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Caste system in Nepal

2026-05-09T09:45:13Z

Madeshi: /* Caste-origin Madhesh Hindu groups */

{{Short description|Nepalese traditional social stratification system}}
The '''Nepalese caste system''' was the traditional system of [[social stratification]] of [[Nepal]]. The Nepalese [[caste]] system broadly borrows the classical Hindu ''Chaturvarnashram'' model, consisting of four broad social classes or [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]: [[Brahmin]], [[Kshatriya]], [[Vaishya]], [[Shudra|Sudra]].

The caste system defines social classes by a number of hierarchical endogamous groups often termed ''jaat''. This custom was traditionally only prevalent in the three [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo Aryan]] societies of the [[Khas people|Khas]], [[Madhesi people|Madhesi]], and [[Newars]]. However, since the [[unification of Nepal]] in the 18th century, Nepal's various non-Hindu ethnic nationalities and tribes, previously called "Matwalis" (alcohol-drinkers) and now termed as "Adivasi/Janajati" (indigenous/nationalities), have been incorporated within the caste hierarchy to varying degrees of success. Despite the forceful integration by the state into the pan-Hindu social structure, the traditionally non-Hindu groups and tribes do not necessarily adhere to the customs and practices of the caste system.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Hofer|first1=Andras|title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State of Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854|date=1979|publisher=Universitatsverlag Wagner}}</ref>

The Government of [[Nepal]] legally abolished and criminalized any caste-based discrimination, including "[[untouchability]]" (the ostracism of a specific caste) - in 1963.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Welle|first=Deutsche|title=Nepal: Deadly caste-based attacks spur outcry over social discrimination {{!}} DW {{!}} 16.06.2020|url=https://www.dw.com/en/nepal-deadly-caste-based-attacks-spur-outcry-over-social-discrimination/a-53827719|access-date=2021-02-28|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref> With Nepal's step towards freedom and equality, Nepal, previously ruled by a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] monarchy, was a [[Hindus|Hindu]] nation which has now become a [[secular state]]. <ref>{{cite news|date=18 May 2006|title=Nepal king stripped of most powers|publisher=[[CNN]]|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/05/18/nepal.king/|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> On 28 May 2008, it was declared a republic,<ref name="Abolish">{{cite news|date=28 May 2008|title=Nepal votes to abolish monarchy|work=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7424302.stm|url-status=live|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107130737/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7424302.stm|archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> ending the period of the Hindu Kingdom.<ref>{{cite news|last=Crossette|first=Barbara|author-link=Barbara Crossette|date=3 June 2001|title=Birenda, 55, Ruler of Nepal's Hindu Kingdom|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/03/world/birenda-55-ruler-of-nepal-s-hindu-kingdom.html|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

== History ==
The ancient tribes living around the northern territory of modern Nepal seem to have been less influenced by the fourfold [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]] system of Hinduism. Instead, nature worship, shamanism and ancestor worship was more common in sync with Tibetan spirituality among the Sino-Tibetan groups. Even [[Khas people|Khas]]/Parbatiyas who are today overwhelmingly consolidated into the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]] structure, have been following Masto tradition since ancient times whereby Masta tutelary deities known as ''bange-masta, bahiramasta, thado-masta, bahra-masta, athahra-masta'' are invoked and worshipped. This form of Masto worship among the [[Khas people|Khasas]] is apparently not related to any Vedic scriptures and tradition of the Gangetic plains of India, and seems more closer to pre-Buddhist Shamanistic [[Bon]] practice of [[Tibet]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dhungel|first=Ramesh|date=2010|title=Understanding Nepali History in the context of Changing Political Situation|journal=CNAS Journal|volume=37|pages=174–175}}</ref>

The earliest detailed record of the caste system in Nepal has been found in [[Kathmandu Valley]] from the 5th century CE during the [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavi]] period (400-750 CE) with mentions of the presence of Brahmans (Vedic priests) and [[Chandala]] (untouchables).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thdl.org/texts/reprints/kailash/1_2_1.html |title=Gautamavajra Vajrācārya, "Recently Discovered Inscriptions of Licchavi Nepal", ''Kathmandu Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies.'' Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 117-134) |access-date=20 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927204420/http://www.thdl.org/texts/reprints/kailash/1_2_1.html |archive-date=27 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The existing caste structure as introduced by the Lichhavis was later fundamentally restructured during the reign of King [[Jayasthiti Malla]] (1380-1394).<ref name=":1">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4FQMEiZcrIC&q=malla+dynasty+maithili&pg=PA243 | title=Nationalism and Ethnicity in a Hindu Kingdom: The Politics and Culture of ... | access-date=19 February 2017 | pages=243| isbn=9781136649561 | last1=Gellner | first1=D. | last2=Pfaff-Czarnecka | first2=J. | last3=Whelpton | first3=J. | date=6 December 2012 }}</ref> This restructuring was a result of over a millennia of newer Aryan immigrants from the plains since the time of the Lichchavis. Series of Aryan migration to Kathmandu led to increased population and formation of a complex urban and caste-based society.<ref name=":1" /> Among them, most notable migration was the advent of later [[Malla dynasty (Nepal)|Malla]] and Chathariya/[[Kshatriya]] and their [[Maithil Brahmins]] and others like the Khadgis (butchers), [[Dobhi]], among others, with conquest of Karnat kingdom in 1324 CE by [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq]], the founder of the [[Tughlaq dynasty]] and Sultan of Delhi.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iyp0NO3RmV4C&q=tirhuti+soldiers&pg=PA29 | title=The Unmaking of Nepal | access-date=19 February 2017 | pages=29| isbn=9781935501282 | last1=Singh | first1=R. S. N. | year=2010 }}</ref> Jayasthiti Malla's restructuring also converted celibate Buddhist monks to householder status and inside the hierarchic fold for the first time to form the caste of [[Vajracharya]] and [[Shakya]].<ref name="Jackson2003">{{cite book|author=Peter Jackson|title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA199|date=16 October 2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-54329-3|pages=199–200}}</ref> It also solidified the supremacy of [[Kanyakubja Brahmin]] descendants like the [[Rajopadhyaya]] Brahmins over other priests like Maithil Brahmins. Karmacharyas and [[Joshi|Joshis]] were all-together stripped off their Brahmin status by these new and arguably more well-read Brahmins, and assimilated them in the Kshatriya/Chathariya. The restructuring also yielded power to newly formed Malla aristocracy of the Chathariya Shrestha who formed the new powerful aristocratic caste of the Malla kingdom.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Bennett|first1=L.|last2=Dr|first2=Dahal|last3=Govindasamy|first3=P.|date=2008|title=Caste ethnic and regional identity in Nepal: Further analysis of the 2006 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey.|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Caste-ethnic-and-regional-identity-in-Nepal%3A-of-the-Bennett-Dr/d6ee9fb13c9353e59a9bc7713d02342840d4c154|access-date=2021-08-08|s2cid=156124648|language=en}}</ref> Hence, the present Newar society's foundation firmly stands on this restructuring by Malla as Newar society continues to comprise the 4 varna and 64 different caste groups which were hierarchically allotted in Jayasthiti Malla's time according to the classical and religious Hindu scriptures like the Manusmriti.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last1=Guneratne|first1=Arjun|title=Many Tongues, One People: The Making of Tharu Identity in Nepal|date=2002|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9780801487286}}</ref> [[Gorkha]] king of the [[Chaubisi Rajya|Chaubisi]] principality, [[Ram Shah]] (1609-1636) is noted to have introduced some rules and regulations about relations between different groups of people in the Gorkha kingdom too. As the Shah rulers conquered more territories and people, the concept of caste hierarchy more firmly applied as an organizing principle to consolidate diverse people under their authority. In 1854, early in the period of Rana rule, a National Legal Code (Muluki Ain) was proclaimed that laid out detailed codes for inter-caste behavior and specified punishments for their infringement.<ref name=":2" />

==Traditional caste system==
Although caste or tribe based hierarchy has been a hallmark for all ethnicities of Nepal, only three societies traditionally were part of the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]] concept of social division and hierarchy. These societies/ethnicities were: Khas/Parbatiya and Newars in the hills and Madhesis in the plains.

===Caste-origin Hill Hindu groups/Khas===
[[File:Small Thapa family.jpg|thumbnail|Members of Khas community]]
The social structure of caste-origin Hill Hindu or [[Khas people|Khas]] groups is simple compared to the other two societies, reflecting only three groups in hierarchy, with the distinct absence of the Vaishya and Shudra varnas. Much of the previously animist/tribal Khas population of the western Nepal region acquired the 'Chhetri' status in the 1850s with the proclamation by the Rana Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana, making Chhetris the most populous caste/tribe of Nepal. The mother tongue of these groups is Kumaoni, [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and its dialects like Baitadeli and Doteli. In 2001 the CBS recorded only nine groups in the caste-origin Hill Hindu groups.<ref name=MOPE>MOPE (2002). Nepal Population Report, 2002. Kathmandu: Ministry of Population and Environment, HMG, Nepal.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Parbatiya/Khas!!
|-
| ''[[Dvija|Twice-born]]/Khas-Arya :'' || ''([[Brahmin]]):'' [[Bahun]]
|-
| || ''([[Kshatriya]])'': [[Chhetri]], [[Thakuri]]
|-
| ''Renouncer :'' || [[Dashnami Hereditary Surnames|Dashnami Sanyasi]] and Kanphata Yogi
|-
| ''Service-castes (previously Untouchable)'' : ||[[Kami (caste)|Kami]]
|-
| || [[Damai]]
|-
| || [[Sarki (ethnic group)|Sarki]]
|-
| || [[Badi people|Badi]]
|}

===Caste-origin [[Nepal Mandala]] groups/Newārs===
{{Further|Newar caste system}}

The case of [[Newars|Newār]] is exceptional. This group presents a complicated social structure that not only reflects the model of four Hindu varna categories and the unclean castes outside of it, but it is also clearly divided among the upper and lower Buddhist castes. Currently, Newars are divided into groups of over 25 occupational caste categories who share a common language (mother-tongue) [[Newar language|Nepal Bhasa]] or speak Nepali.<ref name=MOPE />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Newārs (Nepal Mandal) !!
|-
| ''[[Dvija|Twice-born]] Hindus: '' || ''([[Brahmin]]):'' [[Rajopadhyaya|Rajopadhyaya Brahmin]]
|-
| || ''([[Kshatriya]]):'' [[Shresthas#Sr.C4.93.E1.B9.A3.E1.B9.ADha sub-caste groups|Chatharīya]] Srēstha
|-
| || ''([[Vaishya]]):'' [[Shresthas#Sr.C4.93.E1.B9.A3.E1.B9.ADha sub-caste groups|Pāñchtharīya]] Srēstha, other Srēstha etc.
|-
| ''Twice-born Buddhists: '' || [[Bajracharya|Vajracharya]]/Shakya (priests and goldsmiths)
|-
| || [[Uray (caste group)|Urāy]] ([[Tuladhar]]s/[[Bania (Newar caste)|Bania]]) (traders and craftsmen)
|-
| ''Other pure castes: '' || [[Maharjan]]s/Jyapus (farmers)
|-
| || Hindu [[Tamrakar]], Shilpakar, etc. (metal and wood workers, merchants)
|-
| || Hindu [[Halwai]] (confectioners)
|-
| || [[Kumhar|Kumhāh]]/Prajapati (potters and farmers)
|-
| || [[Ranjitkar]] (cloth-dyers)
|-
| || Tandukar (farmers)
|-
| || Manandhar/Sāyami/Teli (oil-pressers and brewers)
|-
| || [[Mali caste|Malakar/Mali]] (florists)
|-
| || Nau/Napit (barbers/nail-cutters)
|-
| || Balami (farmers from outskrits)
|-
| || Pahari/Nagarkoti (farmers from outskirts)
|-
| || Kau/Nakarmi (iron-smiths)
|-
| || Dali/Putuwar (carriers)
|-
| || Chhipā/[[Ranjitkar]] (dyers)
|-
| ''Service-castes (previously Unclean or Untouchable) :'' || Bha/Karanjit (funeral priests)
|-
| || Khadgi, Naye, Kasai (butchers and musicians)
|-
| || Jogi, [[Kapali (Newar caste)|Kapali]], Darshandhari (descendants of Kanphata Yogi sect, tailors, musicians)
|-
| || [[Dhobi]], Rajak, Sangat (washermen)
|-
| || Kulu, Dom/Dusādh (leather-workers)
|-
| || Dyala, Podé, Chyāmaha/Chamāhār (sweepers, fishermen)
|}

===Caste-origin Madhesh Hindu groups===

The social structure of the caste-origin [[Madhesi people|Madhesi]] Hindu groups is complex, reflecting four varna groups with distinct hierarchical structure within them. These various cultural groups belong to four distinct language groups: [[Maithili language|Maithili]], Bajika, [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], and [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]]. In 2001 the CBS recorded 43 caste-origin Hindu groups in the [[Madhesh]].<ref name="MOPE" /> Caste prejudice is far less prevalent in cities nowadays, although nothing has changed in rural regions. As a result of occupational changes, increased education, their own efforts to emulate the upper castes and consolidation of political power, urban Dalits in the Terai have moved up in status. The National Report says, "Over the last 15-20 years, three groups, namely Sudi, Kalwar and Teli have socially upgraded their status from the water unacceptable to the water acceptable community within the Tarai origin Hindu caste groups."<ref>Nepal's Downtrodden: A nation struggles to find the way to relieve 4.5 million Dalits from the stigma of "untouchability". p. 6.</ref><ref>Dalits and Labour in Nepal: Discrimination and Forced Labour. p. 40.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Madhesi Hindus
!
|-
|''[[Dvija|Twice-born]] :''||''([[Brahmin]]):'' [[Maithil Brahmin]], Kanyakubja, [[Bhumihar]] Brahmin
|-
| ||''([[Kshatriya]]):'' [[Rajput]], [[Kushwaha]] (Koeri)
|-
| ||Rajbhat, [[Kayastha]]
|-
| ||''([[Vaishya]]):'' [[Bania (caste)|Baniya]]
|-
|''Other pure castes :''|| [[Yadav]] (Farmers)
|-
| ||[[Halwai]] (Confectioners)
|-
| ||[[Sunar]] (Goldsmiths)
|-
| ||[[Lohar]] (Iron-smiths)
|-
| ||[[Kumhar]] (Potters)
|-
| ||[[Kurmi]] (Farmers)
|-
| ||[[Mallah|Māllāh]] (Fishermen)
|-
| ||[[Kewat]] (Fisherman)
|-
| ||[[Mali caste|Mali]] (Florists)
|-
|''Service-castes (previously Unclean or Untouchable) :'' ||[[Kalwar (caste)|Kalwar]] (Alcohol brewers/merchants)
|-
| ||[[Teli]] (Oil-pressers)
|-
| ||Hajam/Thakur (Barbers)
|-
| ||[[Sundhi|Sudi]] (Brewers)
|-
| ||[[Paswan]], [[Dusadh]] (Basket-makers)
|-
| ||[[Musahar]] (Labourers)
|-
| ||[[Chamar]], Harijan, Ram (Leather-workers)
|-
| ||[[Dhobi]] (Washermen)
|-
| || Khatawe
|}

== Muluki Ain (1854) ==

The Nepali [[civil code]] Muluki Ain was commissioned by [[Jung Bahadur Rana]] after his European tour and enacted in 1854. It was rooted in traditional [[Hindu Law]] and codified social practices for several centuries in Nepal.<ref>Stiller, L. F. (1993). Nepal: Growth of a Nation. Human Resources Development Research Center, Kathmandu.</ref> The law also comprised ''[[Prāyaścitta]]'' (avoidance and removal of sin) and ''[[Ācāra]]'' (the customary law of different castes and communities).

It was an attempt to include the entire Hindu as well as non-Hindu population of Nepal of that time into a single hierarchic civic code from the perspective of the Khas rulers. Terai and Newar Brahmins and Kshatriyas were officially placed below their Khas equivalents. Similarly, serious limitations and oversights of this code include the complete exclusion of the large middle-ranking Terai groups. Most notable contradiction is the inclusion of previously non-Hindu tribes "Adivasi Janajati" groups, as well as non-Nepalis including Muslims and Europeans into the hierarchical fold.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

Hierarchies of Major Caste/Ethnic Groups in Nepal according to Muluki Ain:<ref name=Gurung2005>Gurung, H. (2005). Social exclusion and Maoist insurgency. Paper presented at National Dialogue Conference on ILO Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, Kathmandu, 19–20 January 2005.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://southasiacheck.org/fact-check/how-discriminatory-was-the-first-muluki-ain-against-dalits/|title=How discriminatory was the first Muluki Ain against Dalits?|date=21 August 2015}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Caste Division !! Caste and Ethnic Groups
|-
| "[[Tagadhari]]" (Wearers of the Holy Thread) || [[Khas people|Khas]] – [[Bahun|Brahmin]], [[Thakuri]], [[Chhetri]];
[[Newar]] – [[Rajopadhyaya|Brahmin]] and [[Shresthas#Sr.C4.93.E1.B9.A3.E1.B9.ADha sub-caste groups|Chatharīya Srēstha]];

[[Terai]] – [[Brahmin]] ''(referred in the code as Indian/Desi Brahmin)'' (no mention of Terai Kshatriya groups)
|-
| "Namasinya Matwali" (Non-enslavable Alcohol Drinkers) || Newar - Hindu Panchthariya Srēsthas and Buddhists Gubhaju/Baré ([[Bajracharya|Vajracharya]]/Shākya), [[Uray (caste group)|Urāy]] ([[Tuladhar]] and others), [[Jyapu]], Manandhar, and other smaller ''pure'' occupational castes.
[[Gurkha]] clans - [[Gurung people|Gurung]], [[Magar people|Magar]], [[Kirat people|Kirat]] ([[Rai people|Rai]] and [[Limbu people|Limbu]])
|-
|"Masinya Matwali" (Enslavable Alcohol Drinkers) || [[Tamang people|Tamang]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Thakali people|Thakali]], [[Chepang people|Chepang]], Gharti or [[Bhujel]], Hayu, Kumal, and [[Tharu people|Tharu]].
|-
|"Pani Na Chalne Chhoichhito Haalnu Naparne" (Water-unacceptable but touchable) || Newar lower ''impure'' occupational castes – Bha, [[Kapali (Newar caste)|Kapāli]], Khadgi/Kasaĩ, [[Dhobi]], Kulu.
Mlechha: [[Muslims]] and Europeans
|-
|"Pani Na Chalne Chhoichhito Haalnu Parne" (Water-unacceptable and untouchable) || Khas occupational castes – [[Kami (caste)|Kami]], [[Sarki (ethnic group)|Sarki]], [[Damai]], Badi.
Terai occupational castes – Dhobi, Halkhor, Chamar, Dushad, Dom, Musahars, etc.

Newar lowest occupational castes – Dom, Podhya, Chyamaha/Chandala, etc.
|}

The social values preached by the Muluki Ain, however, were providing restrictive, anachronic and out of step with the spirit of times. These values were seen as a potent instrument of Rana political repression. After the Rana regime, caste rules relating to food, drink and intercaste marriage were openly louted but the Muluki Ain had not been abrogated. In 1963, Legal Code was replaced by New 1964 Legal Code. The legal recognition to caste and all the discriminatory laws made on the grounds of caste were ceased.

== The caste system today ==
The caste system is still intact today but the rules are not as rigid as they were in the past. In 1963, a law (New Muluki Ain-1963) was passed making it illegal to discriminate against other castes led all castes to be equally treated by the law.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.onlinekhabar.com/history-of-dalit-movements-in-nepal.html |title=History of Dalit movements in Nepal: Much has been achieved, but discrimination still exists |date=1 August 2020 |website= |publisher=Online Khabar |access-date=20 May 2022}}</ref> Education is free and open to all castes.

The caste system conjoints a structural class divide which persists, in which lower castes/ethnicities are generally socio-economically are not equal like those of higher castes/ethnicities. Recent research has also shown that when it comes to Nepali people's impressions of social change, "Poverty, Human Resources and Region" explain more of the variation than "Ethnicity, Caste or Religious belonging" – i.e. people's perception of their own social situation has more to do with geography and objective social class, than with their association with the groups that the state has based its internal social policy on.<ref>Aasland, Aadne and Marit Haug: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110430042505/http://blog.nibrinternational.no/#post42 Class, Caste or Location? How Do Different People Assess Social Change In Nepal?] ''The NIBR International Blog'', 27.05.2011</ref>

Participation of Khas-Brahmins in the civil service is 41.3% in spite of its population size of 12.2%. The population of Newars (all castes) is around 5%, but its occupancy in the civil service is more than one-third (33.2%), although vast majority of this share comes from the minority upper-caste segments of the Chathariya and Panchthariya Shrestha Newars. Upper-caste Newars remain the most over-represented community in terms of socio-political access. The population of Khas-Chhetris constitutes 17.6% but its participation is mere 14.7%. If these major three communities (upper-caste Khas (Bahun & Chhetri) and upper-caste Newars (Shresthas) or the 'BCN' combine their shares in the Government of Nepal, civil service employment is 89.2% in 1991. Their dominance is reflected in education, administration and economical activities of the nation. Among those 73.8% in higher education belong to the BCN, 22.0% Janajatis and 2.9% Dalit.<ref>Dr. Gurung, H. 2006</ref>

They have become major decision makers in the bureaucracy of Nepal has become crystal clear. In terms of earning/income generation, Newars have the highest per capita income of Rs. 38,193. Khas Brahmins come next with an average income of Rs. 24,399, Adivasi Janajatis ranks third with an average income of Rs. 15,630, Dalit Rs. 12,114 and Muslim ranks the lowest, Rs.11,014'<ref>NLSS II, 2004</ref> The democratic transitions also failed to be inclusive management and functioning governance mainly because government was unable to understand and articulate the spirit of all Nepalese people irrespective of their caste, gender, ethnicity, and religion.

In this process the left outs were oppressed class (Dalits), women, the poorest of the poor, powerless and the second class citizen and indigenous nationalities (Adivasi Janajatis). In Nepal, high castes dominate 91.2% among the prominent position in politics and bureaucracy. The Dalits who constitute 12.8 percent of the total population of the country have no representation in the higher echelons of power' (Gurung, H. 2006). Similarly, the Janajati has 32.0% (excluding Newars) of the total population of the country, has representation of 7.1%.<ref>G.Neupane, 2000</ref> In terms of education, 88.0% of Khas Brahmins & Chhetris, and Newars have access to school, 12.0% have never been to school. More than fifty (52.0%) of Hill Dalits, 47.0% of the Tarai Dalits, 48.0% of the Muslims and 30 percent of the Hill Adivasi Janajatis have never been to school.(Census, 2001)

In recent times, following the overthrow of the Nepali monarchy and move towards a federal republic, ethnicity and caste have taken center stage – the indigenous peoples (''Adivasi Janajati'') who make up a third of the country having been guaranteed rights that have not yet been fulfilled. There is an observable reaction to this among certain Khas Brahmin and Chhetri groups, seeking to prevent group-based rights from becoming an important factor in the country that earlier had a political system associated with group-based discrimination. Certain outside analysts have suggested that "seeking a balance in approach requires addressing both specific indigenous historical injustices while creating a common citizenship for all marginalised citizens regardless of identity, which remains a particularly challenging issue for Nepal".<ref>Jones, Peris S.: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110430042505/http://blog.nibrinternational.no/#post43 Deepening Democracy: International Labour Organisation Convention 169 and Nepal's Democratic Transition] ''The NIBR International Blog'', 11.06.2011</ref>

According to Professor Madhusudan Subedi, economic and political advancements have pushed the caste system to break its stagnancy and status quo. New divisions and differences have given rise to new antagonisms and social norms. Working-class persons in urban areas who must make a living by selling their labour power. Traditional caste barriers have been broken down as a result of such social mobility.
In the rural context, the traditional subsistence agriculture system and age-old caste structure have significantly changed, and a relationship based on wage labour on land is being developed.<ref>Subedi, Madhusudan. (2011). Caste System: Theories and Practices in Nepal. Himalayan Journal of Sociology and Anthropology. 4. 10.3126/hjsa.v4i0.4672.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Gender inequality in Nepal]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
* [[Newar caste system]]
* [[Caste system in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* [http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF43.htm Caste discrimination]. South Asian Human Rights Documentation Center
* Nancy E. Levine. Caste, State, and Ethnic Boundaries in Nepal. The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Feb., 1987), pp. 71–88 {{doi|10.2307/2056667}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080724103255/http://epw.org.in/epw/uploads/articles/10625.pdf Nepal: Towards a Democratic Republic: Caste, Ethnicity and Inequality in Nepal]. Economic and Political Weekly

==External links==
{{Commons category|Caste system of Nepal}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20171014050327/http://www.vedah.net/manasanskriti/Brahmins.html The complete reference to Brahmins]: [[Wikipedia:Successful requests for permission/The Vepachedu Educational Foundation|Material from this site has been borrowed for this article with the permission of Dr. Vepachedu]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070125023405/http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?no=324452&rel_no=1 Interview with Ian Martin: Caste-Based Discrimination in Nepal] (23-10-2006)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110821145408/http://www.nepalawaz.com/2011/05/nepal-un-welcomes-new-law-on-caste.html Nepal: UN Welcomes New Law on Caste]. Nepal Awaz

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Koeri

2026-05-09T09:41:43Z

Madeshi: /* Subgroups (clans) */

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = کوئیری
|image = Mata PrasRaja Bodh Ram who obtained Raja title from Asaf-ud-daula who was Koiri by caste.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Raja Bodh Ram, a Koiri by caste, obtained the title of Raja from Asaf-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh (1775–1797), and held an estate in Rai Bareli.
|regions = {{flag|India}}, {{flag|Nepal}}
|region1 = [[Bihar]]
|pop1 = {{estimation}} 3–4% of the population
|langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[Bhojpuri]]|[[Nepali language|Nepali]]}}
|rels = [[File:Om.svg|12px]] [[Hinduism]]
}}
The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]] , [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]] whose traditional occupation was [[agriculture]], notably of [[rice]] and other crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VL_rAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+Landowner&dq=Koeri+Landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7pf28oKqUAxWNWnADHSTENKcQ6wF6BAgKEAU#Koeri%20Landowner</ref> Koiri or Koeri was ancient ruling elite [[caste]] traditionally considered as agriculturalist high landowning [[Caste]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&pg=PA280&dq=Koeri+landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjO8v3Gn6qUAxUmbGwGHWjSB4oQ6wF6BAgQEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeri%20landowner&f=false</nowiki></ref> In [[Bengal]], people of the Koiri [[caste]] often acted as moneylenders and were quite prosperous, frequently hiring labor from backward communities for cultivation of rice and other crops.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki></ref> Koiri are described as a dominant [[Caste]] in various opinions.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=e41uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+dominant&dq=Koeri+dominant&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaxN-np6qUAxXfjq8BHVvoGLI4ChDrAXoECAUQBQ#Koeri%20dominant</nowiki></ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners. According to britishers , Koiri or Koeri were traditionally agriculturalist rather than horticulturalist as they used to grow [[rice]] and other crops but gardening caste like Dangi who call themselves as Koiri and used to grow vegetables in reality Koiri [[Caste]] have no connection with gardening castes such as Dangi , Kachhi , mali and others.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pjVdJMBeXU8C&pg=PA203&dq=koiri+agriculturalist&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMqKmMraqUAxVUS3ADHdNqCUUQ6wF6BAgOEAU#v=onepage&q=koiri%20agriculturalist&f=false</ref>

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. The koiri/kushwaha have huge population in [[Nepal]] too.They are categorized as high caste and dominant caste in [[Nepal]].

==Koiri/kushwaha of Nepal==
'''Kushwaha/Koiri''' are an high caste community residing in the [[Terai]] region. In Nepal, the population of the Kushwaha community is around 1.22%, numbering more than approximately 355,000 people. This community mainly resides in districts of [[Madhesh Province]], [[Koshi Province]], and Lumbini Province, and is considered an important community in Madheshi society.
<ref>{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

Their traditional ancestral occupations were agriculture and landlordship. However, they are now engaged in various professions, businesses, education, civil service, and the military, and are regarded as an influential, organized, and powerful community compared to other Madheshi castes. Koiri or Koeri considered as prosperous [[caste]] in Magadha and [[terai]] region.

The Kushwaha community belongs to the [[Vaishya]] class among the Madheshi high castes.
<ref>{{cite report |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II: Social Demography |publisher=Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics & UNFPA |location=Kathmandu |year=2014 |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Hofer |first=András |title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |location=Innsbruck |year=1979}}</ref>

However, many also claim [[Kshatriya]] status.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinch |first=William R. |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996}}</ref>

Although their ancestors were traditionally vegetarian, this practice has gradually changed over time. The traditionally common surname in this community is ''Mahato''. Surnames used among the Kushwaha/Koiri community in Nepal include Mahato, Singh, Kushwaha, Mehta, Maurya, Morao, Bhagat, Sinha, and Verma,etc among others in nepal.

Some Kushwaha organizations in Nepal have claimed that the population of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal exceeds one million. If accepted, this figure would account for approximately 3.4% of Nepal’s total population.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha community claims over 10 lakh population in Nepal |url=https://www.enewsbureau.com/news-details/9602/2021-01-20 |website=eNews Bureau |date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Final_Population_compostion_12_2.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic status ===
[[File:Literacy rate of nepali koiri.png|thumb|Caste-wise literacy rate of Nepali Koiris]]

Although the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal has traditionally been associated with agriculture, their relatively high literacy rate has contributed to their strong social and economic position. Particularly in the Terai region, the Kushwaha community has made notable progress in education, professional skills, and leadership. According to recent census data, more than 80% of Kushwahas are literate, which is above Nepal’s national average literacy rate of 77.4%.

The Koiri community is not limited only to agriculture, but also has a significant presence in government service, politics, business, and other professional sectors. Their comparatively high literacy rate and community unity have contributed to their representation in policy-making, administration, and local leadership. Kushwahas are regarded as one of the organized and influential Madheshi communities. Some descriptions portray them as economically and politically strong landowning groups in parts of the Terai region.

Various social and community organizations within the community have played active roles in educational awareness, cultural preservation, social development, and leadership building. These initiatives have contributed to establishing the Kushwaha community as an influential and socially active group within Nepali society.
<ref name="NKKS">{{cite web |title=Nepal Kushwaha Kalyan Samaj |url=https://nkks.org.np/}}</ref>

=== Koiri in Terai region ===
[[File:Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.jpg|thumb|Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.]]

This table, prepared on the basis of data related to Nepal’s 2021 national census, presents the average agricultural land ownership and share of total agricultural land among different caste communities in the Terai region. According to the data, the Kushwaha (Koiri) community remains strongly associated with agriculture and is reported to possess an average of approximately 6.2 bighas of land, which is among the higher figures listed in the table. Likewise, Yadav, Bhumihar, and Tharu communities are also shown to have notable involvement in agriculture and significant agricultural land ownership.

Agriculture is considered the backbone of Nepal’s economy, while the Terai region is regarded as the country’s primary grain-producing area. Such statistics help in understanding the economic and social structure of different agrarian communities in the Terai region. The Koiri community is often described as a strong agriculturist caste in Nepal.

=== Culture ===

[[File:Holi festival celebration in Kathmandu 2025-070A3169.jpg|thumb|Women of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Holi in Nepal]]
[[File:Chhath Puja Ritual from India.jpg|thumb|Nepali Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Chhath Puja in Kathmandu]]

The Kushwaha community predominantly follows [[Hinduism]]. Members of the community particularly worship deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Rama]], and [[Vishnu]]. Major festivals celebrated by the Kushwaha community include [[Chhath]], [[Diwali]], and [[Holi]].
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha Religious Practices |url=https://news.sainicaste.com/2024/03/who-is-kushwaha-caste-god.html |website=Saini Caste News}}</ref>

=== Subgroups (clans) ===
Historically, various subgroups (clans) have been identified within the Koiri/[[kushwaha]] community. Colonial-era caste studies mention the following subgroups within the Koiri community:
<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bengal |last=Risley |first=H. H. |year=1891 |publisher=Government of Bengal}}</ref>

* Barki-Dangi
* Chhotki-Dangi
* Jaruhar
* Kanaujia
* Magahiya
* Tirhutia
* Chirmait
* Kumrh
* Banaphar
* Goita
* Dhar
* Reutia
* Pauria
* Barakar
* Palmohan

=== Architecture ===

An example of architecture associated with the Koiri (Kushwaha) community can be seen in [[Janaki Mandir]] in Janakpur, which is sometimes regarded as an important example of “Koiri-style” architecture. Some local narratives also associate the temple’s construction with members of the Koiri community.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

[[File:Drone image of jankai temple ( jankapur nepal) in koiri style architecture.png|thumb|Drone image of Janaki Mandir, Janakpur, in Koiri-style architecture]]

This style of architecture reflects a blend of Hindu, Mughal, and regional Mithila artistic influences. Janaki Mandir is a three-storey structure primarily constructed using stone and white marble.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

The temple structure includes domes, lattice-carved windows, coloured glass, pillars, and decorations inspired by Mithila paintings. The temple complex is said to contain around 60 rooms, contributing to its distinctive and attractive architectural character.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

This architectural style is considered reflective of the cultural influence and religious traditions of the Madhesh and Mithila regions.

=== Dominanace ===

Historically, different caste and ethnic groups in Nepal have had varying levels of representation in government administration, agriculture, trade, civil service, judiciary, and military institutions.

During the rule of the [[Shah dynasty]] (1768–2008), hill high-caste groups such as [[Bahun]] and [[Kshatriya|Chhetri]] held significant dominance in the civil service, judiciary, and senior military positions.

According to some studies conducted in the Terai region using data from before 2015, certain Madheshi caste groups were represented in the civil service at rates higher than their share of the national population. For example, the representation of the [[Kushwaha]] ([[Koiri]]) community in Nepal’s civil service was reported to be approximately 3.2 times higher than their population share, placing them fourth in terms of representation. Similarly, the [[Rajput]] community was reported to have representation approximately 5.6 times higher than its population share, while [[Maithil Brahmin]] representation was around 4.2 times higher.
<ref name="Hatlebakk07">{{cite web |last=Hatlebakk |first=Magnus |year=2007 |title=Economic and social structures that may explain the recent conflicts in the Terai of Nepal |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Norwegian Embassy |url=http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190445/http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community is one of the largest Madheshi caste groups in Nepal. Due to their substantial population in some districts, their political representation has increased significantly in recent decades. One prominent figure from this community is [[Ram Baran Yadav]], who served as the first President of Nepal from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.
<ref name="OCHA1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/B66F206172F49BE4C12572D50030C3F0/$file/OCHA+overview+no+12+April+07.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=12 |date=April 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

In Nepal, [[Nepali language]] is the national language, while [[Maithili language]] is one of the most widely spoken languages in the country. The traditional caste system in Hindu society was legally abolished by the ''New Muluki Ain'' implemented in 1963.
<ref name="OCHA2">{{cite journal |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2E89F2121C2C57A24925733F000F4F21-Full_report.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=16 |date=July–August 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

[[File:Average Height of Nepalese Men and Women in every Province.png|thumb|Average height of Nepali men and women in different provinces]]

=== Population ===

Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics classifies the Kushwaha caste as a subgroup within the broader upper Madheshi caste communities. The community is primarily concentrated in the [[Terai]] region of Nepal, where agriculture has traditionally been the main occupation.

According to the [[2021 Nepal census]] published by the [[National Statistics Office (Nepal)]], the population of the Kushwaha community in Nepal was 355,707, representing approximately 1.22% of the country’s total population.
<ref name="Census2021">{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=National Statistics Office, Nepal |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

The provincial distribution of the Kushwaha population is as follows:
<ref name="Census2021"/>

* [[Madhesh Province]] – 4.56%
* [[Lumbini Province]] – 2%
* [[Koshi Province]] – 1%
* [[Bagmati Province]] – 0.5%
* [[Gandaki Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Karnali Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] – 0.7%

The following districts have Kushwaha populations above the national average (approximately 1.3%):
<ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal |access-date=2025-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>

* [[Sarlahi]] – 7.9%
* [[Rautahat]] – 3.5%
* [[Bara District|Bara]] – 4.5%
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] – 3.9%
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] – 5.1%
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] – 6.0%
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] – 1.0%
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] – 5.8%
* [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] – 4.1%
* [[Morang District|Morang]] – 1.0%
* [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] – 0.5%
* [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]] – 1.0%
* [[Banke District|Banke]] – 0.5%
* [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]] – 0.2%
* [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] – 0.1%
* [[Chitwan District|Chitwan]] – <0.1%
* [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi]] – <0.1%
* [[Kathmandu]] – 0.1%

==History & Philosophy ==

=== Koiri connections with Sakya And Koliya Clans ===
The Koiri or (Koeri/Kushwaha) [[Caste]] of magadh region is associated in several historical and community traditions with the ancient Shakya and Koliya clans of the Himalayan foothills. The ancient Shakya republic was located in present-day southern Nepal, with important sites such as Lumbini, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The [[Shakya]] capital Kapilavastu is commonly linked with Tilaurakot. The Koliya republic existed in the same region and maintained close political and matrimonial relations with the Shakya during the 6th century BCE. Many historians, [[caste]] studies, and community traditions connect present-day Koiri/kushwaha communities with these ancient republican clans like Sakya , Moriya and koliya due to historical, regional and inscriptional connections. Koiri or Koeri [[caste]] was ruling elite [[Tribe|caste]] during ancient period who established maurya dynasty along with sakya kingdom in [[nepal]] and [[india]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WisVAQAAIAAJ&q=Koeri+koliya&dq=Koeri+koliya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisx6uWtquUAxVcJxAIHfBXGfoQ6wF6BAgIEAU#Koeri%20koliya</nowiki></ref>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|The Mahajanapadas in the post-Vedic period. Koliya was to east of Sakya]]

=== Koiri caste link with kutumbin term and Rashtrakuta Empire ===
The Koiri (or Koeri) are a significant agricultural community in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, recognised as a landowning Upper middle [[caste]] with a strong agricultural base, particularly in cultivating crops like [[Rice]]. Epigraphic records suggest that Kutumbins were agriculturist house-holders. From the term kutumbin has been derived cultivating caste name such as the Koeri or Koiri of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term "Rashtrakuta" being used to refer to the heads of kutumbins/cultivators from which koiri or koeri caste derived.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA30&dq=Koeries+kutumbin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjghcjpvquUAxXMExAIHawtJCAQ6wF6BAgMEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeries%20kutumbin&f=false</nowiki></ref>

Koiri or Koeri community claims ancestry from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian opium trade, which had its main base in Bihar as the Koeris were involved in opium production through hired labour from lower castes like Dusadh , Yadava , and others. Based on available reports and studies , the Kushwaha (Koeri) community is ranked among the highest-earning social groups in Bihar, often placed below general castes in per capita income but higher than many other OBC groups like Kurmi and Yadav. Koiri or Koeri considered as most dominant [[caste]] of OBC in [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] due to large land holdings along with prosperity.<ref><nowiki>https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/bjp-ministers-finalised-for-samrat-choudhary-cabinet-in-bihar-mangal-pandey-narayan-prasad-surendra-mehta-list-10311152</nowiki></ref>

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, general caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the general castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among general castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as big peasants and farm workers, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming big [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The Upper middle caste such as Koiri functioned as landlord rulers, while other backward castes worked in the field of Koiri [[landlord]]. Koiri landlords did not allow lower castes, such as Yadavs and Dusadhs, to sit with them.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3u21AAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+yadavas+sit&dq=koeri+yadavas+sit&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij4vrs26qUAxV8TWwGHQUOBI4Q6wF6BAgPEAU#koeri%20yadavas%20sit</nowiki></ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with general caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher belonging to upper middle [[caste]], began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of general caste landlords.

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Ashwani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36|title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84331-709-8|pages=36}}</ref>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]

Koeri

2026-05-09T09:41:01Z

Madeshi: /* Koiri/kushwaha of Nepal */

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = کوئیری
|image = Mata PrasRaja Bodh Ram who obtained Raja title from Asaf-ud-daula who was Koiri by caste.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Raja Bodh Ram, a Koiri by caste, obtained the title of Raja from Asaf-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh (1775–1797), and held an estate in Rai Bareli.
|regions = {{flag|India}}, {{flag|Nepal}}
|region1 = [[Bihar]]
|pop1 = {{estimation}} 3–4% of the population
|langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[Bhojpuri]]|[[Nepali language|Nepali]]}}
|rels = [[File:Om.svg|12px]] [[Hinduism]]
}}
The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]] , [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]] whose traditional occupation was [[agriculture]], notably of [[rice]] and other crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VL_rAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+Landowner&dq=Koeri+Landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7pf28oKqUAxWNWnADHSTENKcQ6wF6BAgKEAU#Koeri%20Landowner</ref> Koiri or Koeri was ancient ruling elite [[caste]] traditionally considered as agriculturalist high landowning [[Caste]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&pg=PA280&dq=Koeri+landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjO8v3Gn6qUAxUmbGwGHWjSB4oQ6wF6BAgQEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeri%20landowner&f=false</nowiki></ref> In [[Bengal]], people of the Koiri [[caste]] often acted as moneylenders and were quite prosperous, frequently hiring labor from backward communities for cultivation of rice and other crops.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki></ref> Koiri are described as a dominant [[Caste]] in various opinions.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=e41uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+dominant&dq=Koeri+dominant&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaxN-np6qUAxXfjq8BHVvoGLI4ChDrAXoECAUQBQ#Koeri%20dominant</nowiki></ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners. According to britishers , Koiri or Koeri were traditionally agriculturalist rather than horticulturalist as they used to grow [[rice]] and other crops but gardening caste like Dangi who call themselves as Koiri and used to grow vegetables in reality Koiri [[Caste]] have no connection with gardening castes such as Dangi , Kachhi , mali and others.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pjVdJMBeXU8C&pg=PA203&dq=koiri+agriculturalist&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMqKmMraqUAxVUS3ADHdNqCUUQ6wF6BAgOEAU#v=onepage&q=koiri%20agriculturalist&f=false</ref>

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. The koiri/kushwaha have huge population in [[Nepal]] too.They are categorized as high caste and dominant caste in [[Nepal]].

==Koiri/kushwaha of Nepal==
'''Kushwaha/Koiri''' are an high caste community residing in the [[Terai]] region. In Nepal, the population of the Kushwaha community is around 1.22%, numbering more than approximately 355,000 people. This community mainly resides in districts of [[Madhesh Province]], [[Koshi Province]], and Lumbini Province, and is considered an important community in Madheshi society.
<ref>{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

Their traditional ancestral occupations were agriculture and landlordship. However, they are now engaged in various professions, businesses, education, civil service, and the military, and are regarded as an influential, organized, and powerful community compared to other Madheshi castes. Koiri or Koeri considered as prosperous [[caste]] in Magadha and [[terai]] region.

The Kushwaha community belongs to the [[Vaishya]] class among the Madheshi high castes.
<ref>{{cite report |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II: Social Demography |publisher=Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics & UNFPA |location=Kathmandu |year=2014 |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Hofer |first=András |title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |location=Innsbruck |year=1979}}</ref>

However, many also claim [[Kshatriya]] status.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinch |first=William R. |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996}}</ref>

Although their ancestors were traditionally vegetarian, this practice has gradually changed over time. The traditionally common surname in this community is ''Mahato''. Surnames used among the Kushwaha/Koiri community in Nepal include Mahato, Singh, Kushwaha, Mehta, Maurya, Morao, Bhagat, Sinha, and Verma,etc among others in nepal.

Some Kushwaha organizations in Nepal have claimed that the population of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal exceeds one million. If accepted, this figure would account for approximately 3.4% of Nepal’s total population.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha community claims over 10 lakh population in Nepal |url=https://www.enewsbureau.com/news-details/9602/2021-01-20 |website=eNews Bureau |date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Final_Population_compostion_12_2.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic status ===
[[File:Literacy rate of nepali koiri.png|thumb|Caste-wise literacy rate of Nepali Koiris]]

Although the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal has traditionally been associated with agriculture, their relatively high literacy rate has contributed to their strong social and economic position. Particularly in the Terai region, the Kushwaha community has made notable progress in education, professional skills, and leadership. According to recent census data, more than 80% of Kushwahas are literate, which is above Nepal’s national average literacy rate of 77.4%.

The Koiri community is not limited only to agriculture, but also has a significant presence in government service, politics, business, and other professional sectors. Their comparatively high literacy rate and community unity have contributed to their representation in policy-making, administration, and local leadership. Kushwahas are regarded as one of the organized and influential Madheshi communities. Some descriptions portray them as economically and politically strong landowning groups in parts of the Terai region.

Various social and community organizations within the community have played active roles in educational awareness, cultural preservation, social development, and leadership building. These initiatives have contributed to establishing the Kushwaha community as an influential and socially active group within Nepali society.
<ref name="NKKS">{{cite web |title=Nepal Kushwaha Kalyan Samaj |url=https://nkks.org.np/}}</ref>

=== Koiri in Terai region ===
[[File:Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.jpg|thumb|Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.]]

This table, prepared on the basis of data related to Nepal’s 2021 national census, presents the average agricultural land ownership and share of total agricultural land among different caste communities in the Terai region. According to the data, the Kushwaha (Koiri) community remains strongly associated with agriculture and is reported to possess an average of approximately 6.2 bighas of land, which is among the higher figures listed in the table. Likewise, Yadav, Bhumihar, and Tharu communities are also shown to have notable involvement in agriculture and significant agricultural land ownership.

Agriculture is considered the backbone of Nepal’s economy, while the Terai region is regarded as the country’s primary grain-producing area. Such statistics help in understanding the economic and social structure of different agrarian communities in the Terai region. The Koiri community is often described as a strong agriculturist caste in Nepal.

=== Culture ===

[[File:Holi festival celebration in Kathmandu 2025-070A3169.jpg|thumb|Women of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Holi in Nepal]]
[[File:Chhath Puja Ritual from India.jpg|thumb|Nepali Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Chhath Puja in Kathmandu]]

The Kushwaha community predominantly follows [[Hinduism]]. Members of the community particularly worship deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Rama]], and [[Vishnu]]. Major festivals celebrated by the Kushwaha community include [[Chhath]], [[Diwali]], and [[Holi]].
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha Religious Practices |url=https://news.sainicaste.com/2024/03/who-is-kushwaha-caste-god.html |website=Saini Caste News}}</ref>

=== Subgroups (clans) ===
Historically, various subgroups (clans) have been identified within the [[Koiri]] community. Colonial-era caste studies mention the following subgroups within the Koiri community:
<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bengal |last=Risley |first=H. H. |year=1891 |publisher=Government of Bengal}}</ref>

* Barki-Dangi
* Chhotki-Dangi
* Jaruhar
* Kanaujia
* Magahiya
* Tirhutia
* Chirmait
* Kumrh
* Banaphar
* Goita
* Dhar
* Reutia
* Pauria
* Barakar
* Palmohan

=== Architecture ===

An example of architecture associated with the Koiri (Kushwaha) community can be seen in [[Janaki Mandir]] in Janakpur, which is sometimes regarded as an important example of “Koiri-style” architecture. Some local narratives also associate the temple’s construction with members of the Koiri community.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

[[File:Drone image of jankai temple ( jankapur nepal) in koiri style architecture.png|thumb|Drone image of Janaki Mandir, Janakpur, in Koiri-style architecture]]

This style of architecture reflects a blend of Hindu, Mughal, and regional Mithila artistic influences. Janaki Mandir is a three-storey structure primarily constructed using stone and white marble.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

The temple structure includes domes, lattice-carved windows, coloured glass, pillars, and decorations inspired by Mithila paintings. The temple complex is said to contain around 60 rooms, contributing to its distinctive and attractive architectural character.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

This architectural style is considered reflective of the cultural influence and religious traditions of the Madhesh and Mithila regions.

=== Dominanace ===

Historically, different caste and ethnic groups in Nepal have had varying levels of representation in government administration, agriculture, trade, civil service, judiciary, and military institutions.

During the rule of the [[Shah dynasty]] (1768–2008), hill high-caste groups such as [[Bahun]] and [[Kshatriya|Chhetri]] held significant dominance in the civil service, judiciary, and senior military positions.

According to some studies conducted in the Terai region using data from before 2015, certain Madheshi caste groups were represented in the civil service at rates higher than their share of the national population. For example, the representation of the [[Kushwaha]] ([[Koiri]]) community in Nepal’s civil service was reported to be approximately 3.2 times higher than their population share, placing them fourth in terms of representation. Similarly, the [[Rajput]] community was reported to have representation approximately 5.6 times higher than its population share, while [[Maithil Brahmin]] representation was around 4.2 times higher.
<ref name="Hatlebakk07">{{cite web |last=Hatlebakk |first=Magnus |year=2007 |title=Economic and social structures that may explain the recent conflicts in the Terai of Nepal |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Norwegian Embassy |url=http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190445/http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community is one of the largest Madheshi caste groups in Nepal. Due to their substantial population in some districts, their political representation has increased significantly in recent decades. One prominent figure from this community is [[Ram Baran Yadav]], who served as the first President of Nepal from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.
<ref name="OCHA1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/B66F206172F49BE4C12572D50030C3F0/$file/OCHA+overview+no+12+April+07.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=12 |date=April 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

In Nepal, [[Nepali language]] is the national language, while [[Maithili language]] is one of the most widely spoken languages in the country. The traditional caste system in Hindu society was legally abolished by the ''New Muluki Ain'' implemented in 1963.
<ref name="OCHA2">{{cite journal |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2E89F2121C2C57A24925733F000F4F21-Full_report.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=16 |date=July–August 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

[[File:Average Height of Nepalese Men and Women in every Province.png|thumb|Average height of Nepali men and women in different provinces]]

=== Population ===

Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics classifies the Kushwaha caste as a subgroup within the broader upper Madheshi caste communities. The community is primarily concentrated in the [[Terai]] region of Nepal, where agriculture has traditionally been the main occupation.

According to the [[2021 Nepal census]] published by the [[National Statistics Office (Nepal)]], the population of the Kushwaha community in Nepal was 355,707, representing approximately 1.22% of the country’s total population.
<ref name="Census2021">{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=National Statistics Office, Nepal |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

The provincial distribution of the Kushwaha population is as follows:
<ref name="Census2021"/>

* [[Madhesh Province]] – 4.56%
* [[Lumbini Province]] – 2%
* [[Koshi Province]] – 1%
* [[Bagmati Province]] – 0.5%
* [[Gandaki Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Karnali Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] – 0.7%

The following districts have Kushwaha populations above the national average (approximately 1.3%):
<ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal |access-date=2025-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>

* [[Sarlahi]] – 7.9%
* [[Rautahat]] – 3.5%
* [[Bara District|Bara]] – 4.5%
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] – 3.9%
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] – 5.1%
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] – 6.0%
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] – 1.0%
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] – 5.8%
* [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] – 4.1%
* [[Morang District|Morang]] – 1.0%
* [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] – 0.5%
* [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]] – 1.0%
* [[Banke District|Banke]] – 0.5%
* [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]] – 0.2%
* [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] – 0.1%
* [[Chitwan District|Chitwan]] – <0.1%
* [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi]] – <0.1%
* [[Kathmandu]] – 0.1%

==History & Philosophy ==

=== Koiri connections with Sakya And Koliya Clans ===
The Koiri or (Koeri/Kushwaha) [[Caste]] of magadh region is associated in several historical and community traditions with the ancient Shakya and Koliya clans of the Himalayan foothills. The ancient Shakya republic was located in present-day southern Nepal, with important sites such as Lumbini, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The [[Shakya]] capital Kapilavastu is commonly linked with Tilaurakot. The Koliya republic existed in the same region and maintained close political and matrimonial relations with the Shakya during the 6th century BCE. Many historians, [[caste]] studies, and community traditions connect present-day Koiri/kushwaha communities with these ancient republican clans like Sakya , Moriya and koliya due to historical, regional and inscriptional connections. Koiri or Koeri [[caste]] was ruling elite [[Tribe|caste]] during ancient period who established maurya dynasty along with sakya kingdom in [[nepal]] and [[india]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WisVAQAAIAAJ&q=Koeri+koliya&dq=Koeri+koliya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisx6uWtquUAxVcJxAIHfBXGfoQ6wF6BAgIEAU#Koeri%20koliya</nowiki></ref>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|The Mahajanapadas in the post-Vedic period. Koliya was to east of Sakya]]

=== Koiri caste link with kutumbin term and Rashtrakuta Empire ===
The Koiri (or Koeri) are a significant agricultural community in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, recognised as a landowning Upper middle [[caste]] with a strong agricultural base, particularly in cultivating crops like [[Rice]]. Epigraphic records suggest that Kutumbins were agriculturist house-holders. From the term kutumbin has been derived cultivating caste name such as the Koeri or Koiri of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term "Rashtrakuta" being used to refer to the heads of kutumbins/cultivators from which koiri or koeri caste derived.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA30&dq=Koeries+kutumbin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjghcjpvquUAxXMExAIHawtJCAQ6wF6BAgMEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeries%20kutumbin&f=false</nowiki></ref>

Koiri or Koeri community claims ancestry from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian opium trade, which had its main base in Bihar as the Koeris were involved in opium production through hired labour from lower castes like Dusadh , Yadava , and others. Based on available reports and studies , the Kushwaha (Koeri) community is ranked among the highest-earning social groups in Bihar, often placed below general castes in per capita income but higher than many other OBC groups like Kurmi and Yadav. Koiri or Koeri considered as most dominant [[caste]] of OBC in [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] due to large land holdings along with prosperity.<ref><nowiki>https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/bjp-ministers-finalised-for-samrat-choudhary-cabinet-in-bihar-mangal-pandey-narayan-prasad-surendra-mehta-list-10311152</nowiki></ref>

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, general caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the general castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among general castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as big peasants and farm workers, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming big [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The Upper middle caste such as Koiri functioned as landlord rulers, while other backward castes worked in the field of Koiri [[landlord]]. Koiri landlords did not allow lower castes, such as Yadavs and Dusadhs, to sit with them.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3u21AAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+yadavas+sit&dq=koeri+yadavas+sit&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij4vrs26qUAxV8TWwGHQUOBI4Q6wF6BAgPEAU#koeri%20yadavas%20sit</nowiki></ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with general caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher belonging to upper middle [[caste]], began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of general caste landlords.

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Ashwani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36|title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84331-709-8|pages=36}}</ref>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]

Koeri

2026-05-09T09:37:03Z

Madeshi:

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = کوئیری
|image = Mata PrasRaja Bodh Ram who obtained Raja title from Asaf-ud-daula who was Koiri by caste.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Raja Bodh Ram, a Koiri by caste, obtained the title of Raja from Asaf-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh (1775–1797), and held an estate in Rai Bareli.
|regions = {{flag|India}}, {{flag|Nepal}}
|region1 = [[Bihar]]
|pop1 = {{estimation}} 3–4% of the population
|langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[Bhojpuri]]|[[Nepali language|Nepali]]}}
|rels = [[File:Om.svg|12px]] [[Hinduism]]
}}
The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]] , [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]] whose traditional occupation was [[agriculture]], notably of [[rice]] and other crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VL_rAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+Landowner&dq=Koeri+Landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7pf28oKqUAxWNWnADHSTENKcQ6wF6BAgKEAU#Koeri%20Landowner</ref> Koiri or Koeri was ancient ruling elite [[caste]] traditionally considered as agriculturalist high landowning [[Caste]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&pg=PA280&dq=Koeri+landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjO8v3Gn6qUAxUmbGwGHWjSB4oQ6wF6BAgQEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeri%20landowner&f=false</nowiki></ref> In [[Bengal]], people of the Koiri [[caste]] often acted as moneylenders and were quite prosperous, frequently hiring labor from backward communities for cultivation of rice and other crops.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki></ref> Koiri are described as a dominant [[Caste]] in various opinions.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=e41uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+dominant&dq=Koeri+dominant&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaxN-np6qUAxXfjq8BHVvoGLI4ChDrAXoECAUQBQ#Koeri%20dominant</nowiki></ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners. According to britishers , Koiri or Koeri were traditionally agriculturalist rather than horticulturalist as they used to grow [[rice]] and other crops but gardening caste like Dangi who call themselves as Koiri and used to grow vegetables in reality Koiri [[Caste]] have no connection with gardening castes such as Dangi , Kachhi , mali and others.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pjVdJMBeXU8C&pg=PA203&dq=koiri+agriculturalist&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMqKmMraqUAxVUS3ADHdNqCUUQ6wF6BAgOEAU#v=onepage&q=koiri%20agriculturalist&f=false</ref>

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. The koiri/kushwaha have huge population in [[Nepal]] too.They are categorized as high caste and dominant caste in [[Nepal]].

==Koiri/kushwaha of Nepal==
'''Kushwaha/Koiri''' are an high caste community residing in the [[Terai]] region. In Nepal, the population of the Kushwaha community is around 1.22%, numbering more than approximately 355,000 people. This community mainly resides in districts of [[Madhesh Province]], [[Koshi Province]], and [[Lumbini Province]], and is considered an important community in Madheshi society.
<ref>{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

Their traditional ancestral occupations were agriculture and landlordship. However, they are now engaged in various professions, businesses, education, civil service, and the military, and are regarded as an influential, organized, and powerful community compared to other Madheshi castes. Koiri or Koeri considered as prosperous [[caste]] in Magadha and [[terai]] region.

The Kushwaha community belongs to the [[Vaishya]] class among the Madheshi high castes.
<ref>{{cite report |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II: Social Demography |publisher=Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics & UNFPA |location=Kathmandu |year=2014 |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Hofer |first=András |title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |location=Innsbruck |year=1979}}</ref>

However, many also claim [[Kshatriya]] status.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinch |first=William R. |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996}}</ref>

Although their ancestors were traditionally vegetarian, this practice has gradually changed over time. The traditionally common surname in this community is ''Mahato''. Surnames used among the Kushwaha/Koiri community in Nepal include Mahato, Singh, Kushwaha, Mehta, Maurya, Morao, Bhagat, Sinha, and Verma,etc among others in nepal.

Some Kushwaha organizations in Nepal have claimed that the population of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal exceeds one million. If accepted, this figure would account for approximately 3.4% of Nepal’s total population.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha community claims over 10 lakh population in Nepal |url=https://www.enewsbureau.com/news-details/9602/2021-01-20 |website=eNews Bureau |date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Final_Population_compostion_12_2.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic status ===
[[File:Literacy rate of nepali koiri.png|thumb|Caste-wise literacy rate of Nepali Koiris]]

Although the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal has traditionally been associated with agriculture, their relatively high literacy rate has contributed to their strong social and economic position. Particularly in the Terai region, the Kushwaha community has made notable progress in education, professional skills, and leadership. According to recent census data, more than 80% of Kushwahas are literate, which is above Nepal’s national average literacy rate of 77.4%.

The Koiri community is not limited only to agriculture, but also has a significant presence in government service, politics, business, and other professional sectors. Their comparatively high literacy rate and community unity have contributed to their representation in policy-making, administration, and local leadership. Kushwahas are regarded as one of the organized and influential Madheshi communities. Some descriptions portray them as economically and politically strong landowning groups in parts of the Terai region.

Various social and community organizations within the community have played active roles in educational awareness, cultural preservation, social development, and leadership building. These initiatives have contributed to establishing the Kushwaha community as an influential and socially active group within Nepali society.
<ref name="NKKS">{{cite web |title=Nepal Kushwaha Kalyan Samaj |url=https://nkks.org.np/}}</ref>

=== Koiri in Terai region ===
[[File:Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.jpg|thumb|Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.]]

This table, prepared on the basis of data related to Nepal’s 2021 national census, presents the average agricultural land ownership and share of total agricultural land among different caste communities in the Terai region. According to the data, the Kushwaha (Koiri) community remains strongly associated with agriculture and is reported to possess an average of approximately 6.2 bighas of land, which is among the higher figures listed in the table. Likewise, Yadav, Bhumihar, and Tharu communities are also shown to have notable involvement in agriculture and significant agricultural land ownership.

Agriculture is considered the backbone of Nepal’s economy, while the Terai region is regarded as the country’s primary grain-producing area. Such statistics help in understanding the economic and social structure of different agrarian communities in the Terai region. The Koiri community is often described as a strong agriculturist caste in Nepal.

=== Culture ===

[[File:Holi festival celebration in Kathmandu 2025-070A3169.jpg|thumb|Women of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Holi in Nepal]]
[[File:Chhath Puja Ritual from India.jpg|thumb|Nepali Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Chhath Puja in Kathmandu]]

The Kushwaha community predominantly follows [[Hinduism]]. Members of the community particularly worship deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Rama]], and [[Vishnu]]. Major festivals celebrated by the Kushwaha community include [[Chhath]], [[Diwali]], and [[Holi]].
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha Religious Practices |url=https://news.sainicaste.com/2024/03/who-is-kushwaha-caste-god.html |website=Saini Caste News}}</ref>

=== Subgroups (clans) ===
Historically, various subgroups (clans) have been identified within the [[Koiri]] community. Colonial-era caste studies mention the following subgroups within the Koiri community:
<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bengal |last=Risley |first=H. H. |year=1891 |publisher=Government of Bengal}}</ref>

* Barki-Dangi
* Chhotki-Dangi
* Jaruhar
* Kanaujia
* Magahiya
* Tirhutia
* Chirmait
* Kumrh
* Banaphar
* Goita
* Dhar
* Reutia
* Pauria
* Barakar
* Palmohan

=== Architecture ===

An example of architecture associated with the Koiri (Kushwaha) community can be seen in [[Janaki Mandir]] in Janakpur, which is sometimes regarded as an important example of “Koiri-style” architecture. Some local narratives also associate the temple’s construction with members of the Koiri community.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

[[File:Drone image of jankai temple ( jankapur nepal) in koiri style architecture.png|thumb|Drone image of Janaki Mandir, Janakpur, in Koiri-style architecture]]

This style of architecture reflects a blend of Hindu, Mughal, and regional Mithila artistic influences. Janaki Mandir is a three-storey structure primarily constructed using stone and white marble.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

The temple structure includes domes, lattice-carved windows, coloured glass, pillars, and decorations inspired by Mithila paintings. The temple complex is said to contain around 60 rooms, contributing to its distinctive and attractive architectural character.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

This architectural style is considered reflective of the cultural influence and religious traditions of the Madhesh and Mithila regions.

=== Dominanace ===

Historically, different caste and ethnic groups in Nepal have had varying levels of representation in government administration, agriculture, trade, civil service, judiciary, and military institutions.

During the rule of the [[Shah dynasty]] (1768–2008), hill high-caste groups such as [[Bahun]] and [[Kshatriya|Chhetri]] held significant dominance in the civil service, judiciary, and senior military positions.

According to some studies conducted in the Terai region using data from before 2015, certain Madheshi caste groups were represented in the civil service at rates higher than their share of the national population. For example, the representation of the [[Kushwaha]] ([[Koiri]]) community in Nepal’s civil service was reported to be approximately 3.2 times higher than their population share, placing them fourth in terms of representation. Similarly, the [[Rajput]] community was reported to have representation approximately 5.6 times higher than its population share, while [[Maithil Brahmin]] representation was around 4.2 times higher.
<ref name="Hatlebakk07">{{cite web |last=Hatlebakk |first=Magnus |year=2007 |title=Economic and social structures that may explain the recent conflicts in the Terai of Nepal |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Norwegian Embassy |url=http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190445/http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community is one of the largest Madheshi caste groups in Nepal. Due to their substantial population in some districts, their political representation has increased significantly in recent decades. One prominent figure from this community is [[Ram Baran Yadav]], who served as the first President of Nepal from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.
<ref name="OCHA1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/B66F206172F49BE4C12572D50030C3F0/$file/OCHA+overview+no+12+April+07.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=12 |date=April 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

In Nepal, [[Nepali language]] is the national language, while [[Maithili language]] is one of the most widely spoken languages in the country. The traditional caste system in Hindu society was legally abolished by the ''New Muluki Ain'' implemented in 1963.
<ref name="OCHA2">{{cite journal |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2E89F2121C2C57A24925733F000F4F21-Full_report.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=16 |date=July–August 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

[[File:Average Height of Nepalese Men and Women in every Province.png|thumb|Average height of Nepali men and women in different provinces]]

=== Population ===

Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics classifies the Kushwaha caste as a subgroup within the broader upper Madheshi caste communities. The community is primarily concentrated in the [[Terai]] region of Nepal, where agriculture has traditionally been the main occupation.

According to the [[2021 Nepal census]] published by the [[National Statistics Office (Nepal)]], the population of the Kushwaha community in Nepal was 355,707, representing approximately 1.22% of the country’s total population.
<ref name="Census2021">{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=National Statistics Office, Nepal |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

The provincial distribution of the Kushwaha population is as follows:
<ref name="Census2021"/>

* [[Madhesh Province]] – 4.56%
* [[Lumbini Province]] – 2%
* [[Koshi Province]] – 1%
* [[Bagmati Province]] – 0.5%
* [[Gandaki Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Karnali Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] – 0.7%

The following districts have Kushwaha populations above the national average (approximately 1.3%):
<ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal |access-date=2025-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>

* [[Sarlahi]] – 7.9%
* [[Rautahat]] – 3.5%
* [[Bara District|Bara]] – 4.5%
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] – 3.9%
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] – 5.1%
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] – 6.0%
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] – 1.0%
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] – 5.8%
* [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] – 4.1%
* [[Morang District|Morang]] – 1.0%
* [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] – 0.5%
* [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]] – 1.0%
* [[Banke District|Banke]] – 0.5%
* [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]] – 0.2%
* [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] – 0.1%
* [[Chitwan District|Chitwan]] – <0.1%
* [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi]] – <0.1%
* [[Kathmandu]] – 0.1%

==History & Philosophy ==

=== Koiri connections with Sakya And Koliya Clans ===
The Koiri or (Koeri/Kushwaha) [[Caste]] of magadh region is associated in several historical and community traditions with the ancient Shakya and Koliya clans of the Himalayan foothills. The ancient Shakya republic was located in present-day southern Nepal, with important sites such as Lumbini, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The [[Shakya]] capital Kapilavastu is commonly linked with Tilaurakot. The Koliya republic existed in the same region and maintained close political and matrimonial relations with the Shakya during the 6th century BCE. Many historians, [[caste]] studies, and community traditions connect present-day Koiri/kushwaha communities with these ancient republican clans like Sakya , Moriya and koliya due to historical, regional and inscriptional connections. Koiri or Koeri [[caste]] was ruling elite [[Tribe|caste]] during ancient period who established maurya dynasty along with sakya kingdom in [[nepal]] and [[india]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WisVAQAAIAAJ&q=Koeri+koliya&dq=Koeri+koliya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisx6uWtquUAxVcJxAIHfBXGfoQ6wF6BAgIEAU#Koeri%20koliya</nowiki></ref>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|The Mahajanapadas in the post-Vedic period. Koliya was to east of Sakya]]

=== Koiri caste link with kutumbin term and Rashtrakuta Empire ===
The Koiri (or Koeri) are a significant agricultural community in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, recognised as a landowning Upper middle [[caste]] with a strong agricultural base, particularly in cultivating crops like [[Rice]]. Epigraphic records suggest that Kutumbins were agriculturist house-holders. From the term kutumbin has been derived cultivating caste name such as the Koeri or Koiri of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term "Rashtrakuta" being used to refer to the heads of kutumbins/cultivators from which koiri or koeri caste derived.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA30&dq=Koeries+kutumbin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjghcjpvquUAxXMExAIHawtJCAQ6wF6BAgMEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeries%20kutumbin&f=false</nowiki></ref>

Koiri or Koeri community claims ancestry from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian opium trade, which had its main base in Bihar as the Koeris were involved in opium production through hired labour from lower castes like Dusadh , Yadava , and others. Based on available reports and studies , the Kushwaha (Koeri) community is ranked among the highest-earning social groups in Bihar, often placed below general castes in per capita income but higher than many other OBC groups like Kurmi and Yadav. Koiri or Koeri considered as most dominant [[caste]] of OBC in [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] due to large land holdings along with prosperity.<ref><nowiki>https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/bjp-ministers-finalised-for-samrat-choudhary-cabinet-in-bihar-mangal-pandey-narayan-prasad-surendra-mehta-list-10311152</nowiki></ref>

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, general caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the general castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among general castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as big peasants and farm workers, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming big [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The Upper middle caste such as Koiri functioned as landlord rulers, while other backward castes worked in the field of Koiri [[landlord]]. Koiri landlords did not allow lower castes, such as Yadavs and Dusadhs, to sit with them.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3u21AAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+yadavas+sit&dq=koeri+yadavas+sit&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij4vrs26qUAxV8TWwGHQUOBI4Q6wF6BAgPEAU#koeri%20yadavas%20sit</nowiki></ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with general caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher belonging to upper middle [[caste]], began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of general caste landlords.

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Ashwani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36|title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84331-709-8|pages=36}}</ref>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]

Koeri

2026-05-09T09:35:53Z

Madeshi: /* Koiri/kushwaha of Nepal */

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = کوئیری
|image = Mata PrasRaja Bodh Ram who obtained Raja title from Asaf-ud-daula who was Koiri by caste.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Raja Bodh Ram, a Koiri by caste, obtained the title of Raja from Asaf-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh (1775–1797), and held an estate in Rai Bareli.
|regions = {{flag|India}}, {{flag|Nepal}}
|region1 = [[Bihar]]
|pop1 = {{estimation}} 3–4% of the population
|langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[Bhojpuri]]|[[Nepali language|Nepali]]}}
|rels = [[File:Om.svg|12px]] [[Hinduism]]
}}
The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]] , [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]] whose traditional occupation was [[agriculture]], notably of [[rice]] and other crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VL_rAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+Landowner&dq=Koeri+Landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7pf28oKqUAxWNWnADHSTENKcQ6wF6BAgKEAU#Koeri%20Landowner</ref> Koiri or Koeri was ancient ruling elite [[caste]] traditionally considered as agriculturalist high landowning [[Caste]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&pg=PA280&dq=Koeri+landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjO8v3Gn6qUAxUmbGwGHWjSB4oQ6wF6BAgQEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeri%20landowner&f=false</nowiki></ref> In [[Bengal]], people of the Koiri [[caste]] often acted as moneylenders and were quite prosperous, frequently hiring labor from backward communities for cultivation of rice and other crops.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki></ref> Koiri are described as a dominant [[Caste]] in various opinions.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=e41uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+dominant&dq=Koeri+dominant&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaxN-np6qUAxXfjq8BHVvoGLI4ChDrAXoECAUQBQ#Koeri%20dominant</nowiki></ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners.{{fact|date=September 2021}} According to britishers , Koiri or Koeri were traditionally agriculturalist rather than horticulturalist as they used to grow [[rice]] and other crops but gardening caste like Dangi who call themselves as Koiri and used to grow vegetables in reality Koiri [[Caste]] have no connection with gardening castes such as Dangi , Kachhi , mali and others.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pjVdJMBeXU8C&pg=PA203&dq=koiri+agriculturalist&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMqKmMraqUAxVUS3ADHdNqCUUQ6wF6BAgOEAU#v=onepage&q=koiri%20agriculturalist&f=false</ref>

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. The koiri/kushwaha have huge population in [[Nepal]] too.They are categorized as high caste and dominant caste in [[Nepal]].

==Koiri/kushwaha of Nepal==
'''Kushwaha/Koiri''' are an high caste community residing in the [[Terai]] region. In Nepal, the population of the Kushwaha community is around 1.22%, numbering more than approximately 355,000 people. This community mainly resides in districts of [[Madhesh Province]], [[Koshi Province]], and [[Lumbini Province]], and is considered an important community in Madheshi society.
<ref>{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

Their traditional ancestral occupations were agriculture and landlordship. However, they are now engaged in various professions, businesses, education, civil service, and the military, and are regarded as an influential, organized, and powerful community compared to other Madheshi castes. Koiri or Koeri considered as prosperous [[caste]] in Magadha and [[terai]] region.

The Kushwaha community belongs to the [[Vaishya]] class among the Madheshi high castes.
<ref>{{cite report |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II: Social Demography |publisher=Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics & UNFPA |location=Kathmandu |year=2014 |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Hofer |first=András |title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |location=Innsbruck |year=1979}}</ref>

However, many also claim [[Kshatriya]] status.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinch |first=William R. |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996}}</ref>

Although their ancestors were traditionally vegetarian, this practice has gradually changed over time. The traditionally common surname in this community is ''Mahato''. Surnames used among the Kushwaha/Koiri community in Nepal include Mahato, Singh, Kushwaha, Mehta, Maurya, Morao, Bhagat, Sinha, and Verma,etc among others in nepal.

Some Kushwaha organizations in Nepal have claimed that the population of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal exceeds one million. If accepted, this figure would account for approximately 3.4% of Nepal’s total population.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha community claims over 10 lakh population in Nepal |url=https://www.enewsbureau.com/news-details/9602/2021-01-20 |website=eNews Bureau |date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Final_Population_compostion_12_2.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic status ===
[[File:Literacy rate of nepali koiri.png|thumb|Caste-wise literacy rate of Nepali Koiris]]

Although the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal has traditionally been associated with agriculture, their relatively high literacy rate has contributed to their strong social and economic position. Particularly in the Terai region, the Kushwaha community has made notable progress in education, professional skills, and leadership. According to recent census data, more than 80% of Kushwahas are literate, which is above Nepal’s national average literacy rate of 77.4%.

The Koiri community is not limited only to agriculture, but also has a significant presence in government service, politics, business, and other professional sectors. Their comparatively high literacy rate and community unity have contributed to their representation in policy-making, administration, and local leadership. Kushwahas are regarded as one of the organized and influential Madheshi communities. Some descriptions portray them as economically and politically strong landowning groups in parts of the Terai region.

Various social and community organizations within the community have played active roles in educational awareness, cultural preservation, social development, and leadership building. These initiatives have contributed to establishing the Kushwaha community as an influential and socially active group within Nepali society.
<ref name="NKKS">{{cite web |title=Nepal Kushwaha Kalyan Samaj |url=https://nkks.org.np/}}</ref>

=== Koiri in Terai region ===
[[File:Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.jpg|thumb|Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.]]

This table, prepared on the basis of data related to Nepal’s 2021 national census, presents the average agricultural land ownership and share of total agricultural land among different caste communities in the Terai region. According to the data, the Kushwaha (Koiri) community remains strongly associated with agriculture and is reported to possess an average of approximately 6.2 bighas of land, which is among the higher figures listed in the table. Likewise, Yadav, Bhumihar, and Tharu communities are also shown to have notable involvement in agriculture and significant agricultural land ownership.

Agriculture is considered the backbone of Nepal’s economy, while the Terai region is regarded as the country’s primary grain-producing area. Such statistics help in understanding the economic and social structure of different agrarian communities in the Terai region. The Koiri community is often described as a strong agriculturist caste in Nepal.

=== Culture ===

[[File:Holi festival celebration in Kathmandu 2025-070A3169.jpg|thumb|Women of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Holi in Nepal]]
[[File:Chhath Puja Ritual from India.jpg|thumb|Nepali Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Chhath Puja in Kathmandu]]

The Kushwaha community predominantly follows [[Hinduism]]. Members of the community particularly worship deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Rama]], and [[Vishnu]]. Major festivals celebrated by the Kushwaha community include [[Chhath]], [[Diwali]], and [[Holi]].
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha Religious Practices |url=https://news.sainicaste.com/2024/03/who-is-kushwaha-caste-god.html |website=Saini Caste News}}</ref>

=== Subgroups (clans) ===
Historically, various subgroups (clans) have been identified within the [[Koiri]] community. Colonial-era caste studies mention the following subgroups within the Koiri community:
<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bengal |last=Risley |first=H. H. |year=1891 |publisher=Government of Bengal}}</ref>

* Barki-Dangi
* Chhotki-Dangi
* Jaruhar
* Kanaujia
* Magahiya
* Tirhutia
* Chirmait
* Kumrh
* Banaphar
* Goita
* Dhar
* Reutia
* Pauria
* Barakar
* Palmohan

=== Architecture ===

An example of architecture associated with the Koiri (Kushwaha) community can be seen in [[Janaki Mandir]] in Janakpur, which is sometimes regarded as an important example of “Koiri-style” architecture. Some local narratives also associate the temple’s construction with members of the Koiri community.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

[[File:Drone image of jankai temple ( jankapur nepal) in koiri style architecture.png|thumb|Drone image of Janaki Mandir, Janakpur, in Koiri-style architecture]]

This style of architecture reflects a blend of Hindu, Mughal, and regional Mithila artistic influences. Janaki Mandir is a three-storey structure primarily constructed using stone and white marble.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

The temple structure includes domes, lattice-carved windows, coloured glass, pillars, and decorations inspired by Mithila paintings. The temple complex is said to contain around 60 rooms, contributing to its distinctive and attractive architectural character.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

This architectural style is considered reflective of the cultural influence and religious traditions of the Madhesh and Mithila regions.

=== Dominanace ===

Historically, different caste and ethnic groups in Nepal have had varying levels of representation in government administration, agriculture, trade, civil service, judiciary, and military institutions.

During the rule of the [[Shah dynasty]] (1768–2008), hill high-caste groups such as [[Bahun]] and [[Kshatriya|Chhetri]] held significant dominance in the civil service, judiciary, and senior military positions.

According to some studies conducted in the Terai region using data from before 2015, certain Madheshi caste groups were represented in the civil service at rates higher than their share of the national population. For example, the representation of the [[Kushwaha]] ([[Koiri]]) community in Nepal’s civil service was reported to be approximately 3.2 times higher than their population share, placing them fourth in terms of representation. Similarly, the [[Rajput]] community was reported to have representation approximately 5.6 times higher than its population share, while [[Maithil Brahmin]] representation was around 4.2 times higher.
<ref name="Hatlebakk07">{{cite web |last=Hatlebakk |first=Magnus |year=2007 |title=Economic and social structures that may explain the recent conflicts in the Terai of Nepal |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Norwegian Embassy |url=http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190445/http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community is one of the largest Madheshi caste groups in Nepal. Due to their substantial population in some districts, their political representation has increased significantly in recent decades. One prominent figure from this community is [[Ram Baran Yadav]], who served as the first President of Nepal from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.
<ref name="OCHA1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/B66F206172F49BE4C12572D50030C3F0/$file/OCHA+overview+no+12+April+07.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=12 |date=April 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

In Nepal, [[Nepali language]] is the national language, while [[Maithili language]] is one of the most widely spoken languages in the country. The traditional caste system in Hindu society was legally abolished by the ''New Muluki Ain'' implemented in 1963.
<ref name="OCHA2">{{cite journal |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2E89F2121C2C57A24925733F000F4F21-Full_report.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=16 |date=July–August 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

[[File:Average Height of Nepalese Men and Women in every Province.png|thumb|Average height of Nepali men and women in different provinces]]

=== Population ===

Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics classifies the Kushwaha caste as a subgroup within the broader upper Madheshi caste communities. The community is primarily concentrated in the [[Terai]] region of Nepal, where agriculture has traditionally been the main occupation.

According to the [[2021 Nepal census]] published by the [[National Statistics Office (Nepal)]], the population of the Kushwaha community in Nepal was 355,707, representing approximately 1.22% of the country’s total population.
<ref name="Census2021">{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=National Statistics Office, Nepal |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

The provincial distribution of the Kushwaha population is as follows:
<ref name="Census2021"/>

* [[Madhesh Province]] – 4.56%
* [[Lumbini Province]] – 2%
* [[Koshi Province]] – 1%
* [[Bagmati Province]] – 0.5%
* [[Gandaki Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Karnali Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] – 0.7%

The following districts have Kushwaha populations above the national average (approximately 1.3%):
<ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal |access-date=2025-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>

* [[Sarlahi]] – 7.9%
* [[Rautahat]] – 3.5%
* [[Bara District|Bara]] – 4.5%
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] – 3.9%
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] – 5.1%
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] – 6.0%
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] – 1.0%
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] – 5.8%
* [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] – 4.1%
* [[Morang District|Morang]] – 1.0%
* [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] – 0.5%
* [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]] – 1.0%
* [[Banke District|Banke]] – 0.5%
* [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]] – 0.2%
* [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] – 0.1%
* [[Chitwan District|Chitwan]] – <0.1%
* [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi]] – <0.1%
* [[Kathmandu]] – 0.1%

==History & Philosophy ==

=== Koiri connections with Sakya And Koliya Clans ===
The Koiri or (Koeri/Kushwaha) [[Caste]] of magadh region is associated in several historical and community traditions with the ancient Shakya and Koliya clans of the Himalayan foothills. The ancient Shakya republic was located in present-day southern Nepal, with important sites such as Lumbini, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The [[Shakya]] capital Kapilavastu is commonly linked with Tilaurakot. The Koliya republic existed in the same region and maintained close political and matrimonial relations with the Shakya during the 6th century BCE. Many historians, [[caste]] studies, and community traditions connect present-day Koiri/kushwaha communities with these ancient republican clans like Sakya , Moriya and koliya due to historical, regional and inscriptional connections. Koiri or Koeri [[caste]] was ruling elite [[Tribe|caste]] during ancient period who established maurya dynasty along with sakya kingdom in [[nepal]] and [[india]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WisVAQAAIAAJ&q=Koeri+koliya&dq=Koeri+koliya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisx6uWtquUAxVcJxAIHfBXGfoQ6wF6BAgIEAU#Koeri%20koliya</nowiki></ref>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|The Mahajanapadas in the post-Vedic period. Koliya was to east of Sakya]]

=== Koiri caste link with kutumbin term and Rashtrakuta Empire ===
The Koiri (or Koeri) are a significant agricultural community in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, recognised as a landowning Upper middle [[caste]] with a strong agricultural base, particularly in cultivating crops like [[Rice]]. Epigraphic records suggest that Kutumbins were agriculturist house-holders. From the term kutumbin has been derived cultivating caste name such as the Koeri or Koiri of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term "Rashtrakuta" being used to refer to the heads of kutumbins/cultivators from which koiri or koeri caste derived.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA30&dq=Koeries+kutumbin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjghcjpvquUAxXMExAIHawtJCAQ6wF6BAgMEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeries%20kutumbin&f=false</nowiki></ref>

Koiri or Koeri community claims ancestry from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian opium trade, which had its main base in Bihar as the Koeris were involved in opium production through hired labour from lower castes like Dusadh , Yadava , and others. Based on available reports and studies , the Kushwaha (Koeri) community is ranked among the highest-earning social groups in Bihar, often placed below general castes in per capita income but higher than many other OBC groups like Kurmi and Yadav. Koiri or Koeri considered as most dominant [[caste]] of OBC in [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] due to large land holdings along with prosperity.<ref><nowiki>https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/bjp-ministers-finalised-for-samrat-choudhary-cabinet-in-bihar-mangal-pandey-narayan-prasad-surendra-mehta-list-10311152</nowiki></ref>

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, general caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the general castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among general castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as big peasants and farm workers, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming big [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The Upper middle caste such as Koiri functioned as landlord rulers, while other backward castes worked in the field of Koiri [[landlord]]. Koiri landlords did not allow lower castes, such as Yadavs and Dusadhs, to sit with them.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3u21AAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+yadavas+sit&dq=koeri+yadavas+sit&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij4vrs26qUAxV8TWwGHQUOBI4Q6wF6BAgPEAU#koeri%20yadavas%20sit</nowiki></ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with general caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher belonging to upper middle [[caste]], began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of general caste landlords.

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Ashwani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36|title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84331-709-8|pages=36}}</ref>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]

Koeri

2026-05-09T09:34:43Z

Madeshi:

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = کوئیری
|image = Mata PrasRaja Bodh Ram who obtained Raja title from Asaf-ud-daula who was Koiri by caste.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Raja Bodh Ram, a Koiri by caste, obtained the title of Raja from Asaf-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh (1775–1797), and held an estate in Rai Bareli.
|regions = {{flag|India}}, {{flag|Nepal}}
|region1 = [[Bihar]]
|pop1 = {{estimation}} 3–4% of the population
|langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[Bhojpuri]]|[[Nepali language|Nepali]]}}
|rels = [[File:Om.svg|12px]] [[Hinduism]]
}}
The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]] , [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]] whose traditional occupation was [[agriculture]], notably of [[rice]] and other crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VL_rAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+Landowner&dq=Koeri+Landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7pf28oKqUAxWNWnADHSTENKcQ6wF6BAgKEAU#Koeri%20Landowner</ref> Koiri or Koeri was ancient ruling elite [[caste]] traditionally considered as agriculturalist high landowning [[Caste]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&pg=PA280&dq=Koeri+landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjO8v3Gn6qUAxUmbGwGHWjSB4oQ6wF6BAgQEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeri%20landowner&f=false</nowiki></ref> In [[Bengal]], people of the Koiri [[caste]] often acted as moneylenders and were quite prosperous, frequently hiring labor from backward communities for cultivation of rice and other crops.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki></ref> Koiri are described as a dominant [[Caste]] in various opinions.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=e41uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+dominant&dq=Koeri+dominant&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaxN-np6qUAxXfjq8BHVvoGLI4ChDrAXoECAUQBQ#Koeri%20dominant</nowiki></ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners.{{fact|date=September 2021}} According to britishers , Koiri or Koeri were traditionally agriculturalist rather than horticulturalist as they used to grow [[rice]] and other crops but gardening caste like Dangi who call themselves as Koiri and used to grow vegetables in reality Koiri [[Caste]] have no connection with gardening castes such as Dangi , Kachhi , mali and others.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pjVdJMBeXU8C&pg=PA203&dq=koiri+agriculturalist&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMqKmMraqUAxVUS3ADHdNqCUUQ6wF6BAgOEAU#v=onepage&q=koiri%20agriculturalist&f=false</ref>

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. The koiri/kushwaha have huge population in [[Nepal]] too.They are categorized as high caste and dominant caste in [[Nepal]].

==Koiri of Nepal==
'''Kushwaha/Koiri''' are an high caste community residing in the [[Terai]] region. In Nepal, the population of the Kushwaha community is around 1.22%, numbering more than approximately 355,000 people. This community mainly resides in districts of [[Madhesh Province]], [[Koshi Province]], and [[Lumbini Province]], and is considered an important community in Madheshi society.
<ref>{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

Their traditional ancestral occupations were agriculture and landlordship. However, they are now engaged in various professions, businesses, education, civil service, and the military, and are regarded as an influential, organized, and powerful community compared to other Madheshi castes. Koiri or Koeri considered as prosperous [[caste]] in Magadha and [[terai]] region.

The Kushwaha community belongs to the [[Vaishya]] class among the Madheshi high castes.
<ref>{{cite report |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II: Social Demography |publisher=Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics & UNFPA |location=Kathmandu |year=2014 |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Hofer |first=András |title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |location=Innsbruck |year=1979}}</ref>

However, many also claim [[Kshatriya]] status.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinch |first=William R. |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996}}</ref>

Although their ancestors were traditionally vegetarian, this practice has gradually changed over time. The traditionally common surname in this community is ''Mahato''. Surnames used among the Kushwaha/Koiri community in Nepal include Mahato, Singh, Kushwaha, Mehta, Maurya, Morao, Bhagat, Sinha, and Verma,etc among others in nepal.

Some Kushwaha organizations in Nepal have claimed that the population of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal exceeds one million. If accepted, this figure would account for approximately 3.4% of Nepal’s total population.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha community claims over 10 lakh population in Nepal |url=https://www.enewsbureau.com/news-details/9602/2021-01-20 |website=eNews Bureau |date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Final_Population_compostion_12_2.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic status ===
[[File:Literacy rate of nepali koiri.png|thumb|Caste-wise literacy rate of Nepali Koiris]]

Although the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal has traditionally been associated with agriculture, their relatively high literacy rate has contributed to their strong social and economic position. Particularly in the Terai region, the Kushwaha community has made notable progress in education, professional skills, and leadership. According to recent census data, more than 80% of Kushwahas are literate, which is above Nepal’s national average literacy rate of 77.4%.

The Koiri community is not limited only to agriculture, but also has a significant presence in government service, politics, business, and other professional sectors. Their comparatively high literacy rate and community unity have contributed to their representation in policy-making, administration, and local leadership. Kushwahas are regarded as one of the organized and influential Madheshi communities. Some descriptions portray them as economically and politically strong landowning groups in parts of the Terai region.

Various social and community organizations within the community have played active roles in educational awareness, cultural preservation, social development, and leadership building. These initiatives have contributed to establishing the Kushwaha community as an influential and socially active group within Nepali society.
<ref name="NKKS">{{cite web |title=Nepal Kushwaha Kalyan Samaj |url=https://nkks.org.np/}}</ref>

=== Koiri in Terai region ===
[[File:Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.jpg|thumb|Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.]]

This table, prepared on the basis of data related to Nepal’s 2021 national census, presents the average agricultural land ownership and share of total agricultural land among different caste communities in the Terai region. According to the data, the Kushwaha (Koiri) community remains strongly associated with agriculture and is reported to possess an average of approximately 6.2 bighas of land, which is among the higher figures listed in the table. Likewise, Yadav, Bhumihar, and Tharu communities are also shown to have notable involvement in agriculture and significant agricultural land ownership.

Agriculture is considered the backbone of Nepal’s economy, while the Terai region is regarded as the country’s primary grain-producing area. Such statistics help in understanding the economic and social structure of different agrarian communities in the Terai region. The Koiri community is often described as a strong agriculturist caste in Nepal.

=== Culture ===

[[File:Holi festival celebration in Kathmandu 2025-070A3169.jpg|thumb|Women of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Holi in Nepal]]
[[File:Chhath Puja Ritual from India.jpg|thumb|Nepali Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Chhath Puja in Kathmandu]]

The Kushwaha community predominantly follows [[Hinduism]]. Members of the community particularly worship deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Rama]], and [[Vishnu]]. Major festivals celebrated by the Kushwaha community include [[Chhath]], [[Diwali]], and [[Holi]].
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha Religious Practices |url=https://news.sainicaste.com/2024/03/who-is-kushwaha-caste-god.html |website=Saini Caste News}}</ref>

=== Subgroups (clans) ===
Historically, various subgroups (clans) have been identified within the [[Koiri]] community. Colonial-era caste studies mention the following subgroups within the Koiri community:
<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bengal |last=Risley |first=H. H. |year=1891 |publisher=Government of Bengal}}</ref>

* Barki-Dangi
* Chhotki-Dangi
* Jaruhar
* Kanaujia
* Magahiya
* Tirhutia
* Chirmait
* Kumrh
* Banaphar
* Goita
* Dhar
* Reutia
* Pauria
* Barakar
* Palmohan

=== Architecture ===

An example of architecture associated with the Koiri (Kushwaha) community can be seen in [[Janaki Mandir]] in Janakpur, which is sometimes regarded as an important example of “Koiri-style” architecture. Some local narratives also associate the temple’s construction with members of the Koiri community.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

[[File:Drone image of jankai temple ( jankapur nepal) in koiri style architecture.png|thumb|Drone image of Janaki Mandir, Janakpur, in Koiri-style architecture]]

This style of architecture reflects a blend of Hindu, Mughal, and regional Mithila artistic influences. Janaki Mandir is a three-storey structure primarily constructed using stone and white marble.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

The temple structure includes domes, lattice-carved windows, coloured glass, pillars, and decorations inspired by Mithila paintings. The temple complex is said to contain around 60 rooms, contributing to its distinctive and attractive architectural character.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

This architectural style is considered reflective of the cultural influence and religious traditions of the Madhesh and Mithila regions.

=== Dominanace ===

Historically, different caste and ethnic groups in Nepal have had varying levels of representation in government administration, agriculture, trade, civil service, judiciary, and military institutions.

During the rule of the [[Shah dynasty]] (1768–2008), hill high-caste groups such as [[Bahun]] and [[Kshatriya|Chhetri]] held significant dominance in the civil service, judiciary, and senior military positions.

According to some studies conducted in the Terai region using data from before 2015, certain Madheshi caste groups were represented in the civil service at rates higher than their share of the national population. For example, the representation of the [[Kushwaha]] ([[Koiri]]) community in Nepal’s civil service was reported to be approximately 3.2 times higher than their population share, placing them fourth in terms of representation. Similarly, the [[Rajput]] community was reported to have representation approximately 5.6 times higher than its population share, while [[Maithil Brahmin]] representation was around 4.2 times higher.
<ref name="Hatlebakk07">{{cite web |last=Hatlebakk |first=Magnus |year=2007 |title=Economic and social structures that may explain the recent conflicts in the Terai of Nepal |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Norwegian Embassy |url=http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190445/http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community is one of the largest Madheshi caste groups in Nepal. Due to their substantial population in some districts, their political representation has increased significantly in recent decades. One prominent figure from this community is [[Ram Baran Yadav]], who served as the first President of Nepal from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.
<ref name="OCHA1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/B66F206172F49BE4C12572D50030C3F0/$file/OCHA+overview+no+12+April+07.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=12 |date=April 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

In Nepal, [[Nepali language]] is the national language, while [[Maithili language]] is one of the most widely spoken languages in the country. The traditional caste system in Hindu society was legally abolished by the ''New Muluki Ain'' implemented in 1963.
<ref name="OCHA2">{{cite journal |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2E89F2121C2C57A24925733F000F4F21-Full_report.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=16 |date=July–August 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

[[File:Average Height of Nepalese Men and Women in every Province.png|thumb|Average height of Nepali men and women in different provinces]]

=== Population ===

Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics classifies the Kushwaha caste as a subgroup within the broader upper Madheshi caste communities. The community is primarily concentrated in the [[Terai]] region of Nepal, where agriculture has traditionally been the main occupation.

According to the [[2021 Nepal census]] published by the [[National Statistics Office (Nepal)]], the population of the Kushwaha community in Nepal was 355,707, representing approximately 1.22% of the country’s total population.
<ref name="Census2021">{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=National Statistics Office, Nepal |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

The provincial distribution of the Kushwaha population is as follows:
<ref name="Census2021"/>

* [[Madhesh Province]] – 4.56%
* [[Lumbini Province]] – 2%
* [[Koshi Province]] – 1%
* [[Bagmati Province]] – 0.5%
* [[Gandaki Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Karnali Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] – 0.7%

The following districts have Kushwaha populations above the national average (approximately 1.3%):
<ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal |access-date=2025-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>

* [[Sarlahi]] – 7.9%
* [[Rautahat]] – 3.5%
* [[Bara District|Bara]] – 4.5%
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] – 3.9%
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] – 5.1%
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] – 6.0%
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] – 1.0%
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] – 5.8%
* [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] – 4.1%
* [[Morang District|Morang]] – 1.0%
* [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] – 0.5%
* [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]] – 1.0%
* [[Banke District|Banke]] – 0.5%
* [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]] – 0.2%
* [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] – 0.1%
* [[Chitwan District|Chitwan]] – <0.1%
* [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi]] – <0.1%
* [[Kathmandu]] – 0.1%

==History & Philosophy ==

=== Koiri connections with Sakya And Koliya Clans ===
The Koiri or (Koeri/Kushwaha) [[Caste]] of magadh region is associated in several historical and community traditions with the ancient Shakya and Koliya clans of the Himalayan foothills. The ancient Shakya republic was located in present-day southern Nepal, with important sites such as Lumbini, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The [[Shakya]] capital Kapilavastu is commonly linked with Tilaurakot. The Koliya republic existed in the same region and maintained close political and matrimonial relations with the Shakya during the 6th century BCE. Many historians, [[caste]] studies, and community traditions connect present-day Koiri/kushwaha communities with these ancient republican clans like Sakya , Moriya and koliya due to historical, regional and inscriptional connections. Koiri or Koeri [[caste]] was ruling elite [[Tribe|caste]] during ancient period who established maurya dynasty along with sakya kingdom in [[nepal]] and [[india]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WisVAQAAIAAJ&q=Koeri+koliya&dq=Koeri+koliya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisx6uWtquUAxVcJxAIHfBXGfoQ6wF6BAgIEAU#Koeri%20koliya</nowiki></ref>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|The Mahajanapadas in the post-Vedic period. Koliya was to east of Sakya]]

=== Koiri caste link with kutumbin term and Rashtrakuta Empire ===
The Koiri (or Koeri) are a significant agricultural community in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, recognised as a landowning Upper middle [[caste]] with a strong agricultural base, particularly in cultivating crops like [[Rice]]. Epigraphic records suggest that Kutumbins were agriculturist house-holders. From the term kutumbin has been derived cultivating caste name such as the Koeri or Koiri of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term "Rashtrakuta" being used to refer to the heads of kutumbins/cultivators from which koiri or koeri caste derived.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA30&dq=Koeries+kutumbin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjghcjpvquUAxXMExAIHawtJCAQ6wF6BAgMEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeries%20kutumbin&f=false</nowiki></ref>

Koiri or Koeri community claims ancestry from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian opium trade, which had its main base in Bihar as the Koeris were involved in opium production through hired labour from lower castes like Dusadh , Yadava , and others. Based on available reports and studies , the Kushwaha (Koeri) community is ranked among the highest-earning social groups in Bihar, often placed below general castes in per capita income but higher than many other OBC groups like Kurmi and Yadav. Koiri or Koeri considered as most dominant [[caste]] of OBC in [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] due to large land holdings along with prosperity.<ref><nowiki>https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/bjp-ministers-finalised-for-samrat-choudhary-cabinet-in-bihar-mangal-pandey-narayan-prasad-surendra-mehta-list-10311152</nowiki></ref>

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, general caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the general castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among general castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as big peasants and farm workers, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming big [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The Upper middle caste such as Koiri functioned as landlord rulers, while other backward castes worked in the field of Koiri [[landlord]]. Koiri landlords did not allow lower castes, such as Yadavs and Dusadhs, to sit with them.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3u21AAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+yadavas+sit&dq=koeri+yadavas+sit&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij4vrs26qUAxV8TWwGHQUOBI4Q6wF6BAgPEAU#koeri%20yadavas%20sit</nowiki></ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with general caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher belonging to upper middle [[caste]], began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of general caste landlords.

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Ashwani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36|title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84331-709-8|pages=36}}</ref>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]

Koeri

2026-05-09T09:33:13Z

Madeshi: /* Koiri in Terai region */Fixed

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = کوئیری
|image = Mata PrasRaja Bodh Ram who obtained Raja title from Asaf-ud-daula who was Koiri by caste.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Raja Bodh Ram, a Koiri by caste, obtained the title of Raja from Asaf-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh (1775–1797), and held an estate in Rai Bareli.
|regions = {{flag|India}}, {{flag|Nepal}}
|region1 = [[Bihar]]
|pop1 = {{estimation}} 3–4% of the population
|langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[Bhojpuri]]|[[Nepali language|Nepali]]}}
|rels = [[File:Om.svg|12px]] [[Hinduism]]
}}
The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]] , [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]] whose traditional occupation was [[agriculture]], notably of [[rice]] and other crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VL_rAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+Landowner&dq=Koeri+Landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7pf28oKqUAxWNWnADHSTENKcQ6wF6BAgKEAU#Koeri%20Landowner</ref> Koiri or Koeri was ancient ruling elite [[caste]] traditionally considered as agriculturalist high landowning [[Caste]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&pg=PA280&dq=Koeri+landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjO8v3Gn6qUAxUmbGwGHWjSB4oQ6wF6BAgQEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeri%20landowner&f=false</nowiki></ref> In [[Bengal]], people of the Koiri [[caste]] often acted as moneylenders and were quite prosperous, frequently hiring labor from backward communities for cultivation of rice and other crops.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki></ref> Koiri are described as a dominant [[Caste]] in various opinions.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=e41uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+dominant&dq=Koeri+dominant&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaxN-np6qUAxXfjq8BHVvoGLI4ChDrAXoECAUQBQ#Koeri%20dominant</nowiki></ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners.{{fact|date=September 2021}} According to britishers , Koiri or Koeri were traditionally agriculturalist rather than horticulturalist as they used to grow [[rice]] and other crops but gardening caste like [[Dangi]] who call themselves as Koiri and used to grow vegetables in reality Koiri [[Caste]] have no connection with gardening castes such as Dangi , Kachhi , mali and others.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pjVdJMBeXU8C&pg=PA203&dq=koiri+agriculturalist&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMqKmMraqUAxVUS3ADHdNqCUUQ6wF6BAgOEAU#v=onepage&q=koiri%20agriculturalist&f=false</ref>

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. The koiri/kushwaha have huge population in [[Nepal]] too.They are categorized as high caste and dominant caste in [[Nepal]].

==Koiri of Nepal==
'''Kushwaha/Koiri''' are an high caste community residing in the [[Terai]] region. In Nepal, the population of the Kushwaha community is around 1.22%, numbering more than approximately 355,000 people. This community mainly resides in districts of [[Madhesh Province]], [[Koshi Province]], and [[Lumbini Province]], and is considered an important community in Madheshi society.
<ref>{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

Their traditional ancestral occupations were agriculture and landlordship. However, they are now engaged in various professions, businesses, education, civil service, and the military, and are regarded as an influential, organized, and powerful community compared to other Madheshi castes. Koiri or Koeri considered as prosperous [[caste]] in Magadha and [[terai]] region.

The Kushwaha community belongs to the [[Vaishya]] class among the Madheshi high castes.
<ref>{{cite report |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II: Social Demography |publisher=Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics & UNFPA |location=Kathmandu |year=2014 |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Hofer |first=András |title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |location=Innsbruck |year=1979}}</ref>

However, many also claim [[Kshatriya]] status.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinch |first=William R. |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996}}</ref>

Although their ancestors were traditionally vegetarian, this practice has gradually changed over time. The traditionally common surname in this community is ''Mahato''. Surnames used among the Kushwaha/Koiri community in Nepal include Mahato, Singh, Kushwaha, Mehta, Maurya, Morao, Bhagat, Sinha, and Verma,etc among others in nepal.

Some Kushwaha organizations in Nepal have claimed that the population of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal exceeds one million. If accepted, this figure would account for approximately 3.4% of Nepal’s total population.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha community claims over 10 lakh population in Nepal |url=https://www.enewsbureau.com/news-details/9602/2021-01-20 |website=eNews Bureau |date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Final_Population_compostion_12_2.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic status ===
[[File:Literacy rate of nepali koiri.png|thumb|Caste-wise literacy rate of Nepali Koiris]]

Although the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal has traditionally been associated with agriculture, their relatively high literacy rate has contributed to their strong social and economic position. Particularly in the Terai region, the Kushwaha community has made notable progress in education, professional skills, and leadership. According to recent census data, more than 80% of Kushwahas are literate, which is above Nepal’s national average literacy rate of 77.4%.

The Koiri community is not limited only to agriculture, but also has a significant presence in government service, politics, business, and other professional sectors. Their comparatively high literacy rate and community unity have contributed to their representation in policy-making, administration, and local leadership. Kushwahas are regarded as one of the organized and influential Madheshi communities. Some descriptions portray them as economically and politically strong landowning groups in parts of the Terai region.

Various social and community organizations within the community have played active roles in educational awareness, cultural preservation, social development, and leadership building. These initiatives have contributed to establishing the Kushwaha community as an influential and socially active group within Nepali society.
<ref name="NKKS">{{cite web |title=Nepal Kushwaha Kalyan Samaj |url=https://nkks.org.np/}}</ref>

=== Koiri in Terai region ===
[[File:Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.jpg|thumb|Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.]]

This table, prepared on the basis of data related to Nepal’s 2021 national census, presents the average agricultural land ownership and share of total agricultural land among different caste communities in the Terai region. According to the data, the Kushwaha (Koiri) community remains strongly associated with agriculture and is reported to possess an average of approximately 6.2 bighas of land, which is among the higher figures listed in the table. Likewise, Yadav, Bhumihar, and Tharu communities are also shown to have notable involvement in agriculture and significant agricultural land ownership.

Agriculture is considered the backbone of Nepal’s economy, while the Terai region is regarded as the country’s primary grain-producing area. Such statistics help in understanding the economic and social structure of different agrarian communities in the Terai region. The Koiri community is often described as a strong agriculturist caste in Nepal.

=== Culture ===

[[File:Holi festival celebration in Kathmandu 2025-070A3169.jpg|thumb|Women of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Holi in Nepal]]
[[File:Chhath Puja Ritual from India.jpg|thumb|Nepali Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Chhath Puja in Kathmandu]]

The Kushwaha community predominantly follows [[Hinduism]]. Members of the community particularly worship deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Rama]], and [[Vishnu]]. Major festivals celebrated by the Kushwaha community include [[Chhath]], [[Diwali]], and [[Holi]].
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha Religious Practices |url=https://news.sainicaste.com/2024/03/who-is-kushwaha-caste-god.html |website=Saini Caste News}}</ref>

=== Subgroups (clans) ===
Historically, various subgroups (clans) have been identified within the [[Koiri]] community. Colonial-era caste studies mention the following subgroups within the Koiri community:
<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bengal |last=Risley |first=H. H. |year=1891 |publisher=Government of Bengal}}</ref>

* Barki-Dangi
* Chhotki-Dangi
* Jaruhar
* Kanaujia
* Magahiya
* Tirhutia
* Chirmait
* Kumrh
* Banaphar
* Goita
* Dhar
* Reutia
* Pauria
* Barakar
* Palmohan

=== Architecture ===

An example of architecture associated with the Koiri (Kushwaha) community can be seen in [[Janaki Mandir]] in Janakpur, which is sometimes regarded as an important example of “Koiri-style” architecture. Some local narratives also associate the temple’s construction with members of the Koiri community.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

[[File:Drone image of jankai temple ( jankapur nepal) in koiri style architecture.png|thumb|Drone image of Janaki Mandir, Janakpur, in Koiri-style architecture]]

This style of architecture reflects a blend of Hindu, Mughal, and regional Mithila artistic influences. Janaki Mandir is a three-storey structure primarily constructed using stone and white marble.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

The temple structure includes domes, lattice-carved windows, coloured glass, pillars, and decorations inspired by Mithila paintings. The temple complex is said to contain around 60 rooms, contributing to its distinctive and attractive architectural character.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

This architectural style is considered reflective of the cultural influence and religious traditions of the Madhesh and Mithila regions.

=== Dominanace ===

Historically, different caste and ethnic groups in Nepal have had varying levels of representation in government administration, agriculture, trade, civil service, judiciary, and military institutions.

During the rule of the [[Shah dynasty]] (1768–2008), hill high-caste groups such as [[Bahun]] and [[Kshatriya|Chhetri]] held significant dominance in the civil service, judiciary, and senior military positions.

According to some studies conducted in the Terai region using data from before 2015, certain Madheshi caste groups were represented in the civil service at rates higher than their share of the national population. For example, the representation of the [[Kushwaha]] ([[Koiri]]) community in Nepal’s civil service was reported to be approximately 3.2 times higher than their population share, placing them fourth in terms of representation. Similarly, the [[Rajput]] community was reported to have representation approximately 5.6 times higher than its population share, while [[Maithil Brahmin]] representation was around 4.2 times higher.
<ref name="Hatlebakk07">{{cite web |last=Hatlebakk |first=Magnus |year=2007 |title=Economic and social structures that may explain the recent conflicts in the Terai of Nepal |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Norwegian Embassy |url=http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190445/http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community is one of the largest Madheshi caste groups in Nepal. Due to their substantial population in some districts, their political representation has increased significantly in recent decades. One prominent figure from this community is [[Ram Baran Yadav]], who served as the first President of Nepal from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.
<ref name="OCHA1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/B66F206172F49BE4C12572D50030C3F0/$file/OCHA+overview+no+12+April+07.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=12 |date=April 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

In Nepal, [[Nepali language]] is the national language, while [[Maithili language]] is one of the most widely spoken languages in the country. The traditional caste system in Hindu society was legally abolished by the ''New Muluki Ain'' implemented in 1963.
<ref name="OCHA2">{{cite journal |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2E89F2121C2C57A24925733F000F4F21-Full_report.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=16 |date=July–August 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

[[File:Average Height of Nepalese Men and Women in every Province.png|thumb|Average height of Nepali men and women in different provinces]]

=== Population ===

Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics classifies the Kushwaha caste as a subgroup within the broader upper Madheshi caste communities. The community is primarily concentrated in the [[Terai]] region of Nepal, where agriculture has traditionally been the main occupation.

According to the [[2021 Nepal census]] published by the [[National Statistics Office (Nepal)]], the population of the Kushwaha community in Nepal was 355,707, representing approximately 1.22% of the country’s total population.
<ref name="Census2021">{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=National Statistics Office, Nepal |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

The provincial distribution of the Kushwaha population is as follows:
<ref name="Census2021"/>

* [[Madhesh Province]] – 4.56%
* [[Lumbini Province]] – 2%
* [[Koshi Province]] – 1%
* [[Bagmati Province]] – 0.5%
* [[Gandaki Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Karnali Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] – 0.7%

The following districts have Kushwaha populations above the national average (approximately 1.3%):
<ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal |access-date=2025-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>

* [[Sarlahi]] – 7.9%
* [[Rautahat]] – 3.5%
* [[Bara District|Bara]] – 4.5%
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] – 3.9%
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] – 5.1%
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] – 6.0%
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] – 1.0%
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] – 5.8%
* [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] – 4.1%
* [[Morang District|Morang]] – 1.0%
* [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] – 0.5%
* [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]] – 1.0%
* [[Banke District|Banke]] – 0.5%
* [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]] – 0.2%
* [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] – 0.1%
* [[Chitwan District|Chitwan]] – <0.1%
* [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi]] – <0.1%
* [[Kathmandu]] – 0.1%

==History & Philosophy ==

=== Koiri connections with Sakya And Koliya Clans ===
The Koiri or (Koeri/Kushwaha) [[Caste]] of magadh region is associated in several historical and community traditions with the ancient Shakya and Koliya clans of the Himalayan foothills. The ancient Shakya republic was located in present-day southern Nepal, with important sites such as Lumbini, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The [[Shakya]] capital Kapilavastu is commonly linked with Tilaurakot. The Koliya republic existed in the same region and maintained close political and matrimonial relations with the Shakya during the 6th century BCE. Many historians, [[caste]] studies, and community traditions connect present-day Koiri/kushwaha communities with these ancient republican clans like Sakya , Moriya and koliya due to historical, regional and inscriptional connections. Koiri or Koeri [[caste]] was ruling elite [[Tribe|caste]] during ancient period who established maurya dynasty along with sakya kingdom in [[nepal]] and [[india]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WisVAQAAIAAJ&q=Koeri+koliya&dq=Koeri+koliya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisx6uWtquUAxVcJxAIHfBXGfoQ6wF6BAgIEAU#Koeri%20koliya</nowiki></ref>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|The Mahajanapadas in the post-Vedic period. Koliya was to east of Sakya]]

=== Koiri caste link with kutumbin term and Rashtrakuta Empire ===
The Koiri (or Koeri) are a significant agricultural community in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, recognised as a landowning Upper middle [[caste]] with a strong agricultural base, particularly in cultivating crops like [[Rice]]. Epigraphic records suggest that Kutumbins were agriculturist house-holders. From the term kutumbin has been derived cultivating caste name such as the Koeri or Koiri of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term "Rashtrakuta" being used to refer to the heads of kutumbins/cultivators from which koiri or koeri caste derived.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA30&dq=Koeries+kutumbin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjghcjpvquUAxXMExAIHawtJCAQ6wF6BAgMEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeries%20kutumbin&f=false</nowiki></ref>

Koiri or Koeri community claims ancestry from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian opium trade, which had its main base in Bihar as the Koeris were involved in opium production through hired labour from lower castes like Dusadh , Yadava , and others. Based on available reports and studies , the Kushwaha (Koeri) community is ranked among the highest-earning social groups in Bihar, often placed below general castes in per capita income but higher than many other OBC groups like Kurmi and Yadav. Koiri or Koeri considered as most dominant [[caste]] of OBC in [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] due to large land holdings along with prosperity.<ref><nowiki>https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/bjp-ministers-finalised-for-samrat-choudhary-cabinet-in-bihar-mangal-pandey-narayan-prasad-surendra-mehta-list-10311152</nowiki></ref>

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, general caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the general castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among general castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as big peasants and farm workers, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming big [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The Upper middle caste such as Koiri functioned as landlord rulers, while other backward castes worked in the field of Koiri [[landlord]]. Koiri landlords did not allow lower castes, such as Yadavs and Dusadhs, to sit with them.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3u21AAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+yadavas+sit&dq=koeri+yadavas+sit&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij4vrs26qUAxV8TWwGHQUOBI4Q6wF6BAgPEAU#koeri%20yadavas%20sit</nowiki></ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with general caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher belonging to upper middle [[caste]], began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of general caste landlords.

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Ashwani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36|title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84331-709-8|pages=36}}</ref>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]

Koeri

2026-05-09T09:31:29Z

Madeshi: Added

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = کوئیری
|image = Mata PrasRaja Bodh Ram who obtained Raja title from Asaf-ud-daula who was Koiri by caste.jpg
|image_size = 250px
|caption = Raja Bodh Ram, a Koiri by caste, obtained the title of Raja from Asaf-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh (1775–1797), and held an estate in Rai Bareli.
|regions = {{flag|India}}, {{flag|Nepal}}
|region1 = [[Bihar]]
|pop1 = {{estimation}} 3–4% of the population
|langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[Bhojpuri]]|[[Nepali language|Nepali]]}}
|rels = [[File:Om.svg|12px]] [[Hinduism]]
}}
The '''Koeri''' (also known as '''Koiry''' or '''Koiri''') are an landowning upper middle [[caste]], found largely in [[Bihar]] , [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]] whose traditional occupation was [[agriculture]], notably of [[rice]] and other crops. A colonial report noted them as landowners.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=VL_rAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+Landowner&dq=Koeri+Landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7pf28oKqUAxWNWnADHSTENKcQ6wF6BAgKEAU#Koeri%20Landowner</ref> Koiri or Koeri was ancient ruling elite [[caste]] traditionally considered as agriculturalist high landowning [[Caste]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&pg=PA280&dq=Koeri+landowner&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjO8v3Gn6qUAxUmbGwGHWjSB4oQ6wF6BAgQEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeri%20landowner&f=false</nowiki></ref> In [[Bengal]], people of the Koiri [[caste]] often acted as moneylenders and were quite prosperous, frequently hiring labor from backward communities for cultivation of rice and other crops.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=2b_j0mNe2FwC&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki></ref> Koiri are described as a dominant [[Caste]] in various opinions.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=e41uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koeri+dominant&dq=Koeri+dominant&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaxN-np6qUAxXfjq8BHVvoGLI4ChDrAXoECAUQBQ#Koeri%20dominant</nowiki></ref>

Koeris benefitted greatly from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, Muslim landlords resorted to selling off their lands, often to Koeris. This allowed the Koeris themselves to aspire to be landowners.{{fact|date=September 2021}} According to britishers , Koiri or Koeri were traditionally agriculturalist rather than horticulturalist as they used to grow [[rice]] and other crops but gardening caste like [[Dangi]] who call themselves as Koiri and used to grow vegetables in reality Koiri [[Caste]] have no connection with gardening castes such as Dangi , Kachhi , mali and others.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pjVdJMBeXU8C&pg=PA203&dq=koiri+agriculturalist&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMqKmMraqUAxVUS3ADHdNqCUUQ6wF6BAgOEAU#v=onepage&q=koiri%20agriculturalist&f=false</ref>

The Koeris are found in [[Saran district]] and also live in the Samastipur district of Bihar. Outside India, the Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. The koiri/kushwaha have huge population in [[Nepal]] too.They are categorized as high caste and dominant caste in [[Nepal]].

==Koiri of Nepal==
'''Kushwaha/Koiri''' are an high caste community residing in the [[Terai]] region. In Nepal, the population of the Kushwaha community is around 1.22%, numbering more than approximately 355,000 people. This community mainly resides in districts of [[Madhesh Province]], [[Koshi Province]], and [[Lumbini Province]], and is considered an important community in Madheshi society.
<ref>{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=Government of Nepal, National Statistics Office |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

Their traditional ancestral occupations were agriculture and landlordship. However, they are now engaged in various professions, businesses, education, civil service, and the military, and are regarded as an influential, organized, and powerful community compared to other Madheshi castes. Koiri or Koeri considered as prosperous [[caste]] in Magadha and [[terai]] region.

The Kushwaha community belongs to the [[Vaishya]] class among the Madheshi high castes.
<ref>{{cite report |title=Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II: Social Demography |publisher=Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics & UNFPA |location=Kathmandu |year=2014 |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Hofer |first=András |title=The Caste Hierarchy and the State in Nepal: A Study of the Muluki Ain of 1854 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Wagner |location=Innsbruck |year=1979}}</ref>

However, many also claim [[Kshatriya]] status.
<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinch |first=William R. |title=Peasants and Monks in British India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996}}</ref>

Although their ancestors were traditionally vegetarian, this practice has gradually changed over time. The traditionally common surname in this community is ''Mahato''. Surnames used among the Kushwaha/Koiri community in Nepal include Mahato, Singh, Kushwaha, Mehta, Maurya, Morao, Bhagat, Sinha, and Verma,etc among others in nepal.

Some Kushwaha organizations in Nepal have claimed that the population of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal exceeds one million. If accepted, this figure would account for approximately 3.4% of Nepal’s total population.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha community claims over 10 lakh population in Nepal |url=https://www.enewsbureau.com/news-details/9602/2021-01-20 |website=eNews Bureau |date=20 January 2021}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Final_Population_compostion_12_2.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic status ===
[[File:Literacy rate of nepali koiri.png|thumb|Caste-wise literacy rate of Nepali Koiris]]

Although the Kushwaha (Koiri) community in Nepal has traditionally been associated with agriculture, their relatively high literacy rate has contributed to their strong social and economic position. Particularly in the Terai region, the Kushwaha community has made notable progress in education, professional skills, and leadership. According to recent census data, more than 80% of Kushwahas are literate, which is above Nepal’s national average literacy rate of 77.4%.

The Koiri community is not limited only to agriculture, but also has a significant presence in government service, politics, business, and other professional sectors. Their comparatively high literacy rate and community unity have contributed to their representation in policy-making, administration, and local leadership. Kushwahas are regarded as one of the organized and influential Madheshi communities. Some descriptions portray them as economically and politically strong landowning groups in parts of the Terai region.

Various social and community organizations within the community have played active roles in educational awareness, cultural preservation, social development, and leadership building. These initiatives have contributed to establishing the Kushwaha community as an influential and socially active group within Nepali society.
<ref name="NKKS">{{cite web |title=Nepal Kushwaha Kalyan Samaj |url=https://nkks.org.np/}}</ref>

== Koiri in Terai region ==
[[File:Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.jpg|thumb|Caste-wise Agricultural Landholding Data - Terai Region.]]

This table, prepared on the basis of data related to Nepal’s 2021 national census, presents the average agricultural land ownership and share of total agricultural land among different caste communities in the Terai region. According to the data, the Kushwaha (Koiri) community remains strongly associated with agriculture and is reported to possess an average of approximately 6.2 bighas of land, which is among the higher figures listed in the table. Likewise, Yadav, Bhumihar, and Tharu communities are also shown to have notable involvement in agriculture and significant agricultural land ownership.

Agriculture is considered the backbone of Nepal’s economy, while the Terai region is regarded as the country’s primary grain-producing area. Such statistics help in understanding the economic and social structure of different agrarian communities in the Terai region. The Koiri community is often described as a strong agriculturist caste in Nepal.

=== Culture ===

[[File:Holi festival celebration in Kathmandu 2025-070A3169.jpg|thumb|Women of the Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Holi in Nepal]]
[[File:Chhath Puja Ritual from India.jpg|thumb|Nepali Kushwaha (Koiri) community celebrating Chhath Puja in Kathmandu]]

The Kushwaha community predominantly follows [[Hinduism]]. Members of the community particularly worship deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Rama]], and [[Vishnu]]. Major festivals celebrated by the Kushwaha community include [[Chhath]], [[Diwali]], and [[Holi]].
<ref>{{cite web |title=Kushwaha Religious Practices |url=https://news.sainicaste.com/2024/03/who-is-kushwaha-caste-god.html |website=Saini Caste News}}</ref>

=== Subgroups (clans) ===
Historically, various subgroups (clans) have been identified within the [[Koiri]] community. Colonial-era caste studies mention the following subgroups within the Koiri community:
<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tribes and Castes of Bengal |last=Risley |first=H. H. |year=1891 |publisher=Government of Bengal}}</ref>

* Barki-Dangi
* Chhotki-Dangi
* Jaruhar
* Kanaujia
* Magahiya
* Tirhutia
* Chirmait
* Kumrh
* Banaphar
* Goita
* Dhar
* Reutia
* Pauria
* Barakar
* Palmohan

=== Architecture ===

An example of architecture associated with the Koiri (Kushwaha) community can be seen in [[Janaki Mandir]] in Janakpur, which is sometimes regarded as an important example of “Koiri-style” architecture. Some local narratives also associate the temple’s construction with members of the Koiri community.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

[[File:Drone image of jankai temple ( jankapur nepal) in koiri style architecture.png|thumb|Drone image of Janaki Mandir, Janakpur, in Koiri-style architecture]]

This style of architecture reflects a blend of Hindu, Mughal, and regional Mithila artistic influences. Janaki Mandir is a three-storey structure primarily constructed using stone and white marble.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

The temple structure includes domes, lattice-carved windows, coloured glass, pillars, and decorations inspired by Mithila paintings. The temple complex is said to contain around 60 rooms, contributing to its distinctive and attractive architectural character.
<ref>{{cite web |title=Janaki Mandir |url=https://visitsnepal.com/product/janaki-mandir/}}</ref>

This architectural style is considered reflective of the cultural influence and religious traditions of the Madhesh and Mithila regions.

=== Dominanace ===

Historically, different caste and ethnic groups in Nepal have had varying levels of representation in government administration, agriculture, trade, civil service, judiciary, and military institutions.

During the rule of the [[Shah dynasty]] (1768–2008), hill high-caste groups such as [[Bahun]] and [[Kshatriya|Chhetri]] held significant dominance in the civil service, judiciary, and senior military positions.

According to some studies conducted in the Terai region using data from before 2015, certain Madheshi caste groups were represented in the civil service at rates higher than their share of the national population. For example, the representation of the [[Kushwaha]] ([[Koiri]]) community in Nepal’s civil service was reported to be approximately 3.2 times higher than their population share, placing them fourth in terms of representation. Similarly, the [[Rajput]] community was reported to have representation approximately 5.6 times higher than its population share, while [[Maithil Brahmin]] representation was around 4.2 times higher.
<ref name="Hatlebakk07">{{cite web |last=Hatlebakk |first=Magnus |year=2007 |title=Economic and social structures that may explain the recent conflicts in the Terai of Nepal |location=Kathmandu |publisher=Norwegian Embassy |url=http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724190445/http://www.norway.org.np/NR/rdonlyres/0993F5660B3548A98F819167B4FD596C/72944/http___wwwcmi.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-24}}</ref>

The [[Yadav]] community is one of the largest Madheshi caste groups in Nepal. Due to their substantial population in some districts, their political representation has increased significantly in recent decades. One prominent figure from this community is [[Ram Baran Yadav]], who served as the first President of Nepal from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.
<ref name="OCHA1">{{cite journal |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/B66F206172F49BE4C12572D50030C3F0/$file/OCHA+overview+no+12+April+07.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=12 |date=April 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

In Nepal, [[Nepali language]] is the national language, while [[Maithili language]] is one of the most widely spoken languages in the country. The traditional caste system in Hindu society was legally abolished by the ''New Muluki Ain'' implemented in 1963.
<ref name="OCHA2">{{cite journal |url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2E89F2121C2C57A24925733F000F4F21-Full_report.pdf |title=Highlights |journal=OCHA Nepal Situation Overview |issue=16 |date=July–August 2007 |publisher=OCHA}}</ref>

[[File:Average Height of Nepalese Men and Women in every Province.png|thumb|Average height of Nepali men and women in different provinces]]

=== Population ===

Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics classifies the Kushwaha caste as a subgroup within the broader upper Madheshi caste communities. The community is primarily concentrated in the [[Terai]] region of Nepal, where agriculture has traditionally been the main occupation.

According to the [[2021 Nepal census]] published by the [[National Statistics Office (Nepal)]], the population of the Kushwaha community in Nepal was 355,707, representing approximately 1.22% of the country’s total population.
<ref name="Census2021">{{cite report |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021: Caste/Ethnicity Report |publisher=National Statistics Office, Nepal |location=Kathmandu |year=2023 |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/Caste%20Ethnicity_report_NPHC_2021.pdf}}</ref>

The provincial distribution of the Kushwaha population is as follows:
<ref name="Census2021"/>

* [[Madhesh Province]] – 4.56%
* [[Lumbini Province]] – 2%
* [[Koshi Province]] – 1%
* [[Bagmati Province]] – 0.5%
* [[Gandaki Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Karnali Province]] – 0.1%
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] – 0.7%

The following districts have Kushwaha populations above the national average (approximately 1.3%):
<ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal |access-date=2025-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |archive-date=2023-03-14}}</ref>

* [[Sarlahi]] – 7.9%
* [[Rautahat]] – 3.5%
* [[Bara District|Bara]] – 4.5%
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] – 3.9%
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] – 5.1%
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] – 6.0%
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] – 1.0%
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] – 5.8%
* [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] – 4.1%
* [[Morang District|Morang]] – 1.0%
* [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] – 0.5%
* [[Rupandehi District|Rupandehi]] – 1.0%
* [[Banke District|Banke]] – 0.5%
* [[Bardiya District|Bardiya]] – 0.2%
* [[Jhapa District|Jhapa]] – 0.1%
* [[Chitwan District|Chitwan]] – <0.1%
* [[Nawalparasi District|Nawalparasi]] – <0.1%
* [[Kathmandu]] – 0.1%

==History & Philosophy ==

=== Koiri connections with Sakya And Koliya Clans ===
The Koiri or (Koeri/Kushwaha) [[Caste]] of magadh region is associated in several historical and community traditions with the ancient Shakya and Koliya clans of the Himalayan foothills. The ancient Shakya republic was located in present-day southern Nepal, with important sites such as Lumbini, traditionally regarded as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha. The [[Shakya]] capital Kapilavastu is commonly linked with Tilaurakot. The Koliya republic existed in the same region and maintained close political and matrimonial relations with the Shakya during the 6th century BCE. Many historians, [[caste]] studies, and community traditions connect present-day Koiri/kushwaha communities with these ancient republican clans like Sakya , Moriya and koliya due to historical, regional and inscriptional connections. Koiri or Koeri [[caste]] was ruling elite [[Tribe|caste]] during ancient period who established maurya dynasty along with sakya kingdom in [[nepal]] and [[india]].<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WisVAQAAIAAJ&q=Koeri+koliya&dq=Koeri+koliya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwisx6uWtquUAxVcJxAIHfBXGfoQ6wF6BAgIEAU#Koeri%20koliya</nowiki></ref>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|The Mahajanapadas in the post-Vedic period. Koliya was to east of Sakya]]

=== Koiri caste link with kutumbin term and Rashtrakuta Empire ===
The Koiri (or Koeri) are a significant agricultural community in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, recognised as a landowning Upper middle [[caste]] with a strong agricultural base, particularly in cultivating crops like [[Rice]]. Epigraphic records suggest that Kutumbins were agriculturist house-holders. From the term kutumbin has been derived cultivating caste name such as the Koeri or Koiri of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term "Rashtrakuta" being used to refer to the heads of kutumbins/cultivators from which koiri or koeri caste derived.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg=PA30&dq=Koeries+kutumbin&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjghcjpvquUAxXMExAIHawtJCAQ6wF6BAgMEAU#v=onepage&q=Koeries%20kutumbin&f=false</nowiki></ref>

Koiri or Koeri community claims ancestry from [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]]. Some of the leading political parties have supported their claims to reap the benefits arising from their demographic strength in electoral politics, particularly in North Indian states like [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/city/patna/BJP-banking-on-votes-of-Koeris/articleshow/47321629.cms|title=BJP banking on votes of Koeris|first=Abhay |last=Singh|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/caste-groups-are-burning-rajnath-singhs-effigies-as-he-called-chandragupta-maurya-shepherd/|title=Caste groups are burning Rajnath Singh's effigies as he called Chandragupta Maurya shepherd|first=Shivam|last=Vij|work=theprint.in|access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
The community was at the heart of the Indian opium trade, which had its main base in Bihar as the Koeris were involved in opium production through hired labour from lower castes like Dusadh , Yadava , and others. Based on available reports and studies , the Kushwaha (Koeri) community is ranked among the highest-earning social groups in Bihar, often placed below general castes in per capita income but higher than many other OBC groups like Kurmi and Yadav. Koiri or Koeri considered as most dominant [[caste]] of OBC in [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] due to large land holdings along with prosperity.<ref><nowiki>https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/bjp-ministers-finalised-for-samrat-choudhary-cabinet-in-bihar-mangal-pandey-narayan-prasad-surendra-mehta-list-10311152</nowiki></ref>

===Post land reforms===
Peasants in [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]] like the Koeris benefitted the most from the land reform policies of the Indian government. Faced with the land ceiling laws and communist pressure in the 1970s, general caste landlords resorted to selling off their lands. In most cases the buyer would be from the Koeri, the [[Kurmi]], or the [[Yadav]] castes. These peasants worked skillfully on their land and made their holdings more productive. In contrast, the general castes were unable to do so, and they seemed to be satisfied with the price they got for their land. The increased urbanisation among general castes created a category of new landlords in the countryside as these three middle castes seldom sold their land, rather they looked on reforms as an opportunity to buy more.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81|publisher=[[Viking Press|Viking]] | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref>

This phenomenon promoted the upward mobility of middle peasant castes. While this mobility in the Yadavas consolidated them as big peasants and farm workers, in the Koeris, the vertical mobility was exclusively towards them becoming big [[landlords]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Agrarian Reforms, Land Markets, and Rural Poor|first=D. Narasimha |last=Reddy|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=279|year= 2009|isbn=978-8180696046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJgfNVjZ8koC&q=bihar+and+caste&pg=PA279|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> The Upper middle caste such as Koiri functioned as landlord rulers, while other backward castes worked in the field of Koiri [[landlord]]. Koiri landlords did not allow lower castes, such as Yadavs and Dusadhs, to sit with them.<ref><nowiki>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=3u21AAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+yadavas+sit&dq=koeri+yadavas+sit&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwij4vrs26qUAxV8TWwGHQUOBI4Q6wF6BAgPEAU#koeri%20yadavas%20sit</nowiki></ref>

In 1989, Frankel observed that 95% of the upper castes and 36% of the middle peasant castes like the Koeri and the Yadav belonged to a rich peasant-cum-landlord class. An aversion to manual labour characterised this class. However, some Koeris and Yadavas who held comparatively less land to provide them with subsistence also worked as agricultural labourers, though the bulk of agricultural labourers belonged to the Dalit caste. According to Frankel, the bulk of middle and poor peasantry belonged to castes like the Koeris and the Yadavas; this class worked in their own fields but considered it beneath their dignity to work in others' fields.<ref>{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=31 |first=George |last=Kunnath|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis Group]] |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkcrDwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+landlords&pg=PT31
|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>
However, the socio-economic progress and transition towards the upper edge of the social hierarchy was not unabated. The Koeris, like the other middle level castes in north India, were facing a double-edged confrontation from the upper castes who were supporters of the status quo as well as from the Dalits and the lowest castes who now became assertive for their own rights. All this made the middle castes aggressive.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher=Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

The conflict with general caste landlords led to an attraction towards far-left [[Naxalite|naxalism]]. This was witnessed in [[Ekwari]], a village, in the [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] where [[Jagdish Mahto]], a Koeri teacher belonging to upper middle [[caste]], began leading the Maoists and organised the murders of general caste landlords.

Later, a section of the upper strata of the Koeris and other middle peasant castes voiced their support for the militant organisation [[Ranvir Sena]]. This group had benefitted the most from land reforms and became ruthless towards the [[Dalits]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The situated politics of belonging |page=135,136 |first=Nira-Yuval-Davis |last=Kalpana |publisher=[[Sage Publications]] |location=london|year=2006|isbn=1-4129-2101-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6pIf0EjBXIC&q=koeri+in+army&pg=PA135|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Between 1872 and 1921 the Koeris represented approximately seven per cent of the population in [[Saran district]], according to tabulated data prepared by [[Anand Yang]]. Yang also notes their involvement in tenanted landholdings around the period 1893–1901: the Koeris worked around nine per cent of the total cultivated area of the district which was one per cent less than the Ahirs, although they represented around five per cent more of the population.<ref>{{cite book |title=The limited Raj: agrarian relations in colonial India, Saran District, 1793–1920 |first=Anand A. |last=Yang |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-520-05711-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC |page=45 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> According to [[Christopher Bayly]] :
{{quote|"Eighteenth-century settlement of Kurmi ,Kacchi and Koeri cultivators were also numerous in northern and western Awadh. On the fringes of cultivation, these castes were given special rental rates for bringing areas of jungle under plough. In the first five years, for instance the rent might be only half of what was common for soil of the same type. The revenue benefits to the entrepreneur or official who planted the colony were very great."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfo3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101|title=Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion|first=C. A.|last= Bayly|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1988|isbn=0521310547|access-date=1 July 2020|page=101}}</ref>}}
They are also distributed in the [[Samastipur]] district of Bihar. In this district the Koeri caste is notorious for their criminal affairs and represent most of the ten [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] seats in this district.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj Institutions|first=Minni |last=Thakur|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year= 2010|isbn=978-8180696800
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hbA4A--9HcC&q=koeri+and+bhumihar&pg=PA31|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> In a study conducted in 1991, in villages of the [[Buxar]] district of southwestern Bihar, the Koeris were one of the largest landholding caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia|first=Partha Nath Mukherji|last=N. Jayaram|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2019|isbn=978-9811303876|page=88,89
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IHWKDwAAQBAJ&q=bihar+landholdings+koeri&pg=PA89|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref> Further, another study conducted in some select villages of rural Bihar revealed the Koeris perform the function of a ''[[purohit]]'' (family priest) and a significant number of houses were seen availing themselves of the services of the purohits of the Koeri caste.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings in Indian Sociology: Volume II|first=K. L.|last= Sharma|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|location= India|year=2013|isbn=978-8132118725
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqICwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+caste+occupational+change&pg=PA136|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

===Distribution outside India===
Outside India, Koeris are distributed among the Bihari diaspora in [[Mauritius]]. Though the island is divided along ethnic and religious lines, 'Hindu' Mauritians follow a number of original customs and traditions, quite different from those seen on the Indian subcontinent. Some castes in Mauritius in particular are unrecognisable from a subcontinental Indian perspective, and may incorporate mutually antagonistic castes into a single group. The title 'Rajput' describes primarily the [[Shudra]] castes in Mauritius, which was usurped by the Koeris in the nineteenth century. The 'vaish', which includes the Koeris, is the largest and most influential caste group on the island. The former Brahmin elites together with former [[Kshatriya]] are called 'Babuji' and enjoy the prestige conferred by high caste status, though politically they are marginalised.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F7NCwAAQBAJ&q=koeri+in+Mauritius&pg=PA14|title=Community, Empire and Migration: South Asians in Diaspora|first=Crispin|last=Bates|publisher=Springer|page=14|year= 2016|isbn=978-0333977293|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>

The Koeris also have a significant population residing in [[Nepal]]. The 1991 census conducted there included estimates of their population estimates but these were not included in the 2001 census.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Inclusion of Ethnic Communities in Contemporary Nepal |pages=109–110 |first=Monika |last=Mandal |publisher=KW Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-81904-58-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0y6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109}}</ref>

==Subdivisions, classification and culture==

Communities related to the Koeri in North India include the [[Maurya]], the [[Kushwaha]], the [[Mahto]], the Kachhi, the [[Shakya]] and the [[Saini]]. Over time, these castes grew closer and began intermarrying while developing the all India network to strengthen their caste solidarity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58G8PPAN48cC&q=koeri+,Maurya,+Shakya,+kachhi&pg=PA36|title=Awareness in Weaker Section: Perspective Development and Prospects|first=Mahendra Lal|last= Patel|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year= 1997|page=37|isbn=8175330295}}</ref>
In 1811, the physician [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] classified the producer castes of Bihar and Patna - the Koeri, the Gwala, the Kurmi, the Sonar (goldsmith) and even the [[Kayastha]]s (a scribe caste) as "pure [[Shudra]]". However, due to the advancements in their level of education, the Kayastha community was first among them to challenge their Shudra status and claimed a higher Varna. They were followed by the rest of these communities.<ref name="William Pinch">{{cite book |title=Peasants and monks in British India |first=William R. |last=Pinch |publisher=University of California Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-520-20061-6 |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft22900465&chunk.id=s1.2.11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch2|pages=73–75|quote=Buchanan, in the early nineteenth century, had included in the term "pure shudra" the well-known designations of Kayasth, Koiri, Kurmi, Kahar, Goala, Dhanuk (archers, cultivators, palanquin bearers), Halwai (sweets vendor), Mali (flower gardener), Barai (cultivator and vendor of betel-leaf), Sonar (goldsmith), Kandu (grain parcher), and Gareri (blanket weavers and shepherds)[108].108. Buchanan, Bihar and Patna, 1811–1812, 1:329–39; Martin, Eastern India, 2:466–70}}</ref>

Some Koeris like Shivcharan Bhagat were well known for their knowledge of [[Persian language|Persian]] and they also contributed to the [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] and their disciples later became major contributors to Ramanandi literature.<ref name="William Pinch"/> In the households of the cultivator castes like the Koeris, there was no major segregation of family duties based on gender. Here, both male and female members of the family participated in cultivation- related operations, thus paving the way for egalitarianism and a lack of gender-related discrimination and seclusion. The view of the Koeris regarding their women is portrayed through their (Jati) Caste pamphlet, where Koeri women are described as being loyal to their husbands and having all the qualities of a true [[Kshatriya]] woman, who faces the enemy with courage and fights along with her husband rather than being defeated outrught.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDeFAAAAIAAJ&q=koeri+women|
title=Daughters of the Earth: Women and Land in Uttar Pradesh|first=Smita Tewari|last=Jassal|publisher=Manohar|year=2001|isbn=8173043752|access-date=1 July 2020|page=71,53}}</ref>

===Martial tradition===
{{Quote box|width=20em|align=right|quote=''Kshatriyatva''( the essence of being Kshatriya, or valour) constituted an important component of this new political framework for reform, in part because martial element contained therein fit a colonial ideology that placed a premium on virility and power. Their claim to "''Kshatriyatva''" was matched by an aggressiveness and violence which had lasting implications for rulral life in Bihar.<ref name="George"/> |salign=right|source= – William Pinch}}
The Kshatriya reform movement in the middle peasant castes which took place during 1890s turned rural Bihar into an arena of conflict. William Pinch claims that castes like the Koeris, the Kurmi, joined the [[British Indian Army]] as soldiers. George Kunnath writes that "their claims to ''kshatriyatva'' was matched by an aggressiveness and violence" which led to the formation of many caste armies resulting in intercaste conflict.<ref name="George">{{cite book |title=Rebels From the Mud Houses: Dalits and the Making of the Maoist Revolution ...
|page=209,210 |first=George |last=kunnath|publisher=Taylor and Francis group |location=New york |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-138-09955-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JkcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref>

==Organisation==
[[File:Kushwaha Ashram, headquarter of community organisation in Bihar.jpg|thumb|Kushwaha Ashram, the headquarter of community organisation of Koeri caste in North Bihar.]]
In the interwar years, during a period when there was a general movement among various castes seeking to uplift their status, there was also at least one journal being published for the Koeri community, the ''Kashbala Kshatriya Mitra'',<ref>{{cite book |title=Hindu nationalism and the language of politics in late colonial India |first=William |last=Gould |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83061-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNsganXnq-oC |page=31 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> while other interests of the Koeri community is taken care of by the Kushwaha Kshatriya Mahasabha.<ref name="Ashwani2008_36">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Ashwani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA36|title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84331-709-8|pages=36}}</ref>

==Politics==
In the heyday of [[British Raj]], the Koeris aligned with the Kurmis and the Yadavs to form a caste coalition-cum-political party called [[Triveni Sangh]]. The actual date of the formation of Triveni Sangh is disputed among scholars. This caste coalition fared badly against the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and faced a considerable challenge from Congress's backward class federation. Though politically it was not able to make a significant mark, it remained successful in eradicating the practice of [[begar]] (forced labour).<ref name="Jaffrelot197">{{cite book |title=India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India |first=Christophe |last=Jaffrelot |edition=Reprinted |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85065-670-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OAkW94DtUMAC |pages=197–198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=44 |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8}}</ref>

The period of the 1960s witnessed an improvement in the fortunes of the backward castes in politics, with a significant growth seen in the number of backward caste MLAs in the Bihar legislative assembly. In the 1970s, with the defining slogan of social justice, Koeris rose to prominence in the politics of Bihar under the leadership of [[Jagdeo Prasad]]. However, this achievement was short-lived and their representation was gradually lost to other backward castes after Prasad's death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar|first=Sanjay |title=Post mandal politics in Bihar:Changing electoral patterns|publisher=SAGE Publication|isbn=978-93-528-0585-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zhODwAAQBAJ&q=jagdeo+prasad&pg=PA39|date=5 June 2018}}</ref> This period also witnessed [[Satish Prasad Singh]], a lesser known Koeri leader, become the chief minister of Bihar merely a week after the fall of [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]] government. He led a coalition of the Shoshit Samaj Dal party of Jagdeo Prasad and the Congress.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rik-AAAAMAAJ&q=satish+prasad+singh+caste|title=Teaching Politics, Volume 6 - Volume 7, Issue 4|first=Delhi University|last= Political Science Association|publisher= Delhi University Political Science Association(Original from the University of Michigan)
|year= 1981|access-date=22 June 2020}} In 1969 , Bindeshwar Prasad Mandal , a rich landlord Yadav of Saharsa district in manipulating some M . L . A ' s to defect from U . F . Parties to cause the fall of Mahamaya Ministry , asked Satish Prasad Singh a lesser known Koeri leader to head the ministry for a day to facilitate his nomination in the Council.</ref><ref name="Sharma1989">{{cite book|author=Bijender Kumar Sharma|title=Political Instability in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHMBgjfitvQC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 April 2018|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-184-7|pages=49–}}</ref>

In 1977, the [[Karpoori Thakur]] government of Bihar introduced an affirmative action of quota in government jobs and universities. While the lower backward castes were assigned 12% of the quota, only eight percent was earmarked for landowning castes like the Koeri, the Kurmi and the Yadavs. Being a [[Nai (caste)|Nai]] by caste, Thakur was aware of the robust economic position and aggressiveness of these castes who were many times seen bullying the Harijans and lower backwards castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA397|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|page=397 ,398|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

In later years, the Koeris remained in a muted position for a long period in politics or played a secondary role, while the Yadav-centric politics of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav|Laloo Yadav]] flourished in Bihar. However, after the formation of the [[Samta Party]] (now [[Janata Dal (United)]]) by [[Nitish Kumar]], they voted en masse for [[Samta Party|Samta]]. Its alliance showed that political parties in Bihar are identified with caste and the Samta Party was considered the party of Koeri-Kurmi community.<ref>{{cite book|title=City, Society, and Planning: Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odCJoIaDqZ0C&q=koeri+bihar+politics&pg=PA400|first=Baleshwar|last=Thakur|location =University of Akron. Department of Geography & Planning, Association of American Geographers|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=2007|
isbn=978-8180694608|access-date=16 June 2020}} While Samta with its leader Nitish is considered to be the party of Koeri-Kurmi, Bihar people's party led by Anand Mohan is perceived to be a party having sympathy and support of Rajputs.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste and Democratic Politics in India|first=Ghanshyam|last=Shah|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2004|isbn=8178240955|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aou17T8KaEEC&q=caste+and+bihar+politics&pg=PA346|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>

The parting of the ways between the Koeris and the Kurmis and the movement of the Koeris away from [[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U)) was witnessed after the formation of the [[Rashtriya Lok Samta Party]] by [[Upendra Kushwaha]], who commanded huge support among members of the Koeri castes. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] appealed to the kushwaha in the 2014 elections in hopes of getting the support of the Koeri caste who had earlier voted for [[Nitish Kumar]] and the JD(U).<ref>{{cite book|title=India's 2014 Elections: A Modi-led BJP Sweep|first=Paul|last=Wallace|publisher=SAGE Publications|location = India|year=2015|isbn=978-9351505174|page=127,129
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFslDAAAQBAJ&q=upendra+kushwaha&pg=PT129|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> However, the quitting of BJP and alliance by Upendra Kushwaha left Koeri politics in Bihar in a dilemma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/politics/upendra-kushwahas-exit-could-undo-bjps-carefully-planned-bihar-caste-coalition/|title=Upendra Kushwaha's exit could undo BJP's carefully planned Bihar caste coalition|first=PRAGYA|last=KAUSHIKA|website=theprint.in|access-date=28 May 2020}}</ref> This rift between the Koeris and the Kurmis was orchestrated by the rise of influential Koeri leaders like Mahendra Singh and Shakuni Chaudhry, while Kushwaha remained the strongest leader of the community in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/nation/the-liberation-struggle-of-bihar|title=The Liberation Struggle of Bihar|first=P. R.|last=Ramesh|date=15 October 2015|work=Open Magazine|access-date=30 April 2020}} The real migraine for the JD-U led alliance is the emergence of strong leaders within the NDA who command Kushwaha loyalties as effectively as Ashok Mahto once did for the fight against Bhumihars in the past. Rocking the Grand Alliance's prospects are Kushwaha leaders such as Upendra Kushwaha, Shakuni Chaudhury and Mahendra Singh.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bihari Mauritians]]
*[[Kachhi (caste)]]
*[[Kushwaha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&q=koeri+rise+of+the+plebeians&pg=PA98|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|first=Christophe Jaffrelot|last=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1136516610|access-date=30 June 2020}}

[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Agricultural castes]]