024-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240617122326/https://www.artandculture.goa.gov.in/en/jose-xavier-gomes-x-gomes |url-status=live }}</ref>
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|theatre actor|playwright|director}}
| spouse = Luiza Gomes
| children = 2
| years_active = {{circa|1962}}–present
| website = {{URL|facebook.com/xavier.gomes.108}}
}}

'''Jose Xavier Gomes''' (born 3 December 1949) is an Indian singer, theatre actor, playwright, theatre director, and former drummer who works on the [[Tiatr|Konkani stage]].

==Career==
Gomes began his [[performing arts]] career at the young age of 8, appearing on the ''[[tiatr]]'' stage in a village drama production. At 13 years old, he made the transition to [[Bombay]] (now Mumbai), where he got the opportunity to participate in theatrical performances under the direction of the popular [[Konkani language|Konkani]] theater figure, [[C. Alvares]]. In 1974, Gomes ventured to [[Kuwait]] seeking improved prospects, where he sustained his engagement in the performance and production of ''tiatrs'' in the region. During this period, Gomes also wrote and directed three of his own original ''tiatr'' plays - ''Kazaracho Inam'', ''Sonvsarant Korin Vhoddlo?'', and ''Hanv Tuka Kedinch Bhogxichim Nam''. In addition to his work as a singer, Gomes was a [[drummer]] who performed with various [[musical group]]s.<ref name=":0">TAG's Lifetime Contribution to Tiatr Award: Profile of Xavier Gomes via [[Tiatr Academy of Goa]] (TAG) publication (15 December 2015)</ref> He maintained an active presence in the Konkani ''tiatr'' scene in [[Goa]], appearing regularly in productions directed by popular figures such as [[Prem Kumar (Konkani actor)|Prem Kumar]], [[M. Boyer]], [[Prince Jacob]], [[Mario Menezes]], [[John D' Silva]], Mariano Fernandes, [[Lawry Travasso]], and Sammy Tavares, among others.<ref name=":1">Goa State Cultural Award: Profile of Shri. Jose Xavier Gomes (Tiatr) via Directorate of Art and Culture, [[Goa]] publication (30 November 2016)</ref>

Gomes also contributed to the Konkani performing arts in other ways. He contributed his vocal abilities to various [[audio recording]]s, particularly [[audio album]]s, and independently produced multiple albums as well, including ''Bore Kristanv'', ''Otmeank Rozar Kor'', ''Jezuk Okman Kelo'', and ''Indian Passport''. Additionally, Gomes created popular [[video album]]s like ''Ghorkarachi Zodd'' and ''Bhavancho Ekvott''.<ref name=":0" /> Throughout his career, Gomes maintained a strong presence in the Konkani ''tiatr'' scene, performing regularly not only in Goa and Mumbai, but also in the [[Gulf region]] (mainly [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], Dubai, [[Abu Dhabi]], and [[Muscat]]), [[Western world|the West]] and also internationally in places like London, France, Germany. Over the course of his career, Gomes is estimated to have appeared on more than 200 Konkani audio and video recordings ([[CD]]/[[VCD]]s). He played a vital role in introducing and promoting the art of ''tiatr'' performances in Kuwait as one of the early pioneers in the field.<ref name=":1" />

===Introduction to drumming===
Speaking about his transition from being a singer to becoming a [[drummer]], Gomes explains that before going to [[Kuwait]], he used to perform as a singer in ''[[tiatr]]s'' staged in [[Bombay]]. In Kuwait during the late 20th century, many ''tiatrs'' were also staged. One day, during a ''tiatr'' [[rehearsal]] in Kuwait, Gomes attended as a singer. At that time, he did not play the drums or own a [[drum set]]. Instead, he would play with [[cooking pot]]s and sticks at home, but not professionally. During the rehearsal, he noticed the [[Drum beat|drummer's beats]], which he did not like accompanying his song. Gomes asked the drummer to play the beats according to his instructions. In response, the drummer gave Gomes a serious and surprised stare. At the time he was in Kuwait, Gomes was quite new in the country, he was in his 20s,<ref name=":0" /> and his youth was the reason for moving to Kuwait. The drummer remained quiet when Gomes expressed his opinion. Later, Gomes once again urged the drummer, telling him that he was not comfortable with the beats. The drummer replied that "new kids often complained about the same thing, and that if one actually plays the drums, they would understand how difficult it is".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Xavier Gomes {{!}} Aniceto Lourenco {{!}} Candid with Candida {{!}} Ep. 66 {{!}} Prudent {{!}} 271223 |url=https://www.prudentmedia.in/candid-with-candida/xavier-gomes-aniceto-lourenco-candid-with-candida-ep-66-prudent-271223/23217.html |access-date=2024-06-17 |website=www.prudentmedia.in |language=en |archive-date=2024-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240617115802/https://www.prudentmedia.in/candid-with-candida/xavier-gomes-aniceto-lourenco-candid-with-candida-ep-66-prudent-271223/23217.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Kuwait, there was a sort of practice within the ''tiatr'' tradition during the 1970s. If a ''[[tiatrist]]'' came to perform in a ''tiatr'' in Kuwait, their whole family would accompany them, usually consisting of 2–3 family members. During the ''tiatr'' rehearsal attended by Gomes, there were many audience members present. The drummer once again played the drums, but Gomes did not like the beats as they did not match his singing. Gomes asked the drummer once more to rectify the issue as he himself was not comfortable with it. In response, the drummer threw his [[drum stick]]s onto the drums in front of the audience. This incident occurred during Gomes' first ''tiatr'' production as an amateur singer in Kuwait. Witnessing this reaction from the drummer, Gomes felt embarrassed. Gomes' roommate Marcus, a [[Konkani language|Konkani]] singer who performed with Gomes as a [[duo (music)|duo]], encouraged Gomes to play the drums. Initially hesitant as he had never owned a drum set or played drums professionally, except for playing on cooking pots and sticks at home, Gomes gathered the courage, and prepared himself to play the drums.<ref name=":2" />

During their ''tiatr'' rehearsal, there was a [[band leader]] who was a [[saxophonist]]. He instructed Gomes, a singer with no prior knowledge of playing the drums, to play the instrument in any way that felt comfortable to him. Gomes informed the band leader that he was not a drummer and could only identify incorrect beats with instructions. Despite this, the band leader persisted in asking Gomes to play, as their original drummer was tired of being criticized by young Gomes for his incorrect beats. When the band began playing, Gomes surprisingly played the correct beat for one [[Verse (music)|verse]]. While playing the drums, Gomes would also sing. Following this, Gomes spoke with the original drummer, asking him to play his beats while Gomes sang along to that [[rhythm]]. The drummer was shocked by this response. The drummer had ongoing issues cooperating with other band members, and within a month for some unspecified reason, the band decided to part ways with the drummer. Subsequently, two band members visited Gomes at his residence in Kuwait, informing him about their previous drummer's departure and expressing their need for a new drummer. Gomes explained to them that he was not a professional drummer and did not even own a drum set.<ref name=":2" />

Upon learning that Gomes was somewhat hesitant to join their band, the two band members assured him that they would guide and support him. They informed him that there was only 1–2 months remaining until a show scheduled for 31 December. Upon hearing this, Gomes became nervous as he would have to play the drums for a specific number of [[musical piece]]s and songs. He requested a few days to consider their offer. Gomes resided in a [[Bachelor pad|bachelor's residence]] with 6-7 other boys in [[Kuwait]]. There was an elderly woman living nearby who offered encouragement to Gomes, advising him to purchase a [[drum set]] since he did not own one, and she promised to assist him. Due to his limited salary, Gomes could not afford to buy a drum set. The elderly woman paid for his drum set, and Gomes contacted the band members. His first drum set was from [[Pearl Drums]]. Gomes then began daily rehearsals for the upcoming show, focusing on basic drumming without incorporating techniques like [[drum roll]]s. Subsequently, Gomes continued to play the drums for the next 17–18 years until he became a professional drummer.<ref name=":2" />

==Personal life==
Gomes resided in [[Kuwait]] from 1974<ref name=":0" /> until his retirement in 1993, after which he returned to his home state of [[Goa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A voice made for the stage |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Voice-Of-Tiatr/A-voice-made-for-the-stage/139878 |access-date=2024-06-17 |website=oHeraldo |date=31 August 2022 |archive-date=2024-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223180834/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Voice-Of-Tiatr/A-voice-made-for-the-stage/139878 |url-status=live }}</ref> He is married.<ref name=":2" /> According to the ''2012 Directory of Tiatr Artistes'', Gomes lived at Palmar Vaddo in [[St Estevam]], Goa.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45_WlAEACAAJ |title=Directory of Tiatr Artistes, 2012 |date=2012 |publisher=Tiatr Academy of Goa |pages=119 |language=en |access-date=2024-06-17 |archive-date=2024-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620184716/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Directory_of_Tiatr_Artistes_2012/45_WlAEACAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Style==
Gomes is recognized for his unique performance style, characterized by dancing to the [[rhythm]] of the [[Introduction (music)|introductory music]] before he begins to sing. This ritualistic stage entrance is a customary feature of Gomes's performances, with audiences anticipating his performances when the band plays his signature beats.<ref name=":2" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gomes, Xavier}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Tiatrists]]
[[Category:Musicians from North Goa district]]
[[Category:Writers from North Goa district]]
[[Category:Konkani-language singers]]

Jawhar Aftabchi

2026-03-14T18:16:39Z

MarcyThompson89: new

{{Short description|Biographer of Mughal emperor Humayun}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jawhar Aftabchi
| image =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Historian, Servant, Advisor
| known_for = Author of "Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat"
| notable_works = [[Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat]]
| title = Mehtar (Honorary title)

}}

'''Jawhar Aftabchi''' ({{langx|fa|جوهر آفتابچی}}) was an [[aftabah]]-bearer and servant of the Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]]. He also held several official positions during Humayun's reign.<ref name=":0" /> He is best known for authoring the ''[[Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat]]''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=[[Urdu Daira Maarif Islamiya]]|last=Muhammad Shafi|first=Moulvi|publisher=[[University of the Punjab]]|year=1971|edition=1st|location=Lahore|volume=7|page=529}}</ref>

==Biography==
Information about Jawhar's life is scarce, with most of the available details found within the pages of the ''Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/tazkirat-ul-waqiyat-ebooks?lang=ur|title=تذکرۃُ الواقِعات|last=Aftabchi|first=Jawhar|publisher=Anjuman Press|others=translator: Syed Moinul Haq|year=1955|edition=1st|location=Karachi|language=ur|access-date=2024-12-18}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Beyond these accounts, there is little reliable information about his personal history. Jawhar served faithfully under [[Humayun|Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun]] through both the heights of the emperor's power and his periods of exile and decline. He was considered one of Humayun's trusted confidants, and his advice was regarded as valuable. In recognition of his loyalty and service, Humayun conferred upon him the honorary title of "Mehtar" (chief).

Jawhar began his career as an employee in the royal stables before becoming an [[Aftabah]] (ewer-bearer) in Humayun's personal service. His dedication was rewarded in 962 AH (1554 or 1555 CE), when he was appointed revenue officer of the Heibatpur [[pargana]]. Later, he was entrusted with the administration of several villages in the jagīr (land grant) of Tatar Khan Lodhi. During his tenure, he settled outstanding debts owed to local Afghans by the state treasury, thereby securing the release of Afghan women and children who had been pledged as collateral. This act of integrity and compassion earned Humayun's admiration, and Jawhar was promoted to the position of treasurer for the provinces of Punjab and Multan.<ref name=":0" />

The exact date of Jawhar Aftabchi's death is unknown. However, records indicate that he was alive during the reign of Emperor [[Akbar]], Humayun's son. At Akbar's request, he compiled the ''[[Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat]]'' in 995 AH (1586 CE). Following Humayun's death, Jawhar gradually receded from public life and into obscurity.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/tazkira-tul-waqiyat-ebooks?lang=ur|title=تذکرۃ الواقعات|last=Aftabchi|first=Jawhar|publisher=[[Rampur Raza Library]]|others=writer: Mirza Hussain Beg Hamdani, compiler: Sajida Sherwani|year=2015|location=Rampur|language=ur|access-date=2024-12-18}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian male writers]]
[[Category:16th-century Mughal Empire people]]
[[Category:16th-century Persian-language writers]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian historians]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Nobility from the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Historians from the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]

Movie theater

2026-03-13T18:11:26Z

MarcyThompson89: fixes

{{Short description|Venue for viewing films}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2020}}
{{redirect|Cinema theater|former theater in Los Angeles|Kinema Theatre}}
[[File:Ptuj, city cinema.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Ptuj City Cinema]], Slovenia, opened on 3 March 1897, making it the oldest still active movie theater in the world.<ref name="Ptuj1">{{cite web|url=https://sloveniaguide.si/en/events/podravje/ptuj/ptuj-city-cinema/|title=Ptuj cinema|publisher=sloveniaguide.si|date=19 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="Ptuj2">{{cite web|url=https://www.kinoptuj.si/o-kinu/|title=Najstarejše še aktivno kino prizorišče v Sloveniji|publisher=kinoptuj.si|date=3 March 2017|language=sl}}</ref><ref name="Ptuj3">{{cite web|url=https://www.dlib.si/stream/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-SW0X6IXO/8724f625-7b8f-43ff-8321-801e702dcffd/PDF|page=4|title=Erlebende Photographien (column 1)|publisher=Pettauer Zeitung|date=7 March 1897|language=de}}</ref>]]
[[File:Sala de cine.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Modern theater auditorium, [[Madrid]]]]
[[File:Rodgers Theatre, 204-224 N. Broadway Street, Poplar Bluff, Mo, USA.jpg|thumb|[[Rodgers Theatre Building|Rodgers Theatre]], [[Poplar Bluff, Missouri]]: this [[Art Deco]]-style theater opened in 1949.]]
[[File:Oxford - Ultimate Palace Cinema - 0084.jpg|thumb|The view from the projectionist's booth at Ultimate Palace Cinema in [[Oxford]]; the projector is displaying the 1997–2012 [[Universal Pictures]] logo.]]
[[File:Pathe Tuschinski.jpg|thumb|[[Tuschinski Theatre]], Amsterdam, considered as one of the most beautiful movie theaters in the world]]
A '''movie theater''' ([[American English]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/movie-theater|title=Movie theater definition and meaning – Collins English Dictionary|website=www.collinsdictionary.com|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-date=6 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106142856/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/movie-theater|url-status=live}}</ref> or '''cinema''' ([[English in the Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth English]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cinema|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915230129/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cinema|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 September 2017|title=cinema – Definition of cinema |website=Oxford Dictionaries – English|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> also known as a '''movie house''', '''cinema hall''', '''picture house''', '''picture theater''', '''the movies''', '''the pictures''', '''the big screen''' (colloquialism), or simply '''theater''', is a [[business]] that contains [[auditorium]]s for viewing [[film]]s and occasionally a [[series premiere]], [[Television special|special episode]] or a [[series finale]] of a hugely popular [[television series]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cinepremiere.com.mx/32652-doctor-who-tendra-estreno-en-cines-en-mexico-latinoamerica.html | title=¡Doctor Who tendrá estreno en cines 3D en México! | work=cinepremiere.com.mx | language=es | date=24 October 2013 | access-date= 1 February 2026 | author=Itzel Hernández Valladares, Clara}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-hZrl-N3yps| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211118/-hZrl-N3yps| archive-date=18 November 2021| url-status=live|title=The Day of the Doctor - Hilarious Pre-Movie Theater Introduction|work=YouTube| date=23 December 2013|access-date=1 February 2026}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Louise|last=Griffin|date=29 April 2025 |title=Doctor Who season finale confirmed for cinema screenings
|language=en-GB |work=[[Radio Times]] |url=https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/sci-fi/doctor-who-season-finale-cinema-newsupdate/ |url-status=live |access-date=1 February 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250429185543/https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/sci-fi/doctor-who-season-finale-cinema-newsupdate/|archive-date=29 April 2025}}</ref> for public entertainment. Most are commercial operations catering to the general public, who attend by purchasing [[Ticket (admission)|tickets]].

The film is projected with a [[movie projector]] onto a large [[projection screen]] at the front of the auditorium while the dialogue, sounds and music are played through a number of wall-mounted speakers. Since the 1970s, [[subwoofer]]s have been used for low-pitched sounds. Since the 2010s, the majority of movie theaters have been equipped for [[digital cinema]] projection, removing the need to create and transport a physical [[film print]] on a heavy reel.

A great variety of films are shown at theaters, ranging from animated films to [[Blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]]s to documentaries. The smallest movie theaters have a single viewing room with a single screen. In the 2010s, most movie theaters had multiple screens. The largest theater complexes, which are called [[Multiplex (movie theater)|multiplexes]]—a concept developed in Canada in the 1950s—have up to thirty screens. The audience members often sit on padded seats, which in most theaters are set on a sloped floor, with the highest part at the rear of the theater. Movie theaters often sell [[soft drink]]s, [[popcorn]] and [[candy]], and some theaters sell hot [[fast food]]. In some jurisdictions, movie theaters can be licensed to sell alcoholic drinks.

== Terminology ==
[[File:Fox Theater night.jpg|thumb|right|The Fox Theater in [[Atlanta]] has an old-fashioned [[neon sign]].]]
[[File:Kay Theater -- Rockdale,Texas.jpg|thumb|Kay Theater in [[Rockdale, Texas]]]]

A movie theater is usually called cinema in Anglophone countries outside [[North America]]. Other terms for the venue include movie house, film house, film theater, or picture house. In the US, ''theater'' has long been the preferred spelling, while in the UK, Australia, Canada, and elsewhere it is ''theatre''.{{efn|Originally spelled ''theatre'' and ''teatre''. ({{Circa|1380}}), from around 1550 to 1700 or later, the most common spelling was ''theater''. Between 1720 and 1750, ''theater'' was dropped in [[British English]], but was either retained or revived in [[American English]] (''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd edition, 2009, CD-ROM: {{ISBN|9780199563838}}). Recent dictionaries of American English list ''theatre'' as a less common variant, e.g., ''Random House Webster's College Dictionary'' (1991); ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', 4th edition (2006); ''New Oxford American Dictionary'', third edition (2010); [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theater ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary'' (2011)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818193155/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theater |date=18 August 2017 }}.}}

However, some American theaters opt to use the British spelling in their own names, a practice supported by [[Cinema United]], while apart from Anglophone North America most English-speaking countries use the term ''cinema'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|n|ɪ|m|ə}}, alternatively spelled and pronounced ''kinema'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|n|ɪ|m|ə}}.<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kinema Merriam-Webster: "kinema" — British variant of ''cinema''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409164716/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kinema |date=9 April 2010 }} Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.kinema.uwaterloo.ca/about.php Kinema – a journal for film and audiovisual media] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110222522/http://www.kinema.uwaterloo.ca/about.php |date=10 November 2018 }} Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.thekinemainthewoods.co.uk/history/ The Kinema in the Woods] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120715090207/http://www.thekinemainthewoods.co.uk/history |date=15 July 2012 }}—name of cinema in [[Woodhall Spa]] Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref> The latter terms, as well as their derivative adjectives "cinematic" and "kinematic", ultimately derive from Greek κίνημα, κινήματος (''kinema'', ''kinematos'')—"movement, motion". The word "cinema" is borrowed from the French ''cinéma'', an abbreviation of ''cinématographe'', a term coined by the [[Lumière brothers]] in the 1890s, from [[Ancient Greek]] meaning "recording movement". Apart from the usage discussed in this article, the word is also used to refer to the [[film industry]], the overall art form; or [[filmmaking]]. In the countries where "cinema" is used to refer to the venue, the word "theatre" is usually reserved for live performance venues.

The etymology of the term "movie theater" involves the term "movie", which is a "shortened form of moving picture in the cinematographic sense" that was first used in 1896<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/movie|title=movie | Etymology, origin and meaning of movie by etymonline|website=www.etymonline.com|access-date=15 September 2022|archive-date=18 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018183435/https://www.etymonline.com/word/movie|url-status=live}}</ref> and "theater", which originated in the "...late 14c., [meaning an] open air place in ancient times for viewing spectacles and plays". The term "theater" comes from the Old French word "theatre", from the 12th century and "...directly from Latin theatrum [which meant] 'play-house, theater; stage; spectators in a theater'", which in turn came from the Greek word "theatron", which meant "theater; the people in the theater; a show, a spectacle", [or] literally "place for viewing". The use of the word "theatre" to mean a "building where plays are shown" dates from the 1570s in the English language.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=theatre|title=theatre | Search Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com|access-date=15 September 2022|archive-date=1 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201175329/https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=theatre|url-status=live}}</ref>

Colloquial expressions, mostly applied to motion pictures and motion picture theaters collectively, include the silver screen (formerly sometimes ''sheet'') and the big screen (contrasted with the smaller screen of a television set).{{cn|date=January 2025}} Specific to North American term is the movies, while specific terms in the UK are the pictures, the flicks, and for the facility itself the flea pit (or fleapit).{{cn|date=January 2025}} A "screening room" is a small theater, often a private one, such as for the use of those involved in the production of motion pictures or in a large private residence.{{cn|date=January 2025}}

==History==
===Precursors===
Movie theaters stand in a long tradition of [[theater]]s that could house all kinds of entertainment. Some forms of theatrical entertainment would involve the screening of moving images and can be regarded as [[precursors of film]].

In 1799, [[Étienne-Gaspard Robert|Étienne-Gaspard "Robertson" Robert]] moved his [[phantasmagoria|Phantasmagorie]] show to an abandoned cloister near the [[Place Vendôme]] in Paris. The eerie surroundings, with a graveyard and ruins, formed an ideal location for his ghoulish spectacle.

When it opened in 1838, The Royal Polytechnic Institution in London became a very popular and influential venue with all kinds of [[magic lantern]] shows as an important part of its program. At the main theatre, with 500 seats, lanternists would make good use of a battery of six large lanterns running on tracked tables to project the finely detailed images of extra-large slides on the 648 square feet screen. The magic lantern was used to illustrate lectures, concerts, pantomimes and other forms of theater. Popular magic lantern presentations included phantasmagoria, mechanical slides, [[Henry Langdon Childe]]'s [[dissolving views]] and his chromatrope.<ref name=Heard2006>Heard, Mervyn. ''PHANTASMAGORIA: The Secret History of the Magic Lantern''. The Projection Box, 2006</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chQiAQAAMAAJ&q=childe+polytechnic&pg=PA410|title=The Magazine of Science, and Schools of Art – Vol. IV|year=1843|page=410|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703105124/https://books.google.com/books?id=chQiAQAAMAAJ&q=childe+polytechnic&pg=PA410|url-status=live}}</ref>

The earliest known public screening of projected stroboscopic animation was presented by Austrian magician Ludwig Döbler on 15 January 1847 at the Josephstadt Theatre in [[Vienna]], with his patented Phantaskop. The animated spectacle was part of a well-received show that sold out in several European cities during a tour that lasted until the spring of 1848.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tnY-AQAAMAAJ&q=geyling%20phantaskop&pg=PA58|title=Allgemeine Theaterzeitung und Originalblatt für Kunst, Literatur, und geselliges Leben|date=1847|publisher=im Bureau der Theaterzeitung|language=de|access-date=7 December 2020|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703105123/https://books.google.com/books?id=tnY-AQAAMAAJ&q=geyling%20phantaskop&pg=PA58|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=before1896>{{Cite journal|last=Rossell|first=Deac|title=The Exhibition of Moving Pictures before 1896|url=https://www.academia.edu/378569|language=en|access-date=7 December 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816035306/https://www.academia.edu/378569|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno?aid=geg&datum=18470118&seite=4&zoom=48&query=%22d%C3%B6bler%22&ref=anno-search|title=ANNO, Die Gegenwart. Politisch-literarisches Tagblatt, 1847-01-18, Seite 4|website=anno.onb.ac.at|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=6 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606143807/http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno?aid=geg&datum=18470118&seite=4&zoom=48&query=%22d%C3%B6bler%22&ref=anno-search|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno?aid=osm&datum=18470203&seite=2&zoom=33&query=%22d%C3%B6bler%22&ref=anno-search|title=ANNO, Österreichisches Morgenblatt; Zeitschrift für Vaterland, Natur und Leben, 1847-02-03, Seite 2|website=anno.onb.ac.at|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=6 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606153706/http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno?aid=osm&datum=18470203&seite=2&zoom=33&query=%22d%C3%B6bler%22&ref=anno-search/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The famous Parisian entertainment venue [[Le Chat Noir]] opened in 1881 and is remembered for its [[shadow play]]s, renewing the popularity of such shows in France.

===Earliest motion picture screening venues===
The earliest public film screenings took place in existing (vaudeville) theatres and other venues that could be darkened and comfortably house an audience.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1988-035-15, Berlin, Wintergarten.jpg|thumb|The [[Berlin Wintergarten theatre]] (pictured in 1940) was the site of the [[Max Skladanowsky|Skladanowsky brothers]]'s first film presentation from 1 to 31 November 1895]]
[[Charles-Émile Reynaud|Émile Reynaud]] screened his ''Pantomimes Lumineuses'' animated movies from 28 October 1892 to March 1900 at the [[Musée Grévin]] in Paris, with his [[Théâtre Optique]] system. He gave over 12,800 shows to a total of over 500,000 visitors, with programs including ''[[Pauvre Pierrot]]'' and ''[[Autour d'une cabine]]''.<ref name=emilereynaud.fr>{{Cite web|url=http://www.emilereynaud.fr/index.php/post/Le-Theatre-optique|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081111172705/http://www.emilereynaud.fr/index.php/post/Le-Theatre-optique|archive-date=11 November 2008|title=Le Théâtre optique}}</ref><ref name="myrent1989">{{Cite journal |jstor = 3814977|last1 = Myrent|first1 = Glenn|title = Emile Reynaud: First Motion Picture Cartoonist|journal = Film History|year = 1989|volume = 3|issue = 3|pages = 191–202}}</ref>

[[Thomas Edison]] initially believed film screening would not be as viable commercially as presenting films in a single-viewer apparatus with a viewing peephole. His company developed and marketed such a device, the [[Kinetoscope]]. A few public demonstrations occurred beginning 9 May 1893, before a first public Kinetoscope parlor was opened on 14 April 1894, by the Holland Bros. in New York City at 1155 Broadway, on the corner of 27th Street. This can be regarded as the first commercial motion picture house. The venue had ten machines, set up in parallel rows of five, each showing a different movie. For 25 cents (${{Inflation|index=US|value=0.25|start_year=1894|r=2}} at current prices), a viewer could see all the films in either row, one at a time; half a dollar gave access to the entire bill.<ref>The machines were modified so that they did not operate by nickel slot. According to Hendricks (1966), in each row "attendants switched the instruments on and off for customers who had paid their twenty-five cents" (p. 13). For more on the Hollands, see Peter Morris, ''Embattled Shadows: A History of Canadian Cinema, 1895–1939'' (Montreal and Kingston, Canada; London; and Buffalo, New York: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978), pp. 6–7. Morris states that Edison wholesaled the Kinetoscope at $200 per machine; in fact, as described below, $250 seems to have been the most common figure at first.</ref>

The [[Eidoloscope]], devised by [[Eugene Augustin Lauste]] for the [[Woodville Latham|Latham]] family, was demonstrated for members of the press on 21 April 1895 and opened to the paying public on 20 May, in a lower Broadway store with films of the Griffo-Barnett prize boxing fight, taken from [[Madison Square Garden]]'s roof on 4 May.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Streible|first1=Dan|title=Fight Pictures: A History of Boxing and Early Cinema|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520940581|pages=46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpc1fk5T5dYC&pg=PA46|access-date=16 May 2016|date=2008-04-11|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703105122/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bpc1fk5T5dYC&pg=PA46|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Max Skladanowsky]] and his brother Emil demonstrated their motion pictures with the [[Bioscop]] in July 1895 at the Gasthaus Sello in Pankow (Berlin). This venue was later, at least since 1918, exploited as the full-time movie theatre Pankower Lichtspiele and between 1925 and 1994 as Tivoli.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allekinos.com/BERLIN%20Tivoli.htm|title=BERLIN Tivoli|website=www.allekinos.com|access-date=2020-03-22|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109203831/http://www.allekinos.com/BERLIN%20Tivoli.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The first certain commercial screenings by the Skladanowsky brothers took place at the Wintergarten in Berlin from 1 to 31 November 1895.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.victorian-cinema.net/skladanowsky|title=Who's Who of Victorian Cinema|website=www.victorian-cinema.net|access-date=2020-03-22|archive-date=3 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003070812/https://www.victorian-cinema.net/skladanowsky|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first commercial, public screening of films made with [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Louis and Auguste Lumière]]'s [[Cinématographe]] took place in the basement of [[Salon Indien du Grand Café]] in Paris on 28 December 1895.

===Early dedicated movie theatres===
[[File:Hôtel du Syndicat des verriers D' Aniche (Idéal Cinéma) démoli en 1993.jpg|thumb|right|[[L'Idéal Cinéma]] at [[Aniche]], France, opened 23 November 1905, closed 1977, demolished in 1995]]
During the first decade of motion pictures, the demand for movies, the amount of new productions, and the average runtime of movies, kept increasing, and at some stage it was viable to have theaters that would no longer program live acts, but only movies.

The first building built for the dedicated purpose of showing motion pictures was built to demonstrate the [[Phantoscope]], a device created by Jenkins & Armat, as part of The [[Cotton States and International Exposition|Cotton State Exposition]] on September 25, 1895 in Atlanta, Georgia. This is arguably the first cinema in the world.

[[Ptuj City Cinema]] (in the oldest town of Slovenia), had its first commercial [[public screening]] on 3 March 1897 and still operates which makes it the oldest still active commercial movie theater in the world.<ref name="Ptuj1"/><ref name="Ptuj2"/><ref name="Ptuj3"/>

Claimants for the title of the earliest movie theatre include the Eden Theater in [[La Ciotat]], where ''L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat'' was screened on 21 March 1899. The theatre closed in 1995 but re-opened in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20131009-worlds-oldest-cinema-eden-theatre-reopen-ciotat-train-france-lumiere|title=World's oldest cinema to reopen in France's La Ciotat|date=9 October 2013|website=France 24|language=en|access-date=22 April 2019|archive-date=31 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031004341/https://www.france24.com/en/20131009-worlds-oldest-cinema-eden-theatre-reopen-ciotat-train-france-lumiere|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[L'Idéal Cinéma]] in [[Aniche]] (France), built in 1901 as l'Hôtel du Syndicat CGT, showed its first film on 23 November 1905. The cinema was closed in 1977 and the building was demolished in 1993. The "Centre Culturel Claude Berri" was built in 1995; it integrates a new movie theater (the Idéal Cinéma Jacques Tati).<ref>{{cite web| title=Aniche – le Jacques Tati| website=De la suite dans les images| archive-date=4 July 2013| date=2011| url=http://www.delasuitedanslesimages.org/aniche-le-jacques-tati/| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130704000031/http://www.delasuitedanslesimages.org/aniche-le-jacques-tati/| language=fr| access-date=31 August 2020| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=On vous refait le film de l'Idéal-cinéma Jacques-Tati d'Aniche | website=La Voix du Nord | date=26 January 2020 | url=https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/700316/article/2020-01-26/vous-refait-le-film-de-l-ideal-cinema-jacques-tati-d-aniche | language=fr | first=Benjamin | last=Dubrulle | access-date=31 August 2020 | archive-date=31 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831113344/https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/700316/article/2020-01-26/vous-refait-le-film-de-l-ideal-cinema-jacques-tati-d-aniche | url-status=live }}</ref>

In the United States, many small and simple theaters were set up, usually in converted storefronts. They typically charged five cents for admission, and thus became known as [[Nickelodeon (movie theater)|nickelodeons]]. This type of theatre flourished from about 1905 to {{circa}}1915.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis Jacobs |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.188482 |title=The Rise Of The American Film (a Critical History ) |date=1939 |pages=167-168}}</ref>

The Korsør Biograf Teater, in [[Korsør]], Denmark, opened in August 1908 and is the oldest known movie theater still in continuous operation.<ref>{{cite web | title=Guinness | website=Korsør Biograf Teater | url=http://www.korsoer-bio.dk/guinness | language=da | access-date=31 August 2020 | archive-date=31 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831112348/http://www.korsoer-bio.dk/guinness | url-status=dead }}</ref>
<gallery mode=packed heights=160>
File:Kino Juha in 2024.jpg|A small still-active Kino Juha movie theatre in [[Nurmijärvi]], [[Finland]], opened in 1958
File:Regent theatre Hokitika.jpg|Regent Theatre in [[Hokitika]], [[New Zealand]]
</gallery>

==Design==

[[File:MovieTheaterSeatingUSP06164018.png|thumb|upright=1.35|center|A typical raked (sloped) floor for a movie auditorium, which gives all viewers a clear view of the screen.]]

[[File:50sStyleMovieThearter.png|thumb|upright|Interior of a 1950s-style [[fine arts movie]] theater auditorium. A low pitch viewing floor is used.]]
Traditionally a movie theater, like a [[Theatre|stage theater]], consists of a single [[auditorium]] with rows of comfortable padded seats, as well as a foyer area containing a box office for buying tickets. Movie theaters also often have a [[concession stand]] for buying snacks and drinks within the theater's lobby. Other features included are [[film poster]]s, [[arcade game]]s and washrooms. Stage theaters are sometimes converted into movie theaters by placing a screen in front of the stage and adding a projector; this conversion may be permanent, or temporary for purposes such as showing [[Art film|arthouse]] fare to an audience accustomed to plays. The familiar characteristics of relatively low admission and open seating can be traced to [[Samuel Roxy Rothafel]], an early movie theater [[impresario]]. Many of these early theaters contain a [[balcony]], an elevated level across the auditorium above the theater's rearmost seats. The rearward main floor "loge" [[seats]] were sometimes larger, softer, and more widely spaced and sold for a higher price. In conventional low-pitch viewing floors, the preferred seating arrangement is to use staggered rows. While a less efficient use of floor space this allows a somewhat improved sight line between the patrons seated in the next row toward the screen, provided they do not lean toward one another.

"[[Stadium seating]]", popular in modern multiplexes, actually dates back to the 1920s. The 1922 Princess Theatre in Honolulu, Hawaii featured "stadium seating", sharply raked rows of seats extending from in front of the screen back towards the ceiling. It gives patrons a clear sight line over the heads of those seated in front of them. Modern "stadium seating" was utilized in [[IMAX]] theaters, which have very tall screens, beginning in the early 1970s.

Rows of seats are divided by one or more aisles so that there are seldom more than 20 seats in a row. This allows easier access to seating, as the space between rows is very narrow. Depending on the angle of rake of the seats, the aisles have steps. In older theaters, aisle lights were often built into the end seats of each row to help patrons find their way in the dark. Since the advent of stadium theaters with stepped aisles, each step in the aisles may be outlined with small [[Lighting|lights]] to prevent patrons from tripping in the darkened theater. In movie theaters, the auditorium may also have lights that go to a low level, when the movie is going to begin. Theaters often have booster seats for children and other people of short stature to place on the seats to allow them to sit higher, for a better view. Many modern theaters have accessible seating areas for patrons in wheelchairs. See also [[#Luxury screens|luxury screens]] below.
<gallery mode=packed>
File:Cinema odeon firenze 1.JPG|Cinema Odeon auditorium in [[Florence]]
File:Hoyts Carousel Movie Theatre gobeirne.jpg|Interior of Hoyts Cinemas auditorium in [[Perth]], Australia, with [[stadium seating]] with [[cup holders]], [[Architectural acoustics|acoustic]] [[theater drapes and stage curtains|wall-hangings]] and wall-mounted speakers.
File:Le Tennispalatsi (Helsinki) (2758115544).jpg|[[Tennispalatsi]], one of the major [[Finnkino]] multiplex movie theatre places, in [[Helsinki]], Finland
</gallery>

===Multiplexes and megaplexes===
[[File:MultiplexMovieTheaterUSP06164018.png|thumb|right|Example of a Multiplex layout]]
{{main|multiplex (movie theater)}}

Canada was the first country in the world to have a two-screen theater. The [[Elgin Theatre (Ottawa)|Elgin Theatre]] in Ottawa, Ontario became the first venue to offer two film programs on different screens in 1957 when Canadian theater-owner [[Nat Taylor]] converted the dual-screen theater into one capable of showing two different movies simultaneously. Taylor is credited by Canadian sources as the inventor of the multiplex or cineplex; he later founded the [[Cineplex Odeon Corporation]], opening the 18-screen [[Toronto Eaton Centre]] Cineplex, the world's largest at the time, in Toronto, Ontario.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10229 |title=Nat Taylor | Historica – Dominion |publisher=Historica |access-date=4 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927040846/http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10229 |archive-date=27 September 2011 }}</ref> In the United States, Stanley Durwood of American Multi-Cinema (now [[AMC Theatres]]) is credited as pioneering the ''multiplex'' in 1963 after realizing that he could operate several attached auditoriums with the same staff needed for one through careful management of the start times for each movie. [[Ward Parkway Center]] in Kansas City, Missouri had the first multiplex cinema in the United States.

Since the 1960s, multiple-screen theaters have become the norm, and many existing venues have been retrofitted so that they have multiple auditoriums. A single foyer area is shared among them. In the 1970s, many large 1920s [[movie palace]]s were converted into multiple-screen venues by dividing their large auditoriums, and sometimes even the stage space, into smaller theaters. Because of their size, and amenities like plush seating and extensive food/beverage service, multiplexes and megaplexes draw from a larger geographic area than smaller theaters. As a rule of thumb, they pull audiences from an eight to 12-mile radius, versus a three to five-mile radius for smaller theaters (though the size of this radius depends on population density).<ref>Marich, Robert (2013) Marketing To Moviegoers: Third Edition (2013), SIU Press books, p.295</ref> As a result, the customer geography area of multiplexes and megaplexes typically overlaps with smaller theaters, which face threat of having their audience siphoned by bigger theaters that cut a wider swath in the movie-going landscape.

In most markets, nearly all single-screen theaters (sometimes referred to as a "Uniplex") have gone out of business; the ones remaining are generally used for [[Art film|arthouse]] films, e.g. the Crest Theatre<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecrest.com/ |title=Welcome to the Crest Theatre |publisher=Thecrest.com |access-date=4 November 2012 |archive-date=19 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019231516/http://thecrest.com/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> in downtown [[Sacramento, California]], small-scale productions, film festivals or other presentations. Because of the late development of multiplexes, the term "cinema" or "theater" may refer either to the whole complex or a single auditorium, and sometimes "screen" is used to refer to an auditorium. A popular film may be shown on multiple screens at the same multiplex, which reduces the choice of other films but offers more choice of viewing times or a greater number of seats to accommodate patrons. Two or three screens may be created by dividing up an existing cinema (as Durwood did with his Roxy in 1964), but newly built multiplexes usually have at least six to eight screens, and often as many as twelve, fourteen, sixteen or even eighteen.

Although definitions vary, a large multiplex with 20 or more screens is usually called a "[[Multiplex (movie theater)|megaplex]]". However, in the United Kingdom, this was a brand name for [[Virgin Cinemas|Virgin Cinema]] (later UGC). The first megaplex is generally considered to be the [[Kinepolis]] in Brussels, Belgium, which opened in 1988 with 25 screens and a [[seating capacity]] of 7,500. The first theater in the U.S. built from the ground up as a megaplex was the AMC Grand 24 in [[Dallas|Dallas, Texas]], which opened in May 1995, while the first megaplex in the U.S.-based on an expansion of an existing facility was Studio 28 in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]], which reopened in November 1988 with 20 screens and a seating capacity of 6,000.

===Drive-in===
{{see also|List of drive-in theaters}}
[[File:Autokino.jpg|thumb|right|A drive-in with a {{convert|33|m|ft|abbr=off|adj=on}} wide [[inflatable movie screen]] in the centre of [[Brussels]]]]
A [[Drive-in theater|drive-in movie theater]] is an outdoor parking area with a screen—sometimes an [[Inflatable movie screen|inflatable screen]]—at one end and a projection booth at the other. Moviegoers drive into the parking spaces which are sometimes sloped upwards at the front to give a more direct view of the movie screen. Movies are usually viewed through the car windscreen (windshield) although some people prefer to sit on the bonnet (hood) of the car. Some may also sit in the trunk (back) of their car if space permits. Sound is either provided through portable loudspeakers located by each parking space, or is broadcast on an FM radio frequency, to be played through the car's stereo system. Because of their outdoor nature, drive-ins usually only operate seasonally, and after sunset. Drive-in movie theaters are mainly found in the United States, {{citation needed|date=January 2021}} where they were especially popular in the 1950s and 1960s. Once numbering in the thousands, about 300 remain in the U.S. today. In some cases, multiplex or megaplex theaters were built on the sites of former drive-in theaters.

===Other venues===
[[File:Airscreen.JPG|right|thumb|A giant [[inflatable movie screen]] used at a temporary outdoor movie theater (open air cinema)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openaircinemas.wordpress.com/|title=Open air cinemas|access-date=21 January 2016|archive-date=20 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620014435/https://openaircinemas.wordpress.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[File:vintage mobile cinema.jpg|right|thumb|1967 Bedford mobile cinema]]
Some [[outdoor cinema|outdoor movie theaters]] are just grassy areas where the audience sits upon chairs, blankets or even in [[Hot Tub Cinema|hot tubs]], and watch the movie on a temporary screen, or even the wall of a building. Colleges and universities have often sponsored movie screenings in lecture halls. The formats of these screenings include 35 mm, 16 mm, [[DVD]], VHS, and 70 mm in rare cases. Some alternative methods of showing movies have been popular in the past. In the 1980s the introduction of [[VHS]] cassettes made possible video-salons, small rooms where visitors viewed movies on a large TV. These establishments were especially popular in the [[Soviet Union]], where official distribution companies were slow to adapt to changing demand, and so movie theaters could not show popular Hollywood and [[Asian cinema|Asian films]].

In 1967, the British government launched seven custom-built [[mobile cinema]] units for use as part of the [[Minister of Technology|Ministry of Technology]] campaign to raise standards. Using a very futuristic look, these 27-seat cinema vehicles were designed to attract attention. They were built on a [[Bedford SB]]3 chassis with a custom Coventry Steel Caravan extruded aluminum body. Movies are also commonly shown on airliners in flight, using large screens in each cabin or smaller screens for each group of rows or each individual seat; the airline company sometimes charges a fee for the headphones needed to hear the movie's sound. In a similar fashion, movies are sometimes also shown on trains, such as the [[Auto Train]].

The smallest purpose-built cinema is the Cabiria Cine-Cafe which measures {{convert|24|m2|ft2|abbr=on}} and has a [[seating capacity]] of 18. It was built by Renata Carneiro Agostinho da Silva (Brazil) in Brasília DF, Brazil in 2008. It is mentioned in the 2010 ''Guinness World Records''. The World's smallest solar-powered mobile cinema is Sol Cinema in the UK. Touring since 2010 the cinema is actually a converted 1972 caravan. It seats 8–10 at a time. In 2015, it featured in a Lenovo advert for the launch of a new tablet. The [[Bell Museum of Natural History]] in [[Minneapolis]], Minnesota has recently begun summer "bike-ins", inviting only pedestrians or people on bicycles onto the grounds for both live music and movies. In various Canadian cities, including [[Toronto]], Calgary, [[Ottawa]] and [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], al-fresco movies projected on the walls of buildings or temporarily erected screens in parks operate during the Summer and cater to a pedestrian audience. The New Parkway Museum in [[Oakland, California]] replaces general seating with couches and coffee tables, as well as having a full restaurant menu instead of general movie theater concessions such as popcorn or candy.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

In certain countries, there are also Bed Cinemas where the audience sits or lays in beds instead of chairs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.travelandleisure.com/culture-design/tv-movies/switzerland-movie-theatre-cinema-has-beds-instead-of-seats|title=You Can Watch Movies in Bed at This Theater in Switzerland|website=Travel + Leisure}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.moviesintheater.com/blog/9-movie-theaters-with-bed-seats-around-the-world/|title=9 Movie theaters with bed seats around the world – Movies In Theater|date=27 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lifestyleasia.com/bk/entertainment/the-bed-cinema-omazz-review/|title=We visited The Bed Cinema by Omazz and absolutely loved it|date=8 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author1=Jen |url=https://indie88.com/this-movie-theater-with-beds-wants-to-reinvent-the-moviegoing-experience/|title=Movie Theater With Beds Reinvents The Movie Experience|work=Indie88 |date=4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc13.com/bed-cinema-houston-dates-tickets/5964605/|title=Outdoor pop-up theater featuring actual beds coming to Houston|date=25 February 2020|website=ABC13 Houston}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20220907000144|title=Movie theaters offer a new experience|first=Park|last=Han-na|date=7 September 2022|website=The Korea Herald}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://explorehidden.com/event/details/bed-cinema-san-franciscos-most-comfortable-cinema-1550729|title=Bed Cinema – San Francisco's Most Comfortable Cinema|website=explorehidden.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeout.com/los-angeles/movies/the-bed-cinema|title=The Bed Cinema|date=3 April 2019|website=Time Out Los Angeles}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|reason=Surely one or two citations is enough for this?|date=July 2025}}

===3D===
[[File:Amcpromenade16.jpg|thumb|right|A typical [[Multiplex (movie theater)|multiplex]] ([[AMC Theatres|AMC]] Promenade 16 in [[Woodland Hills, Los Angeles]])]]
{{Main|3D film}}

A 3D film is a system of presenting film images so that they appear to the viewer to be three-dimensional. Visitors usually borrow or keep special glasses to wear while watching the movie. Depending on the system used, these are typically [[Polarized 3D system|polarized glasses]]. Three-dimensional movies use two images channeled, respectively, to the left and right eyes to simulate depth by using 3D glasses with red and blue lenses (anaglyph), polarized (linear and circular), and other techniques. 3D glasses deliver the proper image to the proper eye and make the image appear to "pop-out" at the viewer and even follow the viewer when he/she moves so viewers relatively see the same image.

[[File:Utrecht City cinema (Utrecht 2020) (49571097741).jpg|thumb|A movie theater in [[Utrecht]], [[Netherlands]]]]

The earliest 3D movies were presented in the 1920s. There have been several prior "waves" of 3D movie distribution, most notably in the 1950s when they were promoted as a way to offer audiences something that they could not see at home on television. Still, the process faded quickly and as yet has never been more than a periodic novelty in movie presentation. The "golden era" of 3D film began in the early 1950s with the release of the first color stereoscopic feature, ''[[Bwana Devil]]''.<ref>Gunzberg, M.L. (1953). "What is Natural Vision?", ''New Screen Techniques''. 55–59.</ref> The film starred [[Robert Stack]], [[Barbara Britton]] and [[Nigel Bruce]]. James Mage was an early pioneer in the 3D craze. Using his 16 mm 3D Bolex system, he premiered his ''Triorama'' program in February 1953 with his four shorts: ''Sunday In Stereo'', ''Indian Summer'', ''American Life'', and ''This is Bolex Stereo''.<ref>"Just Like 1927." BoxOffice 7 February 1953: 12.</ref> 1953 saw two groundbreaking features in 3D: [[Columbia Pictures|Columbia's]] ''[[Man in the Dark]]'' and [[Warner Bros.]] ''[[House of Wax (1953 film)|House of Wax]]'', the first 3D feature with stereophonic sound. For many years, most 3D movies were shown in amusement parks and even "4D" techniques have been used when certain effects such as spraying of water, movement of seats, and other effects are used to simulate actions seen on the screen. The first decline in the theatrical 3D craze started in August and September 1953.

In 2009, movie exhibitors became more interested in 3D film. The number of 3D screens in theaters is increasing. The [[RealD 3D|RealD]] company expects 15,000 screens worldwide in 2010. The availability of 3D movies encourages exhibitors to adopt [[digital cinema]] and provides a way for theaters to compete with [[Home cinema|home theater]]s. One incentive for theaters to show 3D films is that although ticket sales have declined, revenues from 3D tickets have grown.<ref>Walters, Ben. "The Great Leap Forward." Sight & Sound, 19.3. (2009) pp. 38–41.</ref> In the 2010s, [[3D film]]s became popular again. The [[IMAX 3D]] system and digital 3D systems are used (the latter is used in the animated movies of [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]/[[Pixar]]).
The RealD 3D system works by using a single digital projector that swaps back and forth between the images for eyes. A filter is placed in front of the projector that changes the polarization of the light coming from the projector. A silver screen is used to reflect this light back at the audience and reduce loss of brightness. There are four other systems available: Volfoni 3D, MasterImage 3D, XpanD 3D, and [[Dolby 3D]].

When a system is used that requires inexpensive 3D glasses, they can sometimes be kept by the patron. Most theaters have a fixed cost for 3D, while others charge for the glasses, but the latter is uncommon (at least in the United States). For example, in [[movie theaters in the Netherlands|Pathé theaters in the Netherlands]] the extra fee for watching a 3D film consists of a fixed fee of €1.50, and an optional fee of €1 for the glasses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pathe.nl/artikel/223-je-eigen-3d-bril |title=Je eigen 3D-bril |publisher=Pathe.nl |access-date=4 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120131435/http://www.pathe.nl/artikel/223-je-eigen-3d-bril |archive-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Holders of the ''Pathé Unlimited Gold'' pass (see also below) are supposed to bring along their own glasses; one pair, supplied yearly, more robust than the regular type, is included in the price.

===IMAX===
[[IMAX]] is a system using [[70 mm film]] with more than ten times the frame size of a [[35 mm movie film|35 mm film]]. IMAX theaters use an oversized screen as well as special projectors. The first permanent IMAX theater was at [[Ontario Place]] in Toronto, Canada. Until 2016, visitors to the IMAX theater attached to the [[National Science and Media Museum]] in [[Bradford]], West Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom, could observe the IMAX projection booth via a glass rear wall and watch the large format films being loaded and projected.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/cinema/imax |title=IMAX |publisher=National Science and Media Museum |access-date=1 May 2020 |archive-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022204234/https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/cinema/imax |url-status=live }}</ref> The largest permanent IMAX cinema screen measures {{convert|38.80|x|21.00|m|ft|abbr=on}} and was achieved by Traumplast Leonberg (Germany) in [[Leonberg, Germany]], verified on 6 December 2022.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/06WNaTuPs04 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20190727050712/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=06WNaTuPs04&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=06WNaTuPs04| title = Inside Darling Harbour iMax Theatre – Sydney – Australia | website=[[YouTube]]| date = 17 May 2016 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/darling-harbour-imax-to-be-demolished-and-replaced-by-new-development-called-the-ribbon/news-story/51d9db0f9fa881d0f2b157537b329414| title=IMAX to be demolished, reborn as the Ribbon| date=25 August 2016| access-date=25 April 2019| archive-date=28 September 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928083812/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/darling-harbour-imax-to-be-demolished-and-replaced-by-new-development-called-the-ribbon/news-story/51d9db0f9fa881d0f2b157537b329414| url-status=live}}</ref>

IMAX also refers to a [[digital cinema]] format that uses dual [[2K resolution]] projectors and a screen with a 1.90:1 aspect ratio; this system is designed primarily for use in retrofitted multiplexes, using screens significantly smaller than those normally associated with IMAX.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Maintaining The IMAX Experience, From Museum To Multiplex |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2014/05/02/308939700/maintaining-the-imax-experience-from-museum-to-multiplex |access-date=2022-10-02 |archive-date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701122246/https://www.npr.org/2014/05/02/308939700/maintaining-the-imax-experience-from-museum-to-multiplex |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2015, IMAX introduced a new "IMAX with Laser" format, using [[4K resolution]] laser projectors.<ref name="latimeslaser">{{cite news |last=Verrier |first=Richard |date=April 15, 2015 |title=Imax premieres new laser system at TCL Chinese Theatre in Hollywood |work=The Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-imax-laser-20150415-story.html |access-date=March 7, 2016 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002003931/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-imax-laser-20150415-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Premium large format (PLF)===
The term "'''premium large format'''" ('''PLF'''), or simply "'''premium format'''"<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-13 |title=Why Cinema Needs Premium Format? {{!}} GDC Technology |url=https://www.gdc-tech.com/blog-and-news/why-cinema-needs-premium-format/ |access-date=2025-05-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> or "'''premium theater'''", emerged in the 2010s to refer to auditoriums with high-end amenities. PLF does not refer to a single format in general, but combinations of non-proprietary amenities such as larger wall-to-wall, floor-to-ceiling screens, [[4K resolution]], [[Laser projector|laser projection]], [[High-dynamic-range television|high-dynamic-range (HDR) color]], [[7.1 surround sound]] and/or immersive surround sound systems (including [[Dolby Atmos]], [[DTS:X]], and [[Auro 11.1]]), and higher-quality seating (including luxury recliners). Theaters typically brand PLF auditoriums with exhibitor-specific [[trademark]]s, such as "Prime"/"XL" ([[AMC Theatres]]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-29 |title=AMC Theatres® Unveils Its First XL at AMC Auditoriums – Continuing Its Ongoing Commitment to Elevate the Moviegoing Experience Through the AMC Go Plan |url=https://investor.amctheatres.com/news-events/press-releases/detail/384/amc-theatres-unveils-its-first-xl-at-amc-auditoriums-continuing-its-ongoing-commitment-to-elevate-the-moviegoing-experience-through-the-amc-go-plan |access-date=2025-05-09 |website=AMC Entertainment Holdings, Inc. |language=en}}</ref> "Grand Screen" ([[B&B Theatres]]), "BTX" ([[Scene One Entertainment]]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-11 |title=Bow Tie to Open New PLF Theatre |url=https://www.digitalcinemareport.com/article/bow-tie-open-new-plf-theatre |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=Digital Cinema Report |language=en}}</ref> "Superscreen" ([[Cineworld|Cineworld Cinemas]]), "BigD" ([[Carmike Cinemas]], now owned by AMC), "Xtremescreen" ([[Hoyts|Hoyts Cinemas]]), "UltraAVX" ([[Cineplex Entertainment|Cineplex Cinemas]]), "Macro XE" ([[Cinépolis]]), "XD" ([[Cinemark Theatres]]), "V-Max" ([[Event Cinemas]]), "BigPix" ([[PVR INOX]]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-17 |title=INOX launches Goa's Largest Cinema Screen BIGPIX at Old GMC Panaji |url=https://www.adgully.com/inox-launches-goa-s-largest-cinema-screen-bigpix-at-old-gmc-panaji-112195.html |access-date=2024-08-30 |website=Adgully |language=en-US}}</ref> "Laser Ultra" ([[Kinepolis]] and its subsidiaries), "Regal Premium Experience (RPX)" ([[Regal Cinemas]]), "Superscreen DLX"/"Ultrascreen DLX" ([[Marcus Theatres]]),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Riccioli |first=Jim |title=Four big reasons why today's experience is so much better in Marcus Theatre's local cinemas than years ago |url=https://www.jsonline.com/story/communities/waukesha/news/waukesha/2018/05/23/why-todays-movie-experience-so-much-better-marcus-theaters/631023002/ |access-date=2022-12-16 |website=Journal Sentinel |language=en-US |archive-date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216015135/https://www.jsonline.com/story/communities/waukesha/news/waukesha/2018/05/23/why-todays-movie-experience-so-much-better-marcus-theaters/631023002/ |url-status=live }}</ref> "Titan" ([[Reading Cinemas]]),<ref>{{Cite web |last=jimjin |date=2021-06-04 |title=Get the popcorn, cinema opening in Altona North |url=https://maribyrnonghobsonsbay.starweekly.com.au/news/get-the-popcorn-cinema-opening-in-altona-north/ |access-date=2021-07-19 |website=Maribyrnong & Hobsons Bay |language=en-US |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703105300/https://maribyrnonghobsonsbay.starweekly.com.au/news/get-the-popcorn-cinema-opening-in-altona-north/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-03-12 |title=These are 19 of the most unusual Southern California movie theaters |url=https://www.pasadenastarnews.com/2018/03/12/19-unusual-southern-california-movie-theaters-where-you-should-see-a-film/ |access-date=2021-07-19 |website=Pasadena Star News |language=en-US |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121043503/https://www.pasadenastarnews.com/2018/03/12/19-unusual-southern-california-movie-theaters-where-you-should-see-a-film/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson |first=Christie |date=2010-06-18 |title=Audiences prepare for splash of this Titan |url=https://www.staradvertiser.com/2010/06/18/features/audiences-prepare-for-splash-of-this-titan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719215639/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2010/06/18/features/audiences-prepare-for-splash-of-this-titan/ |archive-date=2021-07-19 |access-date=2021-07-19 |website=Honolulu Star-Advertiser |language=en-US}}</ref> "Epic" ([[Vue International]]),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ritman |first=Alex |date=2025-07-09 |title=European Cinema Giant Vue Launches Epic, a New Premium Large Format Experience Going Up Against Imax |url=https://variety.com/2025/film/global/vue-launches-epic-premium-large-format-experience-imax-1236450143/ |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=Variety |language=en-US}}</ref> and "X-land" ([[Wanda Film|Wanda Cinemas]]).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2021-07-29 |title=How Premium Large Format Auditoriums Are Helping Welcome Audiences Back to the Movies |url=https://www.boxofficepro.com/giants-premium-format-2021/ |access-date=2022-10-01 |website=Boxoffice |language=en-US |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001010120/https://www.boxofficepro.com/giants-premium-format-2021/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Going Big: More and more circuits invest in Premium Large Format brands |url=http://fj.webedia.us/features/going-big-more-and-more-circuits-invest-premium-large-format-brands |access-date=2022-10-01 |website=Film Journal International |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001003057/http://fj.webedia.us/features/going-big-more-and-more-circuits-invest-premium-large-format-brands |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Barnes |first=Brooks |date=2014-04-12 |title=Battle for the Bigger Screen |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/12/business/media/battle-for-the-bigger-screen.html |access-date=2022-10-01 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001010115/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/12/business/media/battle-for-the-bigger-screen.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

PLFs compete primarily with formats such as IMAX Digital; the use of common "[[Commercial off-the-shelf|off-the-shelf]]" components and an in-house brand removes the need to pay licensing fees to a third-party for a proprietary large format.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> In July 2025, it was reported that a group of exhibitors were considering establishing a joint brand or [[certification mark]] for their PLFs to better compete with IMAX, citing an increasingly undue presence by the company in film marketing (including promotional material for films advertising IMAX, and an agreement with [[Netflix]] to perform a limited release of a [[Adaptations of The Chronicles of Narnia#Netflix|''Chronicles of Narnia'' adaptation]] exclusively to IMAX).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Goldsmith |first=Jill |date=2025-02-19 |title=Imax CEO Calls Its Netflix-'Narnia' Release Deal "Fairly Complex": "Not In A Rush To Do Another One" |url=https://deadline.com/2025/02/imax-netflix-narnia-greta-gerwig-box-office-1236294563/ |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=Deadline |language=en-US}}</ref>

Although the term is synonymous with exhibitor-specific brands, some PLFs are franchised. [[Dolby]] franchises [[Dolby Cinema]], which is based on technologies such as Dolby Atmos and [[Dolby Vision]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Dolby Launches Dolby Cinema |url=http://www.digitalcinemareport.com/article/dolby-launches-dolby-cinema |access-date=2016-06-04 |website=Digital Cinema Report |date=3 December 2014 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403065708/http://www.digitalcinemareport.com/article/dolby-launches-dolby-cinema |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> [[CJ CGV]] franchises [[ScreenX]], a format that utilizes multiple screens in a 270-degree perspective.<ref name="kfc-screenx-choi">{{cite news |date=12 February 2018 |title=CHOI Yong-seung, the Creative Director Behind PSYCHOKINESIS' Screen X Direction |url=http://www.koreanfilm.or.kr/eng/news/interview.jsp?blbdComCd=601019&seq=301&mode=INTERVIEW_VIEW |accessdate=18 February 2020 |work=Korean Film News |publisher=Korean Film Council}}</ref>

=== Motion-controlled seating ===
Some screens may offer seats capable of motion on multiple axes, as well as [[Haptic technology|haptic]] effects.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=Boxoffice |date=2025-01-28 |title=D-BOX Reaches 1,000 Cinema Screens Worldwide |url=https://www.boxofficepro.com/d-box-reaches-1000-cinema-screens-worldwide/ |access-date=2025-09-27 |website=Boxoffice Pro |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="slate">{{Cite magazine |last=Goffe |first=Nadira |date=2024-03-14 |title=Dune: Part Two 4DX: How the immersive theater experience is created. |url=https://slate.com/culture/2024/03/dune-4dx-design-4dplex.html |access-date=2024-03-14 |department=Movies |magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339 |oclc=728292344}}</ref>

[[D-Box Technologies]] first released its motion seat system to theaters in 2009, with ''[[Fast & Furious (2009 film)|Fast & Furious]]'' being the first feature film supporting the system. In January 2025, the company stated that it had over 23,000 seat installations at 1,000 screens worldwide.<ref name=":2" /> [[4DX]] (also franchised by CJ CGV) combines motion seats with other types of [[Practical effect|practical effects]] such as [[Fog machine|fog machines]], [[Wind machine|wind]], and scents.<ref name="slate" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-16 |title=Cinemas weigh launching new large screen brand to challenge Imax |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-07-16/cinemas-weigh-launching-new-large-screen-brand-to-challenge-imax |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=Bloomberg}}</ref>

==Programming==
[[File:Public screening in Bremen.jpg|thumb|Non-movie-theater screening: movie in a culture club in Germany]]
Movie theaters may be classified by the type of movies they show or when in a film's release process they are shown:
* ''First-run theater'': A theater that runs primarily mainstream film fare from the major film companies and distributors, during the initial new release period of each film.
* ''Second-run'' or ''discount theater'': A theater that runs films that have already shown in the first-run theaters and presented at a lower ticket price. (These are sometimes known as [[Discount theater|dollar theaters]] or "cheap seats".) This form of cinema is diminishing in viability owing to the increasingly shortened intervals before the films' [[home video]] release, called the "video window".
* ''[[Independent movie theater|Repertoire/repertory theater]]'' or ''arthouse'': A theater that presents more alternative and [[Art|art film]]s as well as second-run and classic films (often known as an "independent cinema" in the UK).
* An ''[[adult movie theater]]'' or ''sex theater'' specializes in showing [[Pornographic film|pornographic movies]]. Such movies are rarely shown in other theaters. See also [[Golden Age of Porn]]. Since the widespread availability of pornographic films for home viewing on VHS in the 1980s and 1990s, the DVD in the 1990s, and the Blu-ray disc in the 2000s, there are far fewer adult movie theaters.
* [[IMAX]] theaters can show conventional movies, but the major benefits of the IMAX system are only available when showing movies filmed using it. While a few mainstream feature films have been produced in IMAX, [[IMAX#Films|IMAX movies]] are often documentaries featuring natural scenery, and may be limited to the 45-minute length of a single reel of IMAX film.

==Presentation==
[[File:Projecteur cinématographique 35mm.jpg|thumb|right|[[35mm movie film|35 mm]] movie projector]]
[[File:Biografmuseet 2011x.jpg|thumb|right|Broadcast center]]
Usually in the 2020s, an admission is for one feature film. Sometimes two feature films are sold as one admission ([[double feature]]), with a break in between. Separate admission for a [[Short film|short subject]] is rare; it is either an extra before a feature film or part of a series of short films sold as one admission (this mainly occurs at film festivals). (See also [[anthology film]].) In the early decades of "talkie" films, many movie theaters presented a number of shorter items in addition to the feature film. This might include a [[newsreel]], live-action comedy short films, documentary short films, musical short films, or [[animated cartoon|cartoon shorts]] (many classic cartoon series such as the ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' and ''[[Mickey Mouse]]'' shorts were created for this purpose). Some theaters ran on ''continuous showings'', where the same items would repeat throughout the day, with patrons arriving and departing at any time rather than having distinct entrance and exit cycles. Newsreels gradually became obsolete by the 1960s with the rise of television news, and most material now shown prior to a feature film is of a commercial or promotional nature (which usually include "[[trailer (promotion)|trailers]]", which are advertisements for films and commercials for other consumer products or services).

A typical modern theater presents [[Advertising#Traditional_media|commercial advertising shorts]], then movie trailers, and then the feature film. Advertised start times are usually for the entire program or session, not the feature itself;<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4287273.stm "The love and loathing of cinema ads"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514092214/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4287273.stm |date=14 May 2006 }}, BBC News website, 23 February 2005</ref> thus people who want to avoid commercials and trailers would opt to enter later. This is easiest and causes the least inconvenience when it is not crowded or one is not very choosy about where one wants to sit. If one has a ticket for a specific seat (see below) one is formally assured of that, but it is still inconvenient and disturbing to find and claim it during the commercials and trailers, unless it is near an aisle. Some movie theaters have some kind of [[Intermission|break]] during the presentation, particularly for very long films. There may also be a break between the introductory material and the feature. Some countries such as the Netherlands have a tradition of incorporating an intermission in regular feature presentations, though many theaters have now abandoned that tradition,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.boomchicago.nl/Section/Real-Amsterdam/330|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060420043234/http://www.boomchicago.nl/Section/Real-Amsterdam/330|url-status=unfit|title=Boom Chicago : Real-Amsterdam : Tuschinksi Reopens|archivedate=20 April 2006}}</ref> while in North America, this is very rare and usually limited to special circumstances involving extremely long movies. During the [[closing credits]] many people leave, but some stay until the end. Usually the lights are switched on after the credits, sometimes during them. Some films show [[Post-credits scene|mid-credits scenes]] while the credits are rolling, which in comedy films are often bloopers and outtakes, or [[post-credits scene]]s, which typically set up the audience for a sequel.

Until the multiplex era, prior to showtime, the screen in some theaters would be covered by a curtain, in the style of a theater for a play. The curtain would be drawn for the feature. It is common practice in Australia for the curtain to cover part of the screen during advertising and trailers, then be fully drawn to reveal the full width of the screen for the main feature. Some theaters, lacking a curtain, filled the screen with slides of some form of [[abstract art]] prior to the start of the movie. Currently, in multiplexes, theater chains often feature a continuous [[Slide show|slideshow]] between showings featuring a loop of movie trivia, promotional material for the theater chains (such as encouraging patrons to purchase drinks, snacks and popcorn, gift vouchers and group rates, or other foyer retail offers), or advertising for local and national businesses. Advertisements for [[Fandango Media|Fandango]] and other convenient methods of purchasing tickets are often shown. Also prior to showing the film, reminders in varying forms would be shown concerning theater etiquette (no smoking, no talking, no littering, no texting, etc.) and in recent years, added reminders to silence mobile phones as well as warnings concerning movie piracy with camcorders ("[[cam (bootleg)|cam]]ming").

Some well-equipped theaters have "interlock" projectors which allow two or more projectors and sound units to be run in unison by connecting them electronically or mechanically. This setup can be used to project two prints in sync (for dual-projector 3-D) or to "interlock" one or more soundtracks to a single film. Sound interlocks were used for stereophonic sound systems before the advent of magnetic film prints.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/on-its-40th-anniversary-notes-on-the-making-of-all-the-presidents-men/|title=On Its 40th Anniversary: Notes on the Making of All the President's Men|last=Boorstin|first=Jon|website=Los Angeles Review of Books|date=25 March 2016|access-date=2019-10-07|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007121556/https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/on-its-40th-anniversary-notes-on-the-making-of-all-the-presidents-men/|url-status=live}}</ref> Fantasound (developed by [[RCA Corporation|RCA]] in 1940 for Disney's Fantasia) was an early interlock system. Likewise, early stereophonic films such as ''[[This Is Cinerama]]'' and ''[[House of Wax (1953 film)|House of Wax]]'' utilized a separate, magnetic oxide-coated film to reproduce up to six or more tracks of stereophonic sound. Datasat Digital Entertainment, purchaser of [[DTS (sound system)|DTS]]'s cinema division in May 2008, uses a time code printed on and read off of the film to synchronize with a CD-ROM in the sound track, allowing multi-channel soundtracks or foreign language tracks. This is not considered a projector interlock, however.

This practice is most common with blockbuster movies. [[Muvico Theaters]], [[Regal Cinemas]], [[Pacific Theatres]] and [[AMC Theatres]] are some theaters that interlock films.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.villagevoice.com/2017/10/12/cover-your-eyes-how-harry-guerro-brought-the-wildest-old-3-d-movies-to-the-quad-cinema/|title=Cover Your Eyes! How Harry Guerro Brought the Wildest Old 3-D Movies to the Quad Cinema|website=www.villagevoice.com|date=12 October 2017|access-date=2019-10-07|archive-date=28 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028133701/https://www.villagevoice.com/2017/10/12/cover-your-eyes-how-harry-guerro-brought-the-wildest-old-3-d-movies-to-the-quad-cinema/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Live broadcasting to movie theaters===
Sometimes movie theaters provide digital projection of a live broadcast of an opera, concert, or other performance or event. For example, there are regular [[Metropolitan Opera Live in HD|live broadcasts to movie theaters of Metropolitan Opera performances]], with additionally limited repeat showings. Admission prices are often more than twice the regular movie theater admission prices.

== Accessibility ==
Several accessibility features can be integrated into a movie theater.

=== Alternate audio ===
A Hearing Impaired (HI) audio track is designed for people who are [[hearing-impaired]] to better hear dialogue. [[Audio description]] is [[narration]] for people who are [[Blindness|blind]] or [[visually impaired]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Accessibility & The Audio Track File |url=https://cinepedia.com/accessibility/accessibility-the-audio-track-file/ |access-date=14 November 2023 |website=Cinepedia |date=September 2017 }}</ref> Moviegoers can wear headphones which play one of these alternate audio tracks synchronized with the film.<ref name=":4" /> In [[digital cinema]], Hearing Impaired audio is stored in the [[Digital Cinema Package]] (DCP) on Sound Track channel 7, and audio description is stored as "Visually Impaired-Native" (VI-N) audio on Sound Track channel 8.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9161348 |title=D-Cinema Packaging — SMPTE DCP Bv2.1 Application Profile |date=18 May 2020 |publisher=[[The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers]] |isbn=978-1-68303-222-9 |doi=10.5594/SMPTE.RDD52.2020 |access-date=14 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924122250/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9161348 |archive-date=24 September 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Sign Language Video ===
[[Sign language]] can be displayed on a [[second screen]] device synchronized with the film.<ref name=":4" /> In Brazil, [[Brazilian Sign Language|Libras]] accessibility requirements mandate availability of [[Brazilian Sign Language]] for films shown in Brazilian movie theaters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 Sep 2017 |title=Deluxe Launches First Brazilian Sign Language (LIBRAS) Localization Service Outside Brazil |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/deluxe-launches-first-brazilian-sign-language-libras-localization-service-outside-brazil-300521137.html |access-date=14 Nov 2023 |website=Cision PR Newswire |publisher=Deluxe Entertainment Services Group Inc. through Cision PR Newswire}}</ref> This video is stored in the DCP as a [[Sign Language Video]] track on Sound Track channel 15.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=2018-03-29 |title=Recommended Guidelines for Digital Cinema Source and DCP Content Delivery |url=http://www.deluxecdn.com/dcinema/support/Deluxe_Technicolor_Source_Delivery_Guidelines_1.0.pdf |access-date=2023-11-14 |publisher=Deluxe Technicolor Digital Cinema}}</ref>

==Pricing and admission==
[[File:Cinema Museum, London object 60.JPG|thumb|upright|Admission prices board, [[Cinema Museum (London)]]]]

In order to obtain admission to a movie theater, the prospective theater-goer must usually purchase a [[Ticket (admission)|ticket]] from the box office, which may be for an arbitrary seat ("open" or "free" seating, [[first-come, first-served]]) or for a specific one (allocated seating).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myvue.com/faq|title=FAQs – Vue Cinemas|work=Vue Cinemas|access-date=21 January 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203191400/http://www.myvue.com/faq|archive-date=3 December 2008}}</ref> As of 2015, some theaters sell tickets online or at automated kiosks in the theater lobby. Movie theaters in North America generally have open seating. Cinemas in Europe can have free seating or numbered seating. Some theaters in Mexico offer numbered seating, in particular, Cinepolis VIP. In the case of numbered seating systems the attendee can often pick seats from a video screen. Sometimes the attendee cannot see the screen and has to make a choice based on a verbal description of the still available seats. In the case of free seats, already seated customers may be asked by staff to move one or more places for the benefit of an arriving couple or group wanting to sit together.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
[[File:Cinema Museum, London object 106.JPG|thumb|left|Seating indicator]]
For 2013, the average price for a movie ticket in the United States was $8.13.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marketingmovies.net/news/global-cinema-stats-for-2013/ |title=Cinema Statistics for 2013 |publisher=MarketingMovies.net |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-date=30 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330063750/http://www.marketingmovies.net/news/global-cinema-stats-for-2013/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The price of a ticket may be discounted during off-peak times e.g. for [[wikt:matinee|matinees]], and higher at busy times, typically evenings and weekends. In Australia, Canada and New Zealand, when this practice is used, it is traditional to offer the lower prices for Tuesday for all showings, one of the slowest days of the week in the movie theater business, which has led to the nickname "cheap Tuesday".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dandickinson.com/wordpress/?p=106|title=First the accusatory vignettes that air before the movie, and now this|work=Skirl – Dan Dickinson|date=2 April 2004|access-date=21 January 2016|archive-date=22 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022124620/http://www.dandickinson.com/wordpress/?p=106|url-status=live}}</ref> Sometimes tickets are cheaper on Monday, or on Sunday morning. Almost all movie theaters employ economic [[price discrimination]]: tickets for youth, students, and seniors are typically cheaper. Large theater chains, such as AMC Theatres, also own smaller theaters that show "second runs" of popular films, at reduced ticket prices. Movie theaters in India and other developing countries employ price discrimination in seating arrangement: seats closer to the screen cost less, while the ones farthest from the screen cost more.

[[File:50sStyleMovieBoxOffice.png|thumb|right|Box office of a 1950s style [[fine arts movie]] theater.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fineartsgroup.com/|title=Fine Arts Group|access-date=21 January 2016|archive-date=20 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120170202/http://www.fineartsgroup.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
In the United States, many movie theater chains sell discounted passes, which can be exchanged for tickets to regular showings. Some passes provide substantial discounts from the price of regular admission, especially if they carry restrictions. Common restrictions include a waiting period after a movie's release before the pass can be exchanged for a ticket or specific theaters where a pass is ineligible for admission.

Some movie theaters and chains sell monthly passes for unlimited entrance to regular showings. Cinemas in Thailand have a restriction of one viewing per movie. The increasing number of 3D movies, for which an additional fee is required, somewhat undermines the concept of unlimited entrance to regular showings, in particular if no 2D version is screened, except in the cases where 3D is included. Some adult theaters sell a day pass, either as standard ticket, or as an option that costs a little more than a single admission. Also for some film festivals, a pass is sold for unlimited entrance. [[Discount theater]]s show films at a greatly discounted rate, however, the films shown are generally films that have already run for many weeks at regular theaters and thus are no longer a major draw, or films which flopped at the box office and thus have already been removed from showings at major theaters in order to free up screens for films that are a better box office draw.{{cn|date=May 2024}}

===Luxury screens===
[[File:Nachos and beer at a Finnkino movie theatre in Itäkeskus.jpg|thumb|right|Some movie theaters in [[Finland]] sell alcohol to take along to the movie itself in select showings. Such showings are always adults-only, regardless of the rating of the movie.]]
Some cinemas in city centers offer luxury seating with services like complimentary refills of soft drinks and popcorn, a bar serving beer, wine and liquor, reclining leather seats and service bells.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.winespectator.com/articles/movie-theaters-look-to-alcoholic-beverages|title=Surround Sound? IMAX? Chardonnay? Movie Theaters Look to Alcoholic Beverages|website=Wine Spectator|language=en|access-date=2019-10-07|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007121556/https://www.winespectator.com/articles/movie-theaters-look-to-alcoholic-beverages|url-status=live}}</ref> Cinemas must have a liquor license to serve alcohol.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dlgsc.wa.gov.au/racing-gaming-and-liquor/liquor/liquor-licensing/license-types-and-trading-hours|title=Licence types and trading hours|website=sitefinitycms-staging|language=en|access-date=2019-10-07|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007121555/https://www.dlgsc.wa.gov.au/racing-gaming-and-liquor/liquor/liquor-licensing/license-types-and-trading-hours|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Vue International|Vue Cinema]] and [[CJ CGV|CGV Cinema]] chain is a good example of a large-scale offering of such a service, called "Gold Class" and similarly, ODEON, Britain's largest cinema chain, and [[21 Cineplex]], Indonesia's largest cinema chain, have gallery areas in some of their bigger cinemas where there is a separate foyer area with a bar and unlimited snacks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2019/jun/08/want-to-save-money-at-the-movies-heres-the-full-picture|title=Want to save money at the movies? Here's the full picture|last=Swindale|first=Rachael|date=2019-06-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-10-07|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007121551/https://www.theguardian.com/money/2019/jun/08/want-to-save-money-at-the-movies-heres-the-full-picture|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats-on/film-news/first-look-around-britains-biggest-14729553|title=First look around Britain's biggest luxury cinema in Birmingham|last=Young|first=Graham|date=2018-06-02|website=birminghammail|access-date=2019-10-07|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007121555/https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats-on/film-news/first-look-around-britains-biggest-14729553|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Age restrictions===
[[File:The New Picture Rating Logo in Taiwan.svg|thumb|left|These ratings are from the revised [[Taiwan]] motion picture rating system which took effect in October 2015.]]

Admission to a movie may also be restricted by a [[Motion picture content rating system|motion picture rating system]], typically due to depictions of sex, nudity or graphic violence. According to such systems, children or teenagers below a certain age may be forbidden access to theaters showing certain movies, or only admitted when accompanied by a parent or other adult. In some jurisdictions, a rating may legally impose these age restrictions on movie theaters. Where movie theaters do not have this legal obligation, they may enforce restrictions on their own. Accordingly, a movie theater may either not be allowed to program an unrated film, or voluntarily refrain from that.

===Revenue===
{{see also|Box office}}
[[Movie studio]]s/[[Film distribution|film distributor]]s in the US traditionally drive hard bargains entitling them to as much as 100% of the gross ticket revenue during the first weeks (and then the balance changes in 10% increments in favor of exhibitors at intervals that vary from film to film).<ref name="Filson">{{cite journal |last1=Filson |first1=Darren |last2=Switzer |first2=David |last3=Besocke |first3=Portia |title=At The Movies: The Economics Of Exhibition Contracts |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1093/ei/cbi024 |journal=Economic Inquiry |date=April 2005 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=354–370 |doi=10.1093/ei/cbi024|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Film exhibition has seen a rise in its development with video consolidation as well as DVD sales, which over the past two decades is the biggest earner in revenue. According to The Contemporary Hollywood Film Industry, Philip Drake states that box office takings currently account for less than a quarter of total revenues and have become increasingly "front-loaded", earning the majority of receipts in the opening two weeks of exhibition, meaning that films need to make an almost instant impact in order to avoid being dropped from screens by exhibitors. Essentially, if the film does not succeed in the first few weeks of its inception, it will most likely fail in its attempt to gain a sustainable amount of revenue and thus being taken out from movie theaters. Furthermore, higher-budget films on the "opening weekend", or the three days, Friday to Sunday, can signify how much revenue it will bring in, not only to America, but as well as overseas. It may also determine the price in distribution windows through home video and television.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McDonald |first1=Paul |last2=Wasko |first2=Janet|title=The Contemporary Hollywood Film Industry |year=2008 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Malden, MA |page=126}}</ref>

In Canada, the total operating revenue in the movie theater industry was $1.7 billion in 2012, an 8.4% increase from 2010. This increase was mainly the result of growth in box office and concession revenue. Combined, these accounted for 91.9% of total industry operating revenue.<ref>{{cite web|title = Statcan.gc.ca|url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/87f0009x/87f0009x2013001-eng.pdf|website = Statcan.gc.ca|access-date = 11 May 2015|archive-date = 18 May 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150518090651/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/87f0009x/87f0009x2013001-eng.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref> In the US, the "...number of tickets sold fell nearly 11% between 2004 and 2013, according to the report, while box office revenue increased 17%" due to increased ticket prices.<ref name="wsj.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303949704579461813982237426|title=Fewer Americans Go to the Movies|author=Erich Schwartzel and Ben Fritz|date=25 March 2014|work=WSJ|access-date=21 January 2016|archive-date=26 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126111929/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303949704579461813982237426|url-status=live}}</ref>

====New forms of competition====
[[File:1980- Summer cinema box office revenue.svg |thumb |Ticket sales revenue has declined since the mid-2010s, not fully recovering from declines during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] when many theaters were closed.<ref name=NYTimes_20250903>{{cite news |last1=Zhang |first1=Christine |last2=Barnes |first2=Brooks |title=Behind the Numbers: How Hollywood Missed Its Mark This Summer |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/09/03/business/media/summer-box-office-movie-tickets-2025.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=3 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250903152437/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/09/03/business/media/summer-box-office-movie-tickets-2025.html |archive-date=3 September 2025 |quote=Source: Box Office Mojo. Notes: Summer is the first Friday in May through Labor Day weekend. Amounts are adjusted for inflation. |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
One reason for the decline in ticket sales in the 2000s is that "home-entertainment options [are] improving all the time— whether [[Streaming media|streamed movies and television]], video games, or mobile apps—and studios releasing fewer movies", which means that "people are less likely to head to their local multiplex".<ref name="wsj.com"/> This decline is not something that is recent. It has been observed since the 1950s when television became widespread among working-class homes. As the years went on, home media became more popular, and the decline continued. This decline continues until this day.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spraos |first1=John |title=The Decline of the Cinema: An Economist's Report |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-72675-7 }}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref> A Pew Media survey from 2006 found that the relationship between movies watched at home versus at the movie theater was in a five to one ratio and 75% of respondents said their preferred way of watching a movie was at home, versus 21% who said they preferred to go to a theater.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/Movies.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906114613/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/Movies.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2014, it was reported that the practice of releasing a film in theaters and via on-demand streaming on the same day (for selected films) and the rise in popularity of the [[Netflix]] streaming service has led to concerns in the movie theater industry.<ref name="screenrant.com">{{cite web|url=https://screenrant.com/netflix-digital-killing-movie-theaters/|title=Could Netflix Kill the Movie Theater Industry?|work=Screen Rant|date=5 October 2014|access-date=21 January 2016|archive-date=17 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117074216/http://screenrant.com/netflix-digital-killing-movie-theaters/|url-status=live}}</ref> Another source of competition is television, which has "...stolen a lot of cinema's best tricks – like good production values and top tier actors – and brought them into people's living rooms".<ref name="screenrant.com"/> Since the 2010s, one of the increasing sources of competition for movie theaters is the increasing ownership by people of [[Home cinema|home theater]] systems which can display high-resolution [[Blu-ray]] discs of movies on large, widescreen flat-screen TVs,<ref name="screenrant.com"/> with [[5.1 surround sound]] and a powerful [[subwoofer]] for low-pitched sounds.

===Ticket price uniformity===
[[File:Movie ticket.tif|thumb|Admission ticket for the premier of the movie ''[[The Whiskey Bandit|A Viszkis]]'']]
The relatively strong uniformity of movie ticket prices, particularly in the U.S., is a common economics puzzle, because conventional supply and demand theory would suggest higher prices for more popular and more expensive movies, and lower prices for an unpopular "bomb" or for a documentary with less audience appeal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~leinav/pubs/IRLE2007.pdf|title=·|website=stanford.edu|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-date=13 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813060310/http://web.stanford.edu/~leinav/pubs/IRLE2007.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Unlike seemingly similar forms of entertainment such as rock concerts, in which a popular performer's tickets cost much more than an unpopular performer's tickets, the demand for movies is very difficult to predict ahead of time. Indeed, some films with major stars, such as ''[[Gigli]]'' (which starred the then-[[supercouple]] of [[Ben Affleck]] and [[Jennifer Lopez]]), have turned out to be box-office bombs, while low-budget films with unknown actors have become smash hits (e.g., ''[[The Blair Witch Project]]''). The demand for films is usually determined from ticket sale statistics after the movie is already out. Uniform pricing is therefore a strategy to cope with unpredictable demand. Historical and cultural factors are sometimes also cited.<ref>McKenzie, Richard B. (2008). ''Why Popcorn Costs So Much at the Movies: And Other Pricing Puzzles''. pp. 166–174. {{ISBN|978-0-387-76999-8}}.</ref>

===Ticket check===
In some movie theater complexes, the theaters are arranged such that tickets are checked at the entrance into the entire plaza, rather than before each theater. At a theater with a sold-out show there is often an additional ticket check, to make sure that everybody with a ticket for that show can find a seat. The lobby may be before or after the ticket check.

==Controversies==
[[File:A movie theater concession stand in Hiawassee, Georgia.jpg|thumb|A movie theater concession stand in [[Hiawassee, Georgia]]]]
* '''Advertising:''' Some moviegoers complain about commercial advertising shorts played before films, arguing that their absence used to be one of the main advantages of going to a movie theater. Other critics such as [[Roger Ebert]] have expressed concerns that these advertisements, plus an excessive number of movie trailers, could lead to pressure to restrict the preferred length of the feature films themselves to facilitate playing schedules. So far, the theater companies have typically been highly resistant to these complaints, citing the need for the supplementary income. Some chains like Famous Players and AMC Theatres have compromised with the commercials restricted to being shown before the scheduled start time for the trailers and the feature film. Individual theaters within a chain also sometimes adopt this policy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.drhdmi.eu/dictionary/movie-theater.html|title=Movie theater|website=www.drhdmi.eu|access-date=2019-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902071550/http://www.drhdmi.eu/dictionary/movie-theater.html|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''Loudness:''' Another major recent concern is that the dramatic improvements in [[Sound reinforcement system|stereo sound systems]] and in [[subwoofer]] systems have led to theaters playing the soundtracks of films at unacceptably high volume levels. Usually, the trailers are presented at a very high sound level, presumably to overcome the sounds of a busy crowd. The sound is not adjusted downward for a sparsely occupied theater. Volume is normally adjusted based on the [[projectionist]]'s judgment of a high or low attendance. The film is usually shown at a lower volume level than the trailers. In response to audience complaints, a manager at a Cinemark theater in California explained that the studios set trailer sound levels, not the theater.{{Citation needed|date=June 2017}}
* '''Copyright piracy:''' In recent years, theaters have started to show warnings before the movie starts against using cameras and [[camcorder]]s during the movie ([[Cam (bootleg)|camming]]). Some patrons record the movie in order to sell "bootleg" copies on the black market. These warnings threaten customers with being removed from the cinema and arrested by the police.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} Some theaters (including those with IMAX stadiums) have dogs at the doors to sniff recording smugglers. At particularly anticipated showings, theaters may employ [[night vision]] equipment to detect a working camera during a screening. In some jurisdictions this is illegal unless the practice has been announced to the public in advance.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemauk.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/fact-anti-camcording-best-practice-guide-2014.pdf|title=ILLEGAL RECORDINGIN CINEMAS|access-date=7 October 2019|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112024829/https://www.cinemauk.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/fact-anti-camcording-best-practice-guide-2014.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Crowd control:''' As movie theaters have grown into multiplexes and megaplexes, crowd control has become a major concern. An overcrowded megaplex can be rather unpleasant, and in an emergency can be extremely dangerous (indeed, "[[shouting fire in a crowded theater]]" is the standard example of the [[Freedom of speech|limits to free speech]], because it could cause a deadly panic). Therefore, all major theater chains have implemented crowd control measures. The most well-known measure is the ubiquitous '''holdout line''', which prevents ticket holders for the next showing of that weekend's most popular movie from entering the building until their particular auditorium has been cleared out and cleaned. Since the 1980s, some theater chains (especially AMC Theatres) have developed a policy of co-locating their theaters in shopping centers (as opposed to the old practice of building stand-alone theaters).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fwtx.com/api/content/d10df70e-654a-5232-babf-6e2785b906fc/|title=Next Tenant for The Shops at Clearfork is AMC Theatres|last=Calimbahin|first=Samantha|date=2017-02-22|website=Fort Worth Magazine|language=en-us|access-date=2019-10-07|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703105130/https://fwtx.com/culture/next-tenant-shops-clearfork-amc-theatres/|url-status=live}}</ref> In some cases, lobbies and corridors cannot hold as many people as the auditoriums, thus making holdout lines necessary. In turn, ticket holders may be enticed to shop or eat while stuck outside in the holdout line. However, given the fact that rent is based on floor area, the practice of having a smaller lobby is somewhat understandable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=FADEN|first=ERIC S.|date=2001|journal=Journal of Film and Video|volume=53|issue=2/3|pages=93–106|issn=0742-4671|jstor=20688359|title=Crowd Control: Early Cinema, Sound, and Digital Images}}</ref>
[[File:Popcorn with Nutritional yeast.jpg|thumb|right|A bag of popcorn from the Plaza Theater in Atlanta, Georgia.]]
* '''Refunds:''' Most cinema companies issue refunds if there is a technical fault such as a power outage that stops people from seeing a movie. Refunds may be offered during the initial 30 minutes of the screening. The ''New York Times'' reported that some audience members walked out of [[Terrence Malick]]'s film ''[[The Tree of Life (film)|Tree of Life]]'' and asked for refunds.<ref name="ew.com">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.ew.com/article/2011/07/01/tree-of-life-refunds|title='Tree of Life' walk-outs - EW.com|magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|access-date=21 January 2016}}</ref> At AMC theaters, "...patrons who sat through the entire film and then decided they wanted their money back were out of luck, as AMC's policy is to only offer refunds 30 minutes into a screening. The same goes for Landmark, an independent movie chain... whose policy states, 'If a film is not what is expected… and the feature is viewed less than 30 minutes a refund can be processed for you at the box office.'"<ref name="ew.com"/>
* '''Snack prices:''' The price of soft drinks and candy at theaters is typically significantly higher than the cost of those items at any other place. Popcorn prices can also be exorbitant. It has been "...estimated that movie theaters make an 85% profit at the concessions stand on overpriced soda, candy, nachos, hot dogs and, of course, popcorn. Movie-theater popcorn has been called one of America's biggest rip-offs, with a retail price of nine times what it costs to make."<ref>{{cite magazine|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309234252/http://business.time.com/2012/03/19/man-sues-movie-theater-for-charging-too-much-for-fountain-sodas/|archivedate=2013-03-09|url=https://business.time.com/2012/03/19/man-sues-movie-theater-for-charging-too-much-for-fountain-sodas/|title=Movie-Theater Owner Tries to Justify $4 Fountain Sodas|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=19 March 2012|access-date=21 January 2016|last1=Tuttle|first1=Brad}}</ref>

==Cinema and movie theater chains==
{{anchor|cinema chain}}
{{Main|List of movie theater chains}}

[[File:Mall culture jakarta42.jpg|thumb|Hallway of MPX Grande, a defunct movie theater in Pasaraya Blok M, [[Jakarta]].]]
In Africa, [[Ster-Kinekor]] has the largest market share in South Africa. [[Nu Metro Cinemas]] is another cinema chain in South Africa.

In North America, [[Cinema United]] is the largest exhibition trade organization in the world. According to their figures, the top four chains represent almost half of the theater screens in North America. In Canada, [[Cineplex Entertainment|Cineplex Cinemas]] is by far the largest player with 161 locations and 1,635 screens.

In the United States, the studios once controlled many theaters, but after the appearance of ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'', Congress passed the [[Matthew M. Neely|Neely]] Anti-Block Booking Act, which eventually broke the link between the studios and the theaters. Now, the top three chains in the U.S. are [[Regal Cinemas]], [[AMC Theatres]] and [[Cinemark Theatres]]. In 1995, Carmike was the largest chain in the United States- now, the major chains include [[AMC Theatres]] – 5,206 screens in 346 theaters,<ref name="AMC">{{cite web |url=http://www.amcentertainment.com/AMCInfo/About/AMC_Has_It/ |title=Learn about the " IT" Factor at AMC |publisher=AMC Entertainment |date=16 March 2009 |access-date=31 December 2010 |archive-date=9 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909223146/http://www.amcentertainment.com/AMCInfo/About/AMC_Has_It/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Cinemark Theatres]] – 4,457 screens in 334 theaters,<ref name="Cinemark">{{cite web |url=http://www.cinemark.com/aboutus.asp |title=About Us |publisher=Cinemark |access-date=31 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227003509/http://www.cinemark.com/aboutus.asp |archive-date=27 December 2010 }}</ref> [[Landmark Theatres]] – 220 screens in 54 theaters,<ref name="Landmark">{{cite web |url=http://www.landmarktheatres.com/AboutLandmark/AboutIndex.htm |title=About Landmark Theatres |publisher=Landmarktheatres.com |access-date=31 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100222092057/http://www.landmarktheatres.com/AboutLandmark/AboutIndex.htm |archive-date=22 February 2010 }}</ref> [[Marcus Corporation|Marcus Theatres]] – 681 screens in 53 theaters.<ref name="NATO">{{cite web |url=http://natoonline.org/data/top-10-circuits/ |title=Top Ten U.S. & Canadian Circuits |work=NATO |publisher=Natoonline.org |date=1 July 2015 |access-date=22 October 2015 |archive-date=30 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030153313/http://natoonline.org/data/top-10-circuits/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[National Amusements]] – 409 screens in 32 theaters<ref name="NATO" /> and [[Regal Cinemas]] – 7,334 screens in 588 theaters.<ref name="Regal M">{{cite web|url=http://www.regmovies.com/corporate/aboutus.aspx|title=Regal Movie Theaters | About Us|publisher=Regmovies.com|access-date=31 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102131741/http://www.regmovies.com/corporate/aboutus.aspx|archive-date=2 January 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015 the United States had a total of 40,547 screens.<ref name="Rahman">{{cite web|url= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/shanghai-film-festival-china-top-901867|title= Shanghai Film Festival: China to Top U.S. Screen Total by 2017, Says Wanda Cinema Chief|first= Abid|last= Rahman|date= 12 June 2016|access-date= 13 June 2016|work= [[The Hollywood Reporter]]|archive-date= 13 June 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160613113804/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/shanghai-film-festival-china-top-901867|url-status= live}}</ref> In Mexico, the major chains are [[Cinépolis]] and [[Cinemex]].

In South America, Argentine chains include [[Hoyts]], [[Village Cinemas]], [[Cinemark Theatres|Cinemark]] and [[Showcase Cinemas]]. Brazilian chains include [[Cinemark Theatres|Cinemark]] and [[Moviecom]]. Chilean chains include [[Hoyts]] and [[Cinemark Theatres|Cinemark]]. Colombian, Costa Rican, Panamanian and Peruvian chains include [[Cinemark Theatres|Cinemark]] and [[Cinépolis]].

In Asia, [[Wanda Film|Wanda Cinemas]] is the largest exhibitor in China, with 2,700 screens in 311 theaters<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/behind-screen/wanda-opens-first-dolby-cinema-905453|title= Wanda Opens Asia's First Dolby Cinema Theater|first= Carolyn|last= Giardina|date= 22 June 2016|access-date= 23 June 2016|work= [[The Hollywood Reporter]]|archive-date= 24 June 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160624111718/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/behind-screen/wanda-opens-first-dolby-cinema-905453|url-status= live}}</ref> and with 18% of the screens in the country;<ref>{{cite web|url= https://deadline.com/2016/06/warcraft-box-office-analysis-china-future-1201772400/|title= Is 'Warcraft's Outsized China Box Office A Game-Changer For Hollywood?|first= Nancy|last= Tartaglione|date= 15 June 2016|access-date= 16 June 2016|work= [[Deadline Hollywood]]|archive-date= 16 June 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160616170213/https://deadline.com/2016/06/warcraft-box-office-analysis-china-future-1201772400/|url-status= live}}</ref> another major Chinese chain is [[UA Cinemas]]. China had a total of 31,627 screens in 2015 and is expected to have almost 40,000 in 2016.<ref name="Rahman"/> Hong Kong has [[AMC Theatres]]. [[South Korea]]'s [[CJ CGV]] also has branches in [[China]], [[Indonesia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Turkey]], [[Vietnam]], and the [[United States]]. In India, [[PVR INOX]] is the largest cinema chain, operating 1,744 screens.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Standard |first=Business |title=PVR INOX to add 100 screens next year with investment of around Rs 200 cr |url=https://www.business-standard.com/companies/news/pvr-inox-to-add-100-screens-next-year-with-investment-of-around-rs-200-cr-124112200585_1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241206140641/https://www.business-standard.com/companies/news/pvr-inox-to-add-100-screens-next-year-with-investment-of-around-rs-200-cr-124112200585_1.html |archive-date=2024-12-06 |access-date=2025-05-02 |website=www.business-standard.com |language=en-US}}</ref> These theatres practice safety guidelines in each cinema halls. Indonesia has the [[21 Cineplex]] and [[Cinépolis]] chain. A major Israel theater is [[Cinema City International]]. Japanese chains include [[Toho]] and [[Shochiku]].

Europe is served by [[AMC Theatres]], [[Cineworld|Cineworld Cinemas]], [[Vue International|Vue Cinemas]] and [[Odeon Cinemas]].

In Oceania, large chains include [[Event Cinemas]], [[Village Cinemas]], [[Hoyts|Hoyts Cinemas]] and [[Palace Films and Cinemas|Palace Cinemas]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Film}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Cinema etiquette]]
* [[Film poster]]
* [[Film screening]]
* [[Home cinema]]
* [[Inflatable movie screen]]
* [[List of drive-in theaters]]
* [[List of movie theaters]]
* [[Mini theater]]
* [[Movie palace]]
* [[Multiplex (movie theater)]]
* [[Nickelodeon (movie theater)]]
* [[Saturday morning pictures]]
* [[2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting]]
{{div col end}}

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{commons-inline}}
*[http://www.pantagraph.com/news/local/pfop-movie-theaters-early-users-of-air-conditioning/article_b5a6253c-42eb-5aea-8b44-a1106f6eddbf.html Movie theaters early users of air conditioning – Pantagraph] (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Movie theater}}
[[Category:Cinemas and movie theaters| ]]
[[Category:Audiovisual introductions in 1895]]
[[Category:Audiovisual introductions in 1896]]
[[Category:Auditoriums]]
[[Category:Promotion and marketing communications]]
[[Category:Theatres]]

Nav (rapper)

2026-03-13T04:02:58Z

MarcyThompson89: Updated entries and formatting

{{Short description|Canadian rapper and record producer (born 1989)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Nav
| image = Nav Denver Co May 7th.jpg
| caption = Nav in 2018
| birth_name = Navraj Singh Goraya
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1989|11|3}}
| birth_place = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], Canada
| alias = Brown Boy
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Rapper
* singer
* songwriter
* record producer
}}
| discography = {{hlist|[[Nav discography|Recording]]|[[Nav discography #Production discography|production]]}}
| years_active = 2015–present
| genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Hip-hop]]
* [[cloud rap]]
* [[trap music|trap]]
}}
| label = {{flatlist|
* [[XO (record label)|XO]]
* [[Republic Records|Republic]]}}
{{Infobox
| child = yes
| label1 = Management
| data1 = {{hlist|[[Amir Esmailian|Amir "Cash" Esmailian]]| [[Wassim Slaiby|Wassim "Sal" Slaiby]]}}}}
| website = {{URL|navmusic.com}}
| module = {{Infobox person|embed=yes
| signature = Nav sig.svg
}}}}
'''Navraj "Nav" Singh Goraya''' (born November 3, 1989) is a Canadian rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer. He began his career as a producer for other artists before embarking on his recording career, with his first major production credit being [[Drake (musician)|Drake]]'s 2015 single "[[Back to Back (Drake song)|Back to Back]]". In early 2017, Nav signed with fellow Canadian singer [[the Weeknd]]'s record label, [[XO (record label)|XO]].

Nav's second and third studio albums, ''[[Bad Habits (Nav album)|Bad Habits]]'' (2019) and ''[[Good Intentions (album)|Good Intentions]]'' (2020), both debuted atop the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]]. The latter album's lead single, "[[Turks (song)|Turks]]" (with [[Gunna (rapper)|Gunna]] featuring Travis Scott), debuted at number 17 on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] and remains his highest-charting song as a lead artist. Also in 2020, he guest appeared on the [[Internet Money Records|Internet Money]], Gunna and [[Don Toliver]]'s single "[[Lemonade (Internet Money, Gunna and Don Toliver song)|Lemonade]]", which peaked at number six on the chart and gave him his highest-charting entry overall. Later that year, he released his second commercial mixtape, ''[[Emergency Tsunami]]''.

Nav's fourth studio album, ''[[Demons Protected by Angels]]'' (2022), debuted at number two on the ''Billboard'' 200. His 2023 single, "[[Calling (Metro Boomin, Swae Lee and Nav song)|Calling]]" (with [[Metro Boomin]] and [[Swae Lee]] featuring [[A Boogie wit da Hoodie]]), yielded commercial success. His fifth studio album, ''[[OMW2 Rexdale]]'' (2025), lukewarmly entered the ''Billboard'' 200.

==Early life==
Navraj Singh Goraya was born on November 3, 1989, in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], into a poor immigrant [[Punjabi Canadians|Punjabi]] [[Sikhs|Sikh]] family, from [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[India]]. He was raised in the [[Rexdale]] neighbourhood. His mother was involved in computer manufacturing and his father operated a forklift.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.complex.com/music/2017/07/nav-interview-2017|title=Nav Is the "First Brown Boy to Get It Popping" and His Meteoric Rise Is Far From Over|website=Complex.com|access-date=October 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014133337/http://www.complex.com/music/2017/07/nav-interview-2017|archive-date=October 14, 2017|url-status=live|quote=His parents are from Punjab, India.}}</ref> Nav first became interested in music after his mother bought him a boombox in the third grade.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/nav-meet-the-toronto-rapper-opening-the-weeknds-tour-w495749|title=Nav: Meet the Toronto Rapper-Producer Opening the Weeknd's Starboy Tour|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|access-date=October 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014182624/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/nav-meet-the-toronto-rapper-opening-the-weeknds-tour-w495749|archive-date=October 14, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> His uncle was also a [[Music of Punjab#Punjabi pop|popular Punjabi singer]] in [[India]] and brought him to a studio.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://gazettereview.com/2017/08/nav-net-worth-wealthy-rapper-now/|title=Nav Net Worth – How Wealthy is the Rapper Now? – The Gazette Review|last=Carter|first=Brooke|date=August 5, 2017|work=The Gazette Review|access-date=October 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020024107/http://gazettereview.com/2017/08/nav-net-worth-wealthy-rapper-now/|archive-date=October 20, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> He began making mash-ups in high school and producing beats for local underground Toronto artists, and became popular on [[SoundCloud]]. Nav first started producing using [[Sony]]'s [[ACID Pro]] software.<ref name=":0"/> He attended West Humber Junior Middle School and then later attended [[Thistletown Collegiate Institute]] for his high school education and had to spend an additional year to graduate. Following high school, he attended and graduated from [[Metalworks Institute]] in [[Mississauga, Ontario]] in 2010 with a diploma in Audio Production and Engineering.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://metalworksinstitute.com/alumni-update-juno-nominations-2018/|title=Alumni Update: JUNO Award Nominations 2018, Metalworks Institute|date=February 9, 2018|website=Metalworks Institute|access-date=May 31, 2020}}</ref>

==Career==
===2015–2018: Commercial debut, ''Nav'', and ''Perfect Timing''===
{{main|Nav (mixtape)|Perfect Timing (mixtape)}}
On July 29, 2015, fellow Canadian rapper and singer [[Drake (musician)|Drake]] released the single "[[Back to Back (Drake song)|Back to Back]]", which Nav helped co-produce. On September 4, 2015, Nav released one of his earliest singles on [[SoundCloud]] and [[YouTube]], "Take Me Simple", which has accumulated over eighteen million listens. He released the single "Ten Toes Down" (abbreviated as "TTD" on streaming services) on SoundCloud and YouTube on December 15, 2015. In 2016, another one of his SoundCloud and YouTube-exclusive singles, "The Man", was played on Drake's [[OVO Sound]] Radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://genius.com/Drake-ovo-sound-radio-episode-13-tracklist-lyrics|title=Drake – OVO Sound Radio Episode 13 Tracklist|website=Genius.com|access-date=August 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817161358/https://genius.com/Drake-ovo-sound-radio-episode-13-tracklist-lyrics|archive-date=August 17, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://genius.com/Drake-ovo-sound-radio-episode-16-tracklist-lyrics|title=Drake – OVO Sound Radio Episode 16 Tracklist|website=Genius.com|access-date=August 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817193306/https://genius.com/Drake-ovo-sound-radio-episode-16-tracklist-lyrics|archive-date=August 17, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> On January 12, 2016, Nav released the single "[[Myself (song)|Myself]]" on SoundCloud and YouTube, which quickly became his biggest song at the time, earning him numerous cosigns, including one from American model and internet personality [[Kylie Jenner]]. On June 4, 2016, he released the single "Up" on SoundCloud and YouTube. Following the popularity of the singles, he was signed to [[XO (record label)|XO]] and [[Republic Records]], after being called by his now-manager [[Amir Esmailian|Amir "Cash" Esmailian]].<ref name="XXL">{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2017/02/nav-signs-with-xo-records/|title=Nav Signs Deal With The Weeknd's XO Records|work=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]|last=Simmons|first=Ted|date=February 16, 2017|accessdate=February 26, 2017}}</ref> On September 2, 2016, Nav was featured on and solely produced the single "[[Beibs in the Trap]]" by [[Travis Scott]], as part of the latter's second studio album, ''[[Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight]]'', in which the song reached number 90 on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] and was eventually certified [[RIAA certification|double platinum]] by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) after selling over two million copies.<ref name="Beibs">{{cite magazine|title=Travis Scott Chart History: Hot 100|url=https://www.billboard.com/artist/travis-scott/chart-history/hsi/|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|access-date=October 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926140845/https://www.billboard.com/music/Travis-Scott/chart-history/hot-100|archive-date=September 26, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://hypebeast.com/2017/8/travis-scott-nav-biebs-in-the-trap-goes-platinum|title=Travis Scott & Nav's "Biebs In The Trap" Just Went Platinum|work=HYPEBEAST|access-date=October 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020032543/https://hypebeast.com/2017/8/travis-scott-nav-biebs-in-the-trap-goes-platinum|archive-date=October 20, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Navraj Singh (NAV).jpg|thumb|left|Nav at [[Coachella]] in 2017]]
On December 24, 2016, American record producer [[Metro Boomin]], who helped produce "Up", took to [[Twitter]] to announce that he and Nav would be releasing a collaborative project in 2017. On February 15, 2017, Nav released his debut single, "[[Some Way]]" featuring [[the Weeknd]], who is his label boss from XO, as the lead single from his [[Nav (mixtape)|self-titled debut mixtape]], which was released exactly nine days later.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Romaine |first1=Jenna |title=NAV & The Weeknd Release Provocative Collaboration 'Some Way': Listen |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |date=15 February 2017 |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rb-hip-hop/nav-the-weeknd-new-song-some-way-justin-bieber-7693320/ |access-date=4 December 2024}}</ref> Exactly, one week after the release of the single, Nav tweeted that his collaborative mixtape with Metro Boomin would be titled ''[[Perfect Timing (mixtape)|Perfect Timing]]''. "Myself" was chosen as the second and final single from Nav's self-titled mixtape as it was sent to [[rhythmic contemporary|rhythmic contemporary radio]] on April 11, 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fashionably-early.com/2017/04/11/rhythmicurban-radio-update-april-11-2017/|title=Rhythmic/Urban Radio Update|date=12 April 2017|publisher=|via=Fashionably}}</ref> On July 14, 2017, Nav and Metro Boomin released "[[Perfect Timing (Intro)]]" and "[[Call Me (Nav and Metro Boomin song)|Call Me]]", the dual lead singles of ''Perfect Timing'', which was released exactly a week later.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2017/07/nav-metro-boomin-drop-perfect-timing/|title=Nav and Metro Boomin Drop 'Perfect Timing' Project – XXL|website=XXL Mag|date=July 21, 2017 |access-date=January 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201075428/http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2017/07/nav-metro-boomin-drop-perfect-timing/|archive-date=February 1, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 2018–2019: ''Reckless'' and ''Bad Habits'' ===
{{main|Reckless (Nav album)|Bad Habits (Nav album)}}

On November 7, 2017, Nav was featured on the single "[[Bali (song)|Bali]]" by Canadian [[hip hop music|hip hop]] duo [[88Glam]], which consisted of rappers and now-former XO signees [[Derek Wise]] and [[88Camino]] before the duo split in late 2022, as part of the duo's [[88Glam (mixtape)|self-titled debut mixtape]]. Three days later, he released the single "[[Wanted You]]" featuring Lil Uzi Vert, which became his first single as a lead artist, as well as a credited artist, to chart on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]], reaching number 64.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Lamarre |first=Carl |date=November 10, 2017 |title=Nav & Lil Uzi Vert Blast Their Past Relationships on 'Wanted You' |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rb-hip-hop/nav-new-song-wanted-you-lil-uzi-vert-stream-8031205/ |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |language=en-US|accessdate=July 15, 2023}}</ref> In February 2018, Nav received a [[Juno Award]] nomination for [[Juno Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year|Breakthrough Artist of the Year]] at the [[Juno Awards of 2018]].<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/music/junos/junos-news/arcade-fire-and-daniel-caesar-lead-2018-juno-award-nominations-1.4520940 "Arcade Fire and Daniel Caesar lead 2018 Juno Award nominations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208065845/http://www.cbc.ca/music/junos/junos-news/arcade-fire-and-daniel-caesar-lead-2018-juno-award-nominations-1.4520940 |date=February 8, 2018 }}. [[CBC Music]], February 6, 2018.</ref> On March 16, 2018, he released the single "[[Freshman List]]", which saw him taking aim at the magazine ''[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]'' for not including him in their segment of the same name to highlight up-and-coming artists in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mojica |first1=Nick |title=Nav Wants the Rookie of the Year Crown on New Song "Freshman List" |url=https://www.xxlmag.com/nav-freshman-list/ |website=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]] |access-date=November 30, 2022 |date=March 16, 2018}}</ref> On April 6, 2018, Nav was featured on the single "[[Maintain (song)|Maintain]]" by fellow XO signee [[Belly (rapper)|Belly]], which later appeared on the latter's second studio album, ''[[Immigrant (album)|Immigrant]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/84796-belly-and-nav-are-out-here-trying-to-maintain-in-new-single-new-song|title=Belly & Nav Are Out Here Trying To "Maintain" In New Single|work=[[HotNewHipHop]]|last=Zidel|first=Alex|date=April 5, 2018|access-date=July 15, 2023}}</ref> On April 26, 2018, during his concert for his "Freshman Tour" in Los Angeles, he announced that he would be releasing two projects that year, in which he said that his debut studio album would be titled ''[[Reckless (Nav album)|Reckless]]'' and that he would also be releasing another collaborative mixtape with Metro Boomin titled ''Perfect Timing 2'', which is a sequel to their project together that was released in 2017, but the latter project has still not been released as of 2023. The next day, Nav took to social media to announce that Travis Scott, who came out to perform "Beibs in the Trap" with him onstage the previous day, would be featured on a song from ''Reckless''. On May 18, 2018, Nav released ''Reckless'', with "Wanted You" and "Freshman List" serving as the respective lead and second singles.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Saponara |first1=Michael |title=Stream NAV's Debut Album 'Reckless,' Feat. Travis Scott, Quavo & Lil Uzi Vert |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rb-hip-hop/nav-reckless-album-stream-8456716/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=18 November 2022 |date=18 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nav's Debut Album 'Reckless' Is Here |url=https://www.complex.com/music/2018/05/nav-reckless-stream |website=Complex |access-date=18 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref> "[[Champion (Nav song)|Champion]]" featuring Travis Scott was chosen as the third and final single from the album as it was sent to rhythmic contemporary radio on June 26, 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.allaccess.com/top40-rhythmic/future-releases|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614224406/https://www.allaccess.com/top40-rhythmic/future-releases|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 14, 2018|title=Top 40 Rhythmic Future Releases {{!}} R&B Song and Hip-Hop Music Release Dates {{!}} ...|date=June 14, 2018|access-date=January 12, 2020}}</ref> On August 3, 2018, Nav was featured alongside [[Gunna (rapper)|Gunna]] on the single "[[Yosemite (Travis Scott song)|Yosemite]]" by Travis Scott, as part of the latter's third studio album, ''[[Astroworld (album)|Astroworld]]'', which he received worldwide attention because his voice was initially mixed at a lower volume, but it was fixed and re-released with a better mix at the correct volume eight days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/travis-scott-picks-yosemite-as-next-astroworld-single-news.64318.html|title=Travis Scott Picks "Yosemite" As Next "Astroworld" Single|work=[[HotNewHipHop]]|last=Findlay|first=Mitch|date=November 12, 2018|access-date=December 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.spin.com/2018/08/travis-scott-astroworld-yosemite-nav-verse-final-mix-update/|title=Travis Scott Updates Final Mix of Astroworld Song 'Yosemite'|work=[[Spin (magazine)|Spin]]|last=Arcand|first=Rob|date=August 12, 2018|access-date=December 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Why Nav's Vocals on "Yosemite" Were Quiet, According to Travis Scott's Engineer |url=https://www.complex.com/music/2020/04/why-nav-vocals-were-so-low-on-travis-scott-yosemite |website=[[Complex Magazine|Complex]] |access-date=18 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Travis Scott's Engineer Explains The Low Volume Of Nav's 'Yosemite' Verse |url=https://uproxx.com/music/travis-scott-engineer-explains-volume-nav-yosemite/ |publisher=[[Uproxx]] |access-date=November 18, 2022 |date=April 7, 2020}}</ref>

On November 2, 2018, Nav released the single "[[Know Me]]".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Espinoza |first1=Joshua |title=Nav Drops New Single "Know Me" |url=https://www.complex.com/music/2018/11/nav-know-me-stream |website=[[Complex Networks|Complex]] |access-date=November 30, 2022 |date=November 2, 2018}}</ref> He received two [[Juno Award]] nominations for [[Juno Fan Choice Award|Fan Choice]] and [[Juno Award for Rap Recording of the Year|Rap Recording of the Year]] at the [[Juno Awards of 2019]] for ''Reckless''. On March 22, 2019, Nav released his second studio album, ''[[Bad Habits (Nav album)|Bad Habits]]'', with "Know Me" serving as the lead single.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://exclaim.ca/music/article/nav_gets_meek_mill_young_thug_the_weeknd_for_bad_habits_album|title=NAV Gets Meek Mill, Young Thug, the Weeknd for 'Bad Habits' Album|work=[[Exclaim!]]|last=Slingerland|first=Calum|date=March 21, 2019|access-date=March 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322020537/https://exclaim.ca/music/article/nav_gets_meek_mill_young_thug_the_weeknd_for_bad_habits_album|archive-date=March 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Four days later, he released the deluxe edition of the album and "[[Price on My Head]]" featuring the Weeknd was chosen as the second single of the album on the same day.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chin |first1=Mallory |title=Nav Drops Future-Assisted Track on Deluxe Edition of 'Bad Habits' |url=https://hypebeast.com/2019/3/nav-bad-habits-deluxe-edition-album-stream |website=HYPEBEAST |date=March 26, 2019 |access-date=April 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416083940/https://hypebeast.com/2019/3/nav-bad-habits-deluxe-edition-album-stream |archive-date=April 16, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Saponara |first1=Michael |title=Nav Connects With Future for 'Amazing,' Releases 'Bad Habits' Deluxe Edition |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rb-hip-hop/nav-amazing-future-bad-habits-deluxe-8504249/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=April 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424181141/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/8504249/nav-amazing-future-bad-habits-deluxe |archive-date=April 24, 2019 |url-status=live |date=March 26, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/nav-the-weeknd-price-on-my-head-video-watch-813821/|title=Nav, the Weeknd's Toronto Hometown Burns in 'Price on My Head' Video|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|last=Legaspi|first=Althea|date=March 26, 2019|access-date=April 6, 2019|quote= The single appears on Nav's sophomore studio album, ''Bad Habits''.}}</ref> It debuted number one on the [[Billboard 200|US ''Billboard'' 200]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Caulfield |first1=Keith |title=NAV Nets First No. 1 Album on Billboard 200 Chart With 'Bad Habits' |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/nav-nets-first-no-1-album-on-billboard-200-chart-with-bad-habits/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=April 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405202144/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/8504886/nav-nets-first-no-1-album-on-billboard-200-chart-with-bad-habits |archive-date=April 5, 2019 |url-status=live |date=March 31, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Caulfied |first1=Keith |title=NAV's 'Bad Habits' Set for No. 1 Debut on Billboard 200 Albums Chart |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/nav-bad-habits-aiming-number-1-debut-billboard-200-albums-chart/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=April 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430121319/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/8504820/nav-bad-habits-aiming-number-1-debut-billboard-200-albums-chart |archive-date=April 30, 2019 |url-status=live |date=March 29, 2019 }}</ref> "[[Tap (song)|Tap]]" featuring [[Meek Mill]] was chosen as the third and final single from the album as it was sent to rhythmic contemporary radio on May 7, 2019.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505084615/https://www.allaccess.com/top40-rhythmic/future-releases|url=http://www.allaccess.com/top40-rhythmic/future-releases|title=Top 40 Rhythmic Future Releases|publisher=All Access Media Group|accessdate=July 4, 2019|archivedate=May 5, 2019}}</ref> On June 28, 2019, [[Mustard (record producer)|Mustard]] released his third studio album, ''[[Perfect Ten (album)|Perfect Ten]]'', with Nav featured alongside [[Playboi Carti]] and [[A Boogie wit da Hoodie]] on the fourth track, "[[Baguettes in the Face]]".<ref>{{cite web |author=Devin Ch|title=Mustard Floods "Baguettes In The Face" Of NAV, A Boogie Wit Da Hoodie & Playboi Carti |url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/mustard-floods-baguettes-in-the-face-of-nav-a-boogie-wit-da-hoodie-and-playboi-carti-new-song.1983610.html |website=[[HotNewHipHop]] |date=June 30, 2019|accessdate=October 21, 2019}}</ref>

=== 2020: ''Good Intentions'', ''Brown Boy 2'', and ''Emergency Tsunami'' ===
{{main|Good Intentions (album)|Brown Boy 2|Emergency Tsunami}}

On March 27, 2020, Nav released a collaboration with Gunna titled "[[Turks (song)|Turks]]" featuring Travis Scott.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rb-hip-hop/nav-turks-travis-scott-gunna-9345222/|title=NAV, Gunna & Travis Scott Join Forces Again on 'Turks'|date=March 27, 2020|magazine=Billboard|access-date=March 29, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefader.com/2020/03/27/nav-shares-turks-featuring-gunna-and-travis-scott|title=Nav and Shanender share "Turks" featuring Travis Scott|website=The FADER|language=en|access-date=March 29, 2020}}</ref> The song became his highest-charting song in the United States as it reached number 17 on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] and served as the lead single from his third studio album, ''[[Good Intentions (album)|Good Intentions]]''. The album was released on May 8 and debuted at number one on the US ''Billboard'' 200.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suarez |first1=Gary |title=Nav Explains Why He Dropped 'Good Intentions' In The Middle Of A Global Pandemic |journal=[[Forbes]] |date=8 May 2020 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/garysuarez/2020/05/08/nav-explains-why-he-dropped-good-intentions-in-the-middle-of-a-global-pandemic/ |access-date=4 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref> Three days later, Nav released its deluxe edition with a reissued album titled ''[[Brown Boy 2]]'', which also serves as a sequel to his unofficial EP, ''Brown Boy'', which his manager Cash released exclusively on Audiomack in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://audiomack.com/cashxo/album/brown-boy-ep|title = Audiomack &#124; Free Music Sharing and Discovery | date=March 15, 2019 }}</ref> Soon after the release of the albums, Nav released a merchandise collaboration with [[Vlone (brand)|Vlone]] and [[Virgil Abloh]] for the album.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/style/2020/05/nav-good-intentions-merch-title-track-video|title=Nav Connects With Virgil Abloh, VLONE, and nWo on 'Good Intentions' Album Merch|website=Complex|access-date=May 31, 2020}}</ref> On August 14, Nav was featured on the single "[[Lemonade (Internet Money, Gunna and Don Toliver song)|Lemonade]]" by record label [[Internet Money Records|Internet Money]], Gunna, and [[Don Toliver]], which later appeared the label's debut studio album, ''[[B4 the Storm]]'', and gave Nav his highest-charting song ever as it reached number seven on the Hot 100.<ref name="HNHH">{{cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/internet-money-taps-gunna-nav-and-don-toliver-for-lemonade-new-song.1988255.html|title=Internet Money Taps Gunna, Nav, & Don Toliver For "Lemonade"|work=HotNewHipHop|last=Marke|first=Erika|date=August 14, 2020|access-date=August 23, 2020}}</ref> On November 6, 2020, Nav released his second commercial mixtape, ''[[Emergency Tsunami]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=NAV Announces New Mixtape 'Emergency Tsunami' |url=https://exclaim.ca/music/article/nav_announces_new_mixtape_emergency_tsunami |website=[[Exclaim!]] |access-date=18 November 2022 |language=en-ca}}</ref> Five days later, he released a bonus version of the mixtape.<ref>{{cite web |title=NAV Adds Future Collab To 'Emergency Tsunami' For Bonus Version Mixtape |url=https://hiphopdx.com/news/id.58966/title.nav-adds-future-collab-to-emergency-tsunami-for-bonus-version-mixtape |website=HipHopDX |access-date=November 18, 2022 |language=en |date=November 11, 2020}}</ref> "[[Young Wheezy]]", a collaboration with Gunna, was chosen as the lead and only single from the mixtape as it was sent to rhythmic contemporary radio on January 12, 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 40 Rhythmic Future Releases |url=https://www.allaccess.com/top40-rhythmic/future-releases |website=AllAccess|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104190322/https://www.allaccess.com/top40-rhythmic/future-releases |archive-date=January 4, 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== 2022–present: ''Demons Protected by Angels'' and ''OMW2 Rexdale'' ===
{{main|Demons Protected by Angels|OMW2 Rexdale}}

On June 27, 2022, Nav shared that his fourth studio album would be titled ''[[Demons Protected by Angels]]''. He released a collaboration with Lil Baby titled "[[Never Sleep]]" featuring Travis Scott, which serves as the album's lead single, on July 29.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/music/nav-travis-scott-lil-baby-never-sleep|title=Nav Reconnects With Travis Scott and Lil Baby on "Never Sleep"|website=[[Complex Networks|Complex]]|last=Espinoza|first=Joshua|date=July 29, 2022|access-date=July 29, 2022}}</ref> Nav solely produced the second single, "Wrong Decisions", which was released on August 23, 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/music/nav-wrong-decisions-stream-video|title=Nav Shares Video for New Track "Wrong Decisions"|website=[[Complex Networks|Complex]]|last=Shifferaw|first=Abel|date=August 23, 2022|access-date=September 9, 2022}}</ref> The album was released on September 9, 2022, and a collaboration with Don Toliver titled "[[One Time (Nav and Don Toliver song)|One Time]]" featuring [[Future (rapper)|Future]], was chosen as the third single four days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hypebeast.com/2022/9/nav-future-don-toliver-one-time-music-video-release|title=NAV Teams up With Future and Don Toliver in New Visuals for "One Time"|website=[[Hypebeast (website)|Hypebeast]]|last=Li|first=Joyce|date=September 14, 2022|access-date=September 14, 2022|quote=Following the release of his most recent album ''Demons Protected By Angels'', NAV has dropped new visuals for his single "One Time" featuring Future and Don Toliver.}}</ref> On October 1, 2022, Nav shared that he would be releasing his now-scrapped third commercial mixtape, ''Nav2'', a sequel to his self-titled mixtape, which was released back in 2017.<ref>{{cite tweet |number=1576290310098866176 |user=beatsbynav |title=Nav announces Nav2 |date=October 1, 2022}}</ref> On February 10, 2023, he released the single "[[Lately (Nav song)|Lately]]", which was expected to serve as the lead single from the mixtape.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/music/nav-lately-stream|title=Nav Teases Upcoming 'Nav 2' Album With New Track "Lately"|website=[[Complex Networks|Complex]]|last=Cowen|first=Trace William|date=February 10, 2023|access-date=February 10, 2023}}</ref> On May 21, 2023, Metro Boomin joined Nav onstage during the latter's performance at the Metro Metro Festival in Montreal, which was before his own set at the festival, in which the two announced that their collaborative mixtape, ''Perfect Timing 2'', which they originally announced in 2018, would be released soon.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hynes |first=Hayley |date=2023-05-23 |title=Metro Boomin Confirms "Perfect Timing 2" Album With NAV: Video |url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/680726-metro-boomin-nav-perfect-timing-2-album-announcement |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=HotNewHipHop |language=en}}</ref> Exactly ten days later, Nav released a collaboration with Metro Boomin and [[Swae Lee]] titled "[[Calling (Metro Boomin, Swae Lee and Nav song)|Calling]]" featuring A Boogie wit da Hoodie, which later appeared on Metro's first [[Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (soundtrack)#Soundtrack|soundtrack album]], which was for the film ''[[Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Metro Boomin, NAV, A Boogie Wit Da Hoodie, And Swae Lee Join Forces On "Calling"|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/684757-metro-boomin-nav-boogie-swae-lee-join-forces|website=[[HotNewHipHop]]|last=Fisher|first=Caroline|date=May 31, 2023|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref>

In April 2024, Nav performed twice at the [[Coachella]] festival in Indio, California, on April 14 and April 21, where he announced the title ''On My Way 2 Rexdale''<ref>{{Cite web |title=NAV - The Official Nav website. Music, Video, Tour, Shop. |url=https://www.navmusic.com/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=NAV |language=en-US}}</ref> at the end of his performance on the former date although it was unclear whether it was a single or a project and performed the then-unreleased song from the album titled "Red" on the latter date.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/music/a/tracewilliamcowen/nav-new-album-trailer-on-my-way-2-rexdale|title=Nav Confirms Imminent Release of New Album 'On My Way 2 Rexdale,' Shares Trailer|website=[[Complex Networks|Complex]]|last=Cowen|first=Trace William|date=May 14, 2024|access-date=May 14, 2024}}</ref> He released a trailer video for it on May 14, where he confirmed its title and the fact that it would be his fifth studio album with a release set for the summer of that year, which did not happen for unknown reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rap-up.com/2024/05/14/nav-shares-trailer-for-new-album-on-my-way-2-rexdale/|title=NAV Shares Trailer For Upcoming Album 'On My Way 2 Rexdale'|website=[[Uproxx]]|last=Trapp|first=Malcolm|date=May 14, 2024|access-date=May 14, 2024}}</ref> Nav was featured on an updated version of Australian singer [[Lithe (singer)|Lithe]]'s single, "[[Fall Back]]", on August 16.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://imprintent.org/rising-melbourne-singer-songwriter-producer-lithe-links-up-with-nav-on-fall-back/|title=Rising Melbourne Singer/Songwriter & Producer Lithe Links Up with NAV on "Fall Back"|website=Imprint|date=August 18, 2024 |access-date=August 18, 2024}}</ref> He announced release date of the official and now-shortened title of the album, ''[[OMW2 Rexdale]]'', along with its final trailer video on March 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/895214-nav-on-my-way-2-rexdale-announcement-hip-hop-news|title=NAV Announces "On My Way 2 Rexdale" Release Date With Trippy Teaser Trailer|website=[[HotNewHipHop]]|last=Horvath|first=Zachary|date=March 18, 2025|access-date=March 21, 2025}}</ref> Nav released a collaboration with Metro Boomin titled "Real Me" as its lead and only single three days later, followed by the album being released on March 28.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/895923-nav-metro-boomin-real-me-stream|title=NAV And Metro Boomin Craft Undeniable Earworm With "REAL ME" Single|website=[[HotNewHipHop]]|last=Andrews|first=Elias|date=March 21, 2025|access-date=March 21, 2025}}</ref>

==Controversies==
In early 2017, Nav had received backlash for saying the word "nigga" in some of his songs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why We Can't Give South Asian Artists Who Say The N-Word A Pass |date=March 5, 2017 |url=https://www.thefader.com/2017/03/15/south-asian-artists-rapper-nav |access-date=October 22, 2020}}</ref> In an interview with [[Complex Networks|Complex]] on July 21, 2017, Nav stated that the neighborhood he grew up in is very "multicultural" with members of the "Chinese to white to black to Jamaican" openly using the word with one another. He admitted that he and his friends constantly used the word with one another, but he saw some backlash once he had gained some popularity. He also stated that he would not say the word in his music anymore, starting from his collaborative mixtape with [[Metro Boomin]] titled ''[[Perfect Timing (mixtape)|Perfect Timing]]'', which was released on the same day as the interview.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://genius.com/a/nav-says-he-s-done-using-the-n-word-in-his-music |title=NAV Says He's Done Using the N-Word in His Music |access-date=May 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524235713/https://genius.com/a/nav-says-he-s-done-using-the-n-word-in-his-music |archive-date=May 24, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Nav publicly criticized ''[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]'' through a series of tweets and [[Instagram]] posts along with releasing the single "[[Freshman List]]" on March 16, 2018.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/nav-debuts-freshman-list-single-ahead-of-tour-new-song.1977774.html | title=Nav Debuts "Freshman List" Single Ahead of Tour| website=HNHH| date=March 15, 2018}}</ref> His main reason for criticizing the magazine was due to not being selected for the 2018 freshman cover. In his tweets, Nav shared his thoughts that had ranged "from angry and bitter to motivational and inspirational". After his tweets and release of the single, Nav began addressing the outlet's editor-in-chief Vanessa Satten through now deleted Instagram posts and further continued to criticize the outlet.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://hiphopwired.com/747419/nav-blasts-xxls-editor-in-chief-says-freshmen-list-website-is-trash/ | title=Nav Blasts XXL's Editor-In-Chief, Says Freshmen List & Website is Trash| date=March 20, 2018}}</ref>

In March 2019, during an interview with ''[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]'', Nav was quoted by an interviewer to say: "Fame is something I want, it's a good problem to have. I'm still not there, because when I walk out of fucking Delilah in L.A. and [[TMZ]] will be standing out there with cameras and not even take a picture of me, I get sick. I get in my fucking Lambo truck right in front of them. All my jewelry on and they don't even take one picture".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://pitchfork.com/levels/lunch-with-nav/ |title=Lunch with Nav |website=[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]] |date=March 27, 2019 |access-date=May 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503070839/https://pitchfork.com/levels/lunch-with-nav/ |archive-date=May 3, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, he later clarified that this was taken out of context, as "sick" is in fact a positive term in Toronto slang, and rather than being disgusted for not being recognized, he is grateful to still have anonymity as a celebrity.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ga5XU3RX4QA | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211118/Ga5XU3RX4QA| archive-date=November 18, 2021 | url-status=live|title=Nav Talks Working With Lil Uzi Vert, "Yosemite" Vocals & Haters |website=[[YouTube]] | date=May 15, 2020|access-date=May 20, 2020 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Nav further stated in the [[Pitchfork (website)|''Pitchfork'']] interview that he hoped his latest project, ''[[Bad Habits (Nav album)|Bad Habits]]'' would help him become more noticed by TMZ along with other paparazzi. A week later, a TMZ interviewer found Nav in New York and did a brief video interview with him, asking him questions about a possible collaborative project with [[Lil Uzi Vert]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tmz.com/videos/1_6al6q8fw/ |title=Canadian Rapper Nav on TMZ is Finally a Thing |access-date=May 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401072001/https://www.tmz.com/videos/1_6al6q8fw/ |archive-date=April 1, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Discography==
{{main|Nav discography}}

'''Studio albums'''
* ''[[Reckless (Nav album)|Reckless]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Bad Habits (Nav album)|Bad Habits]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Good Intentions (album)|Good Intentions]]'' (2020)
* ''[[Demons Protected by Angels]]'' (2022)
* ''[[OMW2 Rexdale]]'' (2025)

==Concert tours==
;Headlining
* Freshman Tour (2018)
* Bad Habits Tour (2019)
* [[Never Sleep Tour]] (2023)

;Supporting
* [[The Weeknd]] – [[Starboy: Legend of the Fall Tour]] (2017)
* [[Schoolboy Q]] – Crash Tour (2019)

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Awards
! Category
! Work
! Result
|-
| 2018
| [[Juno Awards of 2018|Juno Award]]
| [[Juno Award for Breakthrough Artist of the Year|Breakthrough Artist of the Year]]
|
| {{nominated}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 2019
|rowspan=2| [[Juno Awards of 2019|Juno Award]]
| [[Juno Fan Choice Award|Fan Choice]]
|
| {{nominated}}
|-
| [[Juno Award for Rap Recording of the Year|Rap Recording of the Year]]
| ''[[Reckless (Nav album)|Reckless]]''
| {{nominated}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 2020
|rowspan=2| [[Juno Awards of 2020|Juno Award]]
| Fan Choice<ref name="hollywoodreporter.com">{{Cite web|date=March 9, 2021|title=Juno Awards: The Weeknd Scores Leading 6 Nominations|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/2021-junos-nominations-list|access-date=March 12, 2021|website=The Hollywood Reporter|language=en}}</ref>
|
| {{nominated}}
|-
| Rap Recording of the Year<ref name="hollywoodreporter.com"/>
| ''Bad Habits''
| {{nominated}}
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website}}
* {{Allmusic}}
* {{Discogs artist}}
* {{IMDb name|nm7762984}}

{{Nav}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|Canada|Music}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nav}}
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian male singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian rappers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:Canadian hip-hop record producers]]
[[Category:Canadian hip-hop singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian male rappers]]
[[Category:Canadian male singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Canadian musicians of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:Canadian Twitch (service) streamers]]
[[Category:Indian hip-hop singers]]
[[Category:Indian male singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Indian singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Indian record producers]]
[[Category:People from Etobicoke]]
[[Category:Punjabi rappers]]
[[Category:Punjabi singers]]
[[Category:Rappers from Toronto]]
[[Category:Republic Records artists]]
[[Category:Canadian trap musicians]]
[[Category:XO (record label) artists]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:People from Brampton]]

Tobacco

2026-03-11T08:39:19Z

MarcyThompson89: Revised and enhanced article content

{{short description|Agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
{{Distinguish|Tabacco (disambiguation){{!}}Tabacco|Tabaco|Tabasco|Tobago}}
{{About||the plant genus|Nicotiana|other uses|Tobacco (disambiguation) }}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox botanical product
| name = Tobacco
| image = DunhillLightFlake.jpg
| caption = Tobacco flakes, sliced from pressed plugs
| plant = ''[[Nicotiana]]''
| part = [[Leaf]]
| origin = [[The Americas]]
| active = [[Nicotine]], [[harmine]]
| uses = [[Recreational drug use|Recreational]], Sacred, Medical, Religious, Traditional, Peacemaking
| legal_AU = Unscheduled
| legal_BR = E
| legal_CA = Unscheduled
| legal_DE = Unscheduled
| legal_UK = GSL
| legal_US_comment = Unscheduled
| legal_UN = Unscheduled
| legal_status = In general, legal and regulated as a controlled substance for adult recreational use in most countries, tobacco smuggling or homemade tobacco making or growing is illegal in some areas. See [[tobacco control]] '''Footnote''': Carcinogenicity: [[IARC group 1]]
}}
{{Tobacco}}
[[File:A traditional tobacco drying kiln in Myrtleford, Victoria, Australia.jpg|thumb|Tobacco drying kiln in [[Myrtleford|Myrtleford, Victoria, Australia]], 2018. This kiln was built in 1957, and moved to Rotary Park in 2000. Kilns of this design were built from the early 1930s through to the late 1960s.]]
[[File:basma-tobacco-drying.jpg| thumb |Basma tobacco leaves drying in the sun at [[Pomak]] village in [[Xanthi, Greece]]]]

'''Tobacco''' is the common name of several [[plants]] in the genus ''[[Nicotiana]]'' of the family [[Solanaceae]], and the general term for any product prepared from the [[curing of tobacco|cured]] leaves of these plants. [[Nicotiana#Species|Seventy-nine species]] of tobacco are known, but the chief commercial crop is [[Nicotiana tabacum|''N. tabacum'']]. The more potent variant [[Nicotiana rustica|''N. rustica'']] is also used in some countries.

Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]] in [[cigarette]]s and [[cigar]]s, as well as [[pipe smoking|pipes]] and [[Mu'assel|shishas]]. They can also be consumed as [[Snuff (tobacco)|snuff]], [[chewing tobacco]], [[dipping tobacco]], and [[snus]].

Tobacco contains the highly addictive [[stimulant]] alkaloid [[nicotine]] as well as [[harmala alkaloid]]s.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Tobacco |encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia of Psychoactive Substances |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |last1=Rudgley |first1=Richard |author-link=Richard Rudgley |location=London |url=https://www.biopsychiatry.com/tobacco/ |access-date=November 26, 2017 |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-316-64347-4 |oclc=39129000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927041956/https://www.biopsychiatry.com/tobacco/ |archive-date=September 27, 2022 }}</ref> Due to the widespread availability and legality of tobacco, nicotine is one of the most widely used [[recreational drug use|recreational drugs]]. Tobacco use is a cause or risk factor for many deadly diseases, especially those affecting the [[heart]], [[liver]], and [[lung]]s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=CDC |title=What Are the Risk Factors for Lung Cancer? |date=August 2, 2023 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/lung/basic_info/risk_factors.htm#:~:text=Cigarette%20smoking%20is%20the%20number,of%20more%20than%207%2C000%20chemicals. |access-date=31 March 2024}}</ref> as well as [[Health effects of tobacco#Cancer|many cancers]]. In 2008, the [[World Health Organization]] named tobacco use as the world's single greatest preventable cause of death.<ref name="who 2008 mpower">{{Cite book |date=2008 |title=WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008 : The MPOWER Package. |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43818/9789241596282_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121162003/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43818/9789241596282_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=January 21, 2022 |access-date=October 6, 2022 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |pages=6, 8, 20 |isbn=978-92-4-068311-2 |oclc=476167599 |quote=Tobacco is the single most preventable cause of death in the world today.}}</ref>

[[File:Fumo Mercado Minas Gerais.jpg|thumb|In Minas Gerais, Brazil]]

==Etymology==
The English word ''tobacco'' originates from the Spanish word {{Lang|es|tabaco}}.<ref name="Ernst">{{Cite journal |last=Ernst |first=A. |date=1889 |title=On the etymology of the word tobacco |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1448956 |journal=[[American Anthropologist]] |volume=A2 |issue=2 |pages=133–142 |doi=10.1525/aa.1889.2.2.02a00020 |doi-access=free|issn = 0002-7294 }}</ref> The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived, at least in part, from [[Taíno language|Taíno]], the [[Arawakan]] language of the [[Caribbean]]. In Taíno, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to [[Bartolomé de las Casas]], 1552), or to {{Lang|tnq|tabago}}, a kind of Y-shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo, with the leaves themselves being referred to as {{Lang|tnq|cohiba}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hilton |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Hilton |title=Christopher Columbus discovers Cuba |date=April 3, 2011 |url=http://wais.stanford.edu/Cuba/cuba_ColumbusDiscoversCuba(110503).html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901214953/http://wais.stanford.edu/Cuba/cuba_ColumbusDiscoversCuba(110503).html |archive-date=September 1, 2011 |series=[[World Association of International Studies]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]]}}</ref><ref name=Ernst/>

However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 for certain medicinal [[herb]]s. These probably derived from the Arabic {{lang|ar|طُبّاق|rtl=yes}} {{transliteration|ar|ṭubbāq}} (also {{lang|ar|طُباق|rtl=yes}} {{transliteration|ar|ṭubāq}}), a word reportedly dating to the ninth century, referring to various herbs.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=طُباق |encyclopedia=[[Arabic–English Lexicon|An Arabic-English Lexicon: Derived From the Best and the Most Copious Eastern Sources]] |publisher=[[Williams and Norgate]] |location=London |url=http://ejtaal.net/aa/ |last=Lane |first=Edward William |date=1863 |author-link=Edward William Lane |volume=I, Book 5 |page=1827 |isbn=978-0-342-25192-6 |oclc=1299308839 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622063627/http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=h660,ll=1916,ls=5,la=2636,sg=645,ha=438,pr=97,vi=240,mgf=549,mr=381,mn=839,aan=360,kz=1457,ulq=1133,uqa=265,uqw=990,umr=652,ums=546,umj=489,uqq=210,bdw=549,amr=392,asb=593,auh=947,dhq=338,mht=549,msb=147,tla=68,amj=481,ens=1,mis=1311 |archive-date=June 22, 2016 |issue=5 |access-date=June 21, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>The word {{transliteration|ar|ṭubāq}} no longer refers to various herbs, but has come to refer, in some dialects, specifically to tobacco. ''See'' {{Cite encyclopedia |title=طُباق |encyclopedia=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic |publisher=[[Harrassowitz Verlag|Harrassowitz]] |location=Wiesbaden |url=http://ejtaal.net/aa/ |last=Wehr |first=Hans |date=1979 |author-link=Hans Wehr |editor-last=Cowan |editor-first=J Milton |editor-link=J Milton Cowan |edition=4th |page=647 |isbn=978-3-447-02002-2 |oclc=759999696 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622063627/http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=660,ll=h1913,ls=h5,la=h2636,sg=h645,ha=h438,pr=h97,vi=h240,mgf=h549,mr=h381,mn=h839,aan=h360,kz=h1457,ulq=h1133,uqa=h265,uqw=h990,umr=h652,ums=h546,umj=h489,uqq=h210,bdw=550,amr=392,asb=593,auh=947,dhq=338,mht=549,msb=147,tla=68,amj=481,ens=1,mis=1311 |archive-date=June 22, 2016 |url-status=bot: unknown |access-date=June 21, 2016 }}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of tobacco}}
[[File:William Michael Harnett (American, 1848-1892). Still Life with Three Castles Tobacco, 1880.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[William Michael Harnett]] (American, 1848–1892), ''Still Life with Three Castles Tobacco'', 1880, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]

===Cultural significance===
According to [[Iroquois mythology|Haudenosaunee mythology]], tobacco [[Origin myth|first grew]] out of Earth Woman's head after she [[Maternal death|died giving birth]] to her [[Twin|twin sons]], [[Hahgwehdiyu|Sapling and Flint]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Day|first=Ashley|date=November 20, 2023|title=''3 Sisters to Invite to Thanksgiving''|url=https://www.foodandwine.com/the-three-sisters-8404587|publisher=[[Food & Wine]]}}</ref>

===Traditional use===
[[File:Chute tobacco.JPG|thumb|The earliest depiction of a European man smoking, from ''Tabaco'' by [[Anthony Chute]], 1595]]
[[File:Rajput (Jodhpur) (8411728143).jpg|thumb|An [[Indian people|Indian]] man smoking tobacco through a [[hookah]], [[Rajasthan, India]]]]
Tobacco has long been used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BCE.<ref>Goodman, Jordan. ''Tobacco in History and Culture: An Encyclopedia'' (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005).</ref> Many Native American tribes traditionally grow and use tobacco.<ref name=leonard>{{cite book
|last=Leonard
|first=Jonathan Norton
|author-link=
|date=1970
|title=Recipes, Latin American cooking
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8SLxAEACAAJ
|location=
|publisher=Time-Life International (Nederlands)
|page= 21
|isbn=978-0-8094-0063-8
}}</ref> Historically, people from the [[Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands|Northeast Woodlands cultures]] have carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item. It was smoked both socially and [[Ceremonial pipe|ceremonially]], such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement.<ref>e.g. Heckewelder, ''History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania'', p. 149 ff.</ref><ref>"They smoke with excessive eagerness ... men, women, girls and boys, all find their keenest pleasure in this way." – Dièreville describing the [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]], ''circa'' 1699 in ''Port Royal''.</ref> In some Native cultures, tobacco is seen as a gift from the [[Creator deity|Creator]], with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the Creator.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gottsegen |first=Jack Jacob |title=Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States |date=1940 |publisher=[[Pitman (publisher)|Pitman]] |page=107 |oclc=14728283}}</ref>

Some Native Americans consider tobacco to be a medicine and advocate for its respectful usage, rather than a commercial one.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{ProQuest|204813987}} |last1=Cohen |first1=Ken |title=Native American medicine |journal=Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine |volume=4 |issue=6 |date=November 1998 |pages=45–57 |pmid=9810067 }}</ref>

===Popularization===
[[File:A Smoking Club.jpeg|thumb|An illustration from [[Frederick William Fairholt]]'s ''Tobacco, its History and Association'', 1859]]
[[File:KITLV - 26868 - Kleingrothe, C.J. - Medan - Tobacco plant and tobacco leaf, Deli - circa 1905.tif|thumb|Tobacco plant and tobacco leaf from the [[Deli Company|Deli plantations]] in Sumatra, 1905]]
Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. In 1559, [[Francisco Hernández de Toledo]], Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the [[Old World]], following orders of King [[Philip II of Spain]]. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales" named after the continuous plagues of [[cicadas]] ({{Lang|es|cigarras}} in Spanish). Before the development of the lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the ''[[midwakh]]'' or ''[[kiseru]],'' or newly invented waterpipes such as the [[bong]] or the [[hookah]] (see [[Nicotiana rustica#Vietnam|thuốc lào]] for a modern continuance of this practice). Tobacco became so popular that the English colony of Jamestown used it as currency and began exporting it as a cash crop; tobacco is often credited as being the export that saved Virginia from ruin.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism|last=Appleby|first=Joyce|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|year=2010|pages=131}}</ref> While a lucrative product, the growing expansion of tobacco demand was intimately tied to the history of [[slavery]] in the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tobacco and slavery : a neverending history |url=https://www.medicusmundi.ch/de/advocacy/publikationen/mms-bulletin/fighting-tobacco-in-lmic/kapitel-3/tobacco-and-slavery-a-neverending-history |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.medicusmundi.ch |language=de}}</ref>

The alleged benefits of tobacco also contributed to its success. The astronomer [[Thomas Harriot]], who accompanied [[Sir Richard Grenville]] on his 1585 expedition to [[Roanoke Island]], thought that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of the body" so that the bodies of the natives "are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithal we in England are often times afflicted."<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4247/4247-h/4247-h.htm |title=A BRIEFE AND TRUE REPORT OF THE NEW FOUND LAND OF VIRGINIA |last=Hariot |first=Thomas |date=1590 |publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]]}}</ref>

Production of tobacco for smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700.<ref>Eric Burns, ''The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco'' (2006), A popular history focused on the US.</ref><ref>Jordan Goodman, ''Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence'' (1993), A scholarly history worldwide.</ref>

Tobacco has been a major [[cash crop]] in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world-famous.<ref>Charlotte Cosner, ''The Golden Leaf: How Tobacco Shaped Cuba and the Atlantic World'' (Vanderbilt University Press; 2015)</ref>

Cigarettes became increasingly popular in the late 19th century when [[James Bonsack]] invented a machine to automate cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the [[tobacco industry]] until the health revelations of the 20th century.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette War'' (1996)</ref><ref>Allan Brandt, ''The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America'' (2007)</ref>

===Contemporary===
{{See also|Tobacco control|Tobacco in the United States}}

Following the scientific revelations of the early-to-mid-20th century, tobacco was condemned as a health hazard and eventually became recognized as a cause of cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States, this led to the adoption of the 1998 [[Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement]], which settled the many lawsuits by the U.S. states in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schroeder |first1=Steven A. |title=Tobacco Control in the Wake of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=15 January 2004 |volume=350 |issue=3 |pages=293–301 |doi=10.1056/NEJMsr031421 |pmid=14715919 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the 1970s, [[Brown & Williamson]] crossbred tobacco to produce [[Y1 (tobacco)|Y1]], a strain containing an unusually high nicotine content, nearly doubling from 3.2–3.5% to 6.5%. In the 1990s, this prompted the [[Food and Drug Administration]] to allege that [[tobacco industry|tobacco companies]] were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of [[cigarette]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interviews – Dr. David Kessler {{!}} Inside The Tobacco Deal {{!}} Frontline |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/settlement/interviews/kessler.html |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref>

The desire of many addicted smokers to quit has led to the development of [[nicotine replacement therapy|tobacco cessation products]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Commissioner|first=Office of the|date=September 9, 2020|title=Want to Quit Smoking? FDA-Approved Products Can Help|url=https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/want-quit-smoking-fda-approved-products-can-help|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427202103/https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/want-quit-smoking-fda-approved-products-can-help|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 27, 2019|journal=FDA|language=en}}</ref>

In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the [[World Health Organization]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/fctc/en/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527122132/http://www.who.int/fctc/en/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 27, 2008|title=WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)|publisher=Who.int|access-date=September 18, 2008}}</ref> successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the [[WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control|Framework Convention on Tobacco Control]]. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHO {{!}} WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control|url=http://www.who.int/fctc/text_download/en/|access-date=February 17, 2021|publisher=WHO}}</ref> Between 2019 and 2021, concerns about increased COVID-19 health risks due to tobacco consumption facilitated smoking reduction and cessation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Haiyang |last2=Ma |first2=Jingjing |title=How the COVID-19 pandemic impacts tobacco addiction: Changes in smoking behavior and associations with well-being |journal=Addictive Behaviors |date=August 2021 |volume=119 |article-number=106917 |doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106917 |doi-access=free |pmid=33862579 |pmc=9186053 }}</ref>

==Biology==
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2017}}

===''Nicotiana''===
{{Main|Nicotiana}}

{{See also|List of tobacco diseases}}
[[File:Nicotine.svg|thumb|[[Nicotine]] is the compound responsible for the addictive nature of tobacco use.]]
[[File:Native American tobacco flower.jpg|thumb|upright|Tobacco (''[[Nicotiana rustica]]'') flower, leaves, and buds]]
Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs ''Nicotiana''. It is part of the nightshade [[family (biology)|family]] ([[Solanaceae]]) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the [[Oceania|South Pacific]].<ref name="Lewis">{{cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=Albert|title=Tobacco in New Guinea|journal=The American Anthropologist|date=1931|volume=33|issue=1|pages=134–139|doi=10.1525/aa.1931.33.1.02a00290|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Most nightshades contain varying amounts of [[nicotine]], a powerful [[neurotoxin]] to [[insect]]s. However, tobacco contains a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain [[tropane alkaloid]]s, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.

Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as [[germacrene]] and [[anabasine]] and other [[piperidine]] alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most [[herbivore]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Panter |first1=KE |last2=Keeler |first2=RF |last3=Bunch |first3=TD |last4=Callan |first4=RJ |year=1990 |title=Congenital skeletal malformations and cleft palate induced in goats by ingestion of Lupinus, Conium and Nicotiana species |journal=Toxicon |pages=1377–1385 |volume=28 |issue=12 |pmid=2089736|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(90)90154-Y |bibcode=1990Txcn...28.1377P }}</ref> a number of such animals have [[evolution|evolve]]d the ability to feed on ''Nicotiana'' species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species due to its other attributes. For example, although the [[cabbage looper]] is a generalist pest, tobacco's gummosis and trichomes can harm early larvae survival.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elsey |first1=K. D. |last2=Rabb |first2=R. L. |title=Biology of the Cabbage Looper on Tobacco In North Carolina1 |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology |date=1 December 1967 |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=1636–1639 |doi=10.1093/jee/60.6.1636 }}</ref> As a result, some tobacco plants (chiefly ''N. glauca'') have become established as [[invasive weed]]s in some places.

===Types===
{{Main|Types of tobacco}}

The types of tobacco include:
* [[Types of tobacco#Aromatic Fire-cured|Aromatic fire-cured]] is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle [[Tennessee]], central [[Kentucky]], and [[Virginia]]. Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee is used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is [[Latakia (tobacco)|Latakia]], which is produced from oriental varieties of ''N. tabacum''. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in [[Cyprus]] and [[Syria]].
* [[Types of tobacco#Brightleaf tobacco (Virginia tobacco)|Brightleaf tobacco]] is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often regardless of the state where it is planted. Prior to the [[American Civil War]], most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. Sometime after the [[War of 1812]], demand for a milder, lighter, more aromatic tobacco arose. [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Maryland]] all innovated with milder varieties of the tobacco plant. Farmers discovered that brightleaf tobacco needs thin, starved [[soil]], and those who could not grow other crops found that they could grow tobacco. Confederate soldiers traded it with each other and Union soldiers, and developed quite a taste for it. At the end of the war, the soldiers went home and a national market had developed for the local crop.
* [[Types of tobacco#Broadleaf|Broadleaf]], a dark tobacco varietal family popular for producing enormous, resilient, and thick wrapper leaves.{{cn|date=July 2024}}
* [[Burley (tobacco)|Burley tobacco]] is an air-cured tobacco used predominantly in [[cigarette]] production, but also in pipe tobacco as a balance to Virginias and other leaves high in sugar content. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from pelletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April.
* [[Cavendish tobacco|Cavendish]] is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type, but is used to thicken flavors from other tobaccos that might lack a body. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced from any tobacco type but is usually one of, or a blend of, Kentucky, Virginia and burley and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco.
* [[Criollo tobacco]] is primarily used in the making of [[cigar]]s. It was by most accounts one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around the time of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]].
* [[Dokha]] is a tobacco originally grown in [[Iran]], mixed with leaves, bark and herbs for smoking in a ''[[midwakh]]''.
* [[Perique]] was developed in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation of local tobacco by a farmer, Pierre Chenet. Considered the [[truffle]] of [[smoking pipe (tobacco)|pipe]] tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but it is no longer sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength and coolness to the blend.
* [[Types of tobacco#Shade tobacco|Shade tobacco]] is cultivated in [[Connecticut]] and [[Massachusetts]]. Early Connecticut [[colonist]]s acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes, and began cultivating the plant commercially, though the [[Puritans]] referred to it as the "evil weed". The [[Connecticut shade tobacco|Connecticut shade]] industry has weathered some major [[Disaster|catastrophes]], including a devastating [[hail]]storm in 1929 and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, and is in danger of disappearing altogether, given the increase in the value of land.
* [[Turkish tobacco]] is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety (''[[Nicotiana tabacum]]'') grown in Turkey, Greece, [[Bulgaria]] and [[North Macedonia]]. Originally grown in regions historically part of the [[Ottoman Empire]], it is also known as "oriental". Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Turkish tobacco. Its main use evolved to be included in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco. (A typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and Turkish.)
* [[Types of tobacco#White Burley|White burley]] air-cured leaf was found to be milder than other types of tobacco. In 1865 George Webb of [[Brown County, Ohio]], planted red [[Burley (tobacco)|burley]] seeds he had purchased and found a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look, which became white burley.
* [[Types of tobacco#Wild tobacco|Wild tobacco]] is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico and parts of South America. Its botanical name is ''Nicotiana rustica''.

===Parasites===
{{Main|List of tobacco diseases}}

[[File:The tobacco beetle (Page 3) BHL41830187.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Illustration with photographs of [[tobacco leaves]] infested by ''[[Lasioderma serricorne]]'' (tobacco beetles), from Runner, G. A., ''The tobacco beetle'' (1919), Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, [[Biodiversity Heritage Library]]]]

Tobacco, alongside its [[List of tobacco products|related products]], can be infested by [[Parasitism|parasites]] such as ''[[Lasioderma serricorne]]'' (the tobacco beetle) and ''[[Ephestia elutella]]'' (the tobacco moth), which are the most widespread and damaging parasites to the [[tobacco industry]].<ref name="Ryan 1995">{{cite book |editor-last=Ryan |editor-first=L. |year=1995 |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzUAI2vK3XMC&pg=PA1 |title=Post-harvest Tobacco Infestation Control |location=[[Norwell, Massachusetts]] and [[Dordrecht]], Netherlands |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-2723-5_1 |isbn=978-94-017-2723-5 }}</ref> Infestation can range from the tobacco cultivated in the fields to the [[Tobacco|tobacco leaves]] used for manufacturing [[cigar]]s, [[cigarillo]]s, [[cigarette]]s, etc.<ref name="Ryan 1995"/> Both the [[larvae]] of ''Lasioderma serricorne'' and [[caterpillar]]s of ''Ephestia elutella'' are considered [[Pest (organism)|major pests]].<ref name="Ryan 1995"/>

==Production==
{{More citations needed|date=May 2008}}

===Cultivation===
{{Main|Cultivation of tobacco}}

[[File:Patch of Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum ) in a field in Intercourse, Pennsylvania..jpg|thumb|upright|Tobacco plants growing in a field in [[Intercourse, Pennsylvania|Intercourse]], [[Pennsylvania]]]]

Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. [[Seed]]s were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from [[flea beetle]]s (''Epitrix cucumeris'' or ''E. pubescens''), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Modern tobacco seeds are sown in [[cold frame]]s or hotbeds, as their [[germination]] is activated by light.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garner |first1=W. W. |title=Tobacco Culture |journal=Farmers' Bulletin |date=February 27, 1914 |issue=571 |pages=3–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MX4JEAVPi4C&pg=RA21-PA1 |access-date=March 22, 2020 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral [[apatite]], which partially starves the plant of [[Biological role of nitrogen|nitrogen]], to produce a more desired flavor.

After the plants are about {{convert| 8| inch|cm}} tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Yorktown |first1=Mailing Address: P. O. Box 210 |last2=Us |first2=VA 23690 Phone: 757 898-2410 Contact |title=Tobacco: Colonial Cultivation Methods - Historic Jamestowne Part of Colonial National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/jame/learn/historyculture/tobacco-colonial-cultivation-methods.htm |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref> A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either a curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his/her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland [[Transplanter]] were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in—all in one motion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Willigen|first1=John|last2=Eastwood|first2=Susan|title=Tobacco Culture: Farming Kentucky's Burley Belt|date=2015|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-4808-3|page=91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIkfBgAAQBAJ|access-date=February 2, 2018}}</ref>

Tobacco is cultivated annually, and can be [[harvest]]ed in several ways. In the oldest method, still used, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife; it is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick, and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner entails the serial harvest of a number of "primings", beginning with the ''volado'' leaves near the ground, working to the ''seco'' leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ''[[ligero]]'' leaves at the top. Before harvesting, the crop must be ''topped'' when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, the harvesting wagons which were used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand.

In the U.S., [[North Carolina]] and [[Kentucky]] are the leaders in tobacco production, followed by [[Tennessee]], [[Virginia]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[South Carolina]] and [[Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quickstats.nass.usda.gov/|title=USDA/NASS QuickStats Ad-hoc Query Tool|website=quickstats.nass.usda.gov|date=2019|access-date=July 1, 2020}}</ref>

===Curing===
{{Main|Curing of tobacco}}

[[File:Tobacco barn.JPG|thumb|Tobacco barn in [[Simsbury, Connecticut]] used for air curing of shade tobacco]]
[[File:Tobacco drying iran.jpg|thumb|Sun-cured tobacco, [[Bastam, West Azerbaijan|Bastam]], [[Iran]]]]

Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow [[oxidation]] and degradation of [[carotenoid]]s in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves and gives a sweet hay, [[tea]], [[rose oil]], or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which [[glycation|glycates]] protein, which is oxidized into [[advanced glycation endproduct]]s (AGEs), a [[caramelization]] process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to [[atherosclerosis]] and [[cancer]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Cerami C, Founds H, Nicholl I, Mitsuhashi T, Giordano D, Vanpatten S, Lee A, Al-Abed Y, Vlassara H, Bucala R, Cerami A |title=Tobacco smoke is a source of toxic reactive glycation products|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=94|issue=25|year=1997|pages=13915–20|doi=10.1073/pnas.94.25.13915|pmid=9391127|pmc=28407|bibcode=1997PNAS...9413915C|doi-access=free}}</ref> Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used.

Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including:
* '''[[Curing of tobacco#Air|Air-cured]]''' tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, mild flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are 'dark' air-cured.<ref>"tobacco curing." The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide. Abington: Helicon, 2010. Credo Reference. Web. September 26, 2012.</ref>
* '''[[Curing of tobacco#Fire|Fire-cured]]''' tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder, and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire-cured.
* '''[[Curing of tobacco#Flue|Flue-cured]]''' tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier poles in curing barns (Aus: [[kiln]]s, also traditionally called 'oasts'). These barns have flues run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process generally takes about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine. Most cigarettes incorporate flue-cured tobacco, which produces a milder, more inhalable smoke. It is estimated that 1 tree is cut to flue-cure every 300 cigarettes, resulting in serious environmental consequences.<ref name="who env effects"/>
* '''[[Curing of tobacco#Sun|Sun-cured]]''' tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece, and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.

Some tobaccos go through a second stage of curing, known as ''[[Fermentation (food)|fermenting]]'' or ''sweating''.{{cn|date=July 2024}} [[Cavendish Tobacco|Cavendish]] undergoes fermentation pressed in a ''casing'' solution containing sugar and/or flavoring.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

===Global production===
{{owidslider
|start = 2023
|list = Template:OWID/tobacco production#gallery
|location = commons
|caption =
|title =
|language =
|file = [[File:tobacco production, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|Tobacco production]]
|startingView = World
}}
====Trends====
[[File:Preparando o tabaco em Balibó.jpg|thumb|Tobacco production in [[Portuguese Timor]] in the 1930s]]
Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced.<ref name="United Nations 2010">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ''Projection of tobacco production, consumption and trade for the year 2010.'' (Rome, 2003).</ref> According to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) of the United Nations, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record-high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced.<ref name="United Nations 2004">The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ''Higher World Tobacco use expected by 2010-growth rates slowing down.'' (Rome, 2004).</ref> The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%.<ref name="JhaChaloupka2000">{{cite book |editor1=Prabhat Jha |editor2=Frank J. Chaloupka |author1=Rowena Jacobs |display-authors=etal |title=Tobacco Control in Developing Countries |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTO8AAAAIAAJ&q=supply-side |year=2000 |chapter=The Supply-Side Effects Of Tobacco Control Policies |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-263250-0 |pages=311ff}}</ref> During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased.<ref name="United Nations 2004"/> China's increase in tobacco production was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997.<ref name="United Nations 2010"/> This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a low import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff was reduced from 66% in 1999 to 10% in 2004,<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Hu |first1 = T-W |last2 = Mao |first2 = Z |display-authors=etal |year=2006 |title = China at the Crossroads: The Economics of Tobacco and Health |journal = Tobacco Control |volume = 15 |issue = Suppl 1 |pages = i37–i41 |doi=10.1136/tc.2005.014621 |pmc = 2563551 |pmid=16723674}}</ref> it has still led to local Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost.

====Major producers====
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em"
! colspan=3|Top tobacco producers, 2020<ref name="FAOSTAT">{{cite web|title=FAOSTAT|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/visualize|publisher=Food And Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=May 17, 2020}}</ref>
|-
! Country
! Production ([[tonne]]s)
! Note
|-
| {{flag|China}}||align=right|2,134,000||
|-
| {{flag|India}}||align=right|761,335||
|-
| {{flag|Brazil}}||align=right|702,208||'''F'''
|-
| {{flag|Zimbabwe}}||align=right|203,488||
|-
| {{flag|Indonesia}}||align=right|199,737||'''F'''
|-
| {{flag|United States}}||align=right|176,635||
|-
| {{flag|Mozambique}}||align=right|158,532||'''F'''
|-
| {{flag|Pakistan}}||align=right|132,872||'''F'''
|-
| {{flag|Argentina}}||align=right|109,333||
|-
| {{flag|Malawi}}||align=right|93,613||'''F'''

|- style="background:#ccc;"
| {{noflag}}'''World'''||align=right| '''5,886,147'''||'''A'''
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:.7em"|No note = official figure, F = [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] Estimate, A = Aggregate (may include official, semiofficial or estimates).
|}

Every year, about 5.9 million tons of tobacco are produced. Top producers are China (36.3%), India (12.9%), Brazil (11.9%) and Zimbabwe (3.5%).<ref name="FAOSTAT"/>

====China====
Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land.<ref name="issues in global economy"/> While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a [[State Tobacco Monopoly Administration]] (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12% to the nation's national income.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/2005-10/03/content_74295.htm |title=People's Republic of China. "''State Tobacco Monopoly Administration'' |publisher=Gov.cn |date=September 15, 2005 |access-date=October 3, 2013 |archive-date=August 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810034314/http://www.gov.cn/english/2005-10/03/content_74295.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> As noted above, despite the income generated for the state by profits from state-owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China's government has acted to reduce tobacco use.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 6, 2010 |title=Talking Points, February 3–17, 2010 |url=https://china.usc.edu/talking-points-february-3-17-2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407203139/https://china.usc.edu/talking-points-february-3-17-2010 |archive-date=April 7, 2015 |publisher=[[University of Southern California|USC]] U.S.-China Institute}}</ref>

====India====
India's Tobacco Board is headquartered in [[Guntur]] in the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tobaccoboard.com/ |title=Tobacco Board, Guntur |publisher=Tobaccoboard.com |access-date=April 21, 2014}}</ref> India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers<ref name="Shoba 2002">Shoba, John and Shailesh Vaite. Tobacco and Poverty: Observations from India and Bangladesh. Canada, 2002.</ref> and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://india.anythingresearch.com/Tobacco-Product-Manufacturing.html|title=Tobacco Manufacturing in India}}</ref> Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land is used for tobacco production.<ref name="issues in global economy"/>

Since 1947, the [[Indian government]] has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Bihar]], [[Mysore]], and [[West Bengal]] which houses the core research institute.

====Brazil====
In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity.<ref name="issues in global economy"/> Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of the country's total cultivated area.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book|last1=International Tobacco Growers' Association|title=Tobacco farming: sustainable alternatives? Volume 2|date=n.d.|publisher=ITGA|location=East Sussex|isbn=978-1-872854-02-1|url=http://www.tobaccoleaf.org/UserFiles/file/Why_Grow_Tobacco/tobacco_farming.pdf|access-date=July 5, 2016|archive-date=April 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429032528/http://tobaccoleaf.org/UserFiles/file/Why_Grow_Tobacco/tobacco_farming.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue-cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air-cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air- and sun-cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce the production of tobacco but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the ''Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar''.<ref name="brazil legal employ">{{cite web |title=Report from South America (Brazil) |url=http://legalempowerment.undp.org/pdf/SouthAmerica_report.pdf |publisher=[[Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor]] |access-date=October 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609101410/http://legalempowerment.undp.org/pdf/SouthAmerica_report.pdf |archive-date=June 9, 2007 |date=2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Lebanon ====
Although only being the 35th biggest tobacco producer in 2023, the crop plays an important role in parts of [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 50 tobacco growing countries |url=https://www.who.int/campaigns/world-no-tobacco-day/2023/top-50-tobacco-growing-countries |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> The cultivation of tobacco in Lebanon dates back to the 17th century and today the crop is grown by all religious sects.<ref name=":1" /> In the southern parts of the country, the plant's resilience in difficult conditions—including the climate, the mountainous geography, and recurring wars—makes it an important source of income.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Khayyat |first=Munira |title=A Landscape of War |date=2022 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=92–125}}</ref> The role of tobacco in the region is twofold. On the one hand, it is called the "crop of resistance" as it allows the population to navigate the consequences of a decades-long violent conflict and a certain degree of detachment, making it a symbol of hope, resistance, and resilience.<ref name=":1" /> On the other hand, the hard conditions of tobacco farming also made it the "bitter crop," as the farming is often times done by women and children without professional equipment.<ref name=":1" /> According to Munira Khayyat, tobacco production in the southern parts of Lebanon, like many other sectors where the state is absent (e.g. health care, employment, education), is overseen by [[Hezbollah]] and, though to a minor degree, also by [[Amal Movement|AMAL]].<ref name=":1" />

[[File:Tobacco field cuba1.jpg|thumb|Tobacco plantation, [[Pinar del Río]], Cuba]]

===Problems in production===

====Child labor====
{{main|Child labor}}

The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work.<ref name="hrw child labor">{{Cite book |last1=Wurth |first1=Margaret |last2=Buchanan |first2=Jane |date=May 13, 2014 |editor-last=Becker |editor-first=Jo |editor2-last=Ross |editor2-first=James |editor3-last=Olugboji |editor3-first=Babatunde |others=Joe Amon, Zama Coursen-Neff, Arvind Ganesan, Grace Meng |title=Tobacco's Hidden Children Hazardous Child Labor in United States Tobacco Farming |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/05/13/tobaccos-hidden-children/hazardous-child-labor-united-states-tobacco-farming |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806091253/https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/05/13/tobaccos-hidden-children/hazardous-child-labor-united-states-tobacco-farming |archive-date=August 6, 2015 |access-date=October 6, 2022 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |isbn=978-1-62313-134-0 |oclc=881428758}}</ref> The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children is widespread on farms in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.unicef.org/media/84761/file/SOWC-1997.pdf |title=The State of the World's Children 1997 |last=[[UNICEF]] |date=1997 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-262871-8 |oclc=36286998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609190750/https://www.unicef.org/media/84761/file/SOWC-1997.pdf |archive-date=June 9, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/78394/ChildLaborSweatandToil2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=By the Sweat and Toil of Children. Volume 2. The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Agricultural Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labor : A Report to the Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Congress |last1=Jaffe |first1=Maureen E. |last2=Mills |first2=Monica |date=1995 |publisher=International Child Labor Study Group, [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]] |location=Washington, D.C. |last3=Rosen |first3=Sonia A. |last4=Shepard |first4=Robert B. |last5=Slavet |first5=Beth |last6=Samet |first6=Andrew J. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006221232/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/78394/ChildLaborSweatandToil2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=October 6, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=http://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/1997/97B09_232_engl.pdf |title=Bitter Harvest, Child Labour in Agriculture |date=1997 |publisher=[[International Labour Organization]] |location=Geneva |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006222138/http://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/1997/97B09_232_engl.pdf |archive-date=October 6, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Bosch |first1=Dawie |last2=Gordon |first2=Adele |date=August 27–30, 1996 |title=Child Labour in Commercial Agriculture in Africa (Working paper number 3) |publisher=[[International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour]], [[International Labour Organization]] |conference=Subregional technical workshop on child labour in commercial agriculture for selected English-speaking African countries |location=Dar es Salaam, Tanzania |isbn=978-92-2-110485-8 |oclc=36763053}}</ref> While some of these children work with their families on small, family-owned farms, others work on large plantations.
In late 2009, reports were released by the London-based human-rights group [[Plan International]], claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world's tobacco<ref name="United Nations 2010"/>) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during the 2007–08 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors.<ref name="malawi child">{{Cite web |last=Clacherty |first=Glynis |date=2009 |title=Hard work, long hours and little pay: Research with children working on tobacco farms in Malawi |url=https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/3809.pdf/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006212811/https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/3809.pdf/ |archive-date=October 6, 2022 |publisher=[[Plan International]], Clacherty & Associates Education and Social Development (Pty) Ltd}}</ref> They also reported experiencing [[green tobacco sickness]], a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to levels of nicotine equivalent to smoking 50 cigarettes, just through direct contact with tobacco leaves.<ref name="malawi child"/> The [[effects of nicotine on human brain development]] in children can permanently alter brain structure and function.<ref name=England2015>{{cite journal |last1=England |first1=Lucinda J. |last2=Bunnell |first2=Rebecca E. |last3=Pechacek |first3=Terry F. |last4=Tong |first4=Van T. |last5=McAfee |first5=Tim A. |title=Nicotine and the Developing Human |journal=American Journal of Preventive Medicine |date=August 2015 |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=286–293 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2015.01.015 |pmc=4594223 |pmid=25794473 }}</ref>

====Economy====
[[File:MRO Cuba Harvest 01.jpg|thumb|Tobacco harvesting, [[Viñales Valley]], Cuba]]
Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. [[Altria Group|Philip Morris]], [[British American Tobacco]], and [[Japan Tobacco]] each own or lease tobacco-manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries.<ref>"International Cigarette Manufacturers," Tobacco Reporter, March 2001</ref> This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to a glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Golden Leaf, Barren Harvest: The Costs of Tobacco Farming |url=http://www.ash.org.uk/files/documents/ASH_330.pdf |author=The Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids |date=November 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406112907/http://www.ash.org.uk/files/documents/ASH_330.pdf |archive-date=April 6, 2013}}</ref> Tobacco is the most widely [[smuggling|smuggled]] legal product.<ref name=ICLJTU>{{cite news |title=Tobacco Underground |url=http://www.icij.org/project/tobacco-underground |access-date=November 26, 2012 |newspaper=The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists}}</ref>

====Environment====
Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of [[pesticide]]s. Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in the period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field.<ref name="Taylor, Peter 1994">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Peter|title=Smoke Ring: The Politics of Tobacco|publisher=Panos Briefing Paper|location=London|date=September 1994}}</ref> Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in the soil, waterways, and the food chain.<ref>{{cite book|title=FAO Yearbook, Production, Volume 48|year=1995}}</ref> Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm their nervous and immune systems.<ref>{{Cite book |last=National Research Council (US) Committee on Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK236276/ |title=Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children |date=1993 |publisher=[[National Academies Press]] |isbn=978-0-309-04875-0 |location=Washington, D.C. |page=341 |chapter=Chapter 8 Estimating the Risks |doi=10.17226/2126 |pmid=25144038 |bibcode=1993nap..book.2126N |oclc=42329648}}</ref>

As with all crops, tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as [[phosphorus]], [[nitrogen]], and [[potassium]]) from soil, decreasing its fertility.<ref name=wwf.panda>{{cite web|title=Tobacco Free Initiative: Environmental issues|url=https://www.who.int/tobacco/research/economics/rationale/environment/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041219191401/http://www.who.int/tobacco/research/economics/rationale/environment/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 19, 2004|author=World Health Organization}}</ref>

Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and the United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process.<ref name="wwf.panda"/> Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes.<ref name="Taylor, Peter 1994"/>

In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco.<ref name="who env effects">{{Cite book |last=World Health Organization |url=https://www.who.int/tobacco/publications/environmental-impact-overview/en/ |title=Tobacco and its Environmental Impact: An Overview |date=2017 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-151249-7 |oclc=988541317 |author-link=World Health Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170531164632/http://www.who.int/tobacco/publications/environmental-impact-overview/en/ |archive-date=May 31, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Research===
Several tobacco plants have been used as [[model organism]]s in [[genetics]]. [[Tobacco BY-2 cells]], derived from ''N. tabacum'' [[cultivar]] 'Bright Yellow-2', are among the most important research tools in plant [[cell biology|cytology]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ganapathi TR |display-authors=etal | year = 2004 | title = Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) – A model system for tissue culture interventions and genetic engineering | url = http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/7722/1/IJBT%203(2)%20171-184.pdf | journal = Indian Journal of Biotechnology | volume = 3 | pages = 171–184 }}</ref> Tobacco has played a pioneering role in [[Callus (cell biology)|callus]] culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which [[kinetin]] works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural [[biotechnology]]. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using ''[[Agrobacterium tumefaciens]]'' to create an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant.<ref name="PNAS">{{cite journal | author = Fraley RT |display-authors=etal | year = 1983 | title = Expression of bacterial genes in plant cells | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 80 | issue = 15| pages = 4803–4807 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.80.15.4803 |pmid=6308651 | bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4803F| pmc = 384133 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This research laid the groundwork for all [[genetically modified crops]].<ref name=TransgenicScience>{{cite web |url=http://www.cottoncrc.org.au/communities/Cotton_Info/The_Science_behind_Transgenic_cotton |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321224120/http://www.cottoncrc.org.au/communities/Cotton_Info/The_Science_behind_Transgenic_cotton |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 21, 2012 |title=Science of Transgenic Cotton |publisher=Cottoncrc.org.au |access-date=October 3, 2013 }}</ref>

===Genetic modification===
Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first genetically modified (GM) crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco.<ref name="James 1996">{{cite web|last=James|first=Clive|title=Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995|url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf|publisher=The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications|access-date=July 17, 2010|year=1996}}</ref>

====Field trials====
Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to the [[tobacco mosaic virus]] (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for [[bioremediation]], have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco.<ref name=GMOCompass>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/plants/304.tobacco.html |title=Tobacco |publisher=GMO Compass |access-date=October 3, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002090217/http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/plants/304.tobacco.html |archive-date=October 2, 2013}}</ref>

====Production====
Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco.<ref name="James 1996" /><ref name=GMOCompass /> The Chinese virus-resistant tobacco was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Conner AJ, Glare TR, Nap JP |date=January 2003 |title=The release of genetically modified crops into the environment. Part II. Overview of ecological risk assessment |journal=Plant J. |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=19–46 |pmid=12943539 |doi=10.1046/j.0960-7412.2002.001607.x |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|3}} From 2002 to 2010, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content were available in the US under the market name Quest.<ref name=GMOCompass /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ritarubin/2017/08/14/if-you-took-the-nicotine-out-of-cigarettes-would-fewer-people-want-to-smoke/|title=If You Took The Nicotine Out Of Cigarettes, Would Fewer People Want To Smoke?|last=Rubin|first=Rita|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=May 3, 2019}}</ref>

==Consumption==
{{Further|Tobacco products}}
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2021}}
Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods.

===Anogenital===
Anogenital usage refers to the use of tobacco in [[Sex organ|genitals]] and the [[rectum]].
* In [[Northern Europe]], people place tobacco pouches under their [[Foreskin|foreskins]] and into their [[Rectum|rectums]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Geiger |first=Gabriel |date=2021-09-21 |title=Young Scandinavians Are Sticking Nicotine Pouches Up Their Asses |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/young-scandinavians-are-sticking-nicotine-pouches-up-their-asses/ |access-date=2026-01-01 |website=VICE |language=en-US}}</ref>
* '''Taba''' is a form of tobacco placed in a woman's vagina in West Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jawo |first=Kaddy |title='I nearly died': Taba, the tobacco drug Gambian women share in secret |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2025/3/19/i-nearly-died-taba-the-tobacco-drug-the-gambian-women-share-in-secret |access-date=2026-01-01 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>
* '''[[Tobacco smoke enema]]s''' were employed by the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas#North America|indigenous peoples of North America]] to stimulate respiration, injecting the smoke with a rectal tube.<ref>{{Citation |last1 = Hurt |first1 = Raymond |last2 = Barry |first2 = J. E. |last3 = Adams |first3 = A. P. |last4 = Fleming |first4 = P. R. |title = The History of Cardiothoracic Surgery from Early Times |publisher = Informa Health Care |page=120 |year = 1996 |isbn = 978-1-85070-681-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShLvi_kRQtQC}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |doi = 10.2307/2843888 |last = Nordenskiold |first = Erland |title = The American Indian as an Inventor |jstor = 2843888 |journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |volume = 59 |page=277 |year = 1929}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hurt|Barry|Adams|Fleming|1996|p=120}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Nordenskiold|1929|p=277}}</ref> Later, in the 18th century, Europeans emulated the Americans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bcmj.org/special-feature/special-feature-tobacco-smoke-enemas |title=Special feature: Tobacco smoke enemas |author=Sterling Haynes, MD |date=December 2012 |work=British Columbia Medical Journal |publisher=Doctors of BC |access-date=March 29, 2019 }}</ref> Tobacco resuscitation kits consisting of a pair of bellows and a tube were provided by the Royal Humane Society of London and placed at various points along the Thames.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.rpharms.com/museum-pdfs/21-enemas.pdf |title = Information Sheet:21 Enemas |website = Information Sheets |publisher = Museum of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society, London |access-date=July 26, 2014}}</ref>

===Buccal===
Buccal usage refers to the use of tobacco in the mouth.
* '''[[Chewing tobacco]]''' is the oldest way of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands ("chew" or "chaw"), or in a shredded form ("dip"). When consuming the long, sweetened strands, the tobacco is lightly chewed and compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are placed inside the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it is often called dipping tobacco. Both methods stimulate the salivary glands, which led to the development of the [[spittoon]].
* '''[[Creamy snuff]]''' is tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in India and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha Industries), Denobac, Tona, and Ganesh. It is locally known as ''mishri'' in some parts of Maharashtra.
* '''[[Dipping tobacco]]s''' are a form of [[smokeless tobacco]]. Dip is occasionally referred to as "chew", and because of this it is commonly confused with [[chewing tobacco]], which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums. Some brands, as with snus, are portioned in small, porous pouches for less mess.
* '''[[Gutka]]''' is a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-sized packets.
* '''[[Kreteks]]''' are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves, and a flavoring "sauce". They were first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal [[eugenol]] of cloves to the lungs.
* '''[[Pituri]]''', a nicotine-containing substance traditionally made from Australian tobacco plants, used by Indigenous Australians for chewing and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums.
* '''[[Snus]]''' is a steam-pasteurized moist powdered tobacco product that is not fermented and induces minimal salivation. It is consumed by placing it (loose or in little pouches) against the upper gums for an extended period of time. It is somewhat similar to dipping tobacco but does not require spitting and is significantly lower in [[Tobacco-specific nitrosamines|TSNA]]s.
* '''Tobacco chewing gum''' A gum containing nicotine or tobacco designed to be chewed.
* '''Tobacco edibles''', often in the form of an infusion or a spice, have gained popularity in recent years.
* '''[[Tobacco water]]''' is a traditional [[organic farming|organic]] [[insecticide]] used in domestic [[gardening]]. Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled, the mixture can be applied as a spray, or painted onto the leaves of garden plants, where it kills insects. Tobacco is, however, banned from use as a pesticide in certified organic production by the USDA's [[National Organic Program]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.omri.org/simple-gml-search/results?page=18 |title=Generic Materials Search | Organic Materials Review Institute |publisher=Omri.org |access-date=October 3, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723072126/http://www.omri.org/simple-gml-search/results?page=18 |archive-date=July 23, 2015}}</ref>

=== Inhalation ===
* '''[[Betel quid]]''' refers to a mixture of [[areca nut]], tobacco, and flavouring ingredients wrapped within a [[Betel|betel leaf]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Humans |first=IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to |title=Betel-quid and Areca-nut Chewing |date=2004 |work=Betel-quid and Areca-nut Chewing and Some Areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK316574/ |access-date=2026-01-01 |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |language=en}}</ref>
* '''[[Beedi]]''' (also known as bidis or biris) are thin, often flavoured cigarettes from India made of tobacco wrapped in a [[Diospyros melanoxylon|tendu]] leaf, and secured with coloured thread at one end.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tobacco Free Kids |date=2008 |title=Bidis: An Overview |url=https://www.tobaccofreekids.org/assets/global/pdfs/en/IW_facts_products_bidis_overview.pdf |access-date=October 27, 2021 |website=Tobacco Free Kids}}</ref>
* '''[[Cigarette]]s''' are a product consumed through inhalation of smoke and manufactured from cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, then rolled into a paper cylinder.
* '''[[Cigar]]s''' are tightly rolled bundles of dried and fermented tobacco, which are ignited so their smoke may be drawn into the smokers' mouths.
* '''[[Dokha]]''' is a middle eastern tobacco with high nicotine levels grown in parts of Oman and Hatta, which is smoked through a thin pipe called a medwakh. It is a form of tobacco which is dried up and ground and contains little to no additives excluding spices, fruits, or flowers to enhance smell and flavor.
* '''[[Heat-not-burn product]]s''' heat rather than burn tobacco to generate an aerosol that contains nicotine.
* '''[[Hookah]]''' is a single- or multistemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Hookahs were first used in India and Persia;<ref>American Lung Association. February 2007 [http://www.lungusa2.org/embargo/slati/Trendalert_Waterpipes.pdf An Emerging Deadly Trend: Waterpipe Tobacco Use] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102171735/http://www.lungusa2.org/embargo/slati/Trendalert_Waterpipes.pdf|date=January 2, 2014}}</ref> the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the Middle East. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits or [[moassel]], a mixture of tobacco, flavouring, and [[honey]] or [[glycerin]].
* '''[[Roll-your-own]]''', often called 'rollies' or 'roll-ups', are relatively popular in some European countries. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers, and filters all bought separately. They are usually cheaper to make.
* '''[[Tobacco pipe]]s''' typically consist of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed in the chamber and ignited.

===Nasal===
* '''[[Snuff (tobacco)|Snuff]]''' is a ground smokeless tobacco product, inhaled or ‘snuffed’ through the nose. If referring specifically to the orally consumed moist snuff, see [[dipping tobacco]].

=== Topical ===
* '''[[Topical tobacco paste]]''' is sometimes used as a treatment for [[wasp]], [[hornet]], [[fire ant]], [[scorpion]], and [[bee sting]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/c782-w.html |first=Beverly |last=Sparks |title=Stinging and Biting Pests of People |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214061028/http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/c782-w.html |archive-date=February 14, 2007}} Extension Entomologist of the University of Georgia College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences Cooperative Extension Service.</ref> An amount equivalent to the contents of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a half a teaspoon of water to make a paste that is then applied to the affected area.

==Influence==

===Social===
Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and smoking by women was sometimes associated with [[promiscuity]]; in Japan, during the [[Edo period]], prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th-century Europe.{{sfn|Gilman|Zhou|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mM5bYb_uVcwC&pg=PA92 92–99]}}

Following the [[American Civil War]], the use of tobacco, primarily in cigars, became associated with [[masculinity]] and power. Modern tobacco use has often been stigmatized; this has spawned quitting associations and antismoking campaigns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Durkin |first1=Sarah |last2=Brennan |first2=Emily |last3=Wakefield |first3=Melanie |author-link3=Melanie Wakefield |year=2012 |title=Mass media campaigns to promote smoking cessation among adults: an integrative review |url=http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/tobaccocontrol/21/2/127.full.pdf |journal=Tobacco Control |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=127–138 |doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050345 |pmid=22345235 |s2cid=3053297|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Mullin Sandra |year=2011 |title=Global anti-smoking campaigns urgently needed |journal=The Lancet |volume=378 |issue=9795 |pages=970–971 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(11)61058-1 |pmid=21741699 |s2cid=7532790}}</ref> [[Bhutan]] is the only country in the world where tobacco sales are illegal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2005/01/the-first-nonsmoking-nation.html |title=The First Nonsmoking Nation |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate.com]] |first=Eric |last=Weiner |date=January 20, 2005 |access-date=October 23, 2019}}</ref> Due to its propensity for causing [[detumescence]] and erectile dysfunction, some studies have described tobacco as an anaphrodisiacal substance.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=28723353 |year=2015 |last1=Verze |first1=P. |title=The Link Between Cigarette Smoking and Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review |journal=European Urology Focus |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=39–46 |last2=Margreiter |first2=M. |last3=Esposito |first3=K. |last4=Montorsi |first4=P. |last5=Mulhall |first5=J. |doi=10.1016/j.euf.2015.01.003}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Further|Religious views on smoking}}
====Christianity====
In [[Christian denomination]]s of the [[conservative holiness movement]], such as the [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]] and [[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]], the use of tobacco and other drugs is prohibited;<ref name="AWMC2014">{{cite book|title=The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference)|year=2014|publisher=[[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]]|location=[[Salem, Ohio|Salem]]|language=en}}</ref>{{rp|37}} ¶42 of the 2014 [[Book of Discipline (United Methodist)|Book of Discipline]] of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection states:<ref name="AWMC2014" />{{page needed|date=March 2021}}
{{quotation|In the judgment of The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference), the use of tobacco is a great evil, unbecoming a Christian, a waste of the Lord's money, and a defilement of the body, which should be the temple of the Holy Ghost. We do, therefore, most earnestly require our members to refrain from its cultivation, manufacture, and sale, and to abstain from its use in all forms, for Jesus' sake. We will not receive as members into our churches nor will we ordain or license to preach or to exhort, persons who use, cultivate, manufacture, or sell tobacco. Using tobacco by a member of a church or of the Conference after being received from this date (June 28, 1927) is a violation of the law of the church, and the offending party should be dealt with according to the judiciary rules.<ref name="AWMC2014" />{{rp|44}}}}
Members of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (popularly known as [[Mormons]]) adhere to the [[Word of Wisdom (Latter Day Saints)|Word of Wisdom]], a religious health code that is interpreted as prohibiting the consumption of tobacco as well as [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]], coffee, and tea.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stack |first=Peggy Fletcher |author-link=Peggy Fletcher Stack |date=August 31, 2012 |title=It's Official: Coke and Pepsi are OK for Mormons |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |agency=([[Religion News Service]]) |url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-08-31/national/35492011_1_drink-caffeine-lds-leaders-mormons |url-status=dead |access-date=September 20, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327204542/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-08-31/national/35492011_1_drink-caffeine-lds-leaders-mormons |archive-date=March 27, 2013}}.</ref>

====Islam====
{{Main|Islamic views on tobacco}}

Most Islamic scholars have condemned tobacco due to its harmful effects on health and most Islamic sects prohibit its use. The earliest [[fatwa]] (religious opinion) against tobacco use dates from 1602. While tobacco is not mentioned in the Quran because it did not exist in the Eastern Hemisphere during [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] time, the Quran instructs Muslims to live healthy lives, which does not align with tobacco usage.

====Sikhism====
{{Further|Prohibitions in Sikhism}}
[[Sikhism]], a Dharmic religion from India, considers tobacco consumption as taboo and deeply harmful for health and spirituality. Initiated [[Sikhs]] may not consume tobacco in any form.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dhillon|first=Bikramjit Singh|date=n.d.|title=Sikhs and Smoking|url=https://www.sikhs.org/art9.htm}}</ref>

===Demographics===
{{Main|Prevalence of tobacco consumption}}

Research on tobacco use is limited mainly to smoking, which has been studied more extensively than any other form of consumption. An estimated 1.1 billion people, and up to one-third of the adult population, use tobacco in some form.{{sfn|Gilman|Zhou|2004|p=26}} Smoking is more prevalent among men<ref name="HNPGuindonBoisclair13-16">"[[#HNPGuindonBoisclair|Guindon & Boisclair]]" 2004, pp. 13–16.</ref> (however, the gender gap declines with age),{{sfn|Samet & Yoon|2001|p=5-6}}{{sfn|Surgeon General's Report Women and Smoking|2001|p=47}} the poor, and in transitional or [[developing countries]].<ref name="WHOTobaccoFactSheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/exeres/978BE0FD-AE30-46C6-8F75-1F40AE7B57BC.htm|title=WHO/WPRO-Tobacco|access-date=January 1, 2009|year=2005|publisher=World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211215317/http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/exeres/978BE0FD-AE30-46C6-8F75-1F40AE7B57BC.htm|archive-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref> A study published in [[Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report]] found that in 2019 approximately one in four youths (23.0%) in the U.S. had used a tobacco product during the past 30 days. This represented approximately three in 10 high school students (31.2%) and approximately one in eight middle school students (12.5%).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Teresa W. |last2=Gentzke |first2=Andrea S. |last3=Creamer |first3=MeLisa R. |last4=Cullen |first4=Karen A. |last5=Holder-Hayes |first5=Enver |last6=Sawdey |first6=Michael D. |last7=Anic |first7=Gabriella M. |last8=Portnoy |first8=David B. |last9=Hu |first9=Sean |last10=Homa |first10=David M. |last11=Jamal |first11=Ahmed |last12=Neff |first12=Linda J. |title=Tobacco Product Use and Associated Factors Among Middle and High School Students — United States, 2019 |journal=MMWR. Surveillance Summaries |date=6 November 2019 |volume=68 |issue=12 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.ss6812a1 |pmid=31805035 |pmc=6903396 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Rates of smoking continue to rise in developing countries, but have leveled off or declined in [[developed countries]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/ |title=WHO fact sheet: Tobacco |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |date=26 July 2013 |access-date=3 October 2013}}</ref> Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm#fig |title=Cigarette Smoking Among Adults – United States, 2006 |publisher=Cdc.gov |access-date=October 3, 2013}}</ref> In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs_20020528/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826030927/http://www.wpro.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs_20020528/en/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 26, 2013 |title=WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics |publisher=Wpro.who.int |date=May 27, 2002 |access-date=April 21, 2014}}</ref>

===Health effects===
{{Main|Health effects of tobacco|List of cigarette smoke carcinogens|Tobacco packaging warning messages|List of additives in cigarettes}}

[[File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Table from the 2010 [[DrugScience]] study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. Tobacco was found to be the sixth overall most dangerous drug.<ref name="Nutt_2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD | title = Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis | journal = Lancet | volume = 376 | issue = 9752 | pages = 1558–1565 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 21036393 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 | bibcode = 2010Lanc..376.1558N | s2cid = 5667719 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.690.1283 }}</ref>]]
[[File:Deaths from tobacco, alcohol and drugs, OWID.svg|thumb|Deaths from tobacco, alcohol and drugs]]
[[File:Adverse effects of tobacco smoking.svg|thumb|Common adverse effects of tobacco smoking]]

According to the World Health Organization, tobacco kills more than 8 million people every year worldwide, including about 1.3 million non-smokers exposed to secondhand smoke.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tobacco |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tobacco |website=World Health Organization |publisher=WHO |date=2024 |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref>

====Chemicals====
Tobacco smoking harms health because of the toxic chemicals in tobacco smoke, including [[carbon monoxide]], [[cyanide]], and [[carcinogens]], which have been proven to cause heart and lung diseases and cancer.
Thousands of different substances in cigarette smoke, including [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (such as [[benzopyrene]]), [[formaldehyde]], [[cadmium]], [[nickel]], [[arsenic]], [[tobacco-specific nitrosamines]], and [[phenols]] contribute to the harmful effects of smoking.<ref name="tobaccocontrol.bmj.com">{{cite journal|author=Proctor Robert N|year=2012|title=The history of the discovery of the cigarette-lung cancer link: evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll|url=http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/21/2/87.full.pdf|journal=Tobacco Control|volume=21|issue=2|pages=87–91|doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338|pmid=22345227|s2cid=2734836|doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to the World Health Organization, tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally.<ref name="who 2008 mpower"/> WHO estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004<ref name="WHO 2004">{{Cite book |last1=Mathers |first1=Colin |author-link=Colin Mathers |last2=Boerma |first2=Ties |last3=Fat |first3=Doris Ma |date=2008 |title=The Global Burden of Disease : 2004 Update |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43942 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207114854/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43942/9789241563710_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=February 7, 2022 |access-date=October 6, 2022 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |hdl=10665/43942 |isbn=978-92-4-156371-0 |oclc=264018380}}</ref> and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century.<ref name="who 2008 mpower"/> Similarly, the United States [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] describe tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide."<ref name="fn1">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/quit_smoking/you_can_quit/nicotine.htm |title=Nicotine: A Powerful Addiction |work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226225821/http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/quit_smoking/you_can_quit/nicotine.htm |archive-date=February 26, 2009}}</ref> Due to these health consequences, it is estimated that a 10 hectare (approximately 24.7 acre) field of tobacco used for cigarettes causes 30 deaths per year – 10 from lung cancer and 20 from cigarette-induced diseases like cardiac arrest, gangrene, bladder cancer, mouth cancer, etc.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Proctor |first1=Robert N |title=The history of the discovery of the cigarette–lung cancer link: evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll: Table 1 |journal=Tobacco Control |date=March 2012 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=87–91 |doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338 |pmid=22345227 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The harms caused by inhaling tobacco smoke include diseases of the [[heart]] and [[lung]]s, with smoking being a major risk factor for [[myocardial infarction|heart attacks]], [[stroke]]s, [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] (emphysema), and [[cancer]] (particularly cancers of the [[Lung cancer|lungs]], [[Cancer of the larynx|larynx, mouth]], and [[pancreatic cancers|pancreas]]). Cancer is caused by inhaling carcinogenic substances in tobacco smoke.

Inhaling [[secondhand tobacco smoke]] (which has been exhaled by a smoker) can cause lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. In the United States, about 3,000 adults die each year due to lung cancer from secondhand smoke exposure. Heart disease caused by secondhand smoke kills around 46,000 nonsmokers every year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Secondhand Smoke |url=http://betobaccofree.hhs.gov/health-effects/secondhand-smoke/index.html |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920231625/http://betobaccofree.hhs.gov/health-effects/secondhand-smoke/index.html |archive-date=September 20, 2014 |website=BeTobaccoFree |publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Health and Human Services]]}}</ref>

In children, exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke is associated with a higher incidence and severity of [[Respiratory illness|respiratory illnesses]], middle ear disease, and [[asthma]] attacks. Each year in the United States, secondhand smoke exposure causes 24,500 infants to be born with [[low birth weight]], 71,900 [[Preterm birth|preterm births]], 202,300 episodes of asthma, and 790,000 health care visits for ear infections.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8hk6960q |title=Proposed Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air Contaminant |last=Air Resources Board |date=June 24, 2005 |publisher=[[California Environmental Protection Agency]] |access-date=October 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127163329/https://escholarship.org/content/qt8hk6960q/qt8hk6960q.pdf?t=krnni4 |archive-date=November 27, 2021}}</ref>

The addictive alkaloid [[nicotine]] is a [[stimulant]], and popularly known as the most characteristic constituent of tobacco. In drug effect preference questionnaires, a rough indicator of addictive potential, nicotine scores almost as highly as opioids.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://ww1.drugabuse.gov/pdf/monographs/92.pdf |title=Testing for Abuse Liability of Drugs in Humans |publisher=[[National Institute on Drug Abuse]], [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Health and Human Services]] |year=1989 |editor-last=Fischman |editor-first=Marian W. |editor-link=Marian Fischman |location=Rockville, MD |page=79 |id=NIDA Research Monograph No. 92 |editor-last2=Mello |editor-first2=Nancy K. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222041641/http://ww1.drugabuse.gov/pdf/monographs/92.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Users typically develop [[Physiological tolerance|tolerance]] and [[Chemical dependency|dependence]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tobaccofacts.org/tob_truth/soaddictive.html |title=Tobacco Facts – Why is Tobacco So Addictive? |publisher=Tobaccofacts.org |access-date=September 18, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314185950/http://www.tobaccofacts.org/tob_truth/soaddictive.html |archive-date=March 14, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/SICD/PhilipMorris/pmorris.html |title=Philip Morris Information Sheet |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405204802/http://www.stanford.edu/group/SICD/PhilipMorris/pmorris.html |archive-date=April 5, 2008}}</ref> Nicotine is known to produce [[conditioned place preference]], a sign of psychological enforcement value.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Le Foll |first1=Bernard |last2=Goldberg |first2=Steven R. |title=Nicotine induces conditioned place preferences over a large range of doses in rats |journal=Psychopharmacology |date=April 2005 |volume=178 |issue=4 |pages=481–492 |doi=10.1007/s00213-004-2021-5 |pmid=15765262 |s2cid=34966899 }}</ref> In one medical study, tobacco's overall harm to user and self was determined at three percent below cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamines, ranking sixth most harmful of the 20 drugs assessed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nutt |first1=David J |last2=King |first2=Leslie A |last3=Phillips |first3=Lawrence D |title=Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis |journal=The Lancet |date=November 2010 |volume=376 |issue=9752 |pages=1558–1565 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 |citeseerx=10.1.1.690.1283 |pmid=21036393 |bibcode=2010Lanc..376.1558N |s2cid=5667719 }}</ref>

Tobacco also contains 2,3,6-Trimethyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (sometimes called 2,3,6-TQ and TMN) which is a reversible [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]] of type A and B with a binding affinity somewhat similar to that of [[clorgyline]] and [[deprenyl]]. It is a stronger dopamine releasing agent than nicotine and inhibits dopamine metabolism from its MAOI activity.<ref>{{cite thesis | url=https://repository.nwu.ac.za/handle/10394/590 | title=Smoking and brain dopaminergic neurochemistry | date=March 25, 2024 | publisher=North-West University | type=Thesis | vauthors = McAfee G }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1_4-Naphthalenedione_-2_3_6-trimethyl | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240320215324/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1_4-Naphthalenedione_-2_3_6-trimethyl | url-status=dead | archive-date=March 20, 2024 | title=1,4-Naphthalenedione, 2,3,6-trimethyl- }}</ref> Tobacco also contains [[Harmine]] and Norharmine which is a reversible MAO-A inhibitor.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=6592107 | date=2019 | title=Effect of Harmine on Nicotine-Induced Kidney Dysfunction in Male Mice | journal=International Journal of Preventive Medicine | volume=10 | page=97 | doi=10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_85_18 | doi-access=free | pmid=31360344 | vauthors = Salahshoor MR, Roshankhah S, Motavalian V, Jalili C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid=28057462 | date=2017 | title=Monoamine oxidase inhibitory activity in tobacco particulate matter: Are harman and norharman the only physiologically relevant inhibitors? | journal=Neurotoxicology | volume=59 | pages=22–26 | doi=10.1016/j.neuro.2016.12.010 | vauthors = Truman P, Grounds P, Brennan KA | bibcode=2017NeuTx..59...22T }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fnmol.2022.925272 | doi-access=free | title=Harmane Potentiates Nicotine Reinforcement Through MAO-A Inhibition at the Dose Related to Cigarette Smoking | date=2022 | journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience | volume=15 | pmid=35832393 | pmc=9271706 | vauthors = Ding Z, Li X, Chen H, Hou H, Hu Q | article-number=925272 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4253715 | jstor=4253715 | title=Nicotiana an Hallucinogen? | journal=Economic Botany | date=March 25, 1976 | volume=30 | issue=2 | pages=149–151 | doi=10.1007/BF02862960 | vauthors = Janiger O, De Rios MD | bibcode=1976EcBot..30..149J | url-access=subscription }}</ref> The MAO-A activity of tobacco alkaloids have been thought to play a role in the addictive qualities of tobacco.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/1107244 | doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.82 | title=Monoamine Oxidase a Binding in the Prefrontal and Anterior Cingulate Cortices During Acute Withdrawal from Heavy Cigarette Smoking | date=2011 | journal=Archives of General Psychiatry | volume=68 | issue=8 | pages=817–826 | pmid=21810646 | vauthors = Bacher I, Houle S, Xu X, Zawertailo L, Soliman A, Wilson AA, Selby P, George TP, Sacher J, Miler L, Kish SJ, Rusjan P, Meyer JH | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

====Radioactivity====
[[Polonium-210]] is a radioactive trace contaminant of tobacco, providing additional explanation for the link between smoking and [[bronchial cancer]].<ref name="polonium">{{cite journal|jstor=1712451|title=Polonium-210: A Volatile Radioelement in Cigarettes|journal=Science|volume=143|issue=3603|pages=247–249|last1=Radford|first1=Edward P.|last2=Hunt|first2=Vilma R.|year=1964|doi=10.1126/science.143.3603.247|pmid=14078362|bibcode=1964Sci...143..247R|s2cid=23455633}}</ref>
The radioactive particles build up over time in the lungs and a UCLA study has estimated that the radiation from 25 years of smoking would cause over 120 deaths per thousand smokers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uclahealth.org/news/big-tobacco-knew-radioactive-particles-in-cigarettes|title=Big Tobacco knew radioactive particles in cigarettes posed cancer risk but kept quiet|website=www.uclahealth.org}}</ref>

===Economic===
Tobacco makes a significant economic contribution. The global tobacco market in 2010 was estimated at US$760 billion, excluding China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__9D9KCY.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/DO9DCKFM|title=British American Tobacco – The global market|website=www.bat.com|language=en|access-date=March 15, 2018|archive-date=March 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310114510/http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__9D9KCY.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/DO9DCKFM|url-status=dead}}</ref> The global revenues from tobacco taxes in 2013–2014 was approximately $269 billion.

In China, cigarette manufacturing is one of the few profitable state-owned industries. For example, in 1998 the 1,429 state-owned enterprises in Yunnan province had revenue of [[Renminbi]] (RMB) 69.1 billion (US$8.3 billion) while eight cigarette manufacturing plants alone accounted for about 53 percent (or RMB 36.2 billion) of total provincial industry sales.<ref name="issues in global economy">{{Cite book |date=2003 |title=Issues in the global tobacco economy : selected case studies. |url=https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/1391c97a-6e5f-59dc-b664-d14e5e401674/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307151442/https://www.fao.org/3/y4997e/y4997e.pdf |archive-date=March 7, 2022 |access-date=October 6, 2022 |publisher=United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |pages=2, 39, 43 |isbn=925105083X |oclc=55056109 |id=Series number 1810-0783}}</ref> The Chinese government also collects tax on tobacco products. Tax revenues from cigarettes increased from 740 to 842 billion [[Chinese yuan]] between 2014 and 2016. This generated an additional 101 billion Chinese yuan in tax revenues for the government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodchild |first1=Mark |last2=Zheng |first2=Rong |title=Early assessment of China's 2015 tobacco tax increase |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |date=1 July 2018 |volume=96 |issue=7 |pages=506–512 |doi=10.2471/BLT.17.205989 |pmc=6022610 |pmid=29962553 }}</ref>

In India, tobacco generates approximately 20 billion [[Indian rupee]]s (US$0.45 billion) of income per annum as a result of employment, income and government revenue.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TOBACCO IN INDIA: 4.10 ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF TOBACCO|url=https://www.fao.org/3/y4997e/y4997e0h.htm|access-date=October 27, 2021|website=Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).}}</ref>

[[Statistica]] estimates that in the U.S. alone, the tobacco industry has a market of US$121 billion,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/491709/tobacco-united-states-market-value/|title=Tobacco: U.S. market value 2012–2017 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=March 15, 2018}}</ref> despite the fact the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] reports that US smoking rates are declining steadily.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/tables/trends/cig_smoking/index.htm|title=CDC – Trends in Current Cigarette Smoking – Smoking & Tobacco Use|last=Health|first=CDC's Office on Smoking and|website=Smoking and Tobacco Use|language=en-us|access-date=March 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307151249/https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/tables/trends/cig_smoking/index.htm|archive-date=March 7, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> In terms of health expenditures, cigarette smoking contributed to more than $225 billion (or 11.7%) of annual healthcare spending in the U.S. in 2014.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Xin |last2=Shrestha |first2=Sundar S. |last3=Trivers |first3=Katrina F. |last4=Neff |first4=Linda |last5=Armour |first5=Brian S. |last6=King |first6=Brian A. |title=U.S. healthcare spending attributable to cigarette smoking in 2014 |journal=Preventive Medicine |date=September 2021 |volume=150 |article-number=106529 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106529 |pmid=33771566 |pmc=10953804 }}</ref> Smoking-attributable healthcare spending increased more than 30% for Medicaid between 2010 and 2014.<ref name=":0" />

In the US, the decline in the number of smokers, the end of the [[Tobacco Transition Payment Program]] in 2014, and competition from growers in other countries, made tobacco farming economics more challenging.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bomey|first1=Nathan|title=Thousands of farmers stopped growing tobacco after deregulation payouts|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2015/09/02/thousands-farmers-stopped-growing-tobacco-after-deregulation-payouts/32115163/|work=USA Today|date=September 2, 2015|language=en}}</ref>

Of the 1.22 billion smokers worldwide, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies, and much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor.<ref name="WHOTobaccoFactSheet" /> While smoking prevalence has declined in many developed countries, it remains high in others, and is increasing among women and in developing countries. Between one-fifth and two-thirds of men in most populations smoke. Women's smoking rates vary more widely but rarely equal male rates.<ref name="greenfacts">{{cite web|title=Tobacco: Active and Passive Smoking|url=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/tobacco/2-tobacco-smoking/1-smoke-tobacco.htm|website=Greenfacts.org|access-date=July 5, 2016}}</ref>

Tobacco users must also spend a significant amount of money on cigarettes to maintain regular use, as tobacco products are often heavily taxed by governments. For example, a pack a day smoker in the state of New York would have to spend around $4,690.25 a year on cigarettes alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cost of Smoking |url=https://tobaccofreelife.org/why-quit-smoking/cost-smoking/ |access-date=July 6, 2022 |website=Tobacco-Free Life |language=en-US}}</ref>

In Indonesia, the lowest income group spends 15% of its total expenditures on tobacco. In Egypt, more than 10% of low-income household expenditure is on tobacco. The poorest 20% of households in Mexico spend 11% of their income on tobacco.<ref name="who 2008 mpower"/>

===Advertising===
{{Main|Nicotine marketing}}

The tobacco industry advertises its products through a variety of media, including sponsorship, particularly of sporting events. Because of the health risks of these products, this is now one of the most highly regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of tobacco advertising are banned in many countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Products |first=Center for Tobacco |date=January 28, 2022 |title=Advertising and Promotion |url=https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/products-guidance-regulations/advertising-and-promotion |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611174819/https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/products-guidance-regulations/advertising-and-promotion |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 11, 2019 |access-date=July 6, 2022 |website=FDA |language=en}}</ref>

==Legality==
{{See|Smoking age}}

==See also==
* [[Biorefinery|Biorefining of tobacco]]
* [[List of tobacco-related topics]]
* [[Smoking cessation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Further reading===
* {{cite web |title=Cancer Facts & Figures 2015 |url=http://www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsstatistics/cancerfactsfigures2015/index |website=American Cancer Society |access-date=February 23, 2015 |ref=ACS2015 |archive-date=January 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117014219/http://www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsstatistics/cancerfactsfigures2015/index |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web|url=http://www1.worldbank.org/tobacco/pdf/Guindon-Past,%20current-%20whole.pdf|title=Past, current and future trends in tobacco use|access-date=January 2, 2008|author1=G. Emmanuel Guindon |author2=David Boisclair |year=2003 |publisher=The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank|location=Washington DC|ref=HNPGuindonBoisclair}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gilman |first1=Sander L. |author-link=Sander Gilman |last2=Zhou |first2=Xun |url=https://archive.org/details/smokeglobalhisto0000unse/mode/2up |title=Smoke : A Global History of Smoking |date=2004 |publisher=[[Reaktion Books]] |isbn=978-1-86189-200-3 |location=London |oclc=56967899 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Mathers |first1=Colin |author-link=Colin Mathers |last2=Boerma |first2=Ties |last3=Fat |first3=Doris Ma |date=2008 |title=The Global Burden of Disease : 2004 Update |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43942 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207114854/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43942/9789241563710_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=February 7, 2022 |access-date=October 6, 2022 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |hdl=10665/43942 |isbn=978-92-4-156371-0 |oclc=264018380}}
* {{cite journal |title=Environmental causes of human cancers|author1=Montesano, R. |author2=Hall, J. |year=2001 |journal=European Journal of Cancer |volume=37 |pages=67–87 |doi=10.1016/S0959-8049(01)00266-0 |pmid=11602374 |ref=Montesano2001}}
* {{cite web |last1=Office of the Surgeon General |url=https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2001/|title=Surgeon General's Report — Women and Smoking |access-date=October 6, 2022 |year=2001 |publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]] |ref={{SfnRef|Surgeon General's Report Women and Smoking|2001}}|author1-link=Surgeon General of the United States }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Paul Lichtenstein |author2=Niels V. Holm |author3=Pia K. Verkasalo |author4=Anastasia Iliadou |author5=Jaakko Kaprio |author6=Markku Koskenvuo |author7=Eero Pukkala |author8=Axel Skytthe |author9=Kari Hemminki |title=Environmental and Heritable Factors in the Causation of Cancer — Analyses of Cohorts of Twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=343 |issue=2 |year=2000 |doi=10.1056/NEJM200007133430201 |pmid=10891514 |pages=78–85 |ref=Lichtenstein2000|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ctsu.ox.ac.uk/~tobacco/SMK_All_PAGES.pdf |title=Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950–2000: indirect estimates from national vital statistics |access-date=January 3, 2009 |author1=Richard Peto |author2=Alan D Lopez |author3=Jillian Boreham |author4=Michael Thun |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050224232603/http://www.ctsu.ox.ac.uk/~tobacco/SMK_All_PAGES.pdf |archive-date=February 24, 2005|url-status=dead|ref=MortalityDevelopedOxford}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/tobacco/media/en/WomenMonograph.pdf|title=Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century|access-date=January 2, 2009 |editor-last1=Samet |editor-first1=Jonathan M. |editor-link1=Jonathan Samet |editor-last2=Yoon |editor-first2=Soon-Young |year=2001 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]], The Institute for Global Tobacco Control, [[Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health|Johns Hopkins School of Public Health]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031128122821/http://www.who.int/tobacco/media/en/WomenMonograph.pdf|archive-date=November 28, 2003|url-status=dead |ref={{SfnRef|Samet & Yoon|2001}}}}
* {{Cite book |date=2008 |title=WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008 : The MPOWER Package. |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43818/9789241596282_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121162003/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43818/9789241596282_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date=January 21, 2022 |access-date=October 6, 2022 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |pages=6, 8, 20 |isbn=978-92-4-068311-2 |oclc=476167599}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3KhGwAACAAJ |title=Perique Tobacco Mystery and History: A Monograph |last1=Aristée Poché |first1=L. |year=2002}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7nNkB8R4GkC&pg=PP1 |title=Golden-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550–2010 |isbn=978-0-520-94856-3 |last1=Benedict |first1=Carol |year= 2011|publisher=University of California Press }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ro45DgAAQBAJ |title=The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America|isbn = 978-0-7867-2190-0 |last1=Brandt |first1=Allan |year= 2009|publisher=Basic Books }}
* {{cite book |isbn=0-691-00596-6 |title=Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution |last1=Breen |first1=T. H. |year=1985|publisher=Princeton University Press }}. ''Source on tobacco culture in 18th-century Virginia pp. 46–55''
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZfqS7vi9vEC |title=The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco |isbn=978-1-59213-482-3 |last1=Burns |first1=Eric |year= 2006|publisher=Temple University Press }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=392vBQAAQBAJ |title=The Golden Leaf: How Tobacco Shaped Cuba and the Atlantic World |isbn=978-0-8265-2034-0 |last1=Cosner |first1=Charlotte |date=February 10, 2015|publisher=Vanderbilt University Press }}
* {{cite news |last=Fuller |first=R. Reese |date=Spring 2003 |title=Perique, the Native Crop |work=Louisiana Life |url=http://www.reesefuller.com/articles/perique-the-native-crop/}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x41jVocj05EC |title = Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization |isbn=978-0-8021-9848-8 |last1=Gately |first1=Iain |date=December 2007|publisher = Open Road + Grove/Atlantic }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DP-HAgAAQBAJ |title=Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence|isbn = 978-1-134-81840-2 |last1=Goodman |first1=Jordan |year= 2005|publisher=Routledge }}
* {{cite book |isbn=0-394-51238-3 |title=From a Limestone Ledge: Some Essays and Other Ruminations about Country Life in Texas |url=https://archive.org/details/fromlimestoneled00grav |url-access=registration |last1=Graves |first1=John |year=1980|publisher=Knopf }}
* {{cite journal |jstor=10.1086/ahr.111.5.1352 |doi=10.1086/ahr.111.5.1352 |pmid=17907367 |title=Smoking and "Early Modern" Sociability: The Great Tobacco Debate in the Ottoman Middle East (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries) |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=1352–1377 |year=2006 |last1=Grehan |first1=James }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39KcvbVgHmEC |title = Making Tobacco Bright: Creating an American Commodity, 1617–1937|isbn = 978-1-4214-0286-4|last1 = Hahn|first1 = Barbara M.|year=2011| publisher=JHU Press }}; examines how marketing, technology, and demand figured in the rise of Bright Flue-Cured Tobacco, a variety first grown in the inland Piedmont region of the Virginia-North Carolina border.
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3FsjAQAAMAAJ |title=Principles of Flue-Cured Tobacco Production |last1=Hawks |first1=S. N. |last2=Collins |first2=W. K. |year=1983}}
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/tobaccoleafitsc00myrigoog |title = Tobacco Leaf, Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture: A Practical Handbook on the Most Approved Methods in Growing, Harvesting, Curing, Packing and Selling Tobacco, Also of Tobacco Manufacture|publisher=Orange Judd Company |last1 = Killebrew|first1 = Joseph Buckner|last2 = Myrick|first2 = Herbert|year = 1897}} ''Source for flea beetle typology (p. 243)''
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_i1AAAACAAJ |author-link=Richard Kluger |title=Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris |isbn=978-0-517-45110-6 |last1=Kluger |first1=Richard |year= 1999 |publisher=Random House Value }}, Pulitzer Prize
* {{cite book |isbn=978-0-7546-5931-0 |title=Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture, 16th–18th Centuries |last1=Murphey |first1=Rhoads |date= 2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Company }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E7JDJzogCHMC&pg=PP1 |title=Balkan Smoke: Tobacco and the Making of Modern Bulgaria |isbn=978-0-8014-6550-5 |last1=Neuburger |first1=Mary C. |year= 2012 |publisher=Cornell University Press }}
* {{cite journal |jstor=1922038 |title=The Rise of Glasgow in the Chesapeake Tobacco Trade, 1707–1775 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=179–199 |last1=Price |first1=Jacob M. |year=1954 |doi=10.2307/1922038}}
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalstatis01scho |title=Historical and statistical information respecting the history, condition and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States: Collected and prepared under the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs per act of Congress of March 3rd, 1847|publisher=Historical American Indian Press |last1=Schoolcraft |first1=Henry Rowe |year=1851}}
* {{cite book |isbn=1-84511-137-0 |title=Smoking, Culture and Economy in the Middle East |last1=Shechter |first1=Relli |year= 2006 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtwkuAAACAAJ |title=The Bright Tobacco Industry, 1860–1929 |isbn=978-0-8078-7953-5 |last1=Tilley |first1=Nannie M. |year=2012|publisher=University of North Carolina Press }}

* Werner, Carl Avery. ''Tobaccoland: A book about tobacco; its history, legends, literature, cultivation, social and hygienic influences, commercial development, industrial processes and governmental regulation.'' (1922) [https://archive.org/details/tobaccolandbooka00wernuoft/page/n10/mode/1up online]

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tobacco WHO fact sheet on tobacco]

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{{Psychoactive substance use}}
{{Drug use}}
{{Cigarettes}}
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[[Category:Anaphrodisiacs]]
[[Category:Tobacco| ]]
[[Category:CYP1A2 inducers]]
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Velum Mayilum Thunai

2026-03-04T04:47:04Z

MarcyThompson89: adjust information to improve readability

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Velum Mayilum Thunai
| image = Velum Mayilum Thunai.jpg
| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[Ra. Sankaran]]
| screenplay = Ra. Sankaran
| writer =[[Rajasekhar (director)|Rajasekhar]] (dialogues)
| story = [[Rama Narayanan]]
| producer = [[Rama Narayanan]] Vijayalakshmi Subramaniyam
| starring = [[M. R. Radha]]
| cinematography = [[N. K. Viswanathan]]
| editing = M. Vellaisamy
| music = [[Shankar–Ganesh]]
| studio = Sri Devi Priya Films
| released = {{film date|1979|3|23|df=y|ref1=}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Velum Mayilum Thunai''''' ({{IPAc-en|v|eɪ|l|u|m}} {{translation|Succour of Spear and Peacock}}) is a 1979 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[devotional film]] directed and written by [[Ra. Sankaran]] with dialogue by [[Rajasekhar (director)|Rajasekhar]]. The film stars [[M. R. Radha]] in dual roles and Baby Sudha. It was released on 23 March 1979.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Velum Mayilum Thunai (1979) |url=https://screen4screen.com/movies/velum-mayilum-thunai |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118134013/https://screen4screen.com/movies/velum-mayilum-thunai |archive-date=18 November 2023 |access-date=10 January 2022 |website=Screen 4 Screen}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=25 February 1979 |title=மக்கள் திலகம் நடித்த படம் தான் பார்ப்பேன்: ஸ்ரீப்ரியா கூறுகிறார் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_3_129/3.jp2/full/1000,1405/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250522011746/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_3_129/3.jp2/full/1000,1405/0/default.jpg |archive-date=22 May 2025 |access-date=22 May 2025 |newspaper=Anna |pages=3 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{more plot|date=October 2021}}
Velayudham is a non-believer in god while his own son Saravanan opposes him in topic on divine power.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[M. R. Radha]] as Velayudham and Thanikachalam
* Baby Sudha as Saravanan
* [[Kannadasan]] as Kannadasan (Guest appearance)
* [[Major Sundarrajan]] as Prohit
* [[M. N. Rajam]] as Prohit's Wife
* [[Neelu]] as Advocate Appalachari<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kolappan |first=B. |date=11 May 2018 |title=Comedian Neelu is no more |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/comedian-neelu-is-no-more/article23842256.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518170930/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/comedian-neelu-is-no-more/article23842256.ece |archive-date=18 May 2021 |access-date=26 January 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
* [[Sachu]] as Poongkodi
* Vijaya Chandrika as Panchali
* I. S. R. as Arjunan
* [[Jai Ganesh]] as Kali, Thief
* [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]] as Valli
* [[S. V. Ramadas]] as Elephant driver
* [[Sripriya]] as Meenakshi, The dumb girl
* [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] as Sundaresan, Biscope
* [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]] as Manohari
* [[Typist Gopu]] as Ekambaram
* [[Cho Ramaswamy|Cho]] as Manohari's husband
}}

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Shankar–Ganesh]] and the lyrics were written by [[Kannadasan]] and [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Velum Mayilum thunai Tamil Film EP Vinyl Record by Shankar Ganesh |url=https://mossymart.com/product/velum-mayilum-thunai-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-shankar-ganesh/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240909055802/https://mossymart.com/product/velum-mayilum-thunai-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-shankar-ganesh/ |archive-date=9 September 2024 |access-date=9 September 2024 |website=Mossymart |language=en}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Aathoram Neeyee Ganapathy
| lyrics1 = [[Kannadasan]]
| extra1 = [[Sirkazhi Govindarajan]] Bangalore Ramani Ammal
| title2 = Kanthane Varuga
| lyrics2 = Kannadasan
| extra2 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
| length2 = 4:30
| title3 = Pandia Mannanin Rajakumari
| lyrics3 = [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]
| extra3 = [[Vani Jairam]]
| length3 = 4:36
| title4 = Velum Mayilum Thunai
| extra4 = [[K. Veeramani]]
| length4 = 4:06
}}

== Reception ==
P. S. M. of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised Ra. Sankaran for providing devotional offering for devotees.<ref name="kalkionline" />

== References ==
<references>

<ref name="kalkionline">{{Cite magazine |last=பி. எஸ். எம். |date=22 April 1979 |title=வேலும் மயிலும் துணை |url=https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1979/apr/22-04-1979/p29.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220728095408/https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1979/apr/22-04-1979/p29.jpg |archive-date=28 July 2022 |access-date=10 January 2022 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=29 |language=ta}}</ref>

</references>

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

[[Category:1979 Indian films]]
[[Category:1979 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1979 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ra. Sankaran]]
[[Category:Films scored by Shankar–Ganesh]]
[[Category:Films shot in Madurai]]
[[Category:Hindu devotional films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Nabinchandra Sen

2026-03-03T22:41:18Z

MarcyThompson89: creating first details added tags.

{{Short description|Bengali poet and writer (1847–1909)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Nabinchandra Sen
| image = Nabin Chandra Sen.jpg
| office =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1847|02|10}}
| birth_place = [[Chittagong]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1909|01|23|1847|02|10}}
| death_place = [[Kolkata]], [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal Province]], [[British India]]
| known =
| occupation = Poet
| birth_name =
| party =
| spouse =
| children =
| citizenship =
| signature =
| footnotes =
| awards =
}}
'''Nabinchandra Sen''' ({{langx|bn|নবীনচন্দ্র সেন}}; 10 February 1847 – 23 January 1909) was a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] poet and writer, often considered one of the greatest poets prior to the arrival of Rabindranath Tagore.<ref name=Banglapedia>{{cite web|last1=Guha|first1=Bimal|title=Sen, Nabinchandra|url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sen,_Nabinchandra|website=Banglapedia|accessdate=26 July 2015}}</ref><ref name=CalU>{{Cite web|url=http://www.caluniv.ac.in/About%20the%20university/Some%20of%20the%20Alumni.htm|url-status=dead|title=Distinguished alumni of the University of Calcutta|website=University of Calcutta|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121002631/http://caluniv.ac.in/About%20the%20university/Some%20of%20the%20Alumni.htm|archive-date=21 November 2011}}</ref> He commented on the battle of Plassey and the arrival of British Rule in India as "A night of Eternal Gloom".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.historydiscussion.net/british-india/british-occupation-of-bengal-indian-history/6337|title=British Occupation of Bengal Indian History|date=24 August 2016}}</ref>

==Life==
[[File:Nabinchandra Sen grave (2).jpg|right|thumb|Nabinchandra Sen's tomb]]
Nabinchandra was born in Noapara, [[Raozan Upazila]] in [[Chittagong]] on 10 February 1847<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sen, Nabinchandra |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Sen,_Nabinchandra |publisher= [[Banglapedia]]}}</ref> in a [[Baidya]] family.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Amiya P. |author-link=Amiya Prosad Sen |year=1993 |title=Hindu Revivalism in Bengal, 1872–1905: Some Essays in Interpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCwpDwAAQBAJ&q=nabin+chandra+sen+baidya |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=132 |isbn=978-0-19-563140-1 |language=en}}</ref> He studied at the [[Chittagong Collegiate School]], clearing the school leaving Entrance examination in 1863, In 1865, he passed the FA exam from Presidency College, Calcutta. In 1868, he earned his BA from General Assembly's Institution (now [[Scottish Church College]]), and after teaching for a brief period at [[Hare School]], he joined the colonial administrative services as a [[Deputy Magistrate]]. Sen retired in 1904, and died on 23 January 1909. He has been considered one of Bengal's greatest writers and poets.<ref name=Banglapedia/><ref name=CalU/>

==Works==
Sen's earliest poems were published in the ''Education Gazette'' edited by Peary Charan Sarker, and his first volume of poetry, ''Abakash Ranjani'', was published in 1871. A second volume of ''Abakash Ranjani'' was published in 1877. ''Palashir Juddha'' (1875), a long epic poem lamenting the betrayal of [[Siraj ud-Daulah]] by his followers and his defeat at the Battle of [[Plassey]], was an evocative expression of Bengali nationalism in literature, and it established his reputation as a powerful Bengali poet. A contemporary to [[Michael Madhusudan Dutt]], Nabichandra is also known for popularizing the epic narrative in the Bengali language through his reinterpretations of the [[Mahabharata]] in a three-volume epic:''Raivatak'' (1887), ''Kuruksetra'' (1893) and ''Prabhas'' (1896), where Krishna serves as the protagonist and adventurer during the fall of kingdoms. He wrote biographies of [[Jesus]], [[Buddha]], and [[Cleopatra]] in the Bengali language, and made verse translations of the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Markandeya Purana]]. Nabindrachandra's ''Bhanumati'' (a novel-in-verse) and "Prabaser Patra" (a memoir of his travels) also brought him fame. His five-volume autobiography, ''Amar Jiban'' (My Life), is an important document chronicling the politics and social aspirations of the Bengali literati in the late nineteenth century.<ref name=Banglapedia/><ref name=CalU/>

==Bibliography==

===Epics===
His epic trilogy was based on New Mahabharata.
* ''Raivatak''
* ''Kurukkhetra''
* ''Provash''<ref name=CalU/>

===Poetry===
* ''Abakash Ranjani'' (1871)
* ''Palashir Juddha'' (1875)

===Biographies===
* ''Amitabha'' (biography of the [[Buddhahood|Buddha]])
* ''Khrishta'ra Jibani'' (biography of [[Jesus Christ]])
* ''Cleopatra'' (biography of Cleopatra)<ref name=CalU/>

===Autobiography===
* ''Probasher Potro''
* ''Amar Jiban'', in 5 volumes<ref name=CalU/>

===Poetic translations===
* ''Geeta''
* ''Chandi''

===Poetic novel===
* ''Bhanumoti''<ref name=Banglapedia/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{OL author|449A|Nabin Chandra Sen}}
* [http://dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080/jspui/browse?type=author&order=ASC&rpp=20&value=Sen,+Nabin+Chandra Sen, Nabin Chandra] at the West Bengal Public Library Network
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sen, Nabinchandra}}
[[Category:Bengali male poets]]
[[Category:Bengali-language poets]]
[[Category:People from Raozan Upazila]]
[[Category:Bengali writers]]
[[Category:1847 births]]
[[Category:1909 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish Church College alumni]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:People from Chittagong]]
[[Category:19th-century poets]]
[[Category:Writers from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Writers from British India]]
[[Category:People from the Bengal Presidency]]

Videsi Nair Swadesi Nair

2026-03-03T21:40:00Z

MarcyThompson89: minor improve layout per standard format and updated info for clarity

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Videshi Nair Swadeshi Nair
| image =

| alt =
| caption =
| director = Paulson
| producer = Jayesh Chengannor
| story = Pradeep
| screenplay = A. R. Mukesh
| starring = [[Jagadish]] Mahima [[Sai Kumar (Malayalam actor)|Sai Kumar]] [[Rajan P. Dev]] [[Narendra Prasad]] [[Ponnamma Babu]]
| music = [[S. P. Venkatesh]] (film score) Sanjeev Babu (songs)
| cinematography = Babu Rajendran
| editing = G. Murali
| studio = Colourful Cinema
| distributor = Vivaswa Release Colorful Release
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2002|12|25}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Videshi Nair Swadeshi Nair''''' is a [[Malayalam film]] directed by Paulson. [[Jagadish]] plays the lead role in the film.

==Cast==
* [[Jagadish]] as Vindhyan
* Mahima as Neelima
* [[Sai Kumar (Malayalam actor)|Sai Kumar]] as Shivapal
* [[Rajan P. Dev]] as Rajappan Nair
* [[Narendra Prasad]] as Bhaskaran Nair
* [[Ponnamma Babu]] as Pathmavathi, Neelima's mother
* [[Indrans]] as Kochumpreman, Vindhyan's friend
* [[Kanakalatha]] as Suma, Vindhyan's sister
* [[Bobby Kottarakkara]] as Ujwalan (servant)
* Jagannathan as Fr. Idikkula

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0357289}}
* [http://www.malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?5334 ''Videsi Nair Swadesi Nair''] at the Malayalam Movie Database

[[Category:2002 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:2002 Indian films]]

{{2000s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Aata (2011 film)

2026-03-03T21:19:01Z

MarcyThompson89: created a data...

{{Short description|2011 Indian Kannada-language film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Aata
| image =
| caption =
| director = B N Vijaykumar
| producer = Shailendra Babu
| writer = [[Shashank (director)|Shashank]]
| screenplay =
| story =
| starring = {{Plainlist|
*[[Sumanth Shailendra]]
*Vibha Natarajan
}}
| narrator =
| music = [[Sadhu Kokila]]
| cinematography = N Raghav
| editing = K M Prakash
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2011|11|18|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Aata''''' is a 2011 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[masala film]] directed by B N Vijaykumar and produced by Shailendra Babu. It stars debutants [[Sumanth Shailendra]] and Vibha Natarajan in lead roles. The music was composed by [[Sadhu Kokila]], while cinematography and editing were handled by N. Raghav and K. M. Prakash.

== Plot ==
Rahul, a football player living with his middle-class family consisting of his mother, father and sister Sandhya, comes across a video of Swathi due to some mix-up in a [[CD]] shop. Swathi is the daughter of Rajashekhar, a rich [[business tycoon]] and the sister of Rahul's football rival Vikram. After initial misunderstandings, Rahul and Swathi bond well and decide to marry, but Rahul wants the approval of their parents before they take any decisions.

During this time, Sandhya elopes with her boyfriend on the day of her marriage, which completely shatters his parents. Swathi stays in Rahul's house, posing as Sandhya's friend, as Rajashekhar fixed her marriage with his friend's son Srikanth. Learning that Swathi has fallen for someone, Rajashekhar hires "Silent" Shankar, a contract killer, to bring Swathi.

Rahul decides to receive Swathi's parents approval for their proposal and enters into their house without revealing anything, where he bonds with the rest of the family, including Vikram. However, Shankar finds Rahul's identity and reports it to Rajashekhar, who angrily throws Rahul out of the house and takes Swathi away. After many efforts, Rahul kills Shankar in a fight and finally receive their parents' approval and get married happily.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Sumanth Shailendra]] as Rahul
* Vibha Natarajan as Swathi
* Pradeep as Vikram
* [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] as Rajashekhar, Swathi's father
* [[Padmaja Rao]] as Saraswati, Rahul's mother
* [[Achyuth Kumar]] as Subramanya, Rahul's father
* [[Pavithra Lokesh]] as Kanchana, Swathi's mother
* [[Sadhu Kokila]] as a football coach
* Shankar Rao as "Silent" Shankar
}}

==Music==
{{Infobox album
| name = Aata
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Sadhu Kokila]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2011
| recorded = 2011
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 36:28
| language = Kannada
| label =
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year = 2010
| year = 2012
| next_title =
| next_year = 2011
| misc = {{external music video| header = Official audio
|{{YouTube| zdCaTq7Kfm0| Aata - Full Album}}
}}
}}

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 36:28
| title1 = Ninninda
| extra1 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Sonu Nigam]]
| length1 = 4:20
| title2 = Rama Raama
| extra2 = [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]], [[Kailash Kher]]
| length2 = 4:44
| title3 = Onde Samane
| extra3 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length3 = 5:20
| title4 = Lifealli Gelloke
| extra4 = [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]]
| length4 = 4:32
| title5 = Onde Samane
| extra5 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Sonu Nigam]]
| length5 = 4:49
| title6 = Idhu Love
| extra6 = [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]], [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]]
| length6 = 3:59
| title7 = Onde Samane
| extra7 = [[Sonu Nigam]]
| length7 = 5:20
| title8 = He Yavva
| extra8 = [[Kunal Ganjawala]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length8 = 4:44
}}

== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote "The script by Shashank has many shades of other language films and it moves on the predictable lines. It is worth watching if you have patience to cope with its lengthy climax."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2011/Nov/19/aata-fails-to-entertain-311694.html|title=Aata fails to entertain|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=19 November 2011}}</ref> ''[[News18 India|News18]]'' wrote "Shailendra Babu has put in all efforts and loads of money to provide a dream debut to his son Sumanth, but the film mainly suffers because of bad narration."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/kannada-review-aata-narration-disappoints-420383.html|title=Kannada Review: 'Aata' narration disappoints|work=[[News18 India]]|date=19 November 2011}}</ref>

BSS from ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' wrote "Shashank’s story keeps the audience engrossed but the lengthy climax jars a bit."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/amp/content/205716/aata.html|title=Aata|work=[[Deccan Herald]]|date=18 November 2011}}</ref> ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' wrote "Despite a good plot, the final outcome of the film leaves a lot to be desired."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/aata-game-goes-kaput/articleshow/21476271.cms|title=Aata : Game goes kaput|work=[[Bangalore Mirror]]|date=18 November 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|31637862}}

[[Category:2011 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2011 Indian films]]
[[Category:2011 films]]

Suriyan Satta Kalloori

2026-03-03T04:21:46Z

MarcyThompson89: started new stub - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Suriyan Satta Kalloori
| image =

| caption =
| director = R. Pavan
| producer = Sivasakthi Pandian
| writer = R. Pavan (dialogues)
| screenplay = R. Pavan
| story = Sivasakthi Pandian
| starring = Kajni [[Mithra Kurian]]
| music = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| cinematography = [[U. K. Senthil Kumar]]
| editing = S. Surajkavee
| distributor =
| studio = [[Sivasakthi Movie Makers|S. S. Movie Makers]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2009|09|25}}
| runtime = 140 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Suriyan Satta Kalloori''''' ({{translation|Suriyan, Law College}}) is a 2009 [[Tamil language]] [[action drama film]] directed by R. Pavan. The film stars newcomers Kajni and [[Mithra Kurian]], with [[Radha Ravi]], [[Pawan (actor)|Pawan]], [[M. S. Bhaskar]], [[Ganja Karuppu]], [[Aarthi (actress)|Aarthi]], [[Kadhal Sukumar]] and [[Chaams]] playing supporting roles. The film, produced by Sivasakthi Pandian, was released on 25 September 2009.

==Plot==

The film begins with Suriyan (Kajni) getting into a fight with another cellmate and then remembering about his past.

Suriyan was a model law college student and also the chairman of the student council. Everyone liked him in the college. He and the new student Mahalakshmi ([[Mithra Kurian]]) fell in love with each other. Suriyan initiated a proposal for instituting a national 'Best Student' award and travels to Delhi to submit his proposal to the central government. In the meantime, Vetrichelvan ([[Pawan (actor)|Pawan]]), with the support of a politician, joins as a student in the same college. Upon his arrival, Thiruchelvan eve teased the college girls, humiliated the professors, and violated the college rules on purpose. Suriyan first tried a soft method to change Vetrichelvan, but it failed, so Suriyan had to use his fists to teach him a lesson. Vetrichelvan was admitted to the hospital in a serious condition, and his twin brother Kalaichelvan (Pawan), a local don, decided to take revenge on Suriyan.

Kalaichelvan posed as Vetrichelvan, entered the college, and acted as a good student. The twin brothers then started playing with Suriyan and confused everyone. They even created a conflict between Suriyan and Mahalakshmi. Suriyan then found out about their trick. During a fight, Suriyan killed the twin brothers in front of Mahalakshmi's eyes to save her as she was abducted. In court, Suriyan, who did not want to disrespect the law, confessed that he had killed them and was sentenced to the death penalty.

Back to the present, the government accepts Suriyan's 'Best Student' project and wants to award Suriyan of the first award. The film ends with Mahalakshmi, the college students, the college principal, and the professors mourning the death of Suriyan.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*Kajni as Suriyan (Suriyanarayan)
*[[Mithra Kurian]] as Mahalakshmi
*[[Radha Ravi]] as College Principal
*[[Pawan (actor)|Pawan]] as Vetrichelvan and Kalaichelvan
*[[M. S. Bhaskar]] as Saama Iyer
*[[Ganja Karuppu]] as Idithangi
*[[Aarthi (actress)|Aarthi]] as Booma
*[[Kadhal Sukumar]] as Raghu
*[[Chaams]] as Kethu
*[[Rajyalakshmi]] as Suriyan's mother
*[[Besant Ravi]] as Ravi
*Selvaraj
*[[Sujibala]] in a special appearance
*[[Srikanth Deva]] in a cameo appearance
*[[Deva (composer)|Deva]] in a cameo appearance
}}

==Production==
Sivasakthi Pandian, who had produced films like ''[[Kadhal Kottai]]'' (1996) and ''[[Vetri Kodi Kattu]]'' (2000), returned after a brief exile with ''Suriyan Satta Kalloori'', a film directed by newcomer R. Pavan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kollywoodtoday.net/news/producer-sivasakthi-pandian-is-back/|title=Producer Sivasakthi Pandian is back|date=6 September 2008|accessdate=16 March 2019|publisher=kollywoodtoday.net|archive-date=7 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607115255/http://www.kollywoodtoday.net/news/producer-sivasakthi-pandian-is-back/|url-status=live}}</ref> Newcomer Kajni, son of the producer Kaja Mohideen, and Malayalam actress [[Mithra Kurian]] were signed to play the lead roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tamil.filmibeat.com/specials/06-siva-sakthi-pandians-sooriyan-satta-kalloori.html|title=சிவசக்தி பாண்டியனின் சூரியன் சட்டக்கல்லூரி!|date=6 September 2008|accessdate=16 March 2019|language=Tamil|trans-title=Sivasakthi Pandian's Sooriyan Satta Kalloori|publisher=filmibeat.com}}</ref> Actors like [[Pawan (actor)|Pawan]], [[Radha Ravi]], [[M. S. Bhaskar]], [[Ganja Karuppu]], and [[Aarthi (actress)|Aarthi]] were roped in for playing prominent roles. [[U. K. Senthil Kumar]] took care of camera works while [[Deva (composer)|Deva]] scored the music and the editing was handled by S. Surajkavee.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/three-in-one-go-tamil-news-45523|title=Three in one go!|date=11 March 2009|accessdate=16 March 2019|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album|
| name = Suriyan Satta Kalloori
| type = [[soundtrack]]
| artist = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2009
| recorded = 2009
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 23:49
| label =
| producer = Deva
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The film score and the soundtrack were composed by [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]. He took 21 days to complete the [[Re-recording (filmmaking)|re-recording]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tamil.filmibeat.com/specials/16-deva-takes-21-days-to-complete-rr.html|title=Deva takes 21 days to complete RR for Sooriyan Satta Kalloori|date=5 February 2004|accessdate=16 March 2019|language=Tamil|publisher=filmibeat.com}}</ref> The soundtrack, released in 2009, features 5 tracks with lyrics written by [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]] and R. Pavan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mio.to/album/Suriyan+Satta+Kallori+(2009)|title=Suriyan Satta Kallori (2009) - Deva|access-date=16 March 2019|publisher=MusicIndiaOnline|archive-date=19 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219044357/http://mio.to/album/Suriyan+Satta+Kallori+(2009)|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Track !! Song !! Singer(s) !! Lyrics !! Duration
|-
|1 || "Kalaai Kalaai Kalaaikkirai" || [[Udit Narayan]], [[Janani Bharadwaj]] || rowspan=4|[[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]] || 5:28
|-
|2 || "Guru Brahmma Guru Vishnu" || [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[Sadhana Sargam]] || 4:46
|-
|3 || "Kaadhal Panna Poriya" || [[Deva (composer)|Deva]] || 4:06
|-
|4 || "Masakki Masakki" || Nirthiya || 4:46
|-
|5 || "Theeka Theeka Theekana" || [[Chinnaponnu]] || R. Pavan || 4:43
|-
|}

==Release==
The film was released on 25 September 2009 alongside four other films.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/five-tamil-films-this-friday-news-tamil-kkfr2mhedcgsi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106111000/https://www.sify.com/movies/five-tamil-films-this-friday-news-tamil-kkfr2mhedcgsi.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 November 2019|title=Five Tamil films this Friday!|date=23 September 2009|accessdate=16 March 2019|website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

===Critical reception===
S. R. Ashok Kumar of ''[[The Hindu]]'' said, "One does welcome the story, written by producer Sivasakthi Pandian, which has such a message. The director in his screenplay also has many loose ends that ultimately leave a lot of questions unanswered".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/Masala-movie-with-a-message-Sooriyan-Satta-Kalloori/article15939994.ece|title=Masala movie with a message - Sooriyan Satta Kalloori|date=2 October 2009|accessdate=16 March 2019|author=S. R. Ashok Kumar|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Pavithra Srinivasan of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' rated the film 1 out of 5 and wrote, "Suriyan Satta Kalloori tries to address real problems and gives solutions but it's done in such a cheesy, clichéd fashion, with wooden acting and special effects that the message itself is hopelessly lost".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2009/sep/28/south-review-suriyan-satta-kalloori.htm|title=Avoid Suriyan Satta Kalloori|date=28 September 2009|accessdate=16 March 2019|author=Pavithra Srinivasan|work=[[Rediff.com]]|archive-date=2 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802172834/http://movies.rediff.com/report/2009/sep/28/south-review-suriyan-satta-kalloori.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Box office===
The film took a below average opening at the [[Chennai]] box office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-slide-shows/movie-4/top-ten-movies-sep-28/tamil-cinema-topten-movie-suriyan-satta-kaloori.html|title=Suriyan Satta Kaloori - Behindwoods.com - Tamil Top Ten Movies|date=28 September 2009|accessdate=16 March 2019|website=Behindwoods.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-slide-shows/movie-4/top-ten-movies-oct-05/tamil-cinema-topten-movie-suriyan-satta-kalloori.html|title=Suriyan Satta Kaloori - Behindwoods.com - Tamil Top Ten Movies|date=5 October 2009|accessdate=16 March 2019|website=Behindwoods.com}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2009 films]]
[[Category:2009 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2009 Indian films]]
[[Category:2009 action drama films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Deva (composer)]]
[[Category:Films set in universities and colleges]]
[[Category:2009 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Kadhalagi

2026-03-03T02:57:52Z

MarcyThompson89: minor update

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kadhalagi
| image =

| caption =
| director = K. R. Vishwaa
| producer = K. R. Vishwaa
| writer = K. R. Vishwaa C. P. Narayan (dialogues)
| starring = [[Krishnakumar Balasubramanian]] [[Srushti Dange]] Amrita Chhabria Nadhim Khan Roshan Nawaz Nakshatra
| music = [[A. R. Reihana]] [[S. Thaman]] (score)
| cinematography = Ravi Shankar
| editing = B. Manoharan
| distributor =
| studio = K Creations
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2010|05|28}}
| runtime = 125 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Kadhalagi''''' ({{translation|Fall in love}}) is a 2010 [[Tamil language]] [[coming of age film]] directed and produced by K. R. Vishwaa. The film stars newcomers [[Krishnakumar Balasubramanian]], [[Srushti Dange]], Amrita Chhabria, Nadhim Khan, Roshan Nawaz, and Nakshatra, while [[Prakash Raj]] and newcomer Vijay Gopal play supporting roles. The film had musical score by [[A. R. Reihana]], cinematography by Ravi Shankar, and editing by B. Manoharan. The film released on 28 May 2010.

==Plot==
A group of four youngsters gets on a train. They are then scolded by a quick-tempered stranger named AK ([[Prakash Raj]]), who tells them that today's young people are immature and good-for-nothing. The friends are about to prove him wrong.

Nandhini Velu Nachiyar ([[Srushti Dange]]), Reshmi Kaur (Amrita Chhabria), Mahesh Muthusamy (Nadhim Khan), Mohammed Aslam (Roshan Nawaz), and Angelina Kristy (Nakshatra) were visual communication students and best friends. After graduation, they had to split up and go in different directions. They then met the magician Thyagu ([[Krishnakumar Balasubramanian]]), and everything changed. Thyagu and Nandhini were childhood friends and in love with each other. However, both were from different castes. Nandhini's brother-in-law Raja Rajasekharan (Vijay Gopal) was a despicable caste fanatic and an influential person. He had hatred towards every caste other than his and wanted his community's people to get high posts in society. Thereafter, the six friends formed a group named "Mantra", performing dance, magic, or songs for advertising companies. When Raja was made aware of Nandhini's love, he killed her and swept this issue under the rug. The five friends protested for justice for Nandhini's death, but the police force stopped the protest and beat up the friends. The five then started a TV show in which they exposed the truth behind Nandhini's death.

When the four friends reach their destination, AK is shocked to see Thyagu and Nandhini together. He reveals that he is actually a CBI officer who was in charge of Raja's case and then forces the friends to tell him what happened. The friends reveal that Nandhini's death was a sham, and they used a fake body to make it look like Nandhini. Also, Raja had committed suicide when the police tried to arrest him for Nandini's murder. While AK is initially unhappy, he praises the youngsters for their bravery and hushes up the case, revealing his real name as Ananthakrishnan. He then departs, while the six friends happily rejoice.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Krishnakumar Balasubramanian]] as Thyagu
*[[Srushti Dange]] as Nandhini Velu Nachiyar
*Amrita Chhabria as Reshmi Kaur
*Nadhim Khan as Mahesh Muthusamy
*Roshan Nawaz as Mohammed Aslam
*Nakshatra as Angelina Kristy
*[[Prakash Raj]] as Ananthakrishnan (AK)
*Vijay Gopal as Raja Rajasekharan
*[[George Maryan]] as Sankaran
*Kashish as Kashish Kapoor
*Santhesh as Sivaprabhu
*Jayashree as Mythili
*Payisha
{{colend}}

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Kadhalagi
| type = [[Soundtrack]]
| artist = [[A. R. Reihana]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 14 April 2010
| recorded = 2010
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 28:19
| label = Star Music
| producer = A. R. Reihana
| prev_title = [[Aadatha Aattamellam]]
| prev_year =2009
| next_title = [[Vasanthathinte Kanal Vazhikalil]]
| next_year =2014
}}

The soundtrack was composed by [[A. R. Reihana]] and background score by [[S. Thaman]]. The soundtrack was released on 14 April 2010 ([[Puthandu|Tamil New Year]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.raaga.com/tamil/album/Kaadhalaagi-songs-T0002453|title=Kaadhalaagi songs|access-date=2017-12-21|website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mio.to/album/Kadhalagi+%282010%29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321175229/https://mio.to/album/Kadhalagi%2B(2010)|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 March 2019|title=Kadhalagi (2010)|access-date=2017-12-21|publisher=MusicIndiaOnline}}</ref> The audio was launched at the Film chambers in [[Chennai]], alongside politician [[M. K. Alagiri]], [[Vairamuthu]], [[R. K. Selvamani]], [[V. C. Guhanathan]], Sivasakthi Pandian, A. R. Reihana and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/entertainment/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=14938495|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113031036/http://www.sify.com/entertainment/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=14938495|url-status=dead|archive-date=2018-11-13|title=Two audios launched on Chithirai Thirunal|date=2010-04-15|access-date=2017-12-21|website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

{{track listing|
|extra_column=Singer(s)
|headline = Track-List
|total_length=28:19
| all_writing = [[Vairamuthu]]
|title1=Manadhil Poochedi|extra1=[[Deepa Miriam]], Belly Raj, Bignic, [[Sravana Bhargavi]]|length1=5:01
|title2=Vaazhvomay Vaazhvomay|extra2=[[Suchitra]], Kavi Suresh | length2=4:23
|title3=Udal Mozhi Ulagin|extra3=[[Suzanne D'Mello]]|length3=4:19
|title4=Kaadhale Kaadhale|extra4=[[Shankar Mahadevan]] |length4=4:37
|title5=Kannadasan Kavithaigalai|extra5=[[Haricharan]]| length5=5:14
|title6=Roja Thottathil|extra6= [[Benny Dayal]], [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]],
Prashanthini, A. R. Reihana||length6=4:45
}}

===Reception===

A critic stated, "the album is youthful and peppy. The singers do justice to the fresh music of A. R. Reihana and the wonderful lyrics of Vairamuthu. Only thing is you must listen to the songs in this album with an open mind".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.southdreamz.com/21271/kadhalagi-music-review/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426034533/http://www.southdreamz.com/21271/kadhalagi-music-review/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=26 April 2017|title=Kadhalagi Music Review|date=2010-05-24|access-date=2017-12-21|publisher=southdreamz.com}}</ref>

==Reception==
A critic said, "Every character has complete importance in this film as the suspenseful factors are unravelled only during the point of climax. For sure, you will appreciate K. R. Vishwa for his extraordinary skill for sharp, elegant screenplay".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kollywoodtoday.net/reviews/review-kadhalagi/|title=Review — Kadhalagi — Kollywood Today|access-date=2017-12-21|publisher=kollywoodtoday.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321175218/https://www.kollywoodtoday.net/reviews/review-kadhalagi/|archive-date=21 March 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian coming-of-age films]]
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]
[[Category:2010s coming-of-age films]]
[[Category:Films scored by A. R. Reihana]]
[[Category:2010 thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Kesari Veer

2026-03-02T04:36:01Z

MarcyThompson89: stub...

{{Short description|2025 Hindi film by Prince Dhiman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kesari Veer
| image = Kesari Veer.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Prince Dhiman Kanubhai Chauhan
| writer = Kanubhai Chauhan Shitiz Srivastava
| based_on =
| producer = Kanubhai Chauhan Rajen Chauhan Heena Chauhan Suhraj Chauhan Ohm Chauhan
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Suniel Shetty]]
*[[Sooraj Pancholi]]
*[[Vivek Oberoi]]
*[[Akanksha Sharma]]
}}
| cinematography = Vikas Joshi
| editing = Satya Sharma
| music = [[Monty Sharma]]
| studio = Chauhan Studios
| distributor = [[Panorama Studios]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2025|05|23}}<ref name=NDTV>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/kesari-veer-legends-of-somnath-release-date-postponed-to-hit-theatres-on-8336283|title=Kesari Veer: Legends of Somnath Release Date Postponed, To Hit Theatres On...|date=5 May 2025|work=NDTV|access-date=5 May 2025|archive-date=6 May 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506043022/https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/kesari-veer-legends-of-somnath-release-date-postponed-to-hit-theatres-on-8336283|url-status=live}}</ref>
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR|60 crore}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kesari Veer: Suniel Shetty learns weaponry, horse riding to play 14th century ruler in his next? Here's the update |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/kesari-veer-suniel-shetty-learns-weaponry-to-play-14th-century-ruler/5b84f76aa696 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>
}}

'''''Kesari Veer''''' is a 2025 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[Historical drama|historical]] [[action film]] directed by Prince Dhiman. The film is co-produced by Rajen Chauhan, Heena Chauhan, Suhraj Chauhan and Ohm Chauhan. Written, co-directed and produced by Kanubhai Chauhan of Chauhan Studios, the film stars [[Suniel Shetty]], [[Vivek Oberoi]], [[Sooraj Pancholi]] and [[Akanksha Sharma]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-04-29|title=Suniel Shetty says Kesari Veer is Sooraj Pancholi's second chance: 'Boy has seen a lot, reminds me of Ahan'|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/suniel-shetty-says-kesari-veer-is-sooraj-pancholis-second-chance-9972494/|access-date=2025-04-29|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=2025-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250430043346/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/suniel-shetty-says-kesari-veer-is-sooraj-pancholis-second-chance-9972494/|url-status=live}}</ref> It tells the story of [[Rajput]] warrior Hamirji Gohil, who fought against the [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaq empire]] to protect the [[Somnath Temple]] from destruction.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/kesari-veer-trailer-sooraj-pancholi-is-rajput-warrior-hamirji-gohil-in-period-drama-2716926-2025-04-29|title=Kesari Veer trailer: Sooraj Pancholi is Rajput warrior Hamirji Gohil in period drama|website=[[India Today]]|date=29 April 2025 |access-date=29 April 2025}}</ref>

The film was scheduled to release on 16 May 2025 but was postponed and later released 23 May 2025.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/bollywood/kesari-veer-gets-a-new-release-date-heres-when-you-can-watch-suniel-shettys-film-1503428800.html|title='Kesari Veer' gets a new release date: Here's when you can watch Suniel Shetty's film|date=5 May 2025|work=The Statesman|access-date=5 May 2025|archive-date=5 May 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505192530/https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/bollywood/kesari-veer-gets-a-new-release-date-heres-when-you-can-watch-suniel-shettys-film-1503428800.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-25 |title=Kesari Veer: Suniel Shetty Looks Powerful As Fearless Warrior Vegdaji; New Poster OUT|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/bollywood/kesari-veer-suniel-shetty-looks-powerful-as-fearless-warrior-vegdaji-new-poster-out-article-151491353|access-date=2025-04-25 |website=Times Now|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-10|title=Suniel Shetty's Kesari Veer gets a new release date|url=https://theprint.in/feature/suniel-shettys-kesari-veer-gets-a-new-release-date/2542534/|access-date=2025-03-10 |website=The Print|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-10|title=Kesari Veer Trailer Out: Suniel Shetty, Vivek Oberoi, Sooraj Pancholi Bring Powerful Tale Of Somnath Temple - WATCH|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/bollywood/kesari-veer-trailer-out-suniel-shetty-vivek-oberoi-sooraj-pancholi-bring-powerful-tale-of-somnath-temple-watch-article-151529026|access-date=2025-04-29|website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref> It received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the screenplay, visual effects and [[box-office bomb|underperformed at the box office]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/box-office/sooraj-pancholis-kesari-veer-fails-to-cross-rs-2-crore-mark-in-week-1/articleshow/121506962.cms|title=Sooraj Pancholi's 'Kesari Veer' fails to cross Rs 2 crore mark in Week 1|website=[[Times of India]]|date=30 May 2025 |access-date=30 May 2025|quote=The film has generally received mixed reviews, the critics pointed out flaws in the screenplay, visual effects, and overall execution. Kesari Veer's underwhelming box office performance highlights the challenges of creating compelling historical dramas.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/kesari-veer-box-office-collection-day-3-sooraj-pancholi-suniel-shetty-film-struggles-to-earn-rs-1-cr-eclipsed-by-rajkummar-raos-bhool-chuk-maaf-10029062/|title=Kesari Veer box office collection day 3: Sooraj Pancholi-Suniel Shetty film struggles to earn Rs 1 cr, eclipsed by Rajkummar Rao's Bhool Chuk Maaf|website=[[Indian Express]]|date=26 May 2025 |access-date=26 May 2025|quote=Kesari Veer, which is also termed as Sooraj Pancholi’s comeback film, has been struggling at the box office since its release.}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* [[Suniel Shetty]] as Vegdaji
* [[Sooraj Pancholi]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-28 |title=Kesari Veer trailer: Sooraj Pancholi is Rajput warrior Hamirji Gohil in period drama|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/kesari-veer-trailer-sooraj-pancholi-is-rajput-warrior-hamirji-gohil-in-period-drama-2716926-2025-04-29|access-date=2025-04-28|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref> as Hamirji Gohil
* [[Vivek Oberoi]] as Zafar Khan
* [[Akanksha Sharma]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-03-26|title=Akansha Sharma's first look from her Bollywood debut Kesari Veer out!|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/akansha-sharmas-first-look-bollywood-debut-kesari-veer/|access-date=2025-04-26|website=Bollywood Hungama|language=en|archive-date=2025-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250426112548/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/akansha-sharmas-first-look-bollywood-debut-kesari-veer/|url-status=live}}</ref> as Rajal
* [[Barkha Bisht]]
* [[Kiran Kumar]]
* [[Aruna Irani]] as Charan Jagdamba
* [[Shiva Rindani]] as Qazi
* [[Bhavya Gandhi]] as Lakha
* Mukesh Agrohari as Badri
* Meenakshi Chugh as Narmada Baa
* Hitu Kanodia as Dudhaji Gohil
* Vishwa Bhanu as Maansur
* Pratish Vora as Arjanji Gohil
* Himanshu Malhotra as Rasool
* Rahul Gaharwar as Senapati
* Birju Chauhan as Meghji

==Release==
===Theatrical===
Initially scheduled for a theatrical release on 14 March 2025, the film was rescheduled to premiere on 16 May 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suniel Shetty starrer Kesari Veer's release date gets pushed |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/suniel-shetty-starrer-kesari-veers-release-date-gets-pushed-72119.html |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=[[Filmfare]] |date=2025-03-11 |archive-date=2025-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250311111835/https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/suniel-shetty-starrer-kesari-veers-release-date-gets-pushed-72119.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Suniel Shetty's period drama Kesari Veer delayed for 'more impactful' launch|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/suniel-shetty-period-drama-kesari-veer-delayed-for-more-impactful-launch-2692015-2025-03-11 |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=[[India Today]] |date=2025-03-11}}</ref> However, the release was postponed again and the film was finally released on 23 May 2025.<ref name=NDTV/>

==Reception==
Rahul Desai of ''[[The Hollywood Reporter India]]'' criticised the film for promoting communal bias under the guise of historical fiction. He described the film as a "162-minute slog" that robotically checks off markers of provocative cinema, labelling it Islamophobic, hate-mongering, and misinformative. Desai argued that the film uses a loosely interpreted 14th-century tale of a Rajput warrior defending the Somnath temple from the Tughlaq Empire as a vehicle to demonise Muslims in contemporary India.<ref>{{cite web|first=Rahul|last=Desai|url=https://www.hollywoodreporterindia.com/reviews/theatrical/kesari-veer-movie-review-suniel-shetty-vivek-oberoi-starrer-walks-chhaava-talks-adipurush|title='Kesari Veer' Movie Review: Suniel Shetty and Vivek Oberoi-Starrer Walks 'Chhaava', Talks 'Adipurush'|website=[[The Hollywood Reporter India]]|access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref>

Rishabh Suri ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' gave the film 2.5 stars out of 5 and criticised the VFX, song placements, and performances.<ref>{{cite web|first=Rishabh|last=Suri|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/kesari-veer-movie-review-sooraj-pancholi-suniel-shettys-historical-drama-suffers-from-a-chhaava-padmaavat-hangover-101747981730648.html|title=Kesari Veer movie review: Sooraj Pancholi, Suniel Shetty's historical drama suffers from a Chhaava, Padmaavat hangover|website=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=23 May 2025 |access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref> Dhaval Roy of ''[[Times of India]]'' gave the film 2 stars out of 5, feeling the film was grand in scope but faltered due to inconsistencies, length, uneven storytelling, and overdramatization.<ref>{{cite web|first=Dhaval|last=Roy|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/kesari-veer/movie-review/121355162.cms|title=Kesari Veer Movie Review : Grand in scope, but struggles with storytelling|website=[[Times of India]]|access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref> ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' gave the film 1.5 stars out of 5, strongly criticizing the VFX as "one of the biggest culprits of the film" and labeling the film as "a poor man’s ''[[Chhaava]]'' and ''[[Baahubali_(franchise)|Baahubali]].''"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/kesari-veer/critic-review/kesari-veer-movie-review/kesari-veer-is-a-poor-mans-chhaava-and-baahubali/|title=Kesari Veer Movie Review: KESARI VEER is a poor man's CHHAAVA and BAAHUBALI.|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=23 May 2025 |access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref>

Mayur Sanap of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' gave the film half a star out of 5, similarly pointing out its similarities with ''Baahubali'' and ''Chhaava'' aside from ''[[Padmaavat]]'' and ''[[Kesari (2019 film)|Kesari]].''<ref>{{cite web|first=Mayur|last=Sanap|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/kesari-veer-review-epic-blunder/20250523.htm|title=Kesari Veer Review: Epic Blunder|website=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref> Sana Farzeen of ''[[India Today]]'' gave 2.5 stars and said that "Kesari Veer, despite its grand scale and star cast, fails to deliver a compelling historical drama. The film's poor execution and weak CGI undermine its potential impact."<ref>{{cite web|first=Sana|last=Farzeen|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/kesari-veer-review-weak-plot-poor-cgi-suniel-shetty-sooraj-pancholi-chhaava-knockoff-2729545-2025-05-23|title=Kesari Veer review: Suniel Shetty is the only spark in this Chhaava knockoff|website=[[India Today]]|date=23 May 2025 |access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref>
Ganesh Aaglave of ''[[Firstpost]]'' gave 2 stars out of 5 and said that "On the whole, Kesari Veer is a wasted potential opportunity, which could have turned out into an engaging magnum opus."<ref>{{cite web|first=Ganesh|last=Aaglave|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/kesari-veer-movie-review-suniel-shetty-vivek-oberoi-sooraj-pancholis-visual-grandeur-is-long-exhausting-13890517.html|title=Kesari Veer movie review: Suniel Shetty-Vivek Oberoi-Sooraj Pancholi's visual grandeur is long & exhausting|website=[[Firstpost]]|date=23 May 2025 |access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref>

Alaka Sahani of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' rated 1.5/5 stars and said "The filmrelies heavily on gimmicks instead of attention to detail, nuance."<ref>{{cite web|first=Alaka|last=Sahani|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/kesari-veer-movie-review-sooraj-pancholi-suniel-shetty-film-marred-by-weak-plot-over-the-top-performances-and-garish-visual-effects-10023580/|title=Kesari Veer movie review: Sooraj Pancholi, Suniel Shetty film marred by weak plot, over-the-top performances and garish visual effects|website=[[The Indian express]]|date=23 May 2025 |access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref>
Chirag Sehgal of ''[[News18]]'' rated 1.5/5 stars and said "Despite its noble intention to celebrate a forgotten hero, the film ends up being a noisy, disjointed and exhausting experience."<ref>{{cite web|first=Chirag|last=Sehgal|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/kesari-veer-review-sooraj-pancholi-suniel-shetty-film-is-highly-disappointing-skip-watching-it-ws-dl-9347008.html|title=Kesari Veer Review: Sooraj Pancholi's Comeback Marred By Weak Story And Poor VFX|website=[[News 18]]|access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref>
Devesh Sharma of ''[[Filmfare]]'' rated 2.5/5 stars and writes that "All-in-all, Kesari Veer needed better writing, direction and editing. It’s a clear case of opportunity lost."<ref>{{cite web|first=Devesh|last=Sharma|url=https://www.filmfare.com/reviews/bollywood-movies/kesari-veer-review-loud-and-preachy-74044.html|title=Kesari Veer Review: Loud And Preachy|website=[[Filmfare]]|access-date=23 May 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

*{{IMDb title|id=tt32106176}}
*[https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/kesari-veer/ ''Kesari Veer''] at [[Bollywood Hungama]]

[[Category:2025 films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language films based on actual events]]
[[Category:2025 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2020s historical action films]]
[[Category:2020s war adventure films]]
[[Category:2025 war films]]
[[Category:Biographical films about royalty]]
[[Category:Films about kings]]
[[Category:Indian war drama films]]
[[Category:Indian war epic films]]
[[Category:Indian historical action films]]

Senthilnathan

2026-02-28T13:05:02Z

MarcyThompson89: started a post

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Senthilnathan Jambulingam
| image =
| caption =
| birthname = Senthilnathan Jambulingam
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1957|11|26}}
| birth_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| occupation = [[Film director|director]], [[screenwriter]], [[Film actor|actor]], [[Film producer|producer]]
}}

'''Senthilnathan Jambulingam''' is an Indian film director, screenwriter, producer and television actor who predominantly works in Tamil cinema and serials, based in Chennai. He is best known for his action-masala films. As of 2013, he has directed more than twenty five films.

==Personal life==
He is the son of director Jambulingam who directed [[M. G. Ramachandran]] starrer ''[[Nam Naadu (1969 film)|Nam Naadu]]''. Senthilnathan cast his son, Vinod, in the lead role of ''[[Unnai Naan]]'' (2004).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/newlaunches/02unnainaan.asp |title=Archived copy |website=www.chennaionline.com:80 |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040823192804/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/newlaunches/02unnainaan.asp |archive-date=23 August 2004 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Film career==
Initially, he worked as an assistant to director M. Bhaskar in Soolam (1980) and ''[[Pakkathu Veetu Roja]]'' (1982). He then worked as an assistant director under [[S. A. Chandrasekhar]] for 7 years from ''[[Sattam Oru Iruttarai]]'' (1981) until ''[[Needhikku Thandanai]]'' (1987). At that time, he befriended with actor [[Vijayakanth]] who promised him to act in his films in the future. When producers proposed him to direct a film, he met Vijayakanth but the actor was in a busy schedule. Waiting for his availability, he worked as an assistant director under [[V. Azhagappan]] in three films. Senthilnathan finally made his directorial debut in 1988 with the Tamil film ''[[Poonthotta Kaavalkaaran]]''. The film turned out to be a blockbuster.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article317195.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316152328/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/article317195.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 March 2014|title=Exodus Begins as Over 1,000 DMDK Cadre Join AIAD
|publisher=The New Indian Express|date=2012-02-08|accessdate=2014-03-16}}</ref>

In 2001, he agreed terms with producer Ibrahim Rowther to make a film titled ''Kadhal Mudal Kadhal Varai'', which would have debutant Bala Kumaran and [[Uma (actress)|Uma]] in the lead role. The film would have marked the director's 25th film, but the producer's financial troubles meant that the film was shelved.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/entertainment/filmplus/ibrahim.asp |title=Ibrahim Rowther launches five films |website=www.chennaionline.com |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030629231635/http://www.chennaionline.com/entertainment/filmplus/ibrahim.asp |archive-date=29 June 2003 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!class=unsortable|Notes
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1988 || ''[[Poonthotta Kaavalkaaran]]''|| Debut film
|-
| ''Vettai''||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/shorts/m9-SUiyOht4|title =Arjunஅ முதன்முதல்ல நான் தான் Camera முன்னாடி நிக்கவச்சன்|website =[[YouTube]]}}</ref>
|-
| ''Pattikaatu Thambi''||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1989 || ''Padicha Pulla''||
|-
| ''Mundhanai Sabadham''||
|-
| ''Penn Buthi Mun Buthi''||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1990 || ''[[Paattali Magan]]''|| Also actor
|-
| ''[[Periya Idathu Pillai]]''||
|-
| ''[[Palaivana Paravaigal]]''|| Also actor
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1991 || ''Iravu Sooriyan''||
|-
| ''Naatai Thirudathe''||
|-
| ''[[Kaaval Nilayam]]''|| rowspan="6" | Also actor
|-
| ''[[Thangamana Thangachi]]''
|-
| rowspan="7" | 1992 || ''[[Ilavarasan]]''
|-
| ''[[Idhuthanda Sattam]]''
|-
| ''[[Natchathira Nayagan]]''
|-
| ''[[Pokkiri Thambi]]''
|-
| ''Chinna Poovai Killadhe''||
|-
| ''Paalaivana Ragangal''||
|-
| ''Deiva Kulandhai''||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[En Pondatti Nallava]]'' ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Aavathum Pennale Azhivathum Pennale]]'' ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Thambi Durai]]'' || Also actor
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Aasai Thambi]]'' ||
|-
| 2002 || ''Kambalahalli'' || Kannada film
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Unnai Naan]]'' || Also producer
|}

==Television==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Serial !! Channel
! Notes
|-
|2009–2011||''[[Magal (TV series)|Magal]]''||rowspan=3|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|
|-
|2011–2013||''[[Thangam (TV series)|Thangam]]''
|
|-
|2014–2016||''[[Ponnunjal (TV series)|Ponnoonjal]]''
|
|-
|2016–2017||''[[Arundhati (2016 TV series)|Arundhati]]''||[[Raj TV]]
|
|-
|2018–2020||''[[Nayaki (TV series)|Nayagi]]''||rowspan=2|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|
|-
|2021–2023||''[[Magarasi]]''
|
|-
|2021–2022||''[[Rettai Roja]]''||rowspan=2|[[Zee Tamil]]
|
|-
|2023 2025||''[[Maari (TV series)|Maari]]''
|Special Appearance
|-
|rowspan="2"|2023–2024||''[[Anbe Vaa (2020 TV series)|Anbe Vaa]]''||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|
|-
|''[[Karthigai Deepam (TV series)|Karthigai Deepam]]''||[[Zee Tamil]]
|Extended Special Appearance
|-
|2024–present||[[Lakshmi (2024 TV series)|''Lakshmi'']]||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|
|-
|2024||''[[Thayamma Kudumbathaar]]''||[[DD Tamil]]
|
|-
|2025–present||''Dhanam''||rowspan="2" |[[Star Vijay]]
|
|-
|2025||''Sakthivel: Theeyaai Oru Theeraa Kaadhal''
|Special Appearance
|-
|2025–Present||''[[Parijatham (2025 TV series)|Paarijaatham]]''||[[Zee Tamil]]
|
|}

;Other works
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Serial !! Role!! Channel
|-
|2004-2006|| ''Kalki''|| Director || [[Jaya TV]]
|-
|2009–2010||''Rudra''||Director||[[Zee Tamizh]]
|-
|2020||''[[Minnale (TV series)|Minnale]]''||Dialogue Writer||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name}}

{{Senthilnathan}}

[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Film directors from Chennai]]
[[Category:Film producers from Chennai]]
[[Category:Tamil television directors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]

Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg

2026-02-26T06:00:44Z

MarcyThompson89: improve citations per standard format and corrected details based on references

{{Short description|Chancellor of the German Empire from 1909 to 1917}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Family name hatnote|Bethmann Hollweg|Hollweg|lang=German}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg(cropped).jpg
| caption = Bethmann Hollweg in 1914
| order = [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor of the German Empire]]
| term_start = 14 July 1909
| term_end = 13 July 1917
| monarch = [[Wilhelm II]]
| deputy = [[Clemens von Delbrück]] [[Karl Helfferich]]
| predecessor = [[Bernhard von Bülow]]
| successor = [[Georg Michaelis]]
| order2 = [[Vice-Chancellor of Germany]]
| chancellor2 = [[Bernhard von Bülow]]
| term_start2 = 24 June 1907
| term_end2 = 10 July 1909
| predecessor2 = [[Arthur von Posadowsky-Wehner]]
| successor2 = [[Clemens von Delbrück]]
| birth_name = Theobald Theodor Friedrich Alfred von Bethmann Hollweg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1856|11|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Hohenfinow]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1921|1|1|1856|11|29|df=y}}
| death_place = Hohenfinow, [[Free State of Prussia]], [[Weimar Republic|Germany]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Leipzig]] [[University of Strasbourg]] [[University of Berlin]]
| party = [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| signature = Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg-signature.jpg
| signature_alt = Signature of Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg
}}

'''Theobald Theodor Friedrich Alfred von Bethmann Hollweg''' (29 November 1856 – 1 January 1921) was a German politician who was [[chancellor of the German Empire|imperial chancellor of the German Empire]] from 1909 to 1917. He oversaw the [[German entry into World War I]] and played a key role during its first three years. He was replaced as chancellor in July 1917 due in large part to opposition to his policies by leaders in the military.

Between 1884 and 1899 Bethmann Hollweg rose rapidly through positions in the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] government and served briefly as a member of the [[Reichstag (German Empire)|Reichstag]] in 1890. The experience left him unsympathetic to the party system and an independent for the remainder of his political life. [[Emperor Wilhelm II]] appointed him chancellor in 1909, in part because he approved of his conciliatory political style. His eight years as chancellor showed him to be cautiously supportive of some liberalization but also a firm believer that a parliamentary monarchy was the best form of government for Germany.

During [[World War I]], Bethmann Hollweg thought that Germany was so threatened that it needed to take all necessary measures to survive. He assured [[Austria-Hungary]] of Germany's full backing and supported its aggressive demands against [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]]. He held back on German mobilization until after Russia's so that Germany would not appear to be the aggressor. Although he supported the invasion of Belgium as necessary given Germany's threatened position, he saw it from the first as an injustice that would need to be righted. He fought against the implementation of [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] but in the end bowed to pressure from the military and the conservatives in the Reichstag and approved its use. As the war progressed, many who had supported him in parliament felt that he had been in his position too long to be able to negotiate an acceptable peace. When both Quartermaster General [[Erich Ludendorff]] and Chief of the General Staff [[Paul von Hindenburg]] threatened to resign if he was not replaced as chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg submitted his resignation to the Emperor.

In his ''Reflections on the World War'' that remained unfinished when he died in 1921, Bethmann Hollweg stressed Germany's difficult geographical position, admitted that the government and the Emperor had made mistakes leading up to the war and that Germany bore some of the guilt for it but that only a "common guilt" could have led to such a great catastrophe.

== Early life and career ==

=== Family and education ===
Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg was born at [[Hohenfinow]] in [[Province of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]], then part of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]]. He was the son of Prussian official Felix von Bethmann Hollweg. His grandfather [[August von Bethmann-Hollweg]] had been a prominent law scholar, president of [[Humboldt University|Frederick William University]] in Berlin and Prussian minister of culture. His great-grandfather Johann Jakob Hollweg had married a daughter of the wealthy [[Frankfurt am Main]] banking family of [[Bethmann family|Bethmann]].<ref name="EB1922">{{Cite EB1922 |wstitle= Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von |volume = 30 |last1= Saunders |first1= George |author1-link= George Saunders | page= |short=1 }}</ref> His mother, Isabella de Rougemont, was a French Swiss and his grandmother Auguste Wilhelmine Gebser came from the Prussian noble family of [[Gebesee]].

He was educated at the [[Pforta|Schulpforta]] boarding school in the Prussian province of [[Province of Saxony|Saxony]] and studied law at the [[University of Strasbourg|Universities of Strasbourg]] and [[University of Leipzig|Leipzig]] and at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]] from 1875 to 1879.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frauendienst |first=Werner |url=https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118510320.html#ndbcontent |title=Neue Deutsche Biographie 2 |year=1955 |pages=188–193 [Online-Version] |language=de |chapter=Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von}}</ref> He then served as a [[one-year volunteer]] in the military before entering on his career path.
[[File:Martha von Bethmann Hollweg 1909.jpg|left|thumb|252x252px|Martha von Bethmann Hollweg in 1909]]
On 17 June 1889 Bethmann Hollweg married Martha von Pfuel, the niece of Prussian Minister President [[Ernst von Pfuel]]. The marriage produced four children, one of whom died young. Their oldest son August Friedrich was killed on the eastern front on 9 December 1914.

=== District administrator and provincial governor ===
Bethmann Hollweg began his career as a royal government assessor in December 1884.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2014 |title=Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg 1856–1921 |url=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/biografie/theobald-von-bethmann-hollweg.html |website=Deutsches historisches Museum |language=de}}</ref> The next year, after his father expressed the wish to give up his post as district administrator (''[[Landrat]]''), Theobald took over the office on an interim basis and in January 1886 secured it by official appointment. At the age of 29, he became the youngest district administrator in the province of Brandenburg.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lerman |first=Katharine Anne |date=28 September 2016 |title=Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/bethmann_hollweg_theobald_von |website=1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War |publisher=Freie Universität Berlin}}</ref>

While Bethmann Hollweg's father had conducted his office in the more autocratic style of the Prussian landed [[Junker (Prussia)|Junkers]], Theobald drove to the villages and spoke with both landlords and workers. His work was based on the principle of voluntary participation by the bourgeoisie rather than on authoritarian instructions. The approach made him one of the most progressive district administrators of his time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Vietsch |first=Eberhard |title=Bethmann Hollweg. Staatsmann zwischen Macht und Ethos |publisher=Boldt |year=1969 |location=Boppard |pages=52 ff |language=de |trans-title=Bethmann Hollweg. Statesman Between Power and Ethos}}</ref>

A coalition of three parties put Bethmann Hollweg forward as a joint candidate for the [[1890 German federal election|1890 Reichstag election]]. He won by a majority of one vote, but protests by opposing candidates over alleged irregularities led to a new election in which Bethmann Hollweg did not participate. It was the end of his brief career both as a member of the Reichstag for the [[Free Conservative Party]] and as a party politician. For the remainder of his life he was an independent and unsympathetic to the party system.

In 1896, after ten years as a district administrator, he received two rapid promotions and then in 1899, at the age of 43, became the youngest provincial governor (''[[Oberpräsident]]'') in Prussia as the head the province of Brandenburg. His rapid professional success had been made possible by his talent for statesmanship, his grandfather's prestige, and by the intercession of Reich Chancellor [[Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst]], who had been watching his rise for some time.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Denkwürdigkeiten des Fürsten Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt |year=1907 |editor-last=Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst |editor-first=A. |volume=2 |location=Munich |pages=264 |language=de |trans-title=Memorabilia of Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst |editor-last2=Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst |editor-first2=C. K. V. |editor-last3=Curtius |editor-first3=F.}}</ref>

=== Prussian minister of the interior ===
On 21 March 1905 Bethmann Hollweg was appointed Prussian minister of the interior. He accepted the task only reluctantly,<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Spitzemberg |first=Hildegard |title=Das Tagebuch der Baronin Spitzemberg, geb. Freiin v. Varnbüler. Aufzeichnungen aus der Hofgesellschaft des Hohenzollernreiches |publisher=Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht |year=1960 |isbn=9783525358115 |editor-last=Vierhaus |editor-first=Rudolf |location=Göttingen |pages=446 |trans-title=The Diary of Baroness Spitzemberg, née Freiin v. Varnbüler. Records from the Court Society of the Hohenzollern Empire }}</ref> as he held views that "did not fit into Prussian schematism". Noting early on the slow drifting apart of Wilhelmine society into an increasingly nationalistic, militaristic right and an increasingly radical republican left, he tried to steer a conciliatory course in domestic policy. He wanted, as he himself often said, to find a "policy of the diagonal" between Germany's conservative and liberal-radical currents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stern |first=Fritz |title= Bethmann Hollweg und der Krieg. Die Grenzen der Verantwortung |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=1968 |isbn=978-3166288314 |location=Tübingen |pages=10 |language=de |trans-title=Bethmann Hollweg and the War. The Limits of Responsibility }}</ref> To the newly appointed Chief of the Reich Chancellery he wrote:<blockquote>The elements to be reconciled no longer have any inner relationship on which to base mutual political views. They stand with respect to each other like members of different worlds. Hopefully you will succeed in having a balancing effect, for without gradual assimilation we will arrive at conditions that are quite untenable.</blockquote>His focus early on was directed at the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party's]] commitment to the existing state structure. In his inaugural speech in the [[Prussian House of Representatives]] on 6 April 1905, on the subject of the left's proposal for the creation of a people's welfare office, he described public welfare as "the most important and serious task of the present day". Bethmann Hollweg promised to consider the application thoroughly and sympathetically, pointing out that "liberation from bureaucratic fetters is only possible with the free participation of all circles of the people".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Stenographische Berichte des Deutschen Reichstags und des Preußischen Hauses der Abgeordneten. 1905, I. Session 1904/1905 |year=1905 |volume=8 |pages=1253 ff |language=de |trans-title=Stenographic Reports of the German Reichstag and the Prussian House of Representatives. 1905, First Session 1904/1905}}</ref> When the House dealt with the question of [[Prussian three-class franchise|Prussia's three-class franchise]] that weighted votes by amount of taxes paid, Bethmann Hollweg opposed Prussia's adoption of the [[Reichstag (German Empire)|national Reichstag's]] universal manhood suffrage. He warned against "democratic egalitarianism" but praised the "tremendous aspirations of our working class".

In the same year, Polish-speaking schoolchildren in the [[Province of Posen]], supported by the Catholic clergy, went on strike demanding that religion lessons be given in Polish again.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Korth |first=Rudolf |title=Die preußische Schulpolitik und die polnischen Schulstreiks. Ein Beitrag zur preußischen Polenpolitik der Ära Bülow |publisher=Holzner |year=1963 |location=Würzburg |pages=145 |language=de |trans-title=Prussian School Policy and the Polish School Strikes. A Contribution to Prussian Polish Policy in the Bülow Era}}</ref> The conservatives wanted to increase military presence in the province but Bethmann Hollweg rejected the idea. Instead he authorized that in the future religious instruction be given in Polish.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kötschke |first=Hermann |title=Unser Reichskanzler. Sein Leben und Wirken |publisher=Augustin |year=1916 |location=Berlin |page=32 |language=de |trans-title=Our Chancellor. His Life and Work}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Otto |first=Grete |date=1 August 2019 |title=Was geschah im August 1909? |trans-title=What happened in August 1909? |url=https://www.buergerleben.com/was-geschah-vor-110-jahren-im-august09/ |access-date=8 November 2024 |website=Bürgerleben |language=de}}</ref>

=== Reich state secretary of the interior ===
Bethmann Hollweg was appointed state secretary of the interior by Chancellor [[Bernhard von Bülow]] immediately after the [[1907 German federal election|1907 Reichstag elections]]. Bethmann Hollweg was again reluctant to take on the post, but since he viewed the appointment as an imperial order, he ultimately saw no alternative but to accept.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zmarzlik |first=Hans G. |title=Bethmann Hollweg als Reichskanzler, 1909–1914. Studien zu Möglichkeiten und Grenzen seiner innerpolitischen Machtstellung |publisher=Droste |year=1957 |location=Düsseldorf |pages=11 ff |language=de |trans-title=Bethmann Hollweg as Reich Chancellor, 1909–1914. Studies on the Possibilities and Limits of his Domestic Power Position }}</ref>

In October 1907 he attended the German Workers' Congress, a general meeting of Christian trade unions, where the appearance of an imperial state secretary was seen as a major step forward.

In December he opposed the creation of a Reich labor office but rejected the claim that in sociopolitical matters the government would not act. "I have never discovered even a trace of tired skepticism in this activity; in it, albeit far removed from the parliamentary arena, our present-day Germany has been formed."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reichstagsprotokolle, 2 December 1907 |url=https://www.reichstagsprotokolle.de/Blatt_k12_bsb00002839_00276.html |website=Verhandlungen des Reichstags |language=de}}</ref> He felt that the "searching and groping for the new takes place among the people themselves, not among the people's representatives".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Born |first=Karl Erich |title=Staat und Sozialpolitik seit Bismarcks Sturz |publisher=Steiner |year=1957 |location=Wiesbaden |pages=211 f |trans-title=State and Social Politics after Bismarck's Fall }}</ref> It was therefore necessary to "make room for the new views that have emerged from the changed economic and social conditions".

On Bethmann Hollweg's advice, the Emperor announced electoral reform in the Kingdom of Prussia in his speech from the throne of 20 October 1908. (The Prussian electoral system was in fact not finally reformed until 12 November 1918.) Wilhelm II promised "organic further development", which he described as one of the "most important tasks of the present". Reichstag deputy [[Friedrich Naumann]], who liked the state secretary's style, later particularly emphasized Bethmann Hollweg's positive influence on the Emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heuss |first=Theodor |title=Friedrich Naumann |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt |year=1937 |location=Stuttgart |pages=280 |language=de |author-link=Theodor Heuss}}</ref>

== Reich chancellor ==

=== Appointment and reactions ===
[[File:Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany.jpg|thumb|Emperor Wilhelm II in 1904|265x265px]]
Emperor [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] appointed Bethmann Hollweg Reich chancellor on 7 July 1909. He had been deputy to Chancellor von Bülow during his time in office, and the Emperor knew Bethmann Hollweg's willingness to compromise in order to calm the rivalry between parties. His modest appearance and successes as an advisor to Wilhelm had also put him in the Emperor's good graces. Bethmann Hollweg's appointment had previously been suggested in political circles, including by [[Friedrich von Holstein]] in the Foreign Office.{{Sfn|von Vietsch |1969|p=99}}

Overall there was a positive response from all parties to the appointment, although the Catholic [[Centre Party (Germany)|Centre Party]] had reservations, and for the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD) Bethmann Hollweg represented just another chancellor loyal to the Emperor. But the benevolent neutrality of the overall party spectrum resulted from Bethmann Hollweg's many facets. He was not a Junker in the true sense of the word, which the leftists took as a positive sign. His family history made him appreciated by the [[National Liberal Party (Germany)|National Liberals]] and the Centre, and his activity as an administrative official had created trust among conservatives.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=101}}

The response from abroad was exclusively friendly. The French {{Lang|fr|Journal des Débats}} spoke of a "reassuring sign" for Franco-German relations. The French ambassador in Berlin, [[Jules Cambon]], sent the new Reich chancellor an official letter of congratulations, something that had never happened before. The German Embassy in London under [[Paul Wolff Metternich]] wrote that British [[Edward VII|King Edward VII]] considered the new chancellor an "important partner for the maintenance of peace".

=== Domestic policy ===
In January 1910 Bethmann Hollweg wrote that the government faced the "great task of the political education of the people, eliminating the rule of slogans and superficial evaluations". He saw the basic task of a statesman as a "kind of listening to developments".{{Sfn|von Vietsch |1969|p=103}} In 1910 he submitted a bill to reform Prussia's three-class electoral law, but it was rejected by the Prussian state parliament ({{Lang|de|Landtag}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wermuth |first=Adolf |title=Ein Beamtenleben. Erinnerungen. |publisher=Scherl |year=1922 |location=Berlin |pages=306 f |language=de |trans-title=A Civil Servant's Life. Reminiscences}}</ref> In the Reichstag he pushed forward the reform of the constitutional status of [[Alsace–Lorraine]], which had been taken from France after its defeat in the 1870–1871 [[Franco-Prussian War]]. It was given its own constitution with a bicameral parliament, the lower house of which was elected under Reichstag suffrage (universal manhood suffrage). The Reich Chancellor's bill was adopted on 23 March 1911 in the face of strong protests from conservatives and the military. Unlike in Prussia, Bethmann Hollweg was not opposed by any influential conservatives, which allowed his democratic constitutional initiative to pass.{{Sfn|Zmarzlik|1957|pp=95 ff}}{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|pp=112 f}}

=== Foreign policy ===
{{Seealso|Anglo-German naval arms race}}
[[File:Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter (cropped).jpg|thumb|232x232px|[[Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter]]]]
In foreign policy Bethmann Hollweg from the beginning attached great importance to an understanding with Great Britain. He considered German-Austrian relations to be so problem-free that he thought it more important to prove friendly to the other powers. He appointed [[Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter]] as state secretary for foreign affairs. It was initially seen as a good appointment but later proved to be a disappointment.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=117 ff}} The impulsive [[Swabia]]n contrasted with the Reich Chancellor not only in his temperament but above all in foreign policy matters. Although Wilhelm II had called for the Empire to increase its advocacy of "peaceful and friendly relations with the other powers" in his 1909 speech from the throne,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 1919 |title=Die Thronrede zur Eröffnung des Reichstags |language=de |trans-title=The Speech from the Throne at the Opening of the Reichstag |pages=1 |work=Amts- und Anzeigeblatt für den Bezirk des Amtsgerichts Eibenstock und dessen Umgebung |url=https://digital.slub-dresden.de/en/workview/dlf/438388/1 |access-date=27 December 2022}}</ref> Kiderlen-Waechter's diplomacy in connection with the 1911 [[Second Moroccan Crisis]] – when he sent a German gunboat to the African nation over which France had political control – was not in keeping with the Emperor's words. Bethmann Hollweg was often reproached for his passivity during the crisis. The fact that he gave Kiderlen-Waechter a free hand in spite of his misgivings about his approach can be explained by his feeling that he lacked expertise in foreign policy and did not consider himself competent to stand up to Kiderlen-Waechter on the Morocco issue.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=122}}

The Morocco crisis was settled with a Franco-German agreement in which the Empire relinquished its claims to Morocco in return for [[New Cameroon]] ({{Lang|de|Neukamerun}}), a land extension of [[German Cameroon]] ({{Lang|de|Kamerun}}). Conservative Colonial State Secretary [[Friedrich von Lindequist]] protested strongly and resigned in November 1911. Instead of appointing the successor Lindequist proposed, Bethmann Hollweg chose the liberal governor of [[Samoa]], [[Wilhelm Solf]]. Solf was one of the few foreign policy makers in the Empire to fully support Bethmann Hollweg.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Vietsch |first=Eberhard |title=Wilhelm Solf. Botschafter zwischen den Zeiten |publisher=Wunderlich |year=1961 |location=Tübingen |language=de |trans-title=Wilhelm Solf. Ambassador between the Eras}}</ref>

German-Russian relations had moved in a positive direction before the Moroccan crisis. In 1910 [[Tsar nicholas ii|Tsar Nicholas I]]I had been in [[Potsdam]], which Bethmann Hollweg described in a letter as a "stepping stone to an understanding with England". According to records of the Russian court, the Tsar saw a belligerent involvement with Germany as "receding into the far distance". In 1912 the Reich Chancellor took advantage of a meeting between the Emperor and the Tsar in [[Baltischport]] (now Paldiski, [[Estonia]]) for a friendly discussion.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=142}} After talks with Russian Prime Minister [[Vladimir Kokovtsov]] and Foreign Minister [[Sergey Sazonov]], Bethmann Hollweg wrote that he had been able to establish "trusting and friendly relations". On 25 July 1912 [[Walther Rathenau]] stayed at Hohenfinow to talk to the Chancellor about his trip to Russia. Rathenau noted in his diary that Bethmann Hollweg wanted to "maintain the modus vivendi in the Russian question as well". In foreign policy matters, Rathenau proposed to Bethmann Hollweg a European customs union, a halt to British imperialism in the Mediterranean, then an alliance with Great Britain for the purpose of understanding and colonial acquisitions for Germany. The ideas were not the Chancellor's, but he signed the list of proposals with "generally agreed".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rathenau |first=Walther |title=Walther Rathenau Tagebuch 1907–1922 |publisher=Droste |year=1967 |editor-last=Pogge von Strandmann |editor-first=Hartmut |location=Düsseldorf |pages=162 |language=de |trans-title=Walther Rathenau Diary 1907–1922}}</ref>

Bethmann Hollweg's second foreign policy problem was the expansion of the German fleet that Admiral [[Alfred von Tirpitz]] wanted. The Chancellor intended to use dialogue with the United Kingdom to facilitate a cautious expansion of the fleet and at the same time to improve relations through honesty. Due to threatening speeches by German conservatives in the Reichstag and British conservatives in the Houses of Parliament, the efforts were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Henning |first=Hansjoachim |title=Deutschlands Verhältnis zu England in Bethmann Hollwegs Außenpolitik 1909–1914 [Germany's Relationship to England in Bethmann Hollweg's Foreign Policy 1909–1914] |date=7 August 1963 |publisher=University of Cologne. |language=de}}</ref>

In the 1912 [[Haldane Mission]] – an attempt by the British diplomat [[Richard Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane|Richard Haldane]] to come to an agreement on the naval arms race between Great Britain and Germany – Bethmann Hollweg failed again to reach a settlement. Germany wanted Britain to pledge neutrality in any future war while Britain sought to slow down the two countries' race to expand their navies, which was becoming an increasing drain on [[HM Treasury|the Exchequer]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Massie |first=Robert K. |title=Dreadnought: Britain, Germany, and the coming of the Great War (Random House, 1991), pp |publisher=Random House |year=1991 |isbn=9780394528335 |location=New York |pages=790–817}}</ref> Bethmann Hollweg nevertheless enjoyed a good reputation with British Foreign Minister [[Sir Edward Grey]]: "So long as Bethmann Hollweg is chancellor, we will cooperate with Germany for the peace of Europe."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hatton |first=P. H. S. |date=April 1967 |title=Britain and Germany 1914. The July Crisis and War Aims |url=https://academic.oup.com/past/article-abstract/36/1/138/1549268?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Past & Present |issue=36 |pages=140|doi=10.1093/past/36.1.138 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Bethmann Hollweg negotiated treaties over an eventual partition of the Portuguese colonies and the projected [[Berlin–Baghdad railway]], the latter aimed in part at securing the [[Balkans|Balkan]] countries' support for a German alliance with the [[Ottoman Empire]].

Although Bethmann Hollweg was critical of naval expansion, in April 1912 he pushed forward a Reichstag bill providing for a buildup of the army.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ullmann |first=Hans-Peter |title=Das Deutsche Kaiserreich. 1871–1918 |publisher=Suhrkamp |year=1995 |isbn=3-518-11546-4 |location=Frankfurt am Main |pages=216 |language=de |trans-title=The German Empire. 1871–1918}}</ref> A year later he submitted the next defense bill which asked for a 136,000 man increase in the army and almost 1.3 billion marks in additional funds for it and for arms purchases. The SPD spoke out vigorously against the military buildup. Bethmann Hollweg combined the bill with a cover bill that provided for an "extraordinary defense contribution" from all assets over 10,000 marks. Since the SPD had always called for direct taxes on the wealthy, it agreed to the bill after a contentious debate.

=== The Zabern Affair and censure by the Reichstag ===
{{Seealso|Zabern Affair}}
In late 1913 the Zabern Affair shook German politics and public opinion. In Zabern ([[Saverne]]) in Alsace, a young German lieutenant insulted Alsatians in a speech to soldiers and called for rebellious Alsatians to be stabbed. He was only minimally held to account by his colonel, and after protests by Alsatians, the military had some citizens arrested illegally.

When Bethmann Hollweg declared in the Reichstag on 3 December 1913 that the Kaiser's uniform must be respected under all circumstances, he gave the impression that he was fully behind Minister of War [[Erich von Falkenhayn]]. The parties that had hitherto supported Bethmann Hollweg because of his progressive policies – the Centre, the [[Progressive People's Party (Germany)|Progressive People's Party]], the National Liberals and the Social Democrats – united in introducing a motion of censure against him.<ref name="EB1922"/> When [[Philipp Scheidemann]] (SPD) pointed to the exemplary constitutional conditions in Great Britain and the Netherlands, Bethmann Hollweg responded with dismissive, angry heckling.{{Sfn|Zmarzlik|1957|p=133}} The Chancellor of the center seemed to have moved to the right even though he was reviled as a democrat in national-conservative circles. In his Reichstag speech, he had spoken against his convictions in order to preserve the neutrality of the government and to underpin his loyalty to the Emperor. Ultimately, though, he had given in to the military and fallen into a position of weakness. For the first time he confessed that he regretted not having a party behind him.

=== From the "blank check" to the outbreak of war ===
[[File:Ferdinand Schmutzer - Franz Ferdinand von Österreich-Este, um 1914.jpg|left|thumb|242x242px|[[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]], heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary]]
At the turn of the year 1913/1914, the European atmosphere had calmed, and Bethmann Hollweg felt a new optimism in foreign policy. It seemed to him that the [[Treaty of Bucharest (1913)|Treaty of Bucharest]], which concluded the [[Second Balkan War]], had solved the problems in the Balkans in the medium term, and a recent exchange of letters with Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergey Sazonov]] had stabilized the situation in the east. The diplomatic crisis over the 1913 German military mission to the Ottoman Empire had been overcome in spite of the [[Pan-Slavism|pan-Slav]] sentiment in the [[Russian Empire]].

The Reich Chancellor's statements from the time reveal that he was anxious to prevent a major European war.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=175}} Russia's actions in northern [[Persia]] also brought Britain temporarily closer to Germany. When in the early summer of 1914 the German government learned of a British-Russian naval agreement, it cast a shadow over Bethmann Hollweg's foreign policy.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=180}} Disappointed in his confidence in British Foreign Minister Edward Grey, he wrote to the German embassy in [[Constantinople]] that it was a matter of muddling through without any major conflicts. A few days later, after a disagreement with the Chief of the Army's General Staff [[Helmuth von Moltke the Younger|Helmuth von Moltke]], he left for a summer vacation at his home in Hohenfinow. It was abruptly ended shortly after his arrival by the [[assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] of [[Austria-Hungary]] on 28 June 1914.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=178}}

After the assassination of the presumptive heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Wilhelm II issued the famous "blank check" to [[László Szőgyény-Marich Jr.|László Szőgyény]], Austria-Hungary's ambassador in Berlin. It affirmed that Germany would uphold its alliance obligations with Austria-Hungary and stand at its side. Bethmann Hollweg later wrote in his ''Reflections on the World War'' that "the Emperor's views coincided" with his own. On 6 July 1914, during the [[July Crisis]] that led up to the outbreak of World War I, the Reich Chancellor again assured the Austrian embassy that Germany would fight faithfully alongside its ally.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Geiss |first=Imanuel |title=Julikrise und Kriegsausbruch 1914. Eine Dokumentensammlung |publisher=Verlag für Literatur und Zeitgeschehen |year=1963–1964 |location=Hannover |pages=93 #27 |language=de |trans-title=July Crisis and the Outbreak of War 1914. A Document Collection}}</ref> Austria-Hungary's aggressive demands against [[Serbia]] thus took place with Bethmann Hollweg's backing.

At the same time, he had State Secretary of the Foreign Office [[Gottlieb von Jagow]] telegraph [[Karl Max, Prince Lichnowsky|Prince Lichnowsky]], the German ambassador in London, that "everything must be avoided that could give the appearance that we are inciting the Austrians to war". Thinking that he could localize the conflict, Bethmann Hollweg endorsed the continuation of the Emperor's absence aboard his yacht. The Chancellor gave Austria a free hand, although not without criticism, as the French ambassador in Vienna testified.{{Sfn|Geiss|1963–1964|p=290–291 #213, Vol. 1}} His confidant [[Kurt Riezler]] noted that Bethmann Hollweg expressed early fears that if Austria adopted too expansionist a tone, the conflict could no longer be contained in the Balkans and "could lead to world war".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Riezler |first=Kurt |title=Tagebücher, Aufsätze, Dokumente |publisher=Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht |year=1972 |isbn=3-525-35817-2 |editor-last=Erdmann |editor-first=Karl Dietrich |location=Göttingen |language=de |trans-title=Diaries, Essays, Documents}}</ref>

Even when the Foreign Office finally knew in July 1914 that Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia (July 1914) |url=https://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/austro-hungarian-ultimatum-1914/ |access-date=29 December 2022 |website=alpha history|date=28 July 2012 }}</ref> was to be formulated in a way that Serbia could not accept, the Chancellor let the Austrians have their way. The Reich Chancellery stated when asked, "We cannot comment on the formulation of the demands to Serbia, since it is Austria's affair." Believing in Great Britain's neutrality, Bethmann Hollweg telegraphed to the London Foreign Office: "Since Austria is safeguarding vital interests in its action, any interference by Germany as its ally is out of the question. ... Only if forced will we take up the sword."{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|pp=186 ff}}

Serbia's reply to the Austrian ultimatum accepted almost all of Austria-Hungary's demands.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Serbia's Response to the Austro-Hungarian Ultimatum (1914) |url=https://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/serbias-response-austro-hungarian-ultimatum-1914/ |access-date=29 December 2022 |website=alpha history|date=4 February 2013 }}</ref> When it arrived in Berlin on 27 July 1914, the Emperor saw no need for war. He suggested that Austria should occupy [[Belgrade]] with the aim of furthering negotiations towards a permanent solution to the Balkan question. Bethmann Hollweg, seeing the threat of British entry into the war, briefly advocated the halt-in-Belgrade proposal combined with Austrian renunciation of annexation of Serbia. But he knew that it would be considered unsatisfactory by the Russians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geiss |first=Imanuel |date=1966 |title=The Outbreak of the First World War and German War Aims |journal=The Journal of Contemporary History |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=81 |doi=10.1177/002200946600100304 |s2cid=159102511 |issn=0022-0094}}</ref> When the Emperor "threatened to weaken again", the Chancellor and the Foreign Office undermined the proposal calling for restraint by forwarding the letter from the German ambassador in London belatedly and not entirely correctly to Vienna.{{Sfn|Geiss|1963–1964|p=378 #789, Vol. 2}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Österreich-Ungarns Außenpolitik von der bosnischen Krise 1908 bis zum Kriegsausbruch 1914. Diplomatische Aktenstücke des österreichisch-ungarischen Ministeriums des Äußeren |year=1930 |editor-last=Bittner |editor-first=Ludwig |volume=8: 1 May to 1 August 1914 |location=Vienna |pages=910 #11026 |language=de |trans-title=Austria-Hungary's Foreign Policy from the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 to the Outbreak of War in 1914. Diplomatic Records of the Austro-Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |editor-last2=Uebersberger |editor-first2=Hans}}</ref> The last (here italicized) sentence was deleted before it was sent:<blockquote>If we rejected every attempt at mediation, the whole world would hold us responsible for the conflagration and represent us as the real warmongers. That would also make our position impossible here in Germany, where we have got to appear as though the war had been forced on us. Our position is the more difficult because Serbia seems to have given way very extensively. We cannot therefore reject the role of mediator; we have to pass the British proposal on to Vienna for consideration, especially since London and Paris are continuously using their influence on Petersburg. ''AIso, the whole world here is convinced, and I hear the same from my colleagues, that the key to the situation lies in Berlin, and that if Berlin seriously wants peace, it will prevent Vienna from following a foolhardy policy.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fischer |first=Fritz |url=https://ia600204.us.archive.org/31/items/FischerFritzGermanysAimsInTheFirstWorldWar/Fischer%2C%20Fritz%20-%20Germany%E2%80%99s%20Aims%20in%20the%20First%20World%20War.pdf |title=Germany's Aims in the First World War |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=1967 |location=New York |pages=70–71}}</ref></blockquote>
[[File:Portrait of Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon (cropped).jpg|thumb|256x256px|[[Sir Edward Grey]]]]
At the same time, Italy, a supposed ally of the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]], demanded compensation for Austria's actions in the Balkans. Vienna responded by offering to divide Serbia between Russia, which had not previously made any territorial claims in Serbia, and Austria. The proposal was rejected with loud protest in Berlin. For the first time Bethmann Hollweg was openly furious at the Danube monarchy and telegraphed his views to the foreign office.

British Foreign Secretary Grey warned Germany that if the conflict was not limited to Austria and Russia but also involved France and the Reich, Britain could not stand aside either. Bethmann Hollweg then informed the German ambassador in Vienna that Austria should not resist negotiations with the Russian Empire. Although Germany was prepared to fulfill its alliance obligation, it was not prepared to be "recklessly dragged ... into a world conflagration".{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=190}}

Meanwhile, the military of Austria-Hungary and Russia were on the move, and Chief of the General Staff Moltke called for the Chancellor to initiate German general mobilization. Austria must not be abandoned, he said. The General Staff's strategic route through Belgium (a key part of the [[Schlieffen Plan]] for the German attack on France) ultimately undermined all of Bethmann Hollweg's efforts to localize the conflict.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=191}} In his memoirs, Admiral Tirpitz described the Chancellor's situation in those days as that of a "drowning man".<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Tirpitz |first=Alfred |title=Erinnerungen |publisher=K F Koehler |year=1919 |location=Leipzig |pages=242 |language=de |trans-title=Memoirs}}</ref>

=== World War I ===

==== Outbreak ====
Germany declared war on Russia and began mobilization on 1 August 1914. Bethmann Hollweg, in contrast to representatives of the Prussian Ministry of War, had insisted on formal declarations in order "to have affirmation under international law".{{Sfn|Geiss |1963–1964|p=574–575 #1019, Vol. 2}} His profound desire for guidelines in the war that were always applicable was met with surprise in Berlin. He rejected the Tsar's proposal to bring the Serbian question before the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in [[The Hague]] because Russian general mobilization had already taken place the day before.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=192}} Waiting to mobilize until after Russia had done so allowed the German government to claim that it was the victim of Russian aggression and won it the support of the Social Democrats for most of the war.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robson |first=Stuart |title=The First World War |publisher=Pearson Longman |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4058-2471-2 |edition= |location=Harrow, England |pages=25}}</ref>

On 3 August Bethmann Hollweg assured British Foreign Minister Grey that the Russian mobilization of 30 July was what had put Germany in such straits that it had demanded that Belgium allow its troops to pass through the country. He had tried everything, he said, to avoid the breach of international law and to prevent "the madness of the self-destruction of Europe's nations of culture [{{Lang|de|Kulturnationen}}]".{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=192}}{{Sfn|Geiss |1963–1964|p=664–665 #1118, Vol. 2}}

On 4 August German troops invaded Belgium. While awaiting the British declaration of war, Bethmann Hollweg appeared before the Reichstag to stress that Germany had not wanted the war and that the Russian military had ignited the blaze. The "injustice to Belgium" must be righted by the Empire, he said, but those who were so threatened could think only of how to cut their way through.
[[File:The Scrap of Paper - Enlist Today.jpg|thumb|British enlistment poster capitalizing on Bethmann Hollweg's "faux pas" in calling the treaty ensuring Belgium's neutrality a "scrap of paper"]]
He had a conversation with the British ambassador to Germany [[Sir Edward Goschen, 1st Baronet|Sir Edward Goschen]] on the evening of 4 August. In tears<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Oettingen |first=Wolfgang |title=Tagebücher. Eintrag vom 16. Dezember 1917 |language=de |trans-title=Diaries. Entry of 16 December 1917}}</ref> the Chancellor poured out his soul to him. For a "scrap of paper" (meaning the 1839 [[Treaty of London, 1839|Treaty of London]] guaranteeing Belgium's neutrality), he said, Britain wanted to wage war against a kindred nation that wished to live in peace with it. All efforts had collapsed before his eyes like a house of cards. In the end the Reich Chancellor and ambassador are said to have been weeping in each other's arms.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=193}} In his ''Reflections on the World War'' Bethmann Hollweg conceded that saying "scrap of paper" had been a faux pas ({{Lang|de|Entgleisung}}, {{Lit|derailment}}), but he held to his opinion that Belgian neutrality was as nothing compared to the approaching world war.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Bethmann Hollweg |first=Theobald |url=https://archive.org/details/reflectionsonwo00youngoog/page/n168/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Reflections on the World War |publisher=Thornton Butterworth |year=1920 |volume=1 |location=London |pages=159 |language= |translator-last=Young |translator-first=George}}</ref>

==== 1914: early reactions ====
Bethmann Hollweg remained largely unaffected by the patriotic enthusiasm in Germany in August 1914 (the so-called "[[spirit of 1914]]").{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=201}} A letter he sent to his friend Wolfgang von Oettingen on 30 August 1914 bears witness: "Work and hope have been sundered in my hands. But I feel innocent of the rivers of blood that now flow. Our people [{{Lang|de|Volk}}] is glorious and cannot perish."<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Oettingen |first=Wolfgang |title=Tagebücher. Eintrag vom August 1914 |language=de |trans-title=Diaries. Entry of August 1914}}</ref>

In what would later be called the [[Septemberprogramm|September Program]], the Empire formulated concrete war aims for the first time. The program contained demands for territory in Europe directed primarily against Russia, as well as the creation of a European customs union that would smooth the way for German economic interests in neighboring countries and secure German supremacy in central Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The September Memorandum (September 9, 1914) |url=https://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=980 |website=German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zechlin |first=Egmont |date=1964 |title=Deutschland zwischen Kabinettskrieg und Wirtschaftskrieg. Politik und Kriegführung in den ersten Monaten des Weltkrieges 1914 |trans-title=Germany between Cabinet War and Economic War. Politics and Warfare in the First Months of the World War 1914 |journal=Historische Zeitschrift |language=de |volume=199 |pages=405 ff|doi=10.1524/hzhz.1964.199.jg.347 |s2cid=164254042 }}</ref> Whether or not the plans originated with Bethmann Hollweg cannot be proven. His associate [[Kurt Riezler]] is generally considered to have been the author.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=265}} Riezler wrote on 20 September 1914 that the Chancellor would "never do more than listen on the issue of war aims."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Erdmann |first=Karl Dietrich |date=1964 |title=Zur Beurteilung Bethmann Hollwegs (mit Tagebuchauszügen Kurt Riezlers) |trans-title=On the Assessment of Bethmann Hollweg (with Diary Excerpts of Kurt Riezler) |journal=Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht |language=de |volume=15 |pages=538 |issn=0016-9056}}</ref> Nevertheless, Bethmann Hollweg signed the September Program.

Bethmann Hollweg admitted in 1918 that demanding the restoration of Belgium would probably have been the best thing to do. But under the enormous pressure coming from the military, which was clamoring for annexations ("That cursed sentiment at Headquarters"), it was not possible at the time, he said, and politics, as [[Otto von Bismarck]] had remarked, was the art of the possible.

Instead the Chancellor spoke of a "pledge" ({{Lang|de|Faustpfand}}) to Belgium and France. For him the formulation had the advantage that it did not lead to a premature commitment, since the question of redeeming the pledge would arise only at the end of the war. It was thus a rhetorical weapon against annexationist claims. Bethmann Hollweg probably never retracted his 4 August 1914 statement admitting guilt for the "injustice to Belgium", although some historians think he did.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ritter |first=Gerhard |title=Staatskunst und Kriegshandwerk: Das Problem des "Militarismus" in Deutschland |publisher=Oldenbourg |year=1964 |location=Munich |pages=47, Vol. 3 |language=de |trans-title=Statecraft and Warcraft: The Problem of "Militarism" in Germany}}</ref> In May 1917 he told his friend [[Karl von Weizsäcker]] that he had wanted to bind the Social Democrats to the Empire with both formulations ("pledge" and "injustice to Belgium").{{Sfn|Erdmann|1964|pp=529 f.}} Before the [[Weimar National Assembly]]'s [[Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I|committee of inquiry on the question of war guilt]] in 1919, he stressed that he had never revoked the confession of wrongdoing.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Stenographischen Berichte über die öffentlichen Verhandlungen des 15. Untersuchungsausschusses der Verfassungsgebenden Nationalversammlung nebst Beilagen |publisher=Die Deutsche Nationalversammlung im Jahre 1919/20 |year=1920 |volume=1 |location=Berlin |pages=234 f |language=de |trans-title=Stenographic Reports on the Public Proceedings of the 15th Committee of Inquiry of the Constituent National Assembly together with Supplements}}</ref>

At all times Bethmann Hollweg emphasized the defensive character he believed the war had. He always spoke of "securing" the Reich and, in the event of victory, of a "stronger Germany" – but never of a "larger one", as a member of the [[Pan-German League]] remarked disapprovingly.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Liebig |first=Hans |url=https://archive.org/details/diepolitikvonbet01liebuoft/page/280/mode/2up |title=Die Politik Bethmann Hollwegs |publisher=J.F. Lehmann |year=1919 |volume=1 |location=Munich |pages=280 |language=de}}</ref> Although Bethmann Hollweg spoke at Headquarters in March 1915 of the liberation of Belgium,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Admiral Gustav Bachmann: Lebenserinnerungen und Tagebuch 1915 |publisher=Brill |year=2022 |isbn=9783506795427 |editor-last=Bachmann |editor-first=Gustav |location=Paderborn |pages=92 |language=de |trans-title=Admiral Gustav Bachmann: Memoirs and Diary 1915 |editor-last2=Franken |editor-first2=Klaus}}</ref> he could not meet the demands of the left, which was insisting on a statement of total renunciation, and still continue to be sure of the goodwill of Wilhelm II.
[[File:Erich von Falkenhayn.jpg|left|thumb|[[Erich von Falkenhayn]]]]
Another problem proved to be informing the people of the military situation. As early as September 1914, Chief of the General Staff [[Erich von Falkenhayn]] had called for systematic public education about the unfavorable military situation resulting from the [[First Battle of the Marne]]. On the advice of the Foreign Office, which feared unpredictable consequences abroad, and of several business associations, Bethmann Hollweg refused to allow the government to disseminate the military truth.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|pp=210 ff.}} In spite of all self-deception, he said, education could happen "only gradually through events themselves". Confidence in victory was, after all, a "moral factor of tremendous importance".{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=212}}

While the [[National Liberal Party (Germany)|National Liberals]], unaware of the true situation on the front, moved more and more to the right and indulged in ideas of annexations, Bethmann Hollweg noted that partisanship for major territorial demands largely coincided with opposition to suffrage reform in Prussia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Bethmann Hollweg |first=Theobald |url=https://archive.org/details/BehmannHollwegTheobaldVon-BetrachtungenZumWeltkriege-Band2/page/n53/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Betrachtungen zum Weltkriege |publisher=Hobbing |year=1919–1921 |volume=2 |location=Berlin |pages=31 |language=de |trans-title=Reflections on the World War}}</ref> Foreign policy issues had an internal political side, something that was to prove a decisive, deep-seated problem for the Chancellor and the Empire.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=213}}

From the beginning of the war, the Reichstag operated under ''[[Burgfriedenspolitik]]'', a political truce between the parties and the government. It was based in large part on the work of the Chancellor. He had rejected the plan of leading military officers such as Admiral Tirpitz to arrest the SPD executive committee at the start of the war and to dissolve the party.{{Sfn|Rathenau|1967|p=40}} Bethmann Hollweg had in fact openly approached the Social Democrats in order to win them over to the Emperor and the Empire for the long term.

When he asked the SPD on 29 July 1914 what its position would be in the war, he was assured that he would not have to assume that there would be either sabotage or general strikes. After he had presented the SPD executive committee's letter to the Emperor, Wilhelm spoke in the Reichstag on 4 August, using words that were to become famous: "I no longer know any parties or denominations; today we are all German brothers and only German brothers."<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 September 2014 |title=Der "Burgfrieden" 1914 |url=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/erster-weltkrieg/innenpolitik/burgfrieden.html |website=Deutsches Historisches Museum}}</ref>

In retrospect, Bethmann Hollweg saw the day the war began as one of the greatest in German history. On 4 August, he thought, the internal barriers that had prevented the country from growing together into a true nation-state had fallen.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patemann |first=Reinhard |title=Der Kampf um die preußische Wahlreform |publisher=Droste |year=1964 |location=Düsseldorf |pages=19 |language=de |trans-title=The Struggle for Prussian Electoral Reform}}</ref> At the beginning of October 1914 he said, "The barriers must fall, a new era will begin after the war. The differences of class have receded as never before."{{Sfn|Ritter|1964|p=32 ff., Vol. 2}} Only in the following weeks did he begin to realize that the conservatives, "sitting there so icily", did not want to join the new community that spanned all world views.

==== 1915–1916: annexationists and the sinking of the ''Lusitania'' ====
In February 1915 the government committed itself to a "reorientation" that was to include electoral reform in Prussia. Bethmann Hollweg said that Prussia's [[Prussian three-class franchise|three-class franchise]] had "become impossible" and that it was necessary to move to equal manhood suffrage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wahnschaffe |first=Arnold |title=Der Reichskanzler von Bethmann Hollweg und die preußische Wahlreform |pages=196 |language=de |trans-title=Reich Chancellor von Bethmann Hollweg and Prussian Electoral Reform}}</ref> Bethmann Hollweg was accused at the time by both the left and the right of weakness in decision-making. The lack of a political center became increasingly apparent. It would have had to rely above all on the National Liberals, who under their annexationist spokesmen Ernst Bassermann and [[Gustav Stresemann]] did not consider cooperating with the left-liberal progressives standing behind Bethmann Hollweg.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=221}}
[[File:Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz.jpg|thumb|Grand Admiral [[Alfred von Tirpitz]]]]
Probably at the instigation of Alfred von Tirpitz, whom he admired, [[Frederick Augustus II, Grand Duke of Oldenburg]], as a spokesman for the annexationists, suggested to King [[Ludwig III of Bavaria]] in March 1915 that he demand from Wilhelm II, on behalf of the German princes, the dismissal of Bethmann Hollweg, who in his opinion was too weak and stood in the way of a "German peace". Ludwig, who wanted to enlarge Bavaria after a victory, did not do so because [[Georg von Hertling]], the chairman of the Bavarian Council of Ministers and future Reich chancellor (1917–1918), was able to prevent it.

The Chancellor showed a clear view of the Reich's military situation in the spring of 1915 in an unusual proposal he made to the Prussian Ministry of State. He suggested that two districts in [[Silesia]] (a province of Prussia) be ceded to Austria so that it would be easier for the Danube monarchy to make territorial concessions to Italy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Monticone |first=Alberto |date=September 1967 |title=Bethmann Hollweg e il problema italiano nell'aprile 1915 |trans-title=Bethmann Hollweg and the Italian Problem April 1915 |journal=Il Sagiatore |language=it |volume=1 |issue=3}}</ref> Bethmann Hollweg thought that it was the only way to prevent Italy from entering the war on the side of the [[Entente Powers]], and that if it did, the war would be lost. His ministerial colleagues rejected the proposal as "un-Prussian". Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary on 23 May 1915.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zechlin |first=Egmont |title=Das schlesische Angebot und die italienische Kriegsgefahr 1915 |pages=533 ff |language=de |trans-title=The Silesian Offer and the Italian War Threat 1915}}</ref>

On 7 May 1915 a German submarine torpedoed the British passenger ship [[RMS Lusitania|RMS ''Lusitania'']] off Ireland. The resulting deaths of over 120 Americans put a considerable strain on Germany's relations with the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birnbaum |first=Karl E. |title=Peace Moves and U-Boat Warfare. A Study of Imperial Germany's Policy towards the United States April 18, 1916 – January 9, 1917 |publisher=Almqvist and Wiksell |year=1958 |location=Stockholm |pages=32}}</ref> The question of [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] once again came under discussion. In an interview in November 1914, Admiral Tirpitz had described submarine warfare as the only truly effective means to fight the naval blockade that the United Kingdom had imposed on Germany.{{Sfn|von Tirpitz|1919|pp=151 ff}} Expecting that humanitarian arguments would carry little weight with the Admiralty, Bethmann Hollweg tried to avoid or at least delay unrestricted submarine warfare by asking critical questions. He doubted whether such military action aimed against the British war economy would be enough to decide the outcome of the war. He also feared early on that the United States would enter the war on the side of the Entente.

With the ''Lusitania'' sinking still a political issue, Bethmann Hollweg appeared before the Reichstag on 19 August 1915 and said, "We can use power – even externally – only in the interests of freedom." Considerations of power politics could nevertheless be more important than questions of moral principle. In the face of an increasing number of reports by German representatives in the Ottoman Empire of [[Armenian genocide|massacres of Armenians]], and when even the ambassador in Constantinople called for intervention, the Chancellor noted, "Our only aim is to keep the Ottoman Empire at our side until the end of the war, regardless of whether Armenians perish over it or not."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Enzyklopädie Erster Weltkrieg |publisher=Verlag Schöningh |year=2003 |isbn=3-506-73913-1 |editor-last=Hirschfeld |editor-first=Gerhard |location=Paderborn |pages=343 |language=de |trans-title=Encyclopedia of the First World War}}</ref>

In early March 1916 Bethmann Hollweg, using the threat of resignation, forced through the delay of unrestricted submarine warfare. Shortly afterwards Tirpitz tendered his own resignation, and it was accepted on 12 March.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=230}} The Chancellor's greatest adversary and proponent of submarine warfare, which Bethmann Hollweg called a "crime against the German people",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Janssen |first=Karl-Heinz |title=Der Kanzler und der General. Die Führungskrise um Bethmann Hollweg und Falkenhayn. (1914–1916) |publisher=Musterschmidt |year=1967 |location=Göttingen |pages=190 ff |trans-title=The Chancellor and the General. The Leadership Crisis between Bethmann Hollweg and Falkenhayn (1914–1916)}}</ref> had been defeated.

The breakup of the SPD was to all appearances imminent in March 1916. During a Reichstag session, many Social Democrats had expressed their approval of Bethmann Hollweg. The moderate wing under [[Friedrich Ebert]] seemed to be breaking from the left wing of the party. SPD chairman [[Hugo Haase]], who had spoken passionately in the Reichstag against the war's great bloodshed and the adoption of the emergency budget, was forced to resign and expelled from the SPD along with his supporters.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Engelmann |first1=Dieter |title=Hugo Haase. Lebensweg und politisches Vermächtnis eines streitbaren Sozialisten |last2=Naumann |first2=Horst |publisher=Edition Neue Wege |year=1999 |isbn=3-88348-216-1 |location=Berlin |pages=36 f |language=de |trans-title=Hugo Haase. Life and Political Legacy of a Contentious Socialist}}</ref> Bethmann Hollweg hoped for a merger of the Social Democrats supporting his war policy and the [[Progressive People's Party (Germany)|Progressive People's Party]] to form a centrist party (a "party of the sensible").{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=230}} Instead, the more radical and anti-war [[Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany|Independent Social Democratic Party]] (USPD) was formed in April 1917 with Haase at its head.

==== Hindenburg and Ludendorff ====
[[File:Hindenburg and ludendorff.jpg|left|thumb|272x272px|[[Paul von Hindenburg]] (left) and [[Erich Ludendorff]]]]
In July 1916 leading industrialists as well as government figures such as [[Walther Rathenau]] argued for transferring the [[Supreme Army Command]] (OHL) from Erich von Falkenhayn to [[Paul von Hindenburg]] and [[Erich Ludendorff]] and giving them dictatorial powers in the civilian sphere as well. Bethmann Hollweg supported the plan by publicly saying that the name Hindenburg was the terror of the enemy and by prevailing on the Emperor to give him command of the entire eastern front. On 28 August he convinced the Emperor to dismiss Falkenhayn, and the following day Wilhelm II appointed Hindenburg Chief of the General Staff of the Field Army and Ludendorff First Quartermaster General.

Early in the war Bethmann Hollweg had supported annexing the [[Polish Border Strip]] from [[Congress Poland]] in order to strengthen Germany's eastern border against Russia. The plan included removing ethnic Poles from the area and populating it with German settlers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hull |first=Isabel V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tiHdU0OxXUC&pg=PP7 |title=Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0801442583 |location=Ithaca, NY |pages=233 |author-link=Isabel V. Hull |access-date=7 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Holborn |first=Hajo |title=A History of Modern Germany: 1840–1945 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1982 |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=449 |author-link=Hajo Holborn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolf |first=Gerhard |title=Ideology and the Rationality of Domination: Nazi Germanization Policies in Poland |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0253048073 |location=Bloomington |pages=29–31}}</ref> The new Quartermaster General Ludendorff called for the immediate establishment of a pseudo-independent Kingdom of Poland as a "breeding station for people needed for further fighting in the east". In negotiations with Austrian Foreign Minister [[Stephan Burián von Rajecz]] in August 1916, the representatives of the [[Central Powers]] agreed on an independent constitutional kingdom of Poland, but under pressure from Bethmann Hollweg, it was not to be proclaimed until after the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Bethmann Hollweg |first=Theobald |url=https://archive.org/details/BehmannHollwegTheobaldVon-BetrachtungenZumWeltkriege-Band2/page/n111/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Betrachtungen zum Weltkriege |publisher=Hobbing |year=1919–1921 |volume=2 |location=Berlin |language=de |trans-title=Reflections on the World War}}</ref> On 18 October 1916, following protests from Vienna, the August agreement was declared invalid, and Poland's independence was brought forward to November. On 5 November 1916 the proclamation of the [[Regency Kingdom of Poland]] was announced.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=241}}

Bethmann Hollweg had succumbed to pressure from the army command and the Danube monarchy. He was able to prevent forced levies, but the fact that the military began recruiting the first volunteers for the Polish armed forces immediately after the proclamation of Polish independence revealed Ludendorff's plans. Although the Chancellor was not the driving force in the Polish question, even openly resisting the OHL, he was ultimately politically responsible.

In the fall of 1916, the OHL, which was increasingly wielding more power in the Reich, drafted a law under the [[Hindenburg Programme]] called the [[Auxiliary Services Act (1916)|Auxiliary Services Act]]. In order to increase Germany's industrial output, especially of weapons, it sought to militarize the economy by mobilizing all resources, both material and human, through the introduction of compulsory labor. The plan, especially its inclusion of women, caused widespread resistance among labor unions and the liberal and socialist parties in the Reichstag. As a result, the OHL was forced to make concessions that included arbitration committees, the expansion of trade unions' powers and a repeal of the act at the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nagornaja |first=Oksana |title=Gesetz über den vaterländischen Hilfsdienst, 5. Dezember 1916 |trans-title=Auxiliary Services Act, 5 December 1916 |url=https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c=dokument_de&dokument=0001_hil&object=context&st=&l=de |access-date=10 January 2024 |website=100(0) Schlüsseldokumente |language=de}}</ref>

At the same time, at the insistence of the OHL, the deportation of Belgian workers to the Reich began. In spite of Bethmann Hollweg's appeal to carefully consider the question of forced laborers, the coercive measures continued until February 1917.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=244}}

==== 1916–1917: peace initiatives and submarine warfare ====
On 7 October 1916 the Centre Party passed a resolution in which it came around to the military's position and for the first time called for unrestricted submarine warfare. Bethmann Hollweg later wrote in his ''Reflections'' that parliament had completely surrendered political power to the OHL.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Bethmann Hollweg |first=Theobald |url=https://archive.org/details/BehmannHollwegTheobaldVon-BetrachtungenZumWeltkriege-Band2/page/n149/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Betrachtungen zum Weltkriege |publisher=Hobbing |year=1919–1921 |volume=2 |location=Berlin |pages=128 |language=de |trans-title=Reflections on the World War}}</ref>

In the Ministry of State on 20 October 1916, the Chancellor proposed a separate peace offer by the Central Powers, citing the absence of a tangible initiative by the United States and the support of Austrian Foreign Minister Burián. He had in mind the restoration, as far as possible, of the pre-war situation. In mid-November 1916 Bethmann Hollweg sent an inquiry to Washington through Ambassador [[Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff]] about the prospect of a peace conference. But when the White House continued to show indecision, Bethmann Hollweg saw perhaps the last chance for a peace of reconciliation ({{Lang|de|Ausgleichsfrieden}}) in an offer of his own.{{Sfn|Ritter|1964|pp=346 ff.}}

After the [[Romania in World War I|victory over Romania]], when the military situation had changed in favor of the Empire, the Chancellor, speaking in the Reichstag on 12 December 1916, offered a negotiated peace ({{Lang|de|Verständigungsfrieden}}) to the Entente. He had the full support of the Emperor, who wrote in approval of Bethmann Hollweg's efforts that the peace proposal was "a moral deed necessary to relieve the world of the pressures weighing on all".<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Bethmann Hollweg |first=Theobald |url=https://archive.org/details/BehmannHollwegTheobaldVon-BetrachtungenZumWeltkriege-Band2/page/n173/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Betrachtungen zum Weltkriege |publisher=Hobbing |year=1919–1921 |volume=2 |location=Berlin |pages=152 f |language=de |trans-title=Reflections on the World War}}</ref> The governments of the Entente states, however, viewed the initiative skeptically.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R73059, Wilhelm Solf.jpg|thumb|216x216px|[[Wilhelm Solf]]]]
On 18 December U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] revealed his long-awaited peace initiative. He called for the disclosure of clearly formulated war aims – which the Empire was prepared to do – including withdrawal from Belgium. In response to demands by the pan-Germans, [[Wilhelm Solf]] made the proposal to create a contiguous German colonial empire in central Africa, annexing the [[Belgian Congo]]. By creating a German Central Africa, future peace would not be burdened by annexations in Europe. The implementation of the colonial war goal was never a priority to Bethmann Hollweg. What mattered to him and Solf was the formulation of a German war objective acceptable at home and abroad in the event of a victorious peace, something which neither politician believed in any longer.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fischer |first=Fritz |title=Krieg der Illusionen: Die deutsche Politik von 1911 bis 1914 |publisher=Droste |year=1969 |location=Düsseldorf |language=de |trans-title=War of Illusions: German Politics from 1911 to 1914}}</ref>

When the Entente was unwilling to make such compromises, Bethmann Hollweg on 7 January 1917 called for immediate concessions or Germany would respond with unrestricted submarine warfare. The Chancellor's marginal note to the declaration, sent to Ambassador Bernstorff in Washington, showed his negative view of the situation: "Perhaps you know a way to avoid the break with America."{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=252}}

The following day the Reich Chancellor traveled to [[Pszczyna|Pleß]] in Silesia where a [[9 January 1917 German Crown Council meeting|meeting of the Crown Council]] was to make the decision on submarine warfare. After the OHL and the Reichstag had expressed their approval, the final decision lay with the Emperor. Bethmann Hollweg later wrote<ref>{{Cite book |last=von der Ropp |first=Friedrich |title=Zwischen Gestern und Morgen |publisher=J. F. Steinkopf |year=1963 |location=Stuttgart |pages=101 f |language=de |trans-title=Between Yesterday and Tomorrow}}</ref> that Wilhelm was already completely in support of Ludendorff, who claimed that America had "no soldiers" and that if it did, submarine warfare would already have defeated France and England by the time U.S. forces arrived. Ludendorff's line of reasoning led the Emperor to ask Bethmann Hollweg why he "still had misgivings".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Regierte der Kaiser? Kriegstagebücher, Aufzeichnungen und Briefe des Chefs des Marine-Kabinetts Admiral Georg Alexander von Müller 1914–1918 |publisher=Musterschmidt |year=1959 |editor-last=Görlitz |editor-first=Walter |location=Göttingen |pages=249 |language=de |trans-title=Did the Emperor Govern? War Diaries, Records and Letters of the Chief of the Navy Cabinet Admiral Georg Alexander von Müller 1914–1918}}</ref>

It is difficult to argue against Bethmann Hollweg's later statement that the U-boat war had ultimately been waged because a majority in the Reichstag, the Supreme Army Command and the German people had wanted it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Bethmann Hollweg |first=Theobald |url=https://archive.org/details/BehmannHollwegTheobaldVon-BetrachtungenZumWeltkriege-Band2/page/n57/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Betrachtungen zum Weltkriege |publisher=Hobbing |year=1919–1921 |pages=36, Vol. 2 |language=de |trans-title=Reflections on the World War}}</ref> The outcome led the Chancellor to thoughts of resigning. He later told Walther Rathenau that he had stayed on in order to preserve the chances of a negotiated peace in spite of the submarine warfare. To Riezler he said in 1919 that he had not wanted to give way to the "Pan-Germans' rule by the saber".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meinecke |first=Friedrich |title=Erlebtes |publisher=Koehler & Amelang |year=1941 |location=Leipzig |pages=309 f |language=de |trans-title=Experiences}}</ref> According to his biographer von Vietsch, he was guided by a deep sense of loyalty to the Emperor, whom he did not want to put in a bad light by resigning. From that point on, Bethmann Hollweg was considered a failed politician in Germany.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=255}}

After the decision at Pleß, Wilson on 22 January read a message to the U.S. Senate that was a precursor to his [[Fourteen Points|14-point program]]. In it he argued for peace without victors and the right of peoples to self-determination. In March 1917 the [[Russian February Revolution]] shook the European power structure. On 29 March Bethmann Hollweg appeared before the press and, contrary to the wishes of the conservatives, declared that the Reich would not reinstate the government of the Tsar under any circumstances. The internal affairs of Russia, he said, were a matter for the Russian people. The internal political turmoil seemed to him to increase the chance of a special peace with Russia. It was also at this time that Germany expressed its support for [[Lenin|Lenin's]] return from exile.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hahlweg |first=Werner |title=Lenins Ruckkehr nach Russland 1917: Die deutschen Akten |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1957 |location=Leiden |pages=25 |language=de |trans-title=Lenin's Return to Russia in 1917: The German Files}}</ref>

Prompted by the changed circumstances and the declaration of war by the United States against Germany on 6 April, Wilhelm II initiated the 23 April Kreuznach Conference on War Objectives. Bethmann Hollweg proposed renouncing all annexations, but the idea was rejected in principle by the OHL. Everyone involved saw that Bethmann Hollweg then agreed to the OHL's war aims only because he thought that they would never be carried out. He noted, "I do not allow myself to be bound in any way by the protocol. If opportunities for peace open up anywhere, I pursue them."<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Westarp |first=Kuno |title=Konservative Politik im letzten Jahrzehnt des Kaiserreiches. Band 1: Von 1908 bis 1914 |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Gesellschaft |year=1935 |location=Berlin |pages=374 |language=de |trans-title=Conservative Politics in the Last Decade of the Empire. Volume 1: From 1908 to 1914 |author-link=Kuno von Westarp}}</ref>

==== Prussian electoral law reform ====
At that time the long postponed electoral law reform in Prussia reappeared on the political agenda. On 27 February 1917 Bethmann Hollweg came before the Reichstag and in a speech that he later called his "most significant" said that he saw the typically German expression of a liberal form of government in a monarchy based "on the broad shoulders of the free man". A progressive, social "people's empire" seemed to him acceptable to right and left, and therefore the long term solution to domestic problems.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bethmannhollweg00hollgoog/page/n281/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Bethmann Hollwegs Kriegsreden |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt |year=1919 |editor-last=Thimme |editor-first=Friedrich |location=Stuttgart |pages=208 ff |language=de |trans-title=Bethmann Hollweg's War Speeches}}</ref>

But this form of government had no appeal to the outside world, especially the USA. Bethmann Hollweg's intellectual limitation to German idealism made him misjudge its international impact. In the last months of his term, the Chancellor pursued the goal of a parliamentary monarchy and reform of Prussia's electoral system. On 9 March the conservatives moved even further away from the center and rejected the "whole liberal and parliamentary idea". To avoid a break with them, the Chancellor – who was also Prussian minister president – again avoided general constitutional theory in his remarks to the [[Prussian House of Lords]]. But he clearly rejected an insistence on three-class suffrage and said that his preference was to reform the electoral law as soon as possible. He nevertheless pointed out that rushing the issue could have "fatal" consequences and uttered words that were to echo widely:<blockquote>Woe to the statesman who does not recognize the signs of the times, woe to the statesman who believes that after a catastrophe such as the world has never before seen, we could simply pick up where we left off.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bethmannhollweg00hollgoog/page/n288/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Bethmann Hollwegs Kriegsreden |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt |year=1919 |editor-last=Thimme |editor-first=Friedrich |location=Stuttgart |pages=215 ff |language=de |trans-title=Bethmann Hollweg's War Speeches}}</ref></blockquote>Although Bethmann Hollweg had wanted to avoid any rupture by using imprecise formulations, the right took the speech as an expression of anti-state sentiment. The reactionary wing of the conservatives insulted him as a "henchman of the Jews and Social Democrats".{{Sfn|Ritter|1964|p=496, Vol. 3}} The progressive [[Conrad Haußmann]] (DVP), on the other hand, spoke of a "historic event" because the Chancellor had openly placed himself on the left.
[[File:Kaiser and his Generals LCCN2014699080.jpg|left|thumb|317x317px|Emperor Wilhelm II in an undated photo. Bethmann Hollweg is second from the right, standing. The German words above him mean "From a Great Time".]]
On 31 March 1917 Bethmann Hollweg appointed a commission to draft an emperor's message that would explicitly mention equal suffrage. The tired and spent chancellor then mustered all his remaining resolve and traveled to [[Bad Homburg]] to see Wilhelm II. In deference to conservative circles, the Emperor refused to make direct reference to equal (manhood) suffrage. Bethmann Hollweg agitatedly explained to him that it was impossible for him to advocate a bill under which a "worker adorned with the [[Iron Cross First Class]] would have to go to the polls next to a well-off draft dodger from the same village" with unequal voting rights.{{Sfn|Patemann|1964|pp=58 ff.}} In the end Wilhelm II agreed to the wording of the Easter message and thus to the democratization of Prussia. Ludendorff described the Easter Message of 7 April, which promised the abolition of three-class suffrage, as "kowtowing to revolution".{{Sfn|Ritter|1964|p=547, Vol. 3}}

The SPD called for a clear commitment from the German government to peace without annexations. There was hope for the peace initiative of [[Pope Benedict XV]], who had offered to mediate between the warring parties. The Chancellor and Wilhelm II agreed with the Pope's efforts and were prepared to release Belgium and cede Alsace–Lorraine.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Steglich |first=Wolfgang |title=Die Friedenspolitik der Mittelmächte 1917/1918 |publisher=F. Steiner Verlag |year=1964 |volume=1 |location=Wiesbaden |pages=124 ff |language=de |trans-title=The Peace Policy of the Central Powers 1917/1918}}</ref> The nuncio in Munich, [[Eugenio Pacelli]], later said confidentially that the prospects for peace would have been good if Bethmann Hollweg had remained chancellor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herzogin Viktoria Luise |title=Ein Leben als Tochter des Kaisers |publisher=Göttinger Verlagsanstalt |year=1965 |location=Göttingen |pages=159 |language=de |trans-title=A Life as the Kaiser's Daughter}}</ref>

It was at that time that [[Matthias Erzberger]] of the Centre Party put his [[Reichstag Peace Resolution]] before the main parliamentary committee. The efforts, which in their radicalism were also directed against the Chancellor, astonished Bethmann Hollweg, since the position of the broad Reichstag majority had always been with him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Epstein |first=K. |title=Matthias Erzberger und das Dilemma der deutschen Demokratie |publisher=Leber |year=1962 |location=Berlin |pages=215 |language=de |trans-title=Matthias Erzberger and the Dilemma of German Democracy}}</ref>

==== Resignation and retirement ====
Ludendorff then saw an opportunity to have the Reichstag accomplish his goal of deposing Bethmann Hollweg. At the forefront of his thinking was the National Liberal [[Gustav Stresemann]], who held annexationist positions and declared the Chancellor unsuitable for a negotiated peace. "A Reich chancellor must be able to assert himself; if he cannot, he must draw the consequences."{{Sfn|Ritter|1964|p=566, Vol. 3}} In his reply, Bethmann Hollweg spoke of the "overwhelming achievements of the people in the war". He was convinced that equal manhood suffrage would bring "no impairment, but an extraordinary strengthening and consolidation of the monarchical idea." The words led Emperor Wilhelm II to say to his chief of cabinet von Valentini, "And I am to dismiss the man who towers above all others by a head!"{{Sfn|Frauendienst|1955|pp=188–193}}

Two days after the Chancellor's speech, the Emperor published his "July Message" in which he pledged that "the next elections can be held under the new, equal [manhood] suffrage law". Wilhelm Solf later called this a "complete victory for the idea of a social emperor". In response, Colonel Max Bauer, OHL commissioner, spread the word that Ludendorff thought the war was lost if the Chancellor stayed.{{Sfn|Ritter|1964|p=576, Vol. 3}} [[Crown Prince Wilhelm]] suggested to his father that representatives of the Reichstag parties be consulted about the Chancellor's staying. The deputies [[Kuno von Westarp]] (German National People's Party), Gustav Stresemann (German People's Party), and Erich Mertin (Free Conservative Party) spoke in favor of the Chancellor's dismissal, and only [[Friedrich von Payer]] (Progressive People's Party) and [[Eduard David]] (SPD) spoke in favor of his remaining in office.

In their efforts to achieve a negotiated peace, the majority parties in the Reichstag saw Bethmann Hollweg as an unacceptable negotiator because he had been in the position too long and, in their view, was too weak in his dealings with the Supreme Army Command. He was too willing to compromise with them even though he had held out the prospect of internal reforms.

In a letter to the Emperor dated 12 July 1917, Ludendorff threatened to resign, and Hindenburg joined in the ultimatum. To spare the Emperor and himself the embarrassment of a dismissal, Bethmann Hollweg submitted his resignation.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=275}} The Emperor yielded to pressure from the military leadership and agreed to the request. On 13 July 1917 Bethmann Hollweg resigned.

The reactions to Bethmann Hollweg's resignation were as varied as the assessments of his activities during his term in office. He himself wrote that he could resign without bitterness but with pain at the spectacle Germany was offering the "listening enemy". His successor, [[Georg Michaelis]], whose name was put forward by the OHL, prevented the papal peace initiative from advancing when he withdrew concessions, including withdrawal from Belgium. Michaelis was succeeded on 1 November 1917 by [[Georg von Hertling]], a conservative southern German whom Bethmann Hollweg from the beginning had wanted as his successor. Hertling nevertheless admitted that he disliked Bethmann's views, "which leaned very far to the left".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graf von Hertling |first=Karl |title=Ein Jahr in der Reichskanzlei. Erinnerungen an die Kanzlerschaft meines Vaters |publisher=Verlag Herder |year=1919 |location=Freiburg |pages=4 |language=de |trans-title=A Year in the Reich Chancellry. Recollections of the Chancellorship of my Father}}</ref>

The former chancellor retired to his Hohenfinow estate and devoted himself to agriculture. He called the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919|revolution]] that broke out in Germany in November 1918 a "{{Lang|fr|désastre}}". He thought that the result of the world war should have been a genuine league of nations, but now only a "sham league built on imperialist orgies" would be the result. Whether they liked it or not, they were standing "on the threshold of a new era, and a democratic one at that".{{Sfn|Epstein|1962|p=303}}
[[File:Bethmann Hollweg Grab.jpg|thumb|Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg's grave]]

In May 1919 the first part of Bethmann Hollweg's ''Reflections on the World War'' was published. In retrospect he viewed Germany's part in the start of the war as follows:<blockquote>We were burdened in the heaviest way by 1870/1871 [the [[Franco-Prussian War]]] and by our central geographical position. After the Emperor came to power, we often did the opposite of what we could have done to make the burden bearable. Admittedly, world imperialism would have prevailed even without our intervention, and it remains very doubtful whether we could have prevented the natural French, Russian, and British antagonisms from uniting against us, even if we had acted reasonably. Guilt we have brought upon ourselves, but only all-round and common guilt could have given rise to the world catastrophe.{{Sfn|Stern|1968|p=46}}</blockquote>
Bethmann Hollweg received prominent attention throughout the world in June 1919 when he formally asked the [[Allied and Associated Powers]] to place him on trial instead of the Emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bass |first=Gary Jonathan |title=Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2002 |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=77}}</ref> The [[Supreme War Council]] decided to ignore his request. He was often mentioned as among those who might be tried by Allies for political offences in connection with the origin of the war.

Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg died of acute pneumonia on 1 January 1921 without having been able to complete the second part of his reflections.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 1921 |title=Bethmann Hollweg dies near Berlin. Ex-Imperial Chancellor, Author of "Scrap of Paper" Phrase, Succumbs to Pneumonia |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1921/01/03/archives/bethmann-hollweg-dies-near-berlin-eximperial-chancellor-author-of.html}}</ref> On the gravestone of the former Reich chancellor is a Bible verse of his own choosing: "Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness" (Matthew 5:6).

=== Cabinet ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="4" | Cabinet (1909–1917) {{Anchor|Cabinet}}
|-
! colspan="1" | Office
! colspan="1" | Incumbent
! colspan="1" | In office
! colspan="1" | Party
|-
|[[Chancellor of Germany|Imperial Chancellor]]
|'''Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg'''
|14 July 1909 – 13 July 1917
|[[Independent politician|None]]
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Vice-Chancellor of Germany]] [[Federal Ministry of the Interior and Community|Secretary of the Interior]]
|[[Clemens von Delbrück]]
|14 July 1909 – 22 May 1916
|None
|-
|[[Karl Helfferich]]
|22 May 1916 – 23 October 1917
|None
|-
| rowspan="4" | [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Germany)|Secretary for Foreign Affairs]]
|[[Wilhelm von Schoen]]
|7 October 1907 – 28 June 1910
|None
|-
|[[Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter]]
|28 June 1910 – 30 December 1912
|None
|-
|[[Gottlieb von Jagow]]
|30 December 1912 – 22. November 1916
|None
|-
|[[Arthur Zimmermann]]
|22 November 1916 – 6 August 1917
|None
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Reichsjustizamt|Secretary of Justice]]
|[[Rudolf Arnold Nieberding]]
|10 July 1893 – 25 October 1909
|None
|-
|[[Hermann Lisco]]
|25 October 1909 – 5 August 1917
|None
|-
| rowspan="4" | [[List of German finance ministers|Secretary of the Treasury]]
|Adolf Wermuth
|14 July 1909 – 16 March 1912
|None
|-
|Hermann Kühn
|16 March 1912 – 31 January 1915
|None
|-
|Karl Helfferich
|31 January 1915 – 22 May 1916
|None
|-
|[[Siegfried von Roedern]]
|22 May 1916 – 13 November 1918
|None
|-
|[[List of German postal ministers|Secretary of the Post Office]]
|Reinhold Kraetke
|6 May 1901 – 5 August 1917
|None
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[German Imperial Naval Office|Secretary of the Navy]]
|[[Alfred von Tirpitz]]
|18 June 1897 – 15 March 1916
|None
|-
|[[Eduard von Capelle]]
|15 March 1916 – 5 October 1918
|None
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[List of German colonial ministers|Secretary for the Colonies]]
|[[Bernhard Dernburg]]
|17 May 1907 – 9 June 1910
|None
|-
|[[Friedrich von Lindequist]]
|10 June 1910 – 3 November 1911
|None
|-
|[[Wilhelm Solf]]
|20 November 1911 – 13 December 1918
|None
|-
|[[Reichsernährungsamt|Secretary for Food]]
|[[Adolf Tortilowicz von Batocki-Friebe]]
|26 May 1916 – 6 August 1917
|None
|}

== Political legacy and historical assessment ==
None of Bethmann Hollweg's circle of friends achieved significant influence during the [[Weimar Republic]]. The only politician whose worldview was related to Bethmann Hollweg's was Gustav Stresemann. But it was he who, as a National Liberal member of the Reichstag, had railed against Bethmann Hollweg.

[[Adolf Hitler]] was hostile towards the Reich chancellor's personality in his book ''[[Mein Kampf]]''. He lamented the "miserable attitude and weakness of this philosophizing weakling". He called his Reichstag speeches a "helpless stammering".{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|p=298}} Grand Admiral [[Alfred von Tirpitz]] condemned the "leaning of our intellectuals toward Western culture".{{Sfn|von Tirpitz|1919|p=150}}

Bethmann Hollweg's dealings with the Social Democrats influenced the course of the party's history. As a result of {{Lang|de|Burgfriedenspolitik}}, the SPD became "electable" for large sections of the middle classes and, as a people's party, was able to exert great influence on the constitution of the Weimar Republic as well as on that of the [[Federal Republic of Germany]]. According to historian Eberhard von Vietsch, the SPD's development into a bourgeois people's party to the left of center would have been more difficult without Bethmann Hollweg's initiative to integrate the SPD into the political system.{{Sfn|von Vietsch|1969|pp=302 ff}}

Bethmann Hollweg's domestic opponents accused him of being a "defeatist" who wanted to cheat the "people of the fruits of victory" with a "rotten peace". The assessment was preserved by national parties in the Weimar Republic until it finally became official with the victory of the [[Nazi Party]]. After 1945 Bethmann Hollweg was considered a "chancellor without qualities", an "indecisive [[Hamlet]] who doubted himself".{{Sfn|Stern|1968|p=46}}

In Hohenfinow today, only the weathered and partially destroyed grave of the former Reich chancellor remains.

==Honors and awards==
===Orders and decorations===
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Prussia}}:<ref name="rangliste">{{citation|title=Rangliste de Königlich Preußischen Armee|year=1914|chapter=Offiziere à la suite der Armee|page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015062308179&view=1up&seq=68&skin=2021 36]|location=Berlin|publisher=Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn|language=German|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref>
** [[Order of the Black Eagle|Knight of the Black Eagle]], with Collar and in Brilliants
** [[Order of the Red Eagle|Knight of the Red Eagle]], 3rd Class with Bow and Crown
** [[Order of the Crown (Prussia)|Knight of the Crown Order]], 2nd Class
** Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal [[House Order of Hohenzollern]]
** [[Red Cross Medal (Prussia)|Red Cross Medal]], 3rd Class
** Landwehr Service Medal, 2nd Class
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Sigmaringen.png}} [[Hohenzollern]]: Cross of Honour of the [[House Order of Hohenzollern#Princely House Order|Princely House Order of Hohenzollern]], 1st Class<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagicon image|Flagge Herzogtum Anhalt.svg}} [[Duchy of Anhalt|Anhalt]]: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Albert the Bear]]<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flag|Baden}}:<ref name="rangliste"/>
** [[Order of the Zähringer Lion|Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion]], with Oak Leaves, ''1908''<ref name="HandbuchBaden">{{citation|title=Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden|year=1910|chapter=Großherzogliche Orden|chapter-url=https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1881286|page=[https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1881396 148]|location=Karlsruhe|via=blb-karlsruhe.de}}</ref>
** Knight of the [[House Order of Fidelity]]
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Bavaria}}:<ref name="rangliste"/>
** [[Order of Saint Hubert|Knight of St. Hubert]], ''1909''<ref>{{citation|title=Hof- und – Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern|year=1914|language=German|chapter=Königliche Orden|chapter-url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89002382687&view=1up&seq=41&skin=2021|location=Munich|publisher=Druck and Verlag|page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89002382687&view=1up&seq=45&skin=2021 11]|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref>
** [[Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown|Grand Cross of Merit of the Bavarian Crown]]
* {{flag|Brunswick}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Henry the Lion]]<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagicon|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Altenburg}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Meiningen}} [[Ernestine duchies]]: Grand Cross of the [[Saxe-Ernestine House Order]]<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flag|Grand Duchy of Hesse}}:<ref name="ordensliste">{{citation|title=Großherzoglich Hessische Ordensliste|pages=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112089248618&view=1up&seq=17&skin=2021 9], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112089248618&view=1up&seq=29 21], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112089248618&view=1up&seq=107&skin=2021 99]|language=German|location=Darmstadt|year=1914|publisher=Staatsverlag|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref>
** Grand Cross of the [[Order of Philip the Magnanimous|Merit Order of Philip the Magnanimous]], ''21 November 1908''
** Grand Cross of the [[Ludwig Order]], ''25 November 1910''
* {{Flagicon image|Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg}} [[Mecklenburg]]:<ref name="rangliste"/>
** [[House Order of the Wendish Crown|Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown]], with Golden Crown
** [[Order of the Griffon (Mecklenburg)|Grand Cross of the Griffon]]
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Saxony}}:<ref name="rangliste"/>
** [[Order of the Rue Crown|Knight of the Rue Crown]]
** Grand Cross of the [[Albert Order]], with Golden Star
* {{flag|Schaumburg-Lippe}}: Cross of Honour of the House Order of Schaumburg-Lippe, 1st Class<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{Flag|Württemberg}}: [[Order of the Crown (Württemberg)|Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown]]<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagicon|Austrian Empire}} {{flagicon|Kingdom of Hungary|1896}} [[Austria-Hungary]]: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary|Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen]], ''1909''; in Brilliants, ''1917''<ref>{{citation|chapter-url=https://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=shb&datum=1918&size=45&page=427|chapter=St. Stephans-Orden|title=Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie|date=1918|access-date=15 November 2021|page=[https://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=shb&datum=1918&page=430&size=45 56]}}</ref>
* {{flag|Belgium}}: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]]<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Bulgaria}}: [[Order of Saint Alexander (Bulgaria)|Grand Cross of St. Alexander]], with Collar<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flag|Denmark}}:<ref name="DanskStatskalender">{{cite book |year=1914 |orig-year=1st pub.:1801 |editor1-last=Bille-Hansen |editor1-first=A. C. |editor2-last=Holck |editor2-first=Harald |title=Statshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1914 |trans-title=State Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1914 |url=https://slaegtsbibliotek.dk/921890.pdf#page=42 |series=Kongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender |language=da |location=Copenhagen |publisher=J.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri |pages=5–6, 9–10 |access-date=16 November 2021 |via=[[:da:DIS Danmark]]}}</ref>
** [[Order of the Dannebrog|Grand Cross of the Dannebrog]], ''19 November 1906''
** [[Order of the Elephant|Knight of the Elephant]], ''25 February 1913''
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}:<ref name="rangliste"/>
** [[Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation|Knight of the Annunciation]], ''22 March 1910''<ref name="dell'interno1920">{{cite book|author=Italy. Ministero dell'interno|title=Calendario generale del regno d'Italia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KU1TIJPtKx0C&pg=PR3|year=1920|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KU1TIJPtKx0C&pg=PA58 58]}}</ref>
** [[Order of the Crown of Italy|Grand Cross of the Crown of Italy]]
* {{flag|Ottoman Empire}}: [[Order of Osmanieh]], 1st Class in Brilliants<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagicon image|Early 20th Century Qajar Flag.svg}} [[Qajar Iran|Persia]]: [[Order of the Lion and the Sun]], 1st Class in Brilliants<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}: [[Order of the Crown of Romania|Grand Cross of the Crown of Romania]]<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagcountry|Russian Empire}}: [[Order of St. Andrew|Knight of St. Andrew]], ''1910''<ref name="rangliste"/>
* {{flagcountry|Restoration (Spain)}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Charles III]], ''2 November 1905''<ref>{{Citation |title=Guía Oficial de España |date=1914 |page=210 |chapter=Real y distinguida orden de Carlos III |chapter-url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0001011466&search=&lang=es |place=Madrid |language=es |access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref>
* {{flag|Sweden}}: [[Order of the Polar Star|Commander Grand Cross of the North Star]], ''1908''<ref>{{citation|title=Sveriges statskalender|year=1911|url=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/62479/1/gupea_2077_62479_1.pdf|access-date=16 November 2021|page=558|language=sv|via=gupea.ub.gu.se}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the [[Royal Victorian Order]]<ref name="rangliste"/>
}}

===Military appointments===
* [[Major general]] [[à la suite]] of the [[Prussian Army]]<ref name="rangliste"/>

==See also==
* [[Causes of World War I]]
* [[German entry into World War I]]
* [[History of Germany during World War I]]
* [[Bellevue Conference (September 11, 1917)]]
* [[Berlin Conference (March 26-27, 1917)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
=== In English ===
* {{cite book |first=Theobald |last=Bethmann Hollweg |title=Reflections on the World War |url=https://archive.org/details/reflectionsonwo00youngoog |language=en |volume=1 |place=London: Butterworths |date=1920}}
* Jarausch, Konrad Hugo. "Revising German History: Bethmann Hollweg Revisited." ''Central European History'' 21#3 (1988): 224–243, historiography [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4546122 in JSTOR]
* Jarausch, Konrad H. "The Illusion of Limited War: Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg's Calculated Risk, July 1914." Central European History 2.1 (1969): 48-76. [https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/37919/ssoar-hsrsupp-2012-24-jarausch-The_illusion_of_limited_war.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&lnkname=ssoar-hsrsupp-2012-24-jarausch-The_illusion_of_limited_war.pdf online]
* Langdon, John W. "Emerging from Fischer's shadow: recent examinations of the crisis of July 1914." ''History Teacher'' 20.1 (1986): 63–86, historiography [https://www.jstor.org/stable/493177 in JSTOR]

===In German===
* Bethmann Hollweg (1919–1921). ''Betrachtungen zum Weltkriege.'' Berlin: Hobbing.
** Vol. 1: ''[https://archive.org/details/BehmannHollwegTheobaldVon-BetrachtungenZumWeltkriege-Band1/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater Vor dem Kriege]'' [''Before the War'']
** Vol. 2: ''[https://archive.org/details/BehmannHollwegTheobaldVon-BetrachtungenZumWeltkriege-Band2/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater Während des Krieges]'' [''During the War'']
* von Vietsch, Eberhard (1969). ''Bethmann Hollweg. Staatsmann zwischen Macht und Ethos'' [''Bethmann Hollweg. Statesman Between Power and Ethos''] Boppard: Boldt.
* {{NDB|2|188|193|Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald Theodor Friedrich Alfred von|Werner Frauendienst|118510320}}
* Zmarzlik, Hans G. (1957): ''Bethmann Hollweg als Reichskanzler, 1909–1914. Studien zu Möglichkeiten und Grenzen seiner innerpolitischen Machtstellung'' [''Bethmann Hollweg as Reich Chancellor, 1909–1914. Studies on the Possibilities and Limits of his Domestic Power Position''] {{ISSN|0522-6643}}). Düsseldorf: Droste.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg}}
* Katharine Anne Lerman: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/bethmann_hollweg_theobald_von/ "Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von"], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/001658}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef | rows=2 | before=[[Bernhard von Bülow|Prince Bülow]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Chancellor of Germany (German Reich)|Chancellor of Germany]] | years=1909–1917}}
{{s-aft | rows=2 | after=[[Georg Michaelis]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl | title=[[Prime Minister of Prussia]] | years=1909–1917}}
{{s-bef |before=[[Arthur von Posadowsky-Wehner]]}}
{{s-ttl |title=[[Vice Chancellor of Germany]] |years=1907–1909}}
{{s-aft |after=[[Clemens von Delbrück]] }}
{{s-end}}

{{GermanChancellors}}
{{Interior Ministers of Germany}}
{{Prime Ministers of Prussia}}
{{PrussianFMs}}
{{Interior Ministers of Prussia}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Germany}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von}}
[[Category:1856 births]]
[[Category:1921 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century chancellors of Germany]]
[[Category:People from Barnim]]
[[Category:German untitled nobility]]
[[Category:German Protestants]]
[[Category:German people of Swiss descent]]
[[Category:Free Conservative Party politicians]]
[[Category:Provincial presidents of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:Vice-chancellors of Germany]]
[[Category:Government ministers of Germany]]
[[Category:Members of the 8th Reichstag of the German Empire]]
[[Category:Foreign ministers of Prussia]]
[[Category:Interior ministers of Prussia]]
[[Category:Deputy prime ministers of Prussia]]
[[Category:Hindu–German Conspiracy]]
[[Category:German people of World War I]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Iron Cross, 1st class]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Military Merit Order (Bavaria)]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog]]
[[Category:Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Romania)]]
[[Category:Annulled Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:Von Bethmann-Hollweg family|Theobald]]
[[Category:People of the July Crisis]]

2 Foreigners in Bollywood

2026-02-24T16:14:41Z

MarcyThompson89: created new pg...

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox social media personality
| name = 2 Foreigners in Bollywood
| image =
| occupation = {{hlist|Comedy group| actors}}
| website =
| youtube_handle = 2ForeignersInBollywood
| youtube_display_name =
| youtube_years_active = 2015–present
| youtube_genre = Comedy
| youtube_subscribers = 6.87 Million
| youtube_views = 899 Million
}}

'''2 Foreigners in Bollywood''' is a comedy group known from social media based in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sharma|first1=Riya|title='CP is epic': '2 foreigners in Bollywood' come to Delhi|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/cp-is-epic-2-foreigners-in-bollywood-come-to-delhi/articleshow/56020165.cms|access-date=5 October 2017|work=Delhi Times Of India|date=17 December 2016}}</ref> The group consists of members Johan Bartoli, Hampus Bergqvist and Vidhan Pratap Singh.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jagannathan|first1=Akanksha|title=Meet The '2 Foreigners In Bollywood' Who Have Been Making Those Hilarious Videos|url=https://www.scoopwhoop.com/meet-the-2-foreigners-in-bollywood-who-have-been-making-those-hilarious-videos|access-date=5 October 2017|work=Scoop Whoop News|date=15 March 2017}}</ref> Johan and Hampus both come from [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], and moved to India in September 2015 to work as actors in the [[Bollywood|Hindi Film Industry]] after completing their education in business school.<ref name=times>{{cite news|last1=Ganesan Ram|first1=Sharmila|title=Two Swedes on how to break into Bollywood|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Two-Swedes-on-how-to-break-into-Bollywood/articleshow/53247572.cms|access-date=5 October 2017|work=The Times of India|date=17 July 2016}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1124650/meet-two-foreigners-bollywood-taking-internet-storm/|title=Meet the two foreigners in Bollywood who are taking the internet by storm|last=Qaisar|first=Aliza|date=2016-07-04|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=2018-04-09|language=en-US}}</ref> They both were fond of cinema from different parts of the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-07-09 |title=From Sweden to Mumbai: Meet the guys behind the '2 foreigners in Bollywood' videos |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/from-sweden-to-mumbai-meet-the-guys-behind-the-2-foreigners-in-bollywood-videos-2881788.html |access-date=2022-06-04 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref>

The comedy group is best known for their Facebook page and YouTube channel '2 Foreigners In Bollywood' where they upload comedy videos.<ref name="times" /> Their video content is about cultural clashes and every day situations in India.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Carlström|first1=Vilhelm|title=These hilarious Swedes shunned banking careers to try to make it in Bollywood - now they're going viral|url=http://nordic.businessinsider.com/these-2-swedish-guys-trying-to-make-in-bollywood-are-going-viral-in-india-2016-7/|access-date=5 October 2017|work=Business Insider Nordic|date=27 July 2016|archive-date=4 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004033553/http://nordic.businessinsider.com/these-2-swedish-guys-trying-to-make-in-bollywood-are-going-viral-in-india-2016-7|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In June 2017, 2 Foreigners In Bollywood was the most viewed original video content page on Facebook India with over 70 million views in that month.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Singh|first1=Devika|title=India's top original video creators on Facebook|url=http://www.businesstoday.in/latest/trends/india-top-original-video-creators-on-facebook/story/257040.html|access-date=5 October 2017|work=Business Today|date=10 August 2017}}</ref> Their Facebook page has 3.5 million followers (as of October 2017).

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.facebook.com/2foreignersinbollywood Facebook page]
* [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCnuen5DBNNREHhvC-VY296Q Youtube channel]

[[Category:YouTube channels launched in 2015]]
[[Category:Swedish comedy duos]]
[[Category:Indian comedy duos]]
[[Category:Comedy troupes]]
[[Category:Indian comedians]]
[[Category:Comedy YouTubers]]
[[Category:Swedish expatriate actors]]
[[Category:Swedish expatriates in India]]
[[Category:Hindi cinema]]

Sirumalai Hill Banana

2026-02-21T04:10:56Z

MarcyThompson89: started entry

{{Short description|Banana from the Western Ghats in India}}{{Infobox geographical indication
| name = Sirumalai Hill Banana
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| description = [[Banana]]s from [[Sirumalai]] region
| type = Agricultural
| area = [[Sirumalai]], [[Dindigul district]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| country = India
| registered = 2008–09
| material =
| official website =
}}

'''Sirumalai Hill Banana''' is a type of [[banana]] grown in the [[Sirumalai]] region in the [[Palani Hills]] of the [[Western Ghats]] in the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://search.ipindia.gov.in/GIRPublic/Application/Details/126|title=Application details|publisher=[[Government of India]]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=6 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506135920/https://search.ipindia.gov.in/GIRPublic/Application/Details/126|url-status=live}}</ref> It was declared as a [[List of geographical indications in India|geographical indication]] in 2008–09.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://ipindia.gov.in/registered-gls.htm|title=Geographical indications in India|publisher=[[Government of India]]|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=3 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203233006/https://ipindia.gov.in/registered-gls.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Description ==
The [[banana]] is cultivated at altitudes of {{cvt|2500-3000|ft}} along the [[Western Ghats]]. It is often grown as a rain-fed crop on [[loamy soil]] with a [[pH]] range of 5.5 to 6.5. The plantain trees are grown during July–August during the [[South-west monsoon]] season and may be grown along with other plants in [[coffee]] or [[timber]] plantations. The trees grow up to {{cvt|10|ft}} tall and the crop is harvested after eight months. Over the past decade{{When|date=February 2026}}, the variety has been severely affected by [[banana bunchy top virus]] with various steps taken to alleviate the same.<ref name="Sahasa">{{cite web|url=https://sahasa.in/2021/03/15/eathamozhy-tall-coconut-of-tamil-nadu/|title=Sirumalai Hill Banana of Tamil Nadu|work=Sahasa|date=15 March 2015|access-date=1 December 2023|archive-date=27 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527080247/https://sahasa.in/2021/03/15/eathamozhy-tall-coconut-of-tamil-nadu/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nrcb.icar.gov.in/sirumalai.php|title=Workshop on "Sirumalai" a GI tagged banana, on its cultivation and pest and disease management|publisher=National Research Centre for Banana|date=7 December 2023|access-date=31 December 2023|archive-date=27 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527080408/https://nrcb.icar.gov.in/sirumalai.php|url-status=live}}</ref>

The fruit is known for its unique smell and flavor. The ripe fruits are yellowish in color with a thicker peel. The fruits can be stored for up to ten days at the right temperature conditions. The fruit pulp is slightly harder with has less moisture content, large [[sugar]] content (230 [[brix]]), and high [[potassium]].<ref name="Sahasa"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Geographical indications in Tamil Nadu}}
{{Kongu Nadu}}

[[Category:Agriculture in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Bananas]]
[[Category:Banana cultivars]]
[[Category:GI Tagged banana varieties of India]]
[[Category:Geographical indications in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Kongu Nadu]]
[[Category:Dindigul district]]

Finance Secretary (India)

2026-02-18T10:33:53Z

MarcyThompson89: improved citations further and corrected details to improve readability

{{Short description|Administrative head of the Ministry of Finance}}
{{Other uses|Finance secretary (disambiguation){{!}}Finance secretary}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox official post
| post = Finance Secretary
| body = India
| native_name = ''भारत के वित्त सचिव''
| flag = Flag of India.svg
| flagsize = 110px
| flagborder = Yes
| flagcaption = [[Flag of India]]
| insignia = Emblem_of_India.svg
| insigniasize = 75px
| insigniacaption =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| incumbent = Vacant
| incumbentsince =
| type =
| status =
| department = [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]]
| style =
| member_of =
| reports_to = [[Minister of Finance (India)|The Finance Minister]]
| residence = [[New Moti Bagh]], [[New Delhi, India]]
| seat = [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]] [[Secretariat Building, New Delhi|North Block, Cabinet Secretariat]] [[Raisina Hill]] [[New Delhi]]
| nominator =
| appointer = [[Appointments Committee of the Cabinet]]
| appointer_qualified =
| termlength = {{raise|0.0em|co-terminus with superannuation, term can be extended.}}
| termlength_qualified =
| constituting_instrument =
| precursor =
| formation = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1947}}
| first =
| last =
| abolished =
| succession =
| abbreviation =
| unofficial_names =
| deputy =
| salary = {{INRConvert|225000}} monthly
| website = {{URL|http://www.finmin.nic.in/|Official Website}}
}}
{{Politics of India}}
The '''Finance Secretary''' ([[ISO 15919|ISO]]: ''Vitta Saciv'') is the administrative head of the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]]. This post is held by senior [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS officer]] of the rank of [[Secretary to Government of India]].

Under Section 22, of [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934]], Finance Secretary signs the [[Indian 1-rupee note|1-rupee note]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Who Signs On Rupee One Note? Which Was Highest Value Note Printed In India? |url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/who-signs-on-rupee-one-note-which-was-the-highest-value-note-printed-in-india-read-on-to-know-2418690 |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=NDTV.com}}</ref>

As a [[Secretary to Government of India]], the Finance Secretary ranks 23rd on [[Indian order of precedence|Indian Order of Precedence.]]<ref name="rajyasabha2">{{cite web|url=http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/guidline_govt_mp/chap11.pdf|title=Order of Precedence|date=July 26, 1979|work=[[Rajya Sabha]]|publisher=President's Secretariat|access-date=September 24, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/table_of_precedence.pdf|title=Table of Precedence|date=July 26, 1979|website=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], [[Government of India]]|publisher=President's Secretariat|url-status=dead|access-date=September 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527155701/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/table_of_precedence.pdf|archive-date=27 May 2014}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/hindi/top|title=Table of Precedence|website=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], [[Government of India]]|publisher=President's Secretariat|url-status=dead|access-date=September 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428030937/http://mha.nic.in/hindi/top|archive-date=28 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Maheshwari 2001 6662">{{cite book|title=Indian Administration|last=Maheshwari|first=S.R.|publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Ltd.|year=2000|edition=6th |isbn=9788125019886|location=[[New Delhi]]}}</ref>

== Powers, responsibilities and postings ==
Finance Secretary is the administrative head of the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]], and is the principal adviser to the [[Minister of Finance (India)|Finance Minister]] on all matters of policy and administration within the Finance Ministry.<ref name="CSMOP India">{{cite web|url=http://darpg.gov.in/sites/default/files/CSMOP_0_0.pdf|title=Central Secretariat Manual of Office Procedure - 14th Edition (2015)|publisher=[[Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions (India)|Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pension]]|page=6|access-date=15 November 2016}}</ref> The senior most Secretary among the five Secretaries of the five Departments of the Ministry of Finance, viz. Economic Affairs, Expenditure, Financial Services, Revenue and Investment & Public Assets Management of Ministry of Finance, is designated as Finance Secretary.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=188381|title=Secretary (Economic Affairs) as Finance Secretary doesn't deal with expenditure proposals from the Ministry of Defence; Rather it is Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance which deals with financial sanctions relating to all the Ministries of the Government of India|date=2019-02-11|access-date=2019-06-07|publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India}}</ref>

The role of Finance Secretary is as follows:
* To act as the administrative head of the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]]. The responsibility in this regard is complete and undivided.<ref name="Governance India">{{cite book|title=Governance in India|last=Laxmikanth|first=M.|publisher=McGraw Hill Education|year=2014|isbn=978-9339204785|location=[[Noida]]|pages=3.1–3.10 |edition=2nd }}</ref>
* To act as the chief adviser to the [[Minister of Finance (India)|Finance Minister]] on all aspects of policy and administrative affairs.<ref name="Governance India" />
* To represent the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]] before the [[Public Accounts Committee]] of the [[Parliament of India]].<ref name="Governance India" />
* To act as the [[Primus inter pares|first among equals]] among [[Secretary to Government of India|secretaries]] in the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]].

== Emolument, accommodation and perquisites ==
The Finance Secretary is eligible for a [[Diplomatic passport]]. The official earmarked residence of the Union Finance Secretary is 5, [[New Moti Bagh]], [[New Delhi]], a Type-VIII [[bungalow]].

As the Finance Secretary is of the rank of [[Secretary to Government of India]], his/her salary is equivalent<ref name="Army Pay Rules">{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.nic.in/sites/default/files/ArmyPayRules.pdf|title=Army Pay Rules, 2017|date=May 3, 2017|work=[[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=September 24, 2017}}</ref> to [[Chief Secretary (India)|Chief Secretaries]] of State Governments and to Vice Chief of Army Staff/Commanders, in the rank of [[Lieutenant General]] and equivalent ranks in [[Indian Armed Forces]].<ref name="Army Pay Rules" />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="margin: 1ex 0 1ex 1ex; "
|+'''Finance Secretary monthly pay and allowances'''
!Base Salary as per [[7th Central Pay Commission (CPC) and Defence Forces|7th Pay Commission]] (Per month)
!Pay Matrix Level
!Sources
|-
|{{INRConvert|225000}}
|Pay Level 17
|<ref name="7 Pay Commission Report">{{cite web|url=http://7cpc.india.gov.in/pdf/sevencpcreport.pdf|title=Report of the 7th Central Pay Commission of India|publisher=Seventh Central [[Pay Commission]], [[Government of India]]|url-status=dead|access-date=August 13, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120092637/http://7cpc.india.gov.in/pdf/sevencpcreport.pdf|archive-date=20 November 2015}}</ref>
|}

==List of former finance secretaries==
{|class="wikitable"
! # !! Name !! Period !! Notes / Ref(s)
|-
!1
| [[KRK Menon|K.R.K Menon]]|| 1947 – 1954 ||
|-
| 2 || [[K. G. Ambegaonkar]]|| 1954 – 1955 || Later served as the [[Governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] in 1957.
|-
| 3 || [[Hirubhai M. Patel]]|| 1955 – 1958 || {{bulleted list|Served as the [[Defence Secretary (India)|Defence Secretary]] (1947-53)|Served as the [[Minister of Finance (India)|Minister of Finance]] (1977-79)|Served as the [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Home Minister]] (1979)}}
|-
| 4 || A. K. Roy || 1958 – 1960 ||
|-
| 5 || [[S. Bhoothalingam]]|| 1960 – 1964 ||
|-
| 6 || [[Lakshmi Kant Jha]]|| 1964 – 1966 || Later served as the [[Governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] from 1967 to 1970
|-
| 7 || [[Sarukkai Jagannathan]]|| 1967 – 1968 || Later served as the [[Governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] from 1970 to 1975
|-
| 8 || [[B D Pande ]]|| 1969 – 1972 || Later served as the [[Governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] from 1977 to 1982
|-
| 9 || [[M.R. Yardi]]|| 1972 – 1974 ||
-
|-
|10
|[[N. C. Sen Gupta]]
|1975
|Later served as the [[Governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] from May to August, 1975
|-
| 11||[[Montek Singh Ahluwalia]]|| 1993 – 1998 ||A Key Figure In India’s Economic Reforms From The Early 1980s Onwards, He Has Held Several Important Positions Including Special Secretary To The Indian Prime Minister (1988–90); Commerce Secretary (1990–91); Secretary, Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance (1991–93). Later Served As The Deputy Chairman Of The Planning Commission Of The Government Of India From 2004 to 2014.
|-
| 12||[[Vijay Kelkar|Vijay Laxman Kelkar]]||1998 – 1999 ||Renowned Indian Economist And Academic
|-
| 13||[[Ashok Lavasa]]||2016 – 2017 ||Later EC, [[Election Commission of India]] and then VP, [[Asian Development Bank]]
|-
| 14||[[Hasmukh Adhia]]||2017 – 2018 ||Later Chairman, [[Bank of Baroda]]
|-
| 15||[[Ajay Narayan Jha]]|| 2018 – February 2019 ||Later Member, [[Fifteenth Finance Commission]], [[Sixteenth Finance Commission]]
|-
| 16||[[Subhash Chandra Garg]]||March 2019 – July 2019 ||Served as Secretary (EA) from 2017 and designated FS in March 2019.
|-
| 17||[[Rajiv Kumar (civil servant)|Rajiv Kumar]]|| August 2019 – 29 February 2020 ||Later served as [[Election Commissioner of India|Election Commissioner]] and then [[Chief Election Commissioner of India]]
|-
| 18||Dr. [[Ajay Bhushan Pandey]]||{{dts|2020|3|3}} to {{dts|2021|2|28}}||Later Chairman [[National Financial Reporting Authority]]
|-
| 19||Dr. [[T. V. Somanathan]] ||{{dts|2021|4|28}} to {{dts|2024|8|30}}||Later [[Cabinet Secretary of India]]
|-
|20
|[[Tuhin Kanta Pandey]]
|{{dts|2024|9|7}} to {{dts|2025|2|28}}
|Later Chairman [[Securities and Exchange Board of India]]
|-
|21
|[[Ajay Seth]]
|March 24, 2025 - June 30, 2025
|Later Chairman [[Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Cabinet Secretary of India]]
*[[Secretary of the Research and Analysis Wing]]
*[[Home Secretary of India]]
*[[Foreign Secretary of India]]
*[[Defence Secretary of India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.finmin.nic.in/ Finance Ministry, Official website]

{{Union ministries of India}}

[[Category:Government finances in India]]
[[Category:Indian government officials]]
[[Category:Ministry of Finance (India)]]

Shanti Ram Nepal

2026-02-13T22:31:33Z

MarcyThompson89: started data - done

{{Short description|Long distance marathon runner}}
{{Orphan|date=July 2017}}

'''Shanti Ram Nepal''' is a long-distance marathon runner from Samdong, [[East Sikkim]], [[Sikkim]], [[India]] who completed a '''500 km''' footrace in '''100 hrs'''which is starting from Gangtok at 11.00 am on August 25, 2014, he proceeded via [[Mangan, India|Mangan]]-[[Ravangla]]-[[Gyalshing]]-[[Melli]] route to finish the race at [[Gangtok]] at 1.00 pm on August 28, 2014, and was listed longest/fastest run on hill roads in the [[Limca book of records]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.limcabookofrecords.in/record-detail.aspx?rid=53|title=LONGEST/ FASTEST RUN ON HILL ROADS|publisher=Limca Book of Records}}</ref>

==Sikkim to New Delhi Long Run==

On July 23, 2016, at 10:30 am he started his long-distance run from [[Raj Bhavan (Sikkim)|Raj Bhavan]] in [[Gangtok]] to [[New Delhi]] which is around 2000 km to spread the message of [[Organic farming]] in [[Sikkim]], [[Swachh Bharat Abhiyan]] and [[Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.ilovesiliguri.com/2016/07/running-1500-kms-from-sikkim-to-delhi.html|title=Running 1500 km from Sikkim to Delhi - Mission Organic Sikkim, Swatchh Bharat & Beti Bachao Beti Padhao|publisher=I Love Siliguri|date=25 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thenortheasttoday.com/sikkim-man-running-1500-km-to-new-delhi-with-a-mission/|title=Sikkim man running 1500 km to New Delhi with a mission|publisher=The Northeast Today}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.morung.com/articles/guy-shanti-ram-nepal-sikkim-ran-500-kms-4-days-creates-record/2068/|title=This Guy, Shanti Ram Nepal From Sikkim Ran 500 km In 4 Days. Creates Record!|publisher=Morung|date=29 August 2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nepal, Shanti Ram}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Gangtok district]]

Lakshmi Sahgal

2026-02-08T09:21:34Z

MarcyThompson89: cleaned up formatting as per guidelines and improved wording for consistency

{{Short description|Indian doctor, politician and officer of the Indian National Army (1914 - 2012)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Captain Lakshmi Sahgal
| image = Lakshmi Sahgal.jpg
| caption = Sahgal at the 18th congress of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] in Delhi, 2005
| birth_name = Lakshmi Swaminathan
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1914|10|24}}
| birth_place = [[Anakkara (Palakkad)|Anakkara]], [[Ponnani taluk]], [[Malabar District]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2012|07|23|1914|10|24}}
| death_place = [[Kanpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| other_names =
| spouse = {{Unbulleted_list|{{Marriage|P. K. N. Rao||1940}}|{{Marriage|[[Prem Sehgal|Prem Kumar Sahgal]]|1947|1992|end=died}}}}
| children = 2 (incl. [[Subhashini Ali]])
| alma_mater = {{Unbulleted_list|[[Queen Mary's College, Chennai]]|[[Madras Medical College]]}}
| known_for = {{Bulleted_list|[[Revolutionist]]|[[Freedom fighter|Independence activist]]|[[Marxist]]}}
}}

'''Lakshmi Sahgal''' ({{audio|Laxmi Sahgal.ogg|pronunciation}}) (born '''Lakshmi Swaminathan'''; 24 October 1914 – 23 July 2012) was an Indian politician and activist. She was a revolutionary of the [[Indian independence movement]], an officer of the [[Indian National Army]], and the Minister of Women's Affairs in the [[Azad Hind Government|Azad Hind government]]. Lakshmi is commonly referred to in India as '''Captain Lakshmi''', a reference to her rank when taken prisoner in Burma during the Second World War.

==Early life==
Lakshmi Sahgal was born as Lakshmi Swaminathan in 1914 to S. Swaminathan, a lawyer who practiced criminal law at [[Madras High Court]], and A.V. Ammukutty, better known as [[Ammu Swaminathan]], a social worker and independence activist from an aristocratic [[Nair]] family known as "Vadakkath" family of [[Anakkara (Palakkad)|Anakkara]], [[Ponnani taluk]], [[Malabar District]], [[British Raj|British India]].<ref name=Hindu_fulfilling>{{cite news|last=Kolappan|first=B.|title=A fulfilling journey that began in Madras|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/article3675707.ece|access-date=24 July 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=24 July 2012|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> She was the elder sister of [[Mrinalini Sarabhai]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/mrinalini-sarabhai-ammu-swaminathan-lakshmi-sehgal-5172352/ |title=The legacy of Mrinalini Sarabhai's family |date=11 May 2018 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=22 October 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Menon |first1=Parvathi |title=Captain Lakshmi Sahgal (1914 - 2012) - A life of struggle |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/captain-lakshmi-sahgal-1914-2012-a-life-of-struggle/article3672666.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=23 October 2019 |date=23 July 2012}}</ref>

Lakshmi studied in [[Queen Mary's College, Chennai|Queen Mary's College]]<ref name=Hindu_fulfilling/><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2008/stories/20030425006013300.htm | title=The end of a women's college? | author=Asha Krishnakumar | journal=Frontline | year=2003 | volume=20 | issue=8}}</ref> and later chose to study medicine and received an MBBS degree from [[Madras Medical College]] in 1938. A year later, she received her diploma in [[gynaecology]] and [[obstetrics]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Capt Lakshmi Sehgal, chief of INA women's regiment, passes away at 97|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120723/jsp/frontpage/story_15761639.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726230832/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120723/jsp/frontpage/story_15761639.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 July 2012|access-date=23 July 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=23 July 2012|location=Calcutta, India}}</ref> She worked as a doctor in the Government Kasturba Gandhi Hospital located at [[Triplicane]] Chennai.<ref name=Hindu_fulfilling/>

In 1940, she left for [[Singapore]] after the failure of her marriage to pilot P.K.N. Rao.<ref name=Hindu_fulfilling/> During her stay at Singapore, she met some members of [[Subhas Chandra Bose]]'s [[Indian National Army]].<ref name=Hindu_fulfilling/>

===The Azad Hind Fauj===
{{main|Indian National Army}}
[[File:Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and Members of the Azad Hind Fauj.jpg|thumb|left| Captain Lakshmi (third from front-right) with [[Subhash Chandra Bose]]]]
In 1942, during the [[Fall of Singapore|surrender of Singapore]] by the British to the Japanese, Lakshmi aided wounded [[prisoners of war]], many of whom were interested in forming an Indian independence army. Singapore at this time had several nationalist Indians working there including [[K. P. Kesava Menon]], S. C. Guha and N. Raghavan, who formed a Council of Action. Their [[Indian National Army]], or ''Azad Hind Fauj'', however, received no firm commitments or approval from the occupying Japanese forces regarding their participation in the war.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news|last=Menon|first=Parvathi|title=Captain Lakshmi Sahgal (1914 - 2012) - A life of struggle|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3672666.ece?homepage=true|access-date=23 July 2012|newspaper=The Hindu|date=23 July 2012|location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

It was against this backdrop that Subhash Chandra Bose arrived in Singapore on 2 July 1943, and reorganized the movement. Lakshmi Sahgal wrote later,
<blockquote>At the second mass meeting, Netaji [Bose] dropped a bombshell by saying that it was his intention to form a women's infantry regiment, named after the Rani of Jhansi who had fought so heroically against the British in 1857… I told him I was ready to join... The date was July 8, 1943.<ref>{{Cite web |title=My days in the Indian National Army by Lakshmi Sahgal |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/my-days-in-the-indian-national-army-by-lakshmi-sahgal-493887 |access-date=4 July 2024 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> </blockquote>
Women responded enthusiastically to join the all-women brigade and Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan became Captain Lakshmi, a name and identity that would stay with her for life.<ref name="thehindu" />

Captain Lakshmi was the Minister in Charge of Women's Organization in the [[Azad Hind|Provisional Government of Free India]] led by Subash Chandra Bose in Singapore.

The INA marched to Burma with the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese army]] in December 1944, but by March 1945, with the tide of war turning against them, the INA leadership decided to beat a retreat before they could enter [[Imphal]]. Captain Lakshmi was arrested by the British in May 1945, remaining in [[Myanmar|Burma]] until March 1946, when she was sent to India – at a time when the [[INA trials]] in Delhi heightened popular discontent with and hastened the end of colonial rule.<ref name="thehindu" />

==Later years==
In 1971, Lakshmi joined the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]. During the [[Bangladesh liberation war|Bangladesh crisis]], she organised relief camps and medical aid in Calcutta for refugees who streamed into India from Bangladesh. She was one of the founding members of [[All India Democratic Women's Association]] in 1981 and led many of its activities and campaigns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/personalities/lakshmi-sehgal.html|title=Lakshmi Sehgal|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=24 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411215433/http://tamilnadu.com/personalities/lakshmi-sehgal.html|archive-date=11 April 2013}}</ref> She led a medical team to Bhopal after the gas tragedy in December 1984, worked towards restoring peace in Kanpur following the anti-Sikh riots of 1984 and was arrested for her participation in a campaign against the Miss World competition in Bangalore in 1996.<ref name="thehindu" /> She was still seeing patients regularly at her clinic in Kanpur in 2006, at the age of 92.<ref name="thehindu" />

In [[2002 Indian presidential election]], four leftist parties{{spaced ndash}}the [[Communist Party of India]], the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], the [[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|Revolutionary Socialist Party]], and the [[All India Forward Bloc]]{{spaced ndash}}nominated Sahgal as a candidate in the presidential elections. She was the sole opponent of [[A.P.J. Abdul Kalam]], who emerged victorious.<ref>{{cite news|title=Freedom fighter Captain Lakshmi Sehgal dead|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/node/142996|access-date=23 July 2012|newspaper=Deccan Chronicle|date=23 July 2012|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924204429/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/node/142996|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Lakshmi married [[Prem Sehgal|Prem Kumar Sahgal]] in March 1947 in [[Lahore]]. After their marriage, they settled in [[Kanpur]], where she continued with her medical practice and aided the refugees who were arriving in large numbers following the [[Partition of India]]. They had two daughters: [[Subhashini Ali]] and Anisa Puri.

Subhashini is a prominent communist politician and labour activist. According to Ali, Lakshmi was an [[atheist]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rediff Interview/Subhasini Ali |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2001/aug/08inter.htm |website=Rediff.com|date=8 August 2001|quote=Subhashini Ali: "..There are religions that have very rigid rules and there are others that don't. Religion is something that I, as a person, am not interested in. I have always been an atheist. My parents were atheists. It doesn't bother me if somebody is religious. My problem is when religion is used to institutionalise other things."|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> The filmmaker [[Shaad Ali]] is her grandson.<ref>{{cite news|title=Freedom fighter Captain Lakshmi Sehgal passes away|url=http://www.indiatimes.com/national/freedom-fighter-captain-lakshmi-sehgal-passes-away-33204.html | work=The Times Of India}}</ref>

==Death==
On 19 July 2012, Sahgal had a cardiac arrest and died on 23 July 2012 at 11:20 A.M. at the age of 97 at Kanpur.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Captain-Lakshmi-Sahgal-passes-away/articleshow/15103237.cms | title=Captain Lakshmi Sahgal passes away
| date= 23 July 2012 | work=The Times Of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=PTI |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/exemplary-life-capt-lakshmi-sehgal-met-patients-till-the-end/article3673445.ece |title=Exemplary life: Capt Lakshmi Sehgal met patients till the end |work=The Hindu |date=23 July 2012 |access-date=31 March 2014}}</ref> Her body was donated to [[Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi Memorial Medical College]] for medical research.<ref>{{cite news|author=TAPAS CHAKRABORTY |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120724/jsp/northeast/story_15763592.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728134353/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120724/jsp/northeast/story_15763592.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 July 2012 |title=Lakshmi Sehgal no more |publisher=Telegraphindia.com |date=24 July 2012 |access-date=31 March 2014}}</ref>

==Awards==
In 1998, Sahgal was awarded the [[Padma Vibhushan]] by Indian president [[K. R. Narayanan]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lakshmi-sahgal-19142012/article3657355.ece#im-image-0 |title=Lakshmi Sahgal (1914-2012) |date=23 July 2012 |work=The Hindu }}</ref> In 2010, she was bestowed with [[honorary doctorate]] by [[University of Calicut]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 December 2010 |title=Mammootty Conferred D.Litt by Calicut University |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/mammootty-conferred-dlitt-by-calicut-university/703504 |access-date=5 November 2020 |website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook India]]}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[Rajeshwari Sachdev]] played the role of Captain Sahgal in 2004 film ''[[Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose: The Forgotten Hero]]''.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Bravely told heroic tale - Telegraph India | url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/bravely-told-heroic-tale/cid/968821 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224051508/https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/bravely-told-heroic-tale/cid/968821 | access-date=1 February 2025 | archive-date=24 February 2022}}</ref> Shruthi Seth played the role of Sahgal in 2020 [[Amazon Prime Video]] series ''[[The Forgotten Army - Azaadi Ke Liye]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/forgotten-army-azaadi-ke-liye-review-earnest-forgettable-116713|title=The Forgotten Army- Azaadi Ke Liye' review: Earnest but forgettable|first=Saraswati|last=Datar|date=24 January 2020|work=The News Minute|quote=Lakshmi Sahgal (played by Shruti Seth), one of the most iconic figures of the INA is included in the story, but never introduced using subtitles or any other device. I had to wait for the end credits to confirm that Shruti was playing Ms Sahgal and not another female officer.}}</ref>
She also appears as a character in the grand strategy game Hearts of Iron: 4.

==See also==
* [[Indian National Army]]
* [[Janaky Athi Nahappan]]
* [[Rasammah Bhupalan]]
* [[Ethnic communities in Kanpur]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
*Subhashini Ali [http://www.india-seminar.com/2004/540/540%20subhashini%20ali.htm Lakshmi Sahgal: A life in service]
*Indra Guptha ''India's 50 Most Illustrious Women'' {{ISBN|81-88086-19-3}}
*[[Peter W. Fay|Peter Fay]] ''The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942-1945''

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.suryakumari.com/articles/lakshmi.html Lakshmi Sehgal: A life of struggle and sacrifice - by Sambhavika Sharma]
* [http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/jul/04inter.htm Rediff interview 2002]
* [http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2511/stories/20080606251101100.htm The Pioneers: The Pioneers: Dr. Lakshmi Sehgal]
* [http://www.indianexpress.com/news/despite-differences-india-is-one-captain-laxmi-sehgal/389553/0 Indian Express Interview: Despite differences, India is one: Captain Laxmi Sehgal]
* [http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/freedom-fighter-captain-lakshmi-sahgal-dies-246468 Freedom fighter Captain Lakshmi Sahgal dies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226035528/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/freedom-fighter-captain-lakshmi-sahgal-dies-493851 |date=26 December 2018 }}, NDTV
* [https://www.economist.com/obituary/2012/08/04/captain-lakshmi Captain Lakshmi], ''The Economist'', 4 August 2012
{{Azad Hind Fauj}}
{{Subhas Chandra Bose}}
{{Padma Vibhushan Awards}}

{{Authority control}}

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Maddali Usha Gayatri

2026-01-12T13:55:03Z

MarcyThompson89: creating the bio added tags.

{{Short description|Indian Kuchipudi exponent (born 1955)}}
{{Family name hatnote|Maddali|lang=Telugu}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Maddali Usha Gayatri
| birth_name = Mallavarapu Usha Gayatri
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1955|4|26|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Kurnool]], Andhra State, India
| education = {{Indented plainlist|
* Master of Arts, [[Hyderabad Central University]]
* Doctorate, [[Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University]]
}}
| occupation = [[Kuchipudi]] dancer
| children = 1
| awards = {{ubl
| [[Hamsa Award]]
| [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
}}
}}

'''Maddali Usha Gayatri''' ({{Nee|'''Mallavarapu'''}}, born 26 April 1955) is an Indian [[Kuchipudi]] exponent, danseuse,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=25 March 2010 |title=Beloved stories on stage |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/Beloved-stories-on-stage/article16614562.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[guru]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |date=22 July 2010 |title=Sumptuous ballet |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/Sumptuous-ballet/article16206184.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> and choreographer from the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. A recipient of [[Hamsa Award]] (now called Kala Ratna) and [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]], she received critical acclaim for her choreography and performances. She performs ballets in mythological, historical and social themes. One of her works, ''Nrityam Darsayami'', included a [[Dance troupe|troupe]] of 12 of her disciples performing for 12 hours uninterruptedly.

== Early life and education ==
Usha Gayatri was born on 26 April 1955 to Mallavarapu Sundaresam and Janakamma in [[Kurnool]], [[Andhra State]] (now in [[Andhra Pradesh]]).<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yi3F0unTXFI |title=Kuchipudi Kalakar Maddali Usha Gayatri Exclusive Interview {{!}} Kalaa Shikaram {{!}} Hindu Dharmam |date=6 May 2017 |type=Videotape |language=te |publisher=Hindu Dharmam |access-date=17 December 2022}}</ref> has a sister, Uma Gayatri, who is a musician. She completed her [[Master of Arts]] from [[Hyderabad Central University]] in 1988. She researched and published her thesis on the role of [[Satyabhama]], second queen-consort of Hindu god [[Krishna]],<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=D. Dennis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264 |title=The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram |date=25 September 2008 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-970902-1 |pages=264 |language=en}}</ref> in the growth of [[Telugu literature]], development and incarnation in dance from [[Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=9 January 2018 |title=నృత్యరత్న.. డా. మద్దాళి ఉషాగాయత్రి |language=te |trans-title=Nritya Ratna.. Dr. Maddali Usha Gayatri |work=[[Andhra Bhoomi]] |url=http://www.andhrabhoomi.net/content/main-feature-912 |url-status=live |access-date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217173710/http://www.andhrabhoomi.net/content/main-feature-912 |archive-date=17 December 2022}}</ref>

== Training in dance ==
Gayatri started training in dance, when she was 4 years old, from Sri Dayal Saran. Despite being trained in [[Kathak]], [[Odissi]] and music, her interests directed towards Kuchipudi.<ref name=":5" /> She thus learned Kuchipudi from her guru, Vedantam Jagannath Sarma, at his dance institute Kuchipudi Kalakshetra in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kothari |first1=Sunil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xa8FamiJJKgC |title=Kuchipudi |last2=Pasricha |first2=Avinash |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=2001 |isbn=9788170173595 |pages=158}}</ref> She trained in [[Yakshagana]], a theatre form, from [[V. Satyanarayana Sarma]], [[Vempati Chinna Satyam]] and Vedantam Prahlada Sarma and learned {{Interlanguage link|Nattuvangam|lt=nattuvangam|qid=Q33125458|italic=yes}} (the art of [[conducting]] a performance with rhythmic music using two [[cymbals]])<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TLFIAQAAIAAJ&q=nattuvangam |title=Journal of the Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute |publisher= |year=2004 |volume=7-8 |pages=95 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=M. Athira |first= |date=14 June 2018 |title='Nattuvangam' is not even treated as an instrument these days, says K.S.Balakrishnan |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/in-conversation-with-nattuvanar-ksbalakrishnan/article24151554.ece |access-date=13 January 2023 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> from Kamalarani.<ref name=":5" />

== Career ==
In June 2010, Gayatri choreographed a ballet ''Alamelu Manga Charitham'' on the narrative of Hindu goddess [[Alamelu Manga]], consort of [[Venkateswara]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=padmavati |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=[[Penguin Books India]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=291 |language=en |author-link=Roshen Dalal}}</ref> and [[Alamelu Mangapuram]]. While the performances were well received, the mythological ballet was criticized for deviating from the [[sthala purana]], the religious account of a Hindu temple,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frykenberg |first=Robert Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vy27HF4FWtAC&pg=PA155 |title=History and Belief: The Foundations of Historical Understanding |publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-0739-7 |pages=155 |language=en}}</ref> of [[Venkateswara Temple]] in [[Tirumala]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 June 2010 |title=Toying with tradition |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/Toying-with-tradition/article16267666.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Later in July, she performed ''Rukmini-Satya'', a ballet incorporating the characters of [[Rukmini]] and [[Satyabhama]], first and second [[queen-consort|queen-consorts]] of Krishna,<ref name=":7" /> together and performed both the roles. She developed Rukmini's part of the play based on [[Pothana Bhagavatham]] and [[Sri Krishna Leela Tarangini]]; and used [[Siddhendra Yogi]]'s Bhamakalapam for Satyabhama. She was praised for her performance and comprising two different characterizations in a single ballet.<ref name=":1" />

In March 2011, she presented a ballet ''Matru Devo Bhava'' in which she played the mythological motherly roles of [[Parvati]], Leelavati, [[Sita]], [[Yashoda]] and [[Vakula Devi]]. Scripted by [[Bnim]], she received commendation for her performance and choreography.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari |date=24 March 2011 |title=Tribute to mothers in mythology |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/Tribute-to-mothers-in-mythology/article14959771.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In August, she performed Kunti Vilapam, an account of the life of [[Kunti]], mother of the [[Pandavas]] in ancient Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]], based on the writings by [[Jandhyala Papayya Sastry]]. She received praise for her performance and the composition of the ballet.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari |date=25 August 2011 |title=Moods of Kunti |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/moods-of-kunti/article2396419.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Later in June 2013, she performed a ballet under the title ''Shodasa Krishnam'' showcasing the adventures of Krishna which she composed from various works, including that of [[Annamacharya]]. She was praised for her choreography and performance in various characters in divergent themes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari |date=27 June 2013 |title=Ways of Krishna |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/ways-of-krishna/article4856011.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In July 2015, marking the 30th anniversary of her dance academy, Nritya Kinnera, she choreographed two ballets – ''Pushkara Pulakita Godavari'' and ''Amrapali''. ''Pushkara Pulakita Godavari'', scripted by Bnim, is themed around the [[Pushkaram]] of the [[Godavari River]] in which she played the role of [[Hindu deity]] [[Brihaspati]], while in ''Amrapali'', she played the role of [[The Buddha]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari |date=2 July 2015 |title=Tales through ballets |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/tales-through-ballets/article7379291.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In May 2016, Gayatri released a book titled ''Kuchipudi Art and Satyabhama'' describing Satyabhama and choreographed a ballet based on [[Bhamakalapam]]. She instated excerpts from other poets on the literature surrounding Satyabhama in her play, including the scores of [[Narayana Teertha]], [[Nandi Thimmana]] and [[Tarigonda Vengamamba]]. She received critical acclaim for her performance and choreography.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari |date=19 May 2016 |title=Repertoire on Satyabhama |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/repertoire-on-satyabhama/article8619621.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Later that year during June–July, she toured across Europe in a group of 40 Kuchipudi exponents and folk artists and performed in several ballets.<ref>{{Cite news |last=G. S. Subrahmanyam |date=5 July 2016 |title=Promoting Amaravati among expatriate Telugus |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/Promoting-Amaravati-among-expatriate-Telugus/article14474330.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In February 2017, she performed a ballet ''Swetcha Bharat'' ({{Translation|Independent India}}) narrating the story of Indian history from [[Vedic period]] until the [[Indian independence movement]]. Scripted by Bnim, she took upon the role of [[Bharat Mata]], the [[national personification]] of India as a [[mother goddess]], for which she received acclaim.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari |date=2 February 2017 |title=Maddali Usha Gayatri's dance for Republic Day |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/dance/Maddali-Usha-Gayatri%E2%80%99s-dance-for-Republic-Day/article17140204.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

She also performs ballets on historical themes and social values. {{As of|2018|1}}, she choreographed more than 200 ballets,<ref name=":5" /> some of which include ''Alokaye Sri Balakrishnam'',<ref name=":0" /> ''Goda Kalyanam'',<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Gudipoodi |first=Srihari |author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari |date=1 December 2011 |title=Ballet evoking God |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/ballet-evoking-god/article2677089.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> a ballet on [[Rallabhandi Kavitha Prasad]]'s translation of [[Rabindranath Tagore]]'s ''[[Gitanjali]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Ranee |date=31 May 2012 |title=Delightful and romantic |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/delightful-and-romantic/article3472811.ece |access-date=16 December 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> ''Sankranti Lakshmi'', ''Siva Bhakta Markandeya'' based on the text written by {{Interlanguage link|Mudigonda Sivaprasad|te|ముదిగొండ శివప్రసాద్}} on the life of the sage [[Markandeya]], ''Swarnotsava Bharati'' and ''Vandemataram''.<ref name=":5" /> She also choreographed ''Nrityam Darsayami'' which included a [[Dance troupe|troupe]] of 12 of her disciples performing for 12 hours uninterruptedly dancing 72 concepts of Kuchipudi.<ref name=":5" />

== Other work ==
Gayatri worked in [[Punjab National Bank]] for over 25 years and retired voluntarily.<ref name=":5" /> She established Nritya Kinnera Kuchipudi dance academy in Hyderabad<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kuchipudi Institutions in Andhra Pradesh & Telangana, India |url=https://narthaki.com/kuchipudi/kuch1ai.htm |access-date=16 December 2022 |website=narthaki.com |archive-date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216124645/https://narthaki.com/kuchipudi/kuch1ai.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> in 1983<ref name=":5" /> where she teaches Kuchipudi.<ref name=":2" /> {{As of|2018|1}}, 44 of her disciples debuted on stage from her institute under her supervision.<ref name=":5" />

== Awards ==
Gayatri received several honours for her contributions among which [[Hamsa Award]] (now called Kala Ratna) was conferred by the government of [[united Andhra Pradesh]] in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2001 |title=Hamsa awards announced |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/hamsa-awards-announced/articleshow/77848466.cms |access-date=16 December 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> She was also conferred the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 February 2024 |title=Announcement of Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards for 2022 and 2023 |url=https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/public/uploads/annoucement/1709191095_Final%20Press%20Release%20for%20Sangeet%20Natak%20Akademki%20Fellowship,%20Sangeet%20Natak%20Akademi%20Awards%20and%20Ustad%20Bismilla%20Khan%20Yuva%20Puraskar%20for%20the%20years%202022%20and%202023.pdf |access-date=20 March 2024 |website=Sangeet Natak Akademi}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Gayatri married {{Interlanguage link|Maddali Raghuram|te|మద్దాళి రఘురామ్}} who is also an artist and runs Kinnera Art Theatre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bnim |author-link=Bnim |date=September 2015 |title=మద్దాలి కిన్నెరసాని |trans-title=Maddali Kinnerasani |url=https://www.acchamgatelugu.com/2015/09/maddali-kinnerasani.html |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=acchamgatelugu.com |language=te}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> They have two sons among which one of whose wife, Soundarya Kaushik, is also a Kuchipudi exponent and has debuted on stage in August 2014 supervised by Gayatri.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 May 2021 |title=Soundarya, chiselled by two artisans - Natyahasini |url=https://natyahasini.in/soundarya-chiselled-by-two-artisans/ |access-date=16 December 2022 |website=Natyahasini}}</ref>

== Published works ==

* {{Cite book |title=అమ్మమ్మగారి కాశీయాత్ర |publisher=Kinnera Publications |language=te |trans-title=Grandmother's pilgrimage to Varanasi}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 February 2022 |title=పుస్తక సమీక్ష |trans-title=Book review |url=https://www.ntnews.com/news/new-books-released-2-438333 |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=[[Namasthe Telangana]] |language=te}}</ref>
* {{Cite book |url= |title=Kuchipudi Art and Satyabhama |publisher=B. R. Rhythms |year=2016 |isbn=9788188827565 |language=en}}<ref name=":6" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maddali, Usha Gayatri}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Kurnool]]
[[Category:Artists from Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Kuchipudi dancers]]
[[Category:Dancers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Dancers from Telangana]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dancers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian dancers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women artists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women artists]]
[[Category:Indian female classical dancers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kala Ratna]]
[[Category:University of Hyderabad alumni]]
[[Category:Telugu people]]
[[Category:Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian dance teachers]]
[[Category:Teachers of Indian classical dance]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]

Saṃghabhadra

2026-01-11T08:42:21Z

MarcyThompson89:

{{Short description|5th century Buddhist monk}}
'''Sanghabhadra''' (5th century CE, [[Sanskrit]]: संघभद्र, Ch. 僧伽跋陀羅・衆賢, Japanese: ''Sōgyabaddara'' or ''Shugen'') was an Indian scholar monk of the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]] [[Vaibhāṣika]] and "undoubtedly one of the most brilliant [[Abhidharma]] masters in India".<ref name=":0">KL Dhammajoti. ''The Contribution of Saṃghabhadra to Our Understanding of Abhidharma Doctrines,'' in Bart Dessein and Weijen Teng (ed) "Text, History, and Philosophy Abhidharma across Buddhist Scholastic Traditions."</ref> Born in [[Kashmir]], he was a contemporary of the Buddhist philosopher [[Vasubandhu]]. According to [[K. L. Dhammajoti|K.L. Dhammajoti]], his work forms the most mature and refined form of Vaibhāṣika philosophy. His two main works, the *{{IAST|Nyāyānusāra}} (Ch. 順正理論, ''Shun zhengli lun''; "In Accordance with the Truth") and the *{{IAST|Abhidharmasamayapradīpikā}} (Ch. 阿毘達磨顯宗論, ''Apidamo xian zong lun''; "Treatise Clarifying the Treasury of Abhidharma"), are very important sources for late Vaibhāṣika thought.<ref>Willemen, Charles; Dessein, Bart; Cox, Collett (1998). ''Sarvāstivāda Buddhist Scholasticism'', p. 242. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Zweite Abteilung. Indien.</ref> He is referenced by various important Buddhist figures, such as [[Xuanzang]], [[Kuiji]], [[Sthiramati]], and [[Śāntarakṣita]] who see him as the most authoritative of the [[Vaibhāṣika]] Abhidharmikas.<ref name=":0" />

Saṃghabhadra's philosophical work was primarily an attempt to defend the orthodox doctrines of the Vaibhāṣika school from the attacks of its main opponents, the [[Sautrāntika|Sautrantikas]]—especially Vasubandhu, who had written the {{IAST|[[Abhidharmakośakārikā|Abhidharmakośabhasya]]}} as an exposition as well as a critique of Vaibhāṣika doctrine. Saṃghabhadra is said to have spent 12 years composing the *{{IAST|Nyāyānusāra}} (a commentary to Vasubandhu's verses) to refute Vasubandhu and other Sautrāntikas (such as the elder Śrīlāta, and his pupil Rāma).<ref>Dhammajoti, K.L. (2009). ''Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma''. p. 110. Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong. {{ISBN|978-988-99296-5-7}}.</ref>

According to Xuanzang's records, after composing his works, Saṃghabhadra sought out Vasubandhu in order to face him in public debate, but died before he was able to do so.<ref>Beal, Samuel (1906). ''Buddhist Records of the Western World: Volume I,'' p. 193. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & co. ltd. London.</ref>

== Notes ==
<references />
{{Buddhism topics}}

[[Category:5th-century Indian scholars]]
[[Category:5th-century Indian monks]]
[[Category:Indian royal advisors]]
[[Category:5th-century Buddhist monks]]
[[Category:Indian Buddhist monks]]

Tamil Trinity Memorial Hall

2026-01-06T13:10:53Z

MarcyThompson89: started new post

'''Tamil Trinity Memorial Hall,''' also referred to as ''Tamil Trinity Mani Mandapam or'' {{Literal translation|Tamizhisai Moovar Mani Mandapam}} ''in [[Tamil language|Tamil]],'' is a memorial located in [[Sirkazhi]], [[Mayiladuthurai district]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], India. The hall commemorates the [[Tamil Trinity]] of [[Carnatic music]] - [[Muthu Thandavar]], [[Arunachala Kavi]] and [[Marimutthu Pillai]] who were prominent composers from Sirkazhi.

== Background ==
The [[Tamil Trinity]] refers to an earlier group of Carnatic music composers who lived about five decades before the well-known [[Trinity of Carnatic music]] [[Tyagaraja]], [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]], and [[Shyama Shastri]]. The Tamil Trinity composed and sang all their works in the Tamil language. They are credited with developing the ''[[Kriti (music)|keertana (kriti)]]'' form of carnitic musical composition and giving a structured format to [[Pallavi]], [[Anupallavi (music)|Anupallavi]], and [[Charanam]] in Carnatic music.<ref>{{Cite web |title=சீர்காழியின் தமிழிசை மூவர் |url=https://www.tnpscthervupettagam.com/ta/articles-detail/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D?cat=gk-articles |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=www.tnpscthervupettagam.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Charan |first=N. Sai |date=2023-12-19 |title=Tamilisai Moovar of Sirkazhi: the pioneering trinity of Tamil kritis |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamilisai-moovar-of-sirkazhi-the-pioneering-trinity-of-tamil-kritis/article67654489.ece |access-date=2025-11-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In 2010, the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]]-led government initiated the construction of a memorial hall and allocated {{Convert|19160|sqft|m2|abbr=none}} of land on the [[Mayiladuthurai]] to [[Chidambaram]] highway near Sirkazhi. Construction began on 2 August 2010, and the majority of the work was completed by the end of 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |last=தினமலர் |title=ஓராண்டாக மூடிக் கிடந்த தமிழிசை மூவர் மணிமண்டபம் திறப்பு |url=https://www.dinamalar.com/news/tamil-nadu-news/tamilisai-moovar-memorial-unveiled-near-nagai/652383 |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=www.dinamalar.com |language=ta}}</ref> The memorial hall was later inaugurated on 20 February 2013 by then Chief Minister [[J. Jayalalithaa]] of the [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|AIADMK]]-led government via video conference.<ref>{{Cite web |last=TN GOVT |first=Press Release |date=21 Feb 2013 |title=Honble Chief Minister inaugurated the Thamizh Isai Moovar Manimantapam at Sirkazhi through Video Conferencing and launched a website for Tamil Development Department |url=http://www.tn.gov.in/seithi_veliyeedu/pressphoto.php?id=5126 |access-date=21 Feb 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=தினமணி |date=2013-02-20 |title=சீர்காழியில் தமிழிசை மூவர் மணிமண்டபம் திறப்பு |url=https://www.dinamani.com/tamilnadu/2013/Feb/20/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81-636581.html |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=Dinamani |language=ta}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
The memorial hall was constructed on an area of {{Convert|4772|sqft|m2|abbr=none}}. Its facade features full-length bronze statues of the '''Tamil Trinity'''. At the center of the hall, seven ''kalasams'' are placed, symbolizing the seven walls.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fernando |first=Antony |date=2022-11-22 |title=Tamilisai Moovar Manimandapam in Sirkazhi to get Rs 47 lakh makeover |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2022/Nov/22/tamilisai-moovar-manimandapam-in-sirkazhi-to-get-rs-47-lakh-makeover-2521094.html |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorials - CR |url=https://dipr.tn.gov.in/ords/r/dipr/info-prdept103/memorials-cr |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=dipr.tn.gov.in}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Sirkazhi]]
* [[Tamil Trinity]]
* [[Carnatic music]]

== References ==

{{coord missing|Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Mayiladuthurai district]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Mayiladuthurai district]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Mayiladuthurai district]]
[[Category:Museums in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Museums in Mayiladuthurai]]
<references />

== External links ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARiOIAcPXWE Sirkazhi Tamil isai moovar mandabam video]

{{Mayiladuthurai district}}

Timeline of major famines in India prior to 1765

2025-12-28T01:13:55Z

MarcyThompson89:

{{Short description|None}}

The '''timeline''' of major [[famines in India]] prior to 1765 covers major [[famine]]s recorded in [[India]] between [[1900 BC]] and [[1765 AD]]. The famines included here span the entirety of the [[Indian subcontinent]], currently comprising the [[Republic of India]], [[Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] and the [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]]. The year 1765 is chosen as the end date as that was the start of the colonial period.

== Timeline ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
! colspan="3" |Chronological list of famines in India between 1900 BC and 1765 AD
|-
! Year
! Area affected
! data-sort-type="number" | Mortality (if known)
|-
|Between 1900 BC and 1300 BC<ref name="Gomathi">{{cite journal |last1=Gomathi |first1=M. |last2=Esther |first2=D. |title=FAMINE AND ECONOMIC CONDITION IN ANCIENT INDIA |journal=International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Studies |date=October–December 2020 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=34–43 |url=https://www.johnfoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/EIJMRS_V2I4_38.pdf}}</ref>
|[[Indus Valley Civilisation|Harappan civilization]]
|Unknown
|-
|Between 1100 BC and 500 BC<ref name="Gomathi"/>
|[[Vedic period|Vedic kingdoms]]
|Unknown
|-
|500s BC<ref name="Gomathi"/>
|[[Northern India]]
|Unknown
|-
|Between 500 BC and 322 BC<ref name="Gomathi"/>
|Northern India
|Unknown
|-
|Between 322 BC and 297 BC<ref name="Gomathi"/>
|[[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]]
|Unknown
|-
|269 BC{{sfn|Keay|2001|p=91}}
|[[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]
|100,000+
|-
|Between 200 BC and 1 AD<ref name="Chew">{{cite book|title=Structure, Culture, and History: Recent Issues in Social Theory|author=Sing C. Chew, J. David Knottnerus|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|year=2002|page=185|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WzXroSxMb0C&pg=PA185|isbn=9780847698370}}</ref>
|[[Indian subcontinent]]
|9,000,000
|-
|Between 1 AD and 200 AD<ref name="Chew"/>
|Indian subcontinent
|1,000,000
|-
|Between 200 and 400<ref name="Chew"/>
|Indian subcontinent
|13,000,000
|-
|600s{{sfn|Currey|Hugo|1984|p=72}}
|[[Thanjavur]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
|Unknown
|-
|700s<ref name="Chew"/>
|Indian subcontinent
|7,000,000
|-
|800s<ref name="Chew"/><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Colin Clark (economist)|Colin Clark]]|title=Population Growth and Land Use|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|year=1977|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KKvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|isbn=9781349157754}}</ref>
|Indian subcontinent
|5,000,000
|-
|917–918<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ganguli |first1=R. |title=Famine in Ancient India |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |date=1933 |volume=15 |issue=3/4 |pages=176–197 |jstor=41694849 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41694849 |issn=0378-1143}}</ref>
|[[Kashmir]]
|Unknown
|-
|1054{{sfn|Currey|Hugo|1984|p=73}}
|Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
|Unknown
|-
|1335–1342{{sfn|Walsh|2006|pp=71, 292}}
|[[Delhi]]
|2,000+
|-
|1396-1407{{sfn|Currey|Hugo|1984|p=72}}
|[[South India]]
|Unknown
|-
|1396-1407{{sfn|Bombay (India : State)|1883|p=105}}
|[[Deccan]]
|Unknown
|-
|1460<ref>{{cite book| last =Eraly | first = Abraham|title=The Mughal World|date=1997|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn= 978-0-297-85209-4 |page=168}}</ref>
|Deccan
|Unknown
|-
|1509<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fleet |first=J.F. |title=Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. IX. Inscriptions in the Bangalore District. By B. Lewis Rice, C.I.E., MRAS., Director of Archæological Researches in Mysore. (Bangalore: Mysore Government Central Press, 1905.) |year=1905 |pages=123, 151–2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbosa |first=Duarte |title=The Book of Duarte Barbosa (Vol. 2) |year=1921 |pages=125–6}}</ref>
|[[Bangalore]] (to possible [[Coromandel Coast]])
|Unknown
|-
|1520<ref>{{Cite book |author=Etheridge, Alfred Thomas |title=Report on past famines in the Bombay Presidency |date=1868 |publisher=Printed for government at the Education Society's Press, Byculla |pages=100 |oclc=919770881}}</ref>
|Deccan to South India
|Unknown
|-
|1521<ref>{{Cite book |last=da Silva Rego |first=Antonio |title=Documentacao para a historia das missoes do Padroado Portugues do Oriente : India (Vol. 1) |publisher=Agência Geral do Ultramar |year=1947 |pages=450–51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Erskine |first=William |title=A history of India under the first two sovereigns of the house of Taimur, Baber and Humayun (Volume 1) |year=1854 |pages=355}}</ref>
|Malabar Coast, Afghanistan
|Unknown
|-
|1525-26<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1920 |title=A Brief History of the Gujarat Saltanat (Part II) |journal=Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=289}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayley |first=Sir E.C. |title=The history of India as told by its own historians. The local Muhammadan dynasties. Gujarat |year=1886 |pages=333}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=ʻAlī Muḥammad |last=Khān |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi; a Persian history of Gujarat. English translation, translated from the Persian original of Ali Muhammad Khan, by M.F. Lokhandwala. |date=1965 |publisher=Oriental Institute |pages=58–9 |oclc=977834826}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Henry M. |title=Bibliographical index to the historians of Muhammedan India (Vol. 1) |year=1850 |pages=201}}</ref>
|Gujarat, Multan
|Unknown
|-
|1528<ref>{{Cite book |last=Astarābādī |first=Firishtah, Muḥammad Qāsim Hindū Shāh |title=Ferishta's History of Dekkan from the first Mahummedan conquests: a continuation from other native writers, of the events in that part of India, to the reduction of its last monarchs by the Emperor Aulumgeer Aurungzebe: also, the reigns of his successors ... to the present day: and the history of Bengal, from the accession of Aliverdee Khan to the year 1780. {{sic|Comprised |hide=y|in}} six parts. By Jonathan Scott, ... (Vol. 1) |publisher=printed by J. and W. Eddowes, for John Stockdale, London |year=1794 |pages=365–6 |oclc=1171184266}}</ref>
|Ahmednagar
|Unknown
|-
|1534<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parmu |first=R.K. |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320-1819 |year=1969 |pages=214–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Aḥmad, Khwājah Niẓāmuddin |title=The Ṭabaqāt-i-Akbarī of Khwājah Niẓāmuddīn Aḥmad : a history of India from the early Musalmān invasions to the thirty-sixth year of the reign of Akbar (Vol. 3) |year=2015 |isbn=978-93-81574-33-1 |pages=704–5 |publisher=Asiatic Society |oclc=935461267}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutt |first=Jogesh C. |title=Kings of Kashmira (Vol. 3) |year=1898 |pages=373–5}}</ref>
|Kashmir
|Unknown
|-
|1539-40<ref>{{Cite book |title=[[O Investigador Portuguez em Inglaterra]] |year=1816 |pages=280–1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Correa |first=Gaspar |title=Lendas da India (Vol. 4) |year=1864 |pages=131–2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rice |first=B. Lewis |title=Epigraphia Carnatica, vol. IV. Inscriptions in the Mysore District (Pt. 2) |year=1898 |pages=27–8}}</ref>
|Cambay
|Unknown
|-
|1540-42<ref>{{Cite book |author=Etheridge, Alfred Thomas |title=Report on past famines in the Bombay Presidency |date=1868 |publisher=Printed for government at the Education Society's Press, Byculla |pages=16 |oclc=919770881}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nāmī |first=MUḢAMMAD MA'ṠŪM, Bhakarī, called |title=A History of Sind, embracing the period from A.D. 710 to A.D. 1590; written in Persian by Mahomed Masoom; and translated ... by Captain George Grenville Malet ... assisted by Peer Mahomed ... Edited by R. Hughes Thomas. |date=1855 |pages=110–18 |oclc=562852528}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Elliot, H. M. (Henry Miers), Sir |title=The history of India, as told by its own historians : the Muhammadan period (Vol. 1). |date=5 July 2014 |isbn=978-1-139-50721-9 |pages=280–81 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |oclc=1187192446}}</ref>
|Sindh
|Unknown
|-
|1544<ref>{{Cite book |last=du Jaric |first=P. Pierre |title=Histoire des choses plus mémorables advenues tant ez Indes orientales, que autres païs de la descouverte des Portugais. (Vol. 1) |year=1608 |pages=112–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Venn |first=Henry |title=The Missionary Life and Labours of Francis Xavier Taken from His Own Correspondence: With a Sketch of the General Results of Roman Catholic Missions Among the Heathen |year=1862 |pages=59–61}}</ref>
|Parava
|Unknown
|-
|1550 (roughly)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bartoli |first=Daniello |title=Dell'istoria della Compagnia di Gesu' l'Asia (Pt. 1, Book 3) |year=1820 |pages=205}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Macauliffe, M. (Max) |title=The Sikh religion : its gurus, sacred writings and authors. (Vol. 2) |year=1909 |isbn=978-1-139-50659-5 |pages=36 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |oclc=893423152}}</ref>
|Kollam, Punjab
|Unknown
|-
|1555-56<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir Henry M. |title=Bibliographical index to the historians of Muhammedan India (Vol. 1) |year=1850 |pages=232–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir Henry M. |title=The History Of India, As Told By Its Own Historians (Vol. 5) |year=1873 |pages=490–1}}</ref><ref name="Kumar 2003 128">{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Raj |title=Essays on Medieval India |year=2003 |pages=128}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Abu-l Fazl |title=Akbar nama (trans. E. Mackenzie) |year=1875 |pages=21–2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Abul Fazl' Allami |title=Ain I Akbari (trans. H.S. Jarett) (Vol. 3) |year=1894 |pages=425–6}}</ref>
|Delhi
|Unknown
|-
|1557<ref>{{Cite book |last=da Silva Rego |first=Antonio |title=Documentação para a história das missões do padroado português do Oriente |year=1947 |pages=386}}</ref>
|Cochin
|Unknown
|-
|1564<ref>{{Cite book |last=da Silva Rego |first=Antonio |title=Documentacao para a historia das missoes do Padroado Portugues do Oriente : India (Vol. 9) |year=1953 |pages=360}}</ref>
|Goa
|Unknown
|-
|1570 (roughly)<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Federici |first=Cesare |title=Viaggio di Messer Cesare de Federici nell'India Orientale |year=1587 |pages=Capitolo 7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Caldwell |first=Robert |title=A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly, in the Presidency of Madras |year=1881 |pages=72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Sousa Amado |first=José |title=Historia da Egreja Catholica em Portugal, no Brazil e nas possessões portuguezas (Vol. 7 pt. 2) |year=1876 |pages=319–20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wicki |first=Josef |title=Documenta Indica (Vol. 8) |year=1964 |pages=351–2}}</ref>
|Cambay, Fishery Coast, Tamil Nadu, Goa
|Unknown
|-
|1572<ref>{{Cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |title=The agrarian system of Mughal India (1526-1707) |year=1999 |pages=114}}</ref>
|Sirhind
|Unknown
|-
|1574-75<ref>{{Cite book |last=Srivastava |first=Ashirbadi Lal |title=Akbar The Great (Vol. 1) |year=1962 |pages=169}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The History of India, as Told By Its Own Historians (Vol. 5) |year=1873 |pages=384}}</ref><ref name="Kumar 2003 128"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Abu'l-Fazl |title=The Akbar Nama (trans. H Beveridge) (Vol. 3) |year=1939 |pages=148–9}}</ref>
|Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar, Scarcity in UP
|Unknown
|-
|1576<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parmu |first=R.K. |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320-1819 |year=1969 |pages=261}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dutt |first=Jogesh C. |title=Kings of Kashmira (Vol. 3) |year=1898 |pages=394–5}}</ref>
|Kashmir
|Unknown
|-
|1577<ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Gurpreet |title=Soul of Sikhism |year=2014 |pages=75}}</ref>
|Kutch, Punjab
|Unknown
|-
|1578<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jain |first=Shalin |date=2012 |title=Interaction with The 'Lords': The Jain Community and the Mughal Royalty under Akbar |journal=Social Scientist |volume=40 |issue=3–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |title=Jainism in Rajasthan |year=1963 |pages=223}}</ref>
|Bikaner
|Unknown
|-
|1591<ref>{{Cite book |last=du Jaric |first=P. Pierre |title=Histoire des choses plus mémorables advenues tant ez Indes orientales, que autres païs de la descouverte des Portugais (Vol. 2) |year=1610 |pages=459}}</ref>
|Goa
|Unknown
|-
|1595-98<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sikh Missionary College |title=Brief History Of The Sikh Gurus |date=c. 2000s |pages=36}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haig |first1=TW |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India (Vol. 2) |last2=Allan |first2=John |last3=Dodwell |first3=Henry |year=1935 |pages=374, 379}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Macauliffe |first=Max Arthur |title=The Sikh Religion, Its Gurus, sacred Writings and Authors (Vol. 3) |year=1909 |pages=189–90}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India : as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 6) |year=1877 |pages=94}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India : as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 6) |year=1877 |pages=193}}</ref>
|Punjab, Doab
|Unknown
|-
|1613<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Shah Nawaz |title=The Maathir-ul-Umara (trans. H. Beveridge & B. Prashad) (Vol. 1, 2nd ed.) |year=2003 |pages=400}}</ref>
|Udaipur Hill Tracts
|Unknown
|-
|1614-16<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India : as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 6) |year=1877 |pages=346}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Roe |first=Sir Thomas |title=The embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the court of the Great Mogul, 1615-1619 (Vol. 2) |year=1899 |pages=307, 352, 364, 366–67, 375}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Letters received by the East India Company from its servants in the East: Vol. 5, 1617 (January to June) |year=1901 |pages=104}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Letters received by the East India Company from its servants in the East: Vol. 6, 1617 (July to December) |year=1902 |pages=198}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Allan |first1=John |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India (Vol. 2) |last2=Haig |first2=Thomas Wolseley |last3=Dodwell |first3=Henry |year=1935 |pages=389}}</ref>
|Doab, Mewar (only 1614, roughly)
|Unknown
|-
|1616-17<ref>{{Cite book |title=Brief History Of The Sikh Gurus |date=c. 2000s |pages=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sadhu |first=Shyam Lal |title=Rupa Bhavani |year=2003 |pages=51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mattoo |first=Abul Majid |title=Kashmir Under Jahangir (1605-1627 AD) (M. Phil. Dissertation, Aligarh Muslim University, 1973) |year=1973 |pages=87}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Koul |first=Pandit Anand |title=Geography Of The Jammu And Kashmir State (2nd ed.) |year=1925 |pages=105, 110}}</ref>
|Kashmir
|Unknown
|-
|1618-19<ref>{{Cite book |last=Terry |first=Edward |title=A voyage to East-India |year=1777 |pages=226, 390, 393}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moreland |first=W.H. |title=From Akbar to Aurangzeb: A study in Indian economic history |year=1923 |pages=207}}</ref>
|Southern Mughal Empire, Coromandel
|Unknown
|-
|1619<ref>{{Cite book |last=y Sousa |first=Manuel de Faria |title=Asia Portuguesa (Vol. 3) |year=1675 |pages=349}}</ref>
|Goa
|Unknown
|-
|1622<ref>{{Cite book |last=Foster |first=William |title=The english factories in India, 1622-1623 : a calendar of documents in the India Office and British museum |year=1908 |pages=129}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vink |first=Marcus |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |year=2015 |pages=289}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bertrand |first=J. |title=La Mission du Maduré (Vol. 2) |year=1848 |pages=Letter to P. Ant. Vico, November 1622}}</ref>
|South East India (since 1620)
|Unknown
|-
|1626<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhavani |first=C. |title=Economic History of Tamilnadu from AD 1600 to 1857 (PhD thesis, 2008) |year=2008 |pages=364}}</ref>
|Fishery Coast
|Unknown
|-
|1628<ref>{{Cite book |title=The English factories in India, 1630-1633 |year=1910 |pages=79}}</ref>
|Masulipatam
|Unknown
|-
|1629-32<ref>{{Cite book |last=Randhawa |first=M.S. |title=A History of Agriculture in India (Vol. II) |pages=340}}</ref>
|Deccan
|Unknown
|-
|1630<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India : as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 7) |year=1877 |pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=39}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mundy |first=Peter |title=The travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608-1667 (Vol. 2) |year=1914 |pages=38–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series. East Indies and Persia 1630-1634 (Vol. 8) |year=1892 |pages=100, 102}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Inayat |title=The Shah Jahan nama of 'Inayat Khan (trans. A.R. Fuller) |year=1990 |pages=42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The English factories in India, 1630-1633 |year=1910 |pages=19, 60, 79, 97, 117, 122, 129–30, 134}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=van Twist |first=Johan |title=Generale beschrijvinghe van Indien (edition of 1648) |pages=7–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moreland |first=W.H. |title=From Akbar to Aurangzeb: A study in Indian economic history |year=1923 |pages=171–2, 212–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Ali Muhammad |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F.Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=179}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Nawab Samsam-ud-Daula Shah Nawaz |title=The Maathir-ul-Umara (trans. H. Beveridge) (Vol. 2, Pt. 1) |year=1952 |pages=306–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gokhale |first=Balkrishna Govind |author-link=Balkrishna Govind Gokhale |title=Surat in the Seventeenth Century |year=1979 |pages=22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=J. Nelson |title=Life and Teachings of Tukaram |last2=Edwards |first2=J.F. |year=1922 |pages=83–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tukaram |title=The Poems of Tukarama (trans. J. Nelson Fraser and K.B. Marathe) |year=1909 |pages=43, 113}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bredsdorff |first=Asta |title=Willem Leyels liv og farefulde rejse til Indien |year=1999 |pages=21}}</ref>
|Entire India
|rowspan="3" | 7,400,000+
|-
|1631<ref>{{Cite book |title=The English factories in India, 1630-1633 |year=1910 |pages=xvi, xxi, 136, 138, 143, 145, 158, 207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Firishtah |first=Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah Astirabadi |title=History of Hindostan (trans. Alexander Dow) (1st ed.) |year=1772 |pages=141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series. East Indies and Persia 1630-1634 (Vol. 8) |year=1892 |pages=147, 173, 209, 226, 228, 231}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Elliot |first1=Sir H.M. |title=Shah Jahan |last2=Lahori |first2=Abdu-l Hamid |year=1875 |pages=32–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register behouden int Casteel Batavia Anno 1631-34 |year=1898 |pages=33, 35, 65}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=van Twist |first=Johan |title=Generale beschrijvinghe van Indien (edition of 1648) |year=1648 |pages=9–10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moreland |first=W.H. |title=From Akbar to Aurangzeb: A study in Indian economic history |year=1923 |pages=213}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Servaas |first=A.J. |title=De Navorscher (Vol. 37 (1)) |year=1887 |pages=4–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the Indian Historical Records Commission Held at Bombay in January 1921 |year=1921 |pages=45–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Charles |title=Indian famines; their historical, financial, & other aspects |year=1874 |pages=19–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture |year=2004 |pages=99–100}}</ref>
|Entire India (continuation from 1630)
|-
|1632-3<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India : as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 7) |year=1877 |pages=440}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Queiros |first=Fernão de |title=Historia de vida do veneravel irmaõ Pedro De Basto, coadjutor temporal da Companhia de Jesus, e da variedade de sucessos que deos lhe manifestou |year=1689 |pages=197}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Forster |first=Sir William |title=The English factories in India, 1630-1633 |year=1910 |pages=218}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1631-1634 |pages=87, 144, 146}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series. East Indies and Persia 1630-1634 (Vol. 8) |year=1892 |pages=352, 422, 467}}</ref>
|Entire India (continued from 1630)
|-
|1635<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wessels |first=Bernard |title=Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia, 1603–1721 |year=1924 |pages=82–3}}</ref>
|Northern India
|Unknown
|-
|1636<ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1636 |year=1899 |pages=51, 121, 263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Famine and Dearth (Exeter University) |url=https://famineanddearth.exeter.ac.uk/displayhtml.html?id=fp_00704_en_lubbuttawarikh}}</ref>
|South-East India, Punjab
|Unknown
|-
|1640-41<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bredsdorff |first=Asta |title=Willem Leyels liv og farefulde rejse til Indien |year=1999 |pages=74}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1640-1641 |year=1887 |pages=218, 380}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1641-1642 |year=1900 |pages=185–6}}</ref>
|Central India, South-East India
|Unknown
|-
|1641 (or 1642)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parmu |first=R.K. |title=A History Of Muslim Rule In Kashmir 1320-1819 |year=1969 |pages=318–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Inayat |title=The Shah Jahan nama of 'Inayat Khan (trans. A.R. Fuller) |year=1990 |pages=291–2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Parkash |title=The Sikh Gurus and the Temple of Bread |year=1971 |pages=82}}</ref>
|Kashmir
|Unknown
|-
|1642<ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1641-1642 |year=1900 |pages=205–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1643-1644 |year=1902 |pages=250}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhavani |first=C. |title=Economic History of Tamilnadu from AD 1600 to 1857 (PhD thesis, 2008) |year=2008 |pages=364}}</ref>
|East Coast of India
|Unknown
|-
|1644<ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1644-1645 |year=1903 |pages=327}}</ref>
|Madurai to Coromandel Coast
|Unknown
|-
|1646-48 (till 1647 in Madurai to Coromandel Coast)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vink |first=Markus |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |year=2015 |pages=289, 335}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bredsdorff |first=Asta |title=Willem Leyels liv og farefulde rejse til Indien |year=1999 |pages=164}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1639–55 |title=Foreningen Trankebar |url=http://www.foreningen-trankebar.dk/402582377}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Madras Tercentenary Commemoration Volume |year=1939 |pages=73–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1646 - 1650 |year=1914 |pages=1, 54, 70, 74, 114, 163–5, 215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 1) |year=1913 |pages=74–5, 142, 147}}</ref>
|Madurai to Coromandel Coast, Punjab
|Unknown
|-
|1647<ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1646 - 1650 |year=1914 |pages=192, 198}}</ref>
|Agra to Ahmedabad
|Unknown
|-
|1648-49<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bertrand |first=J. |title=La Mission du Maduré (Vol. 2) |year=1848 |pages=Letter du P. Balthasar da Costa, Missionaire du Madure, au R.P.V. Caraffa, Generale de la même Compaign. Cochin, 1648}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1646 - 1650 |year=1914 |pages=246, 259}}</ref>
|Madurai to Coromandel Coast
|Unknown
|-
|1649<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferro |first=Bartolomeo |title=Istoria delle missioni de' chierici regolari, teatini. Con la descrizione de' regni, provincie, città, luoghi, fede, riti, e costumi delle genti, ove andarono, e passarono li missionarii, con li viaggi pericolosi, fatiche fattevi, e frutto raccoltovi per la cattolica religione (Vol. 2) |year=1704 |pages=255}}</ref>
|Goa
|Unknown
|-
|1650-51<ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1646 - 1650 |year=1914 |pages=322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1651 - 1654 |year=1915 |pages=10, 29, 82}}</ref>
|North-Central India
|Unknown
|-
|1651<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India : as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 7) |year=1877 |pages=98}}</ref>
|Kashmir
|Unknown
|-
|1658-61<ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1655-1660 |year=1921 |pages=24, 57, 159, 196, 210, 263, 306–7, 311, 320, 401–2, 407}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 7) |year=1877 |pages=246–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1661 |year=1889 |pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhadani |first=B.L. |title=Economic Conditions in Marwar in the Second Half of the 17th Century (PhD thesis, 1981) |year=1981 |pages=105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bernier |first=François |title=Voyages de François Bernier et description des Etats du Grand Mogol (Vol. 1) |year=1699 |pages=202}}</ref>
|Northwest to East India
|Unknown
|-
|1659-61<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Madras Tercentenary Commemoration Volume |year=1939 |pages=75–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1655-1660 |year=1921 |pages=257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vink |first=Markus |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |year=2015 |pages=290}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Perron |first=Anquetil du |title=Description historique et géographique de l'Inde (Vol. 2, Pt. 1) |year=1786 |pages=50}}</ref>
|South-East India
|Unknown
|-
|1661<ref>{{Cite book |last=Girdlestone |first=C.E.R. |title=Report on Past Famines in the North-Western Provinces |year=1868 |pages=6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Astirabadi Firishtah |first=Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah |title=History of Hindostan (trans. Alexander Dow) (1st. ed.) |year=1772 |pages=340}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir. H.M. |title=The history of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 7) |year=1877 |pages=263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Saqi Must'ad |title=Maasir-i-Alamgiri (trans. Sir Jadunath Sarkar) |year=1947 |pages=20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bernier |first=François |title=Voyages de François Bernier et description des Etats du Grand Mogol (Vol. 2) |year=1699 |pages=318–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tod |first=James |title=Annals and antiquities of Rajasthan (Vol. 1) |year=1920 |pages=454–5}}</ref>
|Central North India, Mewar
|Unknown
|-
|1662-63<ref>{{Cite book |title=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Vol. 41, Pt. 1, 1872) |year=1872 |pages=91, 93}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Sir Jadunath |title=The History Of Bengal: Volume II, Muslim Period 1200 To 1757 |year=1948 |pages=343–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1663 |year=1891 |pages=21, 167}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Khan Chowdhuri Amanatulla |title=History of Cooch Behar (trans. S.C. Ghosal) |year=1942 |pages=207}}</ref>
|Eastern Bengal
|Unknown
|-
|1663-64<ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1661-1664 |year=1923 |pages=200, 320–1, 329, 358}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhadani |first=B.L. |title=Economic Conditions in Marwar in the Second Half of the 17th Century (PhD thesis, 1981) |year=1981 |pages=105–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1663 |year=1891 |pages=420}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1664 |year=1893 |pages=154, 189–90, 199, 330, 555–6, 577, 597}}</ref>
|Punjab to Gujarat, South-East India
|Unknown
|-
|1665<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moosvi |first=Shireen |date=1985 |title=Scarcities, Prices and Exploitation: The Agrarian Crisis, 1658-70 |journal=Studies in History |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=47|doi=10.1177/025764308500100105 |s2cid=161951630 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Dilbagh |title=The State, landlords, and peasants: Rajasthan in the 18th century |year=1990 |pages=39}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gupta |first=S.P. |date=1993 |title=The 'Agrarian Crisis' of Mughal Empire and Agrarian Conditions in the Jaipur Region (c1650 - 1750) |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=54 |pages=331}}</ref>
|Jaipur
|Unknown
|-
|1669-70<ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India: 1668-1669 |year=1927 |pages=217}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The English Factories in India (The Western Presidency): 1670-1677 |year=1936 |pages=15}}</ref>
|Bombay
|Unknown
|-
|1670-71<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graaff |first=Nicolaus de |title=Reisen van Nicolaus de Graaff, na de vier gedeeltens des Werelds … |year=1701 |pages=105–6, 110–11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Prakash |first=Om |title=The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630-1720 |year=2014 |pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=S.A. |title=John Marshall in India |year=1927 |pages=114–27, 137–44, 154–5}}</ref>
|Bihar, Bengal
|100,000+
|-
|1671-73<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carré |first=Abbé |title=The Travels Of The Abbé Carré In India And The Near East (1672-1674) (trans. Lady Fawcett) |year=1947 |pages=233}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fawcett |first=Sir Charles |title=The English Factories In India: Vol.1 (New Series) (The Western Presidency) 1670-1677 |year=1923 |pages=257–8}}</ref>
|Deccan (Bombay Karanatak)
|Unknown
|-
|1673-75<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vink |first=Markus |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |year=2015 |pages=260, 290}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bertrand |first=J. |title=La Mission du Maduré (Vol. 3) |year=1850 |pages=LETTRE DU P. ANDRÉ FREIRE, MISSIONAIRE DU MADURÉ, AU R.P. PAUL OLIVA, GÉNÉRAL DE LA COMPAGNIE DE JÉSUS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jhaveri |first=Krishnalal Mohanlal |title=Milestones In Gujarati Literature (2nd ed.) |year=1938 |pages=124–9}}</ref>
|Madurai to Gingee, Gujarat
|Unknown
|-
|1678<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhadani |first=B.L. |title=Economic Conditions in Marwar in the Second Half of the 17th Century (PhD thesis, 1981) |year=1981 |pages=107}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vink |first=Markus |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |year=2015 |pages=430}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bertrand |first=J. |title=La Mission du Maduré (Vol. 3) |year=1850
|pages=Lettre du P. André Freire, Missionaire du Maduré, Au R.P. Paul Oliva, Général de la Compagnie de Jésus. Viranam, dans le royaume de Gingi, 1678}}</ref>
|Marwar, Madurai
|Unknown
|-
|1681<ref>{{Cite book |title=Dagh-register Behouden Int Casteel Batavia Anno 1682 (Vol. 1) |year=1928 |pages=76–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhadani |first=B.L. |title=Economic Conditions in Marwar in the Second Half of the 17th Century (PhD thesis, 1981) |year=1981 |pages=108}}</ref>
|Negapatnam, Marwar
|Unknown
|-
|1682<ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=63}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Ali Muhammad |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F. Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=268–9}}</ref>
|Ahmedabad
|Unknown
|-
|1685-6 (only 1685 in Kashmir)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koul |first=Pandir Anand |title=Geography Of The Jammu And Kashmir State (2nd ed.) |year=1925 |pages=105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Letters to Fort St. George, 1684-1685 (Vol. 3) |year=1917 |pages=47, 164, 166, 198, 201, 226, 236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Gujarat: Vol. II. The Mughal Period from 1573 to 1758 |year=1957 |pages=188}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Bengal and Madras papers. Vol. I: 1670-1688 |year=1928 |pages=letter from Company agent at Hugly to Fort St. George, 20 Nov 1685}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Ali Muhammad |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F. Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=275–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=François |title=Mémoires de François Martin ... (Vol. 2) |year=1932 |pages=411, 448}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gabelé |first=Yvonne Robert |title=Une Parisienne aux Indes au 18e siècle (Madame François Martin) |year=1937 |pages=67–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bertrand |first=J. |title=La Mission du Madure (Vol. 3) |year=1850 |pages=LETTRE DU P. LOUIS DE MELLO AU R.P. DE NOYELLE, GÉNÉRAL DE LA COMPAGNIE DE JÉSUS 1686}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 1) |year=1913 |pages=478}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 3) |year=1913 |pages=409}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Bengal and Madras papers. Vol. I: 1670-1688 |year=1928 |pages=letter from Fort St. George to Company agent at Hugly, 26 Aug 1686, letter from Fort St. George to Company Presidency at Surat, 23 Oct 1686}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 1687 |title=Oprechte Haerlemsche courant}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kincaid |first1=C.A. |title=A History of the Maratha People (2nd ed.) |last2=Parasnis |first2=D.B. |year=1931 |pages=130–1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haig |first=T. Wolseley |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India (Vol. 2) |year=1935 |pages=443}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 7) |year=1877 |pages=328}}</ref>
|Kashmir, Southern India
|Unknown
|-
|1685-1689<ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 3) |year=1913 |pages=558}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Records of Fort St. George: Diary and Consultation Book of 1687 |year=1916 |pages=13, 45, 86, 90, 108, 114, 119–20, 137, 149, 185}}</ref><ref name="Anthony 1982 539">{{Cite book |last=Anthony |first=Francis Cyril |title=Gazetteer of India: Union Territory of Pondicherry |year=1982 |pages=539}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=François |title=Mémoires de François Martin (Vol. 2) |year=1932 |pages=460, 471, 484–5, 491, 497, 500, 505}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 1) |year=1913 |pages=478–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23–26 July 1688 |title=London Gazette}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=10 August 1688 |title=Oprechte Haerlemsche courant}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Bengal and Madras papers. Vol. I: 1670-1688 |year=1928 |pages=letter from Fort St. George to Company officers in Bengal, 26 Apr 1688, letter from Fort St. George to Company agent at Hugly, 6 Jun 1688, letter from Company officers at Chutanuttee to Fort St. George, 27 Jun 1688}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vink |first=Markus |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |year=2015 |pages=291}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jørgensen |first=Helle |date=2013 |title=Slavehandel i den dansk-indiske kolonihistorie |url=http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/slavehandel-i-den-dansk-indiske-kolonihistorie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Bengal & Madras papers. Vol. II: 1688-1757 |year=1928 |pages=1, 3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruce |first=John |title=Annals of the Honorable East-India Company (Vol. 2) |year=1810 |pages=656–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Weaver communities in Medieval South India |year=1980 |pages=371}}</ref><ref name="Elliot 1877 36">{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir H.M. |title=The history of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan period (Vol. 8) |year=1877 |pages=36}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Loveday |first=A |title=The history & economics of Indian famines |year=1914 |pages=26–7, 141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Sir Jadunath |title=History Of Aurangzib (Vol. 4) |year=1929 |pages=439–40, 449–50}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Saqi Must'ad |title=Maasir-i-Alamgiri (trans. Sir Jadunath Sarkar) |year=1947 |pages=178, 199}}</ref>
|South-East India, Deccan (only 1687), Golconda (1685-1687)
|Unknown
|-
|1688<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffin |first=Lepel H. |title=The Rajas of the Punjab |year=1870 |pages=637}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Venkatachalam |first=Pandit Kota |title=Chronology of Kashmir History Reconstructed |year=1955 |pages=114}}</ref>
|Mandi state, Delhi (possibly)
|Unknown
|-
|1690<ref>{{Cite book |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F. Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=290}}</ref>
|Gujarat
|Unknown
|-
|1694-1697 (till 1695 in Gujarat to Rajasthan, till 1697 in Coromandel Coast, 1696–7 in Marwar to North Gujarat)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vink |first=Markus |title=Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century |year=291}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The early annals of the English in Bengal, being the Bengal public consultations … (Vol. 1) |year=1895 |pages=401}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Weaver communities in Medieval South India ... |year=1980 |pages=376}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Gujarat: Vol. II. The Mughal Period from 1573 to 1758 |year=1957 |pages=188}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Satya Prakash |title=The Agrarian System of Eastern Rajasthan: c.1650-c.1750 |year=1986 |pages=138–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhadani |first=B.L. |title=Economic Conditions in Marwar in the Second Half of the 17th Century |year=1981 |pages=108–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jawalia |first1=B M |last2=Choudhary |first2=S L |last3=Nene |first3=Y L |date=2001 |title=Food Security in Rajasthan with Specific Reference to the Marwar Region During the 17th and 18th Centuries |journal=Asian Agri-History |volume=1 |pages=279–80}}</ref>
|Coromandel Coast, Gujarat to Rajasthan, Marwar to North Gujarat
|Unknown
|-
|1699-1700<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Saqi Must'ad |title=Maasir-i-Alamgiri (trans. Sir. Jadunath Sarkar) |year=1947 |pages=250–1, 257}}</ref>
|Satara
|Unknown
|-
|1702-1704<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manucci |first=Niccolao |title=Storia Do Mogor (trans. William Irvine) (Vol. 4) |year=1908 |pages=97}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |title=The Agrarian System of Mughal India (1556-1707) |year=1999 |pages=121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Saqi Must'ad |title=Maasir-i-Alamgiri (trans. Sir Jadunath Sarkar) |year=1947 |pages=282–3}}</ref><ref name="Elliot 1877 36"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Satish |title=Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs & the Deccan |year=1993 |pages=203}}</ref>
|Deccan
|Unknown
|-
|1703<ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=18}}</ref>
|Thurr and Parker, Sindh
|Unknown
|-
|1705-1707 (only 1705 in Marwar)<ref>{{Cite book |first=Haidarabad |last=Dakhan |title=Gazetteer of Aurangabad |year=1884 |pages=421}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhadani |first=B.L. |title=Economic Conditions in Marwar in the Second Half of the 17th Century |year=1981 |pages=109}}</ref>
|Deccan, Marwar
|Unknown
|-
|1708-1709<ref name="Anthony 1982 539"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Records of Fort St. George: Despatches to England 1701-02 to 1710-11 |year=1925 |pages=97, 103, 118, 136}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Procès-verbaux des délibérations du Conseil souverain de la Compagnie des Indes (Vol. 1) |year=1911 |pages=74–5, 84}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions étrangères (Vol. 6) |year=1819 |pages=383–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Klausen |first=Henrik Nikolai |title=Det Evangeliske Kirkelivs, Nutid og Fremtid (Vol. 1) |year=1878 |pages=304}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Diary and Consultation Book 1710 |year=1929 |pages=51, 131}}</ref>
|Southern India
|Unknown
|-
|1710-1712<ref>{{Cite book |title=The early annals of the English in Bengal, being the Bengal public consultations … (Vol. 1) |year=1895 |pages=333–4, 340}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Early Annals of the English in Bengal, being the Bengal public consultations … (Vol. 2, Pt. 1) |year=1900 |pages=15, 35–6, 41}}</ref>
|Calcutta, East Coast
|Unknown
|-
|1711-12 (only 1711 in Jaipur)<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kachhawha |first=O.P. |title=Famines In Rajasthan |year=1985 |pages=26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1711" |year=1929 |pages=9, 11, 18, 51, 140, 185, 216–17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Procès-verbaux des délibérations du Conseil souverain de la Compagnie des Indes (Vol. 1) |year=1911 |pages=109, 114}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Theodore |title=The economic transition in India |year=1911 |pages=113}}</ref>
|Jaipur, Coromandel Coast
|Unknown
|-
|1713<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book |title=Report of the Fact Finding Committee for Survey of Scarcity Areas, Maharashtra State (Vol. 1) |year=1973 |pages=6}}</ref>
|Osmanabad (possibly to Nanded)
|Unknown
|-
|1716<ref name=":0" />
|Jaipur
|Unknown
|-
|1717-1720 (only till 1719 in Gujarat)<ref name="Anthony 1982 539"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1718" |year=1929 |pages=2, 5, 7, 18, 29, 33, 36, 38, 41, 56, 62, 91, 115, 123, 128, 130, 134, 141, 171–2, 178, 183, 195, 200, 203}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1720" |year=1930 |pages=48, 51, 95, 171}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bertrand |first=J. |title=La Mission du Maduré (Vol. 4) |year=1854 |pages=Lettre du P. Charles-Michel Bertholdi, Missionaire du Maduré, Au R.P. Michel-Ange Tamburini, Général de la Compagnie de Jésus. Aout, 1720}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Subramanian |first=K.R. |title=Maratha Rajas Of Tanjore |pages=38}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Theodore |title=The economic transition in India |year=1911 |pages=113–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions étrangères (Vol. 7) |year=1819 |pages=252}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=40, 63–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Ali Muhammad |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F. Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=383}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Gujarat: Vol. II. The Mughal Period from 1573 to 1758 |year=1957 |pages=394}}</ref>
|Madras to Madurai, Gujarat
|Unknown
|-
|1721-1723<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hondt |first=Pierre de |title=Histoire Générale des Voyages .. (Vol. 130 |year=1755 |pages=470}}</ref>
|Canavay, Mysore
|Unknown
|-
|1723-24 (possibly Gujarat in 1723)<ref name="Koul 1925 105">{{Cite book |last=Koul |first=Pandit Anand |title=Geography Of The Jammu And Kashmir State (2nd ed.) |year=1925 |pages=105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1723" |year=1930 |pages=7}}</ref>
|Kashmir, Gujarat (possibly)
|Unknown
|-
|1727-1728<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1727" |year=1930 |pages=21, 153, 161, 183–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Correspondance du Conseil Supérieur de Pondichery et de la Compagnie ... 1726-1730 (Vol. 1) |year=1920 |pages=80, 194, 334}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Logan |first=William |title="Malabar" (Vol. 1) |year=1951 |pages=215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Procès-verbaux des délibérations du Conseil souverain de la Compagnie des Indes (Vol. 2) |year=1914 |pages=165, 189–90, 193, 199–200}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=A.R. |title=The Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai: Translated From the Tamil ... (Vol. 12) |year=1928 |pages=272–3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gnanapragasam |first=V.M. |title=Contribution of Fr. Beschi to Tamil |year=1965 |pages=41–2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hondt |first=Pierre de |title=Histoire Générale des Voyages ... (Vol. 13) |year=1755 |pages=474}}</ref>
|Tamil Nadu
|Unknown
|-
|1729<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Theodore |title=The economic transition in India |year=1911 |pages=114–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1729" |year=1930 |pages=18, 63, 67, 81, 97, 119}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Procès-verbaux des délibérations du Conseil souverain de la Compagnie des Indes (Vol. 2) |year=1914 |pages=223, 228}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Correspondance du Conseil Supérieur de Pondichery et de la Compagnie ... 1726-1730 (Vol. 1) |year=1920 |pages=336, 340}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Suite de l'Histoire Générale des Voyages ... (Vol. 17) |publisher=Arkstée & Merkus |year=1761 |pages=348}}</ref>
|South-West India, Coromandel Coast
|Unknown
|-
|1730<ref>{{Cite book |title=Punjab District Gazetteers: Ludhiana District, Part A |year=1907 |pages=167}}</ref>
|Ludhiana
|Unknown
|-
|1731-1732 (only 1731 in Coromandel Coast and Kashmir)<ref name="Morison 1911 115">{{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Theodore |title=The economic transition in India |year=1911 |pages=115}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1731" |year=1930 |pages=96}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Ali Muhammad |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F. Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=494}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jhaveri |first=Krishnalal Mohanlal |title=Milestones In Gujarati Literature (2nd ed.) |year=1938 |pages=204–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reu |first=Pandit Bisheshwar Nath |title=Glories Of Marwar and the Glorious Rathors |year=1943 |pages=162}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Parihar |first=G.R. |title=Marwar and the Marathas (1724-1843 A.D.) |year=1968 |pages=47}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12–15 August 1732 |title=London Evening Post }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=J.W. |title=History Of Gujarat … A.D. 1297 – 1760 |year=1886 |pages=91}}</ref><ref name="Koul 1925 105"/>
|Gujarat, Coromandel Coast to Orissa, Kashmir
|Unknown
|-
|1733-1736<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1733" |year=1930 |pages=15, 25, 33, 47, 50, 76–7, 104, 141, 149, 154, 170, 180, 189}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 2) |year=1913 |pages=252}}</ref><ref name="Morison 1911 115"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gnanapragasam |first=V.M. |title=Contribution of Fr. Beschi to Tamil |year=1965 |pages=45–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=du Hondt |first=Pierre |title=Histoire Générale des Voyages ... (Vol. 13) |year=1755 |pages=489–90}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Procès-verbaux des délibérations du Conseil souverain de la Compagnie des Indes (Vol. 3) |year=1914 |pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Correspondance du Conseil Supérieur de Pondichéry et de la Compagnie ... 1736-1738 (Vol. 2) |year=1920 |pages=185}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions étrangères (Vol. 8) |year=1835 |pages=329}}</ref>
|Madras (extended to South-East India by 1734)
|Unknown
|-
|1737-1738<ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 3) |year=1913 |pages=409, 558}}</ref><ref name="Anthony 1982 539"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=Procès-verbaux des délibérations du Conseil souverain de la Compagnie des Indes (Vol. 3) |year=1914 |pages=70, 89, 95, 109–10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions étrangères (Vol. 8) |year=1835 |pages=105, 329}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Love |first=Henry Davidson |title=Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800 (Vol. 2) |year=1913 |pages=252}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1737" |year=1930 |pages=5, 12, 84, 88, 122, 131, 140, 180}}</ref><ref name="Morison 1911 115"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Sir Jadunath |title=Fall of the Mughal Empire (Vol. 1) |year=1964 |pages=169}}</ref>
|East Coast, Malwa to Ahmedabad
|Unknown
|-
|1738<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George "Diary and Consultation Book, 1738" |year=1930 |pages=47, 52, 96, 136}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Procès-verbaux des délibérations du Conseil souverain de la Compagnie des Indes (Vol. 3) |year=1914 |pages=133–35, 174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Correspondance du Conseil Supérieur de Pondichéry et de la Compagnie ... 1736-1738 (Vol. 2) |year=1920 |pages=144, 209}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=A.R. |title=Private diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai : dubash to Joseph François Dupleix ... 1736 to 1761 (Vol. 1) |year=1904 |pages=67}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Old Fort William in Bengal; a selection of official documents dealing with its history (Vol. 1) |year=1906 |pages=169. Extract from Abstract of General Letter from Bengal to the Court. Fort William, January 29, 1739}}</ref>
|Coromandel Coast to Tanjore (since 1737), Bengal
|Unknown
|-
|1739<ref>{{Cite book |last=Girdlestone |first=C.E.R |title=Report on Past Famines in the North-Western Provinces |year=1868 |pages=6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanway |first=Jonas |title=The Revolutions Of Persia (Vol. 2) |year=1753 |pages=172, 189, 197–8}}</ref>
|Delhi
|Unknown
|-
|1741<ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George, "Public Consultations, 1741" |year=1916 |pages=13, 80, 163}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Correspondance du Conseil Supérieur de Pondichéry et de la Compagnie ... 1739-1742 (Vol. 3) |year=1921 |pages=338, 393}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Malleson |first=G.B. |title=History of the French in India: from the founding of Pondichery in 1674 to the capture of that place in 1761 |year=1909 |pages=96, 103}}</ref>
|Eastern Tamil Nadu
|Unknown
|-
|1742-43<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Ali Muhammad |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F. Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=616}}</ref>
|Gujarat
|Unknown
|-
|1745<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koul |first=Pandit Anand |title=Geography Of The Jammu And Kashmir State |year=1925 |pages=102, 105–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhar |first=D.N. |title=Socio-economic History of Kashmir Peasantry |year=1989 |pages=50}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fazili |first=Mohammad Ashraf |date=2014 |title=Kashmir Floods: A Chronology |url=http://kashmirlife.net/kashmir-floods-a-chronology-67561/}}</ref><ref name="Etheridge 1868 19">{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=19}}</ref>
|Kashmir, Nara area in Sindh (till 1752)
|Unknown
|-
|1746-1747<ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=26, 32, 40, 53, 58, 60, 64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Ali Muhammad |title=Mirat-i-Ahmadi: A Persian History of Gujarat (trans. M.F. Lokhandwala) |year=1965 |pages=697–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title="A History of Gujarat: Vol. II. The Mughal Period from 1573 to 1758 |year=1957 |pages=495}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Theodore |title=The economic transition in India |year=1911 |pages=115–16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Alexander |title=The land revenue of Bombay; a history of its administration … (Vol. 1) |year=1892 |pages=57}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Sir Jadunath |title=Fall of the Mughal Empire (Vol. 1) |year=1964 |pages=177, 179}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Anthony 1982 539"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=A.R. |title=Private diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai : dubash to Joseph François Dupleix ... 1736 to 1761 (Vol. 3) |year=1914 |pages=244}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=A.R. |title=The Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai: Translated From the Tamil ... (Vol. 4) |year=1916 |pages=128, 131–2, 147, 174}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dodwell |first=Henry |title=Calendar Of The Madras Despatches 1744-1755 |year=1920 |pages=39, 49}}</ref>
|Gujarat, Rajasthan, Coromandel Coast, Mysore, Osmanabad
|Unknown
|-
|1750 (or 1751)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelsall |first=John |title=Manual of the Bellary District |year=1872 |pages=73}}</ref>
|Bellary
|Unknown
|-
|1751<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tieffenthaler |first=Père J. |title=Description historique et géographique de l'Inde ... (Vol. 1) |year=1786 |pages=384}}</ref>
|East Gujarat
|Unknown
|-
|1752-1755<ref name="Etheridge 1868 19"/>
|South-West Sindh
|Unknown
|-
|1753-54<ref>{{Cite book |title=Haryana District Gazetteers: Rohtak |year=1970 |pages=100}}</ref>
|Rohtak (in Haryana)
|Unknown
|-
|1754<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=Studies In Later Mughal History Of The Punjab 1707 To 1793 |year=1944 |pages=193}}</ref>
|Kashmir
|Unknown
|-
|1755<ref name="Koul 1925 106">{{Cite book |last=Koul |first=Pandit Anand |title=Geography Of The Jammu And Kashmir State |year=1925 |pages=106}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sufi |first=G.M.D. |title=Kashir: Being a History of Kashmir … (Vol. 1) |year=1948 |pages=310}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Fort St. George, "Diary and Consultation Book (Public Department), 1755" |year=1942 |pages=1, 26, 92, 185, 201, 255, 332}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Correspondance du Conseil supérieur de Pondichéry et de la Compagnie ... 1755-1759 (Vol. 5) |pages=48}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=A.R. |title=A.R. Pillai "The Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai: Translated From the Tamil ... (Vol. 10) |year=1925 |pages=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Manikandan |first=S. |title=Contest for Power and Legitimacy: Little Kingdoms of Southern Tamil Country during the Eighteenth Century |year=2013}}</ref>
|Kashmir, South-East Tamil Nadu (till 1756)
|Unknown
|-
|1756<ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Parihar |first=G.R. |title=Marwar and the Marathas (1724-1843 A.D.) |year=1968 |pages=88}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelsall |first=John |title=Manual of the Bellary District |year=1872 |pages=142}}</ref>
|Gujarat, Marwar, Adoni
|Unknown
|-
|1757<ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=26}}</ref>
|Kutch
|Unknown
|-
|1758<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |date=December 1940 |title=Adina Beg Khan |journal=Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society |volume=6 |pages=64}}</ref>
|Punjab
|Unknown
|-
|1759-1761<ref>{{Cite book |title=Punjab District Gazetteers: Lahore District, A |year=1916 |pages=170–1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Punjab District Gazetteers Vol.ii A. Hissar District And Lohar State |year=1904 |pages=73}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Punjab District Gazetteers: Jullundur District, Part A |year=1904 |pages=227}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Etheridge |first=A.T. |title=Report on Past Famines in the Bombay Presidency |year=1868 |pages=17, 41, 64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=A.R. |title=A.R. Pillai "The Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai: Translated From the Tamil .. (Vol. 11) |year=1927 |pages=446–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=A.R. |title=The Diary of Ananda Ranga Pillai: Translated From the Tamil ...(Vol. 12) |year=1928 |pages=36}}</ref><ref name="Anthony 1982 539"/>
|Punjab (since 1758), Kutch to Sindh (till 1760), east Tamil Nadu (till 1760)
|Unknown
|-
|1761<ref>{{Cite book |title=Calendar Of Persian Correspondence (Vol. 1) |year=1911 |pages=110, 116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Long |first=James |title=Selections from unpublished records of government ... Bengal (Vol. 1) |year=1869 |pages=255}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Reports from Committees of the House of Commons, Volume 3 |pages=253}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=January–June 1847 |title=The First Protestant Missionary to Bengal |journal=The Calcutta Review |pages=155}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Erskine |first=K.D. |title=Provincial Gazetteers Of India: Rajputana, Jaisalmer State |year=1912 |pages=104}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumar |first=Mayank |date=2008 |title=Situating the Environment: Settlement, Irrigation and Agriculture in Pre-colonial Rajasthan |journal=Studies in History |volume=24 |pages=227|doi=10.1177/025764300902400204 |s2cid=55528641 }}</ref>
|Bengal, Mewat, parts of Rajasthan
|Unknown
|-
|1762<ref>{{Cite book |title=Punjab District Gazetteers: Multan District, Part A |year=1926 |pages=279–80}}</ref>
|Multan
|Unknown
|-
|1763<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tod |first=James |title=Annals and antiquities of Rajasthan (Vol. 1) |year=1920 |pages=497}}</ref>
|Mewar, Rajasthan
|Unknown
|-
|1765<ref name="Koul 1925 106"/>
|Kashmir
|Unknown
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Citation
|title=Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Nasik
|last=Bombay (India : State)
|volume=16
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbwMAAAAIAAJ
|year=1883
|publisher=Printed at the Govt. Central Press
|location=Bombay
}}
* {{Citation
|title=Famine as a Geographical Phenomenon
|last1=Currey
|first1=B
|last2=Hugo
|first2=G
|isbn=978-90-277-1762-7
|lccn=84009932
|series=GeoJournal library
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoNS2fM8N0kC
|year=1984
|publisher=D. Reidel
|location=Boston
}}
* {{Citation
|title=India: a History
|last=Keay
|first=John
|publisher=Grove Press
|year=2001
|isbn=978-0-8021-3797-5
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tarbo7OzEO8C&q=India:+A+Concise+History+inauthor:keay
|location=New York
}}
* {{Citation
|title=A brief history of India
|last=Walsh
|first=Judith E
|isbn=978-0-8160-5658-3
|lccn=2005001892
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iekF9X3OwwMC
|year=2006
|publisher=Facts on File
}}
{{Refend}}

{{Famine in India}}

[[Category:Famines in India]]
[[Category:Indian history timelines|famines]]
[[Category:Pakistani history timelines|famines]]
[[Category:Lists of disasters in India|famines]]

List of newspapers in India by circulation

2025-12-08T01:22:03Z

MarcyThompson89: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
This is a list of the top newspapers in [[India]] by [[newspaper circulation|circulation]]. These figures include both print and digital subscriptions, are compiled by the [[Audit Bureau of Circulations (India)|Audit Bureau of Circulations]]. The figures include normal print editions, branded print editions (e.g., regional editions or editions tailored for commuters), and digital subscriptions (e.g., for tablet computers or restricted-access).

Circulation figures try to estimate the number of copies sold, while readership figures are usually higher as they tend to estimate the number of people who actually read the newspaper. Typically, readership tends to be 2.5 times circulation, though this may be higher or lower depending on individual cases.<ref>{{cite web |title=Circulation vs readership |url=http://www.ads-on-line.com/newbasiccourse/Products/ |website=The basics of selling newspaper advertising |publisher=McLinnis and associates |access-date=6 January 2019 |archive-date=28 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180528142153/http://www.ads-on-line.com/newbasiccourse/Products/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=ABCIND>{{cite web| url= http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD2018%20Highest%20Circulated%20amongst%20ABC%20Member%20Publications%20(across%20languages).pdf| title=Submission of circulation figures for the audit period Jul –Dec 2018| publisher=[[Audit Bureau of Circulations (India)|Audit Bureau of Circulations]] |access-date=21 December 2018}}</ref>

==List of newspapers by circulation==
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:0;"

|+ Average qualifying sales<ref>{{cite web |title=Highest Circulated Daily Newspapers (language wise) |url=http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD%202022%20Highest%20Circulated%20(across%20languages).pdf |access-date=28 July 2023 |publisher=[[Audit Bureau of Circulations (India)|Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC)]] |archive-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728074928/http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD%202022%20Highest%20Circulated%20(across%20languages).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
!S.no.
! Newspaper !! Language !! Headquarters
! July-Dec. 2022
! Jan.-Jun. 2022
!Owner!! Nameplate
|-
|1
|''[[Dainik Bhaskar]]''
|[[Hindi]]
|[[Bhopal]]
|3,566,617
|875,259
|[[DB Corp]]
|[[File:Dainik Bhaskar Logo.svg|284x284px]]
|-
|2
|''[[Malayala Manorama]]''
|[[Malayalam]]
|[[Kottayam]]
|1,920,096
|1,971,773
|Malayala Manorama Company Limited
|[[File:Malayalamanorama.png|center|frameless|220x220px]]
|-
|3
|''[[The Times of India]]''
|[[English language|English]]
|[[Mumbai]]
|1,872,442
|1,590,784
|[[The Times Group]]
|[[File:The_times_of_india.svg|280x140px]]
|-
|4
|''[[Amar Ujala]]''
|[[Hindi]]
|[[Noida]]
|1,744,512
|1,845,983
|Amar Ujala Ltd.
|[[File:Amar Ujala Logo.png|280x140px]]
|-
|5
|''[[Hindustan (newspaper)|Hindustan]]''
|[[Hindi]]
|[[New Delhi]]
|1,666,724
|1,572,359
|[[HT Media]]
|[[File:Hindustan Newspaper Logo.png|281x281px]]
|-
|6
|''[[Rajasthan Patrika]]''
|[[Hindi]]
|[[Jaipur]]
|1,385,561
|1,414,267
|[[Patrika Group]]
|[[File:Rajasthan Patrika Logo.svg|280x140px]]
|-
|7
|''[[Eenadu]]''
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|[[Hyderabad]]
|1,351,956
|1,223,862
|[[Ramoji Group]]
|[[File:Eenadu front page logo new.png|280x140px]]
|-
|8
|''[[Dainik Jagran]]''
|[[Hindi]]
|[[Kanpur]]
|1,277,605
|2,667,808
|[[Jagran Prakashan Limited]]
|[[File:Dainik Jagran newspaper logo.jpg|center|220x220px]]
|-
|9
|''[[Dina Thanthi]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|[[Chennai]]
|1,137,041
|1,131,279
|Thanthi Trust
|[[File:Dinathanthilogo.png|center|219x219px]]
|-
|10
|''[[Mathrubhumi]]''
|[[Malayalam]]
|[[Kozhikode]]
|1,084,215
|1,058,533
|The Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Company Ltd
|[[File:Mathrubhumilogo.png|center|220x220px]]
|-
|11
|[[Sakal|Daily Sakal]]
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|
|1,064,721
| -
|Sakal Media Group
|[[File:Sakal Masthead.jpg|289x289px]]
|-
|12
|''[[Sakshi (newspaper)|Sakshi]]''
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|[[Hyderabad]]
|1,002,585
|951,292
|Jagathi Publications Ltd.
|[[File:Sakshi newspaper logo.png|280x140px]]
|-
|13
|''[[Anandabazar Patrika|Ananda Bazar Patrika]]''
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|[[Kolkata]]
|1,206,750
|1,222,890
|[[ABP Group]]
|[[File:আনন্দবাজার পত্রিকার লোগো.svg|280x140px]]
|-
|14
|[[Hindustan Times]]
|[[English language|English]]
|
|738,154
|15,889
|[[HT Media]]
|[[File:Hindustan Times logo.svg|288x288px]]
|-
|15
|''[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]''
|[[English language|English]]
|[[Kolkata]]
|693,742
|689,773
|[[ABP Group]]
|[[File:The Telegraph (Calcutta) Logo.svg|288x288px]]
|-
|16
|[[Lokmat]]
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|
|692,768
| -
|Lokmat Media Limited
|[[File:LokmatLogo.jpg]]
|-
|17
|''[[Deshabhimani]]''
|[[Malayalam]]
|[[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]]
|605,561
|622,276
|Kerala State Committee of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
|[[File:Deshabhimani-logo.png|200px]]
|-
|18
|''[[Vijayavani]]''
|[[Kannada]]
|[[Hubli]]
|551,994
|542,457
|[[VRL Group]]
|[[File:Vijayavani-logo.jpg|280x140px]]
|-
|19
|[[Divya Bhaskar]]
|[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|
|511,871
| -
|DB Corp
|[[File:Divya Bhaskar (2019-11-01).svg|243x243px]]
|-
|20
|''[[Vijaya Karnataka]]''
|[[Kannada]]
|[[Bangalore|Bengaluru]]
|503,688
|473,786
|[[The Times Group]]
|[[File:Vijaya-Karnataka-Logo.jpg|280x140px]]
|-
|21
|[[Pudhari]]
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|
|503,304
| -
|Pudhari Publications
|[[File:Pudhari Newspaper Logo.png|280x280px]]
|-
|22
|[[Bartaman]]
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|
|472,423
| -
|Bartaman Pvt. Ltd.
|[[File:Bartaman head.jpg|270x270px]]
|-
|24
|[[Akila Daily]]
|[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|[[Rajkot]]
|300,000
|300,000
|Akila Publications
|[[File:Akila Daily.jpg|284x284px]]
|-
|25
|''[[Andhra Jyothi]]''
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|[[Hyderabad]]
|386,797
|375,611
|Aamoda Publications Pvt. Ltd.
|[[File:Andhra Jyothi newspaper logo.png|280x140px]]
|-
|26
|''[[Prajavani]]''
|[[Kannada]]
|[[Bangalore|Bengaluru]]
|347,132
| -
|The Printers (Mysore) Pvt. Ltd.
|
|-
|27
|''[[The Economic Times]]''
|[[English language|English]]
|[[Mumbai]]
|269,882
|262,114
|[[The Times Group]]
|[[File:The Economic Times logo.svg|280x140px]]
|
|-
|28
|''[[Maalai Malar ]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|[[Chennai]]
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|29
|''[[DT Next]]''
|[[English language|English]]
|[[Chennai]]
|
|
|Thanthi Trust
|
|}

==List of newspapers by readership==
According to the [[Registrar of Newspapers for India]], there are 1,10,851 registered publications in the [[Republic of India]] as of 31 March 2016.<ref name="rni1">[http://rni.nic.in/ Office of the Registrar of the newspapers for India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250223123815/https://50news.in/|date=25 February 2025}} website</ref> The figures below were compiled by the Media Research Users Council in the fourth quarter of the 2019 [[Indian Readership Survey]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bestmediainfo.in/mailer/nl/nl/IRS-2019-Q4-Highlights.pdf|title=Indian Readership Survey 2019 Q4|access-date=14 September 2025|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102091633/https://bestmediainfo.in/mailer/nl/nl/IRS-2019-Q4-Highlights.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable style="margin:0;"
|- valign=bottom
|-
! Rank
! Newspaper
! Language
! class=unsortable|City
! class=unsortable|{{nowrap| Average issue readership<ref>[https://bestmediainfo.in/mailer/nl/nl/IRS-2019-Q4-Highlights.pdf IRS 2019 Q4 Highlights] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102091633/https://bestmediainfo.in/mailer/nl/nl/IRS-2019-Q4-Highlights.pdf |date=2 November 2021 }}</ref>}} 2019 (in millions)
! class=unsortable|Owner
|-
| 1
|''[[Dainik Jagran]]''
| [[Hindi]]
| Various cities and states
| 16.872
| [[Jagran Prakashan Limited]]
|-
| 2
|''[[Dainik Bhaskar]]''
| [[Hindi]]
| Various cities and states
| 15.566
|[[D B Corp Ltd.]]
|-
|3
|[[Hindustan (newspaper)|''Hindustan'']]
|[[Hindi]]
|Various cities and states
|13.213
|[[HT Media]]
|-
| 4
| ''[[Amar Ujala]]''
| [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| Various cities and states
| 9.657
| Amar Ujala Ltd.
|-
| 5
|''[[Malayala Manorama]]''
| [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
| Various cities and states, [[Dubai]] and [[Bahrain]]
| 8.478
| Malayala Manorama Company Ltd.
|-
| 6
| ''[[Dina Thanthi]]''
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| Tamil Nadu, [[Bangalore]], [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]], [[Mumbai]] and [[Dubai]]
| 7.379
| Founded by [[S. P. Adithanar]]
|-
| 7
| ''[[Lokmat]]''
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| Various cities in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Goa]]
| 6.285
| Lokmat Media Limited
|-
| 8
| ''[[Rajasthan Patrika]]''
| [[Hindi]]
| Various cities in [[Rajasthan]] & [[Delhi]]
| 5.863
| Rajasthan Patrika Pvt. Ltd.
|-
| 9
| ''[[The Times of India]]''
| [[English language|English]]
| Various cities and states
| 5.560
|[[The Times Group]]
|-
| 10
| ''[[Mathrubhumi]]''
| [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
| Kerala, [[Chennai]], [[Bangalore]], [[Mumbai]], [[New Delhi]]
| 4.849
| The Mathrubhumi Group
|-
| 11
| ''[[Eenadu]]''
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| Various cities and states
| 4.569
|[[Ramoji Group]]
|-
| 12
| ''[[Sakal]]''
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| Various cities in [[Maharashtra]]
| 4.101
| Sakal Media Group
|-
| 13
| ''[[Gujarat Samachar]]''
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| 7 cities in [[Gujarat]] and in [[Mumbai]] and [[New York City]]
| 3.265
| Lok Prakashan Ltd.
|-
| 14
| [[Sakshi (newspaper)|''Sakshi'']]
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| Various cities in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]]
| 3.247
| Jagati Publications Ltd.
|-
| 15
| ''[[Ananda Bazar Patrika]]''
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|[[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]], [[Delhi]], [[Mumbai]] and other cities in India
| 3.032
|[[Ananda Publishers]]
|-
| 16
| ''[[Dinamalar]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| Various cities in [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 2.905
| Dinamalar Publications Ltd.
|-
| 17
| [[Sandesh (Indian newspaper)|''Sandesh'']]
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| 5 cities in [[Gujarat]] and in [[Mumbai]]
| 2.884
| The Sandesh Ltd.
|-
| 18
| ''[[Prabhat Khabar]]''
| [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| Various cities in [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]], and [[West Bengal]]
| 2.872
| Neutral Publishing House Ltd.
|-
|19
|''[[Bartaman]]''
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Delhi, Mumbai and other cities in India
|2.750
|Bartaman Pvt. Ltd
|-
|20
|''[[Divya Bhaskar]]''
|[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|Various cities in [[Gujarat]]
|2.679
|[[D B Corp Ltd.]]
|-
|21
|''[[Pudhari]]''
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|Various cities in [[Maharashtra]]
|2.591
|Pudhari Publications
|-
| 22
|''[[Vijaya Karnataka]]''
| [[Kannada]]
|Various cities in [[Karnataka]]
| 2.588
| [[The Times Group]]
|-
|23
|''[[Dinakaran]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| Various cities in [[Tamil Nadu]]
|2.502
| [[Sun Group]]
|-
|24
|''[[Punya Nagari]]''
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|Various cities in [[Maharashtra]]
|2.455
|Punya Nagari Newsgroup
|-
|25
|''[[Prajavani]]''
|[[Kannada]]
| Various cities in [[Karnataka]]
|2.135
|The Printers (Mysore) Private Limited
|-
|26
|''[[Deshabhimani]]''
|[[Malayalam]]
| Various cities in [[Kerala]]
|2.094
|Kerala State Committee of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
|-
|27
|''[[Maharashtra Times]]''
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| Various cities in [[Maharashtra]]
|1.701
| [[The Times Group]]
|-
|28
|''[[Andhra Jyothi]]''
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| Various cities in [[Telangana]] & [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|1.628
|Aamoda Publications Pvt. Limited
|-
| 29
| ''[[Punjab Kesari]]''
|[[Hindi]]
| Various cities in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| 1.138
|-
|28
|''[[Teenmaar News Paper]]''
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| Various cities in [[Telangana]]
|1.628
|The Teenmaar News Publication
|-
|30
|''[[Hindustan Times]]''
|[[English language|English]]
|Various cities and states
|1.543
|[[HT Media]]
|-
|}

==See also==
{{portal|India|Journalism}}
*[[List of newspapers by circulation]]

==Bibliography==
* ''[https://archive.org/details/yourslipisshowin0000niha Your Slip Is Showing: Indian Press Today]'' by [[S Nihal Singh]]. South Asia Books, 1992.
==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD2018%20Highest%20Circulated%20(language%20wise).pdf | title=Highest Circulated Daily Newspapers 2018 (language wise) |publisher=[[Audit Bureau of Circulations (India)|Audit Bureau of Circulations]] |access-date=5 January 2019}}
* [http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD2018%20Highest%20Circulated%20amongst%20ABC%20Member%20Publications%20(across%20languages).pdf Details of language wise most circulated dailies for the audit period Jul – Dec 2018] by [[Audit Bureau of Circulations (India)|Audit Bureau of Circulations]]
* [http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JJ2018%20Highest%20Circulated%20amongst%20ABC%20Member%20Publications%20(across%20languages).pdf Details of language wise most circulated dailies for the audit period Jan – Jun 2018] by [[Audit Bureau of Circulations (India)|Audit Bureau of Circulations]]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JD%202019%20Highest%20Circulated%20(across%20languages).pdf|title=Details of language wise most circulated dailies for the audit period Jun – Dec 2019 |publisher=[[Audit Bureau of Circulations (India)|Audit Bureau of Circulations]]|access-date= 10 January 2020}}
* [http://www.auditbureau.org/ Audit Bureau of Circulation]

{{Newspapers in India}}
{{Media of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Newspapers In India By Circulation}}
[[Category:Lists of newspapers by circulation|India]]
[[Category:Newspapers published in India| ]]
[[Category:Lists of newspapers published in India|Circulation]]

Manharlal Pranlal Thakkar

2025-11-21T16:11:10Z

MarcyThompson89: creating the post nd citations

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
'''Manharlal Pranlal Thakkar''' or '''M. P. Thakkar''' (born 4 November 1923, date of death unknown) was a judge of the [[Supreme Court of India]], and Chairman of Twelfth [[Law Commission of India]].

==Early life==
Thakkar was born in [[Burma]], [[British India]] in 1923. He studied in [[National High School, Basavanagudi]] and B.E.T. High School at [[Rangoon]]. He passed [[LL.B]] from Sir [[L.A. Shah Law College]] of [[Ahmedabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sirlashah.org/Alumni.aspx|title=Alumni|access-date=31 October 2018|archive-date=23 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023195948/http://www.sirlashah.org/Alumni.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> After his enrollment as an advocate he started practice in the Indian High Courts in 1948.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

==Career==
Thakkar practised on Civil, Criminal, Income-Tax, Industrial Disputes and Company matters before the then Saurashtra High Court at [[Rajkot]] and [[Bombay High Court]].{{citation needed|date= September 2022}} He worked in the [[Gujarat High Court]] since 1960 to 1963.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}} He was appointed the Judge in City Civil and Sessions Court on 23 January 1963. Thakkar also served as Special Judge and Additional Judge in the Gujarat High Court.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}} He became the Permanent Judge of the same High Court on 27 November 1973. Thakkar was elevated to the post of Chief Justice, Gujarat High Court on 20 August 1981.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIAyDwAAQBAJ&q=M.+P.+Thakkar&pg=PT247|title=Judges of the Supreme Court of India: 1950–1989|last=George H. Gadbois Jr.|date=2 May 2011|isbn=9780199088386|access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://legal.gujarat.gov.in/chief_justice.htm|title=Chief Justice of Gujarat|access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> He was appointed a Justice of the Supreme Court of India in March 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://164.100.107.37/judges/bio/54_mpthakkar.htm|title=Former Judges|access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> He was the head of the investigating Thakkar Commission for the [[Assassination of Indira Gandhi]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/28/world/india-releases-stinging-report-on-gandhi-s-death.html|title=India Releases Stinging Report on Gandhi's Death|last=Hazarika|first=Sanjoy|date=28 March 1989|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=7 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVTMqlezIrwC&q=M.+P.+Thakkar+died+on&pg=PA41|title=Reduced to Ashes: The Insurgency and Human Rights in Punjab|last=Volume 1|first=Committee for Coordination on Disappearances in Punjab|year=2003|isbn=9789993353577|access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref>

==Later life==
After his retirement, Justice Thakkar was appointed Chairman of Twelfth Law Commission of India in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/main.htm|title=POST-INDEPENDENCE DEVELOPMENTS|website=lawcommissionofindia.nic.in|access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/19881115-fresh-strain-on-an-already-weakened-law-commission-797886-1988-11-15|title=Fresh strain on an already weakened Law Commission|website=indiatoday.in|access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> Thakkar is deceased.<ref>[https://indiatogether.org/adalat-human-rights Crippling Lok Adalats]</ref><ref>[https://ghconline.gov.in/library/document/conference2728072018/III5Technology,%20Ethics%20and%20Access%20to%20Justice.pdf Technology, Ethics, and Access to Justice: Should an Algorithm be Deciding Your Case? (2014)]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thakkar, Manharlal Pranlal}}
[[Category:1923 births]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:Chief justices of the Gujarat High Court]]
[[Category:Gujarat University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian expatriates in British Burma]]
[[Category:Judges of the Gujarat High Court]]
[[Category:Justices of the Supreme Court of India]]

Abdul Bahram Khan

2025-11-06T15:16:58Z

MarcyThompson89: created new entry...

{{Short description|Politician}}
'''Abdul Bahram Khan''' ({{langx|ur|خان عبدل بهرام خان}}) was the founder of a major [[Political families of Pakistan|political family]], based in [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]] NWFP/Presently [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwah]] [[Pakistan]]. Abdul Bahram Khan's sons [[Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan]] (usually referred to as "''Dr. Khan Sahib''") and [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] (Bacha Khan) were political leaders in [[Pakistan]].

Abdul Bahram Khan was a land owner, farmer, and the chief of [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] tribe [[Muhammadzai (Hashtnagar)|Muhammadzai]] in [[Charsadda]], [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]], [[British India]]. He was a great warrior of his time. He fought for the rights of [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] nation throughout his life.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HQtgAAAAQBAJ&dq=khan+abdul+bahram+khan&pg=PT73 The Gandhian Moment on GoogleBooks], Retrieved 27 June 2017</ref>

==Family tree==
The members of Bahram Khan family who have been active in politics are:

* Abdul Bahram Khan (1850–1922), the founder of the family
* [[Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan]] (1882–1958) ("Dr. Khan Sahib"), pioneer in the Indian Independence Movement and a Pakistani politician, son of Khan Abdul Bahram Khan
* [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] (1890–1988), also known as Bacha Khan, independence activist, son of Khan Abdul Bahram Khan
* [[Abdul Ghani Khan]] (1914–1996), widely considered as one of the best Pashto language poets of the 20th century, son of Abdul Ghaffar Khan
* [[Abdul Wali Khan]] (1917–2006), secular democratic socialist leader and opponent of the British Raj, son of Abdul Ghaffar Khan
* [[Abdul Ali Khan]] (1922–1997), educationist, the youngest son of Abdul Ghaffar Khan
* [[Nasim Wali Khan]] (1932–2021), politician and wife of Abdul Wali Khan
* [[Asfandyar Wali Khan]] (born 1949), politician, son of Abdul Wali Khan
* [[Sangeen Wali Khan]] (1959–2008), politician, son of Abdul Wali Khan
* [[Aimal Wali Khan]] (born 1986), politician, son of Asfandyar Wali Khan
* Lawangeen Wali Khan (born 1988), politician, son of Sangeen Wali Khan

== See also ==
* [[Abdul Ghani Khan]]
* [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]]
* [[Abdul Wali Khan]]
* [[Family of Bahram Khan]]
* [[Aimal Wali Khan]]
* [[Pakistan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Abdul Bahram}}
[[Category:Pashtun people]]
[[Category:Bahram Khan family|Abdul]]
[[Category:Pakistani landowners]]
{{Pakistan-politician-stub}}

Gennadi Mikhailovich Pechinkov

2025-10-17T09:57:47Z

MarcyThompson89: typo fix

{{Short description|Russian actor and director}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Gennadi Mikhailovich Pechinkov
| image = The President, Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting the Padma Shri Award to Mr. Gennadi Mikhailovich Pechnikov at Civil Investiture-II Ceremony, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on May 10, 2008.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Pechinkov receiving Padma Shri.
| birth_date = 8 September 1926
| birth_place = Moscow
| death_date = 27 April 2018
| death_place = Moscow
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Actor Director Theatre personality
| yearsactive =
| known for =
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| children =
| parents =
| website =
| awards = [[Padma Shri]]
}}
'''Gennadi Mikhailovich Pechinkov''' is a Russian actor, director and theatre personality, known for his portrayal of [[Rama]].<ref name="'Year of India in Russia': Takes off">{{cite web | url=http://www.indianembassy.ru/index.php/en/bilateral-relations/year-of-india-in-russia-2009/602-04052009-year-of-india-in-russia-takes-off | title='Year of India in Russia': Takes off | publisher=Russian Embassy in India | date=4 May 2009 | access-date=February 7, 2016}}</ref> He played the part of the ancient Indian king from the epic, [[Ramayana]], in 1960 at the [[Natalya Sats Musical Theater|Children's Theatre, Moscow]] and is reported to be the only European professional actor to have played the role in Europe.<ref name="Russia marks golden jubilee of Ramayana's theatrical debut">{{cite web | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/europe/Russia-marks-golden-jubilee-of-Ramayanas-theatrical-debut/articleshow/7121218.cms | title=Russia marks golden jubilee of Ramayana's theatrical debut | publisher=Times of India | date=18 December 2010 | access-date=February 7, 2016}}</ref> He continued playing the part for around 40 years and has performed in front many prominent Indian persons such as [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and [[K. P. S. Menon (senior)|K. P. S. Menon]].<ref name="When the Ramayana hit the Russian stage">{{cite web | url=https://www.rbth.com/blogs/2014/11/26/when_the_ramayana_hit_the_russian_stage_39967 | title=When the Ramayana hit the Russian stage | publisher=Russian and India Report | date=26 November 2014 | access-date=February 7, 2016}}</ref> The Government of India awarded him the fourth highest civilian honour of the [[Padma Shri]], in 2008, for his contributions to Theatre.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web |url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |date=2016 |access-date=January 3, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=October 15, 2015 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ramayana]]
{{Portal|India|Theatre}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | url=http://photodivision.gov.in/IntroPhotodetails.asp?thisPage=500 | title=Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting Padma Shri Award to Mr Gennadi Mikhailovich Pechnikov | publisher=Photo Division, Government of India | work=Photo Gallery | date=2016 | access-date=February 7, 2016}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:Russian stage actors]]
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[[Category:1926 births]]
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Mar Thoma College, Tiruvalla

2025-10-13T06:07:22Z

MarcyThompson89: creating a post w/ sources.

{{Short description|College in Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}

{{Infobox university
| name = Mar Thoma College, Tiruvalla
| native_name =
| image = Emblem_of_Mar_Thoma_College,_Tiruvalla.png
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption = College Crest
| motto =
| mottoeng = ''Education par Excellence and Educated for the Society''
| established = {{Start date and age|1952}}
| type =
| religious_affiliation = [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church | Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church]]
| head_label = Manager
| head = Rt. Rev. Dr. Euyakim Mar Coorilos Suffragan Metropolitan
| principal = Dr. Mathew Varkey T. K.
| academic_staff = 80
| administrative_staff = 45
| students = 1800
| undergrad = 1300
| postgrad = 450
| doctoral = 50
| other =
| city = [[Tiruvalla, Pathanamthitta]]
| state = [[Kerala]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|9|24|2.45|N|76|35|5.6|E|display=inline,title}}
| campus =
| former_names =
| colors =
| colours =
| athletics =
| sports =
| other_name = MTC
| mascot =
| academic_affiliations = [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala|Mahatma Gandhi University]], [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]
| website = {{url|https://mtct.ac.in/}}
| logo =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Mar Thoma College''' is an institution of higher education located in [[Tiruvalla]] in the south Indian state of [[Kerala]].<ref name="Mar Thoma College Official Website">{{cite web | url=http://mtct.ac.in | title=Mar Thoma College, Tiruvalla | publisher=Mar Thoma College| date=2023 | access-date=15 September 2023}}</ref> The college is affiliated with [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala|Mahatma Gandhi University]] and offers 12 undergraduate, 10 post-graduate, and 7 doctoral programmes.<ref name="Mahatma Gandhi University">{{cite web | url=http://www.mgu.ac.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=94&Itemid=652 | title=Mahatma Gandhi University | publisher=Mahatma Gandhi University | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> The college is accredited by the [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council]] (NAAC).<ref name="Mar Thoma College Official Website" />

==Overview==
Mar Thoma College was founded by the [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar]]<ref name="Educational Institutions">{{cite web |date=2015 |title=Educational Institutions |url=http://marthoma.in/institutions/EDUCATIONAL%20INSTITUTIONS |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706224020/http://marthoma.in/institutions/EDUCATIONAL%20INSTITUTIONS |archive-date=6 July 2015 |access-date=6 July 2015 |publisher=Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church}}</ref> in 1952 as a junior college offering two intermediate courses. [[Alexander Mar Thoma|Dr. Alexander Mar Thoma Metropolitan (Rev. M. G. Chandy)]] was the school's founding principal. It has been affiliated with the [[University of Kerala]] since its inception. When [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala|Mahatma Gandhi University]] was established in 1983,<ref name="Handbook of Universities, Volume 2">{{cite book |author=Ameeta Gupta, Ashish Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rs-jsaPenxYC&pg=PA532 |title=Handbook of Universities, Volume 2 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers |year=2006 |isbn=9788126906086 |pages=472}}</ref> the college was brought under its affiliation, and two years later, two of the departments of the college, English and Zoology, were recognized as research centers to commence doctoral programs.

In 1998, the [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council]] extended accreditation to the college, making it the first college in Kerala and one of the first colleges in India to receive NAAC accreditation. The college was re-accredited with an A Grade in 2005, and the central government accreditation agency retained the grading at A during its reassessment in 2012. The NAAC extended the period of accreditation to seven years (till 2019) as the college obtained the highest possible grades in two consecutive accreditations. The college retains A grade in the fourth cycle of accreditation.

The college is a member of the United Nations Academic Impact (UNAI) and the All India Association of Christian Higher Education. It hosted the 29th Kerala Science Congress in 2017. Distinguished faculty members of the college include [[Alexander_Mar_Thoma|Dr. Alexander Mar Thoma Metropolitan]] (Rev. M. G. Chandy), [[Samuel Paul|Padma Shri Samuel Paul]] (an Indian scholar and economist, former visiting professor at Harvard Business School, and advisor to the World Bank and the UN Commission on Transnational Corporations), Dr. A.V. Varghese, and Dr. J.V. Vilanilam, both former Vice Chancellors.

The college campus is located in [[Kuttappuzha]],<ref name="Web India">{{cite web | url=http://career.webindia123.com/career/institutes/details_colleges_Institutes.asp?inst_no=8824 | title=Web India | publisher=Web India | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> a small hamlet in [[Tiruvalla]],<ref name="About Tiruvalla">{{cite web | url=http://www.thiruvalla.com/about-thiruvalla.htm | title=About Tiruvalla | publisher=Tiruvalla.com | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> known for the [[Sreevallabha Temple]], one of the oldest temples in Kerala.<ref name="Sreevallabha Temple">{{cite web | url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/sree-vallabha-temple-thiruvalla/454 | title=Sreevallabha Temple | publisher=Kerala Tourism, Government of Kerala | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> [[Tiruvalla]] town is 2 km away and the distance to the state capital, [[Thiruvananthapuram]] and the commercial city of [[Kochi]] are 120 km<ref name="Make my Trip">{{cite web | url=http://www.makemytrip.com/routeplanner/thiruvananthapuram-thiruvalla.html | title=Make my Trip | publisher=Make my Trip | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> and 89 km respectively. The campus is near to many centres of pilgrimage such as [[Niranam Church]], [[Kaviyoor Mahadevar Temple]] and [[Parumala Church]], besides the [[Sreevallabha Temple]].<ref name="Pilgrim Centres">{{cite web | url=http://www.thiruvalla.com/thiruvallapilgrim.htm | title=Pilgrim Centres | publisher=Tiruvalla.com | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref>

The college is coeducational and has a student strength of about 1800.<ref name="Zon Kerala profile">{{cite web | url=http://www.zonkerala.com/Mar-Thoma-College-Thiruvalla-1768.html | title=Zon Kerala profile | publisher=Zon Kerala | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> The administration is under a manager deputed by the [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]] and is headed by a principal who is assisted by 80 teaching and 45 non teaching staff. It offers 12 under graduate, 10 post graduate, seven doctoral and many other non formal programmes.

==Departments==
The academics is sectioned into independent departments based on subjects of instruction such as English, Malayalam, Hindi, Mathematics, Statistics, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Economics, History, Political Science, Commerce, Physical Education and Bio-Sciences.<ref name="MTC on Educrib">{{cite web | url=http://educrib.com/college/1058/mar-thoma-college-thiruvalla | title=MTC on Educrib | publisher=Educrib | date=2015 | access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> Non teaching programmes have a separate department handling them while non formal computer educational programmes are handled by ''Mar Thoma College Institute of Computer Sciences'', a subsidiary functioning under the same management.

==Notable alumni==
*[[Theodosius Mar Thoma|Theodosius Mar Thoma XXII Mar Thoma Metropolitan]], supreme head of the [[Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church]]
*[[John Abraham (director)|John Abraham]], film director, short story writer, and screenwriter
*[[Prasanth Alexander]], Actor, Malayalam Film Industry
*[[Suresh_Babu_(screenwriter)|S Suresh Babu]], Screen writer, Malayalam Film Industry
*[[Gibu George]], Actor, Malayalam Film Industry
*[[Stanley George]], Political strategist and consultant
*[[K. C. Joseph (Irikkur politician)|K. C. Joseph]], Politician
* [[Kurian John Melamparambil]], Philanthropist, industrialist and writer
* [[Kaviyoor Murali]], Dalit activist, writer and folklore researcher
*[[Nayanthara|Nayanthara (born Diana Mariam Kurian)]], Actress (South India Film industry)
* [[K. N. Ninan (scientist)|K. N. Ninan]], Space Scientist, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
*[[Kaviyoor Sivaprasad]], National Film Award Winner, film director, writer, and actor
*[[Sidhartha Siva]], National Film Award Winner, film director, writer, and actor
*[[Blessy|Blessy Ipe Thomas]], film director and writer
*[[K. George Thomas]], Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Awardee
*[[Mathew T. Thomas]], Politician
*[[Vishnu Vinod]], Kerala and Royal Challengers Bangalore wicket keeping batsman

==See also==
* [[List of colleges affiliated with Mahatma Gandhi University]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ln2cRzKB_00 | title=Mar Thoma College, Thiruvalla – Nostalgia | publisher=[[YouTube]] | work=Video | date=30 October 2012 | access-date=6 July 2015}}

{{Education in Kerala}}
{{Christianity in Kerala}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mar Thoma College}}
[[Category:Christian universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:Arts and Science colleges in Kerala]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Pathanamthitta district]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 1952]]
[[Category:Mar Thoma Syrian Church]]
[[Category:1952 establishments in India]]