Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder

2026-05-08T11:10:51Z

LucasRowan:

{{Short description|2026 novel by Nina McConigley}}{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox book
| italic title = 
| name = How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder
| image = McConigley How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder.jpg
| image_size =
| border =
| alt = 2026 book jacket image of an illustrated gallon of green antifreeze in a plastic container
| caption = 2026 book jacket
| author = Nina McConigley
| audio_read_by = Reena Dutt
| title_orig =
| orig_lang_code =
| title_working =
| translator =
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language =
| series =
| release_number =
| subject = [[Postcolonialism]], [[Abuse]]
| genre = [[Literary fiction]]
| set_in = [[Wyoming]], United States
| publisher = [[Pantheon Books]]
| publisher2 =
| pub_date = January 20, 2026
| english_pub_date =
| published =
| media_type = Print, E-book, Audio
| pages = 224
| awards =
| isbn = 9780593702246
| isbn_note = 9798217007035
| oclc = 1482188541
| dewey =
| congress =
| preceded_by = 
| followed_by = 
| native_wikisource =
| wikisource =
| notes =
| exclude_cover =
| website = {{Official website|https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/779107/how-to-commit-a-postcolonial-murder-by-nina-mcconigley/}}
| module =
}}
'''''How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder''''' is a novel by American author [[Nina McConigley]], published by [[Pantheon Books]] on January 20, 2026.<ref name=Kirkus>
{{cite web
| url = https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/nina-mcconigley/how-to-commit-a-postcolonial-murder/
| title = Review: How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder
| last = Staff
| date = October 25, 2025
| website = Kirkus Reviews
| quote = Bildungsroman, Literary fiction
| access-date = January 15, 2026}}</ref><ref name=PubW>
{{cite web
| url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/9780593702246
| title = Review: How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder
| last = Katherine Fausset
| first = Curtis Brown
| date = September 24, 2025
| website = Publishers Weekly
| access-date = January 15, 2026}} 978-0-349-72535-2</ref><ref name=Laura>
{{cite news
| last = Laura Thompson
| first = Miguel Salazar
| title = The Novels Everyone Will Be Talking About in 2026
| newspaper = The New York Times
| date = January 7, 2026
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2026/01/07/books/review/new-fiction-books-2026.html?searchResultPosition=3
| access-date = January 15, 2026}}</ref><ref name=MacAllen>{{cite web
| url = https://chireviewofbooks.com/2026/01/20/the-shared-traumas-in-nina-mcconigleys-how-to-commit-a-postcolonial-murder/
| title = The Shared Traumas in Nina McConigley's Novel
| last = MacAllen
| first = Ian
| date = January 20, 2026
| website = Chicago Review of Books
| access-date =February 1, 2026}}</ref><ref name=Mark>
{{cite news
| last = Mark
| first =
| title = Review: How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder
| newspaper = Medium Magazine
| location = Melbourne, Australia
| date = July 22, 2025
| url = https://mabroms.medium.com/how-to-commit-a-postcolonial-murder-by-nina-mcconigley-c017da3d2d8d
| access-date = January 15, 2026}}</ref><ref name=Bell>Bell, Carole V. "How to Commit a Postcolonial Murder." ''BookPage'', February 2026, p. 19. ''Gale Academic OneFile'', {{GALE|A870859002}}, Accessed 15 January 2026.</ref>

==Plot summary==
In 1980s [[Wyoming]], two sisters, Georgie age 12 and Agatha age 13, have to deal with growing up as children of [[Indian immigrant]]s in a small rural American town. Their lives are changed when their uncle, Vinny, his wife and his son, move in from India. After Vinny brutally abuses them, the sisters decide he must die. They collaborate and plan to kill him by adding small amounts of [[antifreeze]] to his drinks. As the murder plot unfolds, Georgie continues her daily life such as attending [[summer camp]] or watching the [[Wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer]] (1981).

At the same time, she is dealing with the effects of her trauma, the damage done to her identity, and the heavy legacy of [[British colonialism in India|British colonialism]].<ref name=Kirkus/><ref name=PubW/><ref name=Laura/> Following their uncle's death, Georgie and Agatha admit their involvement to the reader, but whoever has the most culpability remains unclear. Agatha attributes the root cause to British influence.<ref name=Cox/> McConigley utilizes directly addressing the reader in alternating chapters written in the second person. This narrative technique pulls the reader into the text more closely to the subsequent events that describe the sisters' experiences over several months.<ref name=Cox>Cox, Toni. "McConigley, Nina. How To Commit a Postcolonial Murder." ''Library Journal'', vol. 150, no. 11, Nov. 2025, pp. 64+. ''Gale Academic OneFile'', {{GALE|A867262889}}</ref>

However, the story is initially told through Georgie's [[first-person perspective]] that is noted for contrasting stylized writing with [[dark humor]].<ref name=Kirkus/><ref name=PubW/><ref name=Laura/> Also, [[teen magazine]]-style quizzes are part of the narrative. For example, "Is He Bad for You?" and "Do You Have What It Takes to Kill?" which reflects Georgie's plot progressions during the story. The book narrates the experience of being of an ethnic minority in rural America, and the closeness that develops between the sisters as they protect themselves when the adults fail to do so.<ref name=Kirkus/><ref name=PubW/><ref name=Laura/>

==Reception==
According to Ian MacAllen of the [[Chicago Review of Books]], "... the book succeeds at capturing complex emotions. [The novel] will resonate strongly with a specific type of reader who wants to explore the intimacies of sisterhood, particularly through the [[Other (philosophy)|lens of otherness]]. McConigley has captured a unique [[narratology|narrative experience]] and shared it with an equally unique voice.<ref name=MacAllen/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website|https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/779107/how-to-commit-a-postcolonial-murder-by-nina-mcconigley/}}
*[https://ninamcconigley.com/fiction/how-to-commit-a-post-colonial-murder/ Author webpage].
*[https://msmagazine.com/2026/01/12/anticipated-new-feminist-books-2026-reads-for-the-rest-of-us-women-feminist-lgbtq-writers/ Reads for the Rest of Us].

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2026 American novels]]
[[Category:Fiction about Indian diaspora]]
[[Category:Works about sexual abuse]]
[[Category:Postcolonial novels]]
[[Category:Novels about murder]]
[[Category:Novels about post-traumatic stress disorder]]
[[Category:Novels about Indian women]]
[[Category:Pantheon Books books]]
[[Category:Novels set in Wyoming]]
[[Category:Upcoming books]]
[[Category:Women's fiction]]
[[Category:Novels about sisters]]

Moyna Assembly constituency

2026-05-07T22:30:17Z

LucasRowan: adding article

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
'''Moyna Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Purba Medinipur district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Moyna
| type = SLA
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Vidhan Sabha constituencies/West Bengal/Moyna.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Moyna Assembly Constituency
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Ashok Dinda]]
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| latest_election_year = [[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| preceded_by =
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| district = [[Purba Medinipur district|Purba Medinipur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Tamluk (Lok Sabha constituency)|Tamluk]]
| constituency_no = 206
| established = 1951
| electors = 196,912
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image =
| abolished =
}}

{{Pie chart
| value1 = 33.33
| value2 = 27.78
| value3 = 16.67
| value4 = 11.11
| value5 = 11.11

| label1 = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (6 times)
| label2 = [[Communist Party of India]] (5 times)
| label3 = [[Indian National Congress]] (3 times)
| label4 = [[All India Trinamool Congress]] (2 time)
| label5= [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (2 times)

| color1 = {{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
| color2 = {{party color|Communist Party of India}}
| color3 = {{party color|Indian National Congress}}
| color4 = {{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|color5 = {{party color|Bhartiya Janata Party}}
| caption = '''Most Successful parties from Moyna assembly'''
}}

==Overview==
As per orders of the [[Delimitation Commission of India|Delimitation Commission]], No. 206 Moyna Assembly constituency is composed of the following: [[Moyna (community development block)|Moyna]] [[Community Development Block in India|community development block]], Anantapur I, Anantapur II, Nilkunthia, Sreerampur I and Sreerampur II [[gram panchayat]]s of [[Tamluk (community development block)|Tamluk]] community development block.<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf | title = Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 dated 15 February 2006 | access-date= 6 August 2015| work = West Bengal| publisher= Election Commission of India}}</ref>

Moyna Assembly constituency is part of No. 30 [[Tamluk (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name=delimitation/>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1952 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
|Kanai Lal Bhowmick
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
|[[1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|rowspan="2"|Ananga Mohan Das
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1962 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|-
|[[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|rowspan="4"|Kanai Lal Bhowmick
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
|[[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
|-
|[[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
|[[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|rowspan="2"|Pulak Bera
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=3|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|-
|[[1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|Pulin Bera
|-
|[[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|Manik Bhowmik
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|rowspan="2"|Dipak Bera
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=3|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|-
|[[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|[[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Indian politician)|Sk. Mujibur Rahman]]
|-
|[[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|Bhusan Chandra Dolai
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
|Sangram Kumar Dolai
|-
|[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ashok Dinda]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
|-
|}

==Election results==
===2026===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Moyna}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Ashok Dinda]]|party=Bhartiya Janata Party|votes=127,166|percentage=51.62|change={{Increase}}3.45}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Chandan Mondal|party=Trinamool Congress|votes=110,925|percentage=45.03|change={{Decrease}} 2.58}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Swapan Barman|party=Communist Party of India|votes=4,499|percentage=1.83|change={{New}}}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Nimai Barman|party=Indian National Congress|votes=1,034|percentage=0.42|change={{Decrease}}1.86}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Jagadish Maiti|party=Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)|votes=769{{formatnum:}}|percentage=0.31|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]|party=None of the above (India)|votes=1,061{{formatnum:}}|percentage=0.43|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=16,241{{formatnum:}}|percentage=6.59|change={{Increase}}6.03}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=2,46,333{{formatnum:}}|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janta Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Moyna}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Ashok Dinda]]|votes={{formatnum:108109}}|percentage=48.17|change=+44.93}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=All India Trinamool Congress|candidate=Sangram Dolui|votes={{formatnum:106849}}|percentage=47.61|change=-2.64}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Manik Bhaumik|votes={{formatnum:5108}}|percentage=2.28|change=-41.93}}
{{Election box majority||votes={{formatnum:1260}}|percentage=0.56|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes={{formatnum:223099}}|percentage=91.6|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Moyna}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Sangram Kumar Dolui
|votes = 100,980
|percentage=50.25
|change=-0.70
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Manik Bhaumik
|votes = 88,856
|percentage = 44.21
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janta Party
|candidate = Das Sukesh Ranjan
|votes = 6,506
|percentage = 3.24
|change = +0.65
}}
{{Election box majority||votes={{formatnum:12,124}}|percentage=6.03|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes={{formatnum:200,955}}|percentage=88.04|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2011 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal assembly elections, 2011]]: Moyna<ref>{{cite web| url = http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS25206.htm|title = Moyna |work = Assembly Elections May 2011 Results| publisher = Election Commission of India |access-date = 2011-05-17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=206| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120519164816/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=206| url-status = usurped| archive-date = 19 May 2012|title = West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work = Moyna| publisher =Empowering India |access-date = 2011-05-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ceowestbengal.nic.in/mis_pdf/election_2011/canddtl_4th_phase.pdf |title = West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work = Moyna |publisher = Election Commission of India |access-date = 2011-05-01 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030612/http://www.ceowestbengal.nic.in/mis_pdf/election_2011/canddtl_4th_phase.pdf |archive-date = 2011-09-12 }}</ref> }}

{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Bhusan Chandra Dolai
|votes = 91,037
|percentage = 50.95
|change = +2.50
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = [[Sk. Mujibur Rahman]]
|votes = 81,081
|percentage = 45.38
|change = -3.57
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Asit Pattanayak
|votes = 4,626
|percentage = 2.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Independent
|candidate = Sheikh Nurul Islam
|votes = 1,940
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 178,685
|percentage = 90.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing = 6.07
}}
{{Election box end}}

.# Swing calculated on Congress+Trinamool Congress vote percentages taken together in 2006.

===1977-2006===
In the [[2006 West Bengal state assembly election|state assembly elections in 2006]], [[Sk. Mujibur Rahman]] of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] won the 206 Moyna assembly seat defeating his nearest rival Prafulla Kumar Barai of [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]]. Contests in most years were multi cornered but only winners and runners are being mentioned. Dipak Bera of CPI(M) defeated Bhusan Chandra Dolai of Trinamool Congress in 2001, and Manik Bhowmik of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] in 1996. Manik Bhowmik of Congress defeated Dipak Bera of CPI(M) in 1991. Pulin Bera of CPI(M) defeated Rekharani Deb of Congress in 1987. Pulak Bera of CPI(M) defeated Bhusan Chandra Doloi of Congress in 1982 and 1977.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/archive/ElectionAnalysis/AE/S25/Partycomp203.htm |title = 203 - Moyna Assembly Constituency |work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2010-12-07 }}</ref>

===1951-1972===
Kanai Lal Bhowmick of [[Communist Party of India|CPI]] won in 1972, 1971, 1969 and 1967. Ananga Mohan Das of Congress won in [[1962 West Bengal state assembly election|1962]] and [[1957 West Bengal state assembly election|1957]]. In [[1952 West Bengal state assembly election|independent India's first election in 1951]], Kanai Lal Bhowmick of CPI won the Moyna seat.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/electionstatistics.asp | title = Statistical Reports of Elections | access-date = 2010-12-01 | work = General Election Results and Statistics | publisher = Election Commission of India | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp | archive-date = 2010-10-05 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Purba Medinipur topics}}
{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}

{{West Bengal elections}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Purba Medinipur district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in West Bengal]]

Kathua rape and murder case

2026-05-06T21:31:22Z

LucasRowan: done...

{{Short description|2018 crime in Jammu and Kashmir, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = 2018 Kathua abduction, gang rape and murder case
| image = File:Protests for the Kathua Unnao Rape cases.jpg
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Protests for the 2018 Kathua abduction, gang rape and murder case
| coordinates = {{coord|32.385|N|75.517|E|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Hiranagar|Rasana]], [[Kathua district]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]
| target = Asifa Bano
| date = {{start date|df=yes|2018|01|10}}- {{end date|df=yes|2018|01|17}}
| time =
| timezone =
| type = [[Child abduction|Abduction]], [[gang rape]], and [[murder]]
| fatalities =
| injuries = [[Sexual assault]] ([[gang rape]])
| victim = Asifa Bano
| perpetrators = Six men and a juvenile
| assailants = 
| susperps = 
| weapons =
| numparts = 
| dfens = 
| motive = Drive out the nomadic Muslim community of [[Bakarwal]]s from [[Hiranagar]] [[Tehsil]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rape-murder-in-kathua-meant-to-drive-out-muslim-tribe/articleshow/63721581.cms|title='Rape-murder in Kathua meant to drive out Muslim tribe' - Times of India ►|website=The Times of India|date=12 April 2018 }}</ref>
| inquiry =
| coroner =
| accused = Sanji Ram Deepak Khajuria Tilak Raj Arvind Dutta Parvesh Kumar Vishal Jangotra (son of Sanji Ram) A Juvenile (nephew of Sanji Ram)<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/temple-at-centre-of-tragedy-no-one-coming-to-mandir-for-days-now/articleshow/63753432.cms|title=Temple at centre of tragedy: No one coming to mandir for days now - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=13 April 2018 }}</ref><ref name="economictimes.indiatimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/kathua-case-charges-of-rape-and-murder-framed-against-7-accused/articleshow/64497229.cms|title=Kathua case: Charges of rape and murder framed against 7 accused|date=7 June 2018|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>
| convicted = Sanji Ram Deepak Khajuria Surender Verma Tilak Raj Anand Dutta Parvesh Kumar.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/temple-priest-nephew-son-who-was-convicted-and-who-was-found-not-guilty-in-kathua-rape-and-murder-case-2179519.html |title=Temple Priest, Nephew, Son: Who Was Convicted and Who Was Acquitted in Kathua Rape and Murder Case |access-date=2019-06-11}}</ref>
| verdict = Six of the seven accused were convicted
| convictions = Sanji Ram, Deepak Khajuria and Parvesh Kumar were sentenced to life imprisonment of 25 years. Tilak Raj, Anand Dutta and Surender Verma were sentenced to five years in jail for destroying evidence. Court acquitted Vishal Jangotra due to lack of evidence. A juvenile, will be tried at a juvenile court.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kathua-rape-murder-case-verdict-1546315-2019-06-11 |title=Kathua rape-murder case: Life sentence for 3 - All that happened in 10 points |author=India Today Web Desk|access-date=2019-06-11 |date=11 June 2019 |language=en }}</ref>
| charges =
| litigation =
| website = 
| module =
}}
The '''Kathua rape case''' involved the abduction, gang rape, and murder of an 8-year-old Muslim girl, '''Asifa Bano''', by seven males (six men and a juvenile) in January 2018 in the [[Hiranagar|Rasana]] village near [[Kathua]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India. A [[chargesheet]] for the case was filed, the accused were arrested and the trial began in Kathua on 16 April 2018.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> The victim belonged to the [[nomad]]ic [[Bakarwal]] community, and the crime was a bid to terrorise the group off Jammu.<ref name="edge" /> She disappeared for a week before her body was discovered by the villagers a kilometer away from the village.<ref name=WaPo>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/04/11/an-8-year-olds-rape-and-murder-inflames-tensions-between-hindus-and-muslims-in-india/|title=An 8-year-old's rape and murder inflames tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India|last=Eltagouri|first=Marwa|date=11 April 2018|newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |access-date=12 April 2018|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name=NYT>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/11/world/asia/india-girl-rape.html|title=An 8-Year-Old's Rape and Killing Fuels Religious Tensions in India|last=Gettleman|first=Jeffrey | author-link = Jeffrey Gettleman|date=11 April 2018|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=12 April 2018|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="edge">{{Cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43722714 |title= The brutal crime that has Kashmir on edge |date= 12 April 2018 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date= 12 April 2018 |language= en-GB}}</ref><ref name=AT>{{Cite news|url=https://asiatimes.com/article/dedicated-police-team-resisted-odds-crack-asifa-rape-case |title= Dedicated police team resisted odds to crack Asifa rape case |date= 12 April 2018 |work= [[Asia Times]] |access-date= 13 April 2018 |language= en-GB}}</ref> The incident made national news when charges were filed against eight men in April 2018. The arrests of the accused led to protests seeking justice for the victim. The gang rape and murder, as well as the support the accused received especially from local officials of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], sparked widespread outrage in India and world-wide.<ref name="BBC" /><ref name="Outlook" /><ref name="WaPo" />

On 10 June 2019, six of the seven defendants were convicted and one acquitted.<ref name="sixconv">{{Cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48552354|title= Kathua child rape and murder: India court finds six guilty|date= 10 June 2019 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date= 10 June 2019 |language= en-GB}}</ref> Three of those convicted were sentenced to life imprisonment and the remaining three to five years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newsnation.in/india-news/breaking-kathua-rape-murder-case-three-convicts-sentenced-to-life-imprisonment-article-226991.html|title=Kathua Rape Case Court Result|date=10 June 2019|work=[[News Nation]] |access-date=10 June 2019|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Incident ==
===Complaint===
The 5600-word chargesheet filed by a [[Senior Superintendent of Police]] of [[Jammu]], states that on 12 January 2018, Mohammad Yusuf lodged a complaint in the [[Hiranagar]] police station stating that his daughter had gone missing. His complaint said that on 10 January 2018 his daughter, aged 8, had gone to watch over grazing horses at 12.30 p.m. She was seen at 2.00 p.m., but when the horses returned at 4.00 p.m., she was no longer with them. After searching for her and being unable to find her, her father registered a [[First Information Report]] (FIR) with the police.<ref name=FP>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/kathua-rape-and-murder-case-full-text-of-chargesheet-filed-by-jammu-and-kashmir-police-4426853.html|title=Kathua rape and murder case: Full text of chargesheet filed by Jammu and Kashmir Police - Firstpost|website=www.firstpost.com|date=11 April 2018|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref name=Quint>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/lawyers-prevent-chargesheet-in-kathua-rape-and-murder-case|title=Kathua Rape Charge-Sheet: An Account of Monstrosity and Barbarism|work=The Quint|access-date=11 April 2018|language=en}}</ref>

===Discovery and arrests===
On 17 January 2018, the body of the victim was found and taken into custody by the police to allow an autopsy to be conducted. The postmortem was conducted by a team of doctors at the District Hospital in Kathua at 2:30 PM on the same day. On 22 January 2018, the investigation of the case was transferred to the Crime Branch and Crime Headquarters, Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name=FP/><ref name=Quint/> A statement released by the police listed seven individuals who had been arrested and charged over the crime, including four police officers.<ref name="Outlook" /> A total of eight people, including four police officers, were arrested.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/father-son-duo-held-in-kathua-rape-case/article23306298.ece|title=Father-son duo held in Kathua rape case|date=21 March 2018|work=The Hindu|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="IE" /> Two of the police officers were arrested on suspicion of attempting to destroy evidence<ref name=Outlook/> and of accepting money to cover up the incident. One of the accused claimed to be 15 years old, though a medical examination later suggested he was 19. Sanji Ram, one of the accused, was described by the police as having devised the plan of kidnap and murder.<ref name=NYT2/> The chargesheet against the seven adults accused of the crime was filed on 9 April. The accused were charged under Sections 302, 376, 201 and 120-B of the [[Ranbir Penal Code]]. A chargesheet against the remaining individual was under preparation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/chargesheet-submitted-in-kathua-rape-and-murder-case/article23484940.ece|title=Chargesheet submitted in Kathua rape and murder case|date=20 June 2017|work=The Hindu|access-date=10 April 2018|last1=Ashiq|first1=Peerzada}}</ref>

===Forensic evidence===
The post-mortem revealed the presence of [[clonazepam]] in the body of the dead girl.<ref name="IE">{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/kathua-rape-murder-case-tests-confirm-victim-held-in-prayer-hall-was-sedated-5123806/|title=Kathua rape-murder case: Tests confirm victim held in prayer hall, was sedated|date=5 April 2018|publisher=The Indian Express|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref> The examination by the doctors found that the girl had been drugged with a sedative before she was raped and murdered. Forensic evidence suggested that she had been held for several days by Sanji Ram, one of the individuals accused of the crime. Strands of hair recovered from the temple matched those taken from the girl.<ref name=Outlook>{{Cite news|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/jk-kathua-rape-and-murder-of-8-year-old-girl-was-aimed-at-driving-nomads-out-off/309368|title=J&K: Kathua Rape-And-Murder Of 8-Year-Old Girl Was Aimed At Driving Nomads Out: Official|work=Outlook India|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref> The forensic examination stated that Bano had been raped multiple times by different men, and that she had been strangled to death, as well as hit in the head with a heavy stone.<ref name="WaPo"/>

The Delhi Forensic Science Laboratory analyzed 14 packets of evidence containing vaginal swabs, hair strands, blood samples of four accused, viscera of the deceased girl, the girl's [[frock]] and [[salwar]], simple clay, and blood stained clay. Vaginal swabs matched with the [[DNA]] of the accused as did some other samples. Hair strands found in the temple where Asifa was raped matched that of the girl and the accused.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/kathua-rape-murder-case-vaginal-swabs-match-with-accused-says-forensic-lab-5145827/|title=Kathua rape-murder case: Vaginal swabs match with accused, says forensic lab|date = 2018-04-21|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2018-04-21|language=en-US}}</ref>

===The accused===
Sanji Ram was found to be the main accused in the case. He was the priest of the family temple where the incident took place. His son Vishal Jangotra and his nephew, a juvenile, were also accused in the case. The other accused individuals were identified as Deepak Khajuria and Parvesh Kumar, who are police officers; Tilak Raj, a head constable and Arvind Dutta, a sub-inspector. The police contested the claim that the nephew was a juvenile.<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com"/><ref name="economictimes.indiatimes.com"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kathua-case-police-to-produce-witnesses-including-ssp-tomorrow/articleshow/64533137.cms|title=Kathua case: Police to produce witnesses including SSP tomorrow - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=10 June 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/apr/18/kathua-rape-devasthan-belonged-to-a-family-and-was-not-open-to-all-says-crime-branch-official-1802894.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418090133/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/apr/18/kathua-rape-devasthan-belonged-to-a-family-and-was-not-open-to-all-says-crime-branch-official-1802894.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 April 2018|title=Kathua rape: Devasthan belonged to a family and was not open to all, says Crime branch official|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> Vishal Jangotra claimed to be in Meerut attending an exam. However, according to the Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL), his signature does not match the signature on the exam attendance sheet<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/jammu-kashmir/kathua-case-accused-s-signatures-match-with-exam-sheet/592265.html|title=Kathua case: Accused's signatures don't match with exam sheet|website=[[Tribune India]]}}{{Dead link|date=December 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but based on purported CCTV footage, Vishal Jangotra was in a Muzaffarnagar ATM on the day of the crime.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/photo-gallery-watch-zee-news-cctv-footage-which-showed-kathua-acquitted-vishal-was-in-muzaffarnagar-2759301 |title=Watch: Zee News CCTV footage which showed Kathua acquitted Vishal was in Muzaffarnagar on day of crime|website=[[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]]}}</ref>

== Aftermath==
=== Communal tension ===
The incident resulted in widespread anger across Jammu and Kashmir. Following protests by members of the opposition, the state government handed over the investigation to the [[Crime Branch]] of the state police.<ref name=Outlook/> The chargesheet filed by the police stated that the abduction of the victim was planned in an attempt to get personal revenge by the accused, as well as to intimidate the [[Bakarwal]] community into moving out of the area.<ref name=Outlook/> The Bakarwal people are a Muslim minority living in a Hindu-dominated [[Kathua district]].<ref name=NDTV2/> The fact that Asifa was held in a Hindu temple increased the communal tension it generated.<ref name=NYT2/> Local leaders of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] stated that the arrests had been made under political pressure, and asked for the crime to be probed by the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] (CBI).<ref name="IE" /> Jammu and Kashmir Chief Minister Mehbooba Mufti, whose [[Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party|People's Democratic Party]] shares power in the state with the BJP, rejected the demand.<ref name="Outlook" /> News reports suggested that the demand for a CBI probe was an effort to make the investigation lenient on the accused; the CBI is a branch of the Indian Union government, controlled by the Indian Union government.<ref name=NYT2/> [[Madhya Pradesh]] BJP President stated that militants from [[Pakistan]] were to blame for the rape and murder; his statement received criticism in the press.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mp-bjp-chief-sees-pak-hand-in-kathua-rape-case/articleshow/63739101.cms|title=MP BJP chief sees Pak hand in Kathua rape case - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref>

The victim's community planned to bury her in a graveyard where they had purchased some land a few years previously. The victim's father stated that when the family attempted to bury Asifa, they were threatened with violence by right-wing Hindu activists, and were compelled to bury her in a different village.<ref name=edge/>

=== Protests supporting the accused===
Right-wing Hindu groups staged protests against the arrests of the accused individuals, who are all Hindus.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-05-16|title=India's Muslims fear for their future under Narendra Modi|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48278441|access-date=2020-11-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-04-12|title=Politics over rape: Hindu extremists demand release of 8-year-old Muslim girl's rapists in held-Kashmir|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1401163|access-date=2020-11-05|website=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]], [[Associated Press]]|language=en}}</ref> Individuals across party lines set up an organisation called the "Hindu Ekta Manch" (Hindu Unity Movement) which argued that the arrested individuals were innocent.<ref name=NDTV1>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/shielding-jammu-child-rape-murder-accused-lawyers-block-chargesheet-1834928|title=Shielding Jammu Child Rape, Murder Accused, Lawyers Block Chargesheet|publisher=Ndtv.com|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref> Two ministers of the ruling [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], Forest Minister [[Lal Singh Chaudhary (politician)|Lal Singh Chaudhary]] and Industries Minister [[Chander Prakash (politician)|Chander Prakash]], attended one of the protests.<ref name=BBC/> One of the women protesters told ''[[The New York Times]]'' that they were "against our religion", and stated that the protesters would burn themselves if the accused were not released.<ref name=NYT2>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/11/world/asia/india-girl-rape.html|title=An 8-Year-Old's Rape and Killing Fuels Religious Tensions in India|last=Gettleman|first=Jeffrey|newspaper=The New York Times |date=11 April 2018|access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref> While attempting to file charges against the accused on 9 April, the Crime Branch police were met with protests from lawyers in front of the Chief Judicial Magistrate's office in Kathua. The lawyers were protesting in support of the Hindu Ekta Manch, and tried to prevent the charges from being filed; the chargesheet was submitted eventually after police reinforcements arrived.<ref name="NDTV1"/> This support for individuals accused of rape led to widespread social outrage.<ref name=BBC/> An FIR was filed against lawyers protesting in support of Hindu Ekta Manch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/kathua-rape-case-fir-filed-against-lawyers-trying-to-block-chargesheet-bar-association-calls-for-jammu-bandh-today-4426691.html|title=Kathua rape case: FIR filed against lawyers trying to block chargesheet; bar association calls for Jammu bandh today - Firstpost|website=www.firstpost.com|date=11 April 2018|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref>

=== Fines for disclosing the identity of the victim ===
The [[Delhi]] [[List of high courts in India|High Court]] issued a fine of [[Indian rupee sign|₹]] 10 lakhs (1 million) rupees on twelve media houses in India for disclosing the name of the rape victim as well as other details including the usage of photographs of the victim. This action by the High Court of New Delhi was taken ''[[Sua sponte|suo-motu]]'' and under the [[Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012]] and the [[Indian Penal Code]]. The fine was to be paid within a week. The money collected from the fine has gone to the Jammu and Kashmir Victim Compensation Scheme.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/media-houses-apologise-before-delhi-hc-for-revealing-kathua-victim-identity/article23583511.ece|title=Delhi HC asks media houses to pay penalty for revealing Kathua victim's identity|last=Singh|first=Soibam Rocky|date=2018-04-18|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-04-24|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/apr/18/kathua-rape-and-murder-case-delhi-high-court-slaps-rs-10-lakh-fine-on-media-houses-for-revealing-vi-1803122.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419190215/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/apr/18/kathua-rape-and-murder-case-delhi-high-court-slaps-rs-10-lakh-fine-on-media-houses-for-revealing-vi-1803122.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 April 2018|title=Kathua rape and murder case: Delhi High Court slaps Rs 10 lakh fine on media houses for revealing victim's identity|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=2018-04-24}}</ref>

The media houses included ''[[The Hindu]]'', ''[[The Times of India]]'', [[Republic TV]], ''[[The Indian Express]]'', ''[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]]'' and [[NDTV]]. Lawyers representing media houses claim that the mistake was only made because there was a misunderstanding that the law in this case only extended to naming and revealing information related to rape survivors, and not rape victims. Following this, media houses across the country blanked out the name of the victim online in already published articles also.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/LlVzIicAudFIG3AG8bYZ6K/Kathua-rape-HC-imposes-Rs10-lakh-fine-each-on-12-media-hous.html|title=Kathua rape: HC imposes Rs10 lakh fine each on 12 media houses for disclosing victim's identity|last=Singh|first=Aditi|date=2018-04-19|work=Livemint|access-date=2018-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/kathua-rape-case-media-companies-which-revealed-victims-name-fined|title=Delhi HC Fines Media Cos That Revealed Kathua Rape Victim's Name|work=The Quint|access-date=2018-04-24|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/kathua-rape-and-murder-case-media-houses-apologise-before-delhi-hc-for-revealing-victims-identity-4436297.html|title=Kathua rape and murder case: Media houses apologise before Delhi HC for revealing victim's identity - Firstpost|website=www.firstpost.com|date=18 April 2018|access-date=2018-04-24}}</ref>

== Trial ==
The trial for the Kathua murder and rape case began in Jammu and Kashmir on 16 April 2018 before the Principal Sessions Court judge, Kathua.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/accused-seek-narco-test-as-kathua-rape-and-murder-trial-begins/articleshow/63790316.cms|title=Accused seek narco test as Kathua rape-and-murder trial begins - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref> The second hearing was scheduled for 28 April 2018.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/kathua-rape-case-8-accused-plead-not-guilty-demand-narco-test-as-trial-begins-1838451|title=8 Accused Plead Not Guilty, Demand Narco Test As Kathua Rape Trial Begins|work=NDTV.com|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref> The Supreme Court sought a response from the Jammu and Kashmir government regarding shifting the trial to [[Chandigarh]] by 27 April 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kathua-rape-case-provide-security-to-victims-family-and-lawyer-sc-tells-jk-govt/article23557320.ece|title=Kathua rape case: provide security to victim's family and lawyer, SC tells J&K govt.|last=Rajagopal|first=Krishnadas|date=2018-04-16|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-04-19|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> A demand by [[Bhim Singh (politician)|Bhim Singh]], leader of the [[Jammu and Kashmir National Panthers Party|Panthers Party]], for an independent inquiry by the CBI was heard and denied by the [[Supreme Court of India]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.uniindia.com/hand-over-kathua-rape-murder-case-to-cbi-bhim-urges-pm/states/news/1200017.html|title=Hand over Kathua rape-murder case to CBI: Bhim urges PM|date=14 April 2018|work=United News of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/kathua-rape-case-sc-directs-j-k-govt-to-provide-security-to-victims-kin-lawyers-5139347/|title=Kathua victim's father says shift trial, Supreme Court seeks J-K govt reply|date=2018-04-17|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2018-04-18|language=en-US|quote="Ordinarily, police is the authority for investigation. A case has to be made out that it (investigation) is not going in the right manner. In the absence of that, as presently advised, we are not entering into that," the bench told Senior Advocate and National Panthers Party Chief Patron Bhim Singh, who sought to intervene in the matter.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/sc-query-on-plea-for-trial-transfer-223965|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419053331/https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/sc-query-on-plea-for-trial-transfer-223965|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 April 2018|title=SC query on plea for trial transfer|work=The Telegraph|access-date=2018-04-18|language=en|quote=The bench, however, made it clear that it would not allow any intervention application after senior advocate and J&K Panthers Party leader Bhim Singh pleaded that the matter be entrusted to an independent agency like the CBI.}}</ref>

On 7 May 2018, the Supreme Court of India shifted the case from Jammu and Kashmir to [[Pathankot]]. The Supreme Court instructed the trial to be fast-tracked. The trial was closed to the public and press according to orders from the Supreme Court. The trial also was held in-camera as per instructions from the Supreme Court.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/trial-in-kathua-case-moved-to-pathankot/article23807424.ece|title=Trial in Kathua case moved to Pathankot|last1=Rajagopal|first1=Krishnadas|date=2018-05-08|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-07-04|last2=Rajagopal|first2=Krishnadas|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/kathua-rape-murder-trial-shifted-to-pathankot-118050700929_1.html|title=Kathua rape-murder trial shifted to Pathankot|last=IANS|date=2018-05-07|work=Business Standard India|access-date=2018-07-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/kathua-rape-and-murder-trial-supreme-court-tells-witnesses-to-go-to-high-court-for-protection-1876537|title=Supreme Court Tells Kathua Witnesses To Go To High Court For Protection|work=NDTV.com|access-date=2018-07-04}}</ref>

The trial was being held under the [[Ranbir Penal Code]], according to laws in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name=":2" />

On 14 November 2018, the family of the rape victim decided to drop their lawyer Deepika Rajawat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/kathua-victims-family-drops-lawyer-says-she-barely-appeared-in-court-1947864|title=Kathua Victim's Family Drops Lawyer, Says She Came To Court Just Twice|work=NDTV.com|access-date=2018-11-15}}</ref> The application to remove the power of attorney was filed before the trial court in [[Pathankot]], where the girl's father said Rajawat won't be representing them in the case anymore stating her security concerns and general lack of interest in the case.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/mirror-now/in-focus/article/kathua-case-8-year-old-victims-family-removes-advocate-deepika-singh-rajawat-as-attorney/314224|title=Kathua rape & murder case: Victim's family removes Deepika Singh Rajawat as attorney citing threat to her life|access-date=2018-11-15|language=en-GB}}</ref> Over 100 hearings have taken place so far, but Deepika Rajawat was only present twice.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://theprint.in/governance/kathua-rape-murder-victims-family-dumps-lawyer-activist-deepika-singh-rajawat/149620/|title=Kathua rape-murder victim's family dumps lawyer-activist Deepika Singh Rajawat|last=Sethi|first=Chitleen|date=14 November 2018|work=The Print}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/family-of-kathua-victim-drops-lawyer-says-she-seldom-came-to-court/articleshow/66638101.cms|title=Family of Kathua victim drops lawyer, says she seldom came to court - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-11-15}}</ref>

=== Sentencing ===
On 10 June 2019, six of the seven defendants were found guilty, and one was acquitted.<ref name="sixconv" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/express-daily-briefing-kathua-rape-and-murder-case-verdict-likely-today-champions-get-a-masterclass-in-2019-and-more-5772648/|title=Express daily briefing: Kathua rape-and-murder case verdict likely today, Champions get a masterclass in 2019 and more|date=2019-06-10|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> Sanji Ram, Deepak Khajuria and Pravesh Kumar were sentenced to life imprisonment for 25 years, along with a fine of ₹1,00,000.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kathua-rape-murder-case-verdict-1546315-2019-06-11|title=Kathua rape-murder case: Life sentence for 3 {{!}} All that happened in 10 points|newspaper=India Today|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12|agency=Ist}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kathua-rape-murder-case-mastermind-sanji-ram-five-others-convicted-by-special-court-1545855-2019-06-10|title=Kathua rape-murder case: Mastermind Sanji Ram, 2 others given life sentence, 5-year jail term for 3 cops|newspaper=India Today|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12|agency=Ist}}</ref> The other three accused - Tilak Raj, Anand Dutta and Surender Verma were sentenced to five years in jail for destroying crucial evidence in the case. The court acquitted Sanji Ram's son, Vishal Jangotra due to lack of evidence. The eighth accused, Sanji Ram's juvenile nephew, was tried at a juvenile court.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/video/kathua-rape-murder-case-verdict-6-accused-convicted-out-of-7-1545857-2019-06-10|title=Kathua rape-murder case verdict: 6 accused convicted out of 7|website=India Today|date=10 June 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref>

=== FIR against SIT ===
On 22 October 2019, a Jammu court ordered an FIR to be filed against members of the J&K Crime Branch's [[Special Investigation Team (India)|Special Investigation Team]] (SIT), which probed the rape and murder in Kathua case. The order was based on a complaint from Sachin Sharma, Neeraj Sharma and Sahil Sharma alleging torture during interrogation to "provide false evidence" against one of the accused Vishal Jangotra, who was later acquitted in the case.<ref name="sittrial">{{cite web |title=In Fresh Twist to Kathua Rape-Murder, Court Orders Case Against SIT Members for 'Torturing' Witnesses |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/court-asks-police-to-file-fir-against-probe-team-in-kathua-gangrape-murder-case-for-torturing-witnesses-2357033.html |website=News18 |date=22 October 2019 |access-date=23 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Court orders FIR against Kathua rape investigators |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/court-orders-fir-against-kathua-rape-investigators-6082948/ |website=The Indian Express |access-date=23 October 2019 |language=en-IN |date=23 October 2019}}</ref>

== Reactions ==
[[File:Memorial for the Kathua Rape Case at the Indian Consulate in Munich, Germany.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Memorial for the Kathua rape victim at the Indian Consulate in Munich, Germany]]
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width =
| image1 = Kathua Unnao Protests New Delhi.jpg
| caption1 =
| image2 = Kathua Unnao Protest New Delhi.jpg
| caption2 =
| footer = Joint protests for the Kathua rape case and [[Unnao rape case]] at [[Sansad Marg|Parliament Street]], [[New Delhi]] on 15 April 2018.<ref>{{cite news|title=Not In My Name protests launched after Kathua, Unnao cases; hundreds march over atrocities against minorities|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/not-in-my-name-protests-launched-after-kathua-unnao-cases-hundreds-march-over-atrocities-against-minorities-4432897.html|date=15 April 2018|access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref>
}}
The rape and murder drew widespread condemnation. On 18 January opposition parties in Jammu and Kashmir staged a walkout from the [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] in protest of the incident.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/kathua-rape-case-fir-filed-against-lawyers-trying-to-block-chargesheet-bar-association-calls-for-jammu-bandh-today-4426691.html|title=Kathua rape case: FIR filed against lawyers trying to block chargesheet; bar association calls for Jammu bandh today - Firstpost|website=www.firstpost.com|date=11 April 2018|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> Various protests were held across Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-kathua-rape-a-day-of-multihued-protests-in-jammu-and-kashmir-2603745|title=Kathua rape: A day of multihued protests in Jammu and Kashmir|date=12 April 2018|work=DNA|access-date=13 April 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> The arrests of the accused led to protests by the [[Jammu and Kashmir National Panthers Party|Panthers Party]] and other local groups, who sought justice for the victim.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://kashmirreader.com/2018/03/08/over-70-jknpp-activists-detained-in-jammu/|title=Over 70 JKNPP activists detained in Jammu|work=Kashmir Reader|access-date=2018-04-20|language=en-gb|archive-date=20 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420202942/https://kashmirreader.com/2018/03/08/over-70-jknpp-activists-detained-in-jammu/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.catchnews.com/national-news/kathua-rape-case-jknpp-demands-cbi-inquiry-107399.html|title=Kathua rape case: JKNPP demands CBI inquiry|work=Catch News India|access-date=2018-04-20|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/after-kathua-rape-false-binaries-expose-existing-fault-lines-hate-and-mistrust-in-jammu-1722635.html|title=After Kathua Rape, False Binaries Expose Hate and Mistrust in Jammu|work=CNN-News18|access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/jammu-kashmir/out-of-cabinet-lal-singh-goes-vitriolic-against-cm/575469.html|title=Out of Cabinet, Lal Singh goes vitriolic against CM|date=18 April 2018|work=The Tribune|access-date=20 April 2018|archive-date=21 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421130452/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/jammu-kashmir/out-of-cabinet-lal-singh-goes-vitriolic-against-cm/575469.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The rape and murder made headlines in India when the charges were filed in April.<ref name=BBC>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43749235|title=Outrage spreads over eight-year-old's rape|date=13 April 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=13 April 2018|language=en-GB}}</ref>

Jammu and Kashmir Chief Minister [[Mehbooba Mufti]] stated that the investigation would be carried out quickly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/kathua-rape-and-murder-case-union-minister-promises-justice-to-victim-jammu-and-kashmir-cm-mehbooba-mufti-vows-fast-track-investigation/articleshow/63740641.cms|title=Kathua rape and murder case: Jammu and Kashmir CM Mehbooba Mufti vows fast-track investigation|work=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/india/jammu-and-kashmir-cm-mehbooba-mufti-rebukes-protesting-lawyers-promises-justice-in-asifa-case|title=Mehbooba rebukes protesting lawyers, promises justice for Kathua rape victim|access-date=13 April 2018|language=en}}</ref> Mufti also stated that the [[death penalty]] would be made mandatory for individuals convicted of raping a minor.<ref name=NDTV2>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/jammu-and-kashmir-to-make-death-penalty-must-for-rape-of-minors-after-kathua-rape-murder-case-1836860|title=Jammu And Kashmir To Make Death Penalty Must For Rape Of Minors After Kathua Rape-Murder Case|work=NDTV.com|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> [[Maneka Gandhi]], the Indian Minister of Women and Child Development, also expressed support for the death penalty in cases of child rape, and stated that her ministry would move a Cabinet note to amend [[Child sexual abuse laws in India#The Protection of Children from Sexual Offenses Act|The Protection of Children from Sexual Offenses Act]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/kathua-rape-case-maneka-gandhi-to-ask-for-death-penalty-for-child-rape-1836964|title=Kathua Rape Case: Maneka Gandhi To Ask For Death Penalty For Child Rape|work=NDTV.com|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> Advocate [[Deepika Singh Rajawat]] took over the trial pro-bono for the victims family.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lawyer Who Represented Kathua Rape Accused Gets Government Post |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/lawyer-who-represented-kathua-rape-accused-gets-government-post-1885668 |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

On 13 April 2018, the Prime Minister of India, [[Narendra Modi]], as well as the [[Supreme Court of India]], made statements condemning the incident and said justice would be ensured.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/women/kathua-unnao-rape-narendra-modi|title=Narendra Modi Breaks Silence on Kathua, Unnao Rapes, Promises Justice - The Wire|website=The Wire|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/kathua-case-muslim-girl-gang-raped-murdered-in-hindu-temple-chargesheet-rahul-gandhi-midnight-march-against-modi-unnao-10-updates-on-what-happened-in-jammu-118041300145_1.html|title=Kathua, Unnao rapes: Modi ends silence, assures 'complete justice'; updates|last=Team|first=BS Web|date=13 April 2018|work=Business Standard India|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> [[United Nations]] Secretary-General [[António Guterres]] stated that the "guilty must be held responsible" and described the incident as "horrific". The United Nations also expressed hopes that authorities will bring perpetrators to justice.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/hope-authorities-bring-kathua-rape-perpetrators-to-justice-un-chief/articleshow/63758900.cms|title=Guilty must be held accountable: UN chief on Kathua rape|work=The Times of India|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref>

Several celebrities and prominent politicians voiced anger over the incident.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/sania-mirza-s-patriotism-questioned-for-speaking-on-kathua-gang-rape-case-here-s-her-reply/story-Zq6z8Q19mpjWgggbf2svkN.html|title=Sania Mirza's patriotism 'questioned' for speaking on Kathua gang rape case, here's her reply|date=12 April 2018|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=13 April 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|work=Times Now|title=Is this the country we live in: Sania Mirza tweets on Kathua rape case|date=12 April 2018 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/is-this-the-country-we-live-in-sania-mirza-tweets-on-kathua-rape-case/videoshow/63728453.cms|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref> On 12 April 2018, a [[candlelight march]] was held at [[India Gate]], New Delhi. It was attended by [[Indian National Congress]] leaders including [[Rahul Gandhi]], [[Sonia Gandhi]], [[Ghulam Nabi Azad]], and [[Priyanka Gandhi]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kathua-rape-murder-aftermath-10-developments/articleshow/63744715.cms|title=Kathua rape-murder aftermath: 10 developments - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/crime-against-humanity-rahul-gandhi-breaks-silence-on-asifa-case-1836745|title=Rahul Gandhi Leads Candlelight Vigil In Delhi Demanding Justice In Kathua, Unnao Cases|work=NDTV.com|access-date=13 April 2018}}</ref>

An assistant manager working for [[Kotak Mahindra Bank]] in Kerala, generated outrage on social media for condoning the rape on [[Facebook]], and stating "it is better that [Asifa is] killed now otherwise she would have been a bomb tomorrow". He was later fired by the bank.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kerala-bank-fires-employee-for-saying-it-s-better-kathua-rape-victim-was-killed/story-NRuOKegO2qsjw9v6xatBvM.html|title=Kerala bank fires employee for saying it's 'better' Kathua rape victim was killed|date=14 April 2018|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=14 April 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/good-she-was-killed-says-kerala-man-of-kathua-rape-victim-case-filed/573823.html|title=Good she was killed, says Kerala man of Kathua rape victim; case filed|date=14 April 2018|work=The Tribune|access-date=14 April 2018|language=en|archive-date=11 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111192930/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/good-she-was-killed-says-kerala-man-of-kathua-rape-victim-case-filed/573823.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Due to the Kathua rape case and the [[2017 Unnao rape case]] incidents coming to the limelight in the national discourse at the same time, joint protests for both the incidents were carried out together in various parts of the country such as [[Mumbai]], [[Chennai]], [[Kolkata]] and [[New Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/kathua-unnao-rapes-rage-on-the-street/article23531437.ece|title=Kathua, Unnao rapes: rage on the street|last=Dhanrajani|first=Rachna|date=2018-04-14|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-04-14|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/mumbai-news/hundreds-of-mumbaikars-assemble-to-protest-kathua-unnao-rape-cases-1837404|title=Hundreds Of Mumbaikars Assemble To Protest Kathua, Unnao Rape Cases|work=NDTV.com|access-date=2018-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/congress-march-live-updates-party-holds-nationwide-protest-seeks-justice-in-kathua-unnao-rape-cases-4430627.html|title=Congress march highlights: Party holds nationwide protest, seeks justice in Kathua, Unnao rape cases LIVE News, Latest Updates, Live blog, Highlights and Live coverage - Firstpost|website=www.firstpost.com|date=13 April 2018|access-date=2018-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/mumbai-protests-against-kathua-unnao-rapes|title=Chennai, Kolkata Take to Streets to Protest Kathua, Unnao Rapes|work=The Quint|access-date=2018-04-14|language=en}}</ref>

Former minister, [[Harsh Dev Singh]], led protests by the Panthers Party, demanding an independent [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] probe into the matter,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/only-cbi-probe-can-ensure-justice-in-kathua-murder-case-jknpp-1202859-2018-04-02|title=Only CBI probe can ensure justice in Kathua murder case: JKNPP|website=India Today|date=2 April 2018 |language=en|access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.statetimes.in/jknpp-chairman-harsh-dev-singh-protest-and-demands-cbi-inquiry-to-rasana-murder-case/|title=JKNPP Chairman Harsh Dev Singh protest and demands CBI inquiry to Rasana murder case.|work=State Times|access-date=2018-04-20|language=en-GB}}</ref> that was refused by Chief Minister Mehbooba Mufti.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/jknpp-demands-resignation-of-bjp-ministers-118041500467_1.html|title=JKNPP demands resignation of BJP ministers|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2018-04-15|work=Business Standard India|access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/video/angry-protesters-take-to-streets-in-jammu-demand-cbi-probe-into-kathua-rape-case-1216214-2018-04-20|title=Angry protesters take to streets in Jammu, demand CBI probe into Kathua rape case|website=India Today|date=20 April 2018 |language=en|access-date=2018-04-20}}</ref>

[[Raj Shrikant Thackeray]] of the [[Maharashtra Navnirman Sena]] criticized the BJP for "supporting the rapists" and "communalising the incident". He suggested [[sharia]] type punishment for the rapists. He said "These BJP leaders created Hindu Ekta Manch in Jammu which held a rally shouting slogans of [[Bharat Mata Ki Jai|Bharat Mata ki jai]] (translation: victory to mother India), waving the [[Flag of India|tricolour]] in favour of rapists. How can you even think of doing so? The eight-year-old innocent child was not even aware of her religion and had to undergo such pain. Here we have a party which is protecting the rapists".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/raj-thackeray-slams-bjp-for-backing-rapists-in-kathua-rape-case/articleshow/63774617.cms|title=Raj Thackeray slams BJP for "backing rapists" in Kathua rape case|access-date=2018-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/bjp-communalising-kathua-rape-says-raj-thackeray/story-NrJLLfxWWNenPBaTyMfPHO.html|title=BJP communalising Kathua rape, says Raj Thackeray}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.siasat.com/news/raj-thackeray-bats-shariah-punishment-rapes-1343180/|title=Raj Thackeray bats for Shariah like punishment for rapes}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Rape in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Rape in India}}

[[Category:Gang rape in India]]
[[Category:2010s in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:January 2018 crimes in Asia]]
[[Category:Female murder victims]]
[[Category:Hinduism-motivated violence in India]]
[[Category:2018 murders in India]]
[[Category:Child sexual abuse in India]]
[[Category:Rape in the 2010s]]
[[Category:Incidents of violence against girls]]
[[Category:Anti-Muslim violence in Kashmir]]
[[Category:Femicide in India]]
[[Category:Kathua district]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Murder in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Child murder in India]]
[[Category:Murder committed by minors]]
[[Category:Indian torture victims]]
[[Category:Modi administration]]
[[Category:Trials in India]]

Subbaraya Sarma

2026-05-06T11:25:34Z

LucasRowan:

{{Short description|Indian actor (born 1947)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Subbaraya Sarma
| image = Sarma-Actor-Profile.jpg
| birth_name = Uppaluri Subbaraya Sarma
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1947|01|03}}
| birth_place = [[Vijayawada]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Actor
| years active = 1967–present
| known_for =
}}
'''Subbaraya Sarma''' is an Indian actor known for his works in [[Telugu cinema]], [[Telugu theatre|theatre]], and television.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/person/subbaraya-sarma/IEIN021309|title=Subbaraya Sarma - Movies, Biography, News, Age & Photos|website=BookMyShow|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223161144/https://in.bookmyshow.com/person/subbaraya-sarma/IEIN021309|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://events.fullhyderabad.com/kalabhishekam-awards-by-aradhana/2007-july/tickets-dates-videos-reviews-21422-1.html|title=Kalabhishekam Awards By Aradhana: Events in Hyderabad - fullhyd.com|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223161156/https://events.fullhyderabad.com/kalabhishekam-awards-by-aradhana/2007-july/tickets-dates-videos-reviews-21422-1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In a film career spanning more than fifty years, Sarma played a variety of roles as a [[character actor]] and [[comedian]].

In 1989, he received the Tri-Annual Best Actor award for the play ''Onteddu Bandi'' written by [[L. B. Sriram]].<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto2"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2019/oct/29/amidst-controversy-ghantasalas-biopic-ready-for-release-15199.html|title=Amidst controversy, Ghantasala's biopic ready for release|website=[[Cinema Express]]|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223161142/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2019/oct/29/amidst-controversy-ghantasalas-biopic-ready-for-release-15199.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Sarma is best known for his acting in works such as ''[[Srivariki Premalekha]]'' (1984), ''Bava Bava Panneeru'' (1989), ''[[Yamaleela]]'' (1994), ''[[Subhalagnam|Subha Lagnam]]'' (1994), ''[[Mayalodu]]'' (1993), ''[[Matru Devo Bhava|Matrudevobhava]]'' (1993), ''[[Gangotri (2003 film)|Gangotri]]'' (2003), ''[[Magadheera]]'' (2009), ''[[Top Hero]]'' (1994), ''[[Dharma Chakram]]'' (1996), ''[[Manasantha Nuvve]]'' (2001), ''[[Baahubali: The Beginning]]'' (2015), and ''[[Rudhramadevi (film)|Rudhramadevi]]'' (2015).<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0765349/|title=Subbaraya Sarma - IMDb|website=IMDb|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=13 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513232539/http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0765349/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinestaan.com/people/subbaraya-sarma-18937|title=Subbaraya Sarma movies, filmography, biography and songs - Cinestaan.com|website=Cinestaan|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223161141/https://www.cinestaan.com/people/subbaraya-sarma-18937|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Selected filmography==

=== Films ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1984
| ''[[Srivariki Premalekha]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1987
|''Yugakartalu''
|
|
|-
|''Chandamama Raave''
|
|
|-
|1988
|''[[O Bharya Katha]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latest Telugu News, Movies, Celebrities, Images & Videos {{!}} V CINEMA |url=https://www.vcinema.com/movie/o-bharya-katha-1988 |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=www.vcinema.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=shared&v=Xb659PMsgN4 |title=O Bharya Katha Full Movie {{!}} Chandra Mohan, Jayasudha, Sarath Babu, Kota Srinivasa Rao {{!}} ETV Cinema |date=2024-11-07 |last=ETV Cinema |access-date=2024-11-08 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
|Prospective bridegroom's father
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1989 || ''[[Hai Hai Nayaka]]''|| ||
|-
| ''Bava Bava Panneeru''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1991 || ''[[Vichitra Prema]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Indra Bhavanam]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Minor Raja]]''|| ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1993
| ''Ladies Special''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Mayalodu]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Matrudevobhava]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1994
| ''[[Number One (1994 film)|Number One]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Subhalagnam|Subha Lagnam]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Top Hero]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Yamaleela]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1995
| ''[[Rikshavodu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Alibaba Adbhuta Deepam]]''<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7XFc5qZm4A |title=ALI BABA ADBHUTA DEEPAM {{!}} TELUGU FULL MOVIE {{!}} ALI {{!}} SUBHASHRI {{!}} SRI SHANTHI {{!}} V9 VIDEOS |language=en |access-date=2024-04-01 |via=www.youtube.com}}</ref>
|Rao, Indu's father
|
|-
|''Dear Brother''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sisindri]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Ghatothkachudu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="7" | 1996
|''[[Dharma Chakram]]''
|
|
|-
|''Nayudu Gari Kutumbam''
|
|
|-
|''College Student''
|
|
|-
|''Amma Durgamma''
|
|
|-
|''[[Gunshot (film)|Gunshot]]''
|
|
|-
|''Akkum Bakkum''
|
|
|-
|''[[Maavichiguru]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="8" |1997
|''[[Korukunna Priyudu]]''
|
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiancine.ma/APND/|title=Korukunna Priyudu (1997)|date=1997|website=Indiancine.ma|access-date=31 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Priya O Priya]]''
|
|
|-
|''Kaliyugamlo Gandargolam''
|
|
|-
|''[[Egire Paavurama]]''
|
|
|-
|''Priyamaina Srivaru''
|
|
|-
|''[[Omkaram]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Pelli Chesukundam]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[W/o V. Vara Prasad]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="9" |1998
| ''[[Ganesh (1998 film)|Ganesh]]''
|
|
|-
|''Subbaraju Gari Kutumbam''
|
|
|-
|''[[Pandaga]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Deergha Sumangali Bhava]]''
|
|
|-
|''Navvulata''
|
|
|-
|''[[Pelli Peetalu]]''
|
|
|-
|''Sreevarante Maavare''
|
|
|-
|''Pelladi Chupista''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Suprabhatam (1998 film)|Suprabhatam]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |1999
|''[[Vichitram 1999 film|Vichitram]]''<ref>{{Citation |title=VICHITRAM {{!}} TELUGU FULL MOVIE {{!}} BRAMHANANDHAM {{!}} AVS {{!}} KAVITHA {{!}} V9 VIDEOS |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FSoMRL1a5No |access-date=2023-07-06 |language=en}}</ref>
|[[Deputy superintendent of police|D.S.P.]] Tirupathi
|
|-
|''[[Anaganaga Oka Ammai]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Premaku Velayera|Premaku Velayara]]''
|
|
|-
|[[Swapna Lokam|''Swapnalokam'']]
|
|
|-
|''[[Iddaru Mitrulu (1999 film)|Iddaru Mitrulu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="7" |2000
|''[[Sardukupodaam Randi]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Kauravudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sri Srimati Satyabhama|Sri Srimathi Satyabhama]]''
|
|
|-
|''Balaram''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sakutumba Saparivaara Sametam]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Annayya (2000 film)|Annayya]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Kodanda Ramudu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2001
| ''[[Manasantha Nuvve]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Prematho Raa]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Student No: 1]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Preminchu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="6" |2002
|''[[Nee Sneham]]''
|
|
|-
|''2 Much''
|
|
|-
|''[[Adrustam|Adrustham]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Vasu (film)|Vasu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Neethone Vuntanu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Nuvvu Leka Nenu Lenu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2003
|''[[Tagore (film)|Tagore]]''
|
|
|-
|[[Gangotri (2003 film)|''Gangotri'']]
|
|
|-
|''[[Pellam Oorelithe]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2004
|''[[Koduku]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Guri (2004 film)|Guri]]'' || Subash Chandra Bose's father ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2005
| ''[[Pandem]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Chatrapathi (2005 film)|Chatrapathi]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Subash Chandra Bose (film)|Subhash Chandra Bose]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Allari Pidugu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2006
|''[[Sri Ramadasu]]''
|
|
|-
|''Kokila''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2007
|''Sri Satyanarayana Swamy''
|
|
|-
|''Bhajantrilu''
|
|
|-
|''[[Yamadonga]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Maharathi (2007 film)|Maharadhi]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2008
|''[[Souryam]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Pandurangadu]]''
|
|
|-
|''Nagaram''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2009
|''[[Sankham]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Magadheera]]''
|
|
|-
|''Vengamamba''
|
|
|-
|''Aa Intlo''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2010
|''[[Maryada Ramanna]]''
|
|
|-
|''Priyamaina Anjali''
|
|
|-
|''[[Panchakshari]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2011
| ''[[Anaganaga O Dheerudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sri Rama Rajyam]]''
|Viswamitra
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2014
|''[[Galipatam]]''
|
|
|-
|''Maha Bhaktha Siryala''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2015 || ''[[Baahubali: The Beginning]]''|| ||
|-
| [[Rudhramadevi (film)|''Rudhramadevi'']]|| ||
|-
| 2021 || [[Skylab (film)|''Skylab'']]|| ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |2025
|''[[Hari Hara Veera Mallu]]''
|Madanna
|
|-
|''[[Chiranjeeva]]''
|
|
|}

=== Television ===

* ''[[Popula Pette]]'' (1997)
* [[Rambo in Love|''Rambo in Love'']] (2025)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sarma, Subbaraya}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Indian slapstick comedians]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:Male actors from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Nandi Award winners]]
[[Category:Actors from Krishna district]]
[[Category:Telugu male actors]]
[[Category:Telugu comedians]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]

Howrah district

2026-05-06T07:59:57Z

LucasRowan: fixed layout as per guidelines for consistency

{{Short description|District in West Bengal, India}}
{{About|the district|its eponymous headquarters|Howrah|other uses|Howrah (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Howrah district
| native_name =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of West Bengal|District]] of [[West Bengal]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
|photo1a = Belur Math - Ramakrishna Math and around, Howrah, Kolkata- IRCTC 2017 (20).jpg
|photo1b = Andul Road & Danesh Sheikh Lane Junction - Howrah 050069.JPG
|photo2a = Tarani Majhi Ghat at Raspur, Amta 05.jpg
|photo2b = Santragachi Lake - Howrah 2013-01-25 3601.JPG
|photo3a = Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden - Howrah 2011-01-08 9744.JPG
|photo3b = Howrah Station.jpg
|size = 300
|foot_montage = Clockwise from top-left: [[Belur Math]], Andul Road and Danesh Sheikh Junction in [[Howrah]], [[Santragachhi]] Lake, [[Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden]], Tarani Majhi Ghat at Raspur, [[Howrah railway station]]
}}
| image_map = Howrah in West Bengal (India).svg
| mapsize = 300
| map_caption = Location of Howrah district in West Bengal
| coordinates = {{coord|22.5736296|N|88.3251045|E|display=inline,title|region:IN-WB}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Emblem of West Bengal (Banglarmukh) before 2018.png}} [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of West Bengal|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Presidency division|Presidency]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Howrah]]
| leader_title = [[List of subdivisions of West Bengal|Subdivisions]]
| leader_name = [[Howrah Sadar subdivision|Howrah Sadar]], [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]]
| leader_title1 = [[Community Development Block|CD Blocks]]
| leader_name1 = [[Bally Jagachha]], [[Domjur (community development block)|Domjur]], [[Panchla (community development block)|Panchla]], [[Sankrail (community development block)|Sankrail]], [[Jagatballavpur (community development block)|Jagatballavpur]], [[Amta I]], [[Amta II]], [[Bagnan I]], [[Bagnan II]], [[Uluberia I]], [[Uluberia II]], [[Shyampur I]], [[Shyampur II]], [[Udaynarayanpur]]
| leader_title2 = [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha constituencies]]
| leader_name2 = [[Howrah (Lok Sabha constituency)|Howrah]], [[Uluberia (Lok Sabha constituency)|Uluberia]], [[Serampore (Lok Sabha constituency)|Serampore]]
| leader_title3 = [[List of constituencies of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Sabha constituencies]]
| leader_name3 = [[Howrah Uttar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Howrah Uttar]], [[Howrah Madhya (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Howrah Madhya]], [[Shibpur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Shibpur]], [[Howrah Dakshin (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Howrah Dakshin]], [[Bally (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Bally]], [[Sankrail (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sankrail]], [[Panchla (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Panchla]], [[Uluberia Purba (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Uluberia Purba]], [[Uluberia Uttar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Uluberia Uttar]], [[Uluberia Dakshin (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Uluberia Dakshin]], [[Shyampur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Shyampur]], [[Bagnan (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Bagnan]], [[Amta (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Amta]], [[Udaynarayanpur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Udaynarayanpur]], [[Jagatballavpur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jagatballavpur]], [[Domjur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Domjur]]
| total_type = Total
| area_total_km2 = 1467
| area_footnotes =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 4,850,029
| population_footnotes =
| population_urban = 3074144
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_title1 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]]
| demographics1_info1 = 83.31 per cent
| demographics1_title2 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| demographics1_info2 = 935 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| demographics_type2 = Languages
| demographics2_title1 = Official
| demographics2_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<ref name="wblangoff">{{cite web|title=Fact and Figures|url=https://wb.gov.in/portal/web/guest/facts-and-figures;jsessionid=JzdD9RHb7aMY5esZPtcsIVLy|website=Wb.gov.in|access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India|url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|website=Nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=5 July 2019|page=85|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
| demographics2_title2 = Additional official
| demographics2_info2 = [[English language|English]]<ref name="wblangoff"/>
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| website = {{URL|https://howrah.gov.in/}}
}}

'''Howrah district''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|r|ə}}, {{IPA|bn|ˈɦao̯ɽa|lang}}) is a district of the [[West Bengal]] state in eastern [[India]]. Howrah district is one of the most highly urbanized areas in West Bengal. It has thousands of years of rich heritage in the form of the great Bengali kingdom of [[Bhurshut]]. The district is named after its headquarters, the city of [[Howrah]].<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20050907115747/http://www.nicd.org/Dst_Howrah.asp Howrah]}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Map of Howrah district .svg|300px|thumb|Map of Howrah District|left]]

The Howrah district lies between 22°48′ N and 22°12′ N latitudes and between 88°23′ E and 87°50′ E longitudes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howrah.gov.in/Templates/geography.htm|title=Geographical location of Howrah district and its headquarters|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223172520/http://howrah.gov.in/Templates/geography.htm|archive-date=23 December 2008}}</ref> The district is bounded by the [[Hooghly River]] and the [[North 24 Parganas]] and [[South 24 Parganas]] districts on the east, on the north by the [[Hooghly district]] (Arambagh and Shrirampur sub-divisions), and on the south by [[Midnapore East]] district ([[Tamluk]] sub-division). On the west Howrah district is bordered by the Ghatal sub-division of [[Midnapore West]] district, and partly by the Arambagh sub-division of Hooghly district to the north-west, and the Tamluk sub-division of [[Midnapore East]] district to the south-west.

Boundaries of the district are naturally determined by [[Rupnarayan River]] on west and south-west, and by [[Hooghly river|Bhagirathi-Hooghly river]] on east and south-east side. On north side, the boundary is an artificial one except for Bally Canal on north-east and [[Damodar River]] on north-west.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.howrah.gov.in/Templates/Howrah%20history.htm|title=Howrah, the second largest city of West Bengal and twin of Kolkata is said to have a rich history that dates back to 500 years|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220200439/http://howrah.gov.in/Templates/Howrah%20history.htm|archive-date=20 December 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Annual normal rainfall is 1461 millimetre per year. Annual maximum temperature varies between 32-39 °C, whereas minimum temperature varies between 8-10 °C.

==Divisions==
Howrah District is split into the [[Howrah Sadar subdivision]] and the [[Uluberia subdivision]]. The [[Howrah Sadar subdivision]] has 1 municipal corporation with 1 municipality and 5 [[Community development block in India|community development (CD) blocks]]. The [[Uluberia subdivision]] has 1 municipality and 9 community development blocks.

Each block consists of a rural area divided into [[gram panchayat]]s along with [[Census town#India|census towns]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_16.htm
|title=Population, Decadal Growth Rate, Density and General Sex Ratio by Residence and Sex, West Bengal/ District/ Sub District, 1991 and 2001
|access-date=12 October 2008 |work=West Bengal
|publisher=Directorate of census operations
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928204740/http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_16.htm
|archive-date=28 September 2011
}}</ref> The district has 30 police stations (Howrah Police Commissionerate has 16 general police stations including 1 Women PS, 1 Cyber Crime PS and Howrah Rural PD has 10 general police stations including 1 Women PS, 1 Cyber Crime PS), 157 gram panchayats<ref name=blocdir>{{cite web
|url=http://wbdemo5.nic.in/writereaddata/Directoryof_District_Block_GPs(RevisedMarch-2008).doc
|title=Directory of District, Sub division, Panchayat Samiti/ Block and Gram Panchayats in West Bengal, March 2008
|date=19 March 2008 |access-date=11 November 2008 |work=West Bengal
|publisher=National Informatics Centre, India
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225032419/http://wbdemo5.nic.in/writereaddata/Directoryof_District_Block_GPs%28RevisedMarch-2008%29.doc
|archive-date=25 February 2009
}}</ref> and 50 census towns.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Area !! Subdivision !! Type !! Notes
|-
| [[Howrah Municipal Corporation]] || [[Howrah Sadar subdivision|Howrah Sadar]] || Municipal Corporation || includes the merged [[Bally Municipality]] and total number of wards is sixty six now<ref>{{cite web |title=About HMC – Howrah Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.myhmc.in/about-hmc/ |website=About HMC |access-date=13 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Basu |first1=Pritesh |title=HMC sets up 'Mayor's Cop' to monitor civic amenities |url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/hmc-sets-up-mayors-cop-to-monitor-civic-amenities-118977 |access-date=13 January 2021 |work=www.millenniumpost.in |date=5 January 2016 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| [[Bally Jagachha]] || [[Howrah Sadar subdivision|Howrah Sadar]] || CD Block || consists of rural area with 8 gram panchayats and six census towns: Bally (different from Bally municipality), Chakapara, Chamrail, Eksara, Khalia and Jagadishpur Durgapur-Avoynagar1, Durgapur-Avoynagar2, Nischinda
|-
| [[Domjur (community development block)|Domjur]] || [[Howrah Sadar subdivision|Howrah Sadar]] || CD Block || consists of rural area with 18 gram panchayats and sixteen census towns: [[Domjur]], [[Dakshin Jhapardaha]], [[Khantora]], [[Bhandardaha]], [[Makardaha]], [[Kantlia]], [[Tentulkuli]], [[Salap]], [[Bankra]], [[Nibra]], [[Ankurhati]], [[Bipra Noapara]], [[Kalara]], [[Kesabpur, India|Kesabpur]], [[Natibpur]], and [[Mahiari]]
|-
| [[Panchla (community development block)|Panchla]] || [[Howrah Sadar subdivision|Howrah Sadar]] || CD Block || consists of rural area with 11 gram panchayats and seven census towns: [[Bikihakola]], [[Beldubi]], [[Deulpur]], [[Gangadharpur, Howrah|Gangadharpur]], Jujersha, Jala-Biswanathpur, Banaharishpur, Chara-Panchla, [[Panchla]], Subharara and [[Sahapur]]
|-
| [[Sankrail (community development block)|Sankrail]] || [[Howrah Sadar subdivision|Howrah Sadar]] || CD Block || consists of rural area with 16 gram panchayats and fourteen census towns: [[Argari]], [[Dhuilya]], [[Andul]], [[Ramchandrapur, India|Ramchandrapur]], [[Podara]], [[Panchpara]], [[Hatgachha]], [[Jhorhat]], Banipur, Mashila, [[Sankrail]], [[Manikpur, West Bengal|Manikpur]], [[Nalpur]], [[Raghudebbati]] and [[Sarenga]]
|-
| [[Jagatballavpur (community development block)|Jagatballavpur]] || [[Howrah Sadar subdivision|Howrah Sadar]] || CD Block || consists of rural area with 14 gram panchayats and two census town: [[Mansinhapur]] and [[Munsirhat]]
|-
| [[Uluberia|Uluberia Municipality]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || Municipality ||
|-
| [[Amta I]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area with 13 gram panchayats and Two census town: Amta and Guzarpur
|-
| [[Amta II]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area only with 14 gram panchayats and three census town: Khorop, Narit and Joypur
|-
| [[Bagnan I]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area with 10 gram panchayats and two census towns: [[Khalor]] and [[Bagnan]]
|-
| [[Bagnan II]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area with 7 gram panchayats and one census town: [[Naupala]]
|-
| [[Uluberia I]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area only with 9 gram panchayats.The most important village is Bar-Mongrajpur under Hatgacha-1 G.P.
|-
| [[Uluberia II]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area with 8 gram panchayats and three census towns: [[Santoshpur, Uluberia|Santoshpur]], [[Balaram Pota]] and [[Uttar Pirpur]]
|-
| [[Shyampur I]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area only with 10 gram panchayats
|-
| [[Shyampur II]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area only with 8 gram panchayats
|-
| [[Udaynarayanpur]] || [[Uluberia subdivision|Uluberia]] || CD Block || CD block consists of rural area only with 11 gram panchayats
|}

==Demographics==
{{See also| List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate}}

{{historical populations|11=1901|12=8,50,514|13=1911|14=9,43,502|15=1921|16=9,97,403|17=1931|18=10,98,867|19=1941|20=14,90,304|21=1951|22=16,11,373|23=1961|24=20,38,477|25=1971|26=24,17,286|27=1981|28=29,66,861|29=1991|30=37,29,644|31=2001|32=42,73,099|33=2011|34=48,50,029|percentages=pagr|footnote=source:<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref>|align=center}}

According to the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]] Howrah district has a [[Demographics of India|population]] of 4,850,029,<ref name=districtcensus>{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=District Census Handbook: Howrah |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1356/download/4438/DH_2011_1915_PART_A_DCHB_HAORA.pdf |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> roughly equal to the nation of [[Singapore]]<ref name="cia">{{cite web | author = US Directorate of Intelligence | title = Country Comparison:Population | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004507/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 13 June 2007 | access-date = 1 October 2011 | quote = Singapore 4,740,737 July 2011 est.
}}</ref> or the US state of [[Alabama]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php
|title=2010 Resident Population Data
|publisher=U. S. Census Bureau
|access-date=30 September 2011 |quote=Alabama 4,779,736
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019160532/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php
|archive-date=19 October 2013
}}</ref> This gives it a ranking of 23rd in India (out of a total of [[Districts of India|640]]).<ref name=districtcensus/> The district has a population density of {{convert| 3306 |PD/sqkm|PD/sqmi}}.<ref name=districtcensus/> Its [[Family planning in India|population growth rate]] over the decade 2001-2011 was 13.31%.<ref name=districtcensus/> 63.38% of the population lives in urban areas. Haora has a [[sex ratio]] of 935 [[Women in India|females]] for every 1000 males<ref name=districtcensus/> and a [[Literacy in India|literacy rate]] of 83.85%. 63.38% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 14.82% and 0.31% of the population respectively.<ref name=districtcensus/>

Total area in Howrah District is 1467 km2. Total population is 4,273,099 as per census 2001 records. 57.91% of the population live in Howrah Sadar subdivision and rest 42.09% live in Uluberia subdivision. Population Density: 2913 per km2.

=== Religion ===
{{bar box
|title=Religions of Howrah District (2011)<ref name="religion"/>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hinduism]]|darkorange|72.90}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in West Bengal|Islam]]|green|26.20}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.90}}
}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Religion in Howrah district
!Religion
!Population (1941)<ref name="1941religion">{{cite web |title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI BENGAL PROVINCE |url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/37365/GIPE-020591.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |access-date=13 August 2022}}</ref>{{rp|75}}
!Percentage (1941)
!Population (2011)<ref name="religion">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11396/download/14509/DDW19C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
!Percentage (2011)
|-
|[[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|16x16px]]
|1,184,863
|79.50%
|3,535,844
|72.90%
|-
|[[Islam]] [[File:Star_and_Crescent.svg|15x15px]]
|296,325
|19.88%
|1,270,641
|26.20%
|-
|Others{{efn|Including [[Jainism]], [[Christianity]], [[Buddhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Ad-Dharmi]]s, or not stated}}
|9,116
|0.61%
|43,544
|0.90%
|-
|'''Total Population'''
|'''1,490,304'''
|'''100%'''
|'''4,850,029'''
|'''100%'''
|}
Hindus are the majority population. Muslims, unlike the rest of Bengal, are more concentrated in urban areas than Hindus. Muslims are a significant minority in Panchla (46.62%), Uluberia I (43.92%), Uluberia II (39.36%) and Bagnan I (36.74%) blocks and make up a significant minority (44.79%) in Uluberia city.<ref name="religion" />[[File:Howrah Municipal Corporation - Howrah 050032.JPG|thumb|Howrah Municipal Corporation]]

===Language===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages of Howrah District (2011)<ref name="languages"/>
|label1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value1 = 84.99 |color1 = orchid
|label2 = [[Hindi]] |value2 = 10.92 |color2 = orange
|label3 = [[Urdu]] |value3 = 2.86 |color3 = green
|label4 = Others |value4 = 1.23 |color4 = grey
}}

According to the 2011 census, 84.99% of the population spoke [[Bengali language|Bengali]], 10.92% [[Hindi]] and 2.86% [[Urdu]] as their first language. Hindi and Urdu are mainly spoken in urban areas.<ref name="languages">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: West Bengal|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10226/download/13338/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1900.XLSX|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Assembly constituencies==
{{see also|List of constituencies of West Bengal Legislative Assembly}}
The district is divided into 16 [[assembly constituency|assembly constituencies]]:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S25/WB_ACPC.pdf |title=General election to the Legislative Assembly, 2001 – List of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies |access-date=19 November 2008 |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411104739/http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S25/WB_ACPC.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2008 }}</ref> Sankrail and Uluberia North constituencies will remain reserved for [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|Scheduled Castes (SC)]] candidates. The division is represented in the [[Lok Sabha]] by the [[Howrah (Lok Sabha constituency)]] and [[Uluberia (Lok Sabha constituency)]] .

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
![[List of constituencies of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly|S No.]]
!Name
!Lok Sabha constituency
!MLA
!2026 Winner
!colspan="2" |2024 Lead
|-
| 169
| [[Bally Assembly constituency|Bally]]
| rowspan="7" |[[Howrah Lok Sabha constituency|Howrah]]
| Sanjay Kumar Singh
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|{{Full party name with colour|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=16}}
|-
| 170
| [[Howrah Uttar Assembly constituency|Howrah Uttar]]
|Umesh Rai
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
| 171
| [[Howrah Madhya Assembly constituency|Howrah Madhya]]
|[[Arup Roy]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 172
| [[Shibpur Assembly constituency|Shibpur]]
|[[Rudranil Ghosh]]
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
| 173
| [[Howrah Dakshin Assembly constituency|Howrah Dakshin]]
|[[Nandita Chowdhury]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 174
| [[Sankrail Assembly constituency|Sankrail (SC)]]
|[[Priya Paul]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 175
| [[Panchla Assembly constituency|Panchla]]
|[[Gulsan Mullick]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 176
| [[Uluberia Purba Assembly constituency|Uluberia Purba]]
| rowspan="7" |[[Uluberia Lok Sabha constituency|Uluberia]]
|[[Ritabrata Banerjee]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 177
| [[Uluberia Uttar Assembly constituency|Uluberia Uttar (SC)]]
|Chiran Bera
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
| 178
| [[Uluberia Dakshin]]
|[[Pulak Roy]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 179
| [[Shyampur Assembly constituency|Shyampur]]
|[[Hiran Chatterjee]]
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
| 180
| [[Bagnan Assembly constituency|Bagnan]]
|[[Arunava Sen (politician)|Arunava Sen]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 181
| [[Amta Assembly constituency|Amta]]
|Amit Samanta
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
| 182
| [[Udaynarayanpur Assembly constituency|Udaynarayanpur]]
|[[Samir Kumar Panja]]
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|-
| 183
| [[Jagatballavpur Assembly constituency|Jagatballavpur]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Serampore Lok Sabha constituency|Sreerampur]]
|Anupam Ghosh
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
| 184
| [[Domjur Assembly constituency|Domjur]]
| Tapas Maity
|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
|}

==Notable people==
*[[Azangachhi Shaheb]] (1828–1932), Sufi saint who founded the [[Haqqani Anjuman]]
*[[ARM Inamul Haque|A. R. Muhammad Inamul Haque]] (1921–1977), Bangladeshi engineer, veteran and social worker
*[[Mohammed Amin (politician)|Mohammed Amin]] (1928–2018), Marxist politician
*[[Ariful Haque (actor)|Ariful Haque]] (born 1931), Bangladeshi actor and writer
*[[Azizul Haque (Naxalite activist)|Mir Azizul Haque]] (1942–2025), Naxalite activist
*[[Hannan Mollah]] (born 1946), Communist politician
*[[Sultan Ahmed (Indian politician)|Sultan Ahmed]] (1953–2017), politician
*[[Afsar Amed|Afsar Ahmed]] (1959–2018), poet and novelist
*[[Sajda Ahmed]] (born 1962), politician
*[[Abbas (actor)|Mirza Abbas Ali]] (born 1975), actor
*[[Ayaz Ahmed]] (born 1986), actor
*[[Sk Faiaz|Sheikh Faiaz]] (born 1995), footballer
*[[M. Ansaruddin]], five-time MLA
*[[Mohammed Elias]], two-time member of the Lok Sabha
*[[S. Abdur Rauf]], first Muslim MLA for Howrah
*[[Mohammed Idris]], politician

==See also==
*[[2016 Dhulagarh riots]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
* {{official website|http://howrah.gov.in/}}
* [http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/westbengal/districts/haora.htm Map of Howrah district] at mapsofindia.com
*[https://wbtourism.gov.in/destination/district/howrah Howrah district] at West Bengal Tourism

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Howrah district
|North = [[Hooghly district]]
|Northeast =
|East = [[Kolkata district]]
|Southeast = [[South 24 Parganas district]]
|South =
|Southwest = [[East Midnapore| East Midnapore district]]
|West = [[West Midnapore| West Midnapore district]]
|Northwest =
}}

{{Howrah District}}
{{Districts of West Bengal}}
{{Minority Concentrated Districts in India}}
{{Howrah topics}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Howrah District}}
[[Category:Howrah district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of West Bengal]]
[[Category:1843 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:Minority concentrated districts in India]]

Mazha Thorum Munpe (TV series)

2026-05-04T18:01:49Z

LucasRowan: Redirect page

#REDIRECT [[Asianet (TV channel)]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R avoided double redirect|Mazha Thorum Munpe}}
{{R from television program}}
{{R from unnecessary disambiguation}}
{{R with Wikidata item}}
}}

Khumtai Assembly constituency

2026-05-04T10:11:51Z

LucasRowan: new...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Assam legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Khumtai
| constituency_no = 106
| type = SLA
| map_image = Khumtai Assembly constituency map 2023.svg
| state = [[Assam]]
| latest_election_year =
| loksabha_cons = [[Kaziranga Lok Sabha constituency|Kaziranga]]
| district = [[Golaghat district|Golaghat]]
| established = 1978
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image =
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| electors =
}}
'''Khumtai Assembly constituency''' is one of the 126 assembly constituencies of [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]. Khumtai forms part of the [[Kaziranga Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies of State of Assam|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date = 2025-11-28}}</ref><ref name=ceo>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceoassam.nic.in/information/pdf/2_PC%20wise%20LAC%20breakup.pdf |title=List of Assembly constituencies showing their Parliamentary constituences wise break-up |website=www.ceoassam.nic.in| access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=ceomap>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceoassam.nic.in/information/pdf/3_Assembly_HPC_wise_MapA1.pdf |title=Map of Assam showing District-wise assembly and Parliamentary constituencies |website=www.ceoassam.nic.in| access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="2" |Election
!Member
!Party affiliation
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[1978 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
!Nogen Barua
![[Janata Party]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[1983 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
![[Jiba Kanta Gogoi]]
![[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}" |
|[[1985 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
![[Probin Kumar Gogoi]]
![[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Asom Gana Parishad}}" |
|[[1991 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
![[Jiba Kanta Gogoi]]
![[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}" |
|[[1996 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
![[Probin Kumar Gogoi]]
![[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[2001 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
![[Jiba Kanta Gogoi]]
![[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Asom Gana Parishad}}" |
|2002^
! rowspan="2" |[[Probin Kumar Gogoi]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Asom Gana Parishad]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Asom Gana Parishad}}" |
|[[2006 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
![[Bismita Gogoi]]
![[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Mrinal Saikia]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|}
^ Indicates Bye-Elections

== Election results ==

=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Khumtai}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= [[Mrinal Saikia]] |party=Bharatiya Janta Party |votes=91127 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= [[Roseline Tirkey]]|party=Indian National Congress|votes=32715 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=2146 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=58412 |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box turnout |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box rejected|votes=|percentage= }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=|loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2021 ===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Khumtai<ref name=election2021>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/13620-assam-general-legislative-election-2021/ |title=Assam General Legislative Election 2021 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=13 November 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate =[[Mrinal Saikia]]
|votes = 65,655
|percentage = 56.49
|change = +1.25
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Bismita Gogoi]]
|votes = 38,522
|percentage = 33.14
|change = -5.93
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 1,399
|percentage = 1.2
|change = -0.03
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 27,133
|percentage = 23.35
|change = +7.18
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,16,233
|percentage = 82.28
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors|
|reg. electors = 1,41,259
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2016 ===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Khumtai}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Mrinal Saikia]]
|votes = 57,637
|percentage = 55.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Bismita Gogoi]]
|votes = 40,763
|percentage = 39.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 1,286
|percentage = 1.23
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 16,874
|percentage = 16.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,04,322
|percentage = 86.73
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors|
|reg. electors = 1,20,283
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:Politics of Assam]]
[[Category:Golaghat district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 establishments in Assam]]

Ramesh Mehta (paediatrician)

2026-05-01T08:41:11Z

LucasRowan: added post

{{Short description|Indian-born British paediatrician}}
{{BLP sources|date=June 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox medical person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Ramesh Mehta
| honorific_suffix = [[CBE]]
| image = RMehta_OBE.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 1947
| birth_place = pandhurna MP
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| residence =
| nationality =
| citizenship =
| education = [[Government Medical College and Hospital, Nagpur|Government Medical College and Hospital]], Nagpur
| occupation = [[Paediatrician]]
| years_active =
| known_for = President of the [[British Association of Physicians of Indian Origin]] (BAPIO)
| relations =
| website =
| profession = Paediatrician
| field =
| work_institutions = [[Bedford Hospital]]
| specialism =
| research_field =
| notable_works =
| prizes =
| child =
| module2 =
| signature =
}}

'''Ramesh Dulichandbhai Mehta''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CBE}} (born 1947) is an Indian-born British [[paediatrician]] at [[Bedford Hospital]], and president of the [[British Association of Physicians of Indian Origin]] (BAPIO), in the United Kingdom.

==Early life and education==
Ramesh Mehta was born in 1947 in a village in central India.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Migliarini |first=Valentina |date=2013-01-01 |title=Nurturing the Nation. The Asian Contribution to the NHS since 1948 |url=https://www.academia.edu/5136581 |journal=Runnymede}}</ref> From the age of seven, he aspired to become a doctor. Prior to immigrating to the United Kingdom in 1981, he undertook his undergraduate training at the [[Government Medical College and Hospital, Nagpur|Government Medical College and Hospital]], Nagpur, where he completed his postgraduate paediatrics training. He then completed his higher specialist training in the UK, obtained Fellowship of the Royal College of Paediatrics & Child Health.

==Clinical career==
{{unreferencedsect|date=June 2025}}
Mehta served as a consultant paediatrician at Bedford Hospital and was involved in developing paediatric services; he later held an honorary consultant role at Great Ormond Street Hospital. <ref>{{Cite web |last=gapio |title=Dr. Ramesh Mehta |url=https://gapio.in/dr-ramesh-mehta/ |access-date=2026-05-01 |website=Global Association of Physicians of Indian Origin}}</ref> He has been a postgraduate clinical tutor associated with the [[University of Cambridge]] and served on the Council of the [[Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health]] (RCPCH). [https://makingregisters.leeds.ac.uk/research-team/partner-organisation/ BAPIO] [https://www.rcpch.ac.uk/sites/default/files/201512%20Web%20Minutes%20-%20Council%20Nov%2015%20v2.pdf RCPCH] [https://bapiotrainingacademy.com/team-member/dr-ramesh-mehta/ BAPIO Training Academy]

==Equality, diversity and inclusion==

In 1996, he founded the [[British Association of Physicians of Indian Origin]] (BAPIO). He led the BAPIO challenge against the British government's April 2006 "guideline" to hospital trusts to employ non-EU doctors only if no candidate from the EU is available. This was affecting thousands of International Medical Graduates in NHS training posts. BAPIO won a landmark verdict against the British government when the country's highest court ruled illegal a state guideline discriminating against overseas medical graduates for employment in state health services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian doctors win historic legal battle against UK Govt |date=May 2008 |url=https://citizensalliance.wordpress.com/2008/05/01/uk-indian-doctors-racist-policy-of-uk-govt-flounders-against-the-house-of-lords/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Judgments - R (on the application of Bapio Action Limited and another) (Respondents) v Secretary of State for the Home Department and another (Appellant) |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldjudgmt/jd080430/bapio-1.htm}}</ref>

He also led a BAPIO legal challenge against the Royal College of General Practitioners and the General Medical Council over the differential pass rates for BME trainees in the clinical skills assessment required to become a GP in the UK. However, a High Court judge ruled that the clinical skills assessment did not unlawfully discriminate against ethnic minority candidates. But Mr Justice Mitting said that the association had won "if not a legal victory, then a moral success" and called on the college to act over the disparity in success rates between white UK graduates and those from ethnic minorities who qualified in the UK or abroad.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=RCGP is cleared of ethnic discrimination in clinical skills assessment |date=2014 |doi=10.1136/bmj.g2760 |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g2760 |last1=Dyer |first1=Clare |journal=BMJ |volume=348 |article-number=g2760 |s2cid=72931196 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=David Millett (22 May 2015). "Interview with BAPIO's Dr Ramesh Mehta: Making the CSA exam fair". GP. Retrieved 6 February 2024 |url=https://www.gponline.com/interview-bapios-dr-ramesh-mehta-making-csa-exam-fair/article/1348386}}</ref>

He has been working on eradicating differential attainment for doctors from Black and minority ethnic backgrounds and international medical graduates, who make up over a third of the UK medical doctors. He inspired the seminal work - [[doi:10.38192/btg21|Bridging the Gap]] in 2021, which produced 10 consensus recommendations for the tackling bias in the full spectrum of medical careers. He has worked on improving workforce recruitment and retention through his project on establishing the [[doi:10.38192/dws22|Dignity Charter for the NHS]] which was launched at the Royal College of Surgeons by [https://www.england.nhs.uk/author/professor-stephen-h-powis/ Sir Stephen Powis] in October 2022. As a champion of international medical graduates and locally employed doctors, Ramesh Mehta led the [[doi:10.38192.led-charter-22|Charter for Locally Employed Doctors]] which was launched at the first ever conference for Locally Employed Doctors in the UK in summer of 2022.

Dr. Mehta is also the co-founder and past president of the [[Global Association of Physicians of Indian Origin]] (GAPIO).<ref>{{Cite web |title=GAPIO website |url=https://gapio.in/about-us/}}</ref>

==Honours==

Mehta was appointed [[Officer of the Order of the British Empire]] (OBE) in 2017 for services to healthcare and [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE) in the [[2023 New Year Honours]] for services to equality, diversity and inclusion.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=63918|supp=y|page=N10|date=31 December 2022}}</ref>

==Charity work==

In 2020, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the UK]], Mehta wrote to the UK home secretary requesting that international medical professionals be exempt from the [[Health and Care Worker visa]], also known as the 'NHS visa'.<ref name="Rimmer">{{cite journal |last1=Rimmer |first1=Abi |title=Covid-19: International staff are considered vital to NHS's efforts, survey finds |journal=BMJ |date=13 May 2020 |volume=369 |article-number=m1933 |doi=10.1136/bmj.m1933 |pmid=32404358 |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/369/bmj.m1933 |language=en |issn=1756-1833|doi-access=free }}</ref> The following year, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India]], he announced an online support plan by doctors of Indian origin living in the UK to help in remote towns and villages in India, including free online evaluations of [[X-Rays]] and [[CT scans]]. In addition they would raise funds for [[oxygen concentrator]]s.<ref name="Bhatia2021">{{cite news |last1=Bhatia |first1=Shyam |title=UK-Based NRI Doctors Pledge Free Online Assistance to Professionals Fighting COVID in India |url=https://thewire.in/world/uk-based-nri-doctors-pledge-free-online-assistance-to-professionals-fighting-covid-in-india |access-date=11 May 2021 |work=The Wire |date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511182817/https://thewire.in/world/uk-based-nri-doctors-pledge-free-online-assistance-to-professionals-fighting-covid-in-india |archive-date=11 May 2021}}</ref>

==Selected publications==
*{{cite journal |title=Self-reported Occupational Risk for COVID-19 in Hospital Doctors from Black Asian & Minority Ethnic Communities in UK |journal=The Physician |date=9 May 2020 |volume=6 |issue=1 |doi=10.38192/1.6.1.9 |url=https://physicianjnl.net/index.php/phy/article/view/13 |language=en |issn=2732-5148|doi-access=free |last1=Daga |first1=Sunil |last2=Chakravorty |first2=Indranil |last3=Bamrah |first3=JS |last4=Menon |first4=Geeta |last5=Dave |first5=Subodh |last6=Chakravorty |first6=Subarna |last7=Bhala |first7=Neeraj |last8=Mehta |first8=Ramesh }} (Co-author)
*{{cite journal |title=An Online Survey of Healthcare Professionals in the COVID-19 Pandemic in the UK |journal=Sushruta Journal of Health Policy & Opinion |date=23 April 2020 |volume=13 |issue=2 |doi=10.38192/13.2.9 |url=http://sushrutajnl.net/index.php/sushruta/article/view/34 |language=en |issn=2732-5164|doi-access=free |last1=Chakravorty |first1=Indranil |last2=Daga |first2=Sunil |last3=Dave |first3=Subodh |last4=Chakravorty |first4=Subarna |last5=Bhala |first5=Neeraj |last6=Menon |first6=Geeta |last7=Mehta |first7=Ramesh |last8=Bamrah |first8=JS }} (Co-author)
*{{cite journal|title=Does Gender or Religion Contribute to the Risk of COVID-19 in Hospital Doctors in the UK? |journal=Sushruta Journal of Health Policy & Opinion |date=20 June 2020 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.38192/13.3.1 |url=http://sushrutajnl.net/index.php/sushruta/article/view/60 |language=en |issn=2732-5164|doi-access=free |last1=Daga |first1=Sunil |last2=Jafferbhoy |first2=Sadaf |last3=Menon |first3=Geeta |last4=Ali |first4=Mansoor |last5=Chakravorty |first5=Subarna |last6=Ghani |first6=Saqib |last7=Burney |first7=Amir |last8=Bamrah |first8=JS |last9=Mehta |first9=Ramesh |last10=Chakravorty |first10=Indranil }} (Co-author)
*{{cite journal |title=Differential Attainment in Summative Assessments within Postgraduate Medical Education & Training |journal=Sushruta Journal of Health Policy & Opinion |date=9 August 2020 |volume=13 |issue=3 |doi=10.38192/13.3.15 |url=http://sushrutajnl.net/index.php/sushruta/article/view/89 |language=en |issn=2732-5164|doi-access=free |last1=Dave |first1=Subodh |last2=Chakravorty |first2=Indranil |last3=Menon |first3=Geeta |last4=Sidhu |first4=Kamal |last5=Bamrah |first5=JS |last6=Mehta |first6=Ramesh }} (Co-author)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{URL|bapio.co.uk/about-bapio/}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehta, Ramesh}}
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian paediatricians]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Cambridge]]
[[Category:Physicians of Great Ormond Street Hospital]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:British paediatricians]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to England]]
[[Category:Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]

Satyajit Ray

2026-04-30T08:44:32Z

LucasRowan: rework content and added references

{{Short description|Indian filmmaker and writer (1921–1992)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Satyajit Ray in New York (cropped).jpg
| caption = Ray in New York, 1981
| other_names = Manik
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1921|5|2}}
| birth_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], India
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1992|4|23|1921|5|2}}
| death_place = [[Calcutta]], [[West Bengal]], India
| alma_mater = {{plainlist |
* [[Presidency College, Kolkata|Presidency College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
* [[Visva-Bharati University]] ([[Master of Arts|MA]])
}}
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Film director]]|writer|illustrator|[[music composer]]|[[lyricist]]|author|essayist|[[calligrapher]]}}
| years_active = 1950–1992
| works = {{hlist|[[Satyajit Ray filmography|Filmography]]|[[Literary works of Satyajit Ray|bibliography]]|[[#Calligraphy and design|calligraphy]]}}
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Bijoya Ray]]|1949}}
| children = [[Sandip Ray]]
| father = [[Sukumar Ray]]
| mother =
| relatives = {{plainlist |
* [[Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury]] (grandfather)
* [[Shukhalata Rao]] (aunt)
}}
| awards = [[List of awards and nominations received by Satyajit Ray|Full list]]
| honors = {{plainlist |
* [[Padma Shri]] (1958)
* [[Padma Bhushan]] (1965)
* [[Padma Vibhushan]] (1976)
* [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]] (1984)
* [[Academy Honorary Award]] (1992)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://aaspeechesdb.oscars.org/link/064-24/ | title=Academy Awards Acceptance Speeches – Search Results | Margaret Herrick Library | Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/when-satyajit-ray-accepted-his-oscar-award-from-a-hospital-bed-in-kolkata-7832844/ | title=When Satyajit Ray accepted his Oscar award from a hospital bed in Kolkata: 'Best achievement of my moviemaking career' | date=26 March 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatimes.com/entertainment/originals/ar-rahman-satyajit-ray-and-more-indians-who-won-academy-award-591233.html | title=Oscar 2023: From AR Rahman to Satyajit Ray, Here's a List of Indians Who Won the Academy Awards | date=25 January 2023 | access-date=2 May 2023 | archive-date=2 May 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502103405/https://www.indiatimes.com/entertainment/originals/ar-rahman-satyajit-ray-and-more-indians-who-won-academy-award-591233.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ray-esque-throwback-to-thirty-years-ago-when-satyajit-ray-became-the-first-indian-to-receive-the-oscar-award-10698941.html | title=Ray-esque | Throwback to thirty years ago when Satyajit Ray became the first Indian to receive the Oscar award | date=21 May 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/satyajit-ray-centenary-legacy-india-pather-panchali-1234964406/ | title=Satyajit Ray: India Marks Centenary of Cinema Giant, but Legacy Has Multiple Interpretations | date=2 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://m.imdb.com/name/nm0006249/awards/?ref_=nm_awd | title=Satyajit Ray | website=[[IMDb]] }}</ref>
* [[Commander of the Legion of Honour]] (1987)
* [[Bharat Ratna]] (1992)
}}
| signature = Satyajit Ray Signature.svg
}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

'''Satyajit Ray''' ({{IPA|bn|ˈʃotːodʒit ˈrae̯|lang|SatyajitRay2.ogg}}; 2 May 1921 – 23 April 1992) was an Indian [[film director]], screenwriter, author, lyricist, [[magazine editor]], [[illustrator]], [[calligraphy|calligrapher]], and composer. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential film directors in the [[history of cinema]].<ref name="Introduction">{{Cite journal |date=2009 |title=Introduction |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781838710460.0004 |journal=Screen Epiphanies |doi=10.5040/9781838710460.0004|isbn=9781838710460 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Malcolm |first=Derek |date=2 May 2002 |title=The universe in his back yard |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/may/02/artsfeatures1 |work=The Guardian |access-date=28 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="Bernard Weinraub">{{Cite news | author = Bernard Weinraub |date=3 August 1973 |title=Satyajit Ray Finds A Freedom in Film |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/08/03/archives/satyajit-ray-finds-a-freedom-in-film.html |access-date=28 October 2023 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Gargan">{{Cite news |last=Gargan |first=Edward A. |date=16 February 1992 |title=FILM; Satyajit Ray Honored, Without Profit in His Land |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/16/movies/film-satyajit-ray-honored-without-profit-in-his-land.html |access-date=28 October 2023 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Critics on Ray, Satyajit Ray Org">{{Cite web |title=Critics on Ray, Satyajit Ray Org |url=https://satyajitray.org/critics-on-ray/ |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Satyajit Ray Org |language=en-US}}</ref> He is celebrated for works including ''[[The Apu Trilogy]]'' (1955–1959),<ref>{{Cite news |last=Howe |first=Desson |date=1 September 1995 |title=INDIAN SUMMER: THE FILMS OF SATYAJIT RAY |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1995/09/01/indian-summer-the-films-of-satyajit-ray/92fbd6e4-6fe1-4158-8e44-01654cd7a2be/ |access-date=28 October 2023 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> [[Jalsaghar|''The Music Room'']] (1958), [[Mahanagar|''The Big City'']] (1963)'', [[Charulata]]'' (1964), and the ''[[Goopy–Bagha]]'' trilogy (1969–1992).{{Ref|a|[a]}}

Ray was born in [[Calcutta]] to author [[Sukumar Ray]] and Suprabha Ray. Starting his career as a commercial artist, Ray was drawn into [[independent film|independent film-making]] after meeting French filmmaker [[Jean Renoir]] (who was in India to make his film [[The River (1951 film)|''The River'']])<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/les-nuits-de-france-culture/nuit-satyajit-ray| title = Nuit Satyajit Ray – série de podcasts à écouter – France Culture}}</ref> and viewing [[Vittorio De Sica]]'s [[Italian neorealism|Italian neorealist]] film ''[[Bicycle Thieves]]'' (1948) during a visit to London. He started work on his first film after he returned from London.

Ray directed 36 films, including feature films, documentaries, and [[short subject|shorts]]. Ray's first film, {{Lang|bn-latn|[[Pather Panchali]]}} (1955), won eleven international prizes, including the inaugural Best Human Document award at the [[1956 Cannes Film Festival]]. This film, along with ''[[Aparajito]]'' (1956) and {{Lang|bn-latn|[[The World of Apu|Apur Sansar]]}} (''The World of Apu'') (1959), form ''The Apu Trilogy''. Ray did the [[screenplay|scripting]], [[Casting (performing arts)|casting]], [[Film score|scoring]], and [[editing]] for the movie and designed his own credit titles and publicity material. He also authored several short stories and novels, primarily for young children and teenagers. Popular characters created by Ray include [[Feluda]] the sleuth, [[Professor Shonku]] the scientist, [[Tarini Khuro]] the storyteller, and [[Lalmohan Ganguly]] the novelist.

Ray received [[List of awards and nominations received by Satyajit Ray|many major awards]] in his career, including a record thirty-seven Indian [[National Film Awards]] which includes [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]], a [[Golden Lion]], a [[Golden Bear]], two [[Silver Bear for Best Director|Silver Bears]], many additional awards at international film festivals and ceremonies; till date remaining the only Indian to receive two out of [[List of Big Three film festivals winners|Big Three film festivals]] top prizes. He received an [[Academy Honorary Award]] in 1992. In 1978, he was awarded an honorary degree by [[Oxford University]]. The [[Government of India]] honoured him with the [[Bharat Ratna]], its highest civilian award, in 1992. On the occasion of the birth centenary of Ray, the [[International Film Festival of India]], in recognition of the [[auteur]]'s legacy, rechristened in 2021 its annual Lifetime Achievement Award to the "[[IFFI Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award|Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award]]". In 2024, ''[[Forbes]]'' ranked Ray as the 8th greatest film director (worldwide) of all time in its list of "The 30 Greatest Film Directors of All Time."<ref name=":2">{{Cite magazine |last=Escandon |first=Rosa |date=6 April 2024 |title=The 30 Greatest Film Directors Of All Time |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/entertainment/article/greatest-directors-of-all-time/ |magazine=Forbes |access-date=23 April 2025}}</ref>

== Background, early life and career ==
=== Lineage ===
Satyajit Ray's ancestry can be traced back to at least ten generations.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Seton |first=Marie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVILvhgqN6QC&pg=PA13 |title=Portrait of a Director: Satyajit Ray |date=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302972-4 |pages=13–14 |language=en}}</ref> His family had acquired the name "[[Ray (surname)|Ray]]". Although they were [[Bengali Kayastha]]s, the Rays were "[[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavas]]" (worshippers of [[Vishnu]]),<ref name=":6" /> as opposed to the majority of Bengali Kayasthas, who were "[[Shaktism|Shaktos]]" (worshippers of the [[Shakti]] or [[Shiva]]).<ref name="ames1998">{{cite book|author=Ames, Roger and Kasulis, Thomas|title=Self as Image in Asian Theory and Practice|publisher=State University of New York press|year=1998|page=308|quote=Satyajit Ray was born into a well known family of littérateurs and social reformers in 1921. Since the sixteenth century, the Rays had a connection with eastern [[Bengal]] through their landed estates in [[Kishorganj]], now in Bangladesh. Unlike a majority of Bengali Kayastha who are Shaktos, the Rays were Vaisnvas.}}</ref>

The earliest-recorded ancestor of the Ray family was Ramsunder Deo (Deb), born in the middle of the sixteenth century.<ref name=":6" />{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 | p=13}} He was a native of [[Chakdaha|Chakdah]] village in the [[Nadia district]] of present-day [[West Bengal]], India, and migrated to [[Sherpur district|Sherpur]] in [[East Bengal]]. He became son-in-law of the ruler of Jashodal (in the present day [[Kishoreganj District]] of [[Bangladesh]]) and was granted a ''[[jagir]]'' (a feudal land grant).{{Sfn|Seton|1971|p=38}} His descendants migrated to the village Masua in [[Katiadi Upazila]] of [[Kishoreganj]] in the first half of the eighteenth century.{{Sfn|Seton|1971|p=38}}<ref name = "sukumar1">''Sukumar Samagra Rachanabali'' 1, 1960, Asia Publishing Company, p 1</ref> Satyajit Ray's grandfather [[Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury]] was born in Masua village, Kishorganj, in 1863.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004|p=13}} Upendrakishore's elder brother [[Saradaranjan Ray]] was one of the pioneers of [[Cricket in India|Indian cricket]] and was called the [[W. G. Grace|W.G. Grace]] of India.

Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury was a writer, illustrator, [[Philosophy|philosopher]], publisher, [[amateur astronomer]], and leader of the [[Brahmo Samaj]], a religious and social movement in 19th-century [[Bengal]]. He set up a [[printing press]] named [[U. Ray and Sons]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Barnouw|first=Erik|date=1981|title=Lives of a Bengal Filmmaker: Satyajit Ray of Calcutta|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29781890|journal=The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress|volume=38|issue=2|pages=60–77|jstor=29781890|issn=0041-7939}}</ref>

Satyajit's father and Upendrakishore's son, [[Sukumar Ray]], who was also born in [[Kishorganj]], was an illustrator, critic, and a pioneering [[Bengali language|Bengali]] writer of [[nonsense verse|nonsense rhyme]] (''[[Abol Tabol]]'') and children's literature.<ref name=":1" /> [[Social work]]er and children's book author [[Shukhalata Rao]] was his aunt.<ref>{{cite news |title=Celebrating 100 years of Satyajit Ray: Satyajit Ray's best-kept secret: by Gulzar -Part 3 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/celebrating-100-years-of-satyajit-ray-satyajit-ray-s-best-kept-secret-by-gulzar-part-3/story-reald58fVE8KeOXlGaeLML.html |access-date=27 March 2021 |work=Hindustan Times |date=28 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

===Early life and education===
[[File:Sukumar Ray and his wife.jpg|thumb|Sukumar Ray and Suprabha Ray, parents of Satyajit Ray (1914)]]
Satyajit Ray was born to [[Sukumar Ray]] and Suprabha Ray ({{Nee|Das Gupta}}) in [[Calcutta]] (now Kolkata). Sukumar Ray died when Satyajit was two years old.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=28}} Ray grew up in the house of his grandfather, [[Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury]], and of his [[printing press]]. He was attracted by the machines and process of printing from an early age and took particular interest in the production process of ''[[Sandesh (magazine)|Sandesh]]'', a children's magazine started by Upendrakishore.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=29}}

Ray studied at [[Ballygunge Government High School]] in Calcutta, and completed his [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in economics at [[Presidency College, Calcutta]] (then affiliated with the [[University of Calcutta]]). During his school days, he saw a number of [[Hollywood cinema|Hollywood productions]] in cinema.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=37}} The works of [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Buster Keaton]], [[Harold Lloyd]], and [[Ernst Lubitsch]] and movies such as ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1924 film)|The Thief of Baghdad]]'' (1924) and ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin (1927 film)|Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' (1927) made lasting impression on his mind.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=37}} He developed a keen interest in [[Western classical music]].{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=42}}
[[File:Satyajit-Ray-Young.jpg|thumb|Ray in 1940]]
In 1940, his mother insisted that he study at [[Visva-Bharati University]] in [[Santiniketan]], founded by writer [[Rabindranath Tagore]]. Ray was reluctant to go, due to his fondness for Calcutta and low regard for the intellectual life at Santiniketan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=46}}</ref> His mother's persuasiveness and his respect for Tagore, however, finally convinced him to get admitted there for higher studies in [[Fine art|Fine Art]]. In Santiniketan, Ray came to appreciate [[Oriental art]]. He later admitted that he learned much from the Indian painters [[Nandalal Bose]] and [[Benode Behari Mukherjee]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton|1971|p=70}}</ref> He later produced a documentary, ''[[The Inner Eye]]'', about Mukherjee. His visits to the cave temples of [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], and [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]] stimulated his admiration for [[Indian art]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton|1971|pp=71–72}}</ref> Three books that he read at the university influenced him to become a serious student of film-making: [[Paul Rotha]]'s ''The Film Till Now'' and two books on theory by [[Rudolf Arnheim]] and [[Raymond Spottiswoode]].{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=54}} Ray dropped out of the art course in 1942, as he could not feel inspired to become a painter.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=54}}

===Visual artist===
In 1943, Ray started working at D.J. Keymer, a British advertising agency, as a junior visualiser. Here he was trained in Indian [[commercial art]] under artist [[Annada Munsi|Annada Munshi]], the then-Art Director of D.J. Keymer.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.etvbharat.com/english/national/state/west-bengal/annada-munshis-character-sparks-debate-in-anik-duttas-aparajito/na20220525090909619619394 | title=Annada Munshi's character sparks debate in Anik Dutta's Aparajito | date=25 May 2022 }}</ref> Although he liked [[visual design]] (graphic design) and he was mostly treated well, there was tension between the British and Indian employees of the firm. The British were better paid, and Ray felt that "the clients were generally stupid".{{Sfn|Robinson|2003|pp=56–58}} In 1943, Ray started a second job for the [[Signet Press]], a new publishing house started by D.K. Gupta.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=58}} Gupta asked Ray to create book cover designs for the company and gave him complete artistic freedom. Ray established himself as a commercial illustrator, becoming a leading Indian [[Typography|typographer]] and book-jacket designer.{{Sfn|Robinson|2004|pp=57–58}}

Ray designed covers for many books, including [[Jibanananda Das]]'s ''[[Banalata Sen (book)|Banalata Sen]]'' and ''[[Rupasi Bangla]]'', [[Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay]]'s ''[[Chander Pahar]]'', [[Jim Corbett]]'s ''[[Man-Eaters of Kumaon|Maneaters of Kumaon]]'', and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'s ''[[Discovery of India]]''.{{sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=58}} He worked on a children's version of {{Lang|bn-latn|[[Pather Panchali (novel)|Pather Panchali]]}}, a classic Bengali novel by Bandyopadhyay, renamed ''Aam Antir Bhepu'' (''The Mango-Seed Whistle''). Ray designed the cover and illustrated the book and was deeply influenced by the work. He used it as the subject of [[Pather Panchali|his first film]] and featured his illustrations as shots in it.{{Sfn|Robinson|2005|p=38}}

Ray befriended the American [[G.I. (military)|soldiers]] stationed in Calcutta during World War II, who kept him informed about the latest American films showing in the city. He came to know an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] employee, Norman Clare, who shared Ray's passion for films, [[chess]], and Western classical music.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2005|pp=40–43}}</ref> Ray was a regular in the ''[[Adda (South Asian)|addas]]'' (freestyle casual conversations) at [[College Street Coffee House|Coffee House]], where several intellectuals frequented. He formed lasting associations with some of his compatriots there, such as [[Bansi Chandragupta]] (celebrated [[art director]]), [[Kamal Kumar Majumdar]] ([[polymath]] and author of stylish prose), [[:bn:রাধাপ্রসাদ গুপ্ত|Radha Prasad Gupta]], and [[Chidananda Das Gupta]] ([[Film criticism|film critic]]).{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=62}} Along with Chidananda Dasgupta and others, Ray founded the [[Calcutta Film Society]] in 1947.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=63}} They screened many foreign films, many of which Ray watched and seriously studied, including several American and Russian films.{{Sfn|Robinson|2004|pp=63–64}} The use of Indian music and dancing in the 1948 Indian film ''[[Kalpana (1948 film)|Kalpana]]'' ({{translation|''Imagination''}}), directed by the celebrated dancer [[Uday Shankar]], had an impact on Ray.{{Sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=64}} In 1949, Ray married [[Bijoya Ray|Bijoya Das]], his first cousin and long-time sweetheart.<ref>Arup Kr De, "Ties that Bind" by ''The Statesman'', Calcutta, 27 April 2008. Quote: "Satyajit Ray had an unconventional marriage. He married Bijoya (born 1917), the youngest daughter of his eldest maternal uncle, Charuchandra Das, in 1948 in a secret ceremony in Bombay after a long romantic relationship that had begun around the time he left college in 1940. The marriage was reconfirmed in Calcutta the next year at a traditional religious ceremony."</ref> The couple had a son, [[Sandip Ray]], who also became a film director.<ref>{{Cite news|date=24 April 1994|title=Filmmaker Satyajit Ray Dies|language=en-US|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1992/04/24/filmmaker-satyajit-ray-dies/42fce72b-05f0-4d91-aead-c0922994e31a/|access-date=9 November 2020|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> In the same year, French director [[Jean Renoir]] came to Calcutta to shoot his film ''[[The River (1951 film)|The River]]''. Ray helped him to find locations in the countryside. Ray told Renoir about his idea of filming {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}}, which had long been on his mind, and Renoir encouraged him in the project.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2005|pp=42–44}}</ref>

In 1950, D.J. Keymer sent Ray to London to work at their headquarters. During his six months there, Ray watched 99 films, including [[Alexander Dovzhenko]]'s ''[[Earth (1930 film)|Earth]]'' (1930) and Jean Renoir's ''[[The Rules of the Game]]'' (1939).{{Sfn|Robinson| 2004 |pp=71–72}} However, the film that had the most profound effect on him was the [[Italian Neorealism|neorealist]] film ''Ladri di biciclette'' (''[[Bicycle Thieves]]'') (1948) by [[Vittorio De Sica]].{{Sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=72}} Ray later said that he walked out of the theatre determined to become a filmmaker.{{Sfn|Robinson| 2004 |p=72}}

== Film career (1950–1982) ==
===The Apu years (1950–1959)===
{{see also|The Apu Trilogy|Satyajit Ray filmography}}
After being "deeply moved" by {{Lang|bn-latn|[[Pather Panchali (novel)|Pather Panchali]]}},<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=Udayan|last2=Ray|first2=Satyajit|date=1982|title=The Politics of Humanism: An interview with Satyajit Ray|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41686766|journal=Cinéaste|volume=12|issue=1|pages=24–29|jstor=41686766|issn=0009-7004}}</ref> the 1928 classic ''[[Bildungsroman]]'' of [[Bengali literature]], Ray decided to adapt it for his first film. {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}} is a semi-autobiographical novel describing the maturation of Apu, a small boy in a Bengal village.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jeffries|first=Stuart|date=20 October 2010|title=Pather Panchali: No 12 best arthouse film of all time|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/oct/20/pather-panchali-ray-arthouse|access-date=9 November 2020|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}} did not have a script; it was made from Ray's drawings and notes.{{sfn|Ray|2010|p=44}} Before [[principal photography]] began, he created a [[storyboard]] dealing with details and continuity.{{sfn|Ray|2010|pp=45–46}} Years later, he donated those drawings and notes to [[Cinémathèque Française]].{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=76}}
Ray gathered an inexperienced crew, although both his cameraman [[Subrata Mitra]] and art director [[Bansi Chandragupta]] would go on to achieve great acclaim. The cast consisted of mostly amateur actors. After unsuccessful attempts to persuade many producers to finance the project, Ray started shooting in late 1952 with his personal savings and hoped to raise more money once he had some footage shot, but did not succeed on his terms.<ref name=makepanchali>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=74–90}}</ref> As a result, Ray shot {{Lang|bn-latn|[[Pather Panchali]]}} over two and a half years, an unusually long period.<ref name=makepanchali/> He refused funding from sources who wanted to change the script or exercise supervision over production. He also ignored advice from the Indian government to incorporate a happy ending, but he did receive funding that allowed him to complete the film.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton|1971|p=95}}</ref>

[[Monroe Wheeler]], head of the department of exhibitions and publications at New York's [[Museum of Modern Art]] (MoMA),<ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE2DC143DF935A2575BC0A96E948260 |title=Monroe Wheeler, Board Member of Modern Museum, Is Dead at 89 |last=McGill |first=Douglas c. |date=16 August 1988 |access-date=13 June 2008 |newspaper=The New York Times | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208051113/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/08/16/obituaries/monroe-wheeler-board-member-of-modern-museum-is-dead-at-89.html | archive-date=8 December 2013}}</ref> heard about the project when he visited Calcutta in 1954. He considered the incomplete footage to be of high quality and encouraged Ray to finish the film so that it could be shown at a MoMA exhibition the following year.{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=83}} Six months later, American director [[John Huston]], on a visit to India for some early [[location scouting]] for ''[[The Man Who Would Be King (film)|The Man Who Would Be King]]'', saw excerpts of the unfinished film and recognised "the work of a great film-maker".{{sfn|Robinson|2004|p=87}}

With a loan from the [[Government of West Bengal|West Bengal government]], Ray finally completed the film; it was released in 1955 to critical acclaim. It earned numerous awards and had long theatrical runs in India and abroad. ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote, "It is absurd to compare it with any other Indian cinema [...] {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}} is pure cinema".<ref name="set1">{{Harvnb|Seton|1971|pp=112–15}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, [[Lindsay Anderson]] wrote a positive review of the film.<ref name="set1" /> However, the film also gained negative reactions; [[François Truffaut]] was reported to have said, "I don't want to see a movie of peasants eating with their hands",<ref name=filmifunda>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050420/asp/calcutta/story_4634530.asp |title=Filmi Funda Pather Panchali (1955) |work=The Telegraph |date=20 April 2005 |access-date=29 April 2006 |location=Calcutta, India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012826/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050420/asp/calcutta/story_4634530.asp |archive-date= 3 December 2013 }}</ref> a reaction he later rescinded.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rusell |first=Calum |date=19 September 2023 |title=The shocking reason why François Truffaut walked out of Satyajit Ray film 'Pather Panchali' |url=https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/the-reason-francois-truffaut-walked-out-pather-panchali/ |website=Far Out |access-date=22 June 2025}}</ref> [[Bosley Crowther]], then the most influential critic of ''[[The New York Times]]'', criticised the film's loose structure and conceded that it "takes patience to be enjoyed".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Crowther|first=Bosley|date=23 September 1958|title=Screen: Exotic Import; Pather Panchali' From India Opens Here (Published 1958)|language=en-US|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1958/09/23/archives/screen-exotic-import-pather-panchali-from-india-opens-here.html|access-date=11 November 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Edward Harrison, an American distributor, was worried that Crowther's review would dissuade audiences, but the film enjoyed an eight months theatrical run in the United States.{{Sfn|Robinson|2003|p=105}}

Ray's international career started in earnest after the success of his next film, the second in ''The Apu Trilogy'', ''[[Aparajito]]'' (1956) (''The Unvanquished'').<ref name="robintrilogy" /> This film depicts the eternal struggle between the ambitions of a young man, Apu, and the mother who loves him.<ref name="robintrilogy">{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=91–106}}</ref> Upon release, ''Aparajito'' won the [[Golden Lion]] at the [[Venice Film Festival]], bringing Ray considerable acclaim.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014|title=The awards of the Venice Film Festival|url=https://www.labiennale.org/en/history|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016035043/http://www.labiennale.org/en/cinema/history/awards1.html|archive-date=16 October 2014|access-date=11 November 2020|website=La Biennale di Venezia|language=en}}</ref> In a retrospective review, Edward Guthmann of the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' praised Ray for his ability to capture emotions and blend music with storytelling to create a "flawless" picture.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Guthmann|first=Edward|date=18 August 1995|title=Film Review – Apu Moves Toward Manhood / 'Aparajito' explores mother-son bond|url=https://www.sfgate.com/movies/article/FILM-REVIEW-Apu-Moves-Toward-Manhood-3026607.php|access-date=11 November 2020|website=San Francisco Chronicle|language=en-US}}</ref> Critics such as [[Mrinal Sen]] and [[Ritwik Ghatak]] rank it higher than Ray's first film.<ref name="robintrilogy" />

Ray directed and released two other films in 1958: the comic ''[[Parash Pathar]]'' (''The Philosopher's Stone''), and ''[[Jalsaghar]]'' (''The Music Room''), a film about the decadence of the [[Zamindar]]s, considered one of his most important works.<ref name="malcolm1">{{cite news|author=Malcolm D |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/1999/jan/14/derekmalcolmscenturyoffilm.derekmalcolm |title=Satyajit Ray: The Music Room |access-date=19 June 2006 |location=London |date=19 March 1999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426235408/http://www.theguardian.com/film/1999/jan/14/derekmalcolmscenturyoffilm.derekmalcolm |archive-date=26 April 2014 }}</ref> ''[[Time Out (magazine)|Time Out]]'' magazine gave ''Jalsaghar'' a positive review, describing it as "slow, rapt and hypnotic".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andrew|first=Geoff|date=9 February 2006|title=Jalsaghar|url=https://www.timeout.com/movies/jalsaghar|access-date=11 November 2020|website=Time Out Worldwide|language=en}}</ref>

While making ''Aparajito'', Ray had not planned a trilogy, but after he was asked about the idea in Venice, it appealed to him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wood|1972|p=61}}</ref> He finished the last of the trilogy, {{Lang|bn-latn|[[The World of Apu|Apur Sansar]]}} (''The World of Apu'') in 1959. Ray introduced two of his favourite actors, [[Soumitra Chatterjee]] and [[Sharmila Tagore]], in this film. It opens with Apu living in a Calcutta house in near-poverty; he becomes involved in an unusual marriage with Aparna. The scenes of their life together form "one of the cinema's classic affirmative depictions of married life".<ref name="harvnb">{{Harvnb|Wood|1972}}</ref> Critics [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] and [[Aparna Sen]] thought it was a major achievement to mark the end of the trilogy.

After {{Lang|bn-latn|Apur Sansar}} was harshly criticised by a Bengali critic, Ray wrote an article defending it. He rarely responded to critics during his filmmaking career, but also later defended his film ''Charulata'', his personal favourite.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ray|1993|p=13}}</ref> American critic [[Roger Ebert]] summarised the trilogy as, "It is about a time, place and culture far removed from our own, and yet it connects directly and deeply with our human feelings. It is like a prayer, affirming that this is what the cinema can be, no matter how far in our cynicism we may stray".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ebert|first=Roger|date=4 March 2001|title=The Apu Trilogy movie review & film summary (1959) {{!}} Roger Ebert|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-the-apu-trilogy-1959|access-date=11 November 2020|website=Roger Ebert|language=en}}</ref>

Despite Ray's success, it had little influence on his personal life in the years to come. He continued to live with his wife and children in a rented house on Lake Avenue in South Calcutta,<ref>{{cite news |last1=DasguptaD |first1=Priyanka |title=Ray's other home |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/priyanka-dasgupta-blog/rays-other-home/ |access-date=4 July 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=2 May 2018}}</ref> with his mother, uncle, and other members of his extended family.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=5}}</ref> The home is currently owned by [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]].

===From ''Devi'' to ''Charulata'' (1959–1964)===
During this period, Ray made films about the [[British Raj]] period, a documentary on [[Rabindranath Tagore|Tagore]], a comic film (''[[Mahapurush]]''), and his first film from an original screenplay (''[[Kanchenjungha (1962 film)|Kanchenjungha]]''). He also made a series of films that, taken together, are considered by critics among the most deeply felt portrayals of Indian women on screen.<ref name="kael1">{{cite web|author=Palopoli S |publisher=metroactive.com |url=http://www.metroactive.com/papers/cruz/10.08.03/apu-0341.html |title=Ghost 'World' |access-date=19 June 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518064750/http://www.metroactive.com/papers/cruz/10.08.03/apu-0341.html |archive-date=18 May 2006 }}</ref>

Ray followed {{Lang|bn-latn|Apur Sansar}} with 1960's ''[[Devi (1960 film)|Devi]]'' (''The Goddess''), a film in which he examined the superstitions in society. Sharmila Tagore starred as Doyamoyee, a young wife who is [[Kali|deified]] by her father-in-law. Ray was worried that the [[Central Board of Film Certification]] might block his film, or at least make him re-cut it, but ''Devi'' was spared. Upon international distribution, the critic from ''[[Chicago Reader]]'' described the film as, "full of sensuality and ironic undertones".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rosenbaum|first=Jonathan|date=1 January 2000|title=Devi|url=http://onfilm.chicagoreader.com/movies/capsules/2659_DEVI.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031053329/http://onfilm.chicagoreader.com/movies/capsules/2659_DEVI.html|archive-date=31 October 2007|access-date=11 November 2020|website=Chicago Reader}}</ref>

In 1961, on the insistence of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], Ray was commissioned to make [[Rabindranath Tagore (film)|''Rabindranath Tagore'']], based on the poet of the [[Rabindranath Tagore|same name]], on the occasion of his birth centennial, a tribute to the person who likely most influenced Ray. Due to limited footage of Tagore, Ray was challenged by the necessity of making the film mainly with static material. He said that it took as much work as three feature films.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=277}}</ref>

In the same year, together with [[Subhas Mukhopadhyay (poet)|Subhas Mukhopadhyay]] and others, Ray was able to revive ''[[Sandesh (magazine)|Sandesh]]'', the children's magazine which his grandfather had founded.<ref name=":1" /> Ray had been saving money for some years to make this possible. A duality in the name (''Sandesh'' means both "news" in Bengali and also a sweet popular dessert) set the tone of the magazine (both educational and entertaining). Ray began to make illustrations for it, as well as to write stories and essays for children, including his detective stories about [[Feluda]] and the humorous poetry collection, ''Toray Bandha Ghorar Dim''. Writing eventually became a steady source of income.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|date=20 May 2020|title=Satyajit Ray: a moral attitude {{!}} Sight & Sound|url=https://www2.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/sight-sound-magazine/features/satyajit-ray-moral-attitude|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905143609/http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/sight-sound-magazine/features/satyajit-ray-moral-attitude|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 September 2013|access-date=9 November 2020|website=British Film Institute|language=en}}</ref>

In 1962, Ray directed ''[[Kanchenjungha]].'' Based on his first original screenplay, it was also his first colour film. It tells the story of an upper-class family spending an afternoon in [[Darjeeling]], a picturesque hill town in [[West Bengal]]. They try to arrange the engagement of their youngest daughter to a highly paid engineer educated in London.

Ray had first conceived shooting the film in a large mansion, but later decided to film it in the town. He used many shades of light and mist to reflect the tension in the drama. Ray noted that while his script allowed shooting to be possible under any lighting conditions, a commercial film crew in Darjeeling failed to shoot a single scene, as they only wanted to do so in sunshine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=142}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]''{{'}} [[Bosley Crowther]] gave the film a mixed review; he praised Ray's "soft and relaxed" filmmaking but thought the characters were clichés.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Crowther|first=Bosley|date=26 July 1966|title=Screen: Satyajit Ray's 'Kanchenjungha':Film Given Premiere at Lincoln Center (Published 1966)|language=en-US|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/07/26/archives/screen-satyajit-rays-kanchenjunghafilm-given-premiere-at-lincoln.html|access-date=11 November 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
[[File:Poster Mahanagar by Satyajit Ray.jpg|thumb|Poster for ''[[Mahanagar]]'' (1963)]]
In 1964, Ray directed ''[[Charulata]]'' (''The Lonely Wife''). One of Ray's favourite films, it was regarded by many critics as his most accomplished.<ref name="robinson">{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=157}}</ref> Based on Tagore's short story, ''[[Nastanirh]]'' (''Broken Nest''), the film tells of a lonely wife, Charu, in 19th-century Bengal, and her growing feelings for her brother-in-law Amal. In retrospective reviews, ''[[The Guardian]]'' called it "extraordinarily vivid and fresh",<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bradshaw|first=Peter|date=21 August 2014|title=Charulata review – a vitamin boost for the mind and heart|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/aug/21/charulata-review|access-date=11 November 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> while ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' praised [[Madhabi Mukherjee]]'s casting, the film's visual style, and its camera movements.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wilson|first=Jake|date=2 January 2014|title=Satyajit Ray's classic Charulata is a tale of yearning that retains its poignancy|url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/satyajit-rays-classic-charulata-is-a-tale-of-yearning-that-retains-its-poignancy-20140102-307nd.html|access-date=11 November 2020|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|language=en}}</ref> Ray said the film contained the fewest flaws among his work and it was his only work which, given a chance, he would make exactly the same way.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Goritsas|first=Helen|date=May 2002|title=Ray, Satyajit – Senses of Cinema|url=https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2002/great-directors/ray/|access-date=11 November 2020|website=Senses of Cinema|language=en-US}}</ref> At the [[15th Berlin International Film Festival]], ''Charulata'' earned him a [[Silver Bear for Best Director]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prizes and Honours 1965|url=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1965/03_preistr_ger_1965/03_Preistraeger_1965.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319033406/http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1965/03_preistr_ger_1965/03_Preistraeger_1965.html|archive-date=19 March 2015|access-date=11 November 2020|website=Internationale Filmfestspiele Berlin}}</ref> Other films in this period include ''[[Mahanagar]]'' (''The Big City''), ''[[Teen Kanya]]'' (''Three Daughters''), ''[[Abhijan (1962 film)|Abhijan]]'' (''The Expedition''), ''[[Kapurush]]'' (''The Coward'') and ''[[Mahapurush]]'' (''Holy Man''). The first of these, ''Mahanagar'', drew praise from British critics; [[Philip French]] opined that it was one of Ray's best.<ref>{{Cite web|last=French|first=Philip|date=18 August 2013|title=The Big City – review|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/aug/18/satyajit-ray-big-city-review|access-date=11 November 2020|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=13 August 2013|title=The Big City|url=https://www.timeout.com/movies/the-big-city|access-date=11 November 2020|website=Time Out Worldwide|language=en}}</ref>

Also in the 1960s, Ray visited Japan and took pleasure in meeting filmmaker [[Akira Kurosawa]], whom he highly regarded.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 March 2010|title=When Ray Met Kurosawa|url=https://openthemagazine.com/art-culture/when-ray-met-kurosawa/|access-date=9 November 2020|website=Open The Magazine|language=en-GB}}</ref>

===New directions (1965–1982)===
In the post-''Charulata'' period, Ray took on various projects, from [[fantasy]], [[science fiction]], and [[Detective fiction|detective stories]] to [[Historical drama film|historical dramas]]. Ray also experimented during this period, exploring contemporary issues of Indian life in response to the perceived lack of these issues in his films.

The first major film in this period is 1966's ''[[Nayak (1966 film)|Nayak]]'' (''The Hero''), the story of a screen hero travelling in a train and meeting a young, sympathetic female journalist. Starring [[Uttam Kumar]] and [[Sharmila Tagore]], in the twenty-four hours of the journey, the film explores the inner conflict of the apparently highly successful [[matinée idol]]. Although the film received a "Critics Prize" at the [[Berlin International Film Festival]], it had a generally muted reception.<ref name="dasgupta">{{Harvnb|Dasgupta|1996|p=91}}</ref>

In 1967, Ray wrote a script for a film to be called ''[[The Alien (1960s film)|The Alien]]'', based on his short story "Bankubabur Bandhu" ("Banku Babu's Friend"), which he wrote in 1962 for ''Sandesh'' magazine. It was planned to be a US and India co-production with [[Columbia Pictures]], with [[Marlon Brando]] and [[Peter Sellers]] cast in the leading roles. Ray found that his script had been copyrighted and the fee appropriated by [[Michael Wilson (writer)|Mike Wilson]]. Wilson had initially approached Ray through their mutual friend, author [[Arthur C. Clarke]], to represent him in [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]]. Wilson copyrighted the script, credited to ''Mike Wilson & Satyajit Ray'', although he contributed only one word. Ray later said that he never received compensation for the script.<ref name="unmaderay">{{cite web|url=http://www.satyajitrayworld.com/raysfilmography/unmaderay.aspx|title=Ordeals of the Alien|last=Ray|first=Satyajit|work=The Unmade Ray|publisher=Satyajit Ray Society|access-date=21 April 2008|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080427215538/http://www.satyajitrayworld.com/raysfilmography/unmaderay.aspx|archive-date=27 April 2008}}</ref> After Brando dropped out of the project, the producers tried to replace him with [[James Coburn]], but Ray became disillusioned and returned to Calcutta.<ref name="unmaderay" /> Columbia attempted to revive the project, without success, in the 1970s and 1980s.

In 1969, Ray directed one of his most commercially successful films, a musical fantasy based on a children's story written by his grandfather, ''[[Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne]]'' (''The Adventures of Goopy and Bagha'').<ref>{{Cite web|last=Banerjee|first=Rabi|date=24 June 2018|title=Reimagining Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne, a Satyajit Ray cult classic|url=https://www.theweek.in/leisure/society/2018/06/24/reimagining-goopy-gyne-bagha-byne-satyajit-ray-cult-classic.html|access-date=11 November 2020|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref> It is about the journey of Goopy the singer and Bagha the drummer, endowed with three gifts by the King of Ghosts to stop an impending war between two neighbouring kingdoms. One of his most expensive projects, the film was also difficult to finance. Ray abandoned his desire to shoot it in colour, as he turned down an offer that would have forced him to cast a certain [[Hindi film]] actor as the lead.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton|1971|pp=291–297}}</ref> He also composed the songs and music for the film.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 October 2013|title=The World of Goopi and Bagha: Mumbai Review {{!}} Hollywood Reporter|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/world-goopi-bagha-mumbai-review-649699|access-date=11 November 2020|website=www.hollywoodreporter.com}}</ref>

Next, Ray directed the film adaptation of a novel by the poet and writer, [[Sunil Gangopadhyay]]. Featuring a musical motif structure acclaimed as more complex than ''Charulata'',<ref name="Wood 1972 13">{{Harvnb|Wood|1972|p=13}}</ref> ''[[Aranyer Din Ratri]]'' (1970) (''Days and Nights in the Forest'') follows four urban young men going to the forests for a vacation. They try to leave their daily lives behind, but one of them encounters women, and it becomes a deep study of the Indian middle class.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|author=Ray, Satyajit |title=Satyajit Ray : interviews|date=2007|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|others=Cardullo, Bert.|isbn=978-1-57806-936-1|edition=1st|location=Jackson|pages=53, 180|oclc=70176953}}</ref> First shown at the [[New York Film Festival]] in 1970, critic [[Pauline Kael]] wrote, "Satyajit Ray's films can give rise to a more complex feeling of happiness in me than the work of any other director [...] No artist has done more than Ray to make us reevaluate the commonplace".<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Kael|first=Pauline|date=17 March 1973|title=Lost and Found|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1973/03/17/lost-and-found-7|access-date=11 November 2020|magazine=The New Yorker|language=en-us}}</ref> Writing for the [[BBC]] in 2002, Jamie Russell complimented the script, pacing, and mixture of emotions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Russell|first=Jamie|date=23 July 2002|title=BBC – Films – review – Days and Nights in the Forest (Aranyer Din Ratri)|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2002/07/23/days_and_nights_in_the_forest_1969_review.shtml|access-date=11 November 2020|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> According to one critic, [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]], "a single sequence [of the film] ... would offer material for a short essay".<ref name="Wood 1972 13" />

After ''Aranyer Din Ratri'', Ray addressed contemporary Bengali life. He completed what became known as the ''Calcutta'' trilogy: ''[[Pratidwandi]]'' (1970), ''[[Seemabaddha]]'' (1971), and ''[[Jana Aranya]]'' (1975), three films that were conceived separately but had similar themes.<ref name="caltri">{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=200–220}}</ref> The trilogy focuses on repression, with male protagonists encountering the forbidden.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ganguly|first=Suranjan|date=1 January 2020|title=Encounters with the Forbidden: Satyajit Ray's Pratidwandi and Jana Aranya|journal=Film Criticism|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.3998/fc.13761232.0044.103|hdl=2027/spo.13761232.0044.103|issn=2471-4364|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref> ''Pratidwandi'' (''The Adversary'') is about an idealist young graduate; while disillusioned by the end of film, he is still uncorrupted. ''Seemabaddha'' (''Company Limited'') portrays a successful man giving up his morality for further gains. ''Jana Aranya'' (''The Middleman'') depicts a young man giving in to the culture of corruption to earn a living. In the first film, ''Pratidwandi'', Ray introduces new [[List of narrative techniques|narrative techniques]], such as scenes in negative, [[dream sequence]]s, and abrupt flashbacks.<ref name="caltri" />

Also in the 1970s, Ray adapted two of his popular stories as detective films. Although mainly aimed at children and young adults, both ''[[Sonar Kella]]'' (''The Golden Fortress'') and ''[[Joi Baba Felunath (film)|Joi Baba Felunath]]'' (''The Elephant God'') became cult favourites.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rushdie|1992}}</ref> In a 2019 review of ''Sonar Kella'', critic Rouven Linnarz was impressed with its use of Indian classical instruments to generate "mysterious progression".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Linnarz|first=Rouven|date=28 April 2019|title=Film Review: Sonar Kella (The Golden Fortress) (1974) by Satyajit Ray|url=https://asianmoviepulse.com/2019/04/film-review-sonar-kella-the-golden-fortress-1974-by-satyajit-ray/|access-date=11 November 2020|website=Asian Movie Pulse|language=en-US}}</ref>

Ray considered making a film on the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] but later abandoned the idea, saying that, as a filmmaker, he was more interested in the travails of the refugees and not the politics.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=206}}</ref> In 1977, Ray completed ''[[Shatranj Ke Khilari (film)|Shatranj Ke Khilari]]'' (''The Chess Players''), a [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] film based on a short story by [[Munshi Premchand]]. It was set in [[Lucknow]] in the state of [[Oudh]], a year before the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. A commentary on issues related to the [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|colonisation of India by the British]], it was Ray's first feature film in a language other than [[Bengali language|Bengali]]. It starred a high-profile cast including [[Sanjeev Kumar (actor)|Sanjeev Kumar]], [[Saeed Jaffrey]], [[Amjad Khan (actor)|Amjad Khan]], [[Shabana Azmi]], [[Victor Bannerjee]], and [[Richard Attenborough]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Antani|first=Jay|date=7 April 2007|title=DVD Review: The Chess Players|url=https://www.slantmagazine.com/dvd/the-chess-players/|access-date=9 November 2020|website=Slant Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> Despite the film's limited budget, a ''[[The Washington Post]]'' critic gave it a positive review, writing, "He [Ray] possesses what many overindulged Hollywood filmmakers often lack: a view of history".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Arnold|first=Gary|date=6 April 1978|title=The Chess Players|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1978/04/06/the-chess-players/f6cddf62-1567-4a21-8ff0-6ecd9f923aa2/|access-date=11 November 2020|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> This was Ray's only film made in [[Hindustani language]] (in elite [[Urdu]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biennale Cinema 2022 {{!}} Shatranj ke khilari (The chess players) |url=https://www.labiennale.org/en/cinema/2022/venice-classics/shatranj-ke-khilari-chess-players |website=La Biennale di Venezia |date=4 July 2022 |access-date=22 April 2026}}</ref>

In 1980, Ray made a sequel to ''Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne'', a somewhat political ''[[Hirak Rajar Deshe]]'' (''Kingdom of Diamonds''). The kingdom of the evil Diamond King, or ''Hirok Raj'', is an allusion to India during [[The Emergency (India)|The Emergency]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=188–189}}</ref> Along with his acclaimed short film ''[[Pikoo (film)|Pikoo]]'' (''Pikoo's Diary'') and the hour-long [[Hindi]] film, ''[[Sadgati]]'', this was the culmination of his work in this period.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Brilliance of Satyajit Ray {{!}} BAMPFA|url=https://bampfa.org/program/brilliance-satyajit-ray|access-date=9 November 2020|website=bampfa.org|date=21 December 2014 }}</ref>

When ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial|E.T.]]'' was released in 1982, Clarke and Ray saw similarities in the film to his earlier ''The'' ''Alien'' script; Ray claimed that ''E.T.'' plagiarised his script. Ray said that [[Steven Spielberg]]'s film "would not have been possible without my script of '''The Alien''<nowiki/>' being available throughout America in mimeographed copies". Spielberg denied any plagiarism by saying, "I was a kid in high school when this script was circulating in Hollywood". (Spielberg actually graduated high school in 1965 and released his first film in 1968).<ref>
{{cite news|author=Newman J|date=17 September 2001|title=Satyajit Ray Collection receives Packard grant and lecture endowment|publisher=UC Santa Cruz Currents online|url=http://www.ucsc.edu/currents/01-02/09-17/ray.html|url-status=dead|access-date=29 April 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051104203511/http://www.ucsc.edu/currents/01-02/09-17/ray.html|archive-date=4 November 2005}}</ref> Besides ''The Alien'', two other unrealised projects that Ray had intended to direct were adaptations of the ancient [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epic]], the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', and [[E. M. Forster]]'s 1924 novel ''[[A Passage to India]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Wallia, C. J.|year=1996|title=Book review: ''Satyajit Ray'' by Surabhi Banerjee|url=http://www.indiastar.com/satyajitray.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514050120/http://www.indiastar.com/satyajitray.html|archive-date=14 May 2008|access-date=31 May 2009|publisher=India Star}}</ref>

==Later days and death (1983–1992)==
[[File:Satyajit-ray-oscar-180.jpg|thumb|Ray became the first Indian to receive an [[Academy Honorary Award|Honorary Academy Award]] in [[64th Academy Awards|1992]].]]
In 1983, while working on ''[[Ghare Baire (film)|Ghare Baire]]'' (''Home and the World''), Ray suffered a [[heart attack]]; it would severely limit his productivity in the remaining nine years of his life. ''Ghare Baire'', an adaptation of the novel of the [[The Home and the World|same name]], was completed in 1984 with the help of [[Sandip Ray|Ray's son]], who served as a camera operator from then onward. It is about the dangers of fervent [[nationalism]]; he wrote the first draft of a script for it in the 1940s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=66–67}}</ref> Despite rough patches due to Ray's illness, the film did receive some acclaim; critic [[Vincent Canby]] gave the film a maximum rating of five stars and praised the performances of the three lead actors.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Canby |first=Vincent |date=21 June 1985 |title=Film: By Satyajit Ray |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/21/movies/film-by-satyajit-ray.html |access-date=11 November 2020 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> It also featured the first kiss scene portrayed in Ray's films.

In 1987, Ray recovered to an extent to direct the 1990 film ''[[Shakha Proshakha]]'' (''Branches of the Tree'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=353}}</ref> It depicts an old man, who has lived a life of honesty, and learns of the corruption of three of his sons. The final scene shows the father finding solace only in the companionship of his fourth son, who is uncorrupted but [[mentally ill]] due to a head injury sustained while he was studying in England.

Ray's last film, ''[[Agantuk]]'' (''The Stranger''), is lighter in mood but not in theme; when a long-lost uncle arrives to visit his niece in Calcutta, he arouses suspicion as to his motive. It provokes far-ranging questions in the film about [[civilisation]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=353–364}}</ref> Critic [[Hal Hinson]] was impressed, and thought ''Agantuk'' shows "all the virtues of a master artist in full maturity".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hinson |first=Hal |date=6 October 1995 |title=The Stranger |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/thestrangernrhinson_c03113.htm |access-date=11 November 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref>

A heavy smoker but non-drinker, Ray valued work more than anything else. He would work 12 hours a day, and go to bed at two o'clock in the morning. He also enjoyed collecting antiques, manuscripts, rare [[gramophone]] records, paintings, and rare books.<ref>{{Cite web |last=T.S. |first=Satyan |date=8 June 2002 |title=A FILM-MAKER FILMED |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30245124.ece |access-date=10 November 2020 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref> He was an [[atheist]].<ref>{{cite web |author1=Sumit Mitra |title=In India it is not possible to make a Costa-Gavras type of film: Satyajit Ray |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19830215-in-india-it-is-not-possible-to-make-a-costa-gavras-type-of-film-satyajit-ray-770455-2013-07-26 |website=India Today |access-date=1 April 2023 |date=15 February 1983 |quote=Interviewer: "Do you believe in God?" Ray: "No. I don't believe in religion either. At least not in organised religion. Nor have I felt the necessity for any personal religion."}}</ref>

In 1992, Ray's health deteriorated due to heart complications. He was admitted to a hospital but never recovered. Twenty-four days before his death, Ray was presented with an [[Academy Honorary Award|Honorary Academy Award]] by [[Audrey Hepburn]] via video-link; he was in gravely ill condition, but gave an acceptance speech, calling it the "best achievement of [my] movie-making career".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Acceptance Speeches: Satyajit Ray |url=http://aaspeechesdb.oscars.org/link/064-24/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020193036/http://aaspeechesdb.oscars.org/link/064-24/ |archive-date=20 October 2014 |access-date=22 April 2013 |publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]]}}</ref> He died on 23 April 1992, at age 70.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 April 1992 |title=Satyajit Ray dead |page=1 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19920424&printsec=frontpage&hl=en}}</ref>

== Other works ==
===Literature===
{{main|Literary works of Satyajit Ray}}

Ray created two popular fictional characters in Bengali children's literature—Pradosh Chandra Mitter (Mitra), alias [[Feluda]], a sleuth, and [[Professor Shonku]], a scientist. The Feluda stories are narrated by Tapesh Ranjan Mitra, aka Topshe, his teenage cousin, something of a [[Doctor Watson|Watson]] to Feluda's [[Sherlock Holmes|Holmes]]. The [[science fiction]] stories of Shonku are presented as a diary discovered after the scientist mysteriously disappeared.

Ray also wrote a collection of [[nonsense verse]] named ''[[Today Bandha Ghorar Dim]]'', which includes a translation of [[Lewis Carroll]]'s "[[Jabberwocky]]". He wrote a collection of humorous stories of [[Nasreddin|Mullah Nasiruddin]] in [[Bengali language|Bengali]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Unicorn Expedition and Other Fantastic Tales of India by Ray, Satyajit: hardcover (1987) 1st edition. {{!}} zenosbooks|url=https://www.abebooks.com/first-edition/Unicorn-Expedition-Fantastic-Tales-India-Ray/22630850370/bd|access-date=9 November 2020|website=www.abebooks.com|language=en}}</ref>

His short stories were published as collections of 12 stories, in which the overall title played with the word twelve (for example, ''Aker pitthe dui'', literally "Two on top of one"). Ray's interest in puzzles and puns is reflected in his stories. Ray's short stories give full rein to his interest in the macabre, suspense, and other aspects that he avoided in film, making for an interesting psychological study.<ref name="nandy">{{Harvnb|Nandy|1995}}</ref> Most of his writings have been translated into English. Most of his screenplays have been published in Bengali in the literary journal ''Eksan''. Ray wrote an autobiography about his childhood years, ''[[Jakhan Choto Chilam]]'' (1982), translated to English as ''Childhood Days: A Memoir'' by his wife [[Bijoya Ray]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Ray, Satyajit|title=Childhood days : a memoir|date=1998|publisher=Penguin Books|others=Rāẏa, Bijaẏā.|isbn=0-14-025079-4|location=New Delhi|oclc=41532327}}</ref> In 1994, Ray published his memoir, ''[[My Years with Apu]]'', about his experiences of making ''[[The Apu Trilogy]].''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dhillon|first=Amrit|date=30 November 1994|title=Book review: Satyajit Ray's My years with Apu: A memoir|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/story/19941130-book-review-satyajit-rays-my-years-with-apu-a-memoir-810309-1994-11-30|access-date=9 November 2020|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref>

He also wrote essays on film, published as the collections ''[[Our Films, Their Films]]'' (1976), ''[[Bishoy Chalachchitra]]'' (1976), and ''[[Ekei Bole Shooting]]'' (1979). During the mid-1990s, Ray's film essays and an anthology of short stories were also published in English in the West. ''Our Films, Their Films'' is an anthology of [[film criticism]] by Ray. The book contains articles and personal journal excerpts. The book is presented in two sections, first discussing [[Cinema of India|Indian film]] before turning its attention toward [[Hollywood cinema|Hollywood]], specific filmmakers (e.g., [[Charlie Chaplin]] and [[Akira Kurosawa]]), and movements such as [[Italian neorealism]]. His book ''[[Bishoy Chalachchitra]]'' was published in English translation in 2006 as ''Speaking of Films''. It contains a compact description of his philosophy of different aspects of the cinemas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saran|first=Renu|title=History of Indian Cinema|publisher=Diamond Pocket Books|year=2014|isbn=9789350836514}}</ref>

===Calligraphy and design===
Ray designed four typefaces for [[roman script]] named Ray Roman, Ray Bizarre, Daphnis, and Holiday script, apart from numerous [[Bengali Script|Bengali]] ones for ''[[Sandesh (magazine)|Sandesh]]'' magazine.<ref name=show>{{cite news|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/The-Ray-show-goes-on/263406/ |title=The Ray show goes on |last=Datta |first=Sudipta |date=19 January 2008 |access-date=10 April 2008 |work=The Financial Express |publisher=Indian Express Newspapers (Mumbai) Ltd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121103144/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/The-Ray-show-goes-on/263406/ |archive-date=21 January 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satyajitrayworld.com/versatility_typography.php |title=Ray Typography |access-date=24 July 2014 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809064842/http://www.satyajitrayworld.com/versatility_typography.php |archive-date= 9 August 2014 }}</ref> Ray Roman and Ray Bizarre won an international competition in 1971.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=57}}</ref>

In certain circles of [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], Ray continued to be known as an eminent [[graphic designer]], well into his film career. Ray illustrated all his books and designed covers for them, as well as creating all publicity material for his films. For example, Ray's artistic experimentation with Bengali [[grapheme]]s is highlighted in his [[Film poster|cine posters]] and cine promo-brochures' covers. He also designed covers of several books by other authors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=57–59}}</ref> His [[Calligraphy|calligraphic]] technique reflects the deep impact of (a) the artistic pattern of European [[Musical staff|musical staff notation]] in the graphemic [[syntagms]] and (b) [[alpana]], "ritual painting" mainly practised by Bengali women at the time of religious festivals (the term means "to coat with").{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Thus, the verisimilar division between [[High art|classical]] and [[folk art]] is blurred in Ray's representation of Bengali graphemes. The three-tier X-height of Bengali graphemes was presented in a manner of musical map, and the contours, curves in between horizontal and vertical meeting-point, follow the patterns of alpana. Some have noted Ray's metamorphosis of graphemes (possibly a form of "[[Arche-writing|Archewriting]]") as a living object/subject in his positive manipulation of Bengali graphemes.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/411331|title=Chobi Lekhen Sottojit (Satyajit Ray Writes Paintings)|journal=Dhrubapad. Yearbook-Vi. (Pp.392–417). Kolkata|last1=Bandyopadhyay|first1=Debaprasad}}</ref>

As a graphic designer, Ray designed most of his film posters, combining folk art and calligraphy to create themes ranging from mysterious and surreal to comical; an exhibition for his posters was held at the [[British Film Institute]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|author=Stevens, Isabel|date=13 August 2013|title=Satyajit Ray's film posters: in pictures|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/gallery/2013/aug/13/satyajit-ray-film-posters-in-pictures#/?picture=414861262&index=0|url-status=live|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606210407/http://www.theguardian.com/film/gallery/2013/aug/13/satyajit-ray-film-posters-in-pictures|archive-date=6 June 2014}}</ref> He would master every style of visual art, and could mimic any painter, as evidenced in his book and magazine covers, posters, literary illustrations, and advertisement campaigns.<ref name=":0" />

==Filmmaking style and influences==

Ray subconsciously paid tribute throughout his career to French director [[Jean Renoir]], who influenced him greatly. He also acknowledged Italian director [[Vittorio De Sica]] as an important influence, whom he thought represented [[Italian Neorealism]] best, and who taught him how to cram cinematic details into a single shot and how to use amateur actors and actresses.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Cooper|first=Darius|title=The cinema of Satyajit Ray : between tradition and modernity|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-62026-0|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=73|oclc=40948522}}</ref> Ray professed to have learned the craft of cinema from [[Classical Hollywood cinema|Old Hollywood]] directors such as [[John Ford]], [[Billy Wilder]], and [[Ernst Lubitsch]]. He had deep respect and admiration for his contemporaries [[Akira Kurosawa]] and [[Ingmar Bergman]], whom he considered giants.<ref name=":4" /> Among others, he learned the use of [[Freeze-frame shot|freeze frame shots]] from [[François Truffaut]], and [[jump cuts]], [[Fade (filmmaking)|fades]], and [[Dissolve (filmmaking)|dissolves]] from [[Jean-Luc Godard]]. Although he admired Godard's "revolutionary" early phase, he thought his later phase was "alien".<ref name=":3" /> Ray adored his peer [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] but hated ''[[Blowup]]'', which he considered as having "very little inner movement". He was also impressed with [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s work.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roisin|first=Fariha|date=18 August 2014|title=Why the Best American Filmmakers Owe a Debt to Satyajit Ray|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2014/08/why-the-best-american-filmmakers-owe-a-debt-to-satyajit-ray-23072/|access-date=9 November 2020|website=IndieWire|language=en}}</ref> Although Ray claimed to have had very little influence from [[Sergei Eisenstein]], films such as {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}}, ''Aparajito'', ''Charulata'', and ''Sadgati'' contain scenes which show striking uses of [[montage (filmmaking)|montage]], a technique Eisenstein helped pioneer. Ray also owned sketches of Eisenstein.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Ray|first=Satyajit|title=Satyajit Ray on cinema|date=2011|publisher=Columbia University Press|others=Ray, Sandip, 1954–|isbn=978-0-231-53547-2|location=New York|oclc=836848820}}</ref>

Ray considered [[Scriptwriting|script-writing]] to be an integral part of direction. Initially, he refused to make a film in any language other than [[Bengali language|Bengali]]. In his two non-Bengali feature films, he wrote the script in English; translators adapted it into [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] under Ray's supervision.

Ray's eye for detail was matched by that of his [[art director]] [[Bansi Chandragupta]]. His influence on the early films was so important that Ray would always write scripts in English before creating a Bengali version, so that the non-Bengali Chandragupta would be able to read it. [[Subrata Mitra]]'s [[cinematography]] garnered praise in Ray's films, although some critics thought that Mitra's eventual departure from Ray lowered its quality. Mitra stopped working for him after [[Nayak (1966 film)|''Nayak'']] (1966). Mitra developed "[[Reflector (photography)#Bounce lighting|bounce lighting]]", a technique to reflect light from cloth to create a diffused, realistic light, even on a set.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Baxter|first=Brian|date=28 December 2001|title=Obituary: Subrata Mitra|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/dec/28/guardianobituaries.filmnews|access-date=9 November 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Subrata Mitra|url=http://www.cinematographers.nl/GreatDoPh/mitra.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602164022/http://www.cinematographers.nl/GreatDoPh/mitra.htm|archive-date=2 June 2009|access-date=22 May 2009|publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Cinematographers}}</ref>

Ray's regular [[film editor]] was [[Dulal Datta]], but the director usually dictated the editing while Datta did the actual work. Due to finances and Ray's meticulous planning, his films (apart from {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}}) were mostly cut [[In-camera editing|in-camera]].

At the beginning of his career, Ray worked with [[Indian classical music]]ians, including [[Ravi Shankar]], [[Vilayat Khan]], and [[Ali Akbar Khan]]. He found that their first loyalty was to musical traditions, and not to his film. He obtained a greater understanding of [[Western classical music|Western classical forms]], which he wanted to use for his films set in an urban milieu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=315–318}}</ref> Starting with ''Teen Kanya'', Ray began to compose his own scores.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Music of Satyajit Ray|url=https://satyajitray.org/music-of-satyajit-ray/|access-date=9 November 2020|website=Satyajit Ray Org|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] was Ray's favourite composer; Ray also went on to become a distinguished connoisseur of Western classical music in India.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=18 June 2019|title=The Great Integrator|url=https://serenademagazine.com/series/music-education/the-great-integrator/|access-date=10 November 2020|website=Serenade|language=en-GB|archive-date=10 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110230327/https://serenademagazine.com/series/music-education/the-great-integrator/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[narrative structure]] of Ray's films are represented by [[musical forms]] such as [[sonata]], [[fugue]], and [[rondo]]. ''Kanchenjunga'', ''Nayak'', and ''Aranyer Din Ratri'' are examples of this structure.<ref name=":5" />

Ray cast actors from diverse backgrounds, from well-known stars to people who had never seen a film (as in ''Aparajito'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Ray|1994|p=100}}</ref> Critics such as [[Robin Wood (critic)|Robin Wood]] have lauded him as the best director of children, recalling memorable performances in the roles of Apu and Durga ({{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}}), Ratan (''Postmaster''), and Mukul (''Sonar Kella''). Depending on the actor's skill and experience, Ray varied the intensity of his direction, from virtually nothing with actors such as [[Utpal Dutt]], to using the actor as a puppet (e.g., with [[Subir Banerjee]] as young Apu or [[Sharmila Tagore]] as Aparna).<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=78}}</ref>

Actors who worked for Ray trusted him but said that he could also treat incompetence with total contempt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=307}}</ref> With admiration of his cinematic style and craft, director [[Roger Manvell]] said, "In the restrained style he has adopted, Ray has become a master of technique. He takes his timing from the nature of the people and their environment; his camera is the intent, unobtrusive observer of reactions; his editing the discreet, economical transition from one value to the next".<ref name="m.dailyhunt.in">[https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/yourstory-epaper-yourstory/remembering+the+godfather+of+indian+cinema+how+satyajit+ray+changed+the+course+of+filmmaking-newsid-67145607 Remembering the Godfather of Indian cinema: how Satyajit Ray changed the course of filmmaking – YourStory]. ''DailyHunt'' (2 May 2015). Retrieved on 30 November 2018.</ref> Ray credited life to be the best kind of inspiration for cinema; he said, "For a popular medium, the best kind of inspiration should derive from life and have its roots in it. No amount of technical polish can make up for artificiality of the theme and the dishonesty of treatment".<ref name="m.dailyhunt.in" />

==Critical and popular responses==
Ray's work has been described as full of [[humanism]] and universality, and of a deceptive simplicity with deep underlying complexity.<ref name="malcolm2">{{cite news|author=Malcolm D |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/cultures/2002/may/02/artsfeatures1 |title=The universe in his backyard |access-date=15 February 2007 |location=London |date=2 May 2002 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426235816/http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/may/02/artsfeatures1 |archive-date=26 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name="sragrow">{{cite web|author=[[Michael Sragow|Swagrow M]] |work=The Atlantic Monthly |url=http://satyajitray.ucsc.edu/articles/sragow.html |title=An Art Wedded to Truth |access-date=15 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412212046/http://satyajitray.ucsc.edu/articles/sragow.html |archive-date=12 April 2009 }}</ref> The Japanese director [[Akira Kurosawa]] said, "Not to have seen the cinema of Ray means existing in the world without seeing the sun or the moon".<ref name=Robinson-96>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=96}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=11 September 2013|title=In praise of … Satyajit Ray {{!}} Editorial|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/sep/11/in-praise-of-satyajit-ray-editorial|access-date=7 January 2022|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> His detractors often find his films glacially slow, moving like a "majestic snail".<ref name="robinson"/> Some critics find his work anti-modern, criticising him for lacking the new modes of expression or experimentation found in works of Ray's contemporaries, such as [[Jean-Luc Godard]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=306–318}}</ref> As [[Stanley Kauffmann]] wrote, some critics believe that Ray assumes that viewers "can be interested in a film that simply dwells in its characters, rather than one that imposes dramatic patterns on their lives".<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=352–353}}</ref> Ray said he could do nothing about the slow pace. Kurosawa defended him by saying that Ray's films were not slow; rather, "His work can be described as flowing composedly, like a big river".<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=314–315}}</ref>

Critics have often compared Ray to [[Anton Chekhov]], [[Jean Renoir]], [[Vittorio De Sica]], [[Howard Hawks]], and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]. The writer [[V. S. Naipaul]] compared a scene in ''[[The Chess Players (film)|Shatranj Ki Khiladi]]'' (''The Chess Players'') to a Shakespearean play, writing, "Only three hundred words are spoken but goodness! – terrific things happen".<ref name="harvnb"/><ref>{{cite news|author=Ebert|first=Roger|title=The Music Room (1958)|work=Chicago Sun-Times|url=http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19990117/REVIEWS08/401010342/1023|url-status=live|access-date=29 April 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051226145349/http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19990117%2FREVIEWS08%2F401010342%2F1023|archive-date=26 December 2005}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=246}}</ref> Even critics who did not like the [[aesthetics]] of Ray's films generally acknowledged his ability to encompass a whole culture with all its nuances. Ray's obituary in ''[[The Independent]]'' included the question, "Who else can compete?"<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2005|pp=13–14}}</ref>

His work was promoted in France by the ''[[Studio des Ursulines|Studio des Ursuline]]'' cinema. French photographer [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]] described Ray as, "undoubtedly a giant in the film world".<ref>{{cite web|title=Why the Best American Film Makers Owe a Dept to Satyajit Ray|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2014/08/why-the-best-american-filmmakers-owe-a-debt-to-satyajit-ray-23072/|website=indiewire|date=18 August 2014}}</ref> With positive admiration for most of Ray's films, American critic [[Roger Ebert]] cited ''The Apu Trilogy'' among the greatest films.<ref>[https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-the-apu-trilogy-1959 The Apu Trilogy Movie Review & Film Summary (1959)]. Roger Ebert. Retrieved on 30 November 2018.</ref> American critic [[Vincent Canby]] once wrote about Ray's films, "no matter what the particular story, no matter what the social-political circumstances of the characters, the cinema of Satyajit Ray (the ''Apu'' trilogy, ''The Music Room'', ''Distant Thunder'' and ''The Chess Players'', among others) is so exquisitely realized that an entire world is evoked from comparatively limited details".<ref>{{cite web|title=FILM: BY SATYAJIT RAY|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/21/movies/film-by-satyajit-ray.html|website=New York Times|date=21 June 1985}}</ref>

Praising his contribution to the world of cinema, American filmmaker [[Martin Scorsese]] said, "His work is in the company of that of living contemporaries like [[Ingmar Bergman]], Akira Kurosawa and [[Federico Fellini]]".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Critics on Ray|url=http://www.satyajitray.org/about_ray/critics_on_ray.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526185124/http://www.satyajitray.org/about_ray/critics_on_ray.htm|archive-date=26 May 2015|access-date=4 April 2021|website=SatyajitRay.org}}</ref> American filmmaker [[Francis Ford Coppola]] cited Ray as a major influence.<ref name="independent.co.uk">Dulworthy, Jacob. [https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/dunkirk-christopher-nolan-pather-panchali-india-best-film-director-satyajit-ray-a8288096.html Dunkirk director Christopher Nolan hails India's Pather Panchali as 'one of the best films ever made']. The Independent (4 April 2018). Retrieved on 30 November 2018.</ref> He praised 1960's ''Devi'', which Coppola considers as Ray's best work and a "cinematic milestone"; Coppola admitted to learning Indian cinema through Ray's works.<ref>Gupta, Ranjan Das (27 November 2010) [http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/Back-behind-the-camera/article15718304.ece Back behind the camera]. ''The Hindu''. Retrieved on 30 November 2018.</ref> On a trip to India, filmmaker [[Christopher Nolan]] expressed his admiration for Ray's {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}}, saying, "I have had the pleasure of watching {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}} recently, which I hadn't seen before. I think it is one of the best films ever made. It is an extraordinary piece of work".<ref name="independent.co.uk"/>

Politics and ego have also influenced debate regarding Ray's work. Certain advocates of [[socialism]] claim that Ray was not "committed" to the cause of the nation's downtrodden classes, while some critics accused him of glorifying poverty in {{Lang|bn-latn|Pather Panchali}} and ''[[Ashani Sanket]]'' (''Distant Thunder'') through lyricism and aesthetics. They claim he provided no solution to conflicts in the stories and was unable to overcome his [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] background. During the [[Maoism|Maoist]] [[Naxalite]] movements in the 1970s, agitators once came close to causing physical harm to his son, [[Sandip Ray|Sandip]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=205}}</ref>

In early 1980, Ray was criticised by Indian [[Member of Parliament|M.P.]] and former actress [[Nargis Dutt]], who accused Ray of "exporting poverty". She wanted him to make films that represented "Modern India".<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|pp=327–328}}</ref> In a highly public exchange of letters during the 1960s, Ray harshly criticised the film ''[[Akash Kusum]]'' by colleague [[Mrinal Sen]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=177}}</ref> Ray said that Sen only attacked "easy targets", for example the Bengali middle classes. That ''Akash Kusum'' bore some resemblance to ''[[Parash Pathar]]'', a film Sen had admitted to not liking, may have played a role in fracturing their previously cordial relationship. Ray would continue to make films on this "easy target" demographic, including ''[[Pratidwandi]]'' and ''[[Jana Aranya]]'' (set during the Naxalite movement in Bengal), and the two filmmakers would continue to trade praise and criticism the rest of their careers.

==Legacy==
[[File:Satyajit Ray 1994 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Ray on a 1994 stamp of India]]
[[File:SatyajitRay.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Satyajit Ray by Rishiraj Sahoo in 1997]]
Ray is considered one of the greatest film directors of all time.<ref name="Introduction"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Malcolm |first=Derek |date=2 May 2002 |title=The universe in his back yard |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/may/02/artsfeatures1 |access-date=28 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="Bernard Weinraub"/><ref name="Gargan"/><ref name="Critics on Ray, Satyajit Ray Org"/> He is a cultural icon in India and in [[Bengali diaspora|Bengali communities]] worldwide.<ref name=HinduIcon>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/01/stories/2007120151070200.htm |title=Returning to the classics of Ray |last=Tankha |first=Madhur |date=1 December 2007 |access-date=1 May 2008 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201006/http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/01/stories/2007120151070200.htm |archive-date=26 April 2014 }}</ref> Following his death, the city of Calcutta came to a virtual standstill, as hundreds of thousands of people gathered around his house to pay their last respects.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ghosh, Amitav |publisher=Doom Online |url=http://www.dosco.org/pages/info_features/features_spotlights/spotlights/aghosh/ray.htm |title=Satyajit Ray |access-date=19 June 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030165352/http://www.dosco.org/pages/info_features/features_spotlights/spotlights/aghosh/ray.htm |archive-date=30 October 2007 }}</ref> Ray's influence has been widespread and deep in [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali cinema]]. Many directors, including [[Aparna Sen]], [[Rituparno Ghosh]], and [[Gautam Ghose]] from Bengali cinema; [[Vishal Bhardwaj]], [[Dibakar Banerjee]], [[Shyam Benegal]], and [[Sujoy Ghosh]] from [[Hindi cinema]]; [[Tareq Masud]] and [[Tanvir Mokammel]] from [[Cinema of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]]; and [[Aneel Ahmad]] in England, have been influenced by his craft. Across the spectrum, filmmakers such as [[Buddhadeb Dasgupta]], [[Mrinal Sen]], and [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]] have acknowledged his seminal contribution to [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Sen, Mrinal |work=Little Magazine |url=http://www.littlemag.com/2000/mrinal.htm |title=Our lives, their lives |access-date=29 June 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060621094424/http://www.littlemag.com/2000/mrinal.htm |archive-date=21 June 2006 }}</ref> Beyond India, filmmakers [[Martin Scorsese]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Ingui, Chris |publisher=Hatchet |url=http://media.www.gwhatchet.com/media/storage/paper332/news/2002/03/04/Arts/Martin.Scorsese.Hits.Dc.Hangs.With.The.Hachet-195598.shtml |title=Martin Scorsese hits DC, hangs with the Hachet |access-date=6 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826214118/http://media.www.gwhatchet.com/media/storage/paper332/news/2002/03/04/Arts/Martin.Scorsese.Hits.Dc.Hangs.With.The.Hachet-195598.shtml |archive-date=26 August 2009 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Raging Bull Review 1980 |author=Antani, Jay |year=2004 |publisher=contactmusic.com |url=http://www.contactmusic.com/film/review/ragingbull |access-date=4 December 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208051757/http://www.contactmusic.com/film/review/ragingbull |archive-date= 8 December 2015 }}</ref> [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[George Lucas]],<ref>Qureshi, Huma (31 August 2013) [https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art/exhibition-reveals-another-side-to-satyajit-ray-genius-of-indian-cinema-1.299627]. thenational.ae</ref> [[James Ivory (director)|James Ivory]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Hall, Sheldon |publisher=Screen Online |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/532213/index.html |title=Ivory, James (1928–) |access-date=12 February 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230165100/http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/532213/index.html |archive-date=30 December 2006 }}
</ref> [[Abbas Kiarostami]], [[Elia Kazan]], [[William Wyler]],<ref>[http://www.indiewire.com/2014/08/why-the-best-american-filmmakers-owe-a-debt-to-satyajit-ray-23072/ Why the Best American Filmmakers Owe a Debt to Satyajit Ray]. IndieWire (18 August 2014). Retrieved on 30 November 2018.</ref> [[François Truffaut]],<ref>{{cite news|title=The 'World' of Satyajit Ray: Legacy of India's Premier Film Maker on Display |author=Kehr, Dave |work=[[New York Daily News]] |date=5 May 1995 |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/nydn-features/world-satyajit-ray-legacy-india-premier-film-maker-display-article-1.678937 |access-date=6 June 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221143856/http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/nydn-features/world-satyajit-ray-legacy-india-premier-film-maker-display-article-1.678937 |archive-date=21 February 2015 }}</ref> [[John Huston]],<ref name="huston">{{cite web|title=Restored Apu Trilogy Returns Satyajit Ray's Humane Work to Theaters|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/10/movies/restored-apu-trilogy-returns-satyajit-rays-humane-work-to-theaters.html|website=New York Times|date=10 May 2015}}</ref> [[Carlos Saura]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Satyajit Ray is this Spanish director's inspiration |author=Ray, Suchetana |publisher=[[CNN-IBN]] |date=11 March 2008 |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/satyajit-ray-is-this-spanish-directors-inspiration/60900-8.html |access-date=6 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707181226/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/satyajit-ray-is-this-spanish-directors-inspiration/60900-8.html |archive-date= 7 July 2014 }}</ref> [[Isao Takahata]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Thomas, Daniel |title=Film Reviews: Grave of the Fireflies (Hotaru no Haka)|date=20 January 2003|url=http://www.danielthomas.org/pop/film_reviews/fireflies.htm|access-date=30 May 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030085422/http://www.danielthomas.org/pop/film_reviews/fireflies.htm|archive-date=30 October 2012}}</ref> [[Oliver Stone]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Oliver Stone 'loves' Indian cinema|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-11635754|website=bbc|date=27 October 2010}}</ref> [[Quentin Tarantino]], [[Wes Anderson]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://floortwo.wordpress.com/2007/10/28/a-review-of-wes-andersons-the-darjeeling-limited/ |title=A Review of Wes Anderson's ''The Darjeeling Limited'' |work=second floor |date=28 October 2007 |access-date=24 December 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080104031616/http://floortwo.wordpress.com/2007/10/28/a-review-of-wes-andersons-the-darjeeling-limited/ |archive-date= 4 January 2008 }}</ref> [[Danny Boyle]],<ref name=Jivani>{{cite web|author=Jivani, Alkarim |title=Mumbai rising |work=[[Sight & Sound]] |date=February 2009 |url=http://old.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/feature/49511 |access-date=1 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221145109/http://old.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/feature/49511 |archive-date=21 February 2015 }}</ref> [[Christopher Nolan]],<ref name="independent.co.uk"/> and many others have been influenced by Ray's cinematic style.<ref name=Robinson-96/>

[[Gregory Nava]]'s 1995 film ''[[My Family (1995 film)|My Family]]'' had a final scene that was reminiscent of {{Lang|bn-latn|Apur Sansar}}. [[Ira Sachs]]'s 2005 work ''[[Forty Shades of Blue]]'' was a loose remake of ''Charulata.'' Other references to Ray's films are found, for example, in 2006's ''[[Sacred Evil – A True Story|Sacred Evil]]'',<ref>{{cite news|author=Jha SK |publisher=Telegraph India |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060609/asp/etc/story_6319302.asp |title=Sacred Ray |access-date=29 June 2006 |location=Calcutta, India |date=9 June 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618042430/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060609/asp/etc/story_6319302.asp |archive-date=18 June 2006 }}</ref> and the ''[[Elements trilogy|Elements]]'' [[Elements trilogy|trilogy]] by [[Deepa Mehta]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Habib, André |work=Senses of Cinema|url=http://archive.sensesofcinema.com/contents/01/16/godard_habib.html|title=Before and After: Origins and Death in the Work of Jean-Luc Godard|access-date=29 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614150838/http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/01/16/godard_habib.html|archive-date=14 June 2006}}</ref> According to [[Michael Sragow]] of ''[[The Atlantic|The Atlantic Monthly]]'', the "youthful [[Coming of age|coming-of-age]] [[Drama film|dramas]] that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to ''[[The Apu Trilogy]]''".<ref>{{Cite journal|title=An Art Wedded to Truth |first=Michael |last=Sragow |year=1994 |journal=[[The Atlantic|The Atlantic Monthly]] |url=http://satyajitray.ucsc.edu/articles/sragow.html |access-date=11 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412212046/http://satyajitray.ucsc.edu/articles/sragow.html |archive-date=12 April 2009 }}</ref> ''[[Kanchenjungha]]'' introduced a narrative structure that resembles later [[hyperlink cinema]].<ref>{{cite web|title=An Interview with Satyajit Ray |year=1982 |url=https://raylifeandwork.blogspot.com/2009/02/interview-with-satyajit-ray.html |access-date=24 May 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708061608/http://raylifeandwork.blogspot.com/2009/02/interview-with-satyajit-ray.html |archive-date= 8 July 2011 }}</ref> ''Pratidwandi'' helped pioneer [[Negative (photography)|photo-negative]] [[Flashback (narrative)|flashback]] and X-ray digression techniques.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Light: Satyajit Ray From the Apu Trilogy to the Calcutta Trilogy |author=Pinkerton, Nick |date=14 April 2009 |publisher=[[The Village Voice]] |url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-04-15/film/first-light-satyajit-ray-from-the-apu-trilogy-to-the-calcutta-trilogy |access-date=9 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625154630/http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-04-15/film/first-light-satyajit-ray-from-the-apu-trilogy-to-the-calcutta-trilogy |archive-date=25 June 2009 }}</ref> Together with [[Madhabi Mukherjee]], Ray was the first Indian film figure to be featured on a foreign stamp ([[Dominica]]).

Iranian filmmaker [[Majid Majidi]] has expressed deep admiration for Ray. While discussing the inspiration for his first feature film on India, [[Beyond the Clouds (2017 film)|''Beyond the Clouds'']] (2017), Majidi said, "I have learned a lot about India based on the works of remarkable Indian director Satyajit Ray so it was my dream to make a film in his land. His view point is very valuable to me and I love whatever he has done, so one of the main reasons behind making this film is my admiration for Satyajit Ray and his work".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://in.glamsham.com/en/majid-majidi-satyajit-rays-remarkable-work-inspired-me-to-make-beyond-the-clouds|last=Sharma|first=Puja |title=Majid Majidi: Satyajit Ray's remarkable work inspired me to make BEYOND THE CLOUDS |website=Glamsham|date= 30 January 2018 |access-date=10 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411174603/http://in.glamsham.com/en/majid-majidi-satyajit-rays-remarkable-work-inspired-me-to-make-beyond-the-clouds |archive-date=11 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wes Anderson said that his 2007 film, ''[[The Darjeeling Limited]]'', is dedicated to Ray.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Romney|first=Jonathan|date=11 November 2007|title=Wes Anderson: Isn't it time the writer and director showed a little|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/wes-anderson-isnt-it-time-the-writer-and-director-showed-a-little-heart-399522.html|access-date=10 November 2020|website=The Independent|language=en}}</ref>

Many literary works include references to Ray or his work, including [[Saul Bellow]]'s ''[[Herzog (novel)|Herzog]]'' and [[J. M. Coetzee]]'s ''[[Youth: Scenes from Provincial Life II|Youth]]''. [[Salman Rushdie]]'s ''[[Haroun and the Sea of Stories]]'' contains fish characters named ''Goopy'' and ''Bagha'', a tribute to [[Goopy–Bagha|Ray's fantasy film]]. In 1993, the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], established the Satyajit Ray Film and Study collection, and in 1995, the [[Government of India]] set up the [[Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute]] for studies related to film. In 2007, the [[BBC]] declared that two [[Feluda]] stories would be made into radio programs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Datta S |work=The Financial Express |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/old/fe_archive_full_story.php?content_id=152924 |title=Feluda goes global, via radio |access-date=12 February 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026144359/http://www.financialexpress.com/old/fe_archive_full_story.php?content_id=152924 |archive-date=26 October 2007 }}</ref> During the [[London Film Festival]], a regular "Satyajit Ray Award" is given to a first-time feature director whose film best captures "the artistry, compassion and humanity of Ray's vision".

A number of documentary films have been produced about Ray in India. Prominent ones include: ''Creative Artists of India – Satyajit Ray'' (1964) by [[Bhagwan Das Garga]] and ''Satyajit Ray'' (1982) by [[Shyam Benegal]] (both backed by the Government of India's [[Films Division]]), ''The Music of Satyajit Ray'' (1984) by [[Utpalendu Chakrabarty]] with funding from the [[National Film Development Corporation of India]], and ''Ray: Life and Work of Satyajit Ray'' (1999) by [[Goutam Ghose]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Bidyut Sarkar|title=The World of Satyajit Ray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COAmAQAAIAAJ|year=1993|publisher=UBS Publisher Distributors|isbn=978-81-85944-05-0|page=138}}</ref> In 2016, during the shooting of the film ''[[Double Feluda]]'', Satyajit's son, [[Sandip Ray|Sandip]], filmed his father's library.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/inside-rays-famous-study/ |title=Inside Satyajit Ray's famous study |last=Mukherjee |first=Amrita |date=22 November 2016 |website=www.atimes.com |access-date=2 December 2016 }}</ref>

On 23 February 2021 on the year of Satyajit Ray's birth centenary, the Union [[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Information and Broadcasting Minister]] [[Prakash Javadekar]] announced that the central government would institute an award in the name of Satyajit Ray. The award is to be on par with the [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Centre to institute award in the name of Satyajit Ray: Javadekar|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/centre-to-institute-an-award-in-the-name-of-satyajit-ray-javadekar/cid/1807557|access-date=23 February 2021|work=The Telegraph|date=23 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=23 February 2021|first=Priyanka |last=Dasgupta |title=Satyajit Ray award instituted by Centre |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/satyajit-ray-award-instituted-by-centre/articleshow/81164244.cms|access-date=23 February 2021|work=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=23 February 2021|title=Centre announces 'Satyajit Ray Award' ahead of West Bengal assembly polls|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/centre-announces-satyajit-ray-award-ahead-of-west-bengal-assembly-polls/article33907936.ece|access-date=23 February 2021|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

===Preservation===
The [[Academy Film Archive]] has preserved many of Ray's films, including ''[[Abhijan (1962 film)|Abhijan]]'' in 2001, ''[[Aparajito]]'' in 1996, ''[[Apur Sansar]]'' in 1996, ''[[Charulata]]'' in 1996, ''[[Devi (1960 film)|Devi]]'' in 1996, ''[[Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne]]'' in 2003, ''[[Jalsaghar]]'' in 1996, ''[[Jana Aranya]]'' in 1996, ''[[Joi Baba Felunath (film)|Joi Baba Felunath]]'' in 2007, ''[[Kapurush]]'' in 2005, ''[[Mahanagar]]'' in 1996, ''[[Mahapurush]]'' in 2005, ''[[Nayak (1966 film)|Nayak]]'' in 2004, ''[[Parash Pathar]]'' in 2007, {{Lang|bn-latn|[[Pather Panchali]]}} in 1996, ''[[Seemabaddha]]'' in 2001, ''[[Shatranj ke Khilari]]'' in 2010, ''[[Sikkim (film)|Sikkim]]'' in 2007, ''[[Teen Kanya]]'' in 1996, and the short film ''[[Two (1964 film)|Two]]'' in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Preserved Projects|url=http://www.oscars.org/academy-film-archive/preserved-projects?title=&filmmaker=Satyajit+Ray&category=All&collection=All|website=Academy Film Archive}}</ref> The Academy Film Archive additionally holds prints of other Ray films as part of its Satyajit Ray Collection.<ref>{{cite web|title=Satyajit Ray Collection|url=https://www.oscars.org/film-archive/collections/satyajit-ray-collection|website=Academy Film Archive|date=5 September 2014}}</ref>

===International Film Festival of India===
;Birth centenary celebrations
In the [[52nd International Film Festival of India]] (IIFI), on the occasion of his birth centenary, the [[Directorate of Film Festivals]] paid tribute to him through a "Special Retrospective".
; Award in recognition of legacy
In recognition of the [[auteur]]'s legacy, the IIFI Lifetime Achievement Award was renamed the Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/news/52nd-iffi-to-be-held-from-20th-28th-nov-2021-in-goa-prakash-javadekar-releases-poster-717186|title=52nd IFFI to be held from 20th −28th Nov 2021 in Goa, Prakash Javadekar releases poster|date=6 July 2021|access-date=12 September 2021|website=India TV News}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{main|Satyajit Ray filmography}}

==Awards, honours, and recognition==
{{further|List of awards and nominations received by Satyajit Ray}}

Ray received many awards, including 36 [[National Film Awards]] by the [[Government of India]] and awards at international film festivals. He holds four [[Palme d'Or]] nominations at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. At the [[11th Moscow International Film Festival]] in 1979, he was awarded with the Honorable Prize for contributions to cinema.<ref name="Moscow1979">{{cite web|url=http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year=1979 |title=11th Moscow International Film Festival (1979) |access-date=20 January 2013 |publisher=Moscow International Film Festival |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140403102012/http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year=1979 |archive-date= 3 April 2014 }}</ref> At the [[Berlin International Film Festival]], he was one of only four filmmakers to win the [[Silver Bear for Best Director]] more than once and holds the record for the most [[Golden Bear]] nominations, with seven.<ref>{{cite web|title=Silver Bear winners (directors) |publisher=listal |date=24 November 2008 |url=http://www.listal.com/list/silver-bear-winners |access-date=19 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519152331/http://www.listal.com/list/silver-bear-winners |archive-date=19 May 2009 }}</ref> At the [[Venice Film Festival]], where he had previously won a [[Golden Lion]] for ''[[Aparajito]]'' (1956), he was awarded the [[Golden Lion Honorary Award]] in 1982. That same year, he received an honorary "Hommage à Satyajit Ray" award at the [[1982 Cannes Film Festival]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Personal Awards |publisher=Satyajit Ray official site |url=http://www.satyajitray.org/about_ray/awards_personal.htm |access-date=19 April 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501145230/http://www.satyajitray.org/about_ray/awards_personal.htm |archive-date= 1 May 2009 }}</ref> Ray is the second film personality after [[Charlie Chaplin]] to have been awarded an [[honorary doctor]]ate by [[Oxford University]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson|2003|p=1}}</ref>

Ray was awarded the [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]] in 1985 and the [[Legion of Honor]] by the [[President of France]] in 1987.<ref name="awards">{{cite web|url=http://www.satyajitray.org/about_ray/awards_personal.htm |title=Personal Awards |work=Awards |publisher=satyajitray.org |access-date=9 April 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404095030/http://www.satyajitray.org/about_ray/awards_personal.htm |archive-date= 4 April 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=France's highest award: 30 years after Satyajit Ray, French honour for his Apu |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/30-years-after-ray-french-honour-for-his-apu/articleshow/59090903.cms |access-date=16 March 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=11 June 2017 }}</ref> The Government of India awarded him the [[Padma Bhushan]] in 1965 and the highest civilian honour,<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web |url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |date=2015 |access-date=21 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2015 }}</ref> the [[Bharat Ratna]], shortly before his death.<ref name="awards" /> The [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] awarded Ray an [[Academy Honorary Award|Honorary Award]] in [[64th Academy Awards|1992]] for Lifetime Achievement. In 1992, he was posthumously awarded the ''[[Akira Kurosawa]] Award for Lifetime Achievement in Directing'' at the [[San Francisco International Film Festival]]; it was accepted on his behalf by actress [[Sharmila Tagore]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.sffs.org/awards_tributes/search.php?search_by=6&searchfield=Satyajit+Ray|title=Awards and Tributes: Satyajit Ray|work=San Francisco International Film Festival: The First to Fifty|publisher=San Francisco Film Society|access-date=8 April 2008}}</ref>

Participants in a 2004 [[BBC]] poll placed Ray No. 13 on the ''[[Greatest Bengali of all time]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3623345.stm| title=Listeners name 'greatest Bengali' |publisher=BBC News |date=14 April 2004 |access-date=14 December 2017 |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 1992, the ''[[Sight & Sound]]'' Critics' Top Ten Poll ranked Ray at No. 7 in its list of "Top 10 Directors" of all time, making him the highest-ranking [[Asian cinema|Asian filmmaker]] in the poll.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sight and Sound Poll 1992: Critics |publisher=[[California Institute of Technology]] |url=http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~ejohnson/sight/1992_1.html |access-date=29 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618053015/http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~ejohnson/sight/1992_1.html |archive-date=18 June 2015 }}</ref> In 2002, the ''Sight & Sound'' critics' and directors' poll ranked Ray at No. 22 in its list of all-time greatest directors,<ref name="Lee" /> making him the fourth highest-ranking Asian filmmaker in the poll.<ref name="Lee">{{cite web|title=A Slanted Canon|author=Lee, Kevin |publisher=Asian American Film Commentary|date=5 September 2002|url=http://www.asianamericanfilm.com/archives/000026.html|access-date=24 April 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218224432/http://www.asianamericanfilm.com/archives/000026.html|archive-date=18 February 2012}}</ref> In 1996, ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' ranked Ray at No. 25 in its "50 Greatest Directors" list.<ref>{{cite web|title=Greatest Film Directors and Their Best Films |publisher=[[Filmsite.org]] |url=http://www.filmsite.org/directors5.html |access-date=19 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419012235/http://www.filmsite.org/directors5.html |archive-date=19 April 2015 }}</ref> In 2007, ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine included Ray in its "100 Greatest Film Directors Ever" list.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Greatest Directors Ever by ''Total Film'' Magazine |publisher=[[Filmsite.org]] |url=http://www.filmsite.org/greatdirectors-totalfilm2.html |access-date=19 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426215114/http://www.filmsite.org/greatdirectors-totalfilm2.html |archive-date=26 April 2014 }}</ref> In 2022, the [[Sydney Film Festival]] showcased 10 films by Ray as an homage,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Priyanka |title=Homage To Satyajit Ray With 10 Classics At Sydney Film Festival |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/homage-to-satyajit-ray-with-10-classics-at-sydney-film-festival/articleshow/92071053.cms |access-date=27 July 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=8 June 2022}}</ref> and the [[BFI Southbank]] screened a complete retrospective in July.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/news/july-2022-bfi-southbank-satyajit-ray-glenda-jackson-black-fantastic|title=Announcing July 2022 at BFI Southbank: Satyajit Ray, Glenda Jackson, In the Black Fantastic and more|date=18 May 2022 |access-date=2 August 2022}}</ref>

In 2024, ''Forbes'' included Ray in its list of ''The 30 Greatest Film Directors Of All Time'', ranking him 8th—placing him ahead of legendary filmmakers such as [[Federico Fellini]] and [[Orson Welles]]. The article praised Ray's unique cinematic voice and noted his influence on directors including [[Akira Kurosawa]], [[Francis Ford Coppola]], and [[Christopher Nolan]]<ref name=":2" />

==Residence==
He lived his entire life mainly in between these apartments in Kolkata: 31 Lake Avenue (till 1959); 3 Lake Temple Road (1959–1970); 1/1 Bishop Lefroy Road (1970–1992).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/priyanka-dasgupta-blog/rays-other-home/ | title=Ray's other home | website=[[The Times of India]] | last1=Dasgupta | first1=Priyanka }}</ref>

==Ray family==
{{Tree chart/start}}
{{Tree chart | | UPE |y| BID | | | | | | | | UPE=[[Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury]] |BID=Bidhumukhi Devi }}
{{Tree chart | | | | |)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | }}
{{Tree chart | | |SUK|y|SUP| | |SKH| |SUB| |SBM| |PC| |SH| | | SUK=[[Sukumar Ray]] | SUP=Suprabha Ray | SKH = Sukhalata Ray | SUB=Subinoy Ray | SBM = Subimal Ray | PC = Punyalata Chakrabarti | SH = Shantilata}}
{{Tree chart | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart | | | | |SAT|y| BIJ| | | | | | |SAT='''Satyajit Ray''' | BIJ=[[Bijoya Ray]] }}
{{Tree chart | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart | | | | | | |SAT|y| BIJ| | | | | | |SAT=[[Sandip Ray]] | BIJ=Lalita Ray}}
{{Tree chart | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart | | | | | | | | |SAN| | | | | | | SAN= Souradip Ray}}
{{Tree chart/end}}

==See also==
* [[List of Bengali-language authors (chronological)]]
* [[Parallel cinema]]
* [[List of Indian writers]]
* [[Bengali Science Fiction]]

== Notes ==
{{Note|a|a|Satyajit Ray only directed the first two films of the trilogy (''[[Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne]]'', 1969, and ''[[Hirak Rajar Deshe]]'', 1980), with his son, [[Sandip Ray]], directing the last (''[[Goopy Bagha Phire Elo]]'', 1992).}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book|editor=Biswas, M|year=2006|title=Apu and after: Revisiting Ray's cinema|publisher=Seagull Books|isbn=978-1-905422-25-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cherian |first=V. K. |year=2017 |title=India's Film Society Movement: The Journey and Its Impact |location=New Delhi |publisher=SAGE Publications India |isbn=9789385985638 |oclc=959922484}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Cooper|given1=D|year=2000|title=The Cinema of Satyajit Ray: Between Tradition and Modernity|url=https://archive.org/details/cinemaofsatyajit00coop|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62980-5}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Dasgupta|given1=C|year=1996|title=The cinema of Satyajit Ray|publisher=Penguin India|isbn=978-0-14-024780-0}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Ganguly|given1=S|year=2001|title=Satyajit Ray: In search of the modern|publisher=Indialog|isbn=978-81-87981-04-6}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Y|given1=Ishaghpour|year=2002|title=Satyajit Ray, l'Orient et l'Occident|volume=24 of Les essais|publisher=Différence|isbn=978-2-7291-1401-5}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Mitra|first1=S|year=1983|title=The Genius of Satyajit Ray|journal=India Today}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Nandy|given1=A|year=1995|chapter=Satyajit Ray's Secret Guide to Exquisite Murders|title=The Savage Freud and Other Essays on Possible and Retrievable Selves|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-04410-1|url=https://archive.org/details/savagefreudother00nand}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Nyce|given1=B|year=1988|title=Satyajit Ray: A Study of His Films|publisher=Praeger Publishers|isbn=978-0-275-92666-3}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Ray|given1=S|year=1993|edition=3|title=Our films, their films|publisher=Asia Book Corp of Amer|isbn=978-0-86311-317-8}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Ray|given1=S|year=1994|title=My Years with Apu|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0-670-86215-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Ray|first=Satyajit|title=Apur Panchali|year=2010|publisher=[[Ananda Publishers]]|isbn=978-81-7215-367-0|language=bn}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Ray|given1=S|year=2005|title=Speaking of films|publisher=Penguin India|isbn=978-0-14-400026-5}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Robinson|given1=A|year=2003|title=Satyajit Ray: The Inner Eye: The Biography of a Master Film-Maker|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-965-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Robinson | first=Andrew | title=Satyajit Ray : The Inner Eye : The Biography of a Master Film-maker | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=New Delhi | date=2004 | isbn=0-19-566812-X | oclc=57075910}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Robinson|year=2005|title=Satyajit Ray: A Vision of Cinema|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-074-1}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Rushdie|given1=S|year=1992|title=Imaginary Homelands|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-014036-1|url=https://archive.org/details/imaginaryhomelan00rush_0}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Santas|given1=Constantin|year=2002|title=Responding to film: A Text Guide for Students of Cinema Art|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8304-1580-9}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Seton|given1=Marie|author-link=Marie Seton|year=1971|title=Satyajit Ray: Portrait of a director|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-16815-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/portraitofdirect0000seto}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Wood|given1=R|year=1972|title=The Apu trilogy|publisher=November Books Ltd|isbn=978-0-85631-003-4}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{Britannica|492404}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* [http://satyajitray.ucsc.edu/ Satyajit Ray Film and Study Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313215233/http://satyajitray.ucsc.edu/ |date=13 March 2007 }} – [[University of California Santa Cruz]]
* {{IMDb name|6249|Satyajit Ray}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/india-connecting-august2005-westindia-satyajit-ray.htm |title= Satyajit Ray: A Vision of Cinema |author=[[W. Andrew Robinson]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060104143026/http://www.britishcouncil.org/india-connecting-august2005-westindia-satyajit-ray.htm |archive-date=4 January 2006}}

{{Satyajit Ray}}
{{Navboxes
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{{Navboxes
| title = [[List of awards and nominations received by Satyajit Ray|Awards for Satyajit Ray]]
| list =
{{Silver Bear for Best Director}}
{{Academy Honorary Award}}
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{{Bharat Ratna}}
{{Dadasaheb Phalke Award}}
{{Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement}}
{{National Film Award for Best Direction}}
{{National Film Award for Best Screenplay}}
{{National Film Award Best Music Direction}}
{{National Film Award Special Jury Award Feature Film}}
{{Filmfare Award for Best Director}}
{{Padma Vibhushan Awards}}
{{Padma Bhushan Award Recipients 1960–1969}}
{{RMA winners of India}}
{{Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship}}
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}}
{{Subject bar|auto=1|d=y|India|Film|Bollywood|Biography|Children's literature|Filmmaking|Literature|Music|Art|Society}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ray, Satyajit}}
[[Category:Satyajit Ray| ]]
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:1992 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian composers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian screenwriters]]
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[[Category:Akira Kurosawa Award winners]]
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[[Category:Ramon Magsaysay Award winners]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Bharat Ratna]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]
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[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship]]
[[Category:Silver Bear for Best Director winners]]
[[Category:Directors of Golden Bear winners]]
[[Category:Directors of Golden Lion winners]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Visva-Bharati University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Indian humorous poets]]
[[Category:Writers who illustrated their own writing]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Musicians from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Best Original Screenplay National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Special Jury Award (feature film) National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Directors who won the Best Feature Film National Film Award]]
[[Category:Directors who won the Best Children's Film National Film Award]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards winners]]
[[Category:Indian male film score composers]]
[[Category:Indian science fiction writers]]
[[Category:Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement recipients]]
[[Category:Indian former Hindus]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Ananda Puraskar]]

Deepchand Khairiya

2026-04-24T18:35:04Z

LucasRowan: Started A Entry...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Deepchand Khairiya
| image =
| office1 = [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly|Member of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = December 2018
| term_end1 =
| constituency1 = [[Kishangarh Bas Assembly constituency|Kishangarh Bas]]
| predecessor1 = [[Ramhet Singh Yadav]]
| successor1 =
}}

'''Deepchand Khairiya''' (born 15 January 1941)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Deepchand Khairiya(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- KISHANGARH BAS(ALWAR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/Rajasthan2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=258 |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Rajasthan]]. He is a member of the [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] from Kishangarh Bas Assembly constituency in [[Alwar district]]. He won the [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kishangarh Bas Assembly Election Results 2023: Kishangarh Bas Election Candidates List, Election Date, Vote Share - IndiaToday |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/rajasthan/kishangarh-bas-assembly-result-20060 |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kishangarh Bas Assembly Election 2023: Kishangarh Bas Election Candidates List, Election Date, Chunav Results, Vote Share News in Hindi {{!}} किशनगढ़-बास विधानसभा चुनाव परिणाम 2023 - AajTak |url=https://www.aajtak.in/elections/rajasthan/kishangarh-bas-assembly-result-20060 |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Khairiya is from Jatka Village in [[Kishangarh Bas]], [[Alwar]] district, Rajasthan. He is the son of Badalu Ram. He completed his B.A. and later did LLB in 1967 at [[University of Rajasthan]], Jaipur. Since he has been working as a lawyer in Rajasthan.<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Khairiya won from [[Kishangarh Bas Assembly constituency]] representing Indian National Congress in the 2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election. He polled 91,916 votes and defeated his nearest rival, [[Ramhet Singh Yadav]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], by a margin of 10,496 votes. He Started his political career as [[Sarpanch]] of Mahond Gram panchayat, Later he became [[Pradhan]] of [[Kishangarh Bas]] Panchayat Samiti twice in 1981 & 1989 and [[District council (India)|Zila Pramukh]] of [[Alwar]] Zila Parishad in 1982.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Live: Kishangarh Bas Election Results 2023 {{!}} Rajasthan Election Results {{!}} Elections 2023 |url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election-results-2023/kishangarh-bas |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=NDTV |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Live |first=A. B. P. |date=2023-12-03 |title=Kishangarh Bas Election Result 2023 Live: Inc Candidate Deepchand Khairiya Wins From Kishangarh Bas |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/kishangarh-bas-election-result-2023-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-winner-loser-bjp-congress-bsp-aap-rajasthan-assembly-election-results-news-1647074 |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref> He first became an MLA winning the [[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]] representing BSP. He polled 73,799 votes and defeated Ramhet Singh Yadav of the Bharatiya Janata Party by a margin of 9,916 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kishangarh Bas Constituency Election Results 2023: Kishangarh Bas Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/rajasthan/constituency-show/kishangarh-bas |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kishangarh Bas Assembly Rajasthan Election 2023 Results Live: Rajasthan constituency Results, Winner list and vote share {{!}} Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election/Kishangarh%20Bas-60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218180430/https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election/Kishangarh%20Bas-60 |archive-date=18 December 2023 |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en-us |url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khairiya, Deepchand}}
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Rajasthan MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:Rajasthan MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:People from Alwar district]]
[[Category:University of Rajasthan alumni]]

Roopesh Kumar

2026-04-24T03:32:10Z

LucasRowan: added a bio

{{Short description|Indian film actor and director (1946-1995)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Roopesh Kumar
| image = Roopesh_Kumar.png
| alt =
| caption = Roopesh Kumar in Jeevan Mrityu
| birth_name = Abbas Farashahi
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1946|01|16|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Bombay]], [[Bombay Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1995|01|29|1946|01|16|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Bombay]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| other_names =
| occupation = [[Actor]], [[Film producer|producer]], [[Film director|director]]
| years_active = 1965-1995
| known_for =
| notable_works =
}}

'''Roopesh Kumar''' (born as Abbas Farashahi; 16 January 1946 – 29 January 1995)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://filminformation.com/flash-back/roopesh-kumar-bids-adieu |title=ROOPESH KUMAR BIDS ADIEU | 30 January, 2020 – Film Information|date=30 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Roopesh-Kumar Roopesh Kumar bio] www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com</ref><ref>[http://www.citwf.com/person252808.htm Roopesh] www.citwf.com</ref><ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Actor-Navin-Nischol-passes-away/articleshow/7742653.cms Navin Nischol Passes away] www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com</ref> was a [[character actor]] in [[Bollywood]] films, especially known for his role as a villain in over 100 Hindi films from 1965 to 1995. He is widely remembered for his comic as well as negative roles in the films like ''[[Seeta Aur Geeta]]'' and ''[[The Great Gambler]]''. He was the cousin of actress [[Mumtaz (Indian actress)|Mumtaz]].<ref>[http://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/features/2006/raksha-bandhan-090806.html The unknown brother'n sisters of B'wood] www.filmbeat.com</ref>

==Personal life==
Roopesh Kumar was born in Mumbai as Abbas Farashahi on 16 January 1946. He was the eldest child of Ali Asgar Farashahi (Asgar Seth of Pune City, Mandai) and Mariam. He was a student of Dastur School in Pune. From his early childhood he was interested in acting. His family were in the restaurant and bakery business in Pune but he chose to be an actor. Kumar was fondly known as Dadash (meaning brother in Persian). He was very close to his cousin actresses [[Mumtaz (Indian actress)|Mumtaz]] and [[Malika Askari|Malika]]. His oldest daughter is married to Dilip Kumar's nephew Zahid Khan and they have two children.

On 29 January 1995, Kumar suffered a heart attack while attending an awards ceremony with [[Sunil Dutt]] and [[Rajendra Kumar]] and was rushed to hospital. He died in the ambulance on the way to the hospital at the age of 49.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://filminformation.com/flash-back/roopesh-kumar-bids-adieu/ |title=ROOPESH KUMAR BIDS ADIEU | 30 January, 2020 – Film Information|date=30 January 2020 }}</ref>

==Career==
He started his career with ''Tarzan'' and ''King Kong'' in 1965 and went on to play supporting roles of mostly villains throughout the 1970s and 1980s. His most well known films include ''[[Andaz (1971 film)|Andaz]]'' (1971), ''[[Seeta Aur Geeta]]'' (1972), ''[[Chacha Bhatija]]'' (1977), ''[[The Great Gambler]]'' (1979), ''[[Jaani Dushman]]'' (1979), ''[[Hum Paanch (1980 film)|Hum Paanch]]'' (1980), ''[[Bade Dilwala]]'' (1983) and ''[[Guru (1989 film)|Guru]]'' (1989). He also produced and directed two films, ''[[Hai Meri Jaan]]'' (1991) and ''[[Meri Aan]]'' (1993). His last film release was ''[[Paappi Devataa]]'' in 1995, the same year of his death.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://filminformation.com/flash-back/roopesh-kumar-bids-adieu/ |title=ROOPESH KUMAR BIDS ADIEU | 30 January, 2020 – Film Information|date=30 January 2020 }}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* ''Rustom E Hind'' (1965)
* ''Main Wohi Hoon'' (1966) as Rajan
*''[[Mere Hamdam Mere Dost]]''(1968) as Guest in Party (Cameo Role)
* ''[[Sapno Ka Saudagar]]'' (1968) as Kumar Prannath Singh
* ''[[Aadmi Aur Insaan]]'' (1969) as Abdul Rashid
* ''[[Jeene Ki Raah]]'' (1969) as Ramdas
* ''[[Sharafat]]'' (1970) as Arun
* ''[[Jeevan Mrityu]]'' (1970) as Sameer
* ''[[Preet Ki Dori]]'' (1971) as Ramu
* ''[[Kal Aaj Aur Kal]]'' (1971) as Sunny
* ''[[Andaz (1971 film)|Andaz]]'' (1971) as Badal
* ''[[Raampur Ka Lakshman]]'' (1972) as Chhaganlal Pandey
* ''[[Seeta Aur Geeta]]'' (1972) as Ranjeet
* ''[[Loafer (1973 film)|Loafer]]'' (1973) as Rakesh
* ''[[Joshila]]'' (1973) as Dinesh
* ''Prabhat'' (1973) as Ramesh
* ''[[Aashiana]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Insaaniyat]]'' (1974) as Girdharilal
* ''[[Paap Aur Punya]]'' (1974) as Tiger's Associate
* ''[[Zinda Dil]]'' (1975) as Ghanshyam Thakur
* ''[[Mere Sartaj]]'' (1975) as Asad
* ''[[Nagin (1976 film)|Nagin]]'' (1976) as Meena's Husband
* ''[[Naach Uthe Sansaar]]'' (1976) as Johnny
*''Phir Janam Lenge Hum'' (1977) as Hameed
*''[[Jay Vejay]]'' (1977) as King Diler Jung
* ''[[Chacha Bhatija]]'' (1977) as Kiran
* ''[[Dildaar]]'' (1977) as Prasad
* ''[[Karm]]'' (1977) as Premnath
*''[[Kasam Khoon Ki]]'' (1977) as Sher Singh
*''[[Doosra Aadmi]]'' (1977) as Roopesh
* ''[[Amar Shakti]]'' (1978) as Kumar Ranjeet Narayan Singh
* ''[[Amar Deep (1979 film)|Amar Deep]]'' (1979) as Ramesh
* ''[[Jaani Dushman]]'' (1979) as Shera's Uncle
* ''[[The Great Gambler]]'' (1979) as Sethi
* ''[[Lok Parlok]]'' (1979) as Hotel's Manager
* ''[[Choron Ki Baaraat]]'' (1980) as Jaggu
* ''[[Red Rose (1980 film)|Red Rose]]'' as Inspector Bhushan
* ''[[Hum Paanch (film)|Hum Paanch]]'' (1980) as Vijay
* ''[[Guest House (1980 film)|Guest House]]'' (1980) as Kantilal
* ''[[Do Premee (1980 film)|Do Premee]]'' (1980) as Suresh
* ''[[Insaan (1982 film)|Insaan]]'' (1982) as Roopa
* ''[[Nishaan (1983 film)|Nishaan]]'' (1983) as Veeru
* ''[[Souten]]'' (1983) as Bingo
*''[[Bade Dil Wala|Bade Dilwala]]'' (1983) as Prem
*''Maati Maangey Khoon'' (1984)
*''[[Aasmaan]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Asha Jyoti]]'' (1984) as Hukamchand
* ''[[Hum Dono (1985 film)|Hum Dono]]'' (1985) as Jimmy
*''[[Babu (1985 film)]]'' as Jaggu Dada
* ''[[Pyar Jhukta Nahin]]'' (1985) as Rohit Prasad
*''Preeti'' (1986)
* ''[[Muddat (1986 film)|Muddat]]'' (1986) as Bhagwat Singh
* ''[[Insaaf Ki Awaaz]]'' (1986) as Mahendranath
*''[[Loha (1987 film)|Loha]]'' (1987) as Prisoner
*''[[Daku Hasina]]'' (1987) as Rana
*''[[Zakhmi Aurat]]''(1988) as Raj
*''[[Kasam (1988 film)|Kasam]]'' (1988) as Police Officer
*''[[Guru (1989 film)|Guru]]'' (1989) as Roopesh
* ''[[Daata]]'' (1989) as G.D.'s Employee
* ''[[Mujrim]]'' (1989) as Gulati
* ''[[Sachai Ki Taqat]]'' (1989) as Rekha's Brother
* ''[[Jurrat (film)|Jurrat]]'' (1989) as Girdhar
*''Karishma Kali Kaa'' (1990) as Inspector Ganpat Godbole
*''Haar Jeet'' (1990 film)
*''[[Yeh Aag Kab Bujhegi]]'' (1991) as Kanhaiyalal Gupta
* ''[[Pratigyabadh]]'' (1991) as Tej Bahadur "Teja"
* ''[[Hai Meri Jaan]]'' (1991) as Prajapati (Producer & Director of the Film)
* ''[[Meri Aan]]'' (1993) as Qawwali Host (Producer & Director of the Film)
* ''[[Aa Gale Lag Jaa (1994 film)|Aa Gale Lag Jaa]]'' (1994) as Satish Khanna
*''[[Paappi Devataa]]'' (1995) as Kundan
{{div col end}}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year!! Serial !! Role !! Channel !! Notes
|-
| 1986 || ''[[Bahadur Shah Zafar (TV series)|Bahadur Shah Zafar]]'' ||Hakim [[Ahsanullah Khan]] || [[DD National]] ||
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=0474868|name=Roopesh Kumar}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kumar, Roopesh}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:1995 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Date of death unknown]]

Bapu Padmanabha

2026-04-21T12:00:30Z

LucasRowan: put up info.

{{UDP|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Bapu Padmanabha
| image = Bapu_Padmanabha_01.JPG
| caption = Portrait of Bapu Padmanabha, flutist and music composer
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1978|11|18}}
| birth_place = [[Harihar]], Karnataka, India
| death_date =
| instrument = [[Bansuri]], flautist, singer
| genre = [[Hindustani classical music]], [[mantra]], [[film scores]], [[Indian classical]], [[Vachana sahitya]], [[meditation]], [[world music]]
| occupation = [[Flutist]], music director, composer, singer, record producer
| years_active = 1999–present
| label = [[Lahari Music]], [[TuneCore]]
| website = {{URL|bapuflute.com}}
}}

'''Bapu Padmanabha''', also known as '''Bapu Flute''', is an Indian bansuri flautist, vocalist, and music director. He performs Hindustani classical music on his bansuri, a type of bamboo flute, and is also known for meditative flute music, Vachana-based compositions, and work in Kannada cinema. He was born on 18 November 1978 in [[Harihar]], which is in [[Davanagere district]] of [[Karnataka]] state in India.

He received the National Film Award for Best Music Direction (Songs) and Best Music Direction (Background Score) at the 64th National Film Awards for the Kannada feature film "Allama".<ref name="NFA2016PDF">{{cite web |title=64th National Film Awards – Complete List of Winners |url=https://www.babushahi.com/upload/pdf/award%20list.pdf |website=Directorate of Film Festivals |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref><ref name="TOIAllamaAwards">{{cite news |title=Allama bags two National Awards |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/national-film-awards-allama-bags-two-awards/articleshow/58064325.cms |work=The Times of India |date=7 April 2017 |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

His music has been included in the Government of India's cultural series "Music as Therapy", released by the Public Diplomacy Division of the Ministry of External Affairs.<ref name="MusicTherapy">{{cite web |title=Music as Therapy – Bapu Padmanabha |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Music_as_Therapy_by_Bapu_Padmanabha_Public_Diplomacy_Ministry_of_External_Affairs_Government_of_India.jpg |website=Wikimedia Commons |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref> Several of these albums are catalogued internationally by the National Academic Library of the Republic of Kazakhstan (NABRK) as part of India's cultural outreach collections.<ref name="NABRK">{{cite web |title=Music Albums – India Collection |url=https://nabrk.kz/e-catalog?country_edition=IN&publication_type=2&title_first_letter=0&topic=&sphere=6&page=6 |website=National Academic Library of the Republic of Kazakhstan |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

[[File: Bapu_Padmanabha_004.jpg|thumb|Bapu Padmanabha presenting the "Music as Therapy" album released by the Government of India's Ministry of External Affairs]]

==Early life==
Bapu Padmanabha was born in [[Harihar]], Karnataka. His interest in the bansuri began after purchasing a flute at the Sannakki Veerabhadreshwara Jatra in [[Hosapete|Hospet]]. While studying Tool and Die Making at the Government Tool Room and Training Centre (GTTC), Hospet, he continued to pursue music alongside his technical education. In September 1999, following a brief audition performance, he was accepted as a disciple of Padmavibhushan Pt. [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]] at the Brindavan Gurukul in Mumbai.<ref name="NIE2016">{{cite news |last=Sharadhaa |first=A. |title=Bapu Padmanabha’s tunes in Allama Prabhu |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2016/Mar/31/bapu-padmanabhas-tunes-in-allama-prabhu-918412.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=31 March 2016 |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

==Musical Training==
Bapu received training from:
*[[Hariprasad Chaurasia]] – Hindustani classical bansuri (from 1999)
*Vidwan Mandolin Prasad – Light music improvisation, Ragashree music academy (2008–2022)
*Vidwan Ravishankar Sharma – South Indian rhythmic studies and taala structures, Shruthi Sindoora Music Academy (2009–2019)
*Veda Murthy Sri Dattatreya Bhat – Vedic Mantra chantings Shankara Veda Patha Shaala Omkar Mutt (1990–1997)

His early musical exposure and transition toward formal classical training were discussed in a 2013 interview published in the Kannada newspaper "Kannada Prabha".<ref name="KP2013">{{cite news |title=ಬಾಪು ಭಾಪು |url=https://www.kannadaprabha.com/supplements/by2coffee/2013/Apr/16/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%81-%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%81-39463.html |work=Kannada Prabha |date=16 April 2013 |language=kn |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Bapu_Padmanabha_003.jpg|thumb|300px|Padmanabha accompanying his Guru [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]] during a performance]]

==Career==
===Performance and collaborations===
Bapu performs Hindustani classical flute concerts and has collaborated with musicians from Germany, Italy, Australia, and the Czech Republic.<ref name="Ethnocloud">{{cite web |title=About Bapu Padmanabha |url=https://ethnocloud.com/Bapu_Padmanabha/?pg=about |website=Ethnocloud |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref> He has performed duet flute concerts with Czech flautist Jan Kyncl and participated in meditation-based music programmes, including performances at the OSHO International Commune between 2003 and 2006.<ref name="Ethnocloud" />

He has recorded with Indian playback singers such as [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Hariharan_(singer)]], [[Shaan_(singer)]], [[Rajesh_Krishnan]] and [[Sangeetha_Katti]].<ref name="MoviebuffAllama">{{cite web |title=Allama (2017) |url=https://www.moviebuff.com/allama |website=Moviebuff |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Bapu_Padmanabha_with_Shankar_Mahadevan_at_Purple_Haze_Studio_in_recording.jpg|thumb|Bapu Padmanabha with Shankar Mahadevan during a studio recording]]

His work encompasses Hindustani classical music, mantra chanting, ambient music, and world music. In the Kannada feature film "Allama", he employed elements from Hindustani and Carnatic music traditions alongside contemporary textures to interpret Vachana literature.<ref name="hindu">{{cite news |last=Govind |first=Ranjani |title=Focus is on the details in the making of Allama Prabhu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/focus-is-on-the-details-in-the-making-of-allama-prabhu/article8477480.ece |work=The Hindu |date=15 April 2016 |access-date=23 August 2019}}</ref>

A concert review published in "Vijaya Karnataka" discussed his approach to raga development and meditative phrasing in live performance.<ref>{{cite news |title=Concert review of Bapu Padmanabha in Dharwad |url=https://vijaykarnataka.com/news/dharawada/-/articleshow/29726623.cms |work=Vijaya Karnataka |language=kn |access-date=24 December 2025}}</ref>

==Film music==
Padmanabha composed the music for the Kannada feature film "Allama" (2016), directed by [[T. S. Nagabharana]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Sharadhaa |first=A. |title=Bapu Padmanabha’s tunes in Allama Prabhu |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2016/mar/31/bapu-padmanabhas-tunes-in-allama-prabhu-918412.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=31 March 2016 |access-date=23 August 2019}}</ref> The film's soundtrack and background score earned him the National Film Award for Best Music Direction (Songs) and Best Music Direction (Background Score).<ref name="NFA2016PDF" />

[[File:Music_Composer_Bapu_Padmanabha_at_Allama_press_meet.jpg|thumb|Padmanabha at the press meet for the film ''Allama'']]

He later composed music for another Kannada feature film, "Genius Mutta" (2024), directed by Nagini Bharana and starring [[Vijay Raghavendra]].<ref name="MoviebuffGenius">{{cite web |title=Genius Mutta (2024) – Film Details |url=https://www.moviebuff.com/genius-mutta |website=Moviebuff |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref><ref name="GeniusNews">{{cite news |title=Genius Mutta release update and cast details |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news |work=The Times of India |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

===Digital presence===
Bapu's music is available on major streaming platforms. Publicly accessible streaming analytics list him among artists categorized under Hindustani classical music; these listings are based on aggregated platform data.<ref name="Spotify">{{cite web |title=Bapu Padmanabha – Artist Profile |url=https://open.spotify.com/artist/5Sf70jLYRR15STASRqsC3x |website=Spotify |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

==Awards and recognition==
[[File:Bapu_Padmanabha_National_Film_Award.jpg|thumb|Bapu Padmanabha receiving the National Film Award]]

* National Film Award for Best Music Direction (Songs) – ''Allama'' (2016)<ref name="NFA2016PDF" />
* National Film Award for Best Music Direction (Background Score) – ''Allama'' (2016)<ref name="NFA2016PDF" />
* Pannadevi Music Scholarship awarded by [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]] (1999)<ref name="Ethnocloud" />

==Discography==
Bapu Padmanabha released albums across Hindustani classical music, meditation, Vachana-based compositions, Vedic chantings, and film music. Selected work includes:

===Audio albums===
* "Vividha" (2005)
* "Des" (2005)
* "Meditation Flute" (2012)
* "Journey with Shiva" (2012)
* "Rudra Chantings" (2013)
* "Bamboo Flute Music for Pranayama" (2014)
* "Allama – Original Motion Pictures Sound Track" (2016)
* "Chill Flute" (2024)
* "Adi Shankaracharya Stotras" (2024)
* "Angadinda Lingadedege" Vol 1–3 (2025)<ref name="bapuwebsite">{{cite web |title=Discography – Bapu Padmanabha |url=https://www.bapuflute.com/discography-2 |website=Bapuflute.com |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===As music director===
* "Allama" (2016)<ref name="MoviebuffAllama" />
* "Genius Mutta" (2024)<ref name="MoviebuffGenius" />

==Influences and style==
Bapu's music reflects the influence of [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]], Indian spiritual traditions, Hindustani and Carnatic musical elements, and [[Vachana_sahitya]].<ref name="HinduAllama">{{cite news |last=Govind |first=Ranjani |title=Focus is on the details in the making of Allama Prabhu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/focus-is-on-the-details-in-the-making-of-allama-prabhu/article8462747.ece |work=The Hindu |date=15 April 2016 |access-date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{NationalFilmAwardBestMusicDirection}}
{{Commons category|Bapu Padmanabha}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT: Padmanabha, Bapu}}

[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Musicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:People from Davanagere district]]
[[Category:Indian flautists]]
[[Category:Indian male classical musicians]]
[[Category:Kannada film score composers]]
[[Category:Best Music Direction National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Best Background Score National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Indian male film score composers]]
[[Category:Hindustani musicians]]
[[Category:Bansuri players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male musicians]]
[[Category:21st-century flautists]]

Danilimda Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:25:36Z

LucasRowan: Started New Info

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Gujarat State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Danilimda
| state = Gujarat
| district = [[Ahmedabad district|Ahmedabad]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Ahmedabad West Lok Sabha constituency|Ahmedabad West]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = SC
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 54
| mla = [[Shailesh Parmar]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| electors = {{formatnum:266617}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14750-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 18 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|2}}
}}
'''Danilimda''' is one of the 182 [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Gujarat]] state in [[India]].<ref name=gjceo>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125011107/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2014 |title=Parliament / Assembly constituency wise PS & Electors Detail - Draft Roll - 2014 |access-date= 1 June 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly Constituency and Their Extent |date=12 December 2006 |website=Election Commission of India |publisher=Delimitation Commission of India |pages=2–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 February 2017 }}</ref> It is part of [[Ahmedabad district|Ahmedabad]] district and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Castes]].

==List of segments==
This assembly seat represents the following segments,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly constituency and Their Extent|date=12 December 2006|website=Election Commission of India|publisher=Delimitation Commission of India|pages=2–31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

# Ahmedabad City Taluka (Part) Villages – Piplaj, Shahwadi, Saijpur – Gopalpur
# Ahmedabad City Taluka (Part) – [[Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation]] (Part) Ward No. – 30, 38, 40.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|rowspan="3" | [[Shailesh Parmar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress |rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|-
|[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|}

==Election results==
=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|
|title=[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat election, 2022]]: Danilimda Assembly constituency }}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Shailesh Parmar]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 69,130
|percentage = 44.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Nareshkumar Vyas
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 55,643
|percentage = 35.52
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dinesh Kapadia
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|votes = 23,251
|percentage = 14.84
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Kaushikaben Dilipbhai Parmar
|party = All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
|votes = 2,470
|percentage = 1.58
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = None of the above (NOTA) + Rest of the candidates
|party =
|votes = ~6,000
|percentage = 4.00
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 13,487
|percentage = 8.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:261033}}
|ref=<ref name="HP Elections ECI">{{cite web |title=Himachal Pradesh Legislative Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/74-himachal-pradesh/ |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=18 May 2022}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2022"/>

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]]: Danilimda<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3841-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2017 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 11 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Shailesh Parmar]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 90,691
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Jitendra Vaghela
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 58,181
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 32,510
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:230680}}
|ref=<ref name=election2017/>
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]]: Danilimda}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2012 to the Legislative Assembly of Gujarat |access-date=9 June 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126215052/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Shailesh Parmar]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 73,573
|percentage = 53.34
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Girish Parmar
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 59,272
|percentage = 42.97
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 14,301
|percentage = 10.37
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,37,925
|percentage = 68.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box new seat win|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Ahmedabad district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Gujarat Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/72-gujarat/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Gujarat}}
{{coord|23|72.58|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Ahmedabad district]]
[[Category:Politics of Gujarat]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Hemant Ogale

2026-04-19T11:23:59Z

LucasRowan: new...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Shrirampur Assembly constituency|Shrirampur]]
| term_start = 2024
| term_end =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents = Bhujangrao Tukaram Ogale
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
| death_date =
| profession = Politician
| predecessor = [[Lahu Kanade]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
}}
'''Hemant Bhujangrao Ogale''' is an Indian politician from Maharashtra. He is a [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] from [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]], representing [[Shrirampur Assembly constituency]] as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-23 |title=Shrirampur, Maharashtra Assembly Election Results 2024 Highlights: INC's Ogale Hemant Bhujangrao with 66099 defeats SHS's Bhausaheb Malhari Kamble |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/shrirampur-maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-maelb-2638347-2024-11-23 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrirampur Election Result 2024 LIVE:Ogale Hemant Bhujangrao of INC Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/shrirampur-election-result-2024-live-leading-winner-mla-9130167.html |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-23 |title=Shrirampur (Maharashtra) Assembly Election Results 2024 Live: Winner, Runner-up, Candidates List |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/shrirampur-maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-live-winner-runner-up-candidates-9684977/ |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name="BJP improves ST seats tally, retains 10 SC constituencies">{{cite news |title=BJP improves ST seats tally, retains 10 SC constituencies |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nashik/bjp-gains-ground-in-scheduled-tribe-seats-maintains-sc-constituency-stronghold/articleshow/115609391.cms |access-date=5 January 2025 |work=The Times of India |date=24 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250105095247/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nashik/bjp-gains-ground-in-scheduled-tribe-seats-maintains-sc-constituency-stronghold/articleshow/115609391.cms |archive-date=5 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="Mahayuti sweeps western Maharashtra sugar belt; big setback for MVA">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Mahayuti sweeps western Maharashtra sugar belt; big setback for MVA |url=https://www.asianage.com/nation/mahayuti-sweeps-western-maharashtra-sugar-belt-big-setback-for-mva-1840820 |access-date=5 January 2025 |work= |date=24 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250105095610/https://www.asianage.com/pageview_candidate.html?id=1852048 |archive-date=5 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra]]
* [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ogale, Hemant}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Maharashtra-INC-politician-stub}}

Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay filmography

2026-04-16T02:42:52Z

LucasRowan: creating a data!

{{short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}

'''[[Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay]]''', alternatively spelt as '''Sarat Chandra Chatterjee''' (15 September 1876 – 16 January 1938), was a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] novelist and short story writer of the early 20th century. Most of his works deal with the lifestyle, tragedy and struggle of the village people and the contemporary social practices that prevailed in [[Bengal]]. He remains the most popular, translated, and adapted Indian author of all time.<ref>{{Cite web|title = A History of Indian Literature 1911–1956: Struggle for Freedom: Triumph and Tragedy{{!}}South Asia Books (1 September 1995)|url = https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8172017987|access-date = 9 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-15|title=Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay — Vagabond Messiah {{!}} FCCI|url=https://filmcriticscircle.com/journal/sarat-chandra-chattopadhyay-vagabond-messiah/|access-date=2020-10-26|website=Journal of Indian Cinema|language=en-GB|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028022835/https://filmcriticscircle.com/journal/sarat-chandra-chattopadhyay-vagabond-messiah/|url-status=dead}}</ref> His novels have been made into more than 40 films. The following is a '''list of films made on Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay's novels or stories:'''

== Films ==
{{Pending films key}}

=== As writer ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Film
!Language
!Country
!Adapted from
|-
| 1928
!''[[Devdas (1928 film)|''Devdas'' (1928 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Bengali
| rowspan="20" | India
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1935
!''[[Devdas (1935 film)|''Devdas'' (1935 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Bengali
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1936
!''[[Devdas (1936 film)|''Devdas'' (1936 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Hindi
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1937
!''[[Devdas (1937 film)|''Devdas'' (1937 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Assamese
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1942
![[Parineeta (1942 film)|''Parineeta'' (1942 film)]]<ref name=Bengali/>
| Bengali
| ''[[Parineeta (novel)|Parineeta]]''
|-
| rowspan="2" |1947
!''[[Pather Dabi (film)|Pather Dabi]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=পথের দাবী (১৯৪৭) |url=https://banglacinema100.com/movie-details/ZVZRM2QwSTFObXRrUzA1UFJsSjVlbFZCT0RRelp6MDk= |access-date=2026-04-16 |website=banglacinema100.com}}</ref>
|Bengali
|''[[Pather Dabi]]''
|-
!''Ramer Sumati''
| Bengali
| ''Ramer Sumati''
|-
|1948
!''Sabyasachi''
|Hindi
|''[[Pather Dabi]]''
|-
|1950
!''[[Mej Didi (1950 film)|Mej Didi]]''
|Bengali
|"[[Mejdidi]]" (short story)
|-
| 1951
!''[[Datta (1951 film)|Datta]]''
| Bengali
| ''Datta''
|-
| rowspan=2| 1953
!''[[Devadasu (1953 film)|''Devdas'' (1953 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Telugu/Tamil (bilingual)
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
![[Parineeta (1953 film)|''Parineeta'' (1953 film)]]<ref name=Bengali/>
| Hindi
| ''[[Parineeta (novel)|Parineeta]]''
|-
| 1954
!''[[Biraj Bahu]]'' <ref name=Bengali/>
| Hindi
| ''Biraj Bou''
|-
| 1955
!''[[Devdas (1955 film)|''Devdas'' (1955 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Hindi
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1957
!''[[Bardidi]]''
| Bengali
| ''Borodidi''
|-
| rowspan=2| 1958
!''[[Manamalai]]'' <ref name=Bengali/>
| Tamil
| ''[[Parineeta (novel)|Parineeta]]''
|-
!''[[Rajlakshmi O Srikanta]]''
| Bengali
| ''[[Srikant (book)|Srikant]]''
|-
| 1959
!''[[Indranath Srikanta O Annadadidi]]''
| Bengali
| ''[[Srikant (book)|Srikant]]''
|-
| rowspan=2| 1961
!''[[Batasari]]''
| Telugu
| rowspan=2| ''Borodidi''
|-
!''[[Kaanal Neer (1961 film)|Kaanal Neer]]''
| Tamil
|-
| 1965
!''[[Devdas (1965 film)|''Devdas'' (1965 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Urdu
| Pakistan
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1966
!''Ramer Sumati''
| Bengali
| rowspan=13| India
| ''Ramer Sumati''
|-
| 1967
!''[[Majhli Didi]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Hindi
|"[[Mejdidi]]" (short story)
|-
| rowspan=2| 1969
!''Kamallata''
| Bengali
| ''[[Srikant (book)|Srikant]]''
|-
![[Parineeta (1969 film)|''Parineeta'' (1969 film)]]<ref name=Bengali/>
| Bengali
| ''[[Parineeta (novel)|Parineeta]]''
|-
| 1971
!''[[Chhoti Bahu]]'' <ref name=Bengali>{{cite web|url=https://www.hirdvantagepoint.com/2019/04/23/50-hindi-films-inspired-from-bengali-literature/amp/|title=50 Hindi Films inspired from Bengali Literature|accessdate=14 May 2022}}</ref>
| Hindi
| ''Bindur Chhele''
|-
| 1974
!''[[Devadasu (1974 film)|''Devdas'' (1974 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Telugu
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1975
!''[[Khushboo (1975 film)|Khushboo]]'' <ref name=Bengali/>
| Hindi
| ''Pandit Moshai''
|-
|rowspan=2| 1976
!''[[Datta (1976 film)|Datta]]''
| Bengali
| ''Datta''
|-
!''[[Sankoch (1976 film)|Sankoch]]''<ref name=Bengali/>
| Hindi
| ''[[Parineeta (novel)|Parineeta]]''
|-
| rowspan=2| 1977
!''[[Sabyasachi (film)|Sabyasachi]]''
| Bengali
| ''[[Pather Dabi]]''
|-
!''[[Swami (1977 film)|Swami]]'' <ref name=Bengali/>
| Hindi
| ''Swami''
|-
| 1979
!''[[Devdas (1979 film)|''Devdas'' (1979 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Bengali
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1980
!''[[Apne Paraye]]'' <ref name=Bengali/>
| Hindi
| ''Nishkriti''
|-
| 1982
!''[[Devdas (1982 film)|''Devdas'' (1982 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| rowspan=4| Bengali
| rowspan=4| Bangladesh
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 1985
!''[[Ramer Sumati]]'' <ref name=Bengali/>
| ''Ramer Sumati''
|-
| 1986
![[Parineeta (1986 film)|''Parineeta'' (1986 film)]]<ref name=Bengali/>
| ''[[Parineeta (novel)|Parineeta]]''
|-
| 1987
!''[[Rajlakshmi Srikanta]]''
| ''[[Srikant (book)|Srikant]]''
|-
| rowspan=2| 2002
!''[[Devdas (2002 Hindi film)|Devdas]]'' <ref name=Devdas>{{cite web|url=https://www.scoopwhoop.com/entertainment/sarat-chandra-chattopadhyay-famous-works/|title=10 Films That Prove Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay Was Bengal's Greatest Gift To Literature & Films|date=12 July 2017 |accessdate=14 May 2022}}</ref>
| Hindi
| rowspan="6" | India
| ''[[Devdas (novel)|Devdas]]''
|-
!''[[Devdas (2002 Hindi film)|Devdas]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Hindi
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
|2003
!''[[Mej Didi (2003 film)|Mej Didi]]''
|Bengali
|"[[Mejdidi]]" (short story)
|-
| 2004
!''[[Iti Srikanta]]''
| Bengali
| ''[[Srikant (book)|Srikant]]''
|-
| 2005
![[Parineeta (2005 film)|''Parineeta'' (2005 film)]]<ref name=Bengali/>
| Hindi
| ''[[Parineeta (novel)|Parineeta]]''
|-
| 2009
!''[[Dev.D]]''
| Hindi
| ''[[Devdas (novel)|Devdas]]''
|-
| 2013
!''[[Devdas (2013 film)|''Devdas'' (2013 film)]]'' <ref name=Devdas/>
| Bengali
| Bangladesh
| ''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 2014
!''Aalo Chhaya''
| Bengali
| rowspan=6| India
| ''Aalo Chhaya''
|-
|2018
!''[[Daas Dev]]''
| Hindi
|''[[Devdas]]''
|-
| 2019
!''Rajlokkhi O Srikanto''
| Bengali
| ''[[Srikant (book)|Srikant]]''
|-
| 2021
!''Riding on the Moon Boat'' <ref>{{cite news | url=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/adil-hussain-busan-apm-riding-on-the-moon-boat-1235082090/ | title=Busan: India's Adil Hussain Boards APM Project 'Riding on the Moon Boat' (EXCLUSIVE) | magazine=Variety | first=Naman |last=Ramachandran | date=11 October 2021 | accessdate=11 September 2022}}</ref>
| Bengali
| ''Mahesh''
|-
| 2023
!''Datta''<ref>[https://www.indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/sarat-chandra-datta-bengali-film-rituparna-sengupta-joy-sengupta-6071552/lite/ Movie to mark centenary of Sarat Chandra’s Datta starring Rituparna Sengupta, Joy Sengupta]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Datta Movie Trailer, Star Cast, Release Date, Box Office, Movie Review {{!}} Datta Movie budget and Collection {{!}} Datta |url=https://www.indianfilmhistory.com/movie/datta-2023 |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=www.indianfilmhistory.com}}</ref>
| Bengali
| ''Datta''
|-
|}

== Web Series and Television Shows ==
{{Pending films key}}

=== As writer ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Film
!Language
!Country
!Adapted from
|-
| 1982
!''Charitraheen''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Charitraheen|url=https://nettv4u.com/about/Hindi/tv-serials/charitraheen|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621081444/http://www.nettv4u.com/about/Hindi/tv-serials/charitraheen |archive-date=2017-06-21 |access-date=2021-01-17|website=nettv4u|language=en}}</ref>
| Hindi
| India
| ''[[Choritrohin]]''
|-
| 1985–86
!''[[Shrikant (TV series)|Srikant]]''<ref>{{Cite news|title=Irrfan Khan's Shrikant to run again on Doordarshan, here's when you can watch|work=Hindustan Times|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/irrfan-khan-s-shrikant-to-run-again-on-doordarshan-here-s-when-you-can-watch/story-pfhnr9UHtwB3WUV3C5aR2I.html|date=29 April 2020|accessdate=11 May 2020}}</ref>
| Hindi
| India
| ''[[Srikanta (book)|Srikanta]]''
|-
| 2018–present
!''Choritrohin''
| Bengali
| India
| ''[[Choritrohin]]''
|-
| 2021
!''Women in Love''
| Hindi
| India
| ''[[Choritrohin]]''
|-
| 2022
!''Srikanto''
| Bengali
| India
| ''[[Srikanta (book)|Srikanta]]''
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{IMDb name|nm0154158}}

[[Category:Filmographies]]
[[Category:Indian filmographies]]
[[Category:Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay]]

List of speakers of the Odisha Legislative Assembly

2026-04-15T07:10:05Z

LucasRowan:

{{Short description|Presiding officer of Odisha legislative assembly}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox official post
| post = Speaker
| body = the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| insignia = Odisha Vidhan Sabha Logo.png
| department = [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| member_of = [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| appointer = Members of the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| incumbent = [[Surama Padhy]]
| inaugural = [[Mukunda Prasad Das]]
| incumbentsince = 20 June 2024
| termlength = Duration of the Assembly i.e. 5 years
| image = Surama Padhy, Speaker of Odisha Legislative Assembly.jpg
| style = Honourable Speaker Sir/Madam ମାନ୍ୟବର ବାଚସ୍ପତି ମହୋଦୟ / ମହୋଦୟା
| residence = Residence of the Speaker, [[Bhubaneswar]]
| seat = Office of the Speaker, [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| deputy = [[Bhabani Shankar Bhoi]]
| insigniasize = 200px
| imagesize = 150px
| native_name = ଓଡ଼ିଶା ବିଧାନ ସଭାର ବାଚସ୍ପତି
| salary = *{{INRConvert|368000}}/monthly
*{{INRConvert|4416000}}/annually
}}
The '''Speaker of the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]''' is the presiding officer of the Legislative Assembly of Odisha, the main law-making body for the [[India|Indian]] state of [[Odisha]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=page error |url=https://odishaassembly.nic.in/statisticsmembers.aspx?x=2 |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=odishaassembly.nic.in}}</ref>

In the [[Republic of India]], the various central and state legislatures are presided by either a [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] or a [[Chairman]]. The Speaker is elected in the very first meeting of the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]] after the [[Elections in Odisha|General elections]] for a term of 5 years from amongst the members of the Vidhan Sabha. The Speaker holds office until either they ceases to be a member of the Vidhan Sabha or he himself resigns. The Speaker can be removed from office by a resolution passed in the Vidhan Sabha by an effective majority of its members. In the absence of a Speaker, the meeting of [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]] is presided over by the Deputy Speaker.<ref name="Brief history">{{Cite web |title=Brief history |url=https://odishaassembly.nic.in/pdf/BriefHistoryAssemblywebsite.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231231053029/https://odishaassembly.nic.in/pdf/BriefHistoryAssemblywebsite.pdf |archive-date=31 December 2023 |access-date=31 December 2023 |website=odishaassembly.nic.in}}</ref>

== List of Speakers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
!#
!Portrait
!Name {{small|(lifespan) Constituency}}
! colspan="3" |Tenure
![[Chief Minister of Odisha|Chief Minister]]
![[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Assembly]] {{Small|([[Elections in Odisha|Election]])}}
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|1
| [[File:Mukunda Prasad Das.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Mukunda Prasad Das (politician)|Mukunda Prasad Das]] {{small|(1887{{ndash}}1969) Member from [[Balasore Assembly constituency|Central Balasore Sadar]]}}
|28 July 1937
|29 May 1946
|{{Ayd|28 July 1937|29 May 1946}}
|[[Krushna Chandra Gajapati]]
----
[[Bishwanath Das]]
----
[[Krushna Chandra Gajapati]]
|[[1st Orissa Pre Independence Provincial Assembly|1st Provisional]] {{Small|([[1937 Indian provincial elections|1937]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
|2
|[[File:Lal Mohan Patnaik.jpg|100x100px]]
|Lal Mohan Patnaik {{small|(1891{{ndash}}1956) Member from Indian Christian}}
|29 May 1946
|6 March 1952
|{{Ayd|29 May 1946|6 March 1952}}
|[[Harekrushna Mahatab]]
|[[2nd Orissa Pre Independence Provincial Assembly|2nd Provincial]] {{Small|([[1946 Indian provincial elections|1946]])}}
|-
|3
| [[File:Nandakishore Das.jpg|100x100px]]
|Nanda Kishore Das {{small|(died 1986) MLA from [[Soro Assembly constituency|Soro]]}}
|6 March 1952
|27 May 1957
|{{Ayd|6 March 1952|27 May 1957}}
|[[Nabakrushna Choudhuri]]
|[[1st Orissa Legislative Assembly|1st]] {{small|([[1952 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1952]])}}
|-
|4
|[[File:Nilakantha Das.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Nilakantha Das]] {{small|(1884{{ndash}}1967) MLA from [[Satyabadi Assembly constituency|Satyabadi]]}}
|27 May 1957
|25 February 1961
|{{Ayd|27 May 1957|25 February 1961}}
|[[Nabakrushna Choudhuri]]
----[[Harekrushna Mahatab]]
|[[2nd Orissa Legislative Assembly|2nd]] {{small|([[1957 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1957]])}}
|-
! colspan="10" |{{nobold|'''''[[President's rule]]''' was imposed in during the period'' (25 February {{ndash}} 23 June 1961)}}
|-
|5
| [[File:Lingaraj Panigrahi.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Lingaraj Panigrahi]] {{small|(1896{{ndash}}1969) MLA from [[Kabisuryanagar Assembly constituency|Kodala East]]}}
|1 July 1961
|18 March 1967
|{{Ayd|1 July 1961|18 March 1967}}
|[[Biju Patnaik]]
----[[Biren Mitra]]
----[[Sadashiva Tripathy]]
|[[3rd Orissa Legislative Assembly|3rd]] {{small|([[1961 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1961]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|6
| [[File:Nandakishore Mishra.jpg|100x100px]]
|Nandakishore Mishra {{small|(1906{{ndash}}1992) MLA from [[Loisingha Assembly constituency|Loisingha]]}}
|18 March 1967
|11 January 1971
|{{Ayd|18 March 1967|11 January 1974}}
|[[Rajendra Narayan Singh Deo]]
|[[4th Orissa Legislative Assembly|4th]] {{small|([[1967 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1967]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
! colspan="10" |{{nobold|'''''[[President's rule]]''' was imposed in during the period'' (11 January {{ndash}} 3 April 1971)}}
|-
|(6)
| [[File:Nandakishore Mishra.jpg|100x100px]]
|Nandakishore Mishra {{small|(1906{{ndash}}1992) MLA from [[Loisingha Assembly constituency|Loisingha]]}}
|12 April 1971
|3 March 1973
|{{Ayd|12 April 1971|3 March 1973}}
|[[Bishwanath Das]]
----[[Hemananda Biswal|Nandini Satpathy]]
|[[5th Orissa Legislative Assembly|5th]] {{small|([[1971 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1971]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
! colspan="10" |{{nobold|'''''[[President's rule]]''' was imposed in during the period'' (3 March 1973 {{ndash}} 6 March 1974)}}
|-
|7
| [[File:Braja Mohan Mohanty.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Brajamohan Mohanty]] {{small|(1923{{ndash}}1999) MLA from [[Puri Assembly constituency|Puri]]}}
|21 March 1974
|16 December 1976
|{{Ayd|21 March 1974|16 December 1976}}
|[[Nandini Satpathy]]
|[[6th Orissa Legislative Assembly|6th]] {{small|([[1974 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1974]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
! colspan="10" |{{nobold|'''''[[President's rule]]''' was imposed in during the period'' (16 December {{ndash}} 29 December 1976)}}
|-
|(7)
| [[File:Braja Mohan Mohanty.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Brajamohan Mohanty]] {{small|(1923{{ndash}}1999) MLA from [[Puri Assembly constituency|Puri]]}}
|30 December 1976
|26 June 1977
|{{Ayd|30 December 1976|26 June 1977}}
|[[Binayak Acharya]]
|[[6th Orissa Legislative Assembly|6th]] {{small|([[1974 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1974]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
! colspan="10" |{{nobold|'''''[[President's rule]]''' was imposed in during the period'' (30 April {{ndash}} 26 June 1977)}}
|-
|8
|[[File:Satyapriya Mohanty.jpg|100x100px]]
|Satyapriya Mohanty {{small|(1905{{ndash}}1999) MLA from [[Bhubaneswar Assembly constituency|Bhubaneswar]]}}
|1 July 1977
|17 February 1980
|{{Ayd|1 July 1977|17 February 1980}}
|[[Nilamani Routray]]
|[[7th Orissa Legislative Assembly|7th]] {{small|([[1977 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1977]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
! colspan="10" |{{nobold|'''''[[President's rule]]''' was imposed in during the period'' (17 February {{ndash}} 9 June 1980)}}
|-
|9
| [[File:Somanath Rath.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Somnath Rath]] {{small|(1924{{ndash}}2013) MLA from [[Bhanjanagar Assembly constituency|Bhanjanagar]]}}
|12 June 1980
|11 February 1984
|{{Ayd|12 June 1980|11 February 1984}}
| rowspan="2" |[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
| rowspan="2" |[[8th Orissa Legislative Assembly|8th]] {{small|([[1980 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1980]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |10
| rowspan="2" |[[File:Prasanna Kumar Dash.jpg|100x100px]]
| rowspan="2" |Prasanna Kumar Dash {{small|(1919{{ndash}}2005) MLA from [[Baripada Assembly constituency|Baripada]]}}
|22 February 1984
|14 March 1985
|{{Ayd|22 February 1984|14 February 1985}}
|-
|14 March 1985
|9 March 1990
|{{Ayd|14 February 1985|9 March 1990}}
|[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
----[[Hemananda Biswal]]
|[[9th Orissa Legislative Assembly|9th]] {{small|([[1985 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1985]])}}
|-
|11
|[[File:Yudhisthir Das.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Yudhistir Das]] {{small|(1923{{ndash}}2014) MLA from [[Kissannagar Assembly Constituency|Kissannagar]]}}
|9 March 1990
|22 March 1995
|{{Ayd|9 March 1990|22 March 1995}}
|[[Biju Patnaik]]
|[[10th Orissa Legislative Assembly|10th]] {{small|([[1990 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1990]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|12
| [[File:Kishore Chandra Patel.jpg|100x100px]]
|Kishore Chandra Patel {{small|(born 1946) MLA from [[Sundargarh Assembly constituency|Sundargarh]]}}
|22 March 1995
|14 January 1996
|{{Ayd|22 March 1995|14 January 1996}}
| rowspan="2" |[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
----[[Giridhar Gamang]]
----[[Hemananda Biswal]]
| rowspan="2" |[[11th Orissa Legislative Assembly|11th]] {{small|([[1995 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1995]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|13
| [[File:Chintamani Dyan Samantra.jpg|100x100px]]
|Chintamani Dyan Samantra {{small|(born 1940) MLA from [[Chikiti Assembly constituency|Chikiti]]}}
|16 February 1996
|10 March 2000
|{{Ayd|16 February 1996|10 March 2000}}
|{{party name with color|Independent}}
|-
|14
|[[File:Sarat Kumar Kar.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Sarat Kumar Kar]] {{small|(1939{{ndash}}2020) MLA from [[Mahanga Assembly constituency|Mahanga]]}}
|10 March 2000
|21 May 2004
|{{Ayd|10 March 2000|21 May 2004}}
| rowspan="10" |[[Naveen Patnaik]]
|[[12th Orissa Legislative Assembly|12th]] {{small|([[2000 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2000]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Biju Janata Dal|rowspan=2}}
|-
|15
|[[File:Maheswar Mohanty (cropped).JPG|100x100px]]
|[[Maheswar Mohanty]] {{small|(1956{{ndash}}2023) MLA from [[Puri Assembly constituency|Puri]]}}
|21 May 2004
|31 March 2008
|{{Ayd|21 May 2004|31 March 2008}}
| rowspan="3" |[[13th Orissa Legislative Assembly|13th]] {{small|([[2004 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2004]])}}
|-
|16
| [[File:Prahlad Dora.jpg|100x100px]]
|Prahlad Dora {{small|(1946{{ndash}}2021) MLA from [[Chitrakonda Assembly constituency|Chitrakonda]]}}
|31 March 2008
|19 August 2008
|{{Ayd|31 March 2008|19 August 2008}}
|{{full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|17
| [[File:Kishore Kumar Mohanty.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Kishore Kumar Mohanty]] {{small|(1958{{ndash}}2021) MLA from [[Jharsuguda Assembly constituency|Jharsuguda]]}}
|19 August 2008
|25 May 2009
|{{Ayd|19 August 2008|25 May 2009}}
|{{full party name with color|Biju Janata Dal|rowspan=7}}
|-
|18
| [[File:Pradip Kumar Amat.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Pradip Kumar Amat]] {{small|(born 1952) MLA from [[Boudh Assembly constituency|Boudh]]}}
|25 May 2009
|20 May 2014
|{{Ayd|25 May 2009|20 May 2014}}
|[[14th Odisha Legislative Assembly|14th]] {{small|([[2009 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2009]])}}
|-
|19
|[[File:Niranjan Pujari.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Niranjan Pujari]] {{small|(born 1961) MLA from [[Sonepur Assembly constituency|Sonepur]]}}
|26 May 2014
|6 May 2017
|{{Ayd|26 May 2014|6 May 2017}}
| rowspan="2" |[[15th Odisha Legislative Assembly|15th]] {{small|([[2014 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2014]])}}
|-
|20
| [[File:Pradip Kumar Amat.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Pradip Kumar Amat]] {{small|(born 1952) MLA from [[Boudh Assembly constituency|Boudh]]}}
|16 May 2017
|31 May 2019
|{{Ayd|16 May 2017|31 May 2019}}
|-
|21
| [[File:Surjya Narayana Patro.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Surjya Narayan Patro]] {{small|(1948{{ndash}}2023) MLA from [[Digapahandi Assembly constituency|Digapahandi]]}}
|1 June 2019
|4 June 2022
|{{Ayd|1 June 2019|4 June 2022}}
| rowspan="3" |[[16th Odisha Legislative Assembly|16th]] {{small|([[2019 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2019]])}}
|-
|22
| [[File:Bikram Keshari Arukha.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Bikram Keshari Arukha]] {{small|(born 1962) MLA from [[Bhanjanagar Assembly constituency|Bhanjanagar]]}}
|13 June 2022
|12 May 2023
|{{Ayd|13 June 2022|12 May 2023}}
|-
|23
|[[File:Pramila Mallik.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Pramila Mallik]] {{small|(born 1963) MLA from [[Binjharpur Assembly constituency|Binjharpur]]}}
|22 September 2023
|3 June 2024
|{{Ayd|22 September 2023|3 June 2024}}
|-
|24
|[[File:Surama Padhy, Speaker of Odisha Legislative Assembly.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Surama Padhy]] {{small|(born 1960) MLA from [[Ranpur Assembly constituency|Ranpur]]}}
|20 June 2024
|''incumbent''
|{{Ayd|20 June 2024|}}
|[[Mohan Charan Majhi]]
|[[17th Odisha Legislative Assembly|17th]] {{small|([[2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2024]])}}
|{{full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

== List of Deputy Speakers ==
{{Pie chart

| caption = Percentage of Tenure (in days) for Odisha Speakers by Party (1937–Present)
| thumb = right
| label1 = INC | value1 = 49.4 | color1 = #19AAED
| label2 = BJD | value2 = 26.8 | color2 = #006400
| label3 = Swatantra | value3 = 8.0 | color3 = #FFCC00
| label4 = Janata Dal | value4 = 5.8 | color4 = #000080
| label5 = Independent | value5 = 4.6 | color5 = #808080
| label6 = Janata Party | value6 = 3.4 | color6 = #D00000
| label7 = BJP | value7 = 2.1 | color7 = #FF9933
}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! #
! Portrait
! Name {{Small|(Lifespan)}}
! Constituency
! colspan="3" | Tenure
! [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Assembly]]
! colspan="2" | Party
|-
| 1
| [[File:Nandakishore Das.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Nanda Kishore Das]] {{small|(died 1986)}}
| South Balasore Sadar

| 28 July 1937
| 14 September 1945
| {{Ayd|28 July 1937|14 September 1945}}
| 1st Provincial

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 2
| [[File:Gray - replace this image female.svg|100x100px]]
| [[Adruti Laxmibai]] {{small|(died 1986)}}
| Berhampur Town

| 29 May 1946
| 20 February 1952
| {{Ayd|29 May 1946|20 February 1952}}
| 2nd Provincial

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 3
| [[File:Maulabi Mahammed Hanif.png|100x100px]]
| Maulabi Mahammed Hanif

| Bhadrak
| 8 March 1952
| 4 March 1957

| {{Ayd|8 March 1952|4 March 1957}}
| 1st

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 4
| [[File:Jadumani Mangaraj.jpg|100x100px]]
| Jadumani Mangaraj {{small|(died 1964)}}
| Barchana

| 29 May 1957
| 25 February 1961
| {{Ayd|29 May 1957|25 February 1961}}
| 2nd

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
! colspan="10" | {{nobold|''[[President's rule]] (25 February – 23 June 1961)''}}
|-

| 5
| [[File:Lokanath Mishra.jpg|100x100px]]
| Lokanath Mishra {{small|(1909–1967)}}
| Patkura

| 28 August 1961
| 1 March 1967
| {{Ayd|28 August 1961|1 March 1967}}
| 3rd

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 6
| [[File:Harihar Bahinipati.jpg|100x100px]]
| Harihar Bahinipati {{small|(1927–2005)}}
| Puri

| 29 March 1967
| 11 January 1971
| {{Ayd|29 March 1967|11 January 1971}}
| 4th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Praja Socialist Party}};" |
| [[Praja Socialist Party]]

|-
! colspan="10" | {{nobold|''[[President's rule]] (11 January – 3 April 1971)''}}
|-

| 7
| [[File:Narayan Birabar Samanta.jpg|100x100px]]
| Narayan Birabar Samanta {{small|(1900–1999)}}
| Erasama

| 6 May 1971
| 3 March 1973
| {{Ayd|6 May 1971|3 March 1973}}
| 5th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Utkal Congress}};" |
| [[Utkal Congress]]

|-
! colspan="10" | {{nobold|''[[President's rule]] (3 March 1973 – 6 March 1974)''}}
|-

| 8
| [[File:Chintamani Jena.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Chintamani Jena]] {{small|(1929–2008)}}
| Basta

| 29 March 1974
| 30 April 1977
| {{Ayd|29 March 1974|30 April 1977}}
| 6th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
! colspan="10" | {{nobold|''[[President's rule]] (30 April – 26 June 1977)''}}
|-

| 9
| [[File:Surendra Nath Naik.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Surendra Nath Naik]] {{small|(1937–2024)}}
| Kakatpur

| 27 July 1977
| 17 February 1980
| {{Ayd|27 July 1977|17 February 1980}}
| 7th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Janata Party}};" |
| [[Janata Party]]

|-
! colspan="10" | {{nobold|''[[President's rule]] (17 February – 9 June 1980)''}}
|-

| 10
| [[File:Himansu Sekhar Padhi.jpg|100x100px]]
| Himansu Sekhar Padhi

| Boudh
| 2 July 1980
| 9 March 1985

| {{Ayd|2 July 1980|9 March 1985}}
| 8th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 11
| [[File:Chintamani Dyan Samantra.jpg|100x100px]]
| Chintamani Dyan Samantra {{small|(born 1940)}}
| Chikiti

| 18 March 1985
| 3 March 1990
| {{Ayd|18 March 1985|3 March 1990}}
| 9th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 12
| [[File:Prahlad Dora.jpg|100x100px]]
| Prahlad Dora {{small|(1946–2021)}}
| Chitrakonda

| 20 March 1990
| 15 March 1995
| {{Ayd|20 March 1990|15 March 1995}}
| 10th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Janata Dal]]

|-
| (11)
| [[File:Chintamani Dyan Samantra.jpg|100x100px]]
| Chintamani Dyan Samantra {{small|(born 1940)}}
| Chikiti

| 28 March 1995
| 12 February 1996
| {{Ayd|28 March 1995|12 February 1996}}
| rowspan="2" | 11th
| style="background-color:{{party color|Independent}};" |
| [[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-

| 13
| [[File:Bibhuti Bhusan Singh Mardaraj.jpg|100x100px]]
| Bibhuti Bhusan Singh Mardaraj {{small|(1955–2025)}}
| Khandapada

| 15 March 1996
| 29 February 2000
| {{Ayd|15 March 1996|29 February 2000}}
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 14
| [[File:Rama Chandra Panda.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Rama Chandra Panda]] {{small|(born 1949)}}
| Chhatrapur

| 27 March 2000
| 6 February 2004
| {{Ayd|27 March 2000|6 February 2004}}
| 12th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}};" |
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]

|-
| (12)
| [[File:Prahlad Dora.jpg|100x100px]]
| Prahlad Dora {{small|(1946–2021)}}
| Chitrakonda

| 3 July 2004
| 19 May 2009
| {{Ayd|3 July 2004|19 May 2009}}
| 13th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}};" |
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]

|-
| 15
| [[File:Lal Bihari Himirika.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Lal Bihari Himirika]] {{small|(born 1948)}}
| Rayagada

| 10 June 2009
| 10 May 2011
| {{Ayd|10 June 2009|10 May 2011}}
| 14th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]

|-
| 16
| [[File:Sananda Marndi.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Sananda Marndi]] {{small|(born 1971)}}
| Baripada

| 17 August 2011
| 29 May 2019
| {{Ayd|17 August 2011|29 May 2019}}
| 15th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]

|-
| 17
| [[File:Rajani Kant Singh.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Rajanikant Singh]] {{small|(born 1955)}}
| Angul

| 27 June 2019
| 8 November 2023
| {{Ayd|27 June 2019|8 November 2023}}
| rowspan="2" | 16th
| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]

|-
| 18
| [[File:Saluga Pradhan.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Saluga Pradhan]] {{small|(born 1959)}}
| G. Udayagiri

| 21 November 2023
| 3 June 2024
| {{Ayd|21 November 2023|3 June 2024}}
| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]

|-
| 19
| [[File:Bhabani Shankar Bhoi.jpg|100x100px]]
| [[Bhabani Shankar Bhoi]] {{small|(born 1980)}}
| Talsara

| 24 July 2024
| ''Incumbent''
| {{Ayd|24 July 2024}}
| 17th

| style="background-color:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}};" |
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|}

== List of Pro tem Speakers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! Assembly
! Year
! Name
! colspan="2" | Party

|-
| 1st Provincial
| 1937

| Bichitrananda Das
| style="background-color:{{party color|Independent}};" |
| [[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-

| 2nd Provincial
| 1946
| Lakshminarayan Sahu

| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 1st
| 1952

| Maulabi Mahammed Hanif
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 2nd
| 1957

| [[Nanda Kishore Das]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 3rd
| 1961

| [[Lingaraj Panigrahi]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 4th
| 1967

| Harihar Bahinipati
| style="background-color:{{party color|Praja Socialist Party}};" |
| [[Praja Socialist Party]]

|-
| 5th
| 1971

| Narayan Birabar Samanta
| style="background-color:{{party color|Utkal Congress}};" |
| [[Utkal Congress]]

|-
| 6th
| 1974

| Chintamani Jena
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 7th
| 1977

| [[Surendranath Naik]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Janata Party}};" |
| [[Janata Party]]

|-
| 8th
| 1980

| Prasanna Kumar Dash
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 9th
| 1985

| [[Shraddhakar Supakar]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 10th
| 1990

| Ghasiram Majhi
| style="background-color:{{party color|Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Janata Dal]]

|-
| 11th
| 1995

| Ghasiram Majhi
| style="background-color:{{party color|Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Janata Dal]]

|-
| 12th
| 2000

| Habibullah Khan
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 13th
| 2004

| Habibullah Khan
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}};" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]

|-
| 14th
| 2009

| [[V. Sugnana Kumari Deo]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]

|-
| 15th
| 2014

| [[V. Sugnana Kumari Deo]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]

|-
| 16th
| 2019

| Amar Prasad Satpathy
| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]

|-
| 17th
| 2024

| [[Ranendra Pratap Swain]]
| style="background-color:{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}};" |
| [[Biju Janata Dal]]
|}

== See also ==

* [[Government of Odisha]]
* [[List of governors of Odisha|Governors of Odisha]]
* [[Chief Minister of Odisha]]
* [[List of deputy chief ministers of Odisha|Deputy Chief Ministers of Odisha]]
* [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Odisha Legislative Assembly|Leader of the Opposition in the Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Elections in Odisha]]
* [[Politics of Odisha]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Lists of legislative speakers in India]]
[[Category:Speakers of the Odisha Legislative Assembly| ]]
[[Category:India politics-related lists by state or union territory|Odisha]]
[[Category:Odisha-related lists|Politics]]
[[Category:Politics of Odisha|Lists]]

2026 Nizamabad Municipal Corporation election

2026-04-14T15:49:00Z

LucasRowan: put up new entry.

{{Short description|Election to Nizamabad Municipal Corporation in 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 2026 Nizamabad Municipal Corporation election
| country = India
| type = legislative
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 2020 Telangana local elections
| previous_year = 2020
| next_election =
| next_year = 2031
| election_date = {{Start date|2026|02|11|df=y}}
| seats_for_election = All 60 seats in the [[Nizamabad Municipal Corporation]]
| turnout = 2,05,753 (59.12%)<ref>{{Cite news |title=Municipal polling peaceful across the State, counting tomorrow |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/municipal-polling-peaceful-across-the-state-counting-tomorrow/article70620804.ece/amp/ |website=The Hindu |language=en |date=12 February 2026 |access-date=12 February 2026 }}</ref> {{decrease}} 2[[Percentage point|pp]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=ప్రశాంతంగా పుర పోలింగ్‌ |url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/districts/nizamabad-news/535/126026507 |newspaper=Eenadu |language=te |date=12 February 2026 |access-date=12 February 2026 }}</ref>
| party2 = [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| party4 = [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| party3 = [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]]
| party1 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| last_update = 12 February 2026
| majority_seats = 31
| last_election3 = 16 seats
| last_election2 = 2 seats
| last_election1 = 28 seats
| last_election4 = 13 seats
| title = Mayor
| before_election = Dandu Neetu Kiran
| before_party = [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi|TRS]]
| after_election = Umarani
| after_party = [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| registered = 3,48,051<ref>{{Cite news |title=ఇందూరు.. పొందేది ఎవరు?|url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/telangana/general/1899/126024516 |newspaper=Eenadu |language=te |date=9 February 2026 |access-date=12 February 2026 }}</ref>
| seats2 = 17
| seat_change2 = 15{{increase}}
| seats4 = 1
| seat_change4 = 12{{decrease}}
| seats3 = 14
| seat_change3 = 2 {{decrease}}
| seats1 = '''28'''
| seat_change1 = {{no change}}
| image2 = Indian_National_Congress_hand_logo.svg
| image2_size = 160x160px
| image4 = Flag of Bharat Rashtra Samithi new.svg
| image4_size = 160x160px
| image3 = All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen logo.svg
| image3_size = 160x160px
| image1 = Logo_of_the_Bharatiya_Janata_Party.svg
| image1_size = 160x160px
}}

The '''2026 Nizamabad Municipal Corporation election''' was held on 11 February 2026 to elect the corporators in 60 wards of the [[Nizamabad Municipal Corporation]], the governing body of [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Telangana SEC announces municipal election schedule|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/telangana/telangana-sec-announces-municipal-election-schedule-1042942|website=www.thehansindia.com|date=2026-01-27|access-date=2026-02-01|language=en|first=Pavan|last=Bandari}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Telangana municipal polls dates announced: Voting on Feb 11, counting on 13th|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/municipal-corporation/story/telangana-municipal-polls-dates-announced-voting-on-feb-11-counting-on-13th-2858504-2026-01-27|website=India Today|date=2026-01-27|access-date=2026-02-01|language=en|first=Abdul|last=Basheer}}</ref> The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] emerged as the single largest party winning 28 seats but falling 3 short of a majority.<ref>https://www.indiatvnews.com/telangana/news-nizamabad-municipal-corporation-election-result-2026-live-updates-telangana-local-body-polls-bjp-brs-congress-2026-02-13-1030047</ref> The [[Bharat Rashtra Samiti]], the ruling party, was reduced to 1 seat.

Elected ward members and corporators were administered the oath of office on 16 February 2026, and a special meeting for the election of mayor and deputy mayor. Subsequently after the elections, the [[Indian National Congress]] and the [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]] formed a post poll alliance in which Umarani of Congress and Salma Tahseen of AIMIM were elected as the mayor and deputy mayor respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=S. Bachan Jeet |date=2026-01-28 |title=Telangana municipal, corporation polls set for February 11, results on February 13 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2026/Jan/28/telangana-municipal-corporation-polls-set-for-february-11-results-on-february-13 |access-date=2026-02-01 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>https://ommcomnews.com/india-news/telangana-civic-polls-bjp-wins-mayors-post-in-karimnagar-cong-bags-nizamabad/</ref>

== Schedule ==
The election schedule was announced by the [[Telangana State Election Commission]] on 27 January 2026.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Telangana municipal polls on February 11; single-phase voting announced|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/telangana-municipal-polls-on-february-11-single-phase-voting-announced/articleshow/127625729.cms|work=The Times of India|date=2026-01-27|access-date=2026-02-01|issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Telangana Municipal Election Notification Released; Polling On February 11, Counting On 13th|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/en/state/telangana-municipal-election-notification-released-polling-on-february-11-counting-on-13th-enn26012706036|website=ETV Bharat News|date=2026-01-27|access-date=2026-02-01|language=en|first=E. T. V.|last=Bharat}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Event
!Date
|-
|Notification and start date for nominations
|28 January 2026
|-
|Last date for filing nominations
|30 January 2026
|-
|Date for scrutiny of nominations
|31 January 2026
|-
|Date of publication of validly nominated candidates
|31 January 2026
|-
|Date for appeal against rejection of nomination
|1 February 2026
|-
|Date for disposal of appeal
|2 February 2026
|-
|Last date for withdrawal of candidature
|3 February 2026
|-
|Date for publication of final list of contesting candidates
|3 February 2026
|-
|Date of Poll
|11 February 2026
|-
|Date of Re-poll, if any
|12 February 2026
|-
|Date of counting of votes and declaration of results
|13 February 2026
|-
|Election of Mayor and Vice-Mayor
|16 February 2026
|}

== Results ==
=== 2026 NMC election ===
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|-
!S.No.
!colspan=2|Party Name
!Won
|-
|1
|{{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|28
|-
|2
|{{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|17
|-
|3
|{{party color cell|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}
|[[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]
|14
|-
|4
|{{party color cell|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi]]
|1
|}

== See also ==

* [[2026 Telangana urban local bodies elections]]
* [[2026 Karimnagar Municipal Corporation election]]
* [[Elections in Telangana]]

==References==
<references />

== External links ==

* {{Official website|https://tsec.gov.in/home.do|name=Telangana State Election Commission}}
[[Category:Local elections in Telangana]]
[[Category:2026 elections in India]]
[[Category:2020s in Telangana]]
[[Category:Municipal corporation elections in India]]
[[Category:Nizamabad, Telangana]]

Laharighat Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:28:32Z

LucasRowan: new

{{short description|Assembly constituency of Assam}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Laharighat
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year =
| state = [[Assam]]
| district = [[Morigaon district|Morigaon]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| type = SLA
| loksabha_cons = [[Nagaon Lok Sabha constituency|Nagaon]]
| constituency_no = 53
| map_image = Laharighat Assembly constituency map 2023.svg
}}

'''Laharighat Assembly constituency''' is one of the 126 assembly constituencies of [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]. Laharighat forms part of the [[Nagaon Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies of State of Assam|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date = 2025-11-28}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! S.No !! Year !! Name of MLA !! Party
|-
| 1 || 1951 || Mohammed Rofique || [[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
| 2 || 1952 || By-election: Nurul Islam || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 3 || 1957 || Motiram Bora || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 4 || 1957 || Dhirsingh Deori || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 5 || 1962 || Lakshmi Prasad Goswami || [[Praja Socialist Party]]
|-
| 6 || 1967 || Abul Kashem || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 7 || 1972 || Abul Kashem ||[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 8 || 1978 || Abul Kashem || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 9 || 1985 || Abdul Jalil || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 10 || 1991 || [[Samsul Huda]] || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 11 || 1996 || [[Nazrul Islam (Indian politician)|Dr. Nazrul Islam]] || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 12 || 2001 || [[Nazrul Islam (Indian politician)|Dr. Nazrul Islam]] || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 13 || 2006 || [[Nazrul Islam (Indian politician)|Dr. Nazrul Islam]] || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 14 || 2011 || [[Nazrul Islam (Indian politician)|Dr. Nazrul Islam]] || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 15 || 2016 || [[Nazrul Islam (Indian politician)|Dr. Nazrul Islam]] || [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 16 || 2021 || [[Asif Mohammad Nazar]] || [[Indian National Congress]]
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Laharighat}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= Kholilur Rahman|party=Asom Gana Parishad|votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= Dr. Asif Mohammad Nazar|party=Indian National Congress |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= Siddique Ahmed|party=All India United Democratic Front|votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box turnout |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box rejected|votes=|percentage= }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=|loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2021 ===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Laharighat}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Dr. Asif Mohammad Nazar
|votes = 60,782
|percentage = 37.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Siddique Ahmed
|votes = 58,739
|percentage = 36.06
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = BJP
|candidate = Kadiruzzaman Zinnah
|votes = 34,553
|percentage = 21.26
|change = +2.89
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = NOTA
|candidate = None Of The Above
|votes = 1,068
|percentage = 0.66
|change =
}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes = 2,028
|percentage = 1.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,63,369
|percentage = 87.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors|
|reg. electors = 1,86,704
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2016 ===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Laharighat}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Dr. Nazrul Islam
|votes = 2423
|percentage = 41.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|candidate = Siddique Ahmed
|votes = 52,098
|percentage = 37.25
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = BJP
|candidate = Jadumoni Patar
|votes = 25,692
|percentage = 18.37
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = NOTA
|candidate = None Of The Above
|votes = 930
|percentage = 0.66
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,39,870
|percentage = 87.03
|change =
}}
{{Election box Registered electors|
|reg. electors = 1,60,723
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1952 by-election===
{{Election box begin|title=1952 by-elections : Laharighat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Nurul Islam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,520 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=M. Abu Shama |party=Independent politician |votes=1,736|percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=S.M. Abbas |party=Independent politician |votes=728|percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,784 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician|swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of Assam Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:Politics of Assam]]
[[Category:Morigaon district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Assam]]

Panchanand Pathak

2026-04-11T12:51:38Z

LucasRowan: added a pg

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Panchanand Pathak (P.N. Pathak)
| honorific_suffix =
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| office = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Kushinagar (Assembly constituency)|Kushinagar]]
| term_start = March 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Rajnikant Mani Tripathi]]
| successor =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| birth_name =
| parents = Lal Babu Pathak<ref>{{cite web |title=Panchanand Pathak (P.N. Pathak)(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- KUSHINAGAR(KUSHINAGAR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/Uttarpradesh2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=4018 |website=myneta.info |access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref>
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
| profession = Politician
| spouse =
}}

'''Panchanand Pathak''' ''(P.N. Pathak)'' is an Indian politician and a member of [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly]] of Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh of India. He represents the Kushinagar constituency of Uttar Pradesh and is a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party. He was the formal regional vice president of [[Gorakhpur division|Gorakhpur area]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=P |first1=Farendra |title=भाजपा ने पीएन पाठक को दिया बड़ी जिम्मेदारी, गोरखपुर क्षेत्र के 28 विभागों के बने प्रभारी - News Adda |url=https://newsaddaa.in/bjp-gave-big-responsibility-to-pn-pathak-in-charge-of-28-departments-of-gorakhpur-region/ |access-date=28 March 2022 |work=News Addaa - kushinagar Breaking News in Hindi |date=30 September 2021}}</ref>

==Posts held==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! # !! From !! To !! Position !! Comments
|-
| 01 || March 2022 || Incumbent || Member, [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly|18th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh]] ||<ref>{{cite web |title=Election Commission of India |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMar2022/ConstituencywiseS24333.htm?ac=333 |website=results.eci.gov.in |access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pathak, Panchanand}}
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:People from Kushinagar district]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

M. Parameswari

2026-04-07T23:23:45Z

LucasRowan: adding new article

{{Infobox officeholder
| name = M. Parameswari
| image =
| image size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1978|5|1|df=y}}
| birth_place = South Thathamangalam
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office1 = Member-Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly
| constituency1 = [[Manachanallur Assembly constituency|Manachanallur]]
| term_start1 = 2016
| term_end1 = 2021
| predecessor1 = [[T. P. Poonatchi]]
| successor1 = [[S. Kathiravan]]
| office2 =
| constituency2 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| successor2 =
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| term_start4 =
| term_end4 =
| party = [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]
| spouse =
| alma_mater =
| relations =
| children =
| profession = Politician
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| website =
}}

'''M. Parameswari''' is an [[Indian politician]] and a former member of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]. Parameswari hails from South Thathamangalam in the [[Tiruchirappalli district]]. She has completed higher secondary education at Manachanallur Govt. Hr. Sec. School in the year 1996.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.myneta.info/tamilnadu2016/candidate.php?candidate_id=1436 | title=Tamil Nadu 2016 | accessdate=7 November 2025}}</ref> Parameswari belongs to the [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (AIADMK) party. She contested and won the election in the [[Manachanallur Assembly constituency]] in the year [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2016]], thus becoming a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA).<ref>Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly "WHO'S WHO 2016. Chennai-600 009: Legislature Assembly Secretariat, Chennai-600009. 27 December 2018. p. 425-427.</ref>

==Electoral performance==
=== 2016 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Manachanallur<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC%20WISE%20CANDIDATE%20COUNT.pdf |access-date= 30 Apr 2022 |archive-date= 30 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083638/https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC%20WISE%20CANDIDATE%20COUNT.pdf |title=Assembly wise Candidate Valid Votes count 2016, Tamil Nadu|website=www.elections.tn.gov.in}}</ref><ref>https://www.indiavotes.com/ac/summary/37105</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=M. Parameswari |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=83,083 |percentage=46.17% |change=-6.96 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Ganesan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=75,561 |percentage=41.99% |change=+1.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Babu |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=8,193 |percentage=4.55% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Aravind |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=3,662 |percentage=2.03% |change=-0.6 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=2,274 |percentage=1.26% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Manikandan |party=Naam Tamilar Katchi |votes=1,704 |percentage=0.95% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Prince |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=1,212 |percentage=0.67% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Ganesan |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=899 |percentage=0.50% |change=-0.01 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,522 |percentage=4.18% |change=-8.09% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=179,968 |percentage=82.05% |change= -2.01% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 219,337 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -6.96% }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parameswari, M.}}
[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 2016–2021]]
[[Category:All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{TamilNadu-politician-stub}}

Gupta–Saka Wars

2026-03-30T06:25:20Z

LucasRowan:

{{Short description|Military conflicts between the Gupta Empire and the Western Satraps}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Gupta–Saka Wars
| place = [[Central India]], Western [[Malwa]], [[History of Gujarat|Gujarat]], [[Vidisha]] (near Eastern [[Malwa]]), [[History of Rajasthan|Rajasthan]] and [[History of Sindh|Sindh]]
| combatant1 = [[Gupta Empire]] [[Vakataka dynasty]]
| combatant2 = [[Western Satraps]]
| commander1 = '''[[Samudragupta]]''' '''[[Chandragupta II]]''' '''[[Ramagupta]]''' [[Virasena Saba]] [[Śanakanika Maharaja|Śanakanika]] [[Amrakarddava]] [[Rudrasena II]] [[Prabhavatigupta]]
| commander2 = '''[[Rudrasimha II]]'''{{Surrender}} '''[[Rudrasimha III]]{{KIA}}''' [[Sridharavarman]]{{Surrender}} Rudrasena III Simhasena
| date = 335–413 C.E
| result = [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]]–[[Vakatakas|Vakataka]] victory<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mirashi |first=Vasudev Vishnu |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.107898/page/n40/mode/1up |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.5 (inscriptions Of The Vakatakas) |date=1963 |publisher=Government Epigraphist For India |pages=XXIII|quote=The combined strength of the Guptas and the Vakatakas was sufficient to wipe out the Western Kshatrapas, who disappear from history about this time.}}</ref>
| territory = * [[Samudragupta]] conquered [[Central India]].
* [[Chandragupta II]] conquered western [[Malwa]], [[History of Gujarat|Gujarat]], [[History of Rajasthan|Rajasthan]] and [[History of Sindh|Sindh]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dwivedi |first=Gautam N. |date=1973 |title=The Western Limits of the Gupta Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44138595 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=34 |pages=76–79 |jstor=44138595 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>
* The whole of the [[Kathiawar]] peninsula was included in the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] dominion and the [[Arabian Sea]] formed its western boundary.<ref name=Sharma1989>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Tej Ram |year=1989 |title=A Political History of the Imperial Guptas: From Gupta to Skandagupta |publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-7022-251-4 |pages=77–78}}</ref><ref name=":1"/>
| image = East-Hem 400ad.jpg
| image_size = 400px
}}{{Campaignbox Iranian-Indian Wars and Conflicts}}
The '''Gupta–Saka Wars''' refers to the military conflict between the [[Gupta Empire]] and the [[Western Satraps]] during the 4th century CE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=DASGUPTA |first=K. K. |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12720 |title=A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY OF INDIA,VOL.3,PART1 |date=1960 |publisher=PEOPLES OF PUBLISHING HOUSE |pages=54–55}}</ref> Chandragupta II, also known as [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta Vikramaditya]], was a prominent ruler of the [[Gupta Empire]] during the 4th century CE. His reign is marked by significant military achievements, notably his subjugation of the [[Western Satraps]] who ruled in west-central India.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=R. C. |title=A Comprehensive History of India. Vol. 3, Part I: A.D. 300-985 |publisher=Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |year=1981 |location= |pages=53 |oclc=34008529}}</ref> [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] success against the [[Western Satraps]] is attested by a combination of historical and literary evidence.<ref name=":1" />

== Prelude ==

=== Cause of War ===
[[Chandragupta II]], the ruler of the Gupta Empire, expanded his dominion to include the provinces of [[Kathiawar]], [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] and northern Gujarat, in addition to maintaining control over his existing territories. This expansion was driven by various factors, including geographical considerations and economic opportunities. By conquering these regions, [[Chandragupta II]] gained access to the ports along the western coast, facilitating direct engagement in lucrative maritime trade with Western countries.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/goyal-1967 |title=History Of The Imperial Guptas |pages=239–243 |language=English}}</ref>

Ports such as [[Bharuch]] played pivotal roles in exporting Indian goods to Western markets, including commodities from [[Central Asia]] and [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|China]]. Despite suggestions of declining trade, historical evidence indicates that commerce between India and the Western nations remained robust during the Gupta period. For instance, records show that [[Roman Empire|Rome]] possessed ample stocks of oriental goods, including silk and spices, highlighting the flourishing state of Indian trade with the west.<ref name=":3" />

Moreover, the decline of Rome as a trading hub was compensated by the rise of [[Constantinople]] in [[Byzantium]], where the upper classes demanded Oriental goods for their luxury habits. Indian spices were particularly sought after, with [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] medical treatises attesting to their availability in the markets of [[Byzantium]]. The discovery of [[Byzantine coinage|Byzantine coins]] in various parts of India further corroborates the existence of commercial relations between the two regions.<ref name=":3" />

Furthermore, [[Sasanian Empire|Iranian]] merchants monopolized the silk trade with the West, purchasing silk from [[Indian subcontinent|Indian]] traders and supplying it to Roman markets. This challenges the notion that [[Silk in the Indian subcontinent|Indian silk]] weavers found it expensive to export their products, suggesting alternative factors for the migration of silk weavers.<ref name=":3" />

The westward expansion of the [[Gupta Empire]] may also have been motivated by political considerations, particularly the desire to end [[Western Satraps|Scythian]] rule in western India. [[Chandragupta II]] sought to suppress foreign rulers who posed a nuisance to Gupta politics, as evidenced by their attacks on eastern [[Malwa]] during the reign of [[Ramagupta]]. In response, [[Chandragupta II]] aimed to consolidate Gupta authority over western territories, addressing both economic and political objectives through expansionist policies.<ref name=":3" />

=== Chandragupta II and Vakatakas ===
[[Chandragupta II]] is believed to have arranged the marriage of his daughter, [[Prabhavatigupta]], to [[Rudrasena II]], the [[Yuvaraja|Crown Prince]] of the [[Vakataka dynasty]], to secure a strategic ally during his campaign against the [[Saka]]s. The [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakataka]] king's potential influence in conflicts with the Saka satraps in Gujarat and [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] made this alliance advantageous.However, some scholars question the active involvement of the Vakataka Royal House, particularly under [[Prithivishena I]], during [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] western campaign. [[Prithivishena I|Prithvishena I]], described as a Dharmavijayin, participated in the Deccan campaigns of [[Samudragupta]], but lacked aggressive expansionist policies. The conquest of [[Kuntala country|Kuntala]], often credited to the [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakataka]] dynasty, was actually achieved by a different branch.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/goyal-1967 |title=History Of The Imperial Guptas |pages=243–246 |language=English}}</ref>

Furthermore, inscriptions depict [[Prithivishena I|Prithvishena I]] as embodying noble virtues rather than ambitious conquest. It is debated whether he posed a significant threat to [[Chandragupta II]]'s ambitions in the western regions. Overall, while the marriage alliance with the [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakataka]] dynasty may have been a diplomatic strategy by [[Chandragupta II]], the extent of the [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakataka]] king's involvement in the Gupta king's western campaign remains subject to scholarly debate.<ref name=":4" />

The marriage between [[Prabhavatigupta|Prabhavati]] and [[Rudrasena II]] likely occurred around 380 CE or shortly thereafter, while the conquest of the Saka kingdom took place towards the end of the first decade of the fifth century or later. These events were separated by approximately 20 years, indicating they were not directly connected. However, the matrimonial alliance proved beneficial to the Gupta Empire.<ref name=":4" />

[[Prabhavatigupta|Prabhavati]], known for her strong personality, played a significant role in influencing the policies of the Vakataka court, especially given the amiable temperament of her father-in-law, [[Prithivishena I|Prithvishena I]], and the weakness of her husband, [[Rudrasena II]]. After Rudrasena II's death around 380-385 CE, [[Prabhavatigupta|Prabhavati]] became the regent for her two minor sons, Divakarasena and [[Damodarasena]], further strengthening Gupta influence. Her regency continued until around 410 CE when [[Damodarasena]] assumed the throne as [[Damodarasena|Pravarasena]].<ref name=":4" />

== Samudragupta's Aryavarta campaigns ==
{{See also|Samudragupta}}

=== Conquest of Central India by Samudragupta (r. 336–380 CE) ===
[[File:SamudraguptaCoin.png|thumb|Coin of Samudragupta, with [[Garuda]] pillar, emblem of [[Gupta Empire]]. The name [[File:Gupta_ashoka_s.svg|12x12px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_mu.jpg|14x14px]][[File:Gupta_ashoka_ddrr.jpg|13x13px]] ''Sa-mu-dra'' in an early version of the Gupta [[Brahmi script]], appears vertically under the left arm of the king.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=John |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214 |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties |date=1914 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214/page/n123 1]-2}}</ref>]]
: Some scholars believe that the term "Shaka-Murundas" refers to a single entity. For example, scholars such as [[Sten Konow]] assert that "Murunda" is a [[Shakas|Shaka]] title meaning "lord"; the [[Kushans]] also used similar titles (for example, [[Kanishka]] is titled a "muroda" in his Zeda inscription).{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=123}}
: Other scholars, such as [[K. P. Jayaswal]], believe that Shakas and Murundas are two different groups of people.{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=123}} According to this theory, Shakas here most probably refers to the [[Western Kshatrapa]] rulers of [[Ujjain]].{{sfn|Sharma|1989|p=89}} Jayaswal notes that the ''[[Puranas]]'' mention the rule of 13 Murunda kings, and [[Hemachandra]]'s ''Abhidhana-Chintamani'' describes Murunda as people of [[Lampaka]] (in present-day Afghanistan). However, Agrwal points out that these sources are of relatively late origin, and it is possible that a branch of the Shakas had come to be known as "Murundas".{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=123}}[[File:Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription Shaka word in Line 23.jpg|thumb|The vanquished "Śaka" ([[File:Gupta_allahabad_sh.svg|15px]][[File:Gupta_allahabad_k.svg|15px]]) mentioned by Samudragupta in the [[Allahabad pillar]] (Line 23) probably refer to the [[Saka]] ruler [[Sridharavarman]] in Central India.<ref name="CII4">{{cite book |last1=Mirashi |first1=Vasudev Vishnu |title=Corpus inscriptionum indicarum vol.4 pt.2 Inscriptions of the Kalachuri Chedi Era |date=1955 |publisher=Archaeological Society of India |pages=605–611 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3725/page/n321}}</ref>]]

=== Battle of Eran ===
: The exact location of the Shakas mentioned in Samudragupta's inscription is not certain. [[Vincent Arthur Smith|V. A. Smith]] identified them with the [[Western Kshatrapas]], who controlled the western [[Malwa]] and [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] regions. [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] alternatively identified the Shaka-Murunda ruler with [[Shridhara-varman]], a Shaka ruler whose inscriptions have been discovered at [[Sanchi]] ([[Kanakerha inscription]]) and [[Eran]].<ref name="CII4" /> Eran then came under the direct control of Samudragupta, as attested by his Eran inscription.{{sfn|Agrawal|1989|p=123}}<ref name="CII4" />
: The Central Indian region around [[Vidisha]], [[Sanchi]] and [[Eran]] had been occupied by a Saka ruler named [[Sridharavarman]], who his known from the [[Kanakerha inscription]] at Sanchi, and another inscription with his Naga general at Eran.<ref name="Shaw 58">Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 [https://books.google.com/books?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR58 p58-59]</ref> At [[Eran]], it seems that Sridharavarman's inscription is succeeded by a monument and an inscription by [[Gupta Empire|Gupta King]] [[Samudragupta]] (r.336-380 CE), established "for the sake of augmenting his fame", who may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman's Sakas in his campaigns to the West.<ref>"During the course of this expedition he is believed to have attacked and defeated the Saka Chief Shridhar Varman, ruling over Eran-Vidisha region. He then annexed the area and erected a monument at Eran (modern Sagar District) "for the sake cf augmenting his fame"." in {{cite book |last1=Pradesh (India) |first1=Madhya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CYLAQAAIAAJ |title=Madhya Pradesh: District Gazetteers |last2=Krishnan |first2=V. S. |date=1982 |publisher=Government Central Press |page=28 |language=en}}</ref> Sridharavarman is probably the "Saka" ruler mentioned in the [[Allahabad pillar]] inscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to the Gupta king,<ref name="CII42">{{cite book |last1=Mirashi |first1=Vasudev Vishnu |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3725/page/n321 |title=Corpus inscriptionum indicarum vol.4 pt.2 Inscriptions of the Kalachuri Chedi Era |date=1955 |publisher=Archaeological Society of India |pages=605–611}}</ref> forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".<ref>Lines 23-24 of the [[Allahabad pillar]] inscription of Samudragupta: "Self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces through the Garuḍa badge, by the [[Kushan Empire|Dēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi]] and the Śaka lords and by (rulers) occupying all Island countries, such as Siṁhala and others."</ref>

== Ramagupta and Sakas ==
{{See also|Ramagupta|Rudrasimha III}}[[File:Bhadramukhas_ruler_Rudrasimha_III_Circa_385-415_CE.jpg|thumb|Coin of the last Western Satrap ruler [[Rudrasimha III]] (388–395).]]
[[Rudrasimha III]] seems to have been the last of the Western Satrap rulers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93 |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive |page=93 |language=en}}</ref> [[Samudragupta]] who was the second great unifier of [[Indian subcontinent|India]], passed away in 375 CE. According to the [[Sanskrit]] play called "Devichandraguptam," [[Samudragupta]] was succeeded by [[Ramagupta]], who was a weak ruler. The [[Sakas]] started a revolt and emboldened by [[Sasanian Empire|Persian]] support, revolted against the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]]. Unskilled in war, [[Ramagupta]] was outflanked in a battle and was besieged by the [[Saka]] forces. Afterwards, [[Ramagupta]] tried to negotiate with the [[Western Satraps|Kshatrapa]] chief but the chief demanded that the wife or chief queen of [[Ramagupta]], [[Dhruvadevi]] to be handed over. This however infuriated his brother, [[Chandragupta II]]. According to the [[Sanskrit]] writers such as [[Bāṇabhaṭṭa]] and [[Vishakhadatta]], [[Chandragupta II]] executed his plan by disguising as a woman, entered the [[Saka]] chief's tent and slayed him. Subsequently, [[Ramagupta]] was overthrown or killed due to an interplay of events and [[Chandragupta II]] became the next king.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

== Chandragupta II's Saka conquests ==
{{See also|Chandragupta II}}[[File:Sanchi,_Inscription_of_Candragupta_II..JPG|thumb|The victorious [[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]] (412-413 CE).]]
Due to the liberations of [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisa]] and [[Gandhara]], the [[Sasanians|Persians]] allied with the [[Western Satraps|Saka Kshatrapa]], who were trying to rid themselves of Indian influence.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

The [[Western Satraps]] were eventually conquered by King [[Chandragupta II]]. Inscriptions of a victorious [[Chandragupta II]] in the year 412-413 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa in [[Sanchi]].<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.388]</ref>

{{blockquote|The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles|[[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]], 412-413 CE.<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p.388 inscription 833]</ref>}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="110" style="border:1px #aaa solid" caption="Gupta Empire coins on the model of the Western Satraps">
File:Silver_Coin_of_Chandragupta_II.jpg|Coin of Gupta ruler [[Chandragupta II]] (r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.<ref name="CIC" />
File:Silver_Coin_of_Kumaragupta_I.jpg|Coin of Gupta ruler [[Kumaragupta I]] (r.414–455) (Western territories).<ref name="CIC" />
File:Gupta_Kings._Skandagupta._AD_455-467.jpg|Coin of Gupta ruler [[Skandagupta]] (r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.<ref name="CIC" />
</gallery>Following these conquests, the silver coins of the Gupta kings [[Chandragupta II]] and his son [[Kumaragupta I]] adopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from the [[Indo-Greeks]]) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle ([[Garuda]], the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing the [[chaitya]] hill with star and crescent on the reverse.<ref name="CIC">"Evidence of the conquest of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurastra]] during the reign of [[Chandragupta II]] is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the [[chaitya]] with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc.", p.cli</ref> A tale of a climactic Battle of [[Aror|Alor]] ([[Sindh province]] of modern day [[Pakistan]]) between [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta Vikramaditya]] and the [[Sakas]] still survived till the time of [[Alberuni]] in the 11th century CE. [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] campaign against the [[Sakas]] was successful and the [[Western Satraps|Saka Kshatrapas]] were wiped out.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

== Subjugation of the Western Kshatraps ==
[[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] military campaigns against the [[Western Satraps|Western Kshatrapas]] are well-documented in historical records. Inscriptions, such as the [[Allahabad Pillar]] inscription of his father [[Samudragupta]], mention the "Shaka-Murundas" among the kings who sought to appease him. It is speculated that [[Samudragupta]] may have reduced the Shakas to a state of vassal alliance,<ref>{{cite book |last=Agrawal |first=Ashvini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA315 |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 |page=125}}</ref><ref name=Sharma1989 /> paving the way for [[Chandragupta II]] to completely subjugate them.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=R. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWVZWjNAcAgC |title=A Comprehensive History of India. Vol. 3, Part I: A.D. 300-985 |publisher=Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |year=1981 |location= |page=54 |isbn=978-81-7022-251-4 |oclc=34008529}}</ref> The decline of [[Western Satraps|Western Kshatrapa]] coinage towards the end of the 4th century, followed by the emergence of Gupta coinage in the region, further supports [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] conquest.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA91 |title=A History of India |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |pages=91 |language=en}}</ref> [[Chandragupta II]] had successfully extended his realm westward by defeating [[Rudrasimha III]] in 395. His campaign against [[Western Satraps|Western satraps]] lasted until 409.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Others |first=Muzaffar H. Syed & |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy5gEAAAQBAJ&dq=His+son+Kumaragupta+I+was+married+to+a+Kadamba+princess+of+the+Karnataka+region.+Chandragupta+II+expanded+his+realm+westwards%2C+defeating+the+Saka+Western+Kshatrapas+of+Malwa%2C+Gujarat+and+Saurashtra+in+a+campaign+lasting+until+409.+His+main+opponent+Rudrasimha+III+was+defeated+by+395%2C+and+he+crushed+the+Bengal+chiefdoms.&pg=PA124 |title=History of Indian Nation : Ancient India |date=2022-02-20 |publisher=K.K. Publications |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:ChandraguptaIIOnHorse.jpg|thumb|An 8 gram gold coin featuring Chandragupta II astride a caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand.<ref>* {{British-Museum-db|1910,0403.26|C_1910-0403-26}}</ref> The name ''Cha-gu-pta'' appears in the upper left [[Quadrant (circle)|quadrant]].]]
Literary evidence, including the [[Sanskrit]] play [[Devichandraguptam]], narrates [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] victory over the [[Western Satraps]]. According to the play, [[Chandragupta II]] disguised himself as the queen to deceive the enemy and successfully defeated a [[Western Satraps|Shaka]] chief besieging his brother's empire.<ref name=":2" /> This literary tradition, along with other Indian legends of King [[Chandragupta II|Vikramaditya's]] triumph over the [[Western Satraps|Shakas]], underscores the historical significance of [[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] conquest.<ref name=":2" />

== Aftermath ==
[[Chandragupta II]], known for his expansion of Gupta authority into west-central India, including present-day [[Gujarat]], achieved a significant victory over the [[Saka|Shakas]]. This conquest not only solidified Gupta dominance in the region but also contributed to the cultural and political unity of ancient India. His military successes and administrative acumen cemented his legacy as a formidable conqueror and statesman, shaping perceptions of Gupta imperial power and influence in historical narratives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schmidt |first=Karl J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&dq=samudragupta+conquered+afghanistan&pg=PA24 |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |date=2015-05-20 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-47681-8 |pages=24 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Chandragupta II|Chandragupta II's]] reign marked a period of prosperity and stability for the [[Gupta Empire]]. His strategic alliances and military campaigns expanded the empire's territory and consolidated its control over key regions. Under his rule, the [[Gupta Empire]] reached its zenith, with flourishing trade, vibrant cultural exchange, and advancements in art, literature, and science. [[Chandragupta II]]'s legacy as a visionary leader and astute ruler continues to be celebrated in Indian history, symbolizing the golden age of Gupta imperial rule.<ref name=":1" /> The Gupta ruler [[Skandagupta]] (455-467 CE) is known for a long inscription where he describes himself as "the ruler of the earth" on a large rock at [[Junagadh]], in [[Gujarat]], next to the older inscriptions of [[Ashoka]] and [[Rudradaman I]], confirming the Gupta hold on the western regions.<ref>[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman", ''Project South Asia''.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182107/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRockInscription.htm|date=23 February 2009}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gupta-Saka Wars}}
[[Category:Wars involving the Gupta Empire]]
[[Category:Western Satraps]]
[[Category:4th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:5th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:5th-century disestablishments]]
[[Category:300s conflicts]]
[[Category:400s conflicts]]
[[Category:400s disestablishments]]
[[Category:Gupta Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving India]]
[[Category:Military history of India]]
[[Category:Wars by former country involved]]
[[Category:Wars involving ancient India]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Asia]]
[[Category:Vakataka dynasty]]
[[Category:Wars involving Vakataka dynasty]]

Arthur Lawley, 6th Baron Wenlock

2026-03-25T21:58:03Z

LucasRowan: put up new entry

{{Short description|British soldier, peer, colonial governor (1860–1932)}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name = The Lord Wenlock
| honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|GCSI|GCIE|KCMG}}
| image = Arthur Lawley, 6th Baron Wenlock.png
| order1 = [[Governor of Madras]]
| term_start1 = 28 March 1906
| term_end1 = 3 November 1911
| predecessor1 = [[Sir Gabriel Stokes]] (acting)
| successor1 = [[Thomas Gibson-Carmichael, 1st Baron Carmichael|The Lord Carmichael]]
| governor-general1= [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto|The Earl of Minto]] [[Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst|The Lord Hardinge]]
| order2 = [[List of governors of British South African colonies#Lieutenant-Governors of the Transvaal|Lieutenant-Governor of the Transvaal]]
| term_start2 = 29 September 1902
| term_end2 = 4 December 1905
| governor2 = [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|The Viscount Milner]] [[William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne|The Earl of Selborne]]
| predecessor2 = ''Position established''
| successor2 = [[Richard Solomon (barrister)|Sir Richard Solomon]]
| order3 = [[Governor of Western Australia]]
| term_start3 = 1 May 1901
| term_end3 = 14 August 1902
| premier3 = [[George Throssell]] [[George Leake]] [[Alf Morgans]] [[Walter James (Australian politician)|Walter James]]
| predecessor3 = [[Gerard Smith (governor)|Sir Gerard Smith]]
| successor3 = [[Frederick Bedford|Sir Frederick Bedford]]
| order4 = [[Administrator of Matabeleland]]
| term_start4 = 5 December 1896
| term_end4 = 24 January 1901
| predecessor4 = ''Position established''
| successor4 = [[William Henry Milton]] (as Administrator of Southern Rhodesia)
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1860|11|12}}
| birth_place = [[London]], England
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1932|6|14|1860|11|12}}
| death_place = [[Freiberg, Saxony|Freiberg]], Germany
| spouse = Annie Allen Cunard; ([[#Family|3 children]])
| father = {{nowrap|[[Beilby Lawley, 2nd Baron Wenlock]]}}
| relatives = [[Beilby Lawley, 3rd Baron Wenlock|Beilby Lawley]] (brother)
}}

'''Arthur Lawley, 6th Baron Wenlock''', {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|sep=,|GCSI|GCIE|KCMG}} (12 November 1860 – 14 June 1932) was a British colonial administrator who served variously as [[Administrator of Matabeleland]], [[Governor of Western Australia]], Lieutenant-Governor of the [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]], and [[Governor of Madras]]. The fourth and youngest son of the [[Beilby Lawley, 2nd Baron Wenlock|2nd Baron Wenlock]], he attended [[Eton College]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], before joining the military. Serving in the [[Mahdist War]], he reached the rank of captain before resigning his commission to pursue other interests. Lawley was then private secretary to his uncle, the [[Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster|1st Duke of Westminster]], and subsequently to the [[Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey|4th Earl Grey]], who he followed to Rhodesia.

Representing the [[British South Africa Company]], Lawley was Administrator of Matabeleland from 1896 to 1901, during the conclusion of the [[Second Matabele War]]. He was then Governor of Western Australia for a brief period, from 1901 to 1902, before returning to Africa to serve as Lieutenant-Governor of the Transvaal (under [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Viscount Milner]], the governor). The Transvaal had been incorporated into the empire following the [[Second Boer War]], and Lawley bore much of the responsibility for administrating the colony, remaining lieutenant-governor until 1905. The following year, he was made Governor of Madras, serving until 1911 and overseeing the reform of the [[Madras Legislative Council]]. Prominent in the [[British Red Cross|Red Cross]] during the First World War, Lawley succeeded the youngest of his older brothers as [[Baron Wenlock]] in 1931, but died a year later. His only son had died in a hunting accident in 1909, and the title consequently became extinct upon his death.

==Early life and education==
Lawley was born in 1860 to [[Beilby Lawley, 2nd Baron Wenlock]], and his wife, Lady Elizabeth (née Grosvenor), a daughter of the [[Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster|2nd Marquess of Westminster]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=14 March 1901 |title=A Royal Singer |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/145856907/17393885 |access-date=15 February 2025 |work=Table Talk |location=Melbourne, Australia |pages=18}}</ref> and a granddaughter of the [[George Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Duke of Sutherland|1st Duke of Sutherland]]. He was their seventh child to the couple and their fourth and youngest son. He was educated at [[Eton College|Eton]], where he became President of the Eton Society and Editor of the ''Eton Chronicle''.<ref>Eton College Archives.</ref>

In October 1879, he went to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].<ref>{{acad|id=LWLY879A|name=Lawley, the Hon. Arthur}}</ref> However, Lawley did not complete his studies at Cambridge. Instead, he went in 1880 to the [[Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst]] and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 10th Hussars in 1882.<ref name=Gazette>{{London Gazette|issue=25136|date=8 August 1882|page=3690}}</ref> He served in India and in fought in the Sudan [[Mahdist War]] seeing action at [[Suakin]] (1884). In 1885 he was promoted to captain and served in the United Kingdom until 1892.<ref>The Memoirs of the Tenth Royal Hussars, 1891.</ref> Upon retiring from the army, he became involved in politics, serving as the private secretary to his uncle, the Duke of Westminster from 1892 to 1896,<ref name=":0" /> after which he was appointed secretary to Earl Grey, who went to administer Rhodesia after the [[Jameson Raid]].<ref>''The Bulawayo Chronicle'', November 1897.</ref>

==Administrator of Matabeleland==
When [[Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey]], was sent to [[Salisbury]] to replace [[Sir Leander Starr Jameson]], Lawley was in due course appointed the acting administrator of Matabeleland representing the [[British South Africa Company]]. In November 1896, he was appointed Deputy Administrator for Matabeleland. He served as Administrator of Matabeleland from 1897 to 1901.<ref>''Anglo-African Who's Who'', 1907.</ref> In 1898, Lawley led a mission to the court of [[Lewanika]], the king of [[Barotseland]].

Lawley later wrote a detailed account and a diary of his journey to Barotseland and his experiences. An agreement was signed at the Victoria Falls on 21 June 1898 between King Lewanika and Captain Arthur Lawley with Robert Coryndon, the resident in Barotseland as witness. The ivory seal with its gold handle used by Lawley to endorse the Treaty is in The National Trust Collection at [[Tyntesfield]].<ref>The National Trust, Tyntesfield, U.K.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Africa: African societies and the establishment of colonial rule, 1800–1915|author=Assa Okoth|page=234|isbn=978-9966-25-357-6 |publisher=East African Publishers|year=2006}}</ref>

The [[Second Matabele War]], which began after the failure of the [[Jameson Raid]] in January 1896, concluded during Lawley's residence in Bulawayo with a victory for British settlers and a Peace Agreement on 13 October 1896, reached by [[Cecil Rhodes]] meeting with the Matabele Chiefs in the Matopos Hills. On the departure of Earl Grey in July 1897, Lawley succeeded [[Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey]], as the Administrator of Matabeleland and served from 1897 to 24 January 1901.<ref>Anglo-African Who's Who 1907.</ref><ref name=Albums>Sir Arthur Lawley's photo albums, Lord Wraxall.</ref> As Deputy-administrator, Lawley participated in the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of [[Queen Victoria]]. As Cecil Rhodes was unwell, Captain Arthur Lawley gave the speech opening the Railway from [[Mafeking, South Africa|Mafeking]] to Bulawayo on 4 November 1897.<ref>''Bulawayo Chronicle'', 11 November 1897.</ref> Captain Lawley sent half the force which relieved Mafeking under the command of Colonel Plumer in May 1900.<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', 18 May 1900.</ref> He was in close contact with Colonel [[Robert Baden Powell]], who later served under him as Chief of Police in the Transvaal.<ref name="VoL">{{Cite book |last=Baden-Powell |first=Robert |url=http://www.pinetreeweb.com/bp-varsity10-1.htm |title=Lessons from the Varsity of Life | chapter = |year=1933 |author-link=Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061202185248/http://www.pinetreeweb.com/bp-varsity10-1.htm |archive-date= 2006-12-02 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Governor of Western Australia==
Lawley was knighted and appointed [[Governor of Western Australia]] in February 1901,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=27290|page=1499|date=1 March 1901}}</ref> and arrived in [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]] aboard the ship ''Ophir'', along with the [[George V|Duke]] and [[Mary of Teck|Duchess of York]] (about to commence a royal tour). Lawley's official term as Governor of Western Australia ran from 1 May 1901 to 14 August 1902. One of his first duties was to represent Western Australia at the opening of the first [[Parliament of Australia|Federal Parliament]] in [[Melbourne]] on 9 May 1901.<ref>Parliamentary Education Office, Parliament House, Canberra, Australia.</ref>

Despite only being governor for a little over 15 months, the inconclusive results of the [[1901 Western Australian state election|1901 state election]] meant that Lawley was met with five different governments during his time in office. He received the resignation of [[George Throssell]] on 21 May 1901, and commissioned [[George Leake]] as the new [[Premier of Western Australia|premier]] six days later. Leake's first government fell on 21 November 1901, but his replacement, [[Alf Morgans]], was unable to form a new ministry, and resigned on 23 December 1901. Lawley then re-appointed Leake as premier. Leake almost immediately requested that Lawley dissolve parliament and order a new election, but Lawley refused, citing the precedent established by [[John Manners-Sutton, 3rd Viscount Canterbury|Lord Canterbury]] (the [[Governor of Victoria]]), in 1872, when he refused a dissolution to [[Charles Gavan Duffy (Australian politician)|Charles Duffy]]. Despite this, Leake's government endured until his premature death on 24 June 1902. The final premier of Lawley's governorship, [[Walter James (Australian politician)|Walter James]], was appointed on 1 July 1902.<ref>{{cite book|author=Boyce, Peter|chapter=Governor and Parliament|year=1991|title=The House on the Hill: A History of the Parliament of Western Australia 1832–1990|editor=Black, David|editor-link=David Black (historian)|location=Perth, Western Australia|publisher=Parliament of Western Australia|isbn=0-7309-3983-9|page=277}}</ref>

In December 1901, Lawley toured the south-western parts of the province along with the Governor General [[Lord Hopetoun]], a friend from Eton College. His tenure also witnessed instability in the [[Perth City Council]]. Lady Lawley devoted herself to numerous charities in particular the children's hospice at Cottesloe, known as Lady Lawley Cottage.<ref>Lorraine Hayes, Lady Lawley Cottage, Western Australia Red Cross.</ref> The suburb of [[Mount Lawley]] in Perth is named after Lawley. Lawley laid the foundation stones of the Supreme Court of Justice and the Parliament of Western Australia.<ref name=Albums/>

==Lieutenant-Governor of the Transvaal==
On the recommendation of [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner]], Lawley was appointed as Lieutenant-Governor of the [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]] in July 1902.<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=The Government of the Transvaal |date=17 July 1902 |page=7 |issue=36822}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Reconstruction of the New Colonies Under Lord Milner|author=W. Basil Worsfold|year=1913|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC|isbn=978-1-115-38419-3 |pages=60}}</ref> The Transvaal Colony had been established on the area which was previously the Boer republic of the same name, and Lawley was its first lieutenant-governor. He arrived in Pretoria at the end of August and was sworn in as lieutenant governor of the Transvaal on 29 September 1902,<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=Latest intelligence – The Transvaal|date=2 October 1902 |page=3 |issue=36888}}</ref> serving as such until December 1905.<ref>The Transvaal Leader. Tuesday 5 December 1905.</ref>

South Africa in 1902 was emerging from the bitter conflict of the [[Second Boer War]] and under the leadership of Lord Milner, the Lieutenant Governor of the Transvaal had the arduous task of post war reconstruction. The visit of Joseph Chamberlain, the Colonial Secretary, greatly facilitated this and generous financial provision was made for rebuilding the devastated farms and settlements.<ref>Photo of Joseph and Mary Chamberlain at Sunnyside Pretoria in Chapter 4 of "Sir Arthur Lawley, Eloquent Knight Errant". Lady Lawley Cottage (Western Australian Red Cross; 2008).</ref><ref>The Brunt of War and where it fell. [[Emily Hobhouse]]. Methuen London, 1902.</ref><ref>''The Times'', 8 January 1903, page 3, column A.</ref> However given that Britain had just conquered the Transvaal with its rich gold fields, diamond and platinum mines, this was the very least that could be expected.<ref>Gold Miners and the Imperial War. ANC. South Africa.</ref> The administration brought in new cattle to restock the farms, tackled disease among livestock, and re-opened the mines controversially using imported Chinese labour in the Rand Goldfields, an idea backed by Lord Milner.<ref>Milner, the Appostle of Empire. John Marlowe, Hamish Hamilton. London 1976. Chapter 7.</ref> [[Joseph Chamberlain]] went with Lawley on a tour of the Transvaal and endeavoured to establish cordial relations with the defeated Boers.<ref>Chamberlains Speeches. 27 December 1902; edited by C. W. Boyd, London, 1914.</ref> On 25 June 1905, the [[Cullinan Diamond]] was discovered at the Premier Mine, near [[Pretoria]]. The diamond, which was cut to create the four Stars of Africa, was presented by Louis Botha, the First Prime Minister of South Africa, to [[King Edward VII]] in 1907.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>

Lawley's administration also saw the legislation introduced, which led to the creation of the [[Kruger National Park]].<ref>''The Star, Weekly Edition'', Johannesburg, Saturday, 19 December 1903.</ref> and the [[University of the Witwatersrand]].<ref>Colonial Office Despatches CO510/6. 5 September 1903. National Archives, Kew, London, UK.</ref> At one of the schools established at that time by Bishop William M. Carter and the Mirfield Fathers, a young [[Desmond Tutu]] received his education.<ref>Algy Lawley. Latimer Trend and Co. Plymouth, 1933.</ref>
Lawley's administration undertook the task of demarcating and allotting separate reserves in the Transvaal for indigenous Africans.<ref name="africanersp300">{{cite book|title=The Afrikaners: biography of a people|pages=300|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|author=Hermann Giliomee|year=2003|isbn=978-1-85065-714-9}}</ref> In the end, Lawley set aside only about 3% of the Transvaal for Africans.<ref name="africanersp300"/>

In 1903, due to petitions from [[Boer]] farmers, the government of Transvaal permitted them access to [[Kgatla tribe|Kgatla]] reserves in the [[Bechuanaland]] protectorate to recover their stolen cattle on the condition they reciprocate by offering the Kgatla access to their own settlements.<ref name="blackpeopleandwarp48">{{cite book|title=Black people and the South African War, 1899–1902: Volume 40 of African studies series|author=Peter Warwick|pages=48|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-521-25216-4}}</ref> The Kgatla responded by requesting Lawley to merge Kgatla reserves in Bechuanaland and the Crown colony into a single settlement.<ref name="blackpeopleandwarp48" />

The Kgatla request was framed to enable their chief Lentshwe gain complete sovereignty over all the lands occupied by the Kgatla from the Boers during the Second Boer War.<ref name="blackpeopleandwarp49">{{cite book|title=Black people and the South African War, 1899–1902: Volume 40 of African studies series|author=Peter Warwick|pages=49|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-521-25216-4}}</ref> The request was turned down by Lawley, who, however, permitted Lentshwe to appoint his brother Ramono as his deputy over Saulspoort.<ref name="blackpeopleandwarp49" />

During his tenure, Lawley had reservations about Lord Milner's policy of importing cheap Chinese labour into Transvaal to work in the gold mines.<ref>Milner Papers. Bodleian Library Oxford. Dep. 323. Folios 133/137, 1903.</ref><ref>Colonial Office Despatches CO510/6. 3559, 9246 and Chinese Labour Regulations. National Archives, Kew, U.K.</ref><ref name="cyclopediap193">{{cite book|title=The Cyclopedia of India: biographical, historical, administrative, commercial, Volume 3|pages=193|publisher=Cyclopedia Pub. Co|year=1909}}</ref> Nonetheless, he pointed out the extent of success that had attended their work.<ref name="cyclopediap193"/><ref>''Milner, Apostle of Empire'' by John Marlowe and Hamish Hamilton. London (1976), p. 164.</ref> The town of Lawley in Transvaal is named after Arthur Lawley.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of world place names derived from British names|author=Adrian Room|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1989|isbn=978-0-415-02811-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofworl00room/page/98 98]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofworl00room/page/98}}</ref> [[Mohandas K. Gandhi|Mohandas Gandhi]] founded his Tolstoy model farm near the town of Lawley. Lawley encountered [[Mohandas Gandhi]] in the Transvaal and Gandhi wished him well when he was appointed Governor of the Madras Presidency in India.<ref>Mahatma Gandhi Media and Research Service. Chronology 1905.</ref>

==Governor of Madras==
[[File:Arthur Lawley.jpg|thumb|left|c. 1908]]
While serving as Lieutenant-Governor of Transvaal, Lawley was appointed Governor of Madras on 28 December 1905 at a monthly pay of Rs. 10,000. He took office on 28 March 1906 succeeding [[Arthur Russell, 2nd Baron Ampthill|The Lord Ampthill]]. Lawley's eldest brother [[Beilby Lawley, 3rd Baron Wenlock]] had also served as the governor of Madras from 1891 to 1896. The Madras Legislative Council was completely reformed according to the [[Indian Councils Act 1909]] and enlarged during his time. Lawley undertook a fifteen tours to acquaint himself of the administrative machinery prevailing in the Presidency. He took the opportunity to visit schools, hospitals and prisons, to meet with peasants, politicians, farmers and businessmen and to consult with government officials.<ref>Notes on the Administration of His Excellency, the Honourable Sir Arthur Lawley, Governor of Madras from 1906 to 1911. Madras Government Press 1912.</ref> During his tenure, the Madras Estates Land Bill was passed. In 1906, the [[Arbuthnot Bank crash|Arbuthnot Bank of Madras crashed]] precipitating one of the worst financial disasters of the 20th century.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news|title=Building a bank the MCt. way|url=http://www.hindu.com/biz/2004/04/12/stories/2004041200331800.htm|work=The Hindu|date=12 April 2004}}</ref> Lawley, who was himself one of the stockholders, tried to raise public funds to rescue investors. The disillusioned investors eventually responded by founding the [[Indian Bank]].<ref name="thehindu"/> At the end of 1908 Lawley introduced the [[Morley-Minto reforms]] which brought Indian representation into the government of Madras. He appointed the Maharaja of Bobbili to be the first Indian to have membership of the Executive.<ref name="Obituary">''The Times'' obituary for Lord Wenlock, Wednesday, 15 June 1932.</ref>

Lawley also promoted the building of railways and encouraged modern agriculture and industrial development. With his close friend the [[Maharaja of Mysore]] he promoted technical education. In 1910 there was an Agricultural and Industrial Exhibition in Mysore.<ref>"The Fourteenth Tour of His Excellency the Honourable Sir Arthur Lawley to Mysore, Hospet, Bellary, Anantapur and Hyderabad, 26 October to 17 November 1910", ''Madras Press''.</ref>

The newly constructed building housing the Government Museum, Chennai was opened by Lawley on 5 September 1906. Lawley inaugurated the Victoria Memorial Hall in Madras on 28 March 1909 in memory of Queen Victoria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Milestones crossed in the history of the museum|url=http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/history/hist1.htm|publisher=Government Museum, Chennai}}</ref> In 1910, Lawley unveiled a portrait of Queen Victoria inside the Victoria Public Hall after the building was acquired by the Suguna Vilas Sabha. On 27 October 1911, Lawley presided over the Annual Day function of the Madras Sanskrit College and presented diplomas to meritorious students.<ref>{{cite news|title=103 glorious years of Madras Sanskrit College-II |author=V. Sundaram |work=The News Today|location=India|date=22 October 2009 |url=http://www.newstodaynet.com/col.php?section=20&catid=33&id=19949 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206104433/http://newstodaynet.com/col.php?section=20&catid=33&id=19949 |archivedate=6 February 2010 }}</ref>

Lawley inaugurated the Giffard School block of the Women and Children's Hospital in [[Egmore]] in October 1911.<ref name="madrasmusings">{{cite journal|title='The best east of Suez,' they described MH|url=http://madrasmusings.com/Vol%2019%20No%204/otherstories.html|volume=19|issue=4|author=Shobha Menon|journal=Madras Musings}}</ref> On 1 November 1911, Sir Arthur Lawley opened the Lady Lawley Nurses Home. Their Excellencies were garlanded with extravagant garlands of flowers.<ref name=MadrasTimes>''Madras Times'', 2 November 1911.</ref> The nurses' quarters was established opposite to the hospital and named after Lady Lawley.<ref name="madrasmusings"/>

==Later life and death==
In August and September 1912 he visited Canada at the instigation of the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. He gave speeches in Ottawa and Winnipeg on the subject of "Canada, the Royal Navy and the Empire". The purpose was to encourage Canada to build Dreadnoughts for the Royal Navy.<ref>National Library of Canada FC243.</ref> In May 1913, Lawley was Deputy Leader of the British Empire Delegation to the United States to celebrate 100 years of peace between Britain and the U.S.A.<ref>''New York Times'', 5 May 1913, p. 4.</ref><ref>''New York Times'', 8 May 1913, p. 6.</ref><ref>''New York Times'', 9 May 1913, p. 1.</ref> He delivered memorable speeches in New York, Washington, Philadelphia and Chicago.<ref>''The Washington Post'', 13 May 1913, pp. 1, 7.</ref><ref>''Washington Post'', 14 May 1913, p. 2.</ref><ref>''Chicago Daily Tribune'', 17 May 1913, p. 2.</ref> A photograph illustrating the arrival of the delegation was taken in New York on 7 May 1913. On 19 November 1914, he accompanied Lady Roberts to the State Funeral in St Paul's Cathedral of her husband, Field Marshal [[Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts]] of Kandahar.<ref>''The Times'', 20 November 1914, p. 9 (col. F).</ref> During the First World War, Lawley served as a Commissioner of the British Red Cross Society in Boulogne, France. In 1917 he served as Red Cross Commissioner in [[Mesopotamia]] and liaised with the Indian Red Cross because so many Indian soldiers were injured in Mesopotamia.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

In 1919, Lawley represented Britain at the Founding of the [[International Red Cross]] at Versailles.<ref>''The Times'', 22 February 1919, p. 9, col. A.</ref><ref>''The Times'', 24 February 1919, p. 8, col. C.</ref><ref>''Champions of Charity. War and the Rise of the Red Cross'' by John F. Hutchinson. Westview Press, 1997.</ref> In 1920 he was asked by [[Earl Haig]] to found the Officers' Section of the [[British Legion]].<ref>''The Times'', 16 June 1932, obituary of Lord Wenlock.</ref><ref>''The Official History of the British Legion'' by Graham Wootton. MacDonald and Evans, 1956.</ref> In his later life, he served as the director of numerous London-based companies including Forestal in Argentina.<ref>''The Times'', 21 July 1920, p. 4 (col. E).</ref><ref>''The Times'', 23 July 1920, p. 22 (col. E).</ref> In 1927 Lawley and Lady Lawley visited the Fairbridge Farm School at Pinjarra, Western Australia, and Lady Lawley Cottage. He remained president of the Child Emigration Society until 1929.<ref>''The Times'', 12 June 1930, p. 8.</ref> He succeeded his brother, Reverend Algernon George Lawley, who died without an heir, as the 6th [[Baron Wenlock]] in June 1931.

Lord Wenlock died on 14 June 1932 at [[Freiburg]], in Baden Württemberg,<ref name="Obituary"/> [[Germany]], and was interred at St Helen's Church [[Escrick]], Yorkshire.<ref>''The Times'', Thursday, 18 June 1932, p. 9 (col. B).</ref> As he had no surviving sons, he was the last Baron Wenlock.

==Legacy==
A road in [[Coimbatore]] in southern India is named after him.<ref>{{cite news|title= When it rains city is a shambles|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/25/stories/2007102559650300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026134524/http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/25/stories/2007102559650300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 October 2007|accessdate=23 June 2010|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=25 October 2007}}</ref> The Lawley Institute in [[Ooty]], a gentlemen's club, commemorates his governorship of the Madras Presidency.<ref>''Madras Times'', Thursday 16 September 1911.</ref> [[Mount Lawley, Western Australia|Mount Lawley]], a suburb of [[Perth]], Western Australia is named after him, as is [[Lawley, Gauteng]], a township in [[Johannesburg]]. Lawley's Court Dress as Governor of Madras is kept in the National Trust Victorian House of [[Tyntesfield]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

Lady Lawley lived there from 1939 until her death in 1944 and many things in the house belonged to Sir Arthur and Lady Lawley. Portraits of Sir Arthur Lawley as Governor of Western Australia, Lady Lawley painted in Madras in 1911, and of their son Richard Edward Lawley are to be seen at [[Tyntesfield]]. There were two dozen photo albums kept at Tyntesfield which were loaned to the Empire and Commonwealth Museum.<ref>"Sir Arthur Lawley, Eloquent Knight Errant, David J, Hogg". Lady Lawley Cottage (Western Australian Red Cross) 2008; {{ISBN|978-0-9554457-2-9}} iBooks.</ref> Many of the photographs can be seen in the biography – Sir Arthur Lawley, Eloquent Knight Errant (see below).

==In literature==
Immortalized by R. K. Narayan through all his books set in the fictional town of Malgudi. The main road in that town is Lawley Road. There is a statue of Lawley there. The road features in most of Narayan's stories. There is even one of a supposed historic visit of Lawley in the past.

==Family==
On 15 October 1885, he married Annie Allen Cunard (1863–1944), a daughter of Sir Edward Cunard, 2nd Baronet.<ref name=":0" /> The Baroness Wenlock was appointed a [[Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire]] (GBE) in 1917.

The couple had three children:
* Richard Edward Lawley (8 May 1887 – 4 September 1909). He was killed in a hunting accident at Ooty (Coonoor)<ref>{{cite news|title=Sir A. Lawley's son killed| newspaper=Exeter and Plymouth Gazette|date=7 September 1909| page=8| url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000511/19090907/052/0008|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref> in Southern India, aged 22.
* Hon. Ursula Mary Lawley (later Mrs. George Gibbs, then Lady Wraxall, then the Dowager Lady Wraxall; 8 June 1888 – 16 October 1979). She married [[George Abraham Gibbs, 1st Baron Wraxall|George Gibbs]] (later the 1st Baron Wraxall), on 20 July 1927. From 1927 until her death in 1979 she lived at [[Tyntesfield]] in Somerset, England.
* Hon. Margaret Cecilia Lawley (later Mrs. Geoffrey Dawson; 15 June 1889 – 3 May 1969). She married [[Geoffrey Dawson]], editor of ''The Times'', on 14 June 1919. He was Trustee for the Second Lord Wraxall during his minority until 1944.

==Honours==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|align=center| [[File:1000px ribbon bar of the Order of Maria Anna.svg|50px]] || width="60%"| [[Order of the Star of India|Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India]] (GCSI) || 12 December 1911 || align=center| <ref>{{London Gazette|issue=28559|date=12 December 1911|page=9356|supp=y}}</ref>
|-
|align=center| [[File:Order of the Indian Empire Ribbon.svg|50px]] || width="40%"| [[Order of the Indian Empire|Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire]] (GCIE) || 28 March 1906 || align=center| <ref name="gcie">{{London Gazette|issue=27899|date=30 March 1906|page=2253}}</ref>
|-
|align=center| [[File:UK Order St-Michael St-George ribbon.svg|50px]] || width="40%"| [[Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George]] (KCMG) || 1 March 1901 || align=center| <ref name="gcmg">''"To be an Ordinary Member of the Second Class, or Knights Commanders of the said Most Distinguished Order:— Captain the Honourable Arthur Lawley, on appointment as Governor of the State of Western Australia"''. {{London Gazette|issue=27283|date=12 February 1901|page=1058}}</ref>
|-
| align=center rowspan="2"| [[File:Order of St John (UK) ribbon -vector.svg|50px]] || width="40%"| [[St John International|Knight of Justice of the Order of Saint John]] (KStJ) || 1 June 1920 || align=center| <ref>{{London Gazette|issue=31924|date=1 June 1920|page=6040}}</ref>
|-
| width="40%"| [[St John International|Knight of Grace of the Order of Saint John]] (KStJ) || 1 November 1917 || align=center| <ref>{{London Gazette|issue=30365|date=2 November 1917|page=11357}}</ref>
|-
|align=center| [[File:BEL - Order of Leopold - Knight bar.svg|50px]] || width="40%"| [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Knight of the Order of Leopold]] ({{flagicon|Belgium}}; Special List) || 24 March 1921 || align=center| <ref>{{London Gazette|issue=32268|date=22 March 1921|page=2388|supp=y}}</ref>
|}

===Military ranks===
* 9 August 1882: Lieutenant<ref name=Gazette/>
* 10 August 1889: Captain (resigned commission 23 March 1892)<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=25970|date=3 September 1889|page=4786}}</ref><ref>''"10th Hussars, Captain the Honourable Arthur Lawley resigns his Commission"''. {{London Gazette|issue=26270|date=22 March 1892|page=1702}}</ref>
* 19 February 1915: Temporary Lieutenant-Colonel<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=29075|date=16 February 1915|page=1715|supp=y}}</ref>
* 9 December 1915: Temporary Colonel<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=29396|date=7 December 1915|page=12292|supp=y}}</ref>
* 21 December 1916: Temporary Honorary Colonel<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=29871|date=19 December 1916|page=12424|supp=y}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |url= |title=Australian Dictionary of National Biography |language=en |chapter=Lawley, Sir Arthur (1860–1932) |access-date=15 February 2025 |work= |publisher=Australian National University |year=1986 |chapter-url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lawley-sir-arthur-7111}}
* {{Cite IBD1915|wstitle= Lawley, Hon’ble Sir Arthur |volume= 13.1 |page= 248 |year=1915|short=}}
* {{cite book|title=Who was who in British India|pages=210|author=John F. Riddick|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-29232-3}}
* {{cite book|title=Sir Arthur Lawley, Eloquent Knight Errant, David J. Hogg|publisher=Lady Lawley Cottage (Western Australian Red Cross) |year=2008|isbn=978-0-9554457-2-9 }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|title=The eighth tour of H.E. The Hon. Sir Arthur Lawley: Governor of Madras: Tanjore, February 19th to 28th, 1908|publisher=Madras Government Press|year=1912}}
* {{cite book|title=Speeches delivered by His Excellency the Honourable Sir Arthur Lawley, while Governor of Madras, 1906–11|year=1912}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-gov}}
{{Succession box | title=[[Governor of Western Australia]] | before=[[Gerard Smith (governor)|Sir Gerard Smith]] | after=[[Frederick Bedford|Sir Frederick Bedford]] | years=1901–1902}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of governors of British South African colonies#Lieutenant-Governors of the Transvaal|Lieutenant-Governor of the Transvaal]]|years=1902–1905}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Richard Solomon (barrister)|Richard Solomon]]}}
{{Succession box | title=[[Governor of Madras]] | before=[[Sir Gabriel Stokes]] (acting) |after=[[Thomas Gibson-Carmichael, 1st Baron Carmichael|The Lord Carmichael]] | years=1906–1911}}
{{S-reg|uk}}
{{s-bef| before=[[Algernon Lawley, 5th Baron Wenlock|Algernon Lawley]]}}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Baron Wenlock]]| years=1931–1932}}
{{s-non|reason=Extinct}}
{{S-end}}

{{Governors of Western Australia}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wenlock, Arthur Lawley, 6th Baron}}
[[Category:1860 births]]
[[Category:1932 deaths]]
[[Category:10th Royal Hussars officers]]
[[Category:Barons Wenlock|6]]
[[Category:Governors of Western Australia]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Knights of Justice of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:Knights of Grace of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:Lawley family|Arthur]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Governors of the Transvaal]]
[[Category:Governors of Madras]]
[[Category:Younger sons of barons]]

Folk dances of Jharkhand

2026-03-24T03:40:31Z

LucasRowan: Started Page...

{{Short description|Folk dances of a state in India}}

'''Folk dances''' of [[Jharkhand]] represent its vibrant culture and tradition. There are various folk dance in the state of Jharkhand which are performed during harvest season, festival and social gatherings. Some folk and tribal dances in Jharkhand are Jhumair, Mardana Jhumair, Janani Jhumair, Domkach, Lahasua, Jhumta, Fagua, Paika, Chhau, Firkal, Mundari and Santali.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ezccindia.org/jharkhand.html |title=Easrern Zonal Cultural Centre |access-date=2018-10-30 |archive-date=2018-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405094015/http://www.ezccindia.org/jharkhand.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/jharkhand/people-culture-festivals/dance.html|title = Jharkhand Dance}}</ref><ref name=auto>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/talk-on-nagpuri-folk-music-at-ignca.html|title=talk on nagpuri folk music at ignca|website=daily Pioneer.com}}</ref>
[[File:Folk Dances of Jharkhand - Documentary - EZCC.webm|thumb|Documentary videos of some folk dance of Jharkhand]]

==List of Folk dances==
Some folk dances are as follows:

===Jhumair===
{{Main|Jhumair}}
[[Jhumair]] is popular folk dance of Jharkhand. It is performed during harvest season and festivals. Musical Instruments used are [[Madal|Mandar]], [[Dhol]], [[Naqareh|Nagara]], [[Dhak (instrument)|Dhak]], [[Bansuri|Bansi]] [[Shehnai]].<ref name=auto/>

===Mardani Jhumair===
{{Main|Mardani Jhumar}}
[[Mardani Jhumar]] is Nagpuri folk dance performed by men. Men wear [[ghungroo]], hold sword and dance in the circle.

===Janani Jhumair===
{{Main article|Janani Jhumar}}
[[Janani Jhumar|Janani Jhumair]] is Nagpuri folk dance performed by women. The dance has feminine grace.<ref name=auto/>

===Domkach===
{{Main|Domkach}}
[[Domkach]] is a folk dance performed in Jharkhand in marriages and festivals.

===Fagua===
Fagua is a folk dance performed by both men and women during festival of [[Holi|Fagua]]. The musical instruments used are Mandar, Dhol and Bansi(flute).

===Paiki===
{{Main article|Paiki dance}}
[[Paiki dance|Paiki]] is a [[Nagpuri culture |Nagpuri]] ceremonial martial dance. It is performed by men. Men wear ghungroo, dance holding sword and shield. Music instruments used are Nagara, Dhak, and Shehnai.

===Chhau dance===
{{Main|Chhau dance}}
[[Chhau dance]] is a semi-classical Indian dance with tribal and folk tradition, Chhau dance form of manbhum style is found in Nimdih Block of Saraikela kharsawan district of Jharkhand since undivided Manbhum district. Some famous Chhau dance artist are Shri Sudhir Kumar, Shri Paresh Kumar from Jamdih Village, Shri Chandi Mahato from Kushputul Village of Nimdih block.

Sukesh Mukherjee, Assistant Teacher and Mathematics Textbooks Writer of Jharkhand Government has played a remarkable role in the field of Chhau dance. He has performed chhau dance in Centre for Cultural Resources and Training, Udaipur, Rajasthan which is under the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.

===Firkal dance===
{{Main|Firkal dance}}
[[Firkal dance|Firkal]] is a martial art folk-dance of [[Bhumij people|Bhumij]] tribes. The main instruments of Firkal are swords, arrows, bows and shields. It can be found in ''Potka'' block in [[East Singhbhum]] district of Jharkhand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiantribalheritage.org/?p=5383#gsc.tab=0|title=The last frontier of Firkal martial art of Chotanagpur area – Jharkhand | Tribal Cultural Heritage in India Foundation|access-date=2021-09-04|archive-date=2022-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930042427/https://indiantribalheritage.org/?p=5383#gsc.tab=0|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Mundari dance===
[[Munda people|Munda]] tribe have its own dance which performed during harvest season and festival accompanied by musical Instrument [[Madal]], [[Naqareh|Nagara]] and [[Bansuri|Bansi]]. Munda refer to their dance and song as durang and Susun respectively Mundari folk dance are Jadur and Jena.<ref name=auto/>

===Santali dance===
[[Santal people|Santal]] tribe have its own unique dance. They performed it during harvest season and festival accompanied by instruments such as Madal and Nagara..

===Kurukh dance===
[[Kurukh people|Kurukh tribe]] perform folk dances during different occasions such as harvesting, festival, marriage etc. In Kurukh language dance is called "dandi". Some folk dance of [[Kurukh people|Kurukh]] tribe are Jagra Matha, Jadur, [[Karma dance|Karam dandi]], khaddi and dudhiya etc.<ref name=auto/>

Ranga is also folk dance of Jharkhand.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Folk dances of Jharkhand| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Jharkhand]]

Lakhi Jungle (jungle)

2026-03-23T17:25:08Z

LucasRowan: adding new post

{{Short description|Historical jungle in Punjab, India}}
{{Distinguish||text=[[Lakhi Jungle]], a present-day village with the same name}}
{{Infobox forest
|image=
|image_caption=
|location=[[Punjab, India]]
|map_image=Detail_of_the_Lakhi_Jungle_tract_from_a_sketch_map_of_the_country_northwest_of_Dehli_to_the_southern_bank_of_the_Ravi_River,_including_the_districts_of_Haryana_and_Bikaner,_by_William_Francklin,_June_1802_(F07-10)_(cropped).jpg
|map_caption=Detail of the Lakhi Jungle tract from a sketch map of the country northwest of [[Delhi]] to the southern bank of the [[Ravi River]], including the districts of [[Haryana]] and [[Bikaner]], by [[William Francklin]], June 1802
}}
'''Lakhi Jungle''', also known as '''Lakhi Jangali''',<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |title=An Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps with Detailed Notes, Bibliography and Index |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1986 |edition=reprint |location=New Delhi |pages=10}}</ref> was a historical [[jungle]] located in present-day [[Punjab, India]].{{Efn|Also spelt as 'Lahkee Jungle' or 'Lakhi Jangal'.|group=note}} It should not be confused with the historical [[Machhiwara (jungle)|Machhiwara jungle]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 January 2021 |others=KNS |title=Baldev Singh greets people on 'Gurupurab' |url=http://www.knskashmir.com/baldev-singh-greets-people-on--gurupurab--60233 |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=Kashmir News Service |language=en-GB}}</ref> The region was referred to as the Lakhi-Jangal tract.<ref name=":02" /> A number of toponyms of ''[[pargana]]s'' were recorded in Mughal documents bearing the ''Lakhi'' suffix.<ref name=":02" />

== History ==
[[File:Detail of the Lakhi Jungle tract as seen in a map of the countries to the west of Delhi as far as Kabul and Multan, including the Punjab, surveyed by Mirza Mogul Beg between 1786–96 for F. Wilford, compiled in 1804 (detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Lakhi Jungle tract as surveyed by Mirza Mogul Beg between 1786 and 1796 for F. Wilford, map compiled in 1804.]]
A jungle formed in this area due to the shifting course of the [[Sutlej|Sutlej river]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Gommans |first=Jos |title=The Indian Frontier : Horse and Warband in the Making of Empires. |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-36356-3 |location=Milton |oclc=1051140387 |quote=According to local tradition, one of the Bhatti chiefs, Rana Lakhi, settled in the Lakhi Jungle, the extensive jungle produced by the ever shifting Sutlej, in the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030). He subsequently became a Muslim and founded 300 villages. He also procured a great number of Iranian horses and ordered his subjects to begin horse-breeding. Other evidence also confirms the high quality of the local horse breed, a standard that was kept up by the foreign horses that staged the perennial invasions from the north-west. Sultan Balban (1266-87), being cut off from foreign sources, procured most of his cavalry horses in the Bhatti area. The whole of the eastern Punjab, but the Lakhi Jungle in particular, remained a major horse-breeding area up to the nineteenth century,}}</ref> A [[Bhati|Bhatti]] chief, named Rana Lakhi, is said to have settled in the area of the Lakhi Jungle around the turn of the millennium between the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name=":0" /> During the Mughal-period, the Lakhi Jungle was a ''[[faujdar]]i''-district under the Birun-Panjnad area of the Dipalpur Sarkar of [[Subah of Multan|Multan Subah]].<ref name=":02" /> The ninth Sikh Guru, [[Guru Teg Bahadur]] and tenth Sikh Guru, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] visited this place.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gandhi |first=Surjit Singh |title=History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606-1708 C.E. |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist. |year=2007 |isbn=9788126908585 |volume=2 |pages=841 |chapter=Khalsa Battles Against Mughal Imperialism |quote=}}</ref> During the time period of Guru Gobind Singh and later, the area of the later Firozpur division was covered by a dense forest which stretched from Bathinda to [[Kotkapura]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs |date=1994 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=81-215-0276-4 |location=New Delhi |pages=303 |oclc=41281752}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhillon |first=Harish |title=The Sikh Gurus. |date=2015 |publisher=Hay House Publishing |isbn=978-93-84544-45-4 |oclc=968092357 |quote=The Guru camped in Lakhi jungle, a forest between the towns of Bhatinda and Kotkapura, for a while, and then moved on to Talwandi Sabo, where he was greeted with great warmth by Bhai Dalla, the landlord.}}</ref> The Lakhi Jungle Darbar was based in the Lakhi Jungle tract.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Padam |first=Piara Singh |title=Sri Guru Gobind Singh Ji De Darbari Rattan |year=1976 |language=pa}}</ref> After the evacuation of Anandpur, the Guru held a poetic court ([[Kavi Darbar]]) within the Lakhi Jungle.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Manjit |url=https://sgpc.net/gurdwara-gaz/2020/October/Oct%20-English.pdf |title=Gurdwara Gazette |last2=Vakta |first2=Harbhajan Singh |date=October 2020 |publisher=Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee |pages=211, 214}}</ref> According to Piara Singh Padam, it was attended by Behari, Lal Das Khiali, Adha, Jado Rai, Fat Mal, Keso, and Bhagtu.<ref name=":3" />
[[File:Hymn_of_Guru_Gobind_Singh_in_Raga_Majh_Written_in_Lakhi_Jungle_Sometime_in_December_1705_CE,_From_a_Manuscript_Copy_by_Bhai_Mani_Singh.jpg|thumb|Hymn of Guru Gobind Singh in Raga Majh written in the Lakhi Jungle sometime in December 1705. From a manuscript copy by Bhai Mani Singh.]]
In the 18th century, the [[Sikhs]] used the surrounding jungle (from which the village takes its name) as a hideout from persecution by the [[Mughal Empire]] and the [[Durrani Empire|Duranni Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh, Teja. |title=A short history of the Sikhs. Volume one, 1469-1765 |date=1999 |publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjabi University |others=Singh, Ganda. |isbn=9788173800078 |edition=3rd |location=Patiala |oclc=235973547}}</ref> In November 1762, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] defeated the Sikhs in Lakhi Jungle, while he was in his hunting expedition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=www.DiscoverSikhism.com |url=http://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhsVol.IiEvolutionOfSikhConfederacies1707-69 |title=History Of The Sikhs Vol. II Evolution Of Sikh Confederacies (1707-69) |pages=192–193 |language=English}}</ref> During [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]'s seventh [[Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani|invasion]] of India between 1764 and 1765, the Sikhs used the jungle as a hideout.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=Surindar Singh |title=The Sikhs and Sikhism |publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |year=1993 |pages=63}}</ref> The area was known for its horse traders, which may have partly attracted Sikh refugees to the area.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fenech |first1=Louis E. |title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism |last2=McLeod |first2=W.H. |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2014 |isbn=9781442236011 |edition=3rd |series=Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series |pages=189 |quote=LAKHI JUNGLE. A wasteland south of Firozpur where the Khalsa sheltered during periods of persecution in the 18th century. The sheltering likely had to do with the fact that the area was a well-known ground of horse traders.}}</ref> Historian [[Muzaffar Alam]] notes that the Sikhs of the 18th century used the jungle as a place of safety from state oppression and as a staging ground to launch attacks on plundering neighbouring villages and [[Rakhi system|extracting tribute]] from ''[[zamindar]]s''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Environment and History |publisher=White Horse Press |year=1999 |volume=5 |pages=365}}</ref> [[Abd al-Samad Khan|Abdus-samad Khan]] crushed a rebellion by local [[Bhati|Bhatti]] ''zamindars'' of the Lakhi Jungle in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Irvine |first=William |title=Later Mughals |publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |year=1991 |pages=311 |chapter=Sikhs Ravage North Punjab Repeatedly}}</ref> The area was well-renowned for horse-breeding and its oxen all the way up till the 19th century.<ref name=":0" /> The jungle has been [[Deforestation|deforested]] by [[Punjab Canal Colonies|canal colonies]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Raychaudhuri |first1=Tapan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ&dq=Lakhi+Jungle+forest&pg=PA6 |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 1, C.1200-c.1750 |last2=Habib |first2=Irfan |last3=Kumar |first3=Dharma |date=1982 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-22692-9 |pages=6 |language=en}}</ref>

There is a sub-region of the [[Malwa (Punjab)|Malwa]] region of Punjab known as Jangal, derived from the areas that were part of the former tract of the Lakhi Jungle, which comprises the districts of Bathinda, Faridkot, Muktsar, and Firozpur.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bhatti |first=H. S. |title=Folk Religion: Change and Continuity |publisher=Rawat Publications |year=2000 |isbn=9788170336082 |pages=27–29}}</ref>

== Places named after the Lakhi Jungle ==

* [[Lakhi Jungle]] (locality)
* [[Lakhlan]]
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Geography of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian forests]]
[[Category:History of Sikhism]]
[[Category:Bathinda district]]

Mughal Empire

2026-03-21T12:21:43Z

LucasRowan: slightly updated intro after review and added references per sources

{{Short description|1526–1857 empire in South Asia}}
{{Hatnote group|{{distinguish|text=the [[Mongol Empire]] or [[Moghulistan]]}}
{{Other uses|Mughal (disambiguation)}}
}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Mughal Empire
| image_flag =
| flag_caption =
| ethnic_groups =
| religion = {{udl|wrap=
; State religion:
: [[Islam]]{{efn|[[Islamic schools and branches|Branch]]: [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]
: School of [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]]: [[Hanafi]]}} [[Din-i Ilahi]] (1582–1605)
; Others:
: [[Hinduism]] (majority), [[Sikhism]] and more
}}
| era = Early modern
| status = [[Empire]]
| other_symbol =
| other_symbol_type =
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| life_span = {{circa|1526–1857}}
| year_start = 1526
| year_end = 1857
| event_start = [[First Battle of Panipat]]
| date_start = 21 April
| event_end = [[Siege of Delhi]]
| date_end = 21 September
| event_post = [[Mughal Emperor]] exiled to [[British Burma]]
| date_post = 7 October 1858
| event1 = [[Sur Empire|Mughal Interregnum]]
| date_event1 = 17 May 1540 – 22 June 1555
| event2 = [[Second Battle of Panipat]]
| date_event2 = 5 November 1556
| event3 = [[Mughal–Afghan Wars]]
| date_event3 = 21 April 1526 – 3 April 1752
| event4 = [[Deccan wars]]
| date_event4 = 1680–1707
| event6 = [[Nader Shah's invasion of India]]
| date_event6 = 1738–1740
| p1 = Delhi Sultanate
| p2 = Sur Empire
| p3 = Regional Sultanates of India
| p4 = Deccan sultanates
| s1 = British Raj
| today = {{ubl|[[India]] | [[Pakistan]] | [[Bangladesh]] | [[Afghanistan]]}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Mughal Empire, 1530.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Mughal Empire in 1530|[[File:Mughal Empire, 1605.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Mughal Empire in 1605|[[File:Mughal Empire, 1707.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Mughal Empire in 1707|default=3}}
| map_width = 250px
| image_map_alt = Mughal
| capital = {{ubli
| [[Agra]] (1526–1530; {{nwr|1560–1571;}} {{nwr|1598–1648}})
| [[Delhi]] (1530–1540; {{nwr|1639–1857}})
| [[Fatehpur Sikri]] (1571–1585)
| [[Lahore]] (1586–1598){{sfn|Sinopoli|1994|p=294}}
}}
| common_languages = ''See [[Languages of South Asia]]''
| official_languages = [[Persian language|Persian]]
| currency = [[Rupee]], [[History of the taka|Taka]], [[Dam (Indian coin)|dam]]{{sfn|Richards|1995|pp=73–74}}
| leader1 = [[Babur]]
| leader2 = [[Bahadur Shah II]]
| year_leader1 = 1526–1530 (first)
| year_leader2 = 1837–1857 (last)
| title_leader = [[Mughal emperors|Emperor]]
| title_representative = [[Vakil of the Mughal Empire|Vicegerent]]
| year_representative1 = 1526–1540 (first)
| representative1 = [[Mir Khalifa]]
| year_representative2 = 1794–1818 (last)
| representative2 = [[Daulat Rao Sindhia]]
| title_deputy = [[List of Mughal grand viziers|Grand Vizier]]
| deputy1 = [[Mir Khalifa]]
| year_deputy1 = 1526–1540 (first)
| deputy2 = [[Asaf-ud-Daula]]
| year_deputy2 = 1775–1797 (last)
| stat_year1 = {{Circa|1600}}<ref name="Roy134">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Roy|2015|p=134}} "Around circa 1600, the Mughal Empire controlled 3.2 million square kilometres with a population of about 150 million."</ref>
| stat_area1 = 3,200,000
| stat_area2 = 4,000,000
| stat_year2 = 1690<ref name="TurchinAdams2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D. |year=2006 |title=East–West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=219–229 |doi=10.5195/JWSR.2006.369 |issn=1076-156X |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Taagepera">{{Cite journal |last=Rein Taagepera |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=475–504 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |access-date=6 July 2019 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |url-status=live |issn = 0020-8833 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="OxfordArea">{{Cite book|last1=Bang|first1=Peter Fibiger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience|last2=Bayly|first2=C. A.|last3=Scheidel|first3=Walter|year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977311-4|pages=92–94|language=en}}</ref>
| stat_year3 = {{Circa|1600}}
| stat_year4 = {{Circa|1700}}
| stat_pop3 = 150,000,000<ref name="Roy134" />
| stat_pop4 = 158,400,000<ref name="borocz" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |year=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=70–71 |isbn=978-0-19-256430-6 |quote=We have seen that there is considerable uncertainty about the size of India's population c.1595. Serious assessments vary from 116 to 145 million (with an average of 125 million). However, the true figure even could even be outside of this range. Accordingly, while it seems likely that the population grew over the 17th century, it is unlikely that we will ever have a good idea of its size in 1707.}}</ref>
}}
The '''Mughal Empire''' was an [[Early modern period|early modern]] empire that ruled most of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the [[Indus River]] Basin in the west, northern [[Afghanistan]] in the northwest, and [[Kashmir]] in the north, to the [[highland]]s of present-day [[Assam]] and [[Bangladesh]] in the east, and the uplands of the [[Deccan Plateau]] in [[South India]].<ref name="Stein2010-12">{{harvnb|Stein|2010|pp=159–}}. Quote: "The realm so defined and governed was a vast territory of some {{convert|750000|sqmi|km2|disp=sqbr}}, ranging from the frontier with Central Asia in northern Afghanistan to the northern uplands of the Deccan plateau, and from the Indus basin on the west to the Assamese highlands in the east."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4evztAEACAAJ |title=The Mughal Empire |date=2012-03-28 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-58406-0 |language=en}}</ref>

The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by [[Babur]], a ruler from what is now [[Uzbekistan]], who with the help of the neighbouring [[Safavid Iran|Safavid]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]s,<ref name="Gilbert2017">{{Citation |last=Gilbert |first=Marc Jason |title=South Asia in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=62 |isbn=978-0-19-066137-3 |access-date=15 July 2019}} Quote: "Babur then adroitly gave the Ottomans his promise not to attack them in return for their military aid, which he received in the form of the newest of battlefield inventions, the matchlock gun and cast cannons, as well as instructors to train his men to use them."</ref> defeated the [[sultan of Delhi]], [[Ibrahim Lodi]], in the [[First Battle of Panipat]] and swept down the plains of [[North India]]. The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, [[Akbar]].<ref name="Stein2010">{{harvnb|Stein|2010|pp=159–}}. Quote: "Another possible date for the beginning of the Mughal regime is 1600, when the institutions that defined the regime were set firmly in place and when the heartland of the empire was defined; both of these were the accomplishment of Babur's grandson Akbar."</ref> This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the death of the last major emperor, [[Aurangzeb]],<ref name="Stein2010-1">{{harvnb|Stein|2010|pp=159–}}. Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb's later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Richards|1995|p=xv}}. Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair."</ref> during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the [[British Raj]] after the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].

Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare,<ref name="Stein2010-2">{{harvnb|Stein|2010|pp=159–}}. Quote: "The vaunting of such progenitors pointed up the central character of the Mughal regime as a warrior state: it was born in war and it was sustained by war until the eighteenth century, when warfare destroyed it."</ref><ref name="Robb2011">{{harvnb|Robb|2011|pp=108–}}. Quote: "The Mughal state was geared for war and succeeded while it won its battles. It controlled territory partly through its network of strongholds, from its fortified capitals in Agra, Delhi or Lahore, which defined its heartlands, to the converted and expanded forts of Rajasthan and the Deccan. The emperor's will be frequently enforced in battle. Hundreds of army scouts were an important source of information. But the empire's administrative structure too was defined by and directed at war. Local military checkpoints or thanas kept order. Directly appointed imperial military and civil commanders (faujdars) controlled the cavalry and infantry, or the administration, in each region. The peasantry in turn were often armed, able to provide supporters for regional powers, and liable to rebellion on their account: continual pacification was required of the rulers."</ref><ref name="Gilbert2017-2">{{Citation |last=Gilbert |first=Marc Jason |title=South Asia in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |pages=75– |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-066137-3 |access-date=15 July 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915/https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |url-status=live }} Quote: "With Safavid and Ottoman aid, the Mughals would soon join these two powers in a triumvirate of warrior-driven, expansionist, and both militarily and bureaucratically efficient early modern states, now often called "gunpowder empires" due to their common proficiency is using such weapons to conquer lands they sought to control."</ref> it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather, it equalised and placated them through new administrative practices,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=115}}{{sfn|Robb|2011|pp=99–100}} and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardised rule.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=152–}} The basis of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, implemented by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.<ref name="Stein2010-3">{{harvnb|Stein|2010|pp=164–}}. Quote: "The resource base of Akbar's new order was land revenue"</ref><ref name="AsherTalbot2006-1">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=158–}}. Quote: "The Mughal empire was based in the interior of a large land mass and derived the vast majority of its revenues from agriculture."</ref> These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,<ref name="Stein2010-4">{{harvnb|Stein|2010|pp=164–}}. Quote: "... well over half of the output from the fields in his realm, after the costs of production had been met, is estimated to have been taken from the peasant producers by way of official taxes and unofficial exactions. Moreover, payments were exacted in money, and this required a well regulated silver currency."</ref> were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=152–}} and allowed peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006-3">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=152–}}. Quote: "His stipulation that land taxes be paid in cash forced peasants into market networks, where they could obtain the necessary money, while the standardization of imperial currency made the exchange of goods for money easier."</ref>

The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006-4">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=152–}}. Quote: "Above all, the long period of relative peace ushered in by Akbar's power, and maintained by his successors, contributed to India's economic expansion."</ref> The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006-5">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=186–}}. Quote: "As the European presence in India grew, their demands for Indian goods and trading rights increased, thus bringing even greater wealth to the already flush Indian courts."</ref> There was [[conspicuous consumption]] among the Mughal elite,<ref name="AsherTalbot2006-6">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=186–}}. Quote: "The elite spent more and more money on luxury goods and sumptuous lifestyles, and the rulers built entire new capital cities at times."</ref> resulting in greater patronage of [[Mughal painting|painting]], literary forms, textiles, and [[Mughal architecture|architecture]], especially during the reign of [[Shah Jahan]].<ref name="AsherTalbot2006-7">{{harvnb|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=186–}}. Quote: "All these factors resulted in greater patronage of the arts, including textiles, paintings, architecture, jewellery, and weapons to meet the ceremonial requirements of kings and princes."</ref> Among the Mughal [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]] in South Asia are [[Agra Fort]], [[Fatehpur Sikri]], [[Red Fort]], [[Humayun's Tomb]], [[Lahore Fort]], [[Shalamar Gardens, Lahore|Shalamar Gardens]], and the [[Taj Mahal]], which has been described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".<ref name="Centre" />

== Name ==
The word ''Mughal'' (also spelled ''Mogul''<ref name="persianatemogul">{{Cite book |last=John Walbridge |title=God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason |page=165 |quote=Persianate Mogul Empire.}}</ref> or ''Moghul'' in English) is the Indo-Persian form of [[Mongols|''Mongol'']]. However, the Mughal dynasty's early followers were Chagatai Turks and not Mongols.<ref name="Hodgson" /><ref name="Canfield">{{Cite book |last=Canfield |first=Robert L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PA20 |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |page=20}}</ref> The term ''Mughal'' was applied to them in India by association with the Mongols and to distinguish them from the Afghan elite who ruled the Delhi Sultanate.<ref name="Hodgson">{{Cite book |last=Hodgson |first=Marshall G. S. |author-link=Marshall Hodgson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COOGFSH_jUkC&pg=PA62 |title=The Venture of Islam |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-34688-5 |volume=3 |page=62}}</ref> In the West, the term [[Mughal emperors|''Mughal'']] was used for the emperor and, by extension, the empire as a whole.<ref name="Fontana">{{Cite book |last=Fontana|first=Michela|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVZU1sAQ8H4C&pg=PA32|title=Matteo Ricci: A Jesuit in the Ming Court|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4422-0588-8|page=32|access-date=19 October 2015|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033421/https://books.google.com/books?id=MVZU1sAQ8H4C&pg=PA32|url-status=live}}</ref> The term remains disputed by [[Indologists]].<ref name="RA">{{Cite book |last1=Huskin |first1=Frans Husken |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVhUAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |title=Reading Asia: New Research in Asian Studies |last2=Dick van der Meij |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-136-84377-8 |page=104}}</ref> In [[Marshall Hodgson|Marshall Hodgson's]] view, the dynasty should be called ''Timurid''/''Timuri'' or ''Indo-Timurid''.<ref name="Hodgson" />

The closest to an official name for the empire was ''[[Hindustan]]'', which was documented in the [[Ain-i-Akbari]].<ref name="Vanina">{{Cite book |last=Vanina |first=Eugenia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yriGbWNAF5EC&pg=PA47 |title=Medieval Indian Mindscapes: Space, Time, Society, Man |publisher=Primus Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-93-80607-19-1 |page=47 |author-link=Eugenia Vanina |access-date=19 October 2015 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033421/https://books.google.com/books?id=yriGbWNAF5EC&pg=PA47 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "dominion of Hindustan" ({{Transliteration|fa|Wilāyat-i-Hindustān}}),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hardy |first1=P. |editor-last=Levtzion |editor-first=Nehemia |chapter=Modern European and Muslim Explanations of Conversion to Islam in South Asia: A Preliminary Survey of the Literature |title=Conversion to Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37nXAAAAMAAJ&q=bilad+-+i+Hind+(+the+country+of+Hind+)+,+wilayat+-+i+Hindustan+(+the+dominion+of+Hindustan+)+,+sultanat+-+i |year=1979 |publisher=Holmes & Meier |page=69 |isbn=978-0-8419-0343-2 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403231614/https://books.google.com/books?id=37nXAAAAMAAJ&q=bilad+-+i+Hind+(+the+country+of+Hind+)+,+wilayat+-+i+Hindustan+(+the+dominion+of+Hindustan+)+,+sultanat+-+i |url-status=live}}</ref> "country of Hind" ({{Transliteration|fa|Bilād-i-Hind}}), "Sultanate of Al-Hind" ({{Transliteration|fa|Salṭanat(i) al-Hindīyyah}}) as observed in the epitaph of Emperor [[Aurangzeb]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf |title=Name of the Monument/ site: Tomb of Aurangzeb |website=asiaurangabad.in |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923175254/http://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> or endonymous identification from emperor [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]] as "Land of Hind" ({{Transliteration|ur|Hindostān}}) in [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Parvez |first1=Aslam |title=The life & poetry of Bahadur Shah Zafar |last2=Fārūqī |first2=At̤har |date=2017 |publisher=Hay House India |isbn=978-93-85827-47-1 |location=New Delhi, India |oclc=993093699}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianhistorycollective.com/what-was-hindustan-hindustani-subcontinentofindia-politicalmap-geographynow-geographygames-mughalempire-mughalarchitecture-architecture-hindoostanmap/ |title=What Happened to 'Hindustan'? |website=Indian History Collective}}</ref> Contemporary Chinese chronicles referred to the empire as ''Hindustan'' ({{Transliteration|zh|ISO|Héndūsītǎn}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mosca |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zvmix_k1XDcC&pg=PA94 |title=From Frontier Policy to Foreign Policy: The Question of India and the Transformation of Geopolitics in Qing China |date=2013 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8538-9 |pages=78–94 |language=en |access-date=7 November 2023 |archive-date=7 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107203141/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zvmix_k1XDcC&pg=PA94 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Mughal designation for their dynasty was ''Gurkani'' ({{Transliteration|fa|Gūrkāniyān}}), a reference to their descent from the Turco-Mongol conqueror [[Timur]], who took the title {{Transliteration|fa|Gūrkān}} 'son-in-law' after his marriage to a [[Chinggisid]] princess.<ref name="Thackston2">{{Cite book |last=Zahir ud-Din Mohammad |title=The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor |title-link=Baburnama |publisher=Modern Library |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-375-76137-9 |editor-last=Thackston, Wheeler M. |editor-link=Wheeler Thackston |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/babarinizam00babu/page/ xlvi] |quote=In India the dynasty always called itself Gurkani, after Temür's title Gurkân, the Persianized form of the Mongolian {{lang|mn-Latn|kürägän}}, 'son-in-law,' a title he assumed after his marriage to a Genghisid princess. |author-link=Babur}}</ref>

== History ==
{{See also|Mughal dynasty}}

=== Babur and Humayun (1526–1556) ===
{{Main|Babur|Humayun}}

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| align = right
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| image1 = Humayun and Babur (Late Shah Jahan Album) Babur detail.jpg
| image2 = Joppen map-India in 1525 published 1907 by Longmans.jpg
| footer=Portrait of Babur in the ''[[:Commons:Category:Late Shah Jahan Album|Late Shah Jahan Album]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Babur and Humayun with Courtiers, from the Late Shah Jahan Album |url=https://asia-archive.si.edu/object/S1986.401/ |website=Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art|quote=The first Mughal emperor, Babur, who reigned from 1526 to 1530, is shown seated on the right with his son and successor, Humayun.}}</ref> and map of India in 1525 just before the onset of Mughal rule
}}
The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] conqueror [[Timur]] (the founder of the [[Timurid Empire]]) on his father's side, and from [[Genghis Khan]] on his mother's side.<ref name="Berndl">{{Cite book |last=Berndl |first=Klaus |title=National Geographic Visual History of the World |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7922-3695-5 |pages=318–320}}</ref> Paternally, Babur belonged to the [[Turkification|Turkicised]] [[Barlas]] tribe of [[Mongol]] origin.<ref>Gérard Chaliand, ''A Global History of War: From Assyria to the Twenty-First Century'', [[University of California Press]], California 2014, p. 151</ref> Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayley |first=Christopher |title=The European Emergence. The Mughals Ascendant |date=1990 |isbn=0-7054-0982-1 |page=151|publisher=Time-Life Books }}</ref> He established himself in [[Kabul]] and then pushed steadily southward into India from [[Afghanistan]] through the [[Khyber Pass]].<ref name="Berndl" /> Babur's forces defeated [[Ibrahim Lodi]], [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultan of Delhi]], in the [[First Battle of Panipat]] in 1526. Through his use of firearms and cannons, he was able to shatter Ibrahim's armies despite being at a numerical disadvantage,{{sfn|Richards|1995|p=8}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=116}} expanding his dominion up to the mid [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=117}} After the battle, the centre of Mughal power shifted to [[Agra]].{{sfn|Richards|1995|p=8}} In the decisive [[Battle of Khanwa]], fought near Agra a year later, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the combined [[Rajput]] armies of [[Rana Sanga]] of [[Kingdom of Mewar|Mewar]], with his native cavalry employing traditional flanking tactics.{{sfn|Richards|1995|p=8}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=116}}

The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayley |first=Christopher |title=The European Emergence. The Mughals Ascendant |date=1990 |isbn=0-7054-0982-1 |page=154|publisher=Time-Life Books }}</ref> The instability of the empire became evident under his son, [[Humayun]] (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by the rebellious [[Sher Shah Suri]] (reigned 1540–1545).<ref name="Berndl" /> Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] and Mughal courts and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire.{{sfn|Majumdar|1974|pp=59, 65}} Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.{{sfn|Richards|1995|p=12}}

=== Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707) ===
{{Main|Akbar|Jahangir|Shah Jahan|Aurangzeb}}

[[File:Jesuits at Akbar's court.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Akbar]] holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the [[Ibadat Khana]] in Fatehpur Sikri.]]
[[Akbar]] (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Akbar |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date= |year= |last=Ballhatchet |first=Kenneth A. |author-link=Kenneth A. Ballhatchet |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar |access-date=17 July 2017 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525120830/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar |url-status=live}}</ref> in the [[Umarkot Fort]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Vincent Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924024056503/page/n34/mode/1up |title=Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542–1605 |location=Oxford |publisher=The Clarendon Press |year=1917 |pages=13–14 |author-link=Vincent Arthur Smith}}</ref> to Humayun and his wife [[Hamida Banu Begum]], a [[Persian people|Persian]] princess.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Begum |first=Gulbadan |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofhumayun00gulbrich |title=The History of Humāyūn (Humāyūn-Nāma) |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society |year=1902 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofhumayun00gulbrich/page/237 237]–239 |translator-last=Beveridge |translator-first=Annette S. |author-link=Gulbadan Begum |translator-link=Annette Beveridge}}</ref> Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, [[Bairam Khan]], who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India.{{sfn|Stein|2010|p=162}} Through warfare, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the [[Godavari River]].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=128}} He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies.<ref name="Berndl" /> India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, [[Din-i-Ilahi]], with strong characteristics of a ruler cult.<ref name="Berndl" /> He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.<ref name="Berndl" />

[[Jahangir]] (born Salim,<ref name="Mohammada" /> reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], an Indian princess.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Marc Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7OQWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |title=South Asia in World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-976034-3 |page=79 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033918/https://books.google.com/books?id=7OQWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref> Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, [[Salim Chishti]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muhammad-Hadi |title=Preface to The Jahangirnama |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512718-8 |page=4 |translator-last=Thackston |translator-first=Wheeler M. |translator-link=Wheeler Thackston}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jahangir, Emperor of Hindustan |title=The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-512718-8 |page=65 |translator-last=Thackston |translator-first=Wheeler M. |translator-link=Wheeler Thackston}}</ref> He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques".<ref name="Berndl" /> Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more ''madad-i-ma'ash'' (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faruqui |first=Munis D. |title=The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-107-02217-1 |pages=268–269}}</ref> In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the [[Sikh]] guru [[Guru Arjan|Arjan]], whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Sikh community.{{sfn|Robb|2011|pp=97–98}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=267}}<ref name="BBC Sikhs">{{Cite web |date=30 September 2009 |title=BBC – Religions – Sikhism: Origins of Sikhism |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/history/history_1.shtml |access-date=19 February 2021 |website=BBC |language=en-GB |archive-date=17 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817220705/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/history/history_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art mss 0874.3.jpg|thumb|right|Group portrait of Mughal rulers, from [[Babur]] to [[Aurangzeb]], with the Mughal ancestor [[Timur]] seated in the middle. On the left: [[Shah Jahan]], [[Akbar]] and Babur, with Abu Sa'id of Samarkand and Timur's son, [[Miran Shah]]. On the right: Aurangzeb, [[Jahangir]] and [[Humayun]], and two of Timur's other offspring [[Umar Shaikh Mirza I|Umar Shaykh]] and [[Muhammad Sultan Mirza|Muhammad Sultan]]. Created {{circa|1707–12}}.]]
[[Shah Jahan]] (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife [[Jagat Gosain]].<ref name="Mohammada">{{Cite book |last=Mohammada |first=Malika |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA300 |title=The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India |publisher=Aakar Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-89833-18-3 |page=300}}</ref> His reign ushered in the golden age of [[Mughal architecture]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehta |first=Jaswant Lal |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |year=1984 |isbn=978-81-207-1015-3 |edition=2nd |volume=II |page=59 |language=en |oclc=1008395679 |orig-year=First published 1981}}</ref> During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the [[Taj Mahal]]. The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in.<ref name="Berndl" /> Shah Jahan extended the Mughal Empire to the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] by ending the [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]] and forcing the [[Sultanate of Bijapur|Adil Shahis]] and [[Sultanate of Golconda|Qutb Shahis]] to pay tribute.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singhal |first=Damodar P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ag4BAAAAMAAJ&q=annexed+tribute |title=A History of the Indian People |publisher=Methuen |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-413-48730-8 |page=193 |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033919/https://books.google.com/books?id=ag4BAAAAMAAJ&q=annexed+tribute |url-status=live}}</ref>

Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal [[Dara Shikoh]], became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness.<ref name="Berndl"/> Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&dq=Dara+Shikoh&pg=PA194 Dara Shikoh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403231619/https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&dq=Dara+Shikoh&pg=PA194 |date=3 April 2023 }} ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'', by Josef W. Meri, Jere L Bacharach. Routledge, 2005. {{ISBN|0-415-96690-6}}. pp. 195–196.</ref> With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, [[Aurangzeb]] ({{Reign|1658|1707}}), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.<ref name="Berndl" /> Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until he died in 1666.{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=68}} Aurangzeb brought the empire to its greatest territorial extent,<ref>{{EI3|title=Awrangzīb|url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI3O/COM-23859.xml|first=Munis D.|last=Faruqui|date=2011|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23859}}</ref> and oversaw an increase in the Islamicisation of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the ''[[jizya]]'' on non-Muslims, and compiled the ''[[Fatawa 'Alamgiri]]'', a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru [[Guru Tegh Bahadur|Tegh Bahadur]], leading to the militarisation of the Sikh community.{{sfn|Robb|2011|p=98}}{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=267}}<ref name="BBC Sikhs" /> From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king's vision of a network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abhishek Kaicker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBEAAAQBAJ&dq=Sayyids+Of+Barha&pg=PA160 |title=The King and the People: Sovereignty and Popular Politics in Mughal Delhi |year=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-007067-0 |page=160 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403224903/https://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBEAAAQBAJ&dq=Sayyids+Of+Barha&pg=PA160 |url-status=live}}</ref> He led campaigns from 1682 in the Deccan,<ref name="EI2"/> annexing its remaining Muslim powers of Bijapur and Golconda,{{sfn|Richards|1995|pp=220–222}}<ref name="EI2"/> though engaged in a [[Deccan wars|prolonged conflict]] in the region which had a ruinous effect on the empire.{{sfn|Richards|1995|p=252}} The campaigns took a toll on the Mughal treasury, and Aurangzeb's absence led to a severe decline in governance, while stability and economic output in the Mughal Deccan plummeted.{{sfn|Richards|1995|p=252}}

Aurangzeb is considered the most controversial Mughal emperor,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=225}} with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society,<ref name="Berndl" /> while other historians question this, noting that he financed or patronised the building of non-Muslim institutions,<ref name="Copland2013">{{cite book|last1=Copeland|first1=Ian|last2=Mabbett|first2=Ian|last3=Roy|first3=Asim|last4=Brittlebank|first4=Kate|last5=Bowles|first5=Adam|title=A History of State and Religion in India|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-415-58066-3|pages=118, 119, 154|quote=(p. 154) Even Aurengzeb, stereotyped in the popular imagination a staunch Islamic revivalist with deep anti-Hindu inclinations, was, as we demonstrated in Chapter 5, as much a sponsor of temples as a destroyer of them, and, when required, a patron of Brahmans besides (p. 119) ... the same applied to the issue of temple destruction. ... such acts of this nature occurred during the era of the Sultanate were carried out for reasons of political expediency, not as a result of religious zeal, and this was also the case under the Mughals. Even Aurengzeb, infamous in the old historiography as a destroyer of temples actually built many more temples than he destroyed. (p. 118) Like most rulers on the subcontinent, the Mughals patronised both Muslim and non-Muslim institutions. They financed the building of mosques and the funding of temples alike.}}</ref> employed significantly more [[Hindus]] in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, and opposed bigotry against Hindus and [[Shia Muslims]].{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=58}}

=== Decline (1707–1857) ===
{{main|Decline of the Mughal Empire}}

[[File:Farrukhsiyar Procession in front of the Great Mosque of Delhi.png|Delhi under the puppet-emperor [[Farrukhsiyar]]. Effective power was held by the [[Sayyid Brothers]].|thumb|left]]

Aurangzeb's son, [[Bahadur Shah I]], repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after he died in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne",<ref name="Berndl" /> as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the [[Islam in India|Indian Muslim]] caste known as the [[Barha Dynasty|Sadaat-e-Bara]], whose leaders, the [[Sayyid Brothers]], became the de facto sovereigns of the empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Audrey Truschke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOcSEAAAQBAJ&dq=sayyid+brothers+figureheads&pg=PT146 |title=the Language of History: Sanskrit Narratives of Indo-Muslim Rule |year=2021 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55195-3 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403222119/https://books.google.com/books?id=rOcSEAAAQBAJ&dq=sayyid+brothers+figureheads&pg=PT146 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Muhammad Yasin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz16lub2uRgC&q=sayyid+barha+brotherhood |title=A Social History of Islamic India, 1605–1748 |year=1958 |publisher=Upper India Publishing House |page=18 |quote=became virtual rulers and 'de facto' sovereigns when they began to make and unmake emperors. They had developed a sort of common brotherhood among themselves |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403224905/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz16lub2uRgC&q=sayyid+barha+brotherhood |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the reign of [[Muhammad Shah]] (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to [[Maratha Confederacy|Maratha]] hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I]] in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Columbia University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqsAgAAQBAJ&dq=nizam+encouraged+marathas+invade+india&pg=PA285 |title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |year=2000 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11004-4 |page=285 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403224905/https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqsAgAAQBAJ&dq=nizam+encouraged+marathas+invade+india&pg=PA285 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Richard M. Eaton |editor-first1=Richard M. |editor-first2=Munis D. |editor-first3=David |editor-first4=Sunil |editor-last1=Eaton |editor-last2=Faruqui |editor-last3=Gilmartin |editor-last4=Kumar |title=Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History Essays in Honour of John F. Richards |year=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=21 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781107300002 |isbn=978-1-107-03428-0 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/expanding-frontiers-in-south-asian-and-world-history/6A9546851A81FD60D6641F75F60956DD |quote="I consider all this army (Marathas) as my own.....I will enter into an understanding with them and entrust the Mulukgiri(raiding) on that side of the Narmada to them."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pagadi |first=Setu Madhavarao |author-link=Setumadhavarao Pagadi |title=Maratha-Nizam Relations : Nizam-Ul-Mulk's Letters |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=51 |issue=1/4 |year=1970 |page=94 |quote=The Mughal court was hostile to Nizam-ul-Mulk..... Nizam did not interfere with the Maratha activities in Malwa and Gujarat.....Nizam-ul-Mulk considered the Maratha army...|url=https://archive.org/details/maratha-nizam-relations-nizam-ul-mulk-s-letters}}</ref> The [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|Indian campaign]] of [[Nader Shah]], who had previously reestablished [[Afsharid Iran|Iranian]] [[suzerainty]] over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the [[Sack of Delhi]] shattering the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, and taking off all the accumulated Mughal treasury. The Mughals could no longer finance the huge armies with which they had formerly enforced their rule. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms.<ref>{{cite book|author=Salma Ahmed Farooqui|date=2011|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-eighteenth Century|publisher=Pearson Education India |location= |page=309 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&q=Mughal+empire+got+reduced+to+a+small+kingdom |access-date= |isbn=978-8131732021 |issn= |oclc=|quote=Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion of independence had spread to other part of the empire too, and the governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh soon established independent kingdoms as well.}}</ref> But lip service continued to be paid to the Mughal Emperor as the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.<ref name="MSA2">{{Cite book |last1=Bose |first1=Sugata |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |last2=Jalal |first2=Ayesha |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-203-71253-5 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose/page/41 41] |author-link=Sugata Bose |author-link2=Ayesha Jalal |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during conflicts such as the [[Carnatic wars]] and [[Bengal War]].{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

[[File:Joppen map-India in 1751 published 1907 by Longmans.jpg|thumb|right|The remnants of the empire in 1751]]
The Mughal Emperor [[Shah Alam II]] (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline. [[Sack of Delhi (1757)|Delhi was sacked]] by the Afghans, and when the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] was fought between the Maratha Empire and the [[Durrani Empire|Afghans]] (led by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]) in 1761, in which the Afghans were victorious, the emperor had ignominiously taken temporary refuge with the British to the east. In 1771, the Marathas [[Capture of Delhi (1771)|recaptured Delhi]] from the [[Kingdom of Rohilkhand|Rohillas]], and in 1784 the Marathas officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi,<ref name="Rathod1994">{{Cite book |last=Rathod |first=N.G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&pg=PA8 |title=The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=1994 |isbn=978-81-85431-52-9 |location=New Delhi |page=8}}</ref> a state of affairs that continued until the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]]. Thereafter, the [[British East India Company]] became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi.<ref name="MSA2" /> The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of the British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] which he nominally led, the last Mughal emperor, [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]], was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858 to [[Rangoon]], Burma.<ref name="Conermann2015">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mughal Empire |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online |year=2015 |last=Conermann |first=Stephan |publisher=Brill |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EMHO/COM-024206.xml?rskey=YrXHKP |access-date=2022-03-28 |doi=10.1163/2352-0272_emho_COM_024206|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:Portrait of Bahadur Shah II as calligrapher. Delhi, ca. 1850, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. - копия.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Portrait of [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]]]]

=== Causes of decline ===
Historians have offered numerous accounts of the several factors involved in the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. A succession of short-lived incompetent and weak rulers, and civil wars over the succession, created political instability at the centre. The Mughals appeared virtually unassailable during the 17th century, but, once gone, their [[imperial overstretch]] became clear, and the situation could not be recovered. The seemingly innocuous European trading companies, such as the [[British East Indies Company]], played no real part in the initial decline; they were still racing to get permission from the Mughal rulers to establish trades and factories in India.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kirsten McKenzie |author2=Robert Aldrich |title=The Routledge History of Western Empires |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781317999874 |page=333 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qFRJAgAAQBAJ |access-date=14 March 2024 |language=En |format=ebook}}</ref>

In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities and made their deals with local men of influence. The imperial army bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]], and lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of [[Farrukhsiyar|Emperor Farrukhsiyar]] in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richards |first=J.F. |year=1981 |title=Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=285–308 |doi=10.1017/s0010417500013311 |jstor=178737 |s2cid=154809724}}</ref>

== Administration and state ==
{{Main|Government of the Mughal Empire}}

[[File:Joppen map-India in 1605 published 1907 by Longmans.jpg|thumb|right|India in 1605 and the end of emperor Akbar's reign; the map shows the different [[subah]]s, or provinces, of his administration.]]
The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.<ref name="Robinson2009">{{Citation |last=Robinson |first=Francis |title=Mughal Empire |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0549 |year=2009 |access-date=2022-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329002419/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0549 |url-status=live |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="EI2">{{Citation |last1=Burton-Page |first1=J. |title=Mug̲h̲als |date=2012-04-24 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-COM_0778 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=2nd |access-date=2022-03-31 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0778 |last2=Islam |first2=Riazul |last3=Athar Ali |first3=M. |last4=Moosvi |first4=Shireen |last5=Moreland |first5=W. H. |last6=Bosworth |first6=C. E. |last7=Schimmel |first7=Annemarie |last8=Koch |first8=Ebba |last9=Hall |first9=Margaret |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331173633/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-COM_0778 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry, headed by an official called a ''[[Divan|diwan]]'', was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled ''[[mir bakhshi]]'', who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the ''[[mansabdari]]'' system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the ''sadr as-sudr,'' who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works, headed by the ''mir saman''. Of these ministers, the ''diwan'' held the most importance, and typically acted as the ''[[Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire|wazir]]'' (prime minister) of the empire.<ref name="Conermann2015" /><ref name="Robinson2009" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gladden |first=E.N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgGaDwAAQBAJ |title=A History of Public Administration Volume II: From the Eleventh Century to the Present Day |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-42321-5 |pages=234–236}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
[[File:A moderate-sized scan of the map.jpg|thumb|[[Ain-i-Akbari]] Subah, by Wilkinson, 1815]]
The empire was divided into ''[[Subah]]'' (provinces), each of which was headed by a provincial governor called a ''[[Subahdar|subadar]].'' The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each ''suba'' had its own ''[[Bakhshi (Mughal Empire)|bakhshi]]'', ''sadr as-sudr'', and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the ''subahdar''. ''Subas'' were subdivided into administrative units known as ''[[Sarkar (administrative division)|sarkars]],'' which were further divided into groups of villages known as ''[[pargana]]s''. The Mughal government in the ''pargana'' consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector.<ref name="Conermann2015" /><ref name="Robinson2009" /> ''Parganas'' were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Michael |first=Bernardo A. |title=Statemaking and Territory in South Asia |year=2012 |page=67 |publisher=Anthem Press |doi=10.7135/upo9780857285324.005 |isbn=978-0-85728-532-4}}</ref>

Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example, a ''sarkar'' could turn into a ''subah'', and ''Parganas'' were often transferred between ''sarkars''. The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography—the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps were not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, to assess the territory's capacity for revenue, based on simpler land surveys.<ref>{{cite book |last=Michael |first=Bernardo A. |title=Statemaking and Territory in South Asia |year=2012 |pages=69, 75, 77–78 |publisher=Anthem Press |doi=10.7135/upo9780857285324.005 |isbn=978-0-85728-532-4}}</ref>

=== Capitals ===
The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established throughout their rule. These were the cities of [[Agra]], [[Delhi]], [[Lahore]], and [[Fatehpur Sikri]]. Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals.{{sfn|Sinopoli|1994|pp=294–295}} Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal.{{sfn|Sinopoli|1994|pp=304–305}} Situations where two simultaneous capitals existed happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to [[Aurangabad]] in the [[Deccan]].{{sfn|Sinopoli|1994|pp=294–295}} [[Kabul]] was the [[summer capital]] of Mughals from 1526 to 1681.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Samrin |first=Farah |year=2005 |title=The City of Kabul Under the Mughals |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145943 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=66 |page=1307 |jstor=44145943 |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=29 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629170711/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145943 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance were carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.{{sfn|Sinopoli|1994|pp=296 & 298}}

After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of [[Shahjahanabad]] (Old Delhi).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |title=Historic cities of the Islamic world |year=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15388-2 |page=127 |oclc=231801473}}</ref>

=== Law ===
[[File:Police Chuprasi, Delhi.png|Police in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II, 1842|thumb]]
The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved throughout the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed ''[[fiqh]]'' (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the ''[[qadi]]'' (judge), ''[[mufti]]'' (jurisconsult), and ''[[muhtasib]]'' (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.<ref name="Chatterjee2019">{{Citation |last=Chatterjee |first=Nandini |title=Courts of law, Mughal |date=2019-12-01 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_25171 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |access-date=2021-12-13 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_com_25171 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213060747/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_25171 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Scholar Mouez Khalfaoui notes that legal institutions in the Mughal Empire systemically suffered from the corruption of local judges.<ref name="Khalfaoui" />

==== Legal ideology ====
The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni [[Hanafi]] system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the ''[[al-Hidayah]]'' (the best guidance) and the ''Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya'' (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the ''[[Fatawa 'Alamgiri]]'' was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.<ref name="Khalfaoui">{{Cite web |last=Khalfaoui |first=Mouez |title=Mughal Empire and Law |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t349/e0066 |website=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213062301/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t349/e0066 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Mughal Empire also drew on Persian notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.<ref name="Chatterjee2019" />

==== Courts of law ====
Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal Empire. One such court was that of the ''qadi''. The Mughal ''qadi'' was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The ''qadi'' also had additional importance in documents, as the seal of the ''qadi'' was required to validate deeds and tax records. ''Qadis'' did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the ''[[pargana]]'' (district) ''qadi''. More prestigious positions were those of the ''qadi al-quddat'' (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the ''qadi-yi lashkar'' (judge of the army).<ref name="Chatterjee2019" /> ''Qadis'' were usually appointed by the emperor or the ''sadr-us-sudr'' (chief of charities).<ref name="Chatterjee2019" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Conermann |first=Stephan |title=Mughal Empire |date=2015-08-04 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-early-modern-history-online/*-COM_024206 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online |access-date=2022-03-25 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/2352-0272_emho_com_024206 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326064353/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-early-modern-history-online/*-COM_024206 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The jurisdiction of the ''qadi'' was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=Nandini |year=2014 |title=Reflections on Religious Difference and Permissive Inclusion in Mughal Law |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jlr.2014.20 |journal=Journal of Law and Religion |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=396–415 |doi=10.1017/jlr.2014.20 |issn=0748-0814 |s2cid=143513602 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/15975 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034448/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-law-and-religion/article/abs/reflections-on-religious-difference-and-permissive-inclusion-in-mughal-law/88E6D627704E165E241C0D3C165E3FDA |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The ''[[jagirdar]]'' (local tax collector) was another kind of official approach, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials, who held more authority and punitive power than the local ''qadi''. Such officials included the ''[[kotwal]]'' (local police), the ''[[faujdar]]'' (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the ''[[subahdar]]'' (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor dispensed justice directly.<ref name="Chatterjee2019" /> Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the [[Agra Fort]] that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |author-link=Richard M. Eaton |title=India in the Persianate Age : 1000–1765 |publisher=University of California Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-520-97423-4 |page=272 |oclc=1243310832}}</ref>

Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how ''[[panchayats]]'' (village councils) operated in the Mughal era.<ref name="Chatterjee2019" />

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of the Mughal Empire}}

The Mughal economy was large and prosperous.<ref name="Schmidt2015">{{Cite book |last=Schmidt |first=Karl J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-47681-8 |pages=100– |access-date=9 August 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034442/https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Maddison2003">{{Cite book |last=Maddison |first=Angus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA256 |title=Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-92-64-10414-3 |pages=256– |author-link=Angus Maddison |access-date=9 August 2017 |archive-date=20 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120082500/https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA256 |url-status=live }}</ref> India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750.<ref name="Williamson">[[Jeffrey G. Williamson]] & David Clingingsmith, [http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329075904/http://www.lse.ac.uk/economicHistory/Research/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Conf7_Williamson.pdf |date=29 March 2017 }}, Global Economic History Network, [[London School of Economics]]</ref><ref name="Maddison2003" /> Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of [[proto-industrialisation]], like that of 18th-century Western Europe before the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name="voss" />

Modern historians and researchers generally agree that the character of the Mughal Empire's economic policy resembles the [[laissez-faire]] system in dealing with trade and billions to achieve the economic ends.{{sfn|J.J.L. Gommans|2002|p=75}}{{sfn|Streusand|2018|p="...Mughal rulers pursued a more laissez-faire economic approach, benefiting from the prosperity of..."}}<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=A. Bayly |editor1-first=C. |editor2-last=Fibiger Bang |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Scheidel |editor3-first=Walter |title=The Oxford World History of Empire Volume Two: The History of Empires |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780197532775 |page=775 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GkLEAAAQBAJ |access-date=18 April 2024 |language=En}}</ref>{{sfn|Ali|2008}}

The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system and creating a uniform currency.{{sfn|Richards|1995|pp=185–204}} The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a [[public works]] department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.<ref name="Schmidt2015" />

The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.<ref name="Stein2010-3" /><ref name="AsherTalbot2006-1" /> These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,<ref name="Stein2010-4" /> were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=152–}} and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006-3" /> In circa 1595, Modern historians estimated the state's annual revenues of the Mughal Empire were around 99,000,000 rupees.{{sfn|Jorge Flores|2015|p=73}}

=== Coinage ===
{{Main|Mughal currency}}

[[File:Coin of Aurangzeb, minted in Kabul.jpg|thumb|right|Coin of Aurangzeb, minted in Kabul, dated 1691/2.]]
The Mughals adopted and standardised the [[rupee]] (''rupiya'', or silver) and [[Dam (Indian coin)|dam]] (copper) currencies introduced by [[Sur Empire|Sur]] Emperor [[Sher Shah Suri]] during his brief rule.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Picture of original Mughal ''rupiya'' introduced by Sher Shah Suri |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021005231609/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |archive-date=5 October 2002 |access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref> The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without [[debasement]] until the 1720s.<ref name="Richards2003">{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i85noYD9C0EC&pg=PA27 |title=The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World |publisher=University of California Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-93935-6 |pages=27– |author-link=John F. Richards |access-date=9 August 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034459/https://books.google.com/books?id=i85noYD9C0EC&pg=PA27 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Despite India having its stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own but mostly minted coins from imported [[bullion]], as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of [[precious metal]]s into India.{{sfn|Richards|1995}}

=== Labour ===
The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century [[British India]], where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy.{{sfn|Moosvi|2015|p=433}} In terms of the urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maddison |first=Angus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UOKB3RwDQIC&pg=PA33 |title=Class Structure and Economic Growth: India and Pakistan Since the Moghuls |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-415-38259-5 |page=33 |author-link=Angus Maddison |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035024/https://books.google.com/books?id=7UOKB3RwDQIC&pg=PA33 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century.{{sfn|Moosvi|2015|p=432}} This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910.{{sfn|Moosvi|2015|p=450}} However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for [[manual labour]].<ref name="moosvi" /> While [[slavery]] also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.<ref name="moosvi">{{Cite journal |last=Moosvi |first=Shireen |date=December 2011 |title=The World of Labour in Mughal India (c. 1500–1750) |journal=International Review of Social History |volume=56 |issue=S19 |pages=245–261 |doi=10.1017/S0020859011000526 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and [[barley]], and non-food [[cash crop]]s such as cotton, [[Indigofera tinctoria|indigo]] and [[opium]]. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.<ref name="Schmidt2015" />

The Mughal administration emphasised the [[agrarian reform]] that began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised hierarchically based on merit, with promotions based on performance.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pagaza |first1=Ignacio |title=Winning the Needed Change: Saving Our Planet Earth |last2=Argyriades |first2=Demetrios |publisher=IOS Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-58603-958-5 |page=129}}</ref> The Mughal government funded the building of [[irrigation]] systems across the empire, which produced much higher [[crop yield]]s and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.<ref name="Schmidt2015" />

A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called ''zabt''. He replaced the [[tribute]] system, previously common in India and used by [[Tokugawa Japan]] at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency.<ref name="Richards2003" /> The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, [[sugar cane]], tree crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.{{sfn|Richards|1995}} Under the ''zabt'' system, the Mughals also conducted extensive [[cadastral surveying]] to assess the area of land under [[plough]] cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation.<ref name="Richards2003" /> The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors, including Aurangzeb.<ref name="Ludden96">{{Cite book |last=Ludden |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eHi62S7vZlsC&pg=PA96 |title=An Agrarian History of South Asia |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-36424-9 |page=96 |access-date=29 April 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034936/https://books.google.com/books?id=eHi62S7vZlsC&pg=PA96 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the [[seed drill]] among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe.{{sfn|Habib|Kumar|Raychaudhuri|1987|p=214}} Geared sugar [[Roller mill|rolling mills]] first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as [[worm gear]]ing, by the 17th century.<ref>[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', p. 53] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034936/https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 |date=22 September 2023 }}, [[Pearson Education]]</ref>

=== Industrial manufacturing ===
{{see|Mughal Karkhanas}}
South Asia during the Mughal's rule was a very fertile ground for manufacturing technologies coveted by the Europeans before the [[Industrial Revolution]].{{sfn|Andrew de la Garza|2016|pp=114-115}} Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output.<ref name="williamson">{{Cite web |last=[[Jeffrey G. Williamson]], David Clingingsmith |date=August 2005 |title=India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries |url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf |access-date=18 May 2017 |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |archive-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213044056/http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Manufactured goods]] and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world.<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of [[proto-industrialisation]], similar to 18th-century Western Europe before the Industrial Revolution.<ref name="voss">{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |title=The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7546-6428-4 |editor-last=Lex Heerma van Voss |page=255 |chapter=The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India |author-link=Tirthankar Roy |editor-last2=Els Hiemstra-Kuperus |editor-last3=Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255 |access-date=15 August 2017 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702121931/https://books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In [[early modern Europe]], there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, [[indigo]], silks, and [[saltpetre]] (for use in [[munitions]]).<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> [[1650–1700 in Western European fashion|European fashion]], for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks.<ref name="Prakash">[[Om Prakash (historian)|Om Prakash]], "[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 Empire, Mughal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051038/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=WHIC&u=seat24826&id=GALE%7B%7B%21%7D%7DCX3447600139&v=2.1&it=r&asid=6b597320 |date=18 November 2022 }}", ''History of World Trade Since 1450'', edited by [[John J. McCusker]], vol. 1, Macmillan Reference US, 2006, pp. 237–240, ''World History in Context''. Retrieved 3 August 2017</ref>

==== Textile industry ====
{{See also|Muslin trade in Bengal|Mughal clothing}}
[[File:Renaldis muslin woman.jpg|thumb|Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah, painted in Dacca, 18th century.]]

The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was [[textile manufacturing]], particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of [[piece goods]], [[calico]]s, and [[muslin]]s. The cotton [[textile industry]] was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century,<ref>[[Angus Maddison]] (1995), ''Monitoring the World Economy, 1820–1992'', [[OECD]], p. 30</ref> and it represented the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century.<ref name="Parthasarathi">{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |page=2 |year=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi}}</ref> The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of [[Dhaka]].<ref name="Eaton">Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA202 ''The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760'', p. 202] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404212612/https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA202 |date=4 April 2023 }}, [[University of California Press]]</ref>

The production of cotton was advanced by the diffusion of the [[spinning wheel]] across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the [[spinning wheel]] and the incorporation of the [[worm gear]] and [[Crank (mechanism)|crank]] handle into the roller [[cotton gin]] led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.<ref>[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA54 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', p. 54] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035433/https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA54 |date=22 September 2023 }}, [[Pearson Education]]</ref>

=== Bengal Subah ===
{{Main|Bengal Subah}}

{{See also|Muslin trade in Bengal}}
[[File:Boro Katra 4 by Ashif Siddique.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Bara Katra|Great Caravanserai]] in [[Dhaka]]]]

The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |author-link=Tirthankar Roy |date=November 2011 |title=Where is Bengal? Situating an Indian Region in the Early Modern World Economy |journal=Past & Present |issue=213 |pages=115–146 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtr009}}</ref> Historian [[C. A. Bayly]] wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayly |first=C. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&pg=PA51 |title=Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-521-38650-0 |series=The New Cambridge History of India |volume=II.1 |page=51 |author-link=Christopher Bayly |access-date=8 February 2023 |archive-date=8 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208030846/https://books.google.com/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC&pg=PA51 |url-status=live }}</ref> Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium.<ref name="Prakash" /> The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.<ref name="Nanda-2005">{{Cite book |last=Nanda |first=J. N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsV3cYAvGEEC |title=Bengal: The Unique State |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=2005 |page=10 |isbn=978-81-8069-149-2 |access-date=5 May 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035433/https://books.google.com/books?id=HsV3cYAvGEEC |url-status=live }}</ref>

After 150 years of rule by Mughal [[viceroy]]s, Bengal gained de facto independence as a dominion under [[Murshid Quli Khan]], the first [[Nawab of Bengal]] in 1717.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nitish K |first=Sengupta |title=Land of Two Rivers A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=9780143416784 |publication-date=2011 |pages=16}}</ref> The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, which regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade.<ref name="Nanda-2005" />

==== Shipbuilding industry ====
Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.<ref name="ray174">{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Indrajit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHOrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 |title=Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-136-82552-1 |pages=174}}</ref> He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.<ref name="ray174" />

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Demographics of India#History}}

=== Population ===
India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60%<ref name="mcevedy184">{{Cite book |last1=Colin McEvedy |url=http://www.arabgeographers.net/up/uploads/14299936761.pdf#page=92 |title=Atlas of World Population History |last2=Richard Jones |year=1978 |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |location=New York |pages=184–185 |author-link=Colin McEvedy |access-date=7 August 2017 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112011124/http://www.arabgeographers.net/up/uploads/14299936761.pdf#page=92 |url-status=live }}</ref> to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700.<ref name="maddison236">[[Angus Maddison]] (2001), ''[[The World Economy: Historical Statistics|The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective]]'', [http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=237 p. 236] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111170118/http://theunbrokenwindow.com/Development/MADDISON%20The%20World%20Economy--A%20Millennial.pdf#page=237 |date=11 November 2020 }}, [[OECD Development Centre]]</ref> The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in [[Indian history]] before the Mughal era.<ref name="Maddison2003" /><ref name="mcevedy184" /> By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.{{sfn|Habib|Kumar|Raychaudhuri|1987|p=170}}

The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of South Asia including the regions of modern [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]], and compared to the [[world population]]:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" style="text-align: left;" | Year
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Mughal Empire population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | Total Indian population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | % of South Asian population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | World population
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number" | % of world population
|-
| 1500
| style="text-align: right;" | —
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:100000000}}<ref name="mcevedy184" />
| style="text-align: right;" | —
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:425000000}}<ref name="Biraben" />
| style="text-align: right;" | —
|-
| 1600
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:115000000}}{{sfn|Habib|Kumar|Raychaudhuri|1987|p=170}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:130000000}}<ref name="mcevedy184" />
| style="text-align: right;" | 89
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:579000000}}<ref name="Biraben">Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13</ref>
| style="text-align: right;" | 20
|-
| 1700
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:158400000}}<ref name="borocz">{{Cite book |last=József Böröcz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0SPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |title=The European Union and Global Social Change |year=2009 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-25580-0 |page=21 |author-link=József Böröcz |access-date=26 June 2017}}</ref>
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:160000000}}<ref name="mcevedy184" />
| style="text-align: right;" | 99
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:679000000}}<ref name="Biraben" />
| style="text-align: right;" | 23
|}

There was a notable presence of the [[Jewish]] [[diaspora]] in the Mughal empire. The Jewish community in the empire engaged in trading jewelry and precious stones.<ref name="IshratAlam">{{cite journal
|author= Ishrat Alam |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44144741
|title= Jewish Merchants In The Mughal Empire
|year=2004
|journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress
|volume= 65
|pages=267–275
|jstor=44144741
|access-date=18 August 2025
}}</ref> [[Sarmad Kashani]] engaged in religious activities in the Mughal court.<ref name="Fischel">{{cite journal
|author= Walter Joseph Fischel |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3622197
|title= Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India
|year=1948
|journal= Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research
|volume= 18
|pages=139-140, 151-152, 159-161
|access-date=18 August 2025
|doi= 10.2307/3622197
|jstor=3622197
|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Urbanisation ===
According to [[Irfan Habib]], cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanisation for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres.<ref name="Eraly2007">{{Cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpa8gyGW_twC&pg=PA5 |title=The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-14-310262-5 |pages=5– |author-link=Abraham Eraly}}</ref> This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of [[British Raj|British India]] in the 19th century;<ref name="Eraly2007" /> the level of urbanisation in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malanima |first=Paolo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1Ej4VEPwSgC&pg=PA244 |title=Pre-Modern European Economy: One Thousand Years (10th–19th Centuries) |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-04-17822-9 |page=244 |author-link=Paolo Malanima}}</ref>

Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population,{{sfn|Habib|Kumar|Raychaudhuri|1987|p=170}} while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era.{{sfn|Habib|Kumar|Raychaudhuri|1987|p=165}} By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Broadberry |first1=Stephen |last2=Gupta |first2=Bishnupriya |year=2010 |title=Indian GDP before 1870: Some preliminary estimates and a comparison with Britain |url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/sbroadberry/wp/indiangdppre1870v4.pdf#page=23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111210739/https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/sbroadberry/wp/indiangdppre1870v4.pdf#page=23 |archive-date=11 November 2020 |access-date=12 October 2015 |publisher=[[Warwick University]] |page=23}}</ref>

Those estimates were criticised by [[Tim Dyson]], who considers them exaggerations. According to Dyson, urbanisation of the Mughal Empire was less than 9%.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |year=2018 |pages=63–65}}</ref>

The historian [[Nizamuddin Ahmad]] (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships.<ref name="Eraly2007" /> Several cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people,<ref name="Eraly2007" /> with larger cities including [[Agra]] (in [[Agra Subah]]) with up to 800,000 people, [[Lahore]] (in [[Lahore Subah]]) with up to 700,000 people,{{sfn|Habib|Kumar|Raychaudhuri|1987|p=171}} [[Dhaka]] (in [[Bengal Subah]]) with over 1 million people,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rob |first1=Md. Abdur |last2=Asaduzzaman |first2=Md. |date=December 1997 |title=Historical Growth of Urbanization in Dhaka City |journal=Social Science Review |publisher=[[Dhaka University]] |volume=14 |issue=2 |page=126}}</ref> and Delhi (in [[Delhi Subah]]) with over 600,000 people.<ref name="Moosvi2008">{{Cite book |last=Moosvi |first=Shireen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhpuAAAAMAAJ |title=People, Taxation, and Trade in Mughal India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-569315-7 |page=131}}</ref>

Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures.<ref name="Schmidt2015" /> However, several cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.<ref name="Chaudhuri2008">{{Cite journal |last=Chaudhuri |first=K. N. |year=2008 |title=Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00008155 |s2cid=146558617 |issn=0026-749X}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{See also|Indo-Persian culture||}}
[[File:Mushafi-ghulam-hamdani.png|thumb|250px|[[Ghulam Hamdani Mushafi]], the poet first believed to have coined the name "''Urdu''" around 1780 AD for a language that went by a multiplicity of names before his time.<ref>{{cite book |last=Faruqi |first=Shamsur Rahman |author-link=Shamsur Rahman Faruqi |editor-last=Pollock |editor-first=Sheldon |editor-link=Sheldon Pollock|chapter=A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 1 |title=Literary Cultures in History |year=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |page=806 |isbn=0-520-22821-9}}</ref>]]

Generally, classical historiographies depicted the Mughal Empire's origin as a sedentarised agrarian society. However, modern historians such as [[André Wink]], [[Jos J. L. Gommans]], [[Anatoly Khazanov]], Thomas J. Barfield, and others, argued the Mughals originated from nomadic culture.{{sfn|Kaushik Roy|Peter Lorge|2014|p=146}} [[Pius Malekandathil]] argued instead that although it was true that the Mughal had their origin as nomadic civilisation, they became more sendentarised as time passed, as exemplified by their military tradition.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Pius Malekandathil |author1-link=Pius Malekandathil |title=The Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1351997454 |page=194 |edition=Illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WEPDQAAQBAJ |access-date=19 July 2024 |quote=...Mughal army shed most of its post-nomadic...}}</ref> The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early-modern and modern periods of South Asian history, with its legacy in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as:

[[File:Mir Taqi Mir 1786.jpg|thumb|Mir Taqi Mir, an Urdu poet of the 18th century Mughal Empire]]

[[File:Taj mahal (1870s).jpg|thumb|The Taj Mahal in the 1870s]]
* Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mughal Empire – MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564252/mughal_empire.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028022520/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564252/Mughal_Empire.html |archive-date=28 October 2009}}</ref>
* The amalgamation of [[Persian art]] and literature with [[Indian art]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indo-Persian Literature Conference: SOAS: North Indian Literary Culture (1450–1650) |url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/southasia/research/nilc/indopersian/ |access-date=28 November 2012 |website=SOAS |archive-date=23 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923222924/http://www.soas.ac.uk/southasia/research/nilc/indopersian/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Badshahi Mosque, Lahore. King's Mosque.jpg|thumb|Badshahi Mosque, [[Lahore, Punjab]], Pakistan]]
* The development of [[Mughlai cuisine]], an amalgamation of South Asian, Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles.
* The development of [[Mughal clothing]], jewellery and fashion, utilising richly decorated fabrics such as muslin, silk, brocade and velvet.
* The influence of the Persian language over [[Old Hindi]] led to the development of the [[Hindustani language]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s) |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml |access-date=10 June 2018 |website=Religions |publisher=BBC |archive-date=13 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813212912/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The introduction of sophisticated Iranian-style waterworks and horticulture through [[Mughal gardens|Mughal gardening]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fatma |first=Sadaf |year=2012 |title=Waterworks in Mughal Gardens |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=73 |pages=1268–1278 |jstor=44156328}}</ref>
* The introduction of [[Turkish bath]]s into the Indian subcontinent.
* The evolution and refinement of [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] and [[Indian architecture]], and, in turn, the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture. A famous Mughal landmark is the [[Taj Mahal]].
* The development of the [[Pehlwani]] style of [[Indian wrestling]], a combination of Indian [[malla-yuddha]] and Persian [[varzesh-e bastani]].<ref name="Alter1992a">{{Cite journal |last=Alter |first=Joseph S. |date=May 1992 |title=The ''sannyasi'' and the Indian Wrestler: The Anatomy of a Relationship |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=317–336 |doi=10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070 |issn=0094-0496}}</ref><ref name="Alter1992b">{{Cite book |last=Alter |first=Joseph S. |url=https://archive.org/details/wrestlersbodyide00alte |title=The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-07697-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/wrestlersbodyide00alte/page/n1 2] |quote=Wrestling in modern India is a synthesis of two different traditions: the Persian form of the art brought into South Asia by the Moguls, and an indigenous Hindu form. |author-link=Joseph Alter |url-access=limited}}</ref>
* The construction of [[Maktab (education)|Maktab]] schools, where youth were taught the [[Quran]] and [[Sharia|Islamic law]] such as the ''[[Fatawa 'Alamgiri]]'' in their indigenous languages.
* The development of [[Hindustani classical music]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 February 2000 |title=Mughal influence on Indian music |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/mughal-influence-on-indian-music/article28000731.ece |access-date=5 April 2019 |archive-date=26 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226071050/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/mughal-influence-on-indian-music/article28000731.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> and instruments such as the [[sitar]].

[[File:Fatehput Sikiri Buland Darwaza gate 2010.jpg|thumb|[[Buland Darwaza]] in Fatehpur Sikiri, Agra, India]]

=== Customs ===
The procession of marriage among the royals of the Mughal Empire was recorded with many reports of extravagant gifts. One occasion was during the marriage of a son of emperor [[Akbar]], [[Jahangir|Salim]], with the daughter of a ruler of [[Bijapur]], [[Bhagwant Das|Raja Bhagwant Das]], where the gift presented by Bhagwant Das consisted of many horses, 100 elephants, many male and female slaves of [[Habesha peoples|Abyssinian]], Caucasian, and native Indian origins, who brought with them various gold and silver utensils as [[dowry]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Harbans Mukhia |author1-link=Harbans Mukhia |title=The Mughals of India |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470758151 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxHTBQAAQBAJ |access-date=11 July 2024 |language=En}}</ref>

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Mughal architecture|Yakhchāl}}

The Mughals made a major contribution to the [[Indian subcontinent]] with the development of their distinctive architectural style. This style was derived from earlier [[Indo-Islamic architecture]] as well as from [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]] and [[Architecture of Central Asia|Central Asian]] architecture (particularly [[Timurid architecture]]), while incorporating further influences from [[Hindu architecture]].<ref name="Petersen1996">{{Cite book |last=Petersen |first=Andrew |title=Dictionary of Islamic architecture |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781134613663 |location= |pages=199–205 |chapter=Mughals}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Asher |first=Catherine Blanshard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ctLNvx68hIC&pg=PA349 |title=Architecture of Mughal India |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=9780521267281 |series=The New Cambridge History of India, Part I |volume=4 |pages=1–2, 15–17 |language=en}}</ref> [[Mughal architecture]] is distinguished, among other things, by [[Onion dome|bulbous domes]], [[Pointed arch|ogive arches]], carefully-composed and polished façades, and the use of hard red sandstone and marble as construction materials.<ref name="Petersen1996" /><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |volume=1 |location= |pages=182 |language=en |chapter=Architecture |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref>

Furthermore, [[William Dalrymple]] mentioned that during the final days of the Mughal [[Siege of Delhi|fall of Delhi]] in 1857, an [[Ice house (building)|ice house]] structure existed in Delhi.<ref>{{cite book |author1=William Dalrymple |author1-link=William Dalrymple |title=The Last Mughal: The Fall of Delhi, 1857 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1408806883 |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYW5J-jQn8QC |access-date=23 July 2024 |quote=... Ice House in which Zahir was sheltering...}}</ref> Emperor Shah Jahan has recorded establishing an ice-house in [[Sirmaur district|Sirmaur]], north of Delhi.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Keshavlal H. Kamdar |title=History of the Mughal Rule in India, 1526-1761 |year=1933 |publisher=M. C. Kothari |page=141 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pA4dAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 August 2024}}</ref>

Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially [[Shah Jahan]], including the [[Taj Mahal]]—a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage",<ref name="Centre">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/|title=Taj Mahal|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=7 May 2020|archive-date=1 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201133603/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252|url-status=live}}</ref> attracting 7–8 million unique visitors a year. The palaces, tombs, [[Mughal garden|gardens]] and forts built by the dynasty stand today in [[Agra]], [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]], [[Delhi]], [[Dhaka]], [[Fatehpur Sikri]], [[Jaipur]], [[Lahore]], [[Kabul]], [[Sheikhupura]], and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ross Marlay |title=Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders |last2=Clark D. Neher |year=1999 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-8442-7 |page=269}}</ref> such as:[[File:1. লালবাগের কেল্লা.jpg|thumb|[[Lalbagh Fort]] aerial view in Dhaka, Bangladesh]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!India
!Pakistan
!Bangladesh
!Afghanistan
|-
|valign=top|
* [[Taj Mahal]] in Agra, India
* [[Agra Fort]] in Agra, India
* [[Buland Darwaza]] in Agra, India
* [[Akbar's tomb]] in Sikandra, India
* [[Tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani]] in Sikandra, India
* [[Humayun's Tomb]] in Delhi, India
* [[Jama Masjid, Delhi|Jama Masjid]] in Delhi, India
* [[Red Fort]] in Delhi, India
* [[Sunder Nursery]] in Delhi, India
* [[Purana Qila]] in Delhi, India
* [[Sher Mandal]] in Delhi, India
* [[Pinjore Gardens]] in Pinjore, India
* [[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]] in Srinagar, India
* [[Nishat Bagh]] in Srinagar, India
* [[Chashme Shahi|Chasma Shahi]] in Srinagar, India
* [[Pari Mahal]] in Srinagar, India
* [[Verinag]] Gardens in Srinagar, India
* [[Allahabad Fort]] in Prayagraj, India
* [[Shahi Bridge]] in Jaunpur, India
* [[Bibi Ka Maqbara]] in Aurangabad, India
* [[Kos Minar]] in Haryana, India
* Baoli Ghaus Ali Shah in Farrukhnagar, India
|valign=top|
* [[Badshahi Mosque|Badshahi Masjid]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalimar Gardens]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Lahore Fort]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Shahi Hammam]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Wazir Khan Mosque]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Tomb of Jahangir]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Tomb of Anarkali]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Tomb of Nur Jahan]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Tomb of Asif Khan]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Begum Shahi Mosque]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Akbari Sarai]] in Lahore, Pakistan
* [[Hiran Minar]] in Sheikhpura, Pakistan
* [[Mahabat Khan Mosque]] in Peshawar, Pakistan
* [[Shahi Eid Gah Mosque]] in Multan, Pakistan
* [[Masum Shah|Mausoleum of Masum Shah]] in Sukkur, Pakistan
* [[Losar Baoli]] in Taxila, Pakistan
* [[Makli Necropolis]] in Thatta, Pakistan
* [[Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta|Shah Jahan Mosque]] in Thatta, Pakistan
|valign=top|
* [[Dhanmondi Shahi Eidgah|Mughal Eidgah]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Lalbagh Fort]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Sylhet Shahi Eidgah|Shahi Eidgah]] in Sylhet, Bangladesh
* [[Mughal Tahakhana]] in Chapai Nawabganj, Bangladesh
* [[Sat Gambuj Mosque]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Masjid-e-Siraj ud-Daulah]] in Chittagong, Bangladesh
* [[Allakuri Mosque|Allakuri Masjid]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Chawk Mosque, Dhaka|Chawkbazar Shahi Masjid]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Laldighi Mosque|Laldighi Masjid]] in Rangpur, Bangladesh
* [[Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque|Khan Mohammad Mridha Masjid]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Wali Khan Mosque|Wali Khan Masjid]] in Chittagong, Bangladesh
* [[Shaista Khan Mosque|Shaista Khan Masjid]], in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Musa Khan Mosque|Musa Khan Masjid]], in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Shahbaz Khan Mosque|Shahbaz Khan Masjid]], in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Kartalab Khan Mosque|Kartalab Khan Masjid]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Azimpur Mosque|Azimpur Masjid]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Goaldi Mosque|Goaldi Masjid]] in Sonargaon, Bangladesh
* [[Atia Mosque|Atia Masjid]] in Tangail, Bangladesh
* [[Arifile Mosque|Arifail Masjid]] in Brahmanbaria, Bangladesh
* [[Bajra Shahi Mosque|Bazra Shahi Masjid]] in Noakhali, Bangladesh
* [[Mosjidkur Mosque|Masjid Kur]] in Khulna, Bangladesh
* [[Nayabad Mosque|Nayabad Masjid]] in Dinajpur, Bangladesh
* [[Ghayebi Dighi Masjid]] in Sylhet, Bangladesh
* [[Hussaini Dalan]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Bara Katra]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Hajiganj Fort]] in Narayanganj, Bangladesh
* [[Idrakpur Fort]] in Munshiganj, Bangladesh
* [[Choto Katra]] in Dhaka, Bangladesh
* [[Sonakanda Fort]] in Narayanganj, Bangladesh
|valign=top|
* [[Gardens of Babur|Bagh-e-Babur]] in Kabul, Afghanistan
* Shahjahani Mosque in Kabul, Afghanistan
|}

=== Art and literature ===
{{Main|Mughal painting|Mughal clothing}}

[[File:Finial in the Form of a Parrot, Mughal empire.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Finial in the form of a parrot, Mughal Empire, 17th century]]
The [[Mughal painting|Mughal artistic tradition]], mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements.<ref>Crill, Rosemary, and Jariwala, Kapil. ''The Indian Portrait, 1560–1860'', pp. 23–27, [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]], London, 2010, {{ISBN|978-1855144095}}; [[Milo Beach|Beach, Milo Cleveland]] (1987), ''Early Mughal painting'', Harvard University Press, pp. 33–37, {{ISBN|978-0-674-22185-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmcoF12hi3AC&pg=PA33 google books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=MmcoF12hi3AC&pg=PA33 |date=26 March 2023 }}</ref> Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soucek |first=Priscilla |year=1987 |title=Persian Artists in Mughal India: Influences and Transformations |journal=Muqarnas |volume=4 |pages=166–181 |doi=10.2307/1523102 |jstor=1523102}}</ref> Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blunt |first=Wilfrid |year=1948 |title=The Mughal Painters of Natural History |journal=The Burlington Magazine |volume=90 |issue=539 |pages=48–50 |jstor=869792}}</ref> For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as [[Ustad Mansur]] to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire.

The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the ''[[Razmnama]]'' (a Persian translation of the Hindu epic, the ''[[Mahabharata]]'') to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the ''[[Baburnama]]'' and ''[[Akbarnama]]'', and ''[[Tuzk-e-Jahangiri]]''. Richly finished albums (''[[muraqqa]]'') decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sardar |first=Marika |date=October 2003 |title=The Art of the Mughals After 1600 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mugh_2/hd_mugh_2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204014635/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mugh_2/hd_mugh_2.htm |archive-date=4 February 2019 |website=The MET}}</ref> Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings.<ref>Losty, J. P. Roy, Malini (eds), ''Mughal India: Art, Culture and Empire'', 2013, pp. 147, 149, British Library, {{ISBN|978-0712358705}}</ref>[[File:India, Mughal, early 17th century - An Illuminated Folio from the Royal Manuscript of the Farhang-i Jahangiri ( - 2013.318.a - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|right|upright|Folio from ''[[Farhang-i-Jahangiri]],'' a Persian dictionary compiled during the Mughal era.]]

=== Language ===
{{Main|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent|Persian and Urdu|Hindustani language}}

Though the Mughals were of [[Turko-Mongol]] origin, their reign enacted the revival and height of the [[Persian language]] in the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 16th-century Turki (Chagatai) was understood by relatively few at court.{{sfn|Seyller|2011|p=329}} Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as an official and courtly language; this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India.<ref>{{Citation |chapter=2. The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan |year=2019 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/9780520926738-007 |title=Literary Cultures in History |pages=158–167 |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.1525/9780520926738-007 |isbn=978-0-520-92673-8 |s2cid=226770775 |access-date=2021-07-26 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035426/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520926738-007/html |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Abidi |first1=S. A. H. |chapter=Persian in South Asia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511619069.007 |title=Language in South Asia |pages=105 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-61906-9 |access-date=2021-07-26 |last2=Gargesh |first2=Ravinder |editor1-first=Braj B |editor1-last=Kachru |editor2-first=Yamuna |editor2-last=Kachru |editor3-first=S. N |editor3-last=Sridhar |year=2008 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511619069.007 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035429/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/language-in-south-asia/persian-in-south-asia/3D0A3CA09533E586A7375FAA51D5BEE8 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Historian [[Muzaffar Alam]] argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching [[Indo-Persian]] political culture, to unite their diverse empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alam |first=Muzaffar |title=The languages of political Islam : India 1200–1800 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-01100-3 |pages=134, 144 |oclc=469379391}}</ref> Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of [[Shah Jahan]], who described it as the language of his ''[[dastan]]s'' (prose romances) and replaced Persian as the informal language of the Muslim elite.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faruqi |first1=Shamsur Rahman |author-link=Shamsur Rahman Faruqi |editor-last=Pollock |editor-first=Sheldon |year=2003 |chapter=A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 1: Naming and Placing a Literary Culture |title=Literary Cultures in History |publisher=University of California Press |pages=807–808, 811 |doi=10.1525/9780520926738-019 |isbn=978-0-520-22821-4 |s2cid=226765648}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Urdu |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |date=6 August 2014 |last=Matthews |first=David |author-link=David Matthews (academic) |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/urdu |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429160516/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/urdu |url-status=live}}</ref> According to contemporary poet [[Mir Taqi Mir]], "Urdu was the language of Hindustan by the authority of the King."<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ6fCwAAQBAJ&dq=sayyids+amroha+court&pg=PT223 |title=Delhi:Pages From a Forgotten History |author=Arthur Dudney |year=2015 |publisher=Hay House |isbn=978-93-84544-31-7 |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=9 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609122644/https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ6fCwAAQBAJ&dq=sayyids+amroha+court&pg=PT223 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Life, Times and Poetry of Mir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W5yfAgAAQBAJ&dq=urdu+authority+of+the+king&pg=PA4 |author=S. R. Sharma · |page=4 |year=2014 |publisher=Partridge Publishing |isbn=978-1-4828-1478-1 |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=16 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716061500/https://books.google.com/books?id=W5yfAgAAQBAJ&dq=urdu+authority+of+the+king&pg=PA4 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2026}}

== Military ==
{{Further|Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal weapons|Mughal artillery}}

=== Gunpowder warfare ===
[[File:Officer of the Mughal Army, c.1585 (colour litho).jpg|thumb|Mughal [[matchlock]] rifle, 16th century]]
{{See also|Gunpowder empires|History of gunpowder#India and the Mughal Empire|l2=History of gunpowder: India and the Mughal Empire}}Mughal India was one of the three Islamic [[gunpowder empires]], along with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Safavid Persia]].<ref name="Hodgson" />{{sfn|Streusand|2011}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Charles T. Evans |title=The Gunpowder Empires |url=http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his112/Notes/Gunpowder.html |access-date=28 December 2010 |publisher=Northern Virginia Community College |archive-date=26 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526092248/http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his112/Notes/Gunpowder.html |url-status=live }}</ref> By the time he was invited by [[Lodi dynasty|Lodi]] governor of [[Lahore]], [[Daulat Khan Lodi|Daulat Khan]], to support his rebellion against Lodi [[Sultan]] [[Ibrahim Lodi|Ibrahim Khan]], [[Babur]] was familiar with [[gunpowder]] [[firearm]]s and [[field artillery]], and a method for deploying them. Babur had employed Ottoman expert [[Ustad Ali Quli]], who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the [[mounted archer]]s on both wings. Babur used this formation at the [[First Battle of Panipat]] in 1526, where the [[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghan]] and [[Rajput]] forces loyal to the [[Delhi Sultanate]], though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battles throughout the empire's history.{{sfn|Streusand|2011|p=255}} In India, guns made of [[bronze]] were recovered from [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] (1504) and [[Diu, India|Diu]] (1533).<ref name="Partington226">{{cite book |last=Partington |first=James Riddick |title=A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part/page/226 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part/page/226 226] |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1960 |place=Baltimore |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-5954-0 |author-link=J. R. Partington}}</ref> [[Fathullah Shirazi]] ({{Circa|1582}}), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-gun shot. As opposed to the [[polybolos]] and [[repeating crossbow]]s used earlier in [[ancient Greece]] and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple [[gun barrel]]s that fired [[hand cannon]]s loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a [[volley gun]].<ref name="Fathullah Shirazi">{{Cite journal |last=Bag |first=A.K. |year=2005 |title=Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=431–436 |issn=0019-5235}}</ref>[[File:The Padshahnama, imperial court guards and nobles.jpg|thumb|Mughal [[musketeer]], 17th century]]

By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns, in particular, became visible in [[Tanjore]], [[Dacca]], [[Bijapur]] and [[Murshidabad]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Partington |first=James Riddick |title=A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part/page/225 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part/page/225 225] |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1960 |place=Baltimore |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-5954-0}}</ref>

=== Rocketry and explosives ===
In the sixteenth century, [[Akbar]] was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder [[rocket]]s known as ''bans'', particularly against [[war elephant]]s, during the battle of Sanbal.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Swati Shiwal |author2=Dolamani Sahu |year=2022 |title=Political History of the Mughals: Influence on South Asia |journal=IJRTS Journal of Research |volume=23 |issue=23 |page=113 |url=https://ijrtspublications.org/fileserve.php?FID=235 |access-date=16 July 2024 |language=en |issn=2347-6117}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |people=[[Andrew Lambert]] and narrator Stephen Kemble |date=6 November 2008 |title=Ancient Discoveries: Ancient Tank Tech |time= |location= |publisher=History Channel |quote=Mughal Emperor Akbar ... in this battle a rocket hits one of the elephants and the inevitable happens, he stampedes, the other elephants stampede, a very large Gujarati army is defeated by a much smaller Mughal army}}</ref> In 1657, the [[Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal Army]] used rockets during the [[siege of Bidar]].<ref name="Yazdani15">{{cite book |author1=Ghulam Yazdani |title=Bidar: Its History and Monuments |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=8120810716 |page=15 |edition=1 |year=1995}}</ref> Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and [[grenade]]s while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting, [[Bidar]] was captured by the Mughals.<ref name="Yazdani15" />

In ''A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder'', [[James Riddick Partington]] described Indian rockets and [[Explosive weapon|explosive]] [[Land mine|mines]]:<ref name="Partington226" />

<blockquote>The Indian war rockets ... were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket body lashed to the rod and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and [[Jahangir]].</blockquote>

== Science ==
A new curriculum for the [[madrasa]]s that stressed the importance of ''uloom-i-muqalat'' (Rational Sciences) and introduced new subjects such as [[geometry]], medicine, philosophy, and mathematics. The new curriculum produced a series of eminent scholars, engineers and architects.<ref>Khan, Nasir Raza. Art and Architectural Traditions of India and Iran: Commonality and Diversity. Routledge, 2022.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Nasir Raza Khan |title=Art and Architectural Traditions of India and Iran Commonality and Diversity |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge India |isbn=9781032134819 |url=https://www.routledge.com/Art-and-Architectural-Traditions-of-India-and-Iran-Commonality-and-Diversity/Khan/p/book/9781032134819 |access-date=20 March 2024 |quote=... Shirazi and others revised the syllabi of the madrasas. In the new syllabi ...}}</ref>

=== Astronomy ===
{{See also|Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|Indian astronomy}}
{{cite check|date=March 2026|section|reason=Written by an editor later banned for persistently misrepresenting sources. Only one sentence is fully supported by the sources, four are partially supported, and three are entirely unsupported. Needs a rewrite from the ground up, as does corresponding section of [[Indian astronomy]].}}
[[File:Jantar Mantar. New Delhi (Misra Yantra). 2010.jpg|thumb|250x250px|[[Jantar Mantar]] in Delhi, built by [[Sawai Jai Singh|Jai Singh II]]]]
While there appears to have been little concern for [[theoretical astronomy]], Mughal [[astronomers]] made advances in [[observational astronomy]] and produced some ''[[Zij]]'' treatises. Humayun built a personal [[observatory]] near Delhi. According to [[Sulaiman Nadvi]], Jahangir and Shah Jahan intended to build observatories too, but were unable to do so. The [[astronomical instruments]] and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from [[Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic astronomy]].<ref name="Sharma">{{Citation |last=Sharma |first=Virendra Nath |title=Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy |url=https://archive.org/details/sawaijaisinghandhisastronomyvirendranathsharmamlbd_214_/page/n1/mode/2up |pages=8–9 |year=1995 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1256-7}}</ref><ref name="Baber">{{Citation |last=Baber |first=Zaheer |title=The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India |pages=82–89 |year=1996 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-2919-8}}</ref> In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and [[Hindu astronomy]], where Islamic observational instruments were combined with [[Indian mathematics|Hindu computational]] techniques.<ref name="Sharma" /><ref name="Baber" />

During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king [[Jai Singh II of Amber]] continued the work of Mughal [[astronomy]]. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called [[Jantar Mantar|Yantra Mandirs]], to rival [[Ulugh Beg]]'s [[Samarkand]] [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|observatory]], and to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the ''[[Surya Siddhanta|Siddhantas]]'' and Islamic observations in ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]''. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.<ref name="Sharma" /><ref name="Baber" />

=== Metallurgy ===
{{See also|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent|Mughal Karkhanas}}

[[File:Mughal Celestial Globe.jpg|thumb|200px|Celestial Globe by [[Muhammad Saleh Thattvi]], c.1663<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Celestial Globe, Made by Mughal Astrolabist Muhammad Salih of Thatta, Dated 1074 AH/1663 AD |url=https://www.orientalartauctions.com/object/artothe30798-a-celestial-globe-made-by-mughal-astrolabist-muhammad-salih-of-thatta-dated-1074-ah-1663-ad |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.orientalartauctions.com}}</ref>]]The society within the Mughal Empire operated the ''Karkhanas'', which functioned as workshops for craftsmen. These Karkhanas were producing arms, ammunition, and also various items for the court and emperor's need such as clothes, shawls, turbans, jewelry, gold and silverware, perfumes, medicines, carpets, beddings, tents, and for the imperial stable-harnesses for the horses in irons, copper and other metals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Verma |first=Tripta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRntAAAAMAAJ |title=Karkhanas Under the Mughals, from Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Economic Development |date=1994 |publisher=Pragati Publications |isbn=978-81-7307-021-1 |location= |pages=18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Sri Ram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7kQ5AQAAIAAJ |title=Mughal Government and Administration |date=1951 |publisher=Hind Kitabs |isbn= |location= |pages=61 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sumit |title=An Eighteenth Century Survey of Jaipur "Chhapakhana" Based on Jaipur "Karkhanajat" Records |date=2012 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44156233 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=73 |pages=421–430 |jstor=44156233 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

Another aspect of the remarkable invention in Mughal India is the [[Lost-wax casting|lost-wax cast]], hollow, seamless, [[celestial globe]]. It was invented in [[Kashmir]] by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 [[Anno Hegirae|AH]] (1589–90 CE). Twenty other such [[globe]]s were later produced in [[Lahore]] and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern [[metallurgists]] to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any [[wikt:seam|seams]].<ref>[[Savage-Smith, Emilie]] (1985), ''Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use'', Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC</ref>
A 17th-century celestial globe was also made by Diya' ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Celestial globe |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/ |access-date=2020-10-15 |website=National Museums Scotland |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614075903/https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== List of emperors ==
{{Main|List of emperors of the Mughal Empire}}

{| style="width:100%;" class="wikitable"
! style="width:8%;"| Portrait
! style="width:12%;"| Titular Name
! style="width:18%;"| Birth Name
! style="width:9%;"| Birth
! style="width:20%;"| Reign
! style="width:13%;"| Death
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1 [[File:Idealized portrait of Babur (1483-1530) in Persian style, painted circa 1605-1615 in India (British Museum 1921,1011,0.3).jpg|frameless|106x106px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Babur {{Uninastaliq|بابر}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Babur|Zahir al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|ظهیر الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|14 February 1483 [[Andijan]], Uzbekistan
| style="text-align:center;"| 20 April 1526 – 26 December 1530

| style="text-align:center;"|26 December 1530 (aged 47) [[Agra]], India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2 [[File:Darbar of Humayun, detail, Humayun. Akbarnama, 1602-4, British Library.png|104x104px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Humayun {{Uninastaliq|همایوں}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Humayun|Nasir al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|نصیر الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|6 March 1508 [[Kabul]], Afghanistan
| style="text-align:center;"|26 December 1530  – 17 May 1540
22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556

(10 years 3 months 25 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|27 January 1556 (aged 47) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|3 [[File:Govardhan. Akbar With Lion and Calf ca. 1630, Metmuseum (cropped).jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Akbar {{Uninastaliq|اکبر}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Akbar|Jalal al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|جلال الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|15 October 1542 [[Umerkot]], Pakistan
| style="text-align:center;"|11 February 1556 – 27 October 1605
(49 years 9 months 0 days)

| style="text-align:center;"|27 October 1605 (aged 63) Agra, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|4 [[File:Jahangircrop.jpeg|107x107px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Jahangir {{Uninastaliq|جهانگیر}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Jahangir|Nur al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq| نور الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|31 August 1569 Agra, India
| style="text-align:center;"|3 November 1605 – 28 October 1627
(21 years 11 months 23 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|28 October 1627 (aged 58) [[Bhimber|Bhimber, Azad Kashmir]], [[Pakistan]]<ref name="Allan 1934 p. 398">{{cite book |last1=Allan |first1=J. |last2=Haig |first2=Sir T. Wolsely |last3=Dodwell |first3=H. H. |editor-last=Dodwell |editor-first=H. H. |editor-link=H. H. Dodwell |year=1934 |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA398 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=398}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|5 [[File:Shah Jahan of Mughal empire.jpg|130x130px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Shah Jahan {{Uninastaliq|شاہ جهان}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Shah Jahan|Shihab al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|شهاب الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|5 January 1592 [[Lahore]], Pakistan
| style="text-align:center;"|19 January 1628 – 31 July 1658
(30 years 8 months 25 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|22 January 1666 (aged 74) Agra, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|6 [[File:The Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| '''Aurangzeb {{Uninastaliq|اورنگزیب }}'''
'''Alamgir {{Uninastaliq|عالمگیر}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Muhi al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|محی الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|3 November 1618 [[Gujarat]], India
| style="text-align:center;"|31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707
(48 years 7 months 0 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|3 March 1707 (aged 88) [[Ahmednagar]], India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|7 [[File:Azam shah (cropped).jpg|125x125px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Azam Shah {{Uninastaliq|اعظم شاه}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Azam Shah|Qutb al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|قطب الدين محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|28 June 1653 [[Burhanpur]], India
| style="text-align:center;"|14 March 1707 – 20 June 1707

| style="text-align:center;"|20 June 1707 (aged 53) Agra, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|8 [[File:Bahadur Shah I of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Bahadur Shah {{Uninastaliq|بهادر شاہ}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Bahadur Shah I|Qutb al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|قطب الدین محمد }}
| style="text-align:center;"|14 October 1643 Burhanpur, India
| style="text-align:center;"|19 June 1707 – 27 February 1712
(4 years, 253 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|27 February 1712 (aged 68) Lahore, Pakistan
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|9 [[File:Jahandar Shah, Mughal Emperor..jpg|131x131px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Jahandar Shah {{Uninastaliq|جهاندار شاہ}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Jahandar Shah|Muiz al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|معز الدین محمد }}
| style="text-align:center;"|9 May 1661 Deccan, India
| style="text-align:center;"|27 February 1712 – 11 February 1713
(0 years, 350 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|12 February 1713 (aged 51) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|10[[File:Farrukhsiyar of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Farrukh Siyar {{Uninastaliq|فرخ سیر}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Farrukhsiyar|Muin al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|موئن الدین محمد}} Puppet King Under the [[Sayyid Brothers|Sayyids of Barha]]
| style="text-align:center;"|20 August 1685 [[Aurangabad]], India
| style="text-align:center;"|11 January 1713 – 28 February 1719
(6 years, 48 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|19 April 1719 (aged 33) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|11[[File:Rafi ud-Darajat of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Rafi ud-Darajat {{Uninastaliq|رفیع الدرجات}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Rafi ud-Darajat|Shams al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|شمس الدین محمد}} Puppet King Under the [[Sayyid Brothers|Sayyids of Barha]]
| style="text-align:center;"|1 December 1699
| style="text-align:center;"|28 February 1719 – 6 June 1719
(0 years, 98 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|6 June 1719 (aged 19) Agra, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|12[[File:Shah Jahan II of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Shah Jahan II {{Uninastaliq|شاہ جهان دوم}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Shah Jahan II|Rafi al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|رفع الدين محمد}} Puppet King Under the [[Sayyid Brothers|Sayyids of Barha]]
| style="text-align:center;"|5 January 1696
| style="text-align:center;"|6 June 1719 – 17 September 1719
(0 years, 105 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|18 September 1719 (aged 23) Agra, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|13[[File:Muhammad Shah of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Muhammad Shah {{Uninastaliq|محمد شاه}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Muhammad Shah|Nasir al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|نصیر الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|7 August 1702 [[Ghazni]], Afghanistan
| style="text-align:center;"|27 September 1719 – 26 April 1748
(28 years, 212 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|26 April 1748 (aged 45) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|14[[File:Ahmad Shah Bahadur of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Ahmad Shah Bahadur {{Uninastaliq|احمد شاہ بهادر}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Ahmad Shah Bahadur|Mujahid al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|مجاهد الدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|23 December 1725 Delhi, India
| style="text-align:center;"|29 April 1748 – 2 June 1754
(6 years, 37 days)
| style="text-align:center"|1 January 1775 (aged 49) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|15[[File:Alamgir II of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Alamgir II {{Uninastaliq|عالمگیر دوم}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Alamgir II|Aziz al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|عزیز اُلدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|6 June 1699 Burhanpur, India
| style="text-align:center;"|3 June 1754 – 29 November 1759
(5 years, 180 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|29 November 1759 (aged 60) Kotla Fateh Shah, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|16[[File:Shah Jahan III of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Shah Jahan III {{Uninastaliq|شاه جهان سوم}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Shah Jahan III|Muhi al-Millat]] {{Uninastaliq|محی الملت}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1711
| style="text-align:center;"|10 December 1759 – 10 October 1760
(282 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|1772 (aged 60–61)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|17[[File:Ali Gauhar of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Shah Alam II {{Uninastaliq|شاه عالم دوم}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Shah Alam II|Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar]] {{Uninastaliq|جلال الدین علی گوهر}}
| style="text-align:center;"|25 June 1728 Delhi, India
| style="text-align:center;"|10 October 1760 – 31 July 1788
(27 years, 301 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|18[[File:Mughal Emperor Mahmud Shah Bahadur.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Jahan Shah {{Uninastaliq|جهان شاه}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Mahmud Shah Bahadur|Bidar Bakht Mahmud Shah Bahadur Jahan Shah]] {{Uninastaliq| بیدار بخت محمود شاه بهادر جهان شاہ }} Puppet King Under Ghulam Qadir Rogilla
| style="text-align:center;"|1749 Delhi, India
| style="text-align:center;"|31 July 1788 – 11 October 1788
(63 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|1790 (aged 40–41) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|17[[File:Ali Gauhar of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Shah Alam II {{Uninastaliq|شاه عالم دوم}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Shah Alam II|Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar]] {{Uninastaliq|جلال الدین علی گوهر}} Puppet monarch under the [[Maratha Confederacy]]
| style="text-align:center;"|25 June 1728 Delhi, India
| style="text-align:center;"|16 October 1788 – 19 November 1806
(18 years, 339 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|19 November 1806 (aged 78) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|19[[File:Akbar Shah II of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Akbar Shah II {{Uninastaliq|اکبر شاه دوم}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Akbar II|Muin al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|میرزا اکبر}} Puppet King under the [[East India Company]]
| style="text-align:center;"|22 April 1760 [[Mukundpur]], India
| style="text-align:center;"|19 November 1806 – 28 September 1837
(30 years, 321 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|28 September 1837 (aged 77) Delhi, India
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|20[[File:Bahadur Shah II of India.jpg|80px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''Bahadur Shah II Zafar {{Uninastaliq|بهادر شاه ظفر}}'''
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Bahadur Shah II|Abu Zafar Siraj al-Din Muhammad]] {{Uninastaliq|ابو ظفر سراج اُلدین محمد}}
| style="text-align:center;"|24 October 1775 Delhi, India
| style="text-align:center;"|28 September 1837 – 21 September 1857
(19 years, 360 days)
| style="text-align:center;"|7 November 1862 (aged 87) [[Rangoon, Myanmar]]
|}

== See also ==
* [[History of India]]
* [[Flags of the Mughal Empire]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire]]
* [[List of Mongol states]]
* [[Mughal-Mongol genealogy]]
* [[Islam in South Asia]]
* [[NCERT textbook controversies]]

== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite journal |first1=M. Athar |last1=Ali |title=The Mughal Polity – A Critique of Revisionist Approaches |journal=Modern Asian Studies |date=2008 |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=699–710 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/mughal-politya-critique-of-revisionist-approaches/8C348F349F9B687B91B10C53E76F9B29 |access-date=18 April 2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00001256 |language=En |issn=1469-8099|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |author1=Andrew de la Garza |title=The Mughal Empire at War Babur, Akbar and the Indian Military Revolution, 1500-1605 |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-24531-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGERDAAAQBAJ |access-date=6 December 2023 |language=En}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India before Europe |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-80904-5 |oclc=61303480}}

* {{cite book |author1=J.J.L. Gommans |title=Mughal Warfare Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500–1700 |date=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781134552757 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZWBAgAAQBAJ |access-date=18 April 2024 |language=En |archive-date=2 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102093702/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102714757 |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite book |first1=Irfan |last1=Habib |url=http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India |first2=Dharma |last2=Kumar |first3=Tapan |last3=Raychaudhuri |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1987 |volume=1 |author-link=Irfan Habib |author-link2=Dharma Kumar |author-link3=Tapan Raychaudhuri |access-date=11 August 2017 }}
* {{cite book |author1=Jorge Flores |title=The Mughal Padshah: A Jesuit Treatise on Emperor Jahangir's Court and Household |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004307537 |page=74 |series=Volume 6 of Rulers & Elites |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3XsCgAAQBAJ |access-date=13 July 2024 |language=En}}
* {{cite book |author1=Kaushik Roy |author2=Peter Lorge |title=Chinese and Indian Warfare - From the Classical Age to 1870 |year=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-58710-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=627fBQAAQBAJ |access-date=5 December 2023 |language=En |format=ebook |page=196}}
* {{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=R.C. |year=1974 |title=The Mughul Empire |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |author-link=R.C. Majumdar|url=https://archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974}}
* {{Cite book |last=Moosvi |first=Shireen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAFuAAAAMAAJ |title=The economy of the Mughal Empire, c. 1595: a statistical study |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-908549-1 |edition=2nd |orig-year=First published 1987 |access-date=13 June 2019 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035948/https://books.google.com/books?id=gAFuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}

* {{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA202 |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |author-link=John F. Richards }}
* {{Citation |last=Robb |first=Peter |title=A History of India |year=2011 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |isbn=978-0-230-34424-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GJNKEAAAQBAJ}}

* {{cite journal |title=A Mughal Manuscript of the "Diwan" of Nawa'i |first=John |last=Seyller |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=71 |year=2011 |issue=2 |pages=325–334 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sinopoli |first=Carla M. |year=1994 |title=Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42928323 |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=293–308 |issn=0066-8435 |jstor=42928323 |access-date=11 June 2021 |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501200000/https://www.jstor.org/stable/42928323 |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last1=Stein |first1=Burton |author-link=Burton Stein |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=David |editor-link=David Arnold (historian) |year=2010 |orig-year=First published 1998 |title=A History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/a-history-of-india-second-edition-2010 |edition=2nd |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Streusand |first=Douglas E. |title=Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicgunpowder0000stre |url-access=registration |publisher=Westview Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8133-1359-7 |location=Philadelphia}}
* {{cite book |last1=Streusand |first1=Douglas E. |title=Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals |date=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9780429979217 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j6HsDwAAQBAJ |access-date=24 April 2024 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUUkDwAAQBAJ |title=Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5036-0259-5}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* Alam, Muzaffar. ''Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48'' (1988)
* {{Citation |last=Ali |first=M. Athar |title=The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=385–396 |year=1975 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00005825 |jstor=311728 |s2cid=143861682}}, on the causes of its collapse
* Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", ''History Today'' (April 2012) 62#4 pp. 22–26. full text online
* {{Citation |last=Blake |first=Stephen P. |title=The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals |date=November 1979 |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=77–94 |doi=10.2307/2053505 |jstor=2053505 |s2cid=154527305}}
* Dale, Stephen F. ''The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals'' (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
* {{Cite book |last=Dalrymple, William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlEDvkhEmL8C |title=The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty : Delhi, 1857 |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc. |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-307-26739-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Faruqui |first=Munis D. |title=The Forgotten Prince: Mirza Hakim and the Formation of the Mughal Empire in India |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=487–523 |year=2005 |doi=10.1163/156852005774918813 |jstor=25165118}}, on Akbar and his brother
* Gordon, S. ''[[The New Cambridge History of India]], II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818'' (Cambridge, 1993).
* Habib, Irfan. ''Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps'' (1982).
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C |title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 |year=2004 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-004-4 |editor-last=Markovits |editor-first=Claude |edition=2nd |location=London |orig-year=First published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' |access-date=19 October 2015 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922040049/https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C |url-status=live}}
* {{Citation |last1=Metcalf |first1=B. |title=A Concise History of Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C |year=2006 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-68225-1 |last2=Metcalf |first2=T.R. |author-link=Barbara Metcalf |author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf |access-date=19 October 2015 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702122602/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmagAAAAMAAJ |title=The Mughul Empire |publisher=B.V. Bhavan |year=1974}}
* {{Citation |last=Richards |first=J.F. |title=Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy |date=April 1981 |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=285–308 |doi=10.1017/s0010417500013311 |jstor=178737 |s2cid=154809724}}
* {{Citation |last=Robb |first=P. |title=A History of India |year=2001 |location=London |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=978-0-333-69129-8}}
* Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. ''The Mughul Empire, 1526–1803'' (1952) online.

=== Culture ===
* Berinstain, V. ''Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne'' (London, 1998).
* Busch, Allison. ''Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Poetry-Kings-Classical-Literature-Research/dp/0199765928/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1339157925&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529164539/http://www.amazon.com/Poetry-Kings-Classical-Literature-Research/dp/0199765928/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1339157925&sr=1-2 |date=29 May 2016 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Parodi |first1=Laura E. |title=Kabul, a Forgotten Mughal Capital: Gardens, City, and Court at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century |journal=Muqarnas Online |year=2021 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=113–153 |doi=10.1163/22118993-00381P05 |s2cid=245040517}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Diana Preston |url=https://archive.org/details/tajmahalpassiong00pres |title=Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire |last2=Michael Preston |year=2007 |publisher=Walker & Company |isbn=978-0-8027-1673-6 |url-access=registration}}
* [[Annemarie Schimmel|Schimmel, Annemarie]]. ''The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture'' (Reaktion 2006)
* {{Cite book |last=Welch, S.C. |url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/114935/rec/401 |title=The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India |publisher=The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-87099-499-9 |location=New York |display-authors=etal |access-date=9 October 2013 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927100257/http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/114935/rec/401 |url-status=live}}

=== Society and economy ===
* {{Citation |last=Chaudhuri |first=K.N. |title=Some Reflections on the Town and Country in Mughal India |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=77–96 |year=1978 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00008155 |jstor=311823 |s2cid=146558617}}
* Habib, Irfan. ''Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps'' (1982).
* Habib, Irfan. ''Agrarian System of Mughal India'' (1963, revised edition 1999).
* {{cite book |author1=J. C. Sharman |title=Empires of the Weak: The Real Story of European Expansion and the Creation of the New World Order |date=2019 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691182797 |language=En}}
* {{Citation |last=Heesterman |first=J.C. |title=The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=292–297 |year=2004 |doi=10.1163/1568520041974729 |jstor=25165051}}
* {{Citation |last=Khan |first=Iqtidar Alam |title=The Middle Classes in the Mughal Empire |journal=Social Scientist |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=28–49 |year=1976 |doi=10.2307/3516601 |jstor=3516601}}
* {{cite book |series=世界の歴史14 |title=ムガル帝国から英領インドへ |trans-title=From the Mughal Empire to British India |author1=Masanori Sato (佐藤正哲) |author2=Nariaki Nakazato (中里成章) |author3=Tsukasa Mizushima (水島司) |publisher=中央公論社 |year=1998 |url=https://www.kinokuniya.co.jp/f/dsg-01-9784122051263 |language=Ja}}
** second publishment {{cite book |title=ムガル帝国から英領インドへ |trans-title=From the Mughal Empire to British India |series=Chuokoron-Shinsha World History 14 |year=2009}}
* Rothermund, Dietmar. ''An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)
* {{cite book |author1=Oleg Igorevich Krassov |author1-link=Oleg Krassov |title=Land Law in Asian Countries |date=2022 |publisher=Norma |isbn=9785001562566 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lSaJEAAAQBAJ |access-date=18 April 2024 |language=En |format=ebook}}

=== Primary sources ===
* {{Cite book |last=Bernier |first=Francois |url=https://archive.org/stream/travelsinmogulem00bernuoft#page/ii/mode/2up |title=Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668 |location=London |publisher=Archibald Constable |year=1891 |author-link=François Bernier}}
* Hiro, Dilip, ed, ''Journal of Emperor Babur'' (Penguin Classics 2007)
** ''The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor'' ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
* Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. ''History of India'' (1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson [https://archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackiala online edition]
* {{Cite book |last=Jouher |url=https://archive.org/stream/tezkerehalvakiat00jawhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up |title=The Tezkereh al vakiat or Private Memoirs of the Moghul Emperor Humayun Written in the Persian language by Jouher A confidential domestic of His Majesty |location=London |publisher=John Murray |others=Translated by Major Charles Stewart |year=1832}}

=== Older histories ===
* Elliot, Sir H.M., Edited by Dowson, John. ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]''; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy at [[Packard Humanities Institute]] – Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List)
* {{Cite book |last=Adams |first=W.H. Davenport |url=https://archive.org/stream/warriorsofcresce00adamuoft#page/n9/mode/2up |title=Warriors of the Crescent |location=London |publisher=Hutchinson |year=1893}}
* {{Cite book |last=Holden |first=Edward Singleton |url=https://archive.org/stream/mogulemperorsofh00hold#page/n9/mode/2up |title=The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398–A.D. 1707 |location=New York |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons |year=1895 |author-link=Edward Singleton Holden}}
* {{Cite book |last=Malleson |first=G.B. |url=https://archive.org/stream/akbarriseofmugha00mallrich#page/n5/mode/2up |title=Akbar and the rise of the Mughal empire |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1896}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Manucci |first1=Niccolao |url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofmoguldy00manurich#page/n5/mode/2up |title=History of the Mogul dynasty in India, 1399–1657 |last2=tr. from French by [[François Catrou]] |location=London |publisher=J.M. Richardson |year=1826 |author-link=Niccolao Manucci}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lane-Poole |first=Stanley |url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofindia04jackuoft#page/n9/mode/2up |title=History of India: From Reign of Akbar the Great to the Fall of Moghul Empire (Vol. 4) |location=London |publisher=Grolier society |year=1906 |author-link=Stanley Lane-Poole}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Manucci |first1=Niccolao |url=https://archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm01manuuoft#page/n7/mode/2up |title=Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 1 |last2=tr. by [[William Irvine (historian)|William Irvine]] |location=London |publisher=J. Murray |year=1907 |author-link=Niccolao Manucci}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Manucci |first1=Niccolao |url=https://archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm02manuuoft#page/n7/mode/2up |title=Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 2 |last2=tr. by William Irvine |location=London |publisher=J. Murray |year=1907 |author-link=Niccolao Manucci}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Manucci |first1=Niccolao |url=https://archive.org/stream/storiadomogororm03manuuoft#page/n9/mode/2up |title=Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Vol. 3 |last2=tr. by William Irvine |location=London |publisher=J. Murray |year=1907 |author-link=Niccolao Manucci}}
* {{Cite book |last=Owen |first=Sidney J |url=https://archive.org/stream/fallofmogulempir00owenuoft#page/n5/mode/2up |title=The Fall of the Mogul Empire |location=London |publisher=J. Murray |year=1912}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links|voy=Mughal Empire|n=no|d=yes}}
* [http://www.mughalindia.co.uk/index.html Mughal India] an interactive experience from the [[British Museum]]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y27h The Mughal Empire], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Susan Stronge & Chandrika Kaul (''In Our Time'', 26 February 2004)
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05wq1fh Sunil Khilnani's "Akbar"], From BBC Radio 4's Incarnations: India in 50 Lives.

{{Mughal Empire}}
{{Empires}}
{{Agra district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mughal Empire| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1526]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1857]]
[[Category:Former monarchies in Afghan history]]
[[Category:Early modern history of India]]
[[Category:1526 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1857 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of India]]
[[Category:Former monarchies in Pakistani history]]

Australia

2026-03-21T09:18:58Z

LucasRowan: Updated article with clearer structure

{{Short description|Country in Oceania}}
{{About|the country|the continent|Australia (continent)|other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Australasia|Austrasia|Austria}}
{{Featured article}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}


{{Use Australian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
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| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia.svg
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| map_caption = {{Legend|#316831|Commonwealth of Australia}}
{{Legend|#8DC78C|[[States and territories of Australia|External territories of Australia]]}}
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| religion = {{Ublist
|title = [[Religion in Australia|Various]]
|43.9% [[Christianity in Australia|Christianity]]
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| religion_year = [[2021 Australian census|2021]]
| religion_ref = <ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022a"/>
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| area_footnote = <ref name="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)">{{Cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|archive-date=24 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Geoscience Australia-2014a">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/area-of-australia-states-and-territories|title=Area of Australia - States and Territories|date=27 June 2014|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=18 February 2024|archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118174336/https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/area-of-australia-states-and-territories|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Australia |section=Geography |access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref>
| area_rank = 6th
| percent_water = 1.79 (2015)<ref name="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)"/>
| population_estimate = 27,840,775<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics website-2024">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-clock-pyramid|title=Population clock and pyramid|work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] website|date=5 March 2024|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=5 March 2024|archive-date=8 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208102513/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-clock-pyramid|url-status=live}} The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.</ref>
| population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 25,890,773<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/mar-2022|title=National, state and territory population|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=26 September 2022|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=21 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121204624/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/mar-2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTYEAR}}
| population_estimate_rank = 54th
| population_census_year = 2021
| population_density_km2 = {{#expr:{{Data Australia|poptoday}} / 7692024 round 1}}
| population_density_rank = 237th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $1.982 trillion<ref name="www.imf.org-2025">{{cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0)|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2025 Edition. (Australia) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 April 2025 |access-date=26 May 2025}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 22nd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $71,431<ref name="www.imf.org-2025" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 26th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.830 trillion<ref name="www.imf.org-2025" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 15th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $65,946<ref name="www.imf.org-2025" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 13th
| Gini = 32.4
| Gini_year = 2020
| Gini_change = decrease 
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia Gini Coefficient, 1995 – 2023 {{!}} CEIC Data |url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/australia/gini-coefficient |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=www.ceicdata.com |archive-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304002624/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/australia/gini-coefficient |url-status=live }}</ref>
| HDI = 0.958
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] }}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 7th
| currency = [[Australian dollar]] ([[$]])
| currency_code = AUD
| time_zone = [[Time in Australia|AWST, ACST, AEST]]<ref name="time" group="N">There are minor variations from three basic time zones; see [[Time in Australia]].</ref>
| utc_offset = +8; +9.5; +10
| time_zone_DST = [[Time in Australia|ACDT, AEDT]]<ref name="time" group="N"/>
| utc_offset_DST = +10.5; +11
| DST_note = [[Daylight saving time|DST]] not observed in Qld, WA and NT
| date_format = {{Abbr|dd|day}}/{{Abbr|mm|month}}/{{Abbr|yyyy|year}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Australian Government |date=March 2023 |title=Dates and time |url=https://www.stylemanual.gov.au/grammar-punctuation-and-conventions/numbers-and-measurements/dates-and-time |access-date=6 May 2023 |website=Style Manual |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529074659/https://www.stylemanual.gov.au/grammar-punctuation-and-conventions/numbers-and-measurements/dates-and-time |url-status=live }}</ref>
| drives_on = left
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Australia|+61]]
| cctld = [[.au]]
}}

'''Australia''', officially the '''Commonwealth of Australia''', is a country comprising [[mainland Australia|the mainland]] of the [[Australia (continent)|Australian continent]], the island of [[Tasmania]] and [[list of islands of Australia|numerous smaller islands]].{{Refn|[[Australian Antarctic Territory|42% of the Antarctic continent is also claimed by the country]]; however this is only recognised by the UK, France, New Zealand and Norway.<ref name="Scott 2021">{{Harvnb|Scott|2021|p=491}}</ref>|group="N"}} It has a total area of {{cvt|7,688,287|km2}}, making it the [[list of countries and dependencies by area|sixth-largest country in the world]] and the largest in [[Oceania]]. Australia is the world's flattest and driest inhabited continent. It is a [[megadiverse countries|megadiverse country]], and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and [[Climate of Australia|climates]] including [[deserts of Australia|deserts]] in the [[Outback|interior]] and [[forests of Australia|tropical rainforests]] along the [[Eastern states of Australia|coast]].

The ancestors of [[Aboriginal Australians]] began arriving from [[Southeast Asia]] 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the [[Last Glacial Period]]. By the time of British settlement, Aboriginal Australians spoke more than 250 distinct languages and had one of the oldest living cultures in the world.<ref name="Flood 2019-2">{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=161, 237}}</ref> [[history of Australia|Australia's written history]] commenced with [[European maritime exploration of Australia|Dutch exploration]] of most of the coastline in the 17th century. British colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal [[colony of New South Wales]]. By the mid-19th century, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and five additional self-governing [[Crown colony|British colonies]] were established, each gaining [[responsible government]] by 1890. The [[Federation of Australia|colonies federated]] in 1901, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. This continued a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the ''[[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942]]'', and culminating in the [[Australia Acts]] of 1986.

Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]] with a [[parliamentary democracy]], and a [[federation]] comprising [[states and territories of Australia|six states and ten territories]]. Its population of almost {{#expr:{{Data Australia|poptoday}} / 1000000 round 0}} million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2023">{{Cite web |date=20 April 2023 |title=Regional population |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release |access-date=23 April 2023 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |archive-date=10 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010145251/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Canberra]] is the nation's capital, while [[List of cities in Australia by population|its most populous cities]] are [[Sydney]] and [[Melbourne]], each with a population of more than five million. [[Culture of Australia|Australia's culture]] is diverse, and the country has one of the [[List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population|highest foreign-born populations in the world]]. It has a highly [[developed economy]] and one of the [[List of countries by GNI (PPP) per capita|highest per capita incomes globally]]. Its abundant natural resources and well-developed [[List of the largest trading partners of Australia|international trade relations]] are crucial to [[Economy of Australia|the country's economy]]. It [[International rankings of Australia|ranks highly]] for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights.

Australia is a [[middle power]], and has the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|thirteenth-highest military expenditure]]. It is a member of international groups including: the [[United Nations]], the [[G20]], the [[OECD]], the [[World Trade Organization]], [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]], the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], the [[Pacific Community]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Australia also participates in the defence, intelligence and security alliances [[ANZUS]], [[AUKUS]], and [[Five Eyes]]. It is a [[major non-NATO ally]] of the United States.

==Etymology==
{{Main|Name of Australia}}

The name ''Australia'' (pronounced {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|t|r|eɪ|l|i|ə}} in [[Australian English]])<ref>{{Harvnb|Bernard|1989|p=61}}</ref> is derived from the Latin {{Lang|la|[[Terra Australis Incognita]]}} ({{Gloss|unknown southern land}}), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.<ref name="National Library of Australia-2024">{{Cite web |date=30 April 2024 |title=Where the name 'Australia' came from |url=https://www.library.gov.au/research/research-guides-0/where-name-australia-came |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=National Library of Australia}}</ref> Several 16th-century cartographers used the word ''Australia'' on maps, but not to identify modern Australia.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clarke |first1=Jacqueline |last2=Clarke |first2=Philip |date=10 August 2014 |title=Putting 'Australia' on the map |url=http://theconversation.com/putting-australia-on-the-map-29816 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302195128/https://theconversation.com/putting-australia-on-the-map-29816 |url-status=live }}</ref>

When the Dutch began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, they called the continent [[New Holland (Australia)|''New Holland'']]. The name ''Australia'' was popularised by the explorer [[Matthew Flinders]], who circumnavigated the continent in 1803. However, when his account of his voyage was published in 1814, the name ''Terra Australis'' was used.<ref name="National Library of Australia-2024" />

Governor of New South Wales [[Lachlan Macquarie]] officially recommended the name ''Australia'' to replace ''New Holland'' in December 1817. The [[Admiralty (United Kingdom)|British Admiralty]] adopted the name in 1824, and the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] used it in legislation in 1828.<ref name="National Library of Australia-2024" /> The United Kingdom [[United Kingdom Hydrographic Office|Hydrographic Office]] used the new name in ''The Australia Directory'' of 1830.<ref>{{Harvnb|Coman|2007|p=40}}</ref> The name "[[Commonwealth]] of Australia" for the new federation of the six former colonies was formalised in the ''[[Constitution of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900]]'' (UK).<ref name="National Library of Australia-2024" />

Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz", "Straya" and "[[Down Under]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title="Straya", "Oz", and "Down Under" |url=https://macquariedictionary.com.au/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=[[Macquarie Dictionary]]}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Australia}}

{{For timeline|Timeline of Australian history}}

=== Indigenous prehistory ===
{{Main|Prehistory of Australia|Indigenous Australians}}

[[Indigenous Australians]] comprise two broad groups:
* [[Aboriginal Australians]], who are the various [[Indigenous peoples]] of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, including [[Aboriginal Tasmanians|Tasmania]]
* [[Torres Strait Islanders]], who are a distinct [[Melanesia]]n people of [[Torres Strait Islands]]

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago,<ref name="Veth">{{Harvnb|Veth|O'Connor|2013|pp=18–19}}</ref><ref name="Clarkson-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Clarkson |first1=Chris |last2=Jacobs |first2=Zenobia |last3=Marwick |first3=Ben |last4=Fullagar |first4=Richard |last5=Wallis |first5=Lynley |last6=Smith |first6=Mike |last7=Roberts |first7=Richard G. |last8=Hayes |first8=Elspeth |last9=Lowe |first9=Kelsey |last10=Carah |first10=Xavier |last11=Florin |first11=S. Anna |last12=McNeil |first12=Jessica |last13=Cox |first13=Delyth |last14=Arnold |first14=Lee J. |last15=Hua |first15=Quan |display-authors=1 |year=2017 |title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago |journal=Nature |volume=547 |issue=7663 |pages=306–310 |bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C |doi=10.1038/nature22968 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=28726833 |s2cid=205257212 |hdl-access=free |last16=Huntley |first16=Jillian |last17=Brand |first17=Helen E. A. |last18=Manne |first18=Tiina |last19=Fairbairn |first19=Andrew |last20=Shulmeister |first20=James |last21=Lyle |first21=Lindsey |last22=Salinas |first22=Makiah |last23=Page |first23=Mara |last24=Connell |first24=Kate |last25=Park |first25=Gayoung |last26=Norman |first26=Kasih |last27=Murphy |first27=Tessa |last28=Pardoe |first28=Colin |hdl=2440/107043|url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers/4803 }}</ref><ref name="Williams-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Martin A. J. |last2=Spooner |first2=Nigel A. |last3=McDonnell |first3=Kathryn |last4=O'Connell |first4=James F. |date=January 2021 |title=Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date |journal=Geoarchaeology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=92–108 |bibcode=2021Gearc..36...92W |doi=10.1002/gea.21822 |issn=0883-6353 |s2cid=225321249 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 October 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004091731/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Allen |first=Jim |last2=O"Connell |first2=James F. |date=29 June 2025 |title=Recent DNA Studies Question a 65 kya Arrival of Humans in Sahul |journal=Archaeology in Oceania |doi=10.1002/arco.70002|doi-access=free }}</ref> with the migration of people by [[land bridge]]s and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia.<ref name="Veth" /> It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians.<ref name="Malaspinas-2016" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dorey |first=Fran |title=When did modern humans get to Australia? |url=https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia |publisher=Australian Museum |access-date=21 August 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817140725/https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Madjedbebe]] rock shelter in [[Arnhem Land]] is possibly the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.<ref name="Clarkson-2017" /><ref name="Williams-2021" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|p=217}}</ref> The oldest human remains found are the [[Lake Mungo remains]], which have been dated to approximately 42,000 years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=219–220}}</ref>

[[File:Bradshaw rock paintings.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[Aboriginal rock art]] in the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] region of Western Australia]]

Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|p=161}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=DNA confirms Aboriginal culture one of Earth's oldest | website=Australian Geographic | date=23 September 2011 | url=https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/09/dna-confirms-aboriginal-culture-one-of-earths-oldest/ | access-date=9 February 2024 | archive-date=20 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120022657/https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/09/dna-confirms-aboriginal-culture-one-of-earths-oldest/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Jozuka | first=Emiko | title=Aboriginal Australians are Earth's oldest civilization: DNA study | website=CNN | date=22 September 2016 | url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/22/asia/indigenous-australians-earths-oldest-civilization/index.html#:~:text=A%20new%20genomic%20study%20has,stretching%20back%20roughly%2075%2C000%20years. | access-date=9 February 2024 | archive-date=4 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304225419/https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/22/asia/indigenous-australians-earths-oldest-civilization/index.html#:~:text=A%20new%20genomic%20study%20has,stretching%20back%20roughly%2075%2C000%20years. | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Malaspinas-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Malaspinas |first1=Anna-Sapfo |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael C. |last3=Muller |first3=Craig |last4=Sousa |first4=Vitor C. |last5=Lao |first5=Oscar |last6=Alves |first6=Isabel |last7=Bergström |first7=Anders |last8=Athanasiadis |first8=Georgios |last9=Cheng |first9=Jade Y. |last10=Crawford |first10=Jacob E. |last11=Heupink |first11=Tim H. |last12=Macholdt |first12=Enrico |last13=Peischl |first13=Stephan |last14=Rasmussen |first14=Simon |last15=Schiffels |first15=Stephan |display-authors=1 |date=21 September 2016 |title=A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia |journal=Nature |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=207–214 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..207M |doi=10.1038/nature18299 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=27654914 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10754/622366 |last16=Subramanian |first16=Sankar |last17=Wright |first17=Joanne L. |last18=Albrechtsen |first18=Anders |last19=Barbieri |first19=Chiara |last20=Dupanloup |first20=Isabelle |last21=Eriksson |first21=Anders |last22=Margaryan |first22=Ashot |last23=Moltke |first23=Ida |last24=Pugach |first24=Irina |last25=Korneliussen |first25=Thorfinn S. |last26=Levkivskyi |first26=Ivan P. |last27=Moreno-Mayar |first27=J. Víctor |last28=Ni |first28=Shengyu |last29=Racimo |first29=Fernando |last30=Sikora |first30=Martin|pmc=7617037 }}</ref> At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians belonged to wide range of societies, with diverse economies spread across at least [[Australian Aboriginal languages|250 different language groups]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth |year=2015 |title=Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia |journal=Antiquity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=61 |issue=232 |pages=310–321 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00052182 |s2cid=162146349}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Sáenz|Embrick|Rodríguez|2015|p=602}}</ref><ref name="Flood 2019-2"/> Estimates of the Aboriginal population before British settlement range from 300,000 to 3 million.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Williams |first2=Alan N |last3=Saltré |first3=Frédérik |last4=Norman |first4=Kasih |last5=Ulm |first5=Sean |date=30 April 2021 |title=The First Australians grew to a population of millions, much more than previous estimates |url=https://theconversation.com/the-first-australians-grew-to-a-population-of-millions-much-more-than-previous-estimates-142371 |access-date= |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> Aboriginal Australians cultures were (and remain) deeply connected with the land and the environment, with stories of [[The Dreaming]] maintained through [[oral tradition]], [[Songline|songs]], dance and paintings.<ref name="Mawson-2021">{{Cite journal |last=Mawson |first=Stephanie |date=2021 |title=The Deep Past of Pre-Colonial Australia |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=1483–1491 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X20000369 |issn=0018-246X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Certain groups engaged in [[fire-stick farming]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wyrwoll |first=Karl-Heinz |date=11 January 2012 |title=How Aboriginal burning changed Australia's climate |url=http://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715015907/https://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Robbie |date=21 June 2023 |title=Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning |url=http://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308085331/https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[fish farming]],<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bates |first1=Badger |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael |last3=Jackson |first3=Sue |date=15 December 2022 |title=Aboriginal people have spent centuries building in the Darling River. Now there are plans to demolish these important structures |url=http://theconversation.com/aboriginal-people-have-spent-centuries-building-in-the-darling-river-now-there-are-plans-to-demolish-these-important-structures-195966 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101042204/https://theconversation.com/aboriginal-people-have-spent-centuries-building-in-the-darling-river-now-there-are-plans-to-demolish-these-important-structures-195966 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Anna |author-link=Anna Clark (Australian historian) |date=31 August 2023 |title=Friday essay: traps, rites and kurrajong twine – the incredible ingenuity of Indigenous fishing knowledge |url=http://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211091555/https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |archive-date=11 February 2024 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation }}</ref> and built [[Indigenous architecture#Australia|semi-permanent shelters]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=239–240}}</ref> These practices have variously been characterised as "[[hunter-gatherer]]", "[[Agriculture|agricultural]]", "natural cultivation" and "intensification".<ref name="Mawson-2021"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bender |first=Barbara |date=1978 |title=Gatherer-hunter to farmer: A social perspective |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00438243.1978.9979731 |journal=World Archaeology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=204–222 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1978.9979731 |issn=0043-8243 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gammage |first=Bill |date=19 September 2023 |title=Colonists upended Aboriginal farming, growing grain and running sheep on rich yamfields, and cattle on arid grainlands |url=http://theconversation.com/colonists-upended-aboriginal-farming-growing-grain-and-running-sheep-on-rich-yamfields-and-cattle-on-arid-grainlands-207118 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=12 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212095624/https://theconversation.com/colonists-upended-aboriginal-farming-growing-grain-and-running-sheep-on-rich-yamfields-and-cattle-on-arid-grainlands-207118 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Flood 2019">{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=62, 64–65}}</ref>

Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands at least 2,500 years ago.<ref name="Veth-2">{{Harvnb|Veth|O'Connor|2013|pp=34–35}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |orig-date=1998 |title=Torres Strait Islands |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Torres-Strait-Islands |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615102021/https://www.britannica.com/place/Torres-Strait-Islands |archive-date=15 June 2024 |access-date=17 November 2024 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |quote=Torres Strait Islands, island group in the Torres Strait, north of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia, and south of the island of New Guinea. ... They have been inhabited for at least 2,500 years. The present-day inhabitants are primarily of Melanesian origin, with some mixture of Polynesians and Southeast Asians.}}</ref> Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands and villages appeared by the 1300s.<ref name="Veth-2" /> By the mid-18th century in northern Australia, [[Makassan contact with Australia|contact, trade and cross-cultural engagement]] had been established between local Aboriginal groups and [[Makassar people|Makassan]] [[trepanging|trepangers]], visiting from present-day Indonesia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|pp=51–54}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Macknight |first=Charles Campbell |year=2011 |title=The view from Marege': Australian knowledge of Makassar and the impact of the trepangindustry across two centuries |journal=[[Aboriginal History]] |volume=35 |pages=134 |doi=10.22459/AH.35.2011.06 |jstor=24046930 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Denise |date=22 March 2004 |title=Aboriginal-Makassan interactions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in northern Australia and contemporary sea rights claims |url=http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/aasj04.1_%20makassan.pdf |journal=Australian Aboriginal Studies |publisher=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies |volume=2004 |issue=1 |pages=3–17 |issn=0729-4352 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306230858/http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/aasj04.1_%20makassan.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2019 |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref>

===European exploration and colonisation===
{{Main|European maritime exploration of Australia|European land exploration of Australia|History of Australia (1788–1850)}}

[[File:Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770 (painting by E Phillips Fox).jpg|alt=Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770|left|thumb|Landing of [[James Cook]] at [[Botany Bay]] on 29 April 1770]]
The [[Dutch East India Company]] ship, ''[[Duyfken]]'', captained by [[Willem Janszoon]], made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|p=47}}</ref> Later that year, [[Luís Vaz de Torres]] sailed to the north of Australia through [[Torres Strait]], along New Guinea's southern coast.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1967 |title=Torres, Luis Vaez de (?–?) |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/torres-luis-vaez-de-2741 |access-date=16 February 2025 |website=Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University}}</ref> [[Abel Tasman]]'s voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach [[Van Diemen's Land]]. On his second voyage of 1644, he mapped the north coast of Australia south of New Guinea. Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts. They named the continent [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|p=49}}</ref>

In 1770, Captain [[James Cook]] sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "[[New South Wales]]" and claimed for Great Britain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|pp=55–59}}</ref> in 1786, the British government announced its intention to establish a [[penal colony]] in New South Wales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Christopher|Maxwell-Stewart|2013|pp=77–78}}</ref> On 26 January 1788, the [[First Fleet]] commanded by Captain [[Arthur Phillip]], arrived at [[Sydney Cove]], Port Jackson. A camp was established and the [[Flag of Great Britain|Union Flag]] raised. The date later became [[Australia Day|Australia's national day]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=21–22}}</ref>

Most early settlers were [[convicts in Australia|convicts]], [[penal transportation|transported]] for petty crimes and [[convict assignment|assigned]] as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (willing immigrants). Once [[emancipist|emancipated]], convicts tended to integrate into colonial society. Aboriginal resistance, convict rebellions and [[Bushranger|bushranging]] were sometimes suppressed under martial law.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kercher|2020|pp=26–27}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Finnane|2013|pp=391–399}}</ref> The 1808 [[Rum Rebellion]], carried out by officers of the [[New South Wales Corps|New South Wales Corp]], led to a temporary [[military junta]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=53–54}}</ref> During the next two decades, social and economic reforms, together with the establishment of a [[New South Wales Legislative Council|Legislative Council]] and [[Supreme Court of New South Wales|Supreme Court]], saw the penal colony transition to a civil society.<ref>{{Harvnb|Karskens|2013|pp=115–120}}</ref>

The indigenous population declined for 150 years following European settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=82–83, 147–159}}</ref> British colonial authorities did not sign any treaties with [[Aboriginal Australians#Groups and sub-groups|Aboriginal groups]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=42, 111, 147–159, 300}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Rule of Law Education Centre |title=European Settlement and Terra Nullius |url=https://www.ruleoflaw.org.au/education/australian-colonies/terra-nullius/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126110348/https://www.ruleoflaw.org.au/education/australian-colonies/terra-nullius/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As settlement expanded, tens of thousands of Indigenous people and thousands of settlers were killed in [[Australian frontier wars|frontier conflicts]], which many historians argue included acts of [[Genocide of Indigenous Australians|genocide]] by settlers.<ref name="Reynolds 2022">{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2022|pp=103–104, 134, 138–141, 182–192, 241–242}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=Thomas James |last2=Bain |first2=Stephen |title=Genocide and frontier violence in Australia |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=2016 |volume=18 |pages=83–100 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2016.1120466 |quote=Since Curthoys' assertion in 2008 of a general reluctance to engage directly with the question of genocide in the Australian context, there is now a substantial body of Australian scholarship prepared to utilize genocide frameworks in analysing violence on the Australian frontiers, and to conclude that genocide did indeed occur}}</ref> Settlers dispossessed surviving Indigenous peoples of most of their land.<ref name="Reynolds 2022"/>

===Colonial expansion===
{{Main|History of Australia (1788–1850)|History of Australia (1851–1900)}}

[[File:PortArthurPenitentiary.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|alt=A calm body of water is in the foreground. The shoreline is about 200 metres away. To the left, close to the shore, are three tall [[Eucalyptus|gum trees]]; behind them on an incline are ruins, including walls and watchtowers of light-coloured stone and brick, what appear to be the foundations of walls, and grassed areas. To the right lie the outer walls of a large rectangular four-storey building dotted with regularly spaced windows. Forested land rises gently to a peak several kilometres back from the shore.|Tasmania's [[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur]] penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed [[Australian Convict Sites]].]]

In 1803, a settlement was established in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (present-day [[Tasmania]]),<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=464–465, 628–629}}</ref> and in 1813, [[Gregory Blaxland]], [[William Lawson (explorer)|William Lawson]] and [[William Wentworth]] [[1813 crossing of the Blue Mountains|crossed the Blue Mountains]] west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement.<ref>{{Cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |volume=1 |year=1966 |title=Gregory Blaxland (1778–1853) |id2=blaxland-gregory-1795 |first=Jill |last=Conway |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref> The British claim was extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major [[Edmund Lockyer]] established a settlement on [[King George Sound]] (modern-day [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=1967 |title=Lockyer, Edmund (1784–1860) |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lockyer-edmund-2366 |access-date=16 February 2025 |website=Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University}}</ref> The [[Swan River Colony]] (present-day [[Perth]]) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, [[History of Western Australia|Western Australia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=678}}</ref> Separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, [[British colonisation of South Australia|South Australia]] in 1836, [[Colony of Victoria|Victoria]] in 1851, and [[Colony of Queensland|Queensland]] in 1859.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=464}}</ref> South Australia and Victoria were founded as free colonies – they never accepted transported convicts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=598}}</ref> Growing [[Australasian Anti-Transportation League|opposition to the convict system]] culminated in its abolition in the eastern colonies by the 1850s. Initially a free colony, Western Australia accepted convicts from 1850 to 1868.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=79–83, 113}}</ref>

The six colonies individually gained [[responsible government]] between 1855 and 1890, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the [[British Empire]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=556}}</ref> The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=138–39}}</ref> The colonial parliaments progressively extended voting rights to adult men from 1856, with [[women's suffrage]] on equal terms following between the 1890s and 1900s. Some colonies introduced racial restrictions on voting from 1885.<ref>{{Harvnb|Curthoys|Mitchell|2013|pp=164–169}}</ref>

In the mid-19th century, explorers such as [[Burke and Wills expedition|Burke and Wills]] charted Australia's interior.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=109–110}}</ref> A [[Australian gold rushes|series of gold rushes]] beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from [[Chinese Australians|China]], North America and continental Europe,<ref>{{Harvnb|Jupp|2001|pp=35–36}}</ref> as well as outbreaks of [[bushranger|bushranging]] and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when [[Ballarat]] miners launched the [[Eureka Rebellion]] against gold licence fees.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998 |pages=227–29}}</ref> The 1860s saw the rise of [[blackbirding]], where [[South Sea Islanders]] were coerced or abducted into [[indentured labour]], mainly by Queensland colonists.<ref>[https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/exhibitions/australian-south-sea-islanders "Australian South Sea Islanders"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210065156/https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/exhibitions/australian-south-sea-islanders |date=10 December 2023 }}, State Library of Queensland. Retrieved 21 February 2024.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Higginbotham |first=Will |date=17 September 2017 |title=Blackbirding: Australia's history of luring, tricking and kidnapping Pacific Islanders |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126044712/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |website=ABC News}}</ref>

From 1886, Australian colonial governments began [[Stolen Generations|removing many Aboriginal children]] from their families and communities, justified on the grounds of child protection and [[forced assimilation]] policies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Banivanua Mar|Edmonds|2013|pp=355–358, 363–364}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Marlow |first=Karina |date=1 December 2016 |title=Explainer: the Stolen Generations |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/explainer-the-stolen-generations/5ust2jtjy |access-date= |website=NITV }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Loughlin |first=Michael |date=22 June 2020 |title=The Stolen Generation |url=https://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/stolen-generation/ |website=[[Australian Museum]]}}</ref> The [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902) marked the largest overseas deployment of [[colonial forces of Australia|Australia's colonial forces]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2021 |title=Australia and the Boer War, 1899–1902 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/boer |access-date= |website=Australian War Memorial |archive-date=24 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324185402/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/boer |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|p=149}}</ref>

===Federation to the World Wars===
{{Main|History of Australia (1901–1945)}}

{{See also|Federation of Australia|Military history of Australia during World War I|Military history of Australia during World War II}}
[[File:Opening of the first parliament.jpg|thumb|''[[The Big Picture (painting)|The Big Picture]]'', a painting by [[Tom Roberts]], depicts the opening of the first Australian Parliament in 1901.]]
On 1 January 1901, [[Federation of Australia|federation of the colonies]] was achieved after a decade of planning, [[Constitutional Convention (Australia)|constitutional conventions]] and [[1898–1900 Australian constitutional referendums|referendums]], resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation under the new [[Constitution of Australia|Australian Constitution]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998 |pages=243–44}}</ref>

From 1901, Australia was a self-governing [[dominion]] within the British Empire.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of the Commonwealth|url=http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/history/|website=Commonwealth Network|publisher=Commonwealth of Nations|access-date=16 February 2015|archive-date=25 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425043631/http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/history/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was one of the founding members of the [[League of Nations]] in 1920,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Covenant of the League of Nations |url=https://www.ungeneva.org/en/about/league-of-nations/covenant |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127003532/https://www.ungeneva.org/en/about/league-of-nations/covenant |archive-date=27 January 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=The United Nations Office at Geneva }}</ref> and the [[Member states of the United Nations|United Nations]] in 1945.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Growth in United Nations membership |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201204200/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership |archive-date=1 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=United Nations }}</ref> The ''[[Statute of Westminster 1931]]'' ended the ability of the UK to legislate for Australia at the federal level without Australia's consent. Australia [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adopted it]] in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed during World War II.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=609}}</ref>

The [[Australian Capital Territory]] was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of [[Canberra]]. While it was being constructed, [[Melbourne]] served as the temporary capital from 1901 to 1927.<ref>{{Harvnb|Souter|2000|pp=206–217}}</ref> The [[Northern Territory]] was transferred from the control of South Australia to the Commonwealth in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Souter|2000|pp=|p=230}}</ref> Australia took over the administration of the [[Territory of Papua]] (which had previously been a British colony) in 1905 and of the [[Territory of New Guinea]] (formerly [[German New Guinea]]) in 1920. The two were unified as the [[Territory of Papua and New Guinea]] in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McDermott |first=Peter M |date=2009 |title=Australian Citizenship and the Independence of Papua New Guinea |url=https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/UNSWLawJl/2009/3.html |url-status=live |journal=UNSW Law Journal |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=50–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208072215/https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/UNSWLawJl/2009/3.html |archive-date=8 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |via=[[Austlii]]}}</ref>

[[File:Darwin 42.jpg|thumb|The 1942 [[Bombing of Darwin]], the first of more than 100 [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–1943|Japanese air raids on Australia]] during [[World War II]]]]
In 1914, Australia joined the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] in the First World War, and took part in the fighting on several fronts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2021 |title=First World War 1914–18 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/first-world-war |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120020555/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/first-world-war |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date= |website=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Of the 324,000 men who served overseas, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garton|Stanley|2013|p=40}}</ref> Many Australians regard the defeat of the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZAC) at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] in 1915 as the "baptism of fire" that forged the [[Anzac spirit|new nation's identity]].<ref name="Macintyre 2020">{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=168–170}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 January 2024 |title=The Anzac legend |url=https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/personnel/anzac-legend |website=Department of Veterans' Affairs |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304225421/https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/personnel/anzac-legend |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Landing at Anzac Cove|beginning of the campaign]] is commemorated annually on [[Anzac Day]], a date which rivals [[Australia Day]] as the nation's most important.<ref name="Macintyre 2020" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Dennis|Grey|Morris|Prior|2008|pp=32, 38}}</ref>

From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in fighting the Second World War. Australia's [[Australian Defence Force|armed forces]] fought in the [[Pacific War|Pacific]], [[European Theatre of World War II|European]] and [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Mediterranean and Middle East]] [[List of theaters and campaigns of World War II|theatres]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=198–205}}</ref> The shock of Britain's [[fall of Singapore|defeat in Singapore]] in 1942, followed soon after by the [[bombing of Darwin]] and [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–43|other Japanese attacks on Australian soil]], led to a widespread belief in Australia that [[Proposed Japanese invasion of Australia during World War II|a Japanese invasion was imminent]], and a shift from the United Kingdom to the [[Australia–United States relations|United States]] as Australia's principal ally and security partner.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=22–23}}</ref> Since 1951, Australia has been allied with the United States under the [[ANZUS]] treaty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=30}}</ref>

===Post-war and contemporary eras===
{{Main|History of Australia (1945–present)}}

[[File:Dutch Migrant 1954 MariaScholte=50000thToAustraliaPostWW2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Post-war immigration to Australia|Postwar migrants]] from Europe arriving in Australia in 1954]]
In the three decades following World War II, Australia experienced significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=208–209, 228–229}}</ref> Governments encouraged a [[Post-war immigration to Australia|large wave of immigration from across Europe]] and called these migrants "[[New Australians]]". High immigration was justified to Australians using the slogan "populate or perish",<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=210–212}}</ref> and from the 1960s the [[white Australia policy]] was gradually relaxed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=237–238}}</ref>

A member of the [[Western Bloc]] during the [[Cold War]], Australia participated in the [[Australia in the Korean War|Korean War]] and the [[Military history of Australia during the Malayan Emergency|Malayan Emergency]] during the 1950s and the [[Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War|Vietnam War]] from 1962 to 1973.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dean|Moss|2021|pp=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2023 |title=Vietnam War 1962–75 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/event/vietnam |access-date=17 February 2025 |website=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Tensions over communist influence in society led to [[1951 Australian Communist Party ban referendum|unsuccessful attempts]] by the [[Menzies Government (1949–1966)|Menzies Government]] to ban the [[Communist Party of Australia]], and a [[Australian Labor Party split of 1955|bitter split]] in the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] in 1955.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=223–225}}</ref>

As a result of a [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]], the federal government gained the power to legislate with regard to Aboriginal Australians, and Aboriginal Australians were fully included in the [[Census in Australia|census]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Broome|2019|pp=221–222}}</ref> [[Aboriginal title|Pre-colonial land interests]] (referred to as [[Native title in Australia|native title]] in Australia) was recognised in law for the first time when the [[High Court of Australia]] held in ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' that Australia was not ''[[terra nullius]]'' ({{Gloss|land belonging to no one}}) at the time of European settlement.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Galloway |first=Kate |date=26 April 2017 |title=Australian politics explainer: the Mabo decision and native title |url=http://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-mabo-decision-and-native-title-74147 |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125000636/http://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-mabo-decision-and-native-title-74147 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=5–7, 402}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Secher|2004|pp=703–709}}</ref>

Following the abolition of the last vestiges of the [[White Australia policy]] in 1973,<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |title= Fact Sheet – Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy|location= Commonwealth of Australia|publisher= National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship|work= Australian Immigration |access-date= 27 March 2013 |archive-date= 19 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131355/http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |url-status= dead}}</ref> Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=338–39, 442–43, 681–82}}</ref> The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other [[Asia–Pacific|Asia{{En dash}}Pacific]] nations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akami|Milner|2013|pp=552–560}}</ref> The [[Australia Acts]] of 1986 severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom while maintaining the monarch in her independent capacity as [[Queen of Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-32.html|title=Australia Act 1986 (Cth)|access-date=25 July 2020|work=Documenting a Democracy|publisher=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House|archive-date=22 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422204352/https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-32.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Twomey |first=Anne |date=January 2008 |title=The States, the Commonwealth and the Crown—the Battle for Sovereignty |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/pop48/battlesovereignty |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |series=Papers on Parliament No. 48 |archive-date=9 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909014023/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/pop48/battlesovereignty |url-status=live }}</ref> In a [[1999 Australian republic referendum|1999 constitutional referendum]], 55% of voters rejected [[Republicanism in Australia|abolishing the monarchy]] and becoming a republic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1999: Republic referendum: Queen and/or Country |url=https://moadoph.gov.au/explore/democracy/1999-republic-referendum |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117083033/https://www.moadoph.gov.au/explore/democracy/1999-republic-referendum |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following the [[September 11 attacks]] on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the [[Military history of Australia during the War in Afghanistan|Afghanistan War]] from 2001 to 2021 and the [[Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq War]] from 2003 to 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 September 2024 |title=Post 9/11, Afghanistan and Iraq |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/event/afghanistan |access-date=18 February 2025 |website=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's [[List of the largest trading partners of Australia|largest trading partner]] by a large margin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/fifty-years-of-Australias-trade.pdf |title=Fifty years of Australia's trade |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=6 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206235853/http://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/fifty-years-of-Australias-trade.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In response to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Australia|COVID-19 pandemic]], from March 2020 [[COVID-19 lockdowns|lockdowns]] and other restrictions on public gatherings and movement across the national and state borders were implemented by the Federal, state and territory governments. Following the rollout of vaccines in 2021, these restrictions were gradually eased. In October 2023, Australia declared that COVID-19 was no longer a communicable disease incident of national significance.<ref>{{Harvnb|COVID 19 Response Inquiry Panel|2024|pp=50–56}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Australia|Environment of Australia}}

{{See also|Environmental issues in Australia}}

===General characteristics===
[[File:Reliefmap of Australia.png|thumb|upright=1.3|right|alt=Map showing the topography of Australia, showing some elevation in the west and very high elevation in mountains in the south-east|Topographic map of Australia. Dark green represents the lowest elevation and dark brown the highest]]

Australia consists of the mainland Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, numerous smaller offshore islands, and the remote offshore territories of [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], [[Coral Sea Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard and McDonald Islands]], and [[Norfolk Island]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2024 |title=Remote Offshore Territories |url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250220230344/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories |archive-date=20 February 2025 |access-date=21 February 2025 |website=Australian Government, Geoscience Australia}}</ref> Australia also claims about 42% of Antarctica as the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]], but this claim is only recognised by four other countries.<ref name="Scott 2021"/>

Mainland Australia lies between latitudes [[9th parallel south|9°]] and [[44th parallel south|44° south]], and longitudes [[112th meridian east|112°]] and [[154th meridian east|154° east]].<ref name="Geoscience Australia-2014a" /> Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas, with the [[Coral Sea]] lying off the Queensland coast, and the [[Tasman Sea]] lying between Australia and New Zealand. The [[Great Barrier Reef]], the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for more than {{Cvt|2300|km}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=58}}</ref>

The mainland is the world's smallest continent and the country is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|sixth-largest by total area]].<ref name="Blewett 2012">{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=17}}</ref> Australia is sometimes considered the world's [[List of islands by area|largest island]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=1}}</ref> and is often dubbed the "island continent".<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=1, 10, 27}}</ref> It has {{Cvt|35877|km}} of coastline (excluding all offshore islands),<ref name="Blewett 2012"/> and claims an [[Exclusive economic zone of Australia|exclusive economic zone]] of {{Convert|8148250|km2|sqmi}}. This exclusive economic zone does not include the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceans and Seas – Geoscience Australia |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620022412/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp |archive-date=20 June 2009 |publisher=Geoscience Australia}}</ref>

[[File:Fitzroy Island.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|[[Fitzroy Island (Queensland)|Fitzroy Island]], one of the 600 islands within the main archipelago of the [[Great Barrier Reef]]]]Most of Australia is arid or semi-arid.<ref name="Blewett 2012-3">{{Harvardnb|Blewett|2012|p=|pp=28-30}}</ref> In 2021, Australia had 10% of the global permanent meadows and pastureland.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |title=World Food and Agriculture: Statistical Yearbook 2023 |date=2023 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 |doi=10.4060/cc8166en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215161116/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |archive-date=15 December 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Forest cover]] is around 17% of Australia's land area.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Australia |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/AUS/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref> The Australian mainland is relatively flat, with an average height of {{Convert|325|m|ft}} compared with {{Convert|870|m|ft}} for all continents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=234}}</ref> The [[Great Dividing Range]] runs along most of eastern Australia, dividing the central lowlands from the eastern highlands.<ref name="Geoscience Australia-2014">{{Cite web |date=15 May 2014 |title=Highest Mountains |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321184228/http://ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html |archive-date=21 March 2012 |access-date=2 February 2012 |publisher=Geoscience Australia}}</ref> At {{Cvt|2228|m}}, [[Mount Kosciuszko]] is the highest mountain on the mainland. Taller are [[Mawson Peak]], at {{Cvt|2745|m}}, on Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, [[Mount McClintock]] and [[Mount Menzies]], at {{Cvt|3492|m}} and {{Cvt|3355|m}} respectively.<ref name="Geoscience Australia-2014" />[[File:Uluru, helicopter view, cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[Uluru]] in the semi-arid region of Central Australia]]The [[Murray–Darling basin|Murray-Darling]] is the major river system, draining most of inland New South Wales and Southern Queensland towards [[Lake Alexandrina (South Australia)|Lake Alexandrina]] and the sea in South Australia. There are also smaller coastal river systems, inland drainage systems such as the [[Lake Eyre basin|Lake Eyre]] system, and salt lake systems in central and western Australia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=18–19}}</ref> Australia's rivers have the lowest discharge into the sea of any continent. The mainland's flat, arid profile also makes its rivers slow-moving, resulting in a build up of salt on the land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=30, 229}}</ref> Salinisation adversely affects Australia's soil which is, on average, poor in nutrients compared with world standards.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=229, 253}}</ref>

Australia's population is concentrated on the coastal fringes. About 95% of the population lives within 100 km of the coast; the world average is 39%.<ref name="Blewett 2012-2">{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=16}}</ref> Australia's [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|population density]] is 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometre,<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2023"/> which is one of the lowest in the world.<ref name="Blewett 2012-2" /> However, there is a large concentration of the population in cities along the temperate south-eastern coastline, and population density exceeds 38 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2023" />

===Geology===
{{Main|Geology of Australia}}

[[File:Ausgeolbasic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Basic geological regions of Australia (by age)]]

Formerly part of the [[Rodinia]] and [[Gondwana]] [[supercontinent]]s,<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=109–110}}</ref> Australia completely separated from Antarctica about 35 million years ago and continued drifting northwards.<ref name="Kennett">{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=4}}</ref> When the [[Last Glacial Period]] ended, rising sea levels separated the Australian mainland from New Guinea about 8,000 years ago and from [[Tasmania]] about 6,000 years ago.<ref name="Kennett" />

Australia lies well within the [[Australian plate|Australian tectonic plate]]. The mainland is relatively stable geologically, with no major mountain building, active volcanoes or tectonic faults.<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=11}}</ref> However, the Australian plate is moving north-northeast at a rate of about 6 to 7 cm a year and is currently in collision with the [[Eurasian plate]] and [[Pacific plate]].<ref name="Kennett-2">{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=6}}</ref> The resulting intratectonic stresses lead to relatively high seismic activity for a geologically stable landmass. There were 18 earthquakes with a [[Moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of greater than 6 between 1901 and 2017.<ref name="Kennett-2" /> The [[1989 Newcastle earthquake|Newcastle earthquake]] of 1989 was Australia's deadliest, killing 13 people.<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=15}}</ref> There were active volcanoes on the eastern mainland as recently as 4,600 years ago,<ref name="Kennett-3">{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=8}}</ref> and this is reflected in Aboriginal place names and creation stories.<ref>Johnson, Sian (21 March 2020). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-21/indigenous-stories-from-times-of-volcanic-eruptions/12003576 How Gunditjmara words and traditions hold stories of Victoria's rich volcanic history] ''[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]''. Retrieved 25 March 2025.</ref> Currently, [[volcanism]] occurs in the remote [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=22}}</ref>

The Australian continental crust was created in three cycles from the oldest [[Archean|Archaean]] [[craton]]s in the west to the younger [[Orogenic belt|orogenic]] formations in the east (built about 541 million to 252 million years ago).<ref name="Kennett-3" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=130}}</ref> The oldest Australian surface rocks date to the Archaean period. Some in Western Australia are older than 3.7 billion years and others in South Australia are over 3.1 billion years old. The oldest zircon crystals on Earth, dating back 4.4 billion years, have been found in Western Australia. However, about 80 per cent of Australia is covered by sedimentary rocks and [[regolith]] that are less than 250 million years old.<ref name="Kennett-3" />

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Australia}}

[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 AUS 1991–2020.svg|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Australia<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|issue=1|page=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>]]
[[File:Kakadu 2534.jpg|thumb|right|A [[billabong]] in the [[Kakadu National Park]], [[Northern Territory]]. The monsoon climate of northern Australia is hot and humid in summer.]]
The Australian climate ranges from wet tropical in the northeast and northwest to arid in the centre. The coastal south is temperate and humid with winter freezing and snow in the southeastern highlands and Tasmania. The climate is influenced by Australia's position in the "[[horse latitudes]]", which tends to bring arid conditions.<ref name="Henderson">{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=18–20}}</ref> Overall, the Australian mainland is the driest inhabited continent, with an average annual rainfall of {{Convert|470|mm|in}}.<ref name="Blewett 2012-3" /> About 70% of the country is arid or semi-arid,<ref name="Blewett 2012-3" /> and about 18% is desert.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2014 |title=Deserts |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/deserts |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605132206/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/deserts.html |archive-date=5 June 2014 |access-date=13 August 2018 |work=Geoscience Australia |publisher=Australian Government}}</ref>

The climate is also influenced by various systems such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]], the [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] and the [[Antarctic oscillation|Southern Annular Mode]].<ref name="Australian Government, Bureau of Meteorology">{{Cite web |title=State of the Climate 2024 |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250225033319/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/ |archive-date=25 February 2025 |access-date=25 February 2025 |website=Australian Government, Bureau of Meteorology}}</ref> Australia has unusual variability in rainfall within years and between years, leading to frequent droughts and flooding. Cyclones and rain depressions are common in tropical Australia. The summer monsoon brings significant rainfall to northern Australia and low pressure cells bring winter rainfall in the south. The hottest regions are in the northwest of the country and the coolest in the southeast. Bushfire conditions are common in southern Australia.<ref name="Henderson" />

[[Climate change]] from increased [[greenhouse gas emissions]] has led to a 1.5 °C rise in Australian temperatures since 1910 and an increase in extreme heat and heavy rainfall events. There has been a reduction in rainfall from April to October in southern Australia since 1970 and a longer bushfire season since the 1950s. Rainfall has increased in northern Australia since the 1970s. The number of tropical cyclones has fallen since 1982 and alpine snow has decreased since the late 1950s. Sea levels are rising around Australia and the surrounding oceans are becoming more acidic.<ref name="Australian Government, Bureau of Meteorology" />

===Biodiversity===
{{See also|Fauna of Australia|Flora of Australia|Fungi of Australia}}
[[File:Koala climbing tree.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|alt=A koala holding onto a eucalyptus tree with its head turned so both eyes are visible|[[Koala]] and ''[[Eucalyptus]]'']]

Australia is one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Megan C. |last2=Watson |first2=James E. M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Richard A. |last4=Venter |first4=Oscar |last5=Bennett |first5=Simon C. |last6=Marsack |first6=Peter R. |last7=Possingham |first7=Hugh P. |date=April 2011 |title=The Spatial Distribution of Threats to Species in Australia |journal=BioScience |volume=61 |issue=4 |page=282 |doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.4.8 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Because of its long geographic isolation, much of Australia's [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] is unique.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=7–9}}</ref> About 94% of its [[Amphibians of Australia|amphibians]], 93% of its [[List of reptiles of Australia|reptiles]] and [[Flora of Australia|flowering plants]], 69% of its [[Mammals of Australia|mammals]] and 46% of its [[Birds of Australia|birds]] are [[Endemism|endemic]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|p=4}}</ref> Australia has a wide range of [[ecosystem]]s of which 89 regions and 419 subregions are recognised in the Australian bioregion framework.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=55}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2023 |title=Australia's bioregion framework |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/ibra/australias-bioregion-framework |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303050656/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/ibra/australias-bioregion-framework |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref>

In January 2025, there were 168,386 named species on the Australian National Species List.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NSL Stats |url=https://test-web.biodiversity.org.au/nsl/stats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228050842/https://test-web.biodiversity.org.au/nsl/stats |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=Australian National Species List}}</ref> However, it is estimated that 70% of Australian species have not been discovered and classified and that there may be 600,000 Australian native species.<ref name="Murphy"/> In general, knowledge of [[vertebrate]]s and flowering plants is better than for [[invertebrate]]s and [[Fungus|fungi]]. It is estimated that less that 10% of [[Fungi of Australia|Australia's fungi]] and insects have been named.<ref name="Murphy">{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|pp=14–15}}</ref>

About 10% of the world's known plant species are found in Australia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=22}}</ref> Many of these have adapted to the arid climate, variable rainfall and nutrient-poor soil. [[Deserts and xeric shrublands|Deserts and xeric shrubland]] cover about 70% of the mainland. [[Acacia]], [[banksia]] and [[eucalypt]]s have spread over much of Australia. Many plants have hard and long-living leaves, and are rich in carbon, poor in nutrients, and well adapted to bushfires.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=9–11}}</ref>

About two-thirds of the world's 330 species of [[marsupial]]s are native to Australia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2018 |title=What is a marsupial? |url=https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-marsupial/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228055517/https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-marsupial/ |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=Australian Museum}}</ref> Australian [[placental mammals]] (overwhelmingly bats, rats and mice) also make up almost 47% of the world's land mammal species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|p=9}}</ref> Australia has about 10% of the world's known reptile species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=37}}</ref> There are also about 320,500 invertebrate species, of which insects are the largest class, accounting for more than 75% of all animal species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=45}}</ref> Australia has over 15,000 known species of fungi, although it is possible that tens of thousands more exist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=53}}</ref>

Australia's wildlife show many adaptations to their environments. As the leaves of most plants are poor in nutrients, Australia has a high proportion of birds, insects and marsupials, such as the [[honey possum]], that feed on nectar and pollen. The [[koala]] is an exception, specialising in feeding on eucalyptus leaves.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2018 |title=World-first mapping of complete Koala genome brings hope for the icon's future |url=https://australian.museum/blog/science/world-first-mapping-of-complete-koala-genome-brings-hope-for-the-icons-future/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250302071105/https://australian.museum/blog/science/world-first-mapping-of-complete-koala-genome-brings-hope-for-the-icons-future/ |archive-date=2 March 2025 |access-date=2 March 2025 |website=Australian Museum}}</ref><ref name="Nipperess 2015">{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=9–12}}</ref> Nutritionally poor flora and variable rainfall also favour animals with lower energy requirements, including snakes, lizards, and hopping marsupials such as the [[kangaroo]] and [[wallaby]]. There is, however, evidence of [[convergent evolution]] of Australia's marsupials and the placental mammals of other continents living in similar environments. For example, the extinct [[thylacine]] (Tasmanian tiger) had similarities with the placental wolf, [[marsupial mole]]s with the [[golden mole]]s of Africa, and [[Hopping mouse|hopping mice]] with the hopping rodents of other arid regions.<ref name="Nipperess 2015" />

There were major extinctions of Australia's vertebrates, including its [[Australian megafauna|megafauna]], around 46 thousand years ago, and there is an ongoing scientific debate over the role of human activity and climate change in these extinctions. The contraction of the range of the Tasmanian tiger and [[Tasmanian devil]] to that island around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is also consistent with changes on the mainland including an increasing human population, the introduction of the [[dingo]], and the greater use of fire and new stone tool technologies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Burrell |first1=Sue |last2=Eldridge |first2=Mark |date=11 July 2024 |title=Dingo |url=https://australian.museum/learn/animals/mammals/dingo/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250302234032/https://australian.museum/learn/animals/mammals/dingo/ |archive-date=2 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=The Australian Museum}}</ref>

Over the past two centuries, Australia has lost more mammal species than any other continent. Overall, 100 Australian species are listed as extinct or extinct in the wild. In June 2021, over 1,000 animal and plant species were listed by Australian governments as endangered or critically endangered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|pp=12, 18}}</ref> The major threats to endangered species are landscape change, ecosystem disruption, introduced species such as the [[Cats in Australia|feral cat]] and [[Red foxes in Australia|red fox]], and climate change.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=16–17}}</ref>

The federal ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2025 |title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303035240/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref> The [[National Reserve System]] is Australia's network of protected areas. As at 30 June 2022, it covered over 22% of Australia's land mass.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Reserve System |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303040635/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref> ''Australia's Strategy for Nature 2024–2030'' is the national biodiversity plan that aims to reverse biodiversity loss in Australia by 2030 and meet the county's obligations under the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity]] and other international agreements.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2024 |title=Australia's Strategy for Nature 2024–2030 |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation/publications/australias-strategy-for-nature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303041458/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation/publications/australias-strategy-for-nature |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 February 2025 |title=UN Convention on Biological Diversity |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/international/un-convention-biological-diversity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303042129/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/international/un-convention-biological-diversity |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Australian Government|Politics of Australia|Monarchy of Australia}}

{{Multiple image
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 400
| image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg
| caption1 = [[Charles III]] [[Monarchy of Australia|King of Australia]] 
| image2 = Sam Mostyn 2024.jpg
| caption2 = [[Sam Mostyn]] [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] 
| image3 = Anthony Albanese portrait (re-crop).jpg
| caption3 = [[Anthony Albanese]] [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] 
}}

Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]], a [[parliamentary democracy]] and a [[federation]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2024 |title=Australian system of government |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/australian-system-of-government |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214204120/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/australian-system-of-government |url-status=live }}</ref> The country has maintained its mostly unchanged [[Constitution of Australia|constitution]] alongside a stable [[Liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] political system since [[Federation of Australia|Federation]] in 1901. It is one of the world's oldest federations, in which power is divided between the federal and [[States and territories of Australia|state]] governments. The [[Politics of Australia|Australian system of government]] combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a [[Fusion of powers|fused executive]], constitutional monarchy and [[Party discipline|strong party discipline]]) and the United States ([[federalism]], a [[written constitution]] and [[bicameralism|strong bicameralism]] with a Senate in which states have equal representation), resulting in a distinct hybrid.<ref name="Thompson-1980">{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Elaine |year=1980 |title=The 'Washminster' Mutation |journal=[[Australian Journal of Political Science|Politics]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |page=32 |doi=10.1080/00323268008401755}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title=What is the Washminster system? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/questions/what-is-the-washminster-system |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215070719/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/questions/what-is-the-washminster-system |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Separation of powers in Australia|Federal government power is partially separated]] between three groups:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Separation of powers: Parliament, Executive and Judiciary |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031132705/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |archive-date=31 October 2023 |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |publisher= }}</ref>
* Legislature: the bicameral [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]], comprising the [[Monarchy of Australia|monarch]], the [[Australian Senate|Senate]], and the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]
* Executive: the [[Australian Government]], led by the prime minister (the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the House of Representatives), their chosen [[Cabinet of Australia|Cabinet]] and other ministers; formally appointed by the governor-general<ref name="The World Factbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Australia |section=Government |access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref>
* Judiciary: the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]] and other [[Australian court hierarchy|federal courts]]

Following elections on 3 May 2025, the prime minister is [[Anthony Albanese]] of the [[Australian Labor Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Worthington |first=Brett |date=3 May 2025 |title=Anthony Albanese and Labor claim landslide election win as Peter Dutton loses seat |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-05-03/federal-election-anthony-albanese-wins/105247712 |website=Australia Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> [[Charles III]] reigns as [[King of Australia]] and is represented in Australia by the [[Governor-General of Australia|governor-general]] at the federal level and by the [[Governors of the Australian states|governors]] at the state level, who by [[Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia#Section 63: Provisions referring to Governor-General|section 63]] of the Constitution and convention act on the advice of their ministers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=287–88}}</ref><ref name="Governor-General of Australia">{{Cite web |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804130529/http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-date=4 August 2008 |title=Governor-General's Role|publisher=Governor-General of Australia |access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the [[Prime Minister of Australia|prime minister]] and the Cabinet. The governor-general may in some situations exercise [[reserve power]]s: powers exercisable in the absence of, or contrary to, ministerial advice. When these powers may be exercised is governed by convention and their precise scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the [[Whitlam government]] in the [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis|constitutional crisis of 1975]].<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=Parliament of Australia|date=23 January 1998 |access-date=18 June 2010|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm |title=The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General|author=Downing, Susan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726170040/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm |archive-date=26 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Canberra (AU), Parliament House -- 2019 -- 1746.jpg|alt=A large white and cream coloured building with grass on its roof. The building is topped with a large flagpole.|right|thumb|[[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]], [[Canberra]], [[Australian Capital Territory]]]]
In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).<ref name="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm |title=Senate Summary|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506235552/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm |archive-date=6 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member [[Divisions of the Australian House of Representatives|electoral divisions]], commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each of the current states guaranteed a minimum of five seats.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Muller |first=Damon |date=26 April 2023 |title=The process for, and consequences of, changing the size of the Commonwealth Parliament: a quick guide |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2223/Quick_Guides/ChangingSizeCommonwealthParliament |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511175801/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2223/Quick_Guides/ChangingSizeCommonwealthParliament |archive-date=11 May 2023 |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia }}</ref> The lower house has a maximum term of three years, but this is not fixed and governments usually dissolve the house early for an election at some point in the 6 months before the maximum.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/report |title=The 2004 Federal Election |date=10 October 2005 |publisher=Parliament of Australia |isbn=978-0-642-78705-7 |at=paras. 7.26–7.27 |chapter=Parliamentary terms |chapter-url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/chapter7 |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125005940/https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/report |url-status=live }}</ref> Elections for both chambers are generally held simultaneously with senators having overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house. Thus, only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a [[double dissolution]].<ref name="Australian Broadcasting Corporation" />

Australia's [[electoral system of Australia|electoral system]] uses [[Instant-runoff voting|preferential voting]] for the House of Representatives and all state and territory lower house elections (with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which use the [[Hare-Clark system]]). The Senate and most state upper houses use the [[single transferable vote|proportional system]] which combines preferential voting with [[proportional representation]] for each state. [[Compulsory voting|Voting and enrolment is compulsory]] for all enrolled citizens 18 years and older in every jurisdiction.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aec.gov.au/pdf/voting/compulsory_voting.pdf |title=Compulsory Voting in Australia|last=Evans|first=Tim|year=2006|publisher=Australian Electoral Commission|page=4 |access-date=21 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611200653/http://www.aec.gov.au/pdf/voting/compulsory_voting.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://aec.gov.au/FAQs/Enrolment.htm#compulsory |title=Is it compulsory to enrol, regardless of age or disability?|work=Enrolment – Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=Australian Electoral Commission |access-date=11 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524015925/https://aec.gov.au/FAQs/Enrolment.htm |archive-date=24 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=Judith |last=Brett |title=From Secret Ballot to Democracy Sausage: How Australia Got Compulsory Voting |publisher=Text Publishing Co |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-9256-0384-2}}</ref> The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes prime minister. The governor-general appoints the prime minister and may dismiss one who has lost the confidence of parliament or acts illegally.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/content.php/page/id/3/title/governor-generals-role |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014171300/http://www.gg.gov.au/content.php/page/id/3/title/governor-generals-role |archive-date=14 October 2012 |title=Governor-General's Role|publisher=Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia |access-date=13 January 2012}}</ref> As Australia is a [[Westminster system|Westminster]] parliamentary democracy with a powerful and elected upper house, its system has sometimes been called a "Washminster mutation",<ref name="Thompson-1980" /> or semi-parliamentary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ganghof |first1=S |title=A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government |journal=European Journal of Political Research |date=May 2018 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=261–281 |doi=10.1111/1475-6765.12224 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

There are two major political groups that have usually formed government federally: the [[Australian Labor Party]]  and the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] which is a grouping of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and its minor partner, the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |title=Glossary of Election Terms |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306034515/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |title=State of the Parties|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418163914/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |archive-date= 18 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> At the state level of government, the relationship between the Nationals and the Liberal Party differs, with the parties [[Liberal National Party of Queensland|merged in Queensland]] and the [[Country Liberal Party|Northern Territory]] (federal parliamentarians, however, sit in either the Liberal or National party room); in coalition in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia; and in competition with the Liberals in South Australia and Tasmania.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 July 2008 |title=The Liberal-National Party – a new model party? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-07-30/the-liberal-national-party---a-new-model-party/457812 |access-date=8 September 2021 |website=ABC News |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007033647/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-07-30/the-liberal-national-party---a-new-model-party/457812 |url-status=live }}</ref> Within Australian political culture, the Labor Party is considered [[centre-left]] and the Coalition is considered [[centre-right]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fenna|first1=Alan|last2=Robbins|first2=Jane|last3=Summers|first3=John |title=Government Politics in Australia|publisher=Pearson Higher Education AU|location=London|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4860-0138-5|page=139}}</ref> Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The [[Australian Greens]] have been the third largest party by both vote and membership since 2004.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/old-greens-wounds-reopen-as-members-vote-on-directly-electing-leader-20200422-p54m5r.html|title=Old Greens wounds reopen as members vote on directly electing leader|last=Harris|first=Rob|date=22 April 2020|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=22 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422080256/https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/old-greens-wounds-reopen-as-members-vote-on-directly-electing-leader-20200422-p54m5r.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Stewart |title=The Australian Greens: from activism to Australia's third party |date=2016 |publisher=Melbourne University Press |isbn=978-0-5228-6794-7}}</ref>

===States and territories===
{{Main|States and territories of Australia}}

[[File:Australia states and territories labelled.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|Australia's states and territories]]

Australia has six states – [[New South Wales]] (NSW), [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] (Vic), [[Queensland]] (Qld), [[Western Australia]] (WA), [[South Australia]] (SA) and [[Tasmania]] (Tas) – and two mainland self-governing territories – the [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) and the [[Northern Territory]] (NT).<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title=What's the difference between a territory and a state parliament? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318145108/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice |url-status=live }}</ref>

The states have the general power to make laws except in the few areas where the constitution grants the Commonwealth (the federal level of government) exclusive powers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=405–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2022 |title=Three levels of government: governing Australia |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government/three-levels-of-government-governing-australia |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104073724/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government/three-levels-of-government-governing-australia |url-status=live }}</ref> The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the constitution but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=528–30, 577–80}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|coaca430|Australian Constitution|109}}. "When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid."</ref> Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the states [[Australian constitutional law#Growth of federal power|has significantly increased]] due to the increasingly wide interpretation given to listed Commonwealth powers{{snd}}and because of the states' [[Fiscal imbalance in Australia|heavy financial reliance]] on Commonwealth grants.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=607–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Luke |title=Australian constitutional law: concepts and cases |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge university press |isbn=978-1-108-70103-7 |location=Port Melbourne, VIC |pages=521–8}}</ref>

Each state and major mainland territory has [[Parliaments of the Australian states and territories|its own parliament]] – [[unicameral]] in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The lower houses are known as the [[Legislative Assembly]] (the [[House of Assembly]] in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the [[Legislative council|Legislative Council]]. The [[head of government|head of the government]] in each state is the [[Premiers of the Australian states|premier]] and in each territory the [[Chief Minister|chief minister]]. The King is represented in each state by a [[Governors of the Australian states|governor]]. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the governor-general.<ref name="Governor-General of Australia"/>

The Commonwealth government directly administers the internal [[Jervis Bay Territory]] and the external territories: the [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], the [[Coral Sea Islands]], the [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]], the [[Australian Indian Ocean Territories|Indian Ocean territories]] (Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands), [[Norfolk Island]],{{Refn|Norfolk Island previously was self-governed, however this was revoked in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080806021653/http://ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Territories_of_AustraliaNorfolk_IslandAdministrator_of_Norfolk_Island|url=http://ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Territories_of_AustraliaNorfolk_Island|publisher=Australian Government Attorney-General's Department |title=Administrator of Norfolk Island |archive-date=6 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/may/12/norfolk-island-loses-its-parliament-as-canberra-takes-control|title=Norfolk Island loses its parliament as Canberra takes control|first1=Monica|last1=Tan|author2=Australian Associated Press|date=12 May 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=21 October 2015|archive-date=28 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028072820/http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/may/12/norfolk-island-loses-its-parliament-as-canberra-takes-control|url-status=live}}</ref>}} and the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]].{{Refn|This [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|Antarctic claim]] is recognised by only by New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway.}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Territories |url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/territories-regions-cities/australian-territories |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308213252/https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/territories-regions-cities/australian-territories |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="The World Factbook"/> The remote [[Macquarie Island]] and [[Lord Howe Island]] are part of Tasmania and New South Wales respectively.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Macquarie Island research station to be closed in 2017|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-13/macquarie-island-research-station-to-be-closed-in-2017/7839640|work=ABC News|date=13 September 2016|access-date=19 October 2019|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025034637/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-13/macquarie-island-research-station-to-be-closed-in-2017/7839640|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Southerden |first=Louise |date=8 November 2017 |title=Which island should you visit - Lord Howe or Norfolk? A guide to both |url=https://www.smh.com.au/traveller/inspiration/a-tale-of-two-islands-lord-howe-v-norfolk-20171107-gzg8tz.html |access-date= |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216030715/https://www.smh.com.au/traveller/inspiration/a-tale-of-two-islands-lord-howe-v-norfolk-20171107-gzg8tz.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Australia}}

[[File:Diplomatic missions of Australia.png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|[[List of diplomatic missions of Australia|Diplomatic missions of Australia]]]]
Australia is a [[middle power]],<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://power.lowyinstitute.org/downloads/lowy-institute-2023-asia-power-index-key-findings-report.pdf |title=Lowy Institute Asian Power Index |date=2023 |page=29 |isbn=978-0-6480189-3-3 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220212559/https://power.lowyinstitute.org/downloads/lowy-institute-2023-asia-power-index-key-findings-report.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> whose foreign relations has three core bi-partisan pillars: commitment to the US alliance, engagement with the [[Indo-Pacific]] and support for international institutions, rules and co-operation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyngell |first=Allan |date=31 July 2022 |title=A new Australian foreign policy agenda under Albanese |url=https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/07/31/a-new-australian-foreign-policy-agenda-under-albanese/ |access-date= |website=East Asia Forum |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023926/https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/07/31/a-new-australian-foreign-policy-agenda-under-albanese/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Australian Government-2017">{{Cite report |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2017-foreign-policy-white-paper.pdf |title=2017 Foreign Policy White Paper |date=2017 |publisher=Australian Government |pages=1–8 |access-date=17 February 2024 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119034716/https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2017-foreign-policy-white-paper.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Firth |first=Stewart |title=Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy |date=2011 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-263-1 |edition=3rd |location=Crows Nest, NSW |pages=332–8}}</ref> Through the [[ANZUS]] pact and its status as a [[major non-NATO ally]], Australia maintains a [[Australia–United States relations|close relationship with the US]], which encompasses strong defence, security and trade ties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia and the United States |url=https://usa.embassy.gov.au/australia-and-united-states |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=Australian Embassy and Consulates |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023926/https://usa.embassy.gov.au/australia-and-united-states |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau of Political-Military Affairs |date=20 January 2021 |title=Major Non-NATO Ally Status |url=https://www.state.gov/major-non-nato-ally-status/ |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=[[United States Department of State]] |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227062358/https://www.state.gov/major-non-nato-ally-status/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the Indo-Pacific, the country seeks to increase its trade ties through the open flow of trade and capital, while managing the rise of Chinese power by supporting the existing rules-based order.<ref name="Australian Government-2017" /> Regionally, the country is a member of the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], the [[Pacific Community]], the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations#ASEAN Plus Three and ASEAN Plus Six|ASEAN+6 mechanism]] and the [[East Asia Summit]]. Internationally, the country is a member of the [[United Nations]] (of which it was a founding member), the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[OECD]] and the [[G20]]. This reflects the country's generally strong commitment to [[multilateralism]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Page |first=Mercedes |date=31 May 2022 |title=Multilateralism matters again |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/multilateralism-matters-again |access-date= |website=The Interpreter |publisher=Lowy Institute |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215011829/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/multilateralism-matters-again |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Mark R |date=30 October 2023 |title=Australia and the Quad: A Watering Can or a Hammer? |url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/australia-and-the-quad-a-watering-can-or-a-hammer/ |access-date=15 February 2024 |website=The National Bureau of Asian Research |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215011829/https://www.nbr.org/publication/australia-and-the-quad-a-watering-can-or-a-hammer/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the [[Five Eyes]] intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the [[AUKUS]] security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the [[Quadrilateral Security Dialogue]] with the United States, India and Japan; the [[Five Power Defence Arrangements]] with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the [[Reciprocal Access Agreement|Reciprocal Access]] defence and security agreement with Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Caloca|first=Natalie|url=https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/australias-growing-defense-and-security-role-indo-pacific#:~:text=Beyond%20AUKUS%2C%20Australia%20is%20otherwise%20deeply%20integrated,Philippines%20in%20the%20tumultuous%20South%20China%20Sea|title=Australia's Growing Defense and Security Role in the Indo-Pacific|website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|date=1 August 2024|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/japan-australia-sign-defence-cooperation-pact-2022-01-06/|title=Japan, Australia sign defence pact for closer cooperation|website=[[Reuters]]|date=6 January 2022|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=39e900b6-73cb-4a4e-a3fb-19c44fe3fff6|title=The Five Power Defence Arrangement comes into force|website=[[National Library Board]]|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>

[[File:P20220524AS-1533 (52245766080).jpg|thumb|Australian Prime Minister [[Anthony Albanese]] with American President [[Joe Biden]] in 2022]]

Australia has pursued the cause of international [[trade liberalisation]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capling|first=Ann |title=Australia and the Global Trade System: From Havana to Seattle|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-5217-8525-9|page=116}}</ref> It led the formation of the [[Cairns Group]] and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Gallagher, P. W.|title=Setting the agenda for trade negotiations: Australia and the Cairns group|journal=Australian Journal of International Affairs|volume=42|issue=1 April 1988|pages=3–8|doi=10.1080/10357718808444955|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.apec2007.org/aa.htm|title=APEC and Australia|publisher=APEC 2007|date=1 June 2007|access-date=23 April 2010|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421170701/http://www.apec2007.org/aa.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> and is a member of the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/about/0,3347,en_33873108_33873229_1_1_1_1_1,00.html |title=Australia:About|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420083545/http://www.oecd.org/about/0%2C3347%2Cen_33873108_33873229_1_1_1_1_1%2C00.html |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htm |title=Australia – Member information|publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525011833/http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htm |archive-date=25 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Beginning in the 2000s, Australia entered into the [[Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership]] and the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]] multilateral [[free trade agreement]]s as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the [[Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement|United States]], [[China–Australia Free Trade Agreement|China]], [[Japan–Australia Economic Partnership Agreement|Japan]], [[Australia–Korea Free Trade Agreement|South Korea]], [[Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement|Indonesia]], the [[Australia–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement|United Kingdom]] and [[Closer Economic Relations|New Zealand]], with the most recent deal signed in 2023 with the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia's free trade agreements (FTAs) |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/trade-agreements |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119034906/https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/trade-agreements |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade}}</ref>

Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the [[Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement]] and free trade under the [[Closer Economic Relations]] agreement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trans-Tasman Roadmap to 2035 |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/new-zealand/trans-tasman-roadmap-2035 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726060824/https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/new-zealand/trans-tasman-roadmap-2035 |archive-date=26 July 2023 |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade}}</ref> The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/files/lowyinsitutepoll-2021.pdf|title=2021 Lowy Institute Poll|last=Kassam|first=Natasha|date=2021|publisher=Lowy Institute|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319051732/https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/files/lowyinsitutepoll-2021.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> It also maintains an [[International aid|international aid program]] under which some 75 countries receive assistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Aid |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/australian-aid |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=15 February 2024 |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215012143/https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/australian-aid |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia ranked fourth in the [[Center for Global Development]]'s 2021 [[Commitment to Development Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cgdev.org/publication/commitment-development-index-2021|title=The Commitment to Development Index 2021|last1=Mitchell|first1=Ian|last2=Robinson|first2=Lee|last3=Cichocka|first3=Beata|last4=Ritchie|first4=Euan|date=13 September 2021|access-date=17 August 2022|publisher=[[Center for Global Development]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005091011/https://www.cgdev.org/publication/commitment-development-index-2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

The power over foreign policy is highly concentrated in the prime minister and the [[National Security Committee (Australia)|national security committee]], with major decision such as joining the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] made without prior Cabinet approval.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=David |date=31 December 2023 |title=Cabinet papers 2003: Howard government sends Australia into the Iraq war |url=http://theconversation.com/cabinet-papers-2003-howard-government-sends-australia-into-the-iraq-war-217812 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023925/http://theconversation.com/cabinet-papers-2003-howard-government-sends-australia-into-the-iraq-war-217812 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Firth |first=Stewart |title=Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy |date=2011 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-263-1 |edition=3rd |location=Crows Nest, NSW |pages=78–84}}</ref> Similarly, the Parliament does not play a formal role in foreign policy and the power to declare war lies solely with the executive government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Appleby |first=Gabrielle |date=2 September 2014 |title=Explainer: Australia's war powers and the role of parliament |url=http://theconversation.com/explainer-australias-war-powers-and-the-role-of-parliament-31112 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=6 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906181159/https://theconversation.com/explainer-australias-war-powers-and-the-role-of-parliament-31112 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] supports the executive in its policy decisions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2013 |title=Capability review: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |url=https://www.apsc.gov.au/capability-review-department-foreign-affairs-and-trade |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=Australian Public Service Commission |publisher= |page=2}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Australian Defence Force}}

[[File:HMAS Arunta and Canberra sailing in formation with other warships.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[HMAS Canberra (L02)|HMAS ''Canberra'']] (L02), a [[Canberra-class landing helicopter dock|''Canberra''-class]] [[landing helicopter dock]], and [[HMAS Arunta (FFH 151)|HMAS ''Arunta'']], an [[Anzac-class frigate|''Anzac''-class]] [[frigate]], sailing in formation]]

The two main institutions involved in the management of Australia's armed forces are the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) and the [[Department of Defence (Australia)|Department of Defence]], together known as "[[Australian Defence Organisation|Defence]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Organisation structure |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/about/who-we-are/organisation-structure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103154937/https://www.defence.gov.au/about/who-we-are/organisation-structure |archive-date=3 November 2023 |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=Australian Government: Defence}}</ref> The Australian Defence Force is the military wing, headed by the [[Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)|chief of the defence force]], and contains three branches: the [[Royal Australian Navy]], the [[Australian Army]] and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]]. In 2021, it had 84,865 currently serving personnel (including 60,286 regulars and 24,581 reservists).<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2022 |title=Australian Defence Force service |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/australian-defence-force-service |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119193626/https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/australian-defence-force-service |archive-date=19 November 2023 |website=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref> The Department of Defence is the civilian wing and is headed by the secretary of defence. These two leaders collective manage Defence as a [[diarchy]], with shared and joint responsibilities.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-10/Defence-Annual-Report-2022-23.pdf |title=Defence Annual Report 2022–23 |date=18 September 2023 |publisher=Australian Government: Defence |page=23 |isbn=978-1-925890-47-1 |issn=1323-5036 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217203427/https://www.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-10/Defence-Annual-Report-2022-23.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The titular role of [[Commander-in-Chief|commander-in-chief]] is held by the [[Governor-General of Australia|governor-general]]; however, actual command is vested in the chief of the Defence Force.<ref>{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|da190356|Defence Act 1903|9}}</ref> The executive branch of the Commonwealth government has overall control of the military through the [[Minister for Defence (Australia)|minister of defence]], who is subject to the decisions of Cabinet and its [[National Security Committee (Australia)|National Security Committee]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://ad-aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/import/12_53_35_PM_ASPI_defence_almanac_2011_12.pdf?VersionId=vNzXEQtA5bqdxWO9r60xyDAD45g2_d1H |title=Australian Defence Almanac: 2011–2012 |last=Khosa |first=Raspal |date=July 2011 |publisher=Australian Strategic Policy Institute |pages=2, 12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002182101/https://ad-aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/import/12_53_35_PM_ASPI_defence_almanac_2011_12.pdf?VersionId=vNzXEQtA5bqdxWO9r60xyDAD45g2_d1H |archive-date=2 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Major [[Australian intelligence agencies]] include the [[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]] (foreign intelligence), the [[Australian Signals Directorate]] (signals intelligence) and the [[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]] (domestic security).

In 2022, defence spending was 1.9% of [[GDP]], representing the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|13th-largest defence budget]].<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423231601/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |archive-date=23 April 2023 |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, the ADF had active operations in the Middle East and the Indo-Pacific (including security and aid provisions); was contributing to UN forces in relation to [[United Nations Mission in South Sudan|South Sudan]], [[United Nations Disengagement Observer Force|Syria–Israel peacekeeping]], and [[Operation Argos|North Korea]]; and domestically was assisting in [[natural disaster]] relief and [[Operation Resolute|assisting in preventing asylum-seekers from entering the country]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Operations |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/defence-activities/operations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130011529/https://www.defence.gov.au/defence-activities/operations |archive-date=30 January 2024 |access-date=25 February 2024 |website=[[Australian Defence Organisation|Defence]] |publisher=[[Australian Government]]}}</ref>

===Human rights===
{{See also|Human rights in Australia}}

Australia has generally strong protections for [[civil and political rights]], and the country has signed up to a wide range of international rights treaties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia: Events of 2023 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2024/country-chapters/australia |access-date=30 August 2024 |website=World Report 2024 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> Important documents protecting human rights include the [[Australian Constitution|Constitution]], the ''[[Racial Discrimination Act 1975]]'', the ''[[Sex Discrimination Act 1984]]'', the ''[[Disability Discrimination Act 1992]]'', and the ''[[Age Discrimination Act 2004]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Legal - Legislation |url=https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/legal/legislation |access-date=3 September 2023 |website=Australian Human Rights Commission}}</ref> [[Same-sex marriage in Australia|Same-sex marriage]] has been legal in the nation since 2017.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 June 2013 |title=The 20 most and least gay-friendly countries in the world |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2013-06-26/20-most-and-least-gay-friendly-countries-world |access-date=31 December 2017 |work=Public Radio International}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Same-Sex Marriage Around the World |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/fact-sheet/gay-marriage-around-the-world/ |access-date=3 September 2023 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Unlike other comparable Western democracies, Australia does not have a single federal [[charter of rights]] in the Constitution or under legislation; however, the ACT, Victoria, and Queensland have state-based ones.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/free_equal_hra_2022_-_2_pager_rgb_0.pdf|title=A Human Rights Act for Australia|website=[[Australian Human Rights Commission]]|page=1|access-date=19 May 2025}}</ref>

International organisations such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] have expressed concerns in areas including [[Immigration detention in Australia|asylum-seeker policy]], [[Indigenous deaths in custody]], the lack of entrenched [[Charter of rights|rights protection]], and [[Laws governing public demonstrations in Australia|laws restricting protesting]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 March 2023 |title=Amnesty International Report 2022/23: The state of the world's human rights |url=https://www.amnesty.org.au/amnesty-international-report-2022-23-the-state-of-the-worlds-human-rights/ |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=[[Amnesty International Australia]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2024 |title=Australia: Setbacks, Inaction on Key Rights Issues |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/01/11/australia-setbacks-inaction-key-rights-issues |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Australia}}

{{Further|Economic history of Australia|Tourism in Australia}}
[[File:Sydney central business district skyline, August 2021.jpg|thumb|The [[Sydney central business district|central business district of Sydney]] is the [[financial centre]] of Australia.]]
Australia's [[mixed economy|mixed-market economy]] is highly [[Developed economy|developed]] and rich in [[Mining in Australia|natural resources]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Russell|first=Clyde|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-column-russell-commodities-australia-idUKKBN2BM0WC |title=Column: Resource-rich Australia shows vagaries of any commodity supercycle|date=30 March 2021|work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> It is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|fourteenth-largest by nominal terms]], and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|18th-largest]] by [[purchasing power parity|PPP]]. {{As of|2021}}, Australia has the [[List of countries by wealth per adult|second-highest amount of wealth per adult]], after [[Luxembourg]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Wealth Databook 2021|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf |access-date=14 August 2022|publisher=[[Credit Suisse]]}}</ref> and the [[List of countries by financial assets per capita|thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita]],<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Carrera|first1=Jordi Bosco|last2=Grimm|first2=Michaela|last3=Halzhausen|first3=Arne|last4=Pelaya|first4=Patricia|url=https://www.allianz.com/content/dam/onemarketing/azcom/Allianz_com/economic-research/publications/specials/en/2021/october/2021_10_07_Global-Wealth-Report.pdf |title=ALLIANZ GLOBAL WEALTH REPORT 2021|date=7 October 2021|publisher=[[Allianz]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> as well as one of the [[List of countries by GNI (PPP) per capita|highest per capita incomes globally]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=IMF report for selected countries: Gross domestic product per capita, constant prices purchasing power parity; 2021 international dollar |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPRPPPPC,&sy=2024&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=14 February 2025 |website=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> It has a labour force of some 13.5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3.5% as of June 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia/latest-release |title=Labour Force, Australia|date=14 July 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> According to the [[Australian Council of Social Service]], the [[Poverty in Australia|poverty rate of Australia]] exceeds 13.6% of the population, encompassing over 3.2 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 February 2020 |title=Report shows three million people in poverty in Australia and why we must act to support each other |url=https://www.acoss.org.au/media_release/report-shows-three-million-people-in-poverty-in-australia-and-why-we-must-act-to-support-each-other/ |website=ACOSS}}</ref> It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17.7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://povertyandinequality.acoss.org.au/poverty/|title=Poverty – Poverty and Inequality}}</ref> The [[Australian dollar]] is the national currency, which is also used by three island states in the Pacific: [[Kiribati]], [[Nauru]], and [[Tuvalu]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30205/ado2013-small-island-economies.pdf |title=Small island economies|year=2013|publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |access-date=14 August 2022|quote=All three countries use the Australian dollar as legal tender.}}</ref>

[[Australian government debt]], about $963 billion in June 2022, exceeds 45.1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's [[List of countries by government debt|eighth-highest]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dossor|first=Rob|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/BudgetReview202122/CommonwealthDebt |title=Commonwealth debt|publisher=[[Parliament of Australia]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> Australia had the [[List of countries by household debt|second-highest level]] of [[household debt]] in the world in 2020, after Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/HH_LS@GDD/AUS/CHE |title=Household debt, loans and debt securities|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> [[Australian property market|Its house prices]] are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Neubauer|first=Ian|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2022/4/6/australians-home-ownership-dream-turns-soar-as-prices-soar |title='Ridiculous prices': Australians' home ownership dreams turn sour|work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|date=6 April 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> The large service sector accounts for about 71.2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25.3%), while [[Agriculture in Australia|its agriculture sector]] makes up 3.6% of total GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/australia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090604/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/australia |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 January 2021 |title=Australia. CIA – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=22 January 2011}}</ref> Australia is the world's [[List of countries by exports|21st-largest exporter]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of importing markets for the product exported by Australia in 2021 |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c036%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 |access-date=14 August 2022 |publisher=[[International Trade Centre]]}}</ref> and [[List of countries by imports|24th-largest importer]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c036%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 |title=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Australia in 2021|publisher=[[International Trade Centre]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> China is Australia's [[List of the largest trading partners of Australia|largest trading partner]], accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17.6% of its imports.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/29/trade-war-with-china-australias-economy-after-covid-19-pandemic.html |title=Australia's growth may 'never return' to its pre-virus path after trade trouble with China, says economist|last=Tan|first=Weizhen|date=29 December 2020|publisher=[[CNBC]] |access-date=10 February 2021}}</ref> Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/trade-and-investment/trade-and-investment-glance-2020 |title=Trade and investment at a glance 2020|publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref>

Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and was ranked tenth in the [[Human Development Index]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations Development Programme |date=September 2022 |title=United Nations Development Programme, The 2021/2022 Human Development Report: Uncertain times, unsettled lives, Shaping our future in a transforming world (p 272) |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2021-22 |access-date=13 August 2023 |website=United Nations}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, it is ranked twelfth in the [[Index of Economic Freedom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Rankings |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430170123/https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |archive-date=30 April 2020 |access-date=14 August 2022 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]}}</ref> It attracted 9.5 million international tourists in 2019,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://statistics.jnto.go.jp/en/graph/#graph--inbound--travelers--transition |title=Trends in the Visitor Arrivals to Japan by Year|publisher=JNTO |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref> and was [[World Tourism rankings|ranked thirteenth]] among the countries of [[Asia-Pacific]] in 2019 for inbound tourism.<ref name="UNWTO World Tourism Barometer-2020">{{Cite journal|date=August–September 2020|publisher=UNWTO |title=Statistical Annex|journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer|volume=18|issue=5|page=18|doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.5|doi-access=free}}</ref> The 2021 ''[[Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report]]'' ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Travel & Tourism Development Index 2021 |date=May 2022|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Travel_Tourism_Development_2021.pdf |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45.7 billion.<ref name="UNWTO World Tourism Barometer-2020"/>

===Energy===
{{Main|Energy policy of Australia|Renewable energy in Australia}}

In 2021–22, Australia's generation of electricity was sourced from [[Bituminous coal|black coal]] (37.2%), [[brown coal]] (12%), [[natural gas]] (18.8%), [[Hydroelectricity|hydro]] (6.5%), [[Wind power|wind]] (11.1%), [[Solar power|solar]] (13.3%), [[Bioenergy|bio-energy]] (1.2%) and others (1.7%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian electricity generation - fuel mix |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-electricity-generation-fuel-mix |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian electricity generation renewable sources |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-electricity-generation-renewable-sources |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref> Total consumption of energy in this period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%) and renewables (7%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian energy mix by state and territory 2021-22 |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-energy-mix-state-and-territory-2021-22 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref> From 2012 to 2022, the energy sourced from renewables has increased 5.7%, while energy sourced from coal has decreased 2.6%. The use of gas also increased by 1.5% and the use of oil stayed relatively stable with a reduction of only 0.2%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Energy consumption |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/energy-consumption |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref>

In 2020, Australia produced 27.7% of its electricity from renewable sources,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clean Energy Council Australia |title=Clean Energy Australia Report 2021 |url=https://assets.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/documents/resources/reports/clean-energy-australia/clean-energy-australia-report-2021.pdf |access-date=3 June 2021 |website=Clean Energy Australia}}</ref> exceeding the [[Renewable energy target|target]] set by the Commonwealth government in 2009 of 20% renewable energy by 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Renewable Energy Target Scheme Design |url=http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/pubs/RET-scheme-design.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515035607/http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/pubs/RET-scheme-design.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2009 |access-date=15 May 2009}}</ref> A new target of 82% per cent renewable energy by 2030 was set in 2022<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 August 2023 |title=Australia will fall well short of 82 per cent renewable energy by 2030, analysts predict, as problems mount |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-06/australia-likely-to-fall-short-of-82pc-renewable-energy-target/102689392 |access-date=5 February 2024 |work=ABC News}}</ref> and a target for [[net zero emissions]] by 2050 was set in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Evans |first=Jake |date=26 October 2021 |title=What is the government's plan to get Australia to net zero? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-26/how-will-australia-reach-net-zero-by-2050-and-2030-targets/100565342 |access-date=11 February 2024 |work=[[ABC News (Australia)]]}}</ref>

===Science and technology===
In 2019, Australia spent $35.6 billion on [[research and development]], allocating about 1.79% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2021 |title=Research and Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia, 2019–20 financial year |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/technology-and-innovation/research-and-experimental-development-businesses-australia/latest-release |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> A 2022 study by the industry lobby group, The Tech Council of Australia, stated that the Australian technology sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2022 |title=Australia wants a place in ranks of global tech nations |url=https://www.afr.com/technology/australia-wants-a-place-in-ranks-of-global-tech-nations-20220328-p5a8kh |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Australian Financial Review }}</ref> In 2022, [[startup ecosystem]]s in Sydney and Melbourne were valued at $34 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 September 2021 |title=Sydney's startup ecosystem is worth $24 billion, Melbourne's $10.5bn |url=https://www.startupdaily.net/2021/09/sydneys-startup-ecosystem-is-worth-24-billion-melbournes-10-5bn |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Startup Daily }}</ref> Australia ranked 22nd in the [[Global Innovation Index]] 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia ranking in the Global Innovation Index 2025|url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/australia|access-date=2025-10-20 |website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref>

With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed over 4% of the world's published research in 2020,<ref name="Berthold-2021">{{Cite web |last=Berthold |first=Emma |date=17 May 2021 |title=Science in Australia |url=https://www.science.org.au/curious/policy-features/science-australia |access-date=24 July 2022 |website=Curious }}</ref> making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research Output {{!}} Australian Innovation System Monitor |url=https://publications.industry.gov.au/publications/australianinnovationsystemmonitor/science-and-research/research-output/index.html |access-date=24 July 2022 |website=publications.industry.gov.au}}</ref> [[CSIRO]], Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities.<ref name="Berthold-2021"/> Australian achievements include the invention of [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hannaford |first=Peter |title=Alan Walsh 1916–1998 |url=http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224214248/http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm |archive-date=24 February 2007 |access-date=5 December 2022 |website=AAS Biographical Memoirs |publisher=[[Australian Academy of Science]]}}</ref> the essential components of [[Wi-Fi]] technology,<ref>{{Cite web |title= Wi-fi |url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/wi-fi |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=National Museum of Australia |publisher= }}</ref> and the development of the first commercially successful [[polymer banknote]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 November 2014 |title=Proceeds of crime: how polymer banknotes were invented |url=https://blog.csiro.au/proceeds-of-crime-how-polymer-banknotes-were-invented |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=CSIROscope }}</ref> {{As of|2026}}, 14 Australian scientists have been awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in physics, chemistry or medicine,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nobel Australians |url=https://www.science.org.au/education/history-australian-science/nobel-australians |access-date=21 December 2024 |website=[[Australian Academy of Science]]}}</ref> and two have been awarded the [[Fields Medal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Laura |date=1 August 2018 |title=AMSI Congratulates Australia's Second Ever Fields Medallist |url=https://amsi.org.au/2018/08/02/amsi-congratulates-australias-second-ever-fields-medallist/ |access-date=21 December 2024 |website=[[Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute]]}}</ref>

Facilities supporting space exploration include the [[Square Kilometre Array]] and [[Australia Telescope Compact Array]] radio telescopes, telescopes such as the [[Siding Spring Observatory]], and ground stations such as the [[Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Dave |title=Australia's part in 50 years of space exploration with NASA |url=http://theconversation.com/australias-part-in-50-years-of-space-exploration-with-nasa-24530 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website=The Conversation |date=19 March 2014 }}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Australia}}

The population of Australia is estimated to be {{data Australia|poptoday|formatnum}} as of {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics website-2024"/> It is the 54th<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/population-by-country.htm|title=From the World's most populated countries to the least populated nations - Nations Online Project|first=klaus kästle-|last=nationsonline.org|website=www.nationsonline.org}}</ref> most populous country in the world and the most populous [[Oceania]]n country.

Australia has a [[population density]] of 3.4 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the [[List of countries by population density|most sparsely populated countries in the world]]. The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between [[South East Queensland]] to the north-east and [[Adelaide]] to the south-west.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2023"/>

Australia is also highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3218.0 |title=Main Features – Main Features |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |date=27 March 2019|work=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2017–18}}</ref> Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth]] and [[Adelaide]].<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2023" />

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the [[median age|average age]] of the population was 39 years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Population: Census |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-census/latest-release |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref>

===Cities===
{{Main|List of cities in Australia by population|List of cities in Australia}}

Australia has five cities (including their suburbs) that have populations larger than one million people. The majority of Australia's population lives near coastlines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/beach/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226144234/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/beach/ |archive-date=26 February 2010 |title=The Beach |work=Australian Government: Culture Portal |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia |date=17 March 2008 }}</ref>
{{Largest cities of Australia}}

=== Ancestry and immigration ===
{{Main|Immigration to Australia}}

[[File:Australian Residents by Country of Birth 2021 Census.svg|thumb|upright=1.2| Australian residents by country of birth (2021 census)]]
Between 1788 and the [[Second World War]], the vast majority of [[settlers]] and [[immigrants]] came from the [[Anglo-Celtic Australians|British Isles]] (principally [[English Australians|England]], [[Irish Australians|Ireland]] and [[Scottish Australians|Scotland]]), although Australia had significant immigration from [[Chinese Australians|China]] and [[German Australians|Germany]] during the 19th century. Following Federation in 1901, the [[white Australia policy]] was strengthened, restricting further migration from these areas. However, this policy was relaxed following WW2, and in the decades following, Australia received [[Post-war immigration to Australia|a large wave of immigration]] from across [[European Australians|Europe]], with many more immigrants arriving from [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] than in previous decades. All overt racial discrimination ended in 1973, with [[Multiculturalism in Australia|multiculturalism]] becoming official policy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm |title=The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy |access-date=18 September 2007|year=2005|publisher=Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219130703/http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm |archive-date=19 February 2006}}</ref> Subsequently, there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with [[Asian Australians|Asia]] being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.<ref name="Australian Government Department of Home Affairs-2019">{{Cite web |url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/report-migration-program-2018-19.pdf |title=2018–19 Migration Program Report|website=Australian Government Department of Home Affairs|date=30 June 2019}}</ref>

Today, Australia has the world's [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|eighth-largest]] immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major [[Western world|Western]] nations.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/migration-australia/2019-20#australia-s-population-by-country-of-birth |title=Main Features – Australia's Population by Country of Birth|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |date=23 April 2021 |work=3412.0 – Migration, Australia, 2019–20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International migrant stock 2017: maps |website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesmaps.shtml?1t1 |access-date=15 January 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209122006/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesmaps.shtml?1t1 |archive-date= 9 December 2018 }}</ref> In 2022–23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted to Australia, with a net migration population gain of 518,000 people inclusive of non-permanent residents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 December 2023 |title=Overseas Migration |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/overseas-migration/latest-release |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Australia's Migration Trends 2022–23 |url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/migration-trends-2022-23.PDF |publisher=Department of Home Affairs}}</ref> Most entered on skilled visas,<ref name="Australian Government Department of Home Affairs-2019"/> however the immigration program also offers visas for family members and [[refugee]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Net Overseas Migration |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main%20Features52018-19?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2018-19&num=&view= |access-date=4 May 2020 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>

The [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two [[ancestry|ancestries]] each [[Census in Australia|census]] and the responses are classified into broad ancestry groups.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022">{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Understanding and using Ancestry data |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209190954/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data |archive-date=9 February 2024 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref><ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2019">{{Cite web | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/classifications/australian-standard-classification-cultural-and-ethnic-groups-ascceg/latest-release | title=Australian Standard Classification of Cultural and Ethnic Groups (ASCCEG), 2019 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics | date=18 December 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231121023512/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/classifications/australian-standard-classification-cultural-and-ethnic-groups-ascceg/latest-release |archive-date= 21 November 2023 }}</ref> At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestry groups as a proportion of the total population were:<ref>[https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021/Cultural%20diversity%20data%20summary.xlsx Cultural diversity data summary]. 2021. Australian Bureau of Statistics.</ref> 57.2% [[European Australians|European]] (including 46% [[Northwestern Europe#Ethnographic definitions|North-West European]] and 11.2% [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]]an), 33.8% [[Demographics of Oceania|Oceanian]],{{Refn|group="N"|Includes those who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022a"/> The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|Anglo-Celtic]] [[European Australian|European]] ancestry.<ref name="1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 1995">{{Cite news|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/49f609c83cf34d69ca2569de0025c182!OpenDocument |title=Feature Article – Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article) |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |work=1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 1995}}</ref>}} 17.4% [[Asian Australians|Asian]] (including 6.5% [[South Asia|Southern]] and [[Central Asia#Demographics|Central Asian]], 6.4% [[East Asia|North-East Asian]], and 4.5% [[Southeast Asia|South-East Asian]]), 3.2% [[Demographics of the Middle East and North Africa|North African and Middle Eastern]], 1.4% [[Americas#Demography|Peoples of the Americas]], and 1.3% [[Sub-Saharan Africa#Demographics|Sub-Saharan African]]. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:{{Refn|group="N"|Each person may nominate more than one ancestry, so the total may exceed 100%.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022"/>}}<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022a"/> 
{{Columns-list|colwidth=12em|
* [[English Australian|English]] (33%)
* [[Australians|Australian]] (29.9%){{Refn|group="N"|The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|Anglo-Celtic]] [[European Australian|European]] ancestry.<ref name="1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 1995"/>}}
* [[Irish Australian|Irish]] (9.5%)
* [[Scottish Australian|Scottish]] (8.6%)
* [[Chinese Australian|Chinese]] (5.5%)
* [[Italian Australian|Italian]] (4.4%)
* [[German Australian|German]] (4%)
* [[Indian Australian|Indian]] (3.1%)
* [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] (2.9%){{Refn|group="N"|Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include [[Torres Strait Islanders]]. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander), which is a separate question.}}
* [[Greek Australian|Greek]] (1.7%)
* [[Filipino Australian|Filipino]] (1.6%)
* [[Dutch Australian|Dutch]] (1.5%)
* [[Vietnamese Australian|Vietnamese]] (1.3%)
* [[Lebanese Australian|Lebanese]] (1%)
}}

At the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]] – [[Aboriginal Australians]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]].{{Refn|group="N"|Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.}}<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2019"/>

===Language===
{{Main|Languages of Australia}}

English has no legal status in Australia but it is the ''[[de facto]]'' official and national language due to its widespread established use.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies? |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220020910/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |archive-date=20 December 2008 |access-date=11 January 2009 |work=1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney |publisher=[[Department of Immigration and Citizenship]]}} "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Rowena |date=2019 |title='National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific |journal=Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies |volume=16 |issue=1/2 |pages=83–4 |doi=10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510 | doi-access=free |quote=The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.}}</ref> [[Australian English]] is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Bruce |title=The Vocabulary Of Australian English |url=http://www.nma.gov.au/libraries/attachments/exhibitions/vocabulary_of_australian_english/files/5471/Vocabulary%20of%20Australian%20English.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320004658/http://www.nma.gov.au/libraries/attachments/exhibitions/vocabulary_of_australian_english/files/5471/Vocabulary%20of%20Australian%20English.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2011 |access-date=5 April 2010 |publisher=National Museum of Australia}}</ref> and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.<ref>"The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005.</ref> [[General Australian]] serves as the standard dialect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lalande |first=Line |date=4 May 2020 |title=Australian English in a nutshell |url=https://www.noslangues-ourlanguages.gc.ca/en/blogue-blog/australian-english-eng |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> The Australian [[sign language]] known as [[Auslan]] was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census of Population and Housing: Cultural diversity data summary, 2021, TABLE 5. LANGUAGE USED AT HOME BY STATE AND TERRITORY |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021#data-downloads |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref>

At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (2.7%), [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (1.4%), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (1.3%), [[Cantonese]] (1.2%) and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (0.9%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=2021 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315155123/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |archive-date= 15 March 2024 }}</ref>

More than 250 [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/indigenous-arts-and-languages/indigenous-languages-and-arts-program/national-indigenous-languages-report |title=National Indigenous Languages Report |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |year=2020 |location=Canberra |pages=13}}</ref> The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered.<ref>National Indigenous Language Report (2020). pp. 42, 65</ref> The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians – Yumplatok ([[Torres Strait Creole]]), [[Djambarrpuyngu]] (a [[Yolŋu languages|Yolŋu language]]) and [[Pitjantjatjara dialect|Pitjantjatjara]] (a [[Western Desert language]]) were among the most widely spoken.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: Census |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people-census/2021 |access-date=7 May 2023 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.<ref>National Indigenous Languages Report (2020). p. 46</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Australia}}

[[File:St Mary's Cathedral as viewed from Hyde Park, Sydney b.jpg|thumb|[[St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney|St Mary's Cathedral]] in Sydney belongs to the [[Catholic Church]], Australia's largest religious denomination.]]
Australia has no [[state religion]]; section 116 of the [[Australian Constitution]] prohibits federal legislation
that would establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Australia: Religious Freedom |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/religion.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806061716/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/religion.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |access-date=31 December 2011 |publisher=Dfat.gov.au}}</ref> However, the states still retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Puls |first=Joshua |date=1998 |title=The Wall of Separation: Section 116, the First Amendment and Constitutional Religious Guarantees |url=https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1998/6.pdf |journal=Federal Law Review |page=160 |via=Austlii}}</ref>

At the 2021 census, 38.9% of the population identified as having [[Irreligion in Australia|no religion]],<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022a">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=General Community Profile |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx |series=2021 Census of Population and Housing |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |type=[[Excel]] file}}</ref> up from 15.5% in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2001/0 | title=2001 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308064233/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2001/0 |archive-date= 8 March 2024 }}</ref> The largest religion is [[Christianity]] (43.9% of the population).<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022a"/> The largest Christian denominations are the [[Catholic Church in Australia|Catholic Church]] (20% of the population) and the [[Anglican Church of Australia]] (9.8%). Non-British immigration since the [[Second World War]] has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are [[Islam]] (3.2%), [[Hinduism]] (2.7%), [[Buddhism]] (2.4%), [[Sikhism]] (0.8%), and [[Judaism]] (0.4%).<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Religious affiliation in Australia |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/religious-affiliation-australia |access-date= |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics }}</ref><ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022a"/>

In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics-2022a"/> In [[Australian Aboriginal mythology]] and the [[animist]] framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the [[Dreaming (spirituality)|Dreaming]] is a [[sacred]] era in which ancestral [[totem]]ic spirit beings formed [[Creation myth|The Creation]]. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=163–169}}</ref>

===Health===
{{See also|Health care in Australia}}
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=AU |title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Australia|publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref> is the [[List of countries by life expectancy|fifth-highest in the world]]. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/skincancer/publishing.nsf/Content/fact-2 |title=Skin cancer – key statistics|year=2008|publisher=[[Department of Health and Ageing]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208171642/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/skincancer/publishing.nsf/Content/fact-2 |archive-date=8 February 2014}}</ref> while [[Tobacco smoking|cigarette smoking]] is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is [[hypertension]] at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/hwe/bodaiia03/bodaiia03-c05.pdf |title=Risks to health in Australia|website=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare|date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226105813/http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/hwe/bodaiia03/bodaiia03-c05.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 February 2011 |title=quitnow – Smoking – A Leading Cause of Death |url=http://quitnow.info.au/internet/quitnow/publishing.nsf/Content/warnings-graph |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219073743/http://quitnow.info.au/internet/quitnow/publishing.nsf/Content/warnings-graph |archive-date=19 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women<ref>{{Cite web |title= Global prevalence of adult obesity | date=January 2012 |url=http://www.iaso.org/site_media/uploads/Global_prevalence_of_adult_obesity_Ranking_by_country_2012.pdf |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829014750/http://www.iaso.org/site_media/uploads/Global_prevalence_of_adult_obesity_Ranking_by_country_2012.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and near the top of [[Developed country|developed nations]] for its proportion of [[Obesity in Australia|obese]] adults;<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/Publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-hlthwt-obesity.htm |title=About Overweight and Obesity|publisher=Department of Health and Ageing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507033011/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-hlthwt-obesity.htm |archive-date=7 May 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref> 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihw.gov.au/overweight-and-obesity |title=Overweight and obesity|date=25 February 2021 |publisher=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare}}</ref>

Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=AU |title=Current healthcare expenditure (% of GDP) – Australia|publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref> It introduced a [[National health insurance|national insurance scheme]] in 1975.<ref name="Biggs-2004">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm |title=Medicare – Background Brief|last=Biggs|first=Amanda|date=29 October 2004|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|location=Canberra, ACT|work=Parliament of Australia: Parliamentary Library |access-date=16 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414012007/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm |archive-date=14 April 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Following a period in which access to the scheme was restricted, the scheme became [[Universal health care|universal]] once more in 1981 under the name of [[Medicare (Australia)|Medicare]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2020 |title=International Health Care System Profiles: Australia |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/international-health-policy-center/countries/australia |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=The Commonwealth Fund }}</ref> The program is nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the [[Medicare levy]], currently at 2%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Medicare-levy |title=Medicare levy|publisher=Australian Taxation Office|date=18 October 2017 |access-date=9 April 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629085049/http://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Medicare-levy/ |archive-date=29 June 2013}}</ref> The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the [[Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme]] (subsidising the costs of medicines) and [[general practice]].<ref name="Biggs-2004"/>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Australia}}

[[File:Parkville - University of Melbourne (Ormond College).jpg|thumb|upright|Australia has the highest ratio of international students per capita in the world, with Melbourne ranking fifth among the 2023 ''[[QS World University Rankings#QS Best Student Cities|QS Best Student Cities]]'' ([[University of Melbourne]] pictured).]]
School attendance, or registration for [[Homeschooling in Australia|home schooling]],<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Townsend|first1=Ian |title=Thousands of parents illegally home schooling|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-28/thousands-of-parents-illegally-home-schooling/3798008 |access-date=2 December 2015|work=ABC News|date=30 January 2012}}</ref> is [[Compulsory education|compulsory]] throughout Australia. Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories; however, the Commonwealth has significant influence through funding agreements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Australian Education System |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/australian-education-system-foundation.pdf |access-date=6 February 2024 |publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |pages=7–9}}</ref> Since 2014, [[Australian Curriculum|a national curriculum]] developed by the Commonwealth has been implemented by the states and territories.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ross |first=Emily |date=18 November 2021 |title=Why do Australian states need a national curriculum, and do teachers even use it? |url=http://theconversation.com/why-do-australian-states-need-a-national-curriculum-and-do-teachers-even-use-it-171745 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Conversation }}</ref> Attendance rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/everyday-life/education |title=Education|publisher=Department of Immigration and Citizenship |access-date=14 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218220904/http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/everyday-life/education |archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/education_in_australia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514101140/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/education_in_australia.html |archive-date=14 May 2011 |title=Our system of education|publisher=Australian Government: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=13 January 2012}}</ref> In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an [[apprenticeship]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/navigation/parents-and-community/schooling/?oid=Category-id-3869597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321204923/http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/navigation/parents-and-community/schooling/?oid=Category-id-3869597 |archive-date=21 March 2012 |title=The Department of Education – Schools and You – Schooling|website=det.wa.edu.au |access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Education Act (NT) – Section 20 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/ea104/s20.html|website=austlii.edu.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Education Act 1990 (NSW) – Section 21 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ea1990104/s21b.html|work=austlii.edu.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Minimum school leaving age jumps to 17|url=http://news.theage.com.au/breaking-news-national/minimum-school-leaving-age-jumps-to-17-20090128-7r4d.html|publisher=The Age |access-date=30 May 2013|date=28 January 2009}}</ref> According to the 2022 [[PISA]] evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard – 51% in maths, 58% in science and 57% in reading.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 December 2023 |title=PISA 2022 Results (Volume I and II) - Country Notes: Australia |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2023/11/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_2fca04b9/australia_aa76963a.html |access-date=31 July 2024 |publisher=OECD }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Long |first=Claudia |date=6 December 2023 |title=Australia is now in the world's top 10 academic performers – but the data paints a complex picture |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-12-05/pisa-international-school-rankings-in-maths-science-reading/103185468 |access-date=31 July 2024 |work=ABC News Australia}}</ref>

Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#136 |title=Literacy|work=CIA World Factbook |access-date=10 October 2013 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#136 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 44% of the population does not have high literary and numeracy competence levels, interpreted by others as suggesting that they do not have the "skills needed for everyday life".<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2013 |title=Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, Australia |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/programme-international-assessment-adult-competencies-australia/latest-release |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/backgroundbriefing/2013-09-22/4962902 |title=A literacy deficit|website=abc.net.au|date=22 September 2013 |access-date=10 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2021 |title=Australia's adult literacy crisis |url=https://ala.asn.au/stories/australias-adult-literacy-crisis/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |website=Adult Learning Australia }}</ref>

Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ausitaleem.com.pk/australian-education-system.shtml |title=Australian Education {{pipe}} Australian Education System {{pipe}} Education {{pipe}} Study in Australia|publisher=Ausitaleem.com.pk |access-date=31 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119063252/http://www.ausitaleem.com.pk/australian-education-system.shtml |archive-date=19 January 2012}}</ref> The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/35/37376068.pdf Education at a Glance 2006] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102101942/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/35/37376068.pdf|date=2 January 2016}} Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</ref> There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as [[Technical and further education|TAFE]], and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |title=About Australian Apprenticeships|publisher=Australian Government |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091111234035/http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |archive-date=11 November 2009}}</ref> About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications<ref>{{Cite web|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument |title=Year Book Australia 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409132916/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9%21OpenDocument |archive-date=9 April 2016 |date=21 January 2005 }}</ref> and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 38% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sauter |first1=Michael B. |last2=Hess |first2=Alexander E. M. |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html |title=The Most Educated Countries in the World |work=[[Yahoo Finance]] |date=24 September 2012 |access-date=2025-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Grossman |first=Samantha |date=27 September 2012 |title=And the World's Most Educated Country Is ... |url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036 |title=2016 Census QuickStats: Australia |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |archive-date=20 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620052901/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036 |access-date=14 February 2018 }}</ref>

Australia has the highest ratio of [[International students in Australia|international students]] per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last=Salt |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Salt |title=Student market a hot commodity |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/property/booming-student-market-a-valuable-property/news-story/6bb3823260aa3443f0c26909406d089b |work=[[The Australian]] |date=2019-10-16 |access-date=2025-11-13 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906073529/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/property/booming-student-market-a-valuable-property/news-story/6bb3823260aa3443f0c26909406d089b |archive-date=2021-09-06 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Onselen |first=Leith van |url=https://www.macrobusiness.com.au/2019/11/australian-universities-double-down-on-international-students |title=Australian universities double down on international students |date=31 October 2019 |website=MacroBusiness}}</ref> Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gothe-Snape |first=Jackson |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-27/temporary-graduate-visa-485-boom/10035390 |title=Record number of international students sticking around on visas with full work rights |date=27 July 2018 |newspaper=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]}}</ref> Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed more than $28 billion to the economy in the 2016–17 financial year.<ref group="N">That is, 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2017.</ref><ref name="Berthold-2021"/>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Australia}}

[[File:Sydney Australia. (21339175489).jpg|thumb|The [[Sydney Opera House]] was completed in 1973 and declared a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] in 2007, making it the youngest building to have received the designation.<ref>''[[Architect Magazine]]'' (August 2007), '''96''' (11), p. 14</ref>]]
Contemporary Australian culture is diverse<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Culturally and linguistically Diverse Australian |url=https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/population-groups/cald-australians/overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219224057/https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/population-groups/cald-australians/overview |archive-date=19 February 2024 |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare}}</ref> and reflects [[Australian Aboriginal culture|the country's Indigenous traditions]], [[British culture|British]] and [[Irish culture|Irish heritage]], and post-1945 history of [[multiculturalism in Australia|multicultural immigration]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Jupp|2001|pp=74–77, 796–802, 808–812}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pp=118–20}}</ref> The [[culture of the United States]] has also been influential.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Richard |date=1 January 1983 |title=A Backwater Awash: The Australian Experience of Americanisation |journal=Theory, Culture and Society |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=108–122 |doi=10.1177/026327648300100309 |s2cid=144339300}}</ref> The evolution of Australian culture since British colonisation has given rise to distinctive cultural traits.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=98–99}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pp=125–27}}</ref>

Many Australians identify [[egalitarianism]], [[mateship]], irreverence and a lack of formality as part of their [[national identity]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cultural life |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/Cultural-life |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Australian Culture: Core Concepts |url=https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/australian-culture/australian-culture-core-concepts |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=Cultural Atlas }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Citizenship: Our Common Bond |url=https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/citizenship-subsite/files/our-common-bond-testable.pdf |publisher=Australian Government |page=36}}</ref> These find expression in [[Australian slang]], as well as [[Australian comedy|Australian humour]], which is often characterised as dry, irreverent and ironic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Luu |first=Chi |date=7 February 2018 |title=Small Poppy Syndrome: Why are Australians so Obsessed With Nicknaming Things? |url=https://daily.jstor.org/australians-obsessed-nicknaming/ |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=JSTOR Daily }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kidd |first1=Evan |last2=Kemp |first2=Nenagh |author-link2=Nenagh Kemp |last3=Kashima |first3=Emiko S. |last4=Quinn |first4=Sara |date=June 2016 |title=Language, Culture, and Group Membership: An Investigation Into the Social Effects of Colloquial Australian English |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022116638175 |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=713–733 |doi=10.1177/0022022116638175 |issn=0022-0221 |s2cid=147360478 |url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002E-24A7-F}}</ref> New citizens and visa holders are required to commit to "Australian values", which are identified by the [[Department of Home Affairs (Australia)|Department of Home Affairs]] as including: a respect for the freedom of the individual; recognition of the rule of law; opposition to racial, gender and religious discrimination; and an understanding of the "[[:wikt:fair go|fair go]]", which is said to encompass the equality of opportunity for all and compassion for those in need.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meeting our requirements: Australian values |url=https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/help-support/meeting-our-requirements/australian-values |access-date=6 February 2024 |publisher=Department of Home Affairs}}</ref> What these values mean, and whether Australians uphold them, has been debated since before Federation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Snow |first=Deborah |date=18 January 2019 |title=Australian values: what the bloody hell are they? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/australian-values-what-the-bloody-hell-are-they-20190118-p50s76.html |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dyrenfurth |first=Nick |date=June 2007 |title=John Howard's Hegemony of Values: The Politics of 'Mateship' in the Howard Decade |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10361140701319994 |journal=Australian Journal of Political Science |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=211–230 |doi=10.1080/10361140701319994 |s2cid=154041199 |issn=1036-1146 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Crowe |first=Shaun |date=14 January 2015 |title=Book review: Mateship – A Very Australian History |url=http://theconversation.com/book-review-mateship-a-very-australian-history-35858 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Conversation }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhuang |first=Yan |date=19 November 2021 |title=What Does Mateship Mean to You? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/19/world/asia/what-does-mateship-mean-to-you.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

===Arts===
{{Main|Australian art|Australian literature|Theatre of Australia|Dance in Australia|Music of Australia}}

[[File:Sidney Nolan Snake.jpg|thumb|Held at the [[Museum of Old and New Art]] in Hobart, Tasmania, [[Sidney Nolan]]'s ''[[Snake (Nolan)|Snake]]'' mural (1970) is inspired by the Aboriginal creation myth of the [[Rainbow Serpent]], as well as desert flowers in bloom after a drought.<ref>"Sidney Nolan's Rainbow Serpent is larger than life" (16 June 2012), ''The Australasian''.</ref>]]
Australia has more than 100,000 [[Indigenous Australian art#Stone art|Aboriginal rock art]] sites,<ref>Tacon, Paul S. C.; Ouzman, Sven (2004). "Worlds within stone: the inner and outer rock-art landscapes of northern Australia and southern Africa". In Nash, George; Chippindale, Christopher (ed.). ''The Figured Landscapes of Rock-Art: Looking at Pictures in Place''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–68. 9780521524247.</ref> and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse [[contemporary Indigenous Australian art]], "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic [[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]];<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html |title=Powerful growth of Aboriginal art |last=Henly |first=Susan Gough |date=6 November 2005 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> its exponents include [[Emily Kame Kngwarreye]].<ref>Smith, Terry (1996). "Kngwarreye Woman, Abstract Painter", p. 24 in ''Emily Kngwarreye – Paintings'', North Ryde NSW: Craftsman House / G + B Arts International. {{ISBN|978-90-5703-681-1}}.</ref> Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land.<ref name="www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au"/> The [[impressionism|impressionistic]] works of [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Tom Roberts]] and other members of the 19th-century [[Heidelberg School]] – the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art – gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation.<ref name="www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au">{{Cite web |title=Collection {{pipe}} Art Gallery of NSW|url=https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/ |access-date=15 January 2022|website=www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au}}</ref> While the school remained influential into the 1900s, [[modern art|modernists]] such as [[Margaret Preston]] and [[Clarice Beckett]], and, later, [[Sidney Nolan]], explored new artistic trends.<ref name="www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au"/> The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist [[Albert Namatjira]],<ref>Sayers, Andrew (2001). ''Australian Art''. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. pp. 78–88. {{ISBN|978-0-19-284214-5}}.</ref> as well as [[Fred Williams (artist)|Fred Williams]], [[Brett Whiteley]] and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the [[figurative art|figurative]] and the [[abstract art|abstract]].<ref name="www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Brett Whiteley: nature :: Art Gallery NSW|url=https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/brett-whiteley-nature/ |access-date=15 January 2022|website=www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au}}</ref>

Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous [[oral tradition]]s, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older.<ref>Sarwal, Amit; Sarwal, Reema (2009). ''Reading Down Under: Australian Literary Studies Reader''. SSS Publications. p. xii. {{ISBN|978-8-1902-2821-3}}.</ref> In the 19th century, [[Henry Lawson]] and [[Banjo Paterson]] captured the experience of [[Australian bush|the bush]] using a distinctive Australian vocabulary.<ref>Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). ''Ecological Pioneers: A Social History of Australian Ecological Thought and Action''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5210-0956-0}}, p. 72.</ref> Their works are still popular; Paterson's [[bush poetry|bush poem]] "[[Waltzing Matilda]]" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem.<ref>O'Keeffe, Dennis (2012). ''Waltzing Matilda: The Secret History of Australia's Favourite Song''. [[Allen & Unwin]]. p. back cover. {{ISBN|978-1-7423-7706-3}}.</ref> [[Miles Franklin]] is the namesake of Australia's [[Miles Franklin Award|most prestigious literary prize]], awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 February 2012 |title=The Miles Franklin Literary Award – australia.gov.au |url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/miles-franklin-literary-award |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227135804/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/miles-franklin-literary-award |archive-date=27 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Its first recipient, [[Patrick White]], went on to win the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1973.<ref>[http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-nobel-laureates Australia's Nobel Laureates and the Nobel Prize] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819205739/http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-nobel-laureates |date=19 August 2016 }}, australia.gov.au. Retrieved 17 April 2015.</ref> Australian [[Booker Prize]] winners include [[Peter Carey (novelist)|Peter Carey]], [[Thomas Keneally]] and [[Richard Flanagan]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hughes-d'Aeth|first=Tony |title=Australia's Booker prize record suggests others will come in Flanagan's wake|url=http://theconversation.com/australias-booker-prize-record-suggests-others-will-come-in-flanagans-wake-33025 |access-date=15 January 2022|website=The Conversation |date=15 October 2014 }}</ref> Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist [[Germaine Greer]] and philosopher [[Peter Singer]].<ref>Williams, Robyn (12 November 2016). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-12/three-books-australian-authors-changed-20th-century/8008380 "Three Australian books that changed history"], ABC Radio National. Retrieved 12 November 2016.</ref>

[[File:ACDC-Hughes-long ago.jpg|thumb|upright|Arising from the [[Pub rock (Australia)|Australian pub rock]] scene, [[AC/DC]] ranks among the world's [[List of best-selling music artists|best-selling music acts]].]]
In the performing arts, Aboriginal peoples have traditions of religious and secular song, dance and rhythmic music often performed in [[corroboree]]s.<ref name="Flood 2019"/> At the beginning of the 20th century, [[Nellie Melba]] was one of the world's leading opera singers,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.themonthly.com.au/encounters-shane-maloney-nellie-melba-enrico-caruso--160 |title=Nellie Melba & Enrico Caruso |work=[[The Monthly]]|author=Maloney, Shane |date= January 2006 |access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> and later popular music acts such as the [[Bee Gees]], [[AC/DC]], [[INXS]] and [[Kylie Minogue]] achieved international recognition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Compagnoni |first=Tom |date=4 September 2022 |title=The 43-year-old invention behind 2022's biggest music sensation |url=https://www.smh.com.au/culture/music/the-sydney-invention-that-transformed-the-sound-of-music-20220904-p5bf93.html |website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref> Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the Australian government's [[Australia Council for the Arts|Australia Council]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/13753/Australia_Council_for_the_Arts_-_Funding_Guide_2010.pdf |year=2010 |title=Arts funding guide 2010 |publisher=[[Australia Council]] |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705002654/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/13753/Australia_Council_for_the_Arts_-_Funding_Guide_2010.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> There is a symphony orchestra in each state,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/50231/LECG_Orchestras_Review_evaluation_summary.pdf |title=Evaluation of the Orchestras Review 2005 funding package implementation |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Australia Council |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314080534/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/50231/LECG_Orchestras_Review_evaluation_summary.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2011 }}</ref> and a national opera company, [[Opera Australia]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/the_arts/artists_and_orgs/artists/opera_australia |title=Opera Australia |publisher=Australia Council |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723135113/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/the_arts/artists_and_orgs/artists/opera_australia |archive-date=23 July 2008 }}</ref> well known for its famous [[soprano]] [[Joan Sutherland]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/music/opera |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406111552/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/music/opera |archive-date=6 April 2011 |title=Opera in Australia |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=5 March 2007}}</ref> Ballet and dance are represented by [[The Australian Ballet]] and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.minister.dbcde.gov.au/brandis/media/media_releases/2007/35_per_cent_increase_in_funding_for_australias_major_performing_arts_companies |title=35 per cent increase in funding for Australia's major performing arts companies |author=Brandis, George |publisher=Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts |date=8 May 2007 |access-date=23 April 2010 |author-link=George Brandis |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20071112025600/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/36698/20071112-1356/www.minister.dcita.gov.au/brandis/media/media_releases/2007/35_per_cent_increase_in_funding_for_australias_major_performing_arts_companies.html |archive-date=12 November 2007}}{{Cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

===Media===
{{Main|Cinema of Australia|Television in Australia|Media of Australia}}

[[File:The Story of the Kelly Gang 1906.jpg|thumb|left|Actor playing the [[bushranger]] and outlaw [[Ned Kelly]] in ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film]]
''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' (1906), the world's first [[feature film|feature-length]] narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the [[silent film]] era.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=37899&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |title=Return of the Kelly Gang |work=[[UNESCO Courier]] |author=Chichester, Jo |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=2007 |access-date=1 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204220758/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D37899%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date= 4 February 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> After World War I, [[Hollywood (film industry)|Hollywood]] monopolised the industry,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%20history_final1.pdf |title=The first wave of Australian feature film production |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706104843/http://www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%20history_final1.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2009}}</ref> and by the 1960s, Australian film production had effectively ceased.<ref>{{Cite web |work=Australian Government: Culture Portal |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/film |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110327002350/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/film |archive-date=27 March 2011 |title=Culture.gov.au – "Film in Australia" |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia |date=22 November 2007}}</ref> With the benefit of government support, the [[Australian New Wave]] of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as ''[[Picnic at Hanging Rock (film)|Picnic at Hanging Rock]]'', ''[[Wake in Fright]]'' and ''[[Gallipoli (1981 film)|Gallipoli]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krausz |first=Peter |date=2002 |title=Australian Identity: A Cinematic Roll Call |url=http://students.adelaidehs.sa.edu.au/Subjects/Issues/australianidentity.pdf |journal=Australian Screen Education Online |issue=29 |pages=24–29 |issn=1443-1629 |access-date=22 January 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200657/http://students.adelaidehs.sa.edu.au/Subjects/Issues/australianidentity.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> while ''[[Crocodile Dundee]]'' and the [[Ozploitation]] movement's ''[[Mad Max (franchise)|Mad Max]]'' series became international blockbusters.<ref>Moran, Albert; Vieth, Errol (2009). ''The A to Z of Australian and New Zealand Cinema''. Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8108-6347-7}}, p. 35.</ref> In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Quinn|first=Karl|date=4 December 2015 |title=Australian film has had its biggest year at the box office ever. Why? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/australian-film-has-had-its-biggest-year-at-the-box-office-ever-why-20151204-glfut3.html |access-date=15 January 2022|website=The Sydney Morning Herald }}</ref> The [[AACTA Awards|AACTAs]] are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable [[List of Australian Academy Award winners and nominees|Academy Award winners from Australia]] include [[Geoffrey Rush]], [[Nicole Kidman]], [[Cate Blanchett]] and [[Heath Ledger]].<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/awards/ten-great-australian-moments-at-the-oscars/story-e6frfpli-1226841441307 "Ten Great Australian Moments at the Oscars"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308090335/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/awards/ten-great-australian-moments-at-the-oscars/story-e6frfpli-1226841441307 |date=8 March 2014 }} (26 February 2014), news.com.au. Retrieved 7 February 2016.</ref>

Australia has two public broadcasters (the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] and the multicultural [[Special Broadcasting Service]]), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,<ref name="Country profile-2009">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1250188.stm|publisher=BBC News |title=Country profile: Australia|date=13 October 2009 |access-date=7 April 2010}}</ref> and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,<ref name="Country profile-2009"/> and there are two national daily newspapers, ''[[The Australian]]'' and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]''.<ref name="Country profile-2009"/> In 2024, [[Reporters Without Borders]] placed Australia 39th on a list of 180 countries ranked by [[freedom of the press|press freedom]], behind New Zealand (19th) and the United Kingdom (23rd), but ahead of the United States (55th).<ref>{{Cite web |year=2024 |title=Press Freedom Index 2024 |url=https://rsf.org/en/index |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424043201/https://rsf.org/en/ranking_table |archive-date=24 April 2016 |access-date=30 November 2024 |publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]]}}</ref> This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Media Ownership In Australia – 1999 {{pipe}} AustralianPolitics.com|url=https://australianpolitics.com/1999/12/01/media-ownership-in-australia.html |access-date=15 January 2022|website=australianpolitics.com}}</ref> most print media are under the control of [[News Corp Australia]] (59%) and [[Nine Entertainment]] (23%).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minter |first=Elizabeth |date=12 April 2021 |title=Media concentration by Murdoch, Nine and Stokes, and ABC cuts, a danger to democracy – report |url=https://michaelwest.com.au/media-concentration-by-murdoch-nine-and-stokes-and-abc-cuts-a-danger-to-democracy-report/ |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Michael West }}</ref>

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Australian cuisine}}

[[File:Shiraz Wein.jpg|thumb|[[South Australian wine]]s]]
Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called [[bush tucker]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker |title=Bush Tucker Plants, or Bush Food |publisher=Teachers.ash.org.au |access-date=26 April 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094258/http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/| archive-date= 11 May 2011 | url-status=live}}</ref> It has increased in popularity among non-Indigenous Australians since the 1970s, with examples such as [[Backhousia citriodora|lemon myrtle]], the [[Macadamia|macadamia nut]] and [[kangaroo meat]] now widely available.<ref>Lockhart, Jessica Wynne (4 August 2023). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/the-next-superfoods-may-come-from-australia-180982660/ "The Next Superfoods May Come From Australia"], ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]''. Retrieved 5 February 2024.</ref><ref>McCubbing, Gus (4 November 2022). [https://www.afr.com/companies/agriculture/bush-food-industry-worth-80m-but-could-double-by-2025-study-20221104-p5bvn3#:~:text=The%20bush%20food%20industry%2C%20according,potential%20to%20double%20by%202025. "Bush food industry worth $80m but could double by 2025: study"], ''[[Australian Financial Review]]''. Retrieved 5 February 2024.</ref>

The first colonists introduced [[British cuisine|British]] and [[Irish cuisine]] to the continent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326134155/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-date=26 March 2010 |title=Australian food and drink|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=23 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383 |title=Modern Australian recipes and Modern Australian cuisine|publisher=[[Special Broadcasting Service]] |access-date=23 April 2010| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503111747/http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383| archive-date= 3 May 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref> This influence is seen in dishes such as [[fish and chips]], and in the [[Meat pie (Australia and New Zealand)|Australian meat pie]], which is related to the British [[steak pie]]. Also during the colonial period, Chinese migrants paved the way for a distinctive [[Australian Chinese cuisine]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jonsen|first=Helen |title=Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book|publisher=Hippocrene Books|year=1999|isbn=978-0-7818-0737-1|page=23}}</ref>

Post-war migrants transformed Australian cuisine, bringing with them their culinary traditions and contributing to new [[fusion cuisine|fusion]] dishes.<ref>Newton, John (2018). ''The Getting of Garlic: Australian Food from Bland to Brilliant, with Recipes Old and New''. NewSouth Publishing. {{ISBN|9781742244365}}, pp. 32, 230–231.</ref> Italians introduced espresso coffee and, along with Greeks, helped develop Australia's café culture, of which the [[flat white]] and [[avocado toast]] are now considered Australian staples.<ref>Waters, Cara (15 June 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/australia-food-blog/2015/jun/15/smashed-avo-anyone-five-australian-creations-taking-the-world-by-storm "Smashed avo, anyone? Five Australian creations taking the world by storm"], ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 6 February 2024.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/flat-white-coffee-culture-antipodean-mcdonalds-advert-starbucks-latte-a8246111.html |title=How the flat white conquered the coffee scene|work=[[The Independent]]|date=9 April 2018 |access-date=4 October 2018}}</ref> [[pavlova (food)|Pavlovas]], [[lamington]]s, [[Vegemite]] and [[Anzac biscuits]] are also often called iconic Australian foods.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Santich|first=Barbara |title=Bold Palates: Australia's Gastronomic Heritage|publisher=Wakefield Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-7430-5094-1|page=290}}</ref>

Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of [[wine]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wineaustralia.com/report-downloads/08d4027a-e89e-469d-bf9a-a5b548237ea4 |title=Australian wine: Production, sales and inventory report, 2018–19|date=12 February 2020|website=wineaustralia.com|publisher=Wine Australia |access-date=11 April 2020 |archive-date=11 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411112731/https://www.wineaustralia.com/report-downloads/08d4027a-e89e-469d-bf9a-a5b548237ea4 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Australian wine]] is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cellarmasters.com.au/discover/wine-regions/australia|publisher=Cellarmasters|title=Wine Regions of Australia|access-date=2 April 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414225154/https://www.cellarmasters.com.au/discover/wine-regions/australia|url-status=dead}}</ref> The nation also ranks highly in [[List of countries by beer consumption per capita|beer consumption]],<ref>[http://www.kirinholdings.co.jp/english/ir/news_release051215_4.html Per Capita Beer Consumption by Country (2004)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623213209/http://www.kirinholdings.co.jp/english/ir/news_release051215_4.html |date=23 June 2008 }}, Table 3, Kirin Research Institute of Drinking and Lifestyle – Report Vol. 29–15 December 2005, Kirin Holdings Company.</ref> with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries.

===Sport and recreation===
{{Main|Sport in Australia}}

[[File:2017 AFL Grand Final panorama during national anthem.jpg|thumb|The [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] is strongly associated with the history and development of [[cricket]] and [[Australian rules football]], Australia's two most popular spectator sports.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2009 |title=National Sports Museum – Heritage Listing |url=http://www.nsm.org.au/The%2520MCG/Heritage%2520Listing.aspx?p=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914092919/http://www.nsm.org.au/The%20MCG/Heritage%20Listing.aspx?p=1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 September 2009 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website= }}</ref>]]
The most popular sports in Australia by adult participation are: swimming, athletics, cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball and cricket.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2023 |title=Clearinghouse for sport: Ausplay National Sport and Activity Physical Participation Report 2022-23, p 9 |url=https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1122754/AusPlay-National-Sport-and-Physical-Activity-Participation-Report-October-2023.pdf |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=Australian Sports Commission}}</ref>

Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every [[Summer Olympics]] of the modern era,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxlade |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Oxlade (writer) |url=https://archive.org/details/olympics0000oxla/page/61 |title=Olympics |author2=Ballheimer, David |publisher=DK |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7566-1083-8 |series=DK Eyewitness |page=[https://archive.org/details/olympics0000oxla/page/61 61]}}</ref> and has hosted the Games twice: [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]] in Melbourne and [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]] in Sydney.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=479–80}}</ref> It is also set to host the [[2032 Summer Olympics|2032 Games]] in [[Brisbane]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=Brisbane announced as 2032 Olympic Games host city at IOC meeting in Tokyo |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-21/brisbane-queensland-announced-as-2032-olympic-games-host-city/100311320 |access-date=22 July 2021 |work=[[ABC News (Australia)]]}}</ref> Australia has also participated in every [[Commonwealth Games]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flag Bearers |url=http://www.commonwealthgames.org.au/page/65/by-games |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726210627/http://www.commonwealthgames.org.au/page/65/by-games |archive-date=26 July 2014 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Australian Commonwealth Games Association}}</ref> hosting the event in [[1938 British Empire Games|1938]], [[1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1962]], [[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982]], [[2006 Commonwealth Games|2006]] and [[2018 Commonwealth Games|2018]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Past Commonwealth Games |url=http://www.thecgf.com/games/games_index.asp?linkresults=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315102922/http://www.thecgf.com/games/games_index.asp?linkresults=1 |archive-date=15 March 2010 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth Games Federation}}</ref>

The [[Australia national cricket team|Australian national cricket team]] competed against [[England cricket team|England]] in both the first [[Test cricket|Test]] match (1877) and the first [[One Day International]] (1971), and against [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] in the first [[Twenty20 International]] (2004), winning all three games.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harte |first1=Chris |title=The Penguin History of Australian Cricket |last2=Whimpress |first2=Bernard |publisher=Viking |year=2008 |isbn=9780670072880 |edition=3rd |location=Camberwell, Vic |pages=92–94, 528, 722}}</ref> It has also won the men's [[Cricket World Cup]] a record six times.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 November 2023 |title=Australia stuns India to claim record-extending sixth Cricket World Cup crown in Ahmedabad |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-19/live-updates-cricket-world-cup-final-india-vs-australia/103124084 |access-date=20 November 2023 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref>

Australia has professional leagues for [[football in Australia|four football codes]], whose relative popularity is [[Barassi Line|divided geographically]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fujak |first=Hunter |date=15 July 2022 |title=The Barassi Line: a globally unique divider splitting Australia's footy fans |url=http://theconversation.com/the-barassi-line-a-globally-unique-divider-splitting-australias-footy-fans-185132 |access-date=4 February 2024 |website=The Conversation }}</ref> Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, [[Australian rules football]] attracts the most television viewers in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where [[rugby league]] holds sway, followed by [[rugby union]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273772263|date=21 December 2013 |title=The 'Barassi Line': Quantifying Australia's Great Sporting Divide |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> [[Association football|Soccer]], while ranked fourth in television viewers and resources, has the highest overall participation rates.<ref>{{Cite book|last1 = Skinner |first1 = James |last2 = Zakus H. |first2 = Dwight | last3 = Edwards |first3 = Allan | editor-first= Brown|editor-last = Adam|title = Football and Community in the Global Context: Studies in Theory and Practice|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|pages = 92–93|chapter = Coming in from the Margins: Ethnicity, Community Support and the Rebranding of Australian Soccer |isbn = 978-1-317-96905-1}}</ref>

The [[surf lifesaving]] movement originated in Australia in the early 20th century, following the relaxation of laws prohibiting daylight bathing on Australian beaches. The volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Booth|first=Douglas|author-link=Doug Booth |title=Australian Beach Cultures: The History of Sun, Sand and Surf|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7146-8178-8|page=39}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Surf Life Saving |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/surflifesaving/ |website=Culture and Recreation Portal |publisher=[[Australian Government Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060511163956/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/surflifesaving/ |archive-date=11 May 2006 |access-date=1 March 2026}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Australia|Oceania|Countries
}}
* [[Outline of Australia]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="N"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{Free-content attribution
| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023
| author = FAO
| publisher = FAO
| documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en
| licence statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

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* {{cite book |last=Nipperess |first=David A. |date=2015 |chapter=A separate creation: diversity, distinctiveness and conservation of Australian wildlife |title=Austral Ark: The State of Wildlife in Australia and New Zealand |editor-last1=Stow |editor-first1=Adam |editor-last2=Maclean |editor-first2=Norman |editor-last3=Holwell |editor-first3=Gregory I. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107033542}}
* {{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |title=Forgotten War |publisher=NewSouth Publishing |year=2022 |isbn=9781742237596 |edition=2nd |location=Sydney}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Sáenz |first1=Rogelio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_bLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA602 |title=The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity |last2=Embrick |first2=David G. |last3=Rodríguez |first3=Néstor P. |date=3 June 2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9-0481-8891-8 |pages= |access-date=17 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610132454/https://books.google.com/books?id=v_bLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA602#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=10 June 2024 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=Shirley |date=2021 |title=The Irrelevance of Non-recognition to Australia's Antarctic Territory Title |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/395CC47418FA66136D0AF5F46DF4C9C2/S0020589321000051a.pdf/irrelevance_of_nonrecognition_to_australias_antarctic_territory_title.pdf |journal=International & Comparative Law Quarterly |volume=70 |issue=April 2021 |pages=491–503 |doi=10.1017/S0020589321000051}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Secher |first=Ulla |date=2004 |title=The Reception of Land Law into the Australian Colonies post-Mabo |url=https://www.unswlawjournal.unsw.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/27-3-18.pdf |journal=UNSW Law Journal |volume=27 |issue=3 |via=University of New South Wales}}
* {{Cite book |title=Australian painting 1788–1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Melbourne|year=1991|isbn=978-0-1955-4901-0|author1=Smith, Bernard|author2=Smith, Terry|ref=Smith|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/6028116/}}
* {{Cite book |last=Souter |first=Gavin |title=Lion and Kangaroo: the Initiation of Australia |publisher=Text Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=1876485434 |edition=2nd |location=Melbourne}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Teo|first1=Hsu-Ming |last2=White|first2=Richard|year=2003 |title=Cultural history in Australia|publisher=University of New South Wales Press|isbn=978-0-8684-0589-6}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Veth |first1=Peter |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart |last2=O'Connor |first2=Sue}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Further|Bibliography of Australian history}}
{{Refbegin}}
* Blainey, Geoffrey (2015). The Story of Australia's People, Volume 1: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Vic. {{ISBN|978-0-6700-7871-4}}
* Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). ''A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific''. Oxford: Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-631-17962-7}}.
* Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011). ''The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture''. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5218-8857-8}}.
* Hughes, Robert (1986). ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding''. Knopf. {{ISBN|978-0-394-50668-5}}.
* {{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Louise C. |title=The Story of Australia: A New History of People and Place |last2=Luckins |first2=Tanja |last3=Walker |first3=David |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781760297084 |location=London and New York}}
* [[John Milne|Milne, John (1886)]]. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69580 Colonial facts and fictions: Humorous sketches]. United Kingdom: Chatto and Windus.
* {{Cite book |last=Kemp |first=David |title=The Land of Dreams: How Australians Won Their Freedom, 1788–1860 |url={{GBurl|id=LUVvDwAAQBAJ}} |year=2018 |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |isbn=978-0-5228-7334-4 |oclc=1088319758}}
* Powell, J.M. (1988). ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-25619-3}}
* Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000). ''Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment''. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-340-72033-2}} paperback, {{ISBN|978-0-340-72032-5}} hardback.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=17 January 2006|AustraliaPart1.ogg|AustraliaPart2.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|auto=yes|collapsible=collapsed}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20260114050308/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/australia/ Australia profile] on ''[[The World Factbook]]''
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15674351 Australia profile] from [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.oecd.org/australia/ Australia profile] from the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Australia}}
* {{Osmrelation-inline|80500}}

'''Government'''
* [https://www.aph.gov.au/ Parliament of Australia]
* [https://www.dfat.gov.au/ Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]
* [https://www.naa.gov.au/ National Archives of Australia]
* [https://www.abs.gov.au/ Australian Bureau of Statistics]

'''Travel'''
* {{Official website|https://www.australia.com/}} of Tourism Australia
{{Prone to spam|date=May 2021}}

{{Australia topics}}
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[[Category:Australia| ]]
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Kakapora railway station

2026-03-19T19:20:20Z

LucasRowan: slightly cleanup layout for accuracy and fixed typos per sources

{{Short description|Railway station in Pulwama, India}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Kakapora Railway Station
| type = [[Indian Railways]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image =
| image_caption =
| address = [[Pulwama]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|33.9531|74.9136|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=inline}}
| map_type = Jammu and Kashmir
| elevation = 1594.966
| line = [[Jammu–Baramulla line]]
| other =
| structure =
| platform =
| tracks =
| parking = Yes
| opened = 2013
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = Ongoing
| accessible =
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = KAPE
| zone = [[Northern Railway zone|Northern Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Jammu}}
}}
| owned = Indian Railways
| operator = Northern Railways
| status = Active
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| map_locator =
}}

'''Kakapora railway station''' is a railway station in the [[Northern Railway zone]] of Indian Railways.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Kakapor Railway Station Map/Atlas NR/Northern Zone - Railway Enquiry |url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/kakapor-kape/7014 |access-date=2026-03-19 |website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> It is one of the four stations in [[Pulwama district]], others being [[Awantipora railway station]], [[Pampore railway station]] and Panzgam railway station respectively.

==Location==
The station is situated in notified area of [[Kakapora]] in [[Pulwama district]] about 20 km south of [[Srinagar]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-14 |title=Woman Injured After Falling From Moving Train In South Kashmir’s Pulwama |url=https://kashmirobserver.net/2025/04/14/woman-injured-after-falling-from-moving-train-in-south-kashmirs-pulwama/ |access-date=2026-03-19 |website=Kashmir Observer |language=en-US}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|Jammu–Baramulla line}}
The station has been built as part of the [[Jammu–Baramulla line]] megaproject, aiming to link the [[Kashmir Valley]] with Jammu Tawi the rest of the Indian railway network. The Leg 2 section of this network is incomplete. It is expected to be completed by 2017. An extension of the railway line between Kakapora and Shopian is planned in January 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SARAF |first=B. L. |date=2026-01-28 |title=Train to Shopian |url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/opinion/train-to-shopian/ |access-date=2026-03-19 |website=Greater Kashmir |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Design==
Like every other station in this mega project, this station also features Kashmiri wood architecture, with an intended ambience of a royal court which is designed to complement the local surroundings to the station. Station signage is predominantly in [[Urdu]], English and [[Hindi]].

In 2022, an RPF personnel was killed in a terror attack outside the station.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Terrorists kill ASI RPF, injure jawan outside Kakapora Railway Station in Pulwama |url=http://brighterkashmir.com//news/terrorists-kill-asi-rpf-injure-jawan-outside-kakapora-railway-station-in-pulwama |access-date=2026-03-19 |website=Brighter Kashmir}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Anantnag railway station]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2013]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Pulwama district]]
[[Category:Kashmir]]
[[Category:Jammu railway division]]

{{JammuKashmir-railstation-stub}}

A. Badharudeen

2026-03-15T23:15:09Z

LucasRowan: put up stub

{{Short description|Indian judge (born 1968)}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = A. Badharudeen
| honorific_prefix = '''Justice'''
| image =
| caption =
| office = [[Kerala High Court|Judge of the Kerala High Court]]
| term_start = 25 June 2021
| term_end =
| appointer = [[Ram Nath Kovind]]
| nominator = [[Sharad Arvind Bobde]]
| predecessor =
| office2 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| office3 =
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| office4 =
| term_start4 =
| term_end4 =
| office5 =
| term_start5 =
| term_end5 =
| office6 =
| term_start6 =
| term_end6 =
| office7 =
| term_start7 =
| term_end7 =
| office8 =
| term_start8 =
| term_end8 =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1968|5|29|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| father =
| mother =
| spouse =
| children =
| website = {{URL|https://hckerala.gov.in/judges.php|High Court of Kerala}}
| signature =
}}
'''Abdul Rahim Musaliar Badharudeen''' is an Indian judge who is presently serving as a judge of [[Kerala High Court]]. The High Court of Kerala is the highest court in the [[Indian state]] of [[Kerala]] and in the [[Union Territory]] of [[Lakshadweep]]. The High Court is headquartered at [[Ernakulam district|Ernakulam]], [[Kochi]].<ref name="HC">{{cite web|url=https://hckerala.gov.in/judges.php|title=Official|via=Official website High Court of Kerala|date=|access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="DOJ">{{cite web|url=https://doj.gov.in/document/orders-of-appointmnet-of-shri-justice-abdul-rahim-musaliar-badharudeen-addl-judge-and-02-others-as-judges-of-the-kerala-high-court-23-01-2023/|title=Appointment Notification|via=DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India|work=pib.gov.in|date=23 Jun 2021|access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="PIB">{{cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1744805|title=Appointment Notification PIB|via=PRESS COMMUNIQUE, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India|work=pib.gov.in|date=23 Jun 2021|access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="ET">{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/sc-collegium-approves-appointment-of-3-additional-judges-as-permanent-judges-in-kerala-hc/articleshow/96111153.cms?from=mdr|title=SC Collegium approves appointment of 3 Additional Judges as permanent Judges in Kerala HC|via=Economic Times|work=economictimes.indiatimes.com|date=9 Dec 2022|access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref>

==Career==
Justice Badharudeen was appointed as an additional judge of the Kerala High Court on 25 June 2021 and became permanent from 25 January 2023.<ref name="HC"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in High Court of Kerala]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Badharudeen}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Judges of the Kerala High Court]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian judges]]

{{India-law-bio-stub}}

National Film Award for Best Music Direction (non-feature film)

2026-03-12T14:29:17Z

LucasRowan:

{{Short description|Indian film award}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox award
| name = National Film Award for Best Music Direction
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| subheader = National award for contributions to non-feature film
| awarded_for =
| sponsor = [[National Film Development Corporation of India]]
| firstawarded = 1993
| reward = {{ubl|Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus)|{{INR|2,00,000}}}}
| former name =
| holder_label = Most recent winner
| holder = Pranil Desai, ''The First Film'' (2023)
}}

The '''National Film Award for Best Music Direction''' is one of the [[National Film Awards]] presented annually by the [[National Film Development Corporation of India]]. It is one of several awards presented for non-feature films and awarded with Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus).

The award was instituted in 1993, at [[41st National Film Awards]] and awarded annually for films produced in the year across the country, in all Indian languages.

== Winners ==

Award includes 'Rajat Kamal' (Silver Lotus) and cash prize. Following are the award winners over the years:

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%"
! colspan="5" | List of award recipients, showing the year (award ceremony), film(s) and language(s)
|-
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:5%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:20%;"| Recipient(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:25%;"| Film(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:10%;"| Language(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:3%;" class="unsortable" |{{Tooltip|Refs.|Reference}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[41st National Film Awards|1993 {{small|(41st)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Rajat Dholakia]]
| ''Sunday''
| [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| align="center" |<ref name="41stawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/76_41stNfacatalogue.pdf|title=41st National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[42nd National Film Awards|1994 {{small|(42nd)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[K. P. Udayabhanu]]
| ''The Myth to the Tree, The Serpent and The Mother''
| [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
| align="center" |<ref name="42ndawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/75_42ndNfacatalogue.pdf|title=42nd National Film Awards (PDF)|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[43rd National Film Awards|1995 {{small|(43rd)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Shubha Mudgal]]
| ''Amrit Beeja''
| English and [[Kannada language|Kannada]]
| align="center" |<ref name="43rdawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/74_43rdNfacatalogue.pdf|title=43rd National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[44th National Film Awards|1996 {{small|(44th)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="44thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/73_44thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=44th National Film Awards|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[45th National Film Awards|1997 {{small|(45th)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="45thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/72_45thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=45th National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[46th National Film Awards|1998 {{small|(46th)}}]]
! scope="row" | Biswadeb Dasgupta
| ''A Painter of Eloquent Silence: Ganesh Pyne''
| English
| align="center" |<ref name="46thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/71_46thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=46th National Film Awards|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[47th National Film Awards|1999 {{small|(47th)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="47thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/70_47thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=47th National Film Awards|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[48th National Film Awards|2000 {{small|(48th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Usha Khanna]]
| ''Ajeeb Ghar''
| Hindi
| align="center" |<ref name="48thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/69_48thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=48th National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[49th National Film Awards|2001 {{small|(49th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Bhaskar Chandavarkar]]
| ''[[Chaitra (film)|Chaitra]]''
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| align="center" |<ref name="49thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/68_49thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=49th National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[50th National Film Awards|2002 {{small|(50th)}}]]
! scope="row" | Raja Mitra
| ''Kalighat Paintings And Drawings''
| English
| align="center" |<ref name="50thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/67_50thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=50th National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[51st National Film Awards|2003 {{small|(51st)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Julius Packiam]]
| ''Fiddlers on the Thatch''
| English
| align="center" |<ref name="51stawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/66_51stNfacatalogue.pdf|title=51st National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[52nd National Film Awards|2004 {{small|(52nd)}}]]
! scope="row" | Dhwani
| ''Ek Sagar Kinaree... A Seaside Story''
| Marathi and English
| align="center" |<ref name="52ndawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/50_52thNfacatalogue%20-%20.pdf|title=52nd National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[53rd National Film Awards|2005 {{small|(53rd)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="53rdawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/49_53Nfacatalogue-%20.pdf|title=53rd National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2" | [[54th National Film Awards|2006 {{small|(54th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Gundecha Brothers|Ramakant Gundecha]]
| rowspan="2" | ''Raga of River Narmada''
| rowspan="2" | Music Only
| align="center" rowspan="2" |<ref name="54thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/48_54sthNfaArchives.pdf|title=54th National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Gundecha Brothers|Umakant Gundecha]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[55th National Film Awards|2007 {{small|(55th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Zubeen Garg]]
| ''Echoes of Silence''
| English and [[Khasi language|Khasi]]
| align="center" |<ref name="55thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/47_55Nfacatalogue-%20.pdf|title=55th National Film Awards (PDF)|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[56th National Film Awards|2008 {{small|(56th)}}]]
! scope="row" | Vipin Mishra
| ''Narmeen''
| Hindi and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| align="center" |<ref name="56thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/46_56thNfacatalogue%20-%20.pdf|title=56th National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[57th National Film Awards|2009 {{small|(57th)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="57thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/45_57thNfacatalogue%20-%20.pdf|title=57th National Film Awards |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[58th National Film Awards|2010 {{small|(58th)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="58thawarddff">{{cite web|title=58th National Film Awards |url=https://www.dff.gov.in/images/Documents/44_58thNfacatalogue%20-%20.pdf|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[59th National Film Awards|2011 {{small|(59th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Dhrubajyoti Phukan|Dhruba Jyoti Phukan]]
| ''Panchakki''
| Hindi
| align="center" |<ref name="59thaward">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_page.asp?relid=80734|title=59th National Film Awards for the Year 2011 Announced|publisher=Press Information Bureau (PIB), India|access-date=7 March 2012}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[60th National Film Awards|2012 {{small|(60th)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="60thaward">{{cite press_release|title=60th National Film Awards Announced|url=http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2013/mar/d2013031801.pdf|publisher=Press Information Bureau (PIB), India|access-date=18 March 2013}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[61st National Film Awards|2013 {{small|(61st)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Anurag Saikia|Anuraag Saikia]]
| ''[[Yugadrashta]]''
| [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| align="center" |<ref name="61staward">{{cite web|title=61st National Film Awards|url=http://www.dff.nic.in/List%20of%20Awards.pdf|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|date=16 April 2014|access-date=16 April 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416181218/http://www.dff.nic.in/List%20of%20Awards.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2014}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[62nd National Film Awards|2014 {{small|(62nd)}}]]
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | No Award
| align="center" |<ref name="62ndaward">{{cite press_release|title=62nd National Film Awards|url=http://dff.nic.in/writereaddata/62nd%20National%20Film%20Awards%202014%20-%20Press%20Release.pdf|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|date=24 March 2015|access-date=24 March 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[63rd National Film Awards|2015 {{small|(63rd)}}]]
! scope="row" | Aravind–Shankar
| ''A Far Afternoon: A Painted Saga''
| Hindi and English
| align="center" |<ref name="63rdaward">{{cite press_release|title=63rd National Film Awards|url=http://dff.nic.in/writereaddata/Winners_of_63rd_NFA_2015.pdf|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|date=28 March 2016|access-date=28 March 2016}}</ref>
|-
| align="center"| [[64th National Film Awards|2016 {{small|(64th)}}]]
! scope="row" | Tanuj Tiku
| ''Leeches''
|
| align="center" |<ref name="64thaward">{{cite press_release|title=64th National Film Awards|url=http://www.dff.nic.in/writereaddata/NFA64PressNote2016.pdf|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=7 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606051143/http://dff.nic.in/writereaddata/NFA64PressNote2016.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2017}}</ref>
|-
| align="center" | [[65th National Film Awards|2017 {{small|(65th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Ramesh Narayan]]an
| ''Shored of Liberty''
|
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" | [[66th National Film Awards|2018 {{small|(66th)}}]]
! scope="row" | Kedar Divekar
| ''Jyoti''
|
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center"| [[67th National Film Awards|2019 {{small|(67th)}}]]
! scope="row" | Bishakh Jyoti
| ''Kranti Darshi Guruji {{Ndash}} Ahead of Times''
| Hindi
| align="center"| <ref>{{Cite web |date=22 March 2021 |title=67th National Film Awards announced |url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1706663 |access-date=9 October 2024 |website=[[Press Information Bureau]]}}</ref>
|-
| align="center"| [[68th National Film Awards|2020 {{small|(68th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Vishal Bhardwaj]]
| ''[[1232 KMS]]''
| Hindi
| align="center"| <ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2022 |title=68th National Film Awards announced |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1843932 |access-date=7 February 2025 |website=[[Press Information Bureau]]}}</ref>
|-
| align="center"| [[69th National Film Awards|2021 {{small|(69th)}}]]
! scope="row" | Ishaan Divecha
| scope="row" | ''Succulent''
| Hindi, English and Marathi
| align="center"| <ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2023 |title=69th National Film Awards for the year 2021 announced |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1951758 |access-date=9 October 2024 |website=[[Press Information Bureau]]}}</ref>
|-
| align="center"| [[70th National Film Awards|2022 {{small|(70th)}}]]
! scope="row" | [[Vishal Bhardwaj]]
| ''[[Fursat (film)|Fursat]]''
| Hindi
| align="center"| <ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2024 |title=70th National Film Awards for the year 2022 announced |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2045960 |access-date=8 October 2024 |website=[[Press Information Bureau]]}}</ref>
|-
| align="center"| [[71st National Film Awards|2023 {{small|(71st)}}]]
! scope="row" | Pranil Desai
| ''The First Film''
| Hindi
| align="center"| <ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-01 |title=71st National Film Awards 2025 Live Updates: Shah Rukh Khan, Rani Mukerji win first National Awards; Vikrant Massey and 12th Fail bag trophies |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/national-film-awards-2025-live-updates-winners-list-10160873/ |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://dff.nic.in Official Page for Directorate of Film Festivals, India]
* [http://dff.nic.in/NFA_archive.asp National Film Awards Archives]

{{National Film Awards}}

[[Category:National Film Awards (India)|Music Direction Non-feature]]

LGBTQ culture in Hyderabad

2026-03-07T07:23:19Z

LucasRowan: new...

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}

[[Hyderabad]] is a conservative city when it comes to LGBT rights, compared to other Indian Metros. But since it slowly started becoming the second IT-capital after [[Bangalore]], there has been a continuous influx of people of all cultures from across India. In the past few years, there has been some increase in LGBT activism in Hyderabad, including pride marches of 2013 and 2014.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ramavat|first1=Mona|title=Gay pride and a colour riot: Hyderabad gets its own first queer parade|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/hyderabad-gets-its-own-first-queer-parade-153759-2013-02-10|access-date=19 July 2014|work=India Today|date=11 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/LGBT-community-gears-up-for-February-pride-parade/articleshow/28567231.cms |title=LGBT community gears up for February pride parade - The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2014-01-09 |access-date=2015-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/out-in-the-open-they-long-for-acceptance/article4375695.ece |title=Out in the open, they long for acceptance |work=The Hindu |date=2013-02-04 |accessdate=2015-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hyderabad Queer Pride 2013|url=http://www.gaylaxymag.com/articles/current-affairs/hyderabad-queer-pride-2013/|website=Gaylaxy Magazine|accessdate=19 July 2014|date=24 July 2012}}</ref>
Slowly, Top MNCs have been introducing LGBT friendly policies in their Hyderabad offices.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131017/news-current-affairs/article/mncs-hyderabad-become-lgbt-friendly |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119114455/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131017/news-current-affairs/article/mncs-hyderabad-become-lgbt-friendly |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 January 2014 |title=MNCs in Hyderabad becomes LGBT-friendly |publisher=Deccan Chronicle |date=2013-10-17 |accessdate=2015-05-20}}</ref>

==Organizations==
There has been a few organizations/informal support groups setup in recent times, doing good work in LGBT rights in Hyderabad.
A Couple of them are listed below.
*Wajood<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://wajoodlgbt.blogspot.in/ |title=WAJOOD |publisher=Wajoodlgbt.blogspot.in |date=2012-03-29 |accessdate=2015-05-20}}</ref>
*Suraksha
*Queer Nilayam
*Queer Campus Hyderabad
*Hyderabad For Feminism
*Hyderabad Queer Swabhiman Yatra
*Queer Women Collective

===Queer Nilayam===
Queer Nilayam (నిలయం) is a Support Group for the LGBTQIA+ and Queer community in Hyderabad, India. It was established by a few queer folks to provide support to the community. This is an open space and participants are encouraged to provide more direction for queer folks to socialize and create a sense of belonging.{{fact|date=May 2025}}

===The Firefly Community===
Started in the year 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stumagz.com/firefly-community-speaking-the-unspoken/|title = Firefly Community- Speaking the unspoken}}</ref> The Firefly Community is a Hyderabad based NGO which works on issues related to "Gender & Inclusion".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://telanganatoday.com/firefly-community-raising-awareness-on-sensitive-social-issues|title = Firefly Community raising awareness on sensitive social issues|date = 6 January 2021}}</ref> The Community works on raising awareness by creating safe spaces and includes the medium of art to discuss issues which are a taboo in the society.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edexlive.com/happening/2019/may/01/yougogirl-this-girl-powered-club-in-hyderabad-is-starting-conversations-on-islamophobia-discrimin-5992.html|title = #YouGoGirl: This girl-powered club in Hyderabad is starting conversations on Islamophobia, Discrimination and more| date=May 2019 }}</ref> The Co-Founders include Alifiya Khan, Lawyer, Ayesha Syeda, Medical Student at VRK Medical College, Neeti Sudarsi, Medical Student at Apollo Medical College and Aaliya Syeda, Architecture Student at GITAM University.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2019/dec/18/creating-a-safe-space-to-talk-mental-health-2078030.html|title = Creating a safe space to talk mental health| date=19 December 2019 }}</ref> The Community aims at raising awareness through the medium of art and worked extensively on topics such as LGBTQ, Mental Health, Indian Sign Language, Sexual Abuse, Menstrual Health etc.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/the-firefly-community-a-platform-for-a-conversation/article24180219.ece|title=The Firefly community : A platform for a conversation|newspaper=The Hindu|date=16 June 2018|last1=Nadadhur|first1=Srivathsan}}</ref>

===Mobbera Foundation===
Mobbera Foundation is a registered unfunded organisation which is led by Sandipan Kushary and Anil which works for human rights, exclusively for LGBTQIA+community through Arts and cultural programs.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/hyderabad-based-mobbera-foundation-brings-pride-art-showcase-a-digital-event-with-dance-performances-magic-and-a-focus-on-mental-health/article31288488.ece|title=Pride Art Showcase by Hyderabad-based Mobbera Foundation goes online|newspaper=The Hindu|date=8 April 2020|last1=Murthy|first1=Neeraja}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/hyderabad/citys-lgbt-community-celebrates-sc-verdict-with-free-hugs/articleshow/65753044.cms|title=City's LGBT community celebrates SC verdict with free hugs - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]|last1=Pendyala |first1=Sweta }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://telanganatoday.com/at-the-root-of-activism |title=At the root of activism |website=telanganatoday.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213183020/https://telanganatoday.com/at-the-root-of-activism |archive-date=2020-12-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2020/sep/08/they-need-our-empathy-not-sympathy-hr-on-making-workplace-more-inclusive-for-lgbtq-community-2193851.html|title = They need our empathy, not sympathy: HR on making workplace more inclusive for LGBTQ+ community| date=8 September 2020 }}</ref>

===Dragvanti===
Dragvanti<ref>{{cite web |url=https://telanganatoday.com/its-time-for-drag-shows-to-begin |title=It's TIME for 'Drag' shows to begin |website=telanganatoday.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204150923/https://telanganatoday.com/its-time-for-drag-shows-to-begin |archive-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> is a non profit organization from Hyderabad which is a safe space for all the drag practitioners within the city. Hyderabad drag club has started the drag scene in Hyderabad and been organizing drag events in the city and awareness sessions through drag on AIDS, safe sex,<ref>https://telanganatoday.com/lets-talk-about-sex {{Dead link|date=February 2022}}</ref> queer story telling and open mikes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2020/dec/23/poems-music-standup-and-more-at-queer-open-mic-atcafe-rasasvada-2239848.html|title=Poems, music, standup and more at queer open mic at Cafe Rasasvada|date=23 December 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gaylaxymag.com/articles/entertainment/drag-show-sizzles-hyderabad/|title=Drag Show Sizzles Hyderabad|date=18 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/south-asian-drag-stars-demand-visibility-with-brown-drag-exists-campaign/|title = South Asian drag stars demand visibility with Brown Drag Exists campaign|date = 5 May 2020|access-date = 21 March 2021|archive-date = 19 August 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220819164704/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/south-asian-drag-stars-demand-visibility-with-brown-drag-exists-campaign/|url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Homophobia/Transphobia in Hyderabad==
There have been numerous instances of incidents of homophobia and transphobia in Hyderabad.

Back in 2011, a local news channel [[TV9 (Telugu)]] carried out a sting operation on gay dating websites and gay clubs, presented a very demeaning and homophobic view of Gay culture of Hyderabad. Following this news report, there have been many protests in Hyderabad and across India. News Broadcasting Authority of India issued notices to TV9 channel, following which it aired an unconditional apology which can be said as the first win of city's LGBT community.<ref>{{cite web |author= |url=http://gaysifamily.com/2011/02/23/open-letter-condeming-tv9s-homophobia/ |title=TV9's Homophobic Coverage - Gaysi |publisher=Gaysifamily.com |date=2011-02-23 |accessdate=2015-05-20 |archive-date=22 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922073731/http://gaysifamily.com/2011/02/23/open-letter-condeming-tv9s-homophobia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Vaishalli Chandra |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-tv9-ordered-to-air-apology-for-sting-1527622 |title=TV9 ordered to air apology for sting | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis |publisher=Dnaindia.com |date=2011-04-03 |accessdate=2015-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.fridae.asia/gay-news/2011/03/24/10742.tv9-fined-ordered-to-broadcast-apology-on-3-days-for-gay-expos |title=TV9 fined, ordered to broadcast apology on 3 days for 'gay exposé' | Gay News Asia |publisher=Fridae.asia |date= |accessdate=2015-05-20}}</ref>

In early 2013, a Kashmiri student in [[English and Foreign Languages University|the English and Foreign Languages University]], Hyderabad, allegedly committed suicide because of homophobia of university authorities, students and faculty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/news/mourning-mudassir-s-suicide-the-tragic-tale-of-a-kashmiri-student-news-columns-ndjazPjbdhdsi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703123706/http://www.sify.com/news/mourning-mudassir-s-suicide-the-tragic-tale-of-a-kashmiri-student-news-columns-ndjazPjbdhdsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 July 2014 |title=Mourning Mudassir's suicide: The tragic tale of a Kashmiri student |website=[[Sify]] |date= |accessdate=2015-05-20}}</ref>

In 2015, Few queer and trans persons were restricted from entering the GVK One mall. Included in the group was trans activist [[Vyjayanti Vasanta Mogli]], who filed a complaint about the discrimination and asked GVK to apologize for the discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Transwoman to File a PIL against GVK One|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2015/oct/29/transwoman-to-file-a-pil-against-gvk-one-835751.html|access-date=2022-01-25|website=The New Indian Express|date=29 October 2015 }}</ref>

==Hyderabad's LGBTIQ History==
* 2012: LGBT support group Wajood setup<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://wajoodlgbt.blogspot.in/ |title=WAJOOD |publisher=Wajoodlgbt.blogspot.in |date=2012-03-29 |accessdate=2015-05-20}}</ref>
* 2013: First Queer Pride in Hyderabad<ref>{{Cite web |last=Orinam |date=2013-02-03 |title=Hyderabad (re)makes history with pride |url=https://orinam.net/hyderabad-remakes-history-with-pride/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=orinam |language=en-US}}</ref>
* 2014: First Queer Carnival (Festival) by Queer Campus Hyderabad<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140119/news-current-affairs/article/hyderabad-queer-carnival-ends-gay-note |title=Hyderabad Queer Carnival ends on gay note |publisher=Deccan Chronicle |date=2014-01-19 |access-date=2015-05-20}}</ref>
* 2105: 1st Telangana Queer Swabhimana Walk<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-02-09 |title=Queer pride parade held in city with much pomp |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/queer-pride-parade-held-in-city-with-much-pomp/articleshow/46168914.cms |access-date=2025-09-13 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=bharat |date=2015-02-10 |title=In Pics: Telangana's 1st Queer Pride March (and Hyderabad's 3rd) |url=https://www.gaylaxymag.com/exclusive/in-pics-telanganas-1st-queer-pride-march-and-hyderabads-3rd/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Gaylaxy Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>
*2019: India's First Drag Con, Hyderabad Drag Con 2019 by Hyderabad Drag Club<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://riaan.tv/everything-you-need-to-know-about-hyderabad-drag-con-2019/|title=Everything you need to know about Hyderabad Drag Con 2019|date=24 October 2019|access-date=21 March 2021|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927231706/https://riaan.tv/everything-you-need-to-know-about-hyderabad-drag-con-2019/|url-status=dead}}</ref> has organised Indian's first drag conference in 2019 at Hylife Brewery in association with Humans of Nirvana called Hyderabad Drag Con in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/drag-con-hyderabad-2019-patruni-sastry/article29798142.ece|title=Hyderabad to have its first-ever Drag Con|newspaper=The Hindu|date=25 October 2019|last1=Bhavani|first1=Divya Kala}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/hyderabad/the-year-hyderabad-notched-up-several-notable-firsts/articleshow/73019306.cms|title = The year Hyderabad notched up several notable firsts - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessbreakingnews.net/2019/10/hyderabad-to-have-its-first-ever-drag-con/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213105057/https://www.businessbreakingnews.net/2019/10/hyderabad-to-have-its-first-ever-drag-con/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=13 February 2023|title=Hyderabad to have its first-ever Drag Con – Business News|date=31 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://fiftyshadesofgay.co.in/hyderabads-first-ever-dragcon-has-us-squealing/ |title=Hyderabad's First Ever DragCon has Us Squealing! - FIFTY SHADES OF GAY |website=fiftyshadesofgay.co.in |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106175638/http://fiftyshadesofgay.co.in/hyderabads-first-ever-dragcon-has-us-squealing/ |archive-date=2019-11-06}}</ref> the event featured based drag artists and performers such as Patruni Sastry, Colonge and Sajiv Pasala.
* 2021: Setup of Queer Nilayam - a support group for the LGBTQIA+ community in Hyderabad.
* 2021: First Queer Magazine of Hyderabad - QueerNama.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.queernilayam.org/ |title=Home |website=queernilayam.org |access-date=7 August 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223035049/https://queernilayam.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2024: Queer Indie Film and Literature Festival (QIFLIF), annual event.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2024-05-15 |title=QIFLIF Indie Fest in Hyderabad on May 19 |url=https://telanganatoday.com/qiflif-indie-fest-in-hyderabad-on-may-19 |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref>

==See also ==

* [[LGBTQ rights in Telangana]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://wajoodlgbt.blogspot.in/ Wajood's blogs link]
*[https://qiflif.notion.site/Queer-Indie-Film-and-Lit-Fest-2025-Edition-259052da60e780939138cc650b71615a QIFLIF Web Page]
*[https://www.queernilayam.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223035049/https://queernilayam.org/ |date=23 February 2023 }}

{{LGBT in India}}
{{Asia topic|LGBT culture in}}

[[Category:LGBTQ culture in India by city]]
[[Category:Culture of Hyderabad, India]]

Saathi (1991 film)

2026-03-06T12:43:33Z

LucasRowan: Improved wording and formatting

{{Short description|1991 Indian Hindi crime drama film by Mahesh Bhatt}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Saathi
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Mahesh Bhatt]]
| producer = Mukesh Duggal
| writer = [[Robin Bhatt]]
| screenplay =
| story =
| starring = [[Aditya Pancholi]] [[Mohsin Khan (Pakistani cricketer)|Mohsin Khan]] [[Varsha Usgaonkar]]
| music = [[Nadeem–Shravan]]
| cinematography = [[Pravin Bhatt]]
| editing =
| studio = Prince International
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|1991|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Saathi''''' is a 1991 Indian [[Hindi language|Hindi]]-language [[crime drama film]] directed by [[Mahesh Bhatt]]. It stars [[Aditya Pancholi]], [[Mohsin Khan (Pakistani cricketer)|Mohsin Khan]] and [[Varsha Usgaonkar]] in lead roles. Other actors who played negative roles include [[Anupam Kher]], [[Paresh Rawal]] and [[Aditya Pancholi]]. This film was the most successful film of Aditya Pancholi's career.<ref>{{cite news |title=4 जनवरी: आज आप अपना बर्थडे इनके साथ शेयर कर रहे हैं |url=https://hindi.thequint.com/news/india/famous-personalities-you-share-your-birthday-today-with-4-january |accessdate=30 June 2018 |website=द क्विंट |language=hi |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416223345/https://hindi.thequint.com/news/india/famous-personalities-you-share-your-birthday-today-with-4-january |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=20 July 2023 |title=संजय दत्त की एक गलती...और आदित्य पंचोली बन गए स्टार, 1991 की फिल्म से छा गया था पाकिस्तानी क्रिकेटर |url=https://hindi.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/bollywood-sanjay-dutt-denied-mahesh-bhatt-1991-movie-saathi-later-offered-to-aditya-pancholi-became-overnight-star-6908949.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718061315/https://hindi.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/bollywood-sanjay-dutt-denied-mahesh-bhatt-1991-movie-saathi-later-offered-to-aditya-pancholi-became-overnight-star-6908949.html |archive-date=18 July 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=News18 Hindi|language=hi}}</ref>

Aditya Pancholi's character was loosely inspired by [[Al Pacino]]'s character [[Tony Montana]] from [[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]].<ref>{{cite news |date=21 July 2023 |title=1 धांसू हॉलीवुड मूवी पर बनीं 4 बॉलीवुड फिल्में! 3 हुई थीं हिट, अमिताभ-मिथुन ही नहीं, ये एक्टर भी बन गया स्टार |url=https://hindi.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/bollywood-amitabh-bachchan-agneepath-mithun-chakraborty-mujrim-to-aditya-pancholi-saathi-4-bollywood-movies-inspired-by-al-pacino-scarface-huge-hit-6968243.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723071029/https://hindi.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/bollywood-amitabh-bachchan-agneepath-mithun-chakraborty-mujrim-to-aditya-pancholi-saathi-4-bollywood-movies-inspired-by-al-pacino-scarface-huge-hit-6968243.html |archive-date=23 July 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=News18 Hindi|language=hi}}</ref>

==Plot==
At a young age, Suraj (Aditya Pancholi) and Amar (Mohsin Khan) saw their father brutally beaten by the police. Both grow up and become petty criminals. Through this they meet big gangster Pasha (Paresh Rawal). They go their separate ways as Amar hates the activities of Pasha's gang . Since he deals in drugs. Suraj, on the other hand, wants to become rich. Suraj kills Pasha and becomes the leader of a big gang. Amar is horrified that Suraj has been lost in the world of crime and humanity has been forgotten. In the film's finale, Sultan (Anupam Kher) calls Suraj and asks him to kill Amar. He refuses to do so.

Later that day, Suraj is chased by the police and gets injured. While his bodyguard gets murdered. Suraj reaches the place where Amar and Suraj used to go in their childhood. Amar, who heard his friend's voice, reaches the place. Inspector Kotwal reaches there and Amar tells him that Suraj wants to surrender. Inspector Kotwal reveals that he is actually the real Don Sultan and attempts to kill Suraj. Amar saves Suraj and returns to Suraj, thinking that he killed Sultan. Just then, Sultan, who was not dead, comes from behind and tries to stab Amar with a knife. Suraj comes forward to protect Amar and is killed by Sultan. Sultan is finally killed by Amar.

==Cast==
* [[Aditya Pancholi]] as Suraj<ref>{{cite news |date=19 July 2023 |title=Not Aditya Pancholi, This Bollywood Star Was The First Choice For The 1991 Film Saathi |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/not-aditya-pancholi-this-bollywood-star-was-the-first-choice-for-the-1991-film-saathi-8374933.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230720151609/https://www.news18.com/movies/not-aditya-pancholi-this-bollywood-star-was-the-first-choice-for-the-1991-film-saathi-8374933.html |archive-date=20 July 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=News18}}</ref>
* [[Mohsin Khan (Pakistani cricketer)|Mohsin Khan]] as Amar<ref>{{cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Reena Roy's ex-husband Mohsin Khan reveals if he regrets marriage with her, says ‘I was never impressed…’ |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/reena-roy-s-ex-husband-mohsin-khan-reveals-if-he-regrets-marriage-with-her-says-i-was-never-impressed-101678951326926.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230916182211/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/reena-roy-s-ex-husband-mohsin-khan-reveals-if-he-regrets-marriage-with-her-says-i-was-never-impressed-101678951326926.html |archive-date=16 September 2023 |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
* [[Varsha Usgaonkar]] as Nisha
* [[Paresh Rawal]] as Pasha
* [[Anupam Kher]] as Inspector Kotwal / Sultan
* [[Mushtaq Khan]] as Shetty
* [[Avtar Gill]] as Samant
* [[Anant Jog]] as Ragpicker Father of Suraj
* [[Javed Khan Amrohi]] as Beer Bar Tender
* [[Soni Razdan]] as Tina

==Music==
Music is composed by [[Nadeem–Shravan]]. The most popular song of the album "Hui Aankh Nam" was sung by Anuradha Paudwal. "Zindagi Ki Talash Mein" is a hit song even today. Other successful songs on the soundtrack are "Yaarana Yaar Ka" and "Aaj Hum Tum O Sanam".

{{Infobox album
| name = Saathi
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Nadeem–Shravan]]
| cover =
| caption =
| released = 1991
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|m=41|s=25}}
| language = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer = Nadeem–Shravan
| prev_title = [[Saajan]]
| prev_year = 1991
| next_title = [[Phool Aur Kaante]]
| next_year = 1991
}}
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer (s)
| all_music = [[Nadeem–Shravan]]
| title1 = Zindagi Ki Talaash Mein
| extra1 = [[Kumar Sanu]]
| length1 = 5:51
| lyrics1 = [[Sameer]]

| title2 = Hui Aankh Nam
| extra2 = [[Anuradha Paudwal]]
| length2 = 5:04
| lyrics2 = Nawab Arzoo

| title3 = Aaj Hum Tum O Sanam
| extra3 = [[Jolly Mukherjee]], Anuradha Paudwal
| length3 = 4:20
| lyrics3 = Sameer

| title4 = Yaarana Yaar Ka
| extra4 = Kumar Sanu, Vipin Sachdeva
| length4 = 4:01
| lyrics4 = [[Hasrat Jaipuri]]

| title5 = Aisa Bhi Dekho Waqt
| extra5 = Kumar Sanu, Anwar Hussain
| length5 = 4:54
| lyrics5 = Surender Sathi

| title6 = Har Ghadi Bekhudi
| extra6 = [[Udit Narayan]], Anuradha Paudwal
| length6 = 5:40
| lyrics6 = Sameer

| title7 = Mohabbat Ko Duniya
| extra7 = Kumar Sanu, Debashish Dasgupta
| length7 = 5:36
| lyrics7 = Sameer

| title8 = Tera Naam Sabke Lap Pe
| extra8 = Anuradha Paudwal
| length8 = 6:08
| lyrics8 = Sameer
}}

==Reception==
According to the author Dina Khdair, this was the most successful film of Mohsin Khan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Khdair |first1=Dina |title=Crossover Stars in the Hindi Film Industry: Globalizing Pakistani Identity |date=11 May 2020 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-06960-0 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbfjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT61 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{IMDb title|tt0156982}}
{{Mahesh Bhatt}}

[[Category:1991 films]]
[[Category:1991 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1991 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mahesh Bhatt]]
[[Category:Films scored by Nadeem–Shravan]]

Mr. Bharath

2026-03-03T05:22:10Z

LucasRowan: added formatting for accuracy and updated info as per guidelines

{{Short description|1986 film by S. P. Muthuraman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Mr. Bharath.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[S. P. Muthuraman]]
| screenplay = [[Visu]]
| based_on = {{based on|''[[Trishul (film)|Trishul]]'' |[[Salim–Javed]]}}
| producer = {{ubl|[[M. Saravanan (producer)|M. Saravanan]]|M. Balasubramaniam}}
| starring = {{ubl|[[Rajinikanth]]|[[Sathyaraj]]|[[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]]}}
| cinematography = T. S. Vinayagam
| editing = R. Vittal C. Lancy
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = [[AVM Productions]]
| released = {{film date|1986|1|10|df=y|ref1=}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Mr. Bharath''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɑː|ˌ|r|ə|θ}}) is a 1986 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[masala film]] directed by [[S. P. Muthuraman]]. The film stars [[Rajinikanth]], [[Sathyaraj]], and [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]]. A remake of the 1978 [[Hindi]] film ''[[Trishul (film)|Trishul]]'', it revolves around a son's revenge against his father for cheating on his mother.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mishra |first=Nivedita |date=12 December 2017 |title=11 films where Rajinikanth acted in an Amitabh Bachchan remake and aced them |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/11-films-where-rajinikanth-acted-in-an-amitabh-bachchan-remake-and-aced-them/story-1Yw8KQHsJjuctD6Lh2y9zM.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709065401/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/11-films-where-rajinikanth-acted-in-an-amitabh-bachchan-remake-and-aced-them/story-1Yw8KQHsJjuctD6Lh2y9zM.html |archive-date=9 July 2018 |access-date=18 April 2020 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> The film was released on 10 January 1986{{sfn|Saravanan|2013|p=287}} and was a box office success.

== Plot ==

Bharath is a young, educated man, unaware of his father's whereabouts. Shanti, his mother, tells him about his father on her deathbed.

Flashback: A young Gopinath arrives at Paarapatti village (where the then-young Shanti resides) to engineer a construction project. Over time, he gains Shanti's interest, as she works under his unit as a manual construction laborer. She entrusts him, and he takes the fullest advantage of her. After Gopinath's assigned construction work is completed, he decides to move out of Paarapatti village. Weeks later, Shanti realizes she has conceived. She eagerly and desperately awaits Gopinath's return, expecting him to fulfill his promise. But, she hears from fellow villagers that he was about to marry another rich woman. Shocked, she travels to Madras with the help of the visiting card that Gopinath had given to her earlier to meet him. They both have a furious face-off, after which Gopinath, who not only portrays his original ill-natured mannerisms but also refuses to accept her, highlights the difference in their stature and her archaic nature. He also states that she has no proof regarding intimacy between them that made her conceive, and berates her as a 'gold-digger'. Becoming aware of the innocence as a cloak that he used to exploit her, which he himself admits to at the end, exasperates Shanti furiously. Before departing, an insulted Shanti swears to him that one day her child will question him on the future of his vile actions and make him forcibly confess the truth about his depraved activity in front of the whole society. Over time, Shanti faces hardships yet raises her son to become who he is now by hiding her past until her last hour.

Present day: Shanti takes a promise from Bharath that he will fulfill her challenge before her last breath. Bharath, anguished at having lost his mother, takes up her vow as a challenge to make his biological father confess the truth before 31 August the next year, at his mother's first remembrance.

Bharath leaves for the city and meets his biological father, Gopinath, as a stranger. He does not reveal his identity. After a business deal, Bharath uses a brilliant yet manipulative strategy to extract money from Gopinath, which he invests in starting his own business. He ventures into the construction sector and, within months, rises to become the second-largest company, competing with Gopinath's construction company, 'Gopinath Constructions', which was the number 1 company in the same field. This angers Gopinath, as a result of which, Gopinath views Bharath as a strategic business enemy. Both Bharath and Gopinath try to overtake each other illegitimately. Bharath, however, hardworking and brilliant, outdoes all Gopinath's efforts and, with the help of Sanjeevi, his local trustee, goes on to make his company outrank Gopinath Constructions, becoming the sector's number one company.

Later, Bharath saves a girl from the goons and takes her home, only to realize that she is Pushpa, Gopinath's daughter, and his step-sister. Due to this, Bharath wins the affection of Mrs. Gopinath, who happens to be Bharath's stepmother. Mrs. Gopinath starts to treat him like her own son, Pushpa's brother. Bharath, tactfully, arranges Pushpa's marriage to the son of a wealthy man, Kumeresa Gounder, on 31 August, the first remembrance of his mother. Kumaresa Gounder is aware of Bharath's promise to his mother, so he too helps him fulfill the challenge he has against Gopinath. Bharath also uses the love connection between his rich-born step-brother and austere Sanjeevi's sister to corner the status-minded Gopinath by arranging their marriage on the same day (31 August). Bharath uses every way possible to torture Gopinath and make him realize his mistake, but Gopinath does not reciprocate. He, instead, becomes angrier as things go beyond business vengeance. Bharath sets various bottlenecks for Gopinath to make him realize that he is attacking much more than his business.

Having lost his hold on business, wealth, and status, Gopinath slowly goes bankrupt. He is unable to afford his own children's wedding. Meanwhile, Bharath invites him to inaugurate his orphanage on 31 August, the date when he planned to fulfill his mother's wish. Gopinath, furious with Bharath, who caused his downfall, hires a local goon, Michael, who was once the enemy of both Gopinath and Bharath. Gopinath proposes to kill Bharath at his own inaugural function on the same 31 August.

Mrs. Gopinath inaugurates the statue of Bharath's mother at the function, while Bharath waits for Gopinath to realize his mistake. Upon seeing the statue, Gopinath, in shock, recognizes Shanti and realizes that Bharath is his son. With a change of heart, Gopinath tries to save Bharath from Michael, only to get shot in his own shoulder. Gopinath publicly apologizes and declares that Bharath is his son. The father-son duo thrash Michael and reunite. Kumaresa hands Michael over to the police.

The movie concludes with Gopinath asking Bharath to make him a grandfather by 31 August the next year and lovingly sever his arrogance, sense of entitlement, and money-minded attitude.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Rajinikanth]] as Bharath
* [[Sathyaraj]] as Gopinath<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 January 2020 |title=A supervillain for a superstar |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/trends/2020/jan/12/a-supervillain-for-a-superstar-rajinikanth-darbar-raghuvaran-ramya-krishnan-thalaivar-rajini-16495.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102123824/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/trends/2020/jan/12/a-supervillain-for-a-superstar-rajinikanth-darbar-raghuvaran-ramya-krishnan-thalaivar-rajini-16495.html |archive-date=2 November 2020 |access-date=7 March 2021 |work=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref>
* [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]] as Uma
* [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]] as Shanthi
* [[Goundamani]] as Sanjeevi
* [[S. Ve. Shekhar]] as Ashok
* [[Raghuvaran]] as Michael
* [[Visu]] as Kumerasa Gounder
* Deepan as Deepak
* [[Viji]] as Ponni
* [[Vadivukkarasi]] as Lakshmi
* Jothichandra as Pushpa
* [[Delhi Ganesh]] as Ramkumar, construction contractor
* [[LIC Narasimhan]] as Ravishankar
}}

== Production ==
Sathyaraj acted as Rajinikanth's father in the film though he was in fact four years younger than Rajinikanth.<ref>{{Cite interview |last=Sathyaraj |subject-link=Sathyaraj |interviewer=Annadurai |title=Actor Sathyaraj — Interview |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/features/Interviews/interview-5/actor/sathyaraj.html |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102013203/http://www.behindwoods.com/features/Interviews/interview-5/actor/sathyaraj.html |archive-date=2 January 2015 |url-status=live |work=Behindwoods}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sharma |first=Devesh |date=22 July 2016 |title=King of remakes |url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/king-of-remakes-14674-6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005151956/https://www.filmfare.com/features/king-of-remakes-14674-6.html |archive-date=5 October 2017 |access-date=5 October 2017 |work=[[Filmfare]]}}</ref> Saravanan cast Raghuvaran after being impressed with his performance in ''Police... Police''.{{Sfn|Saravanan|2013|p=288}} According to Saravanan, the dialogue "Ennamma Kannu" spoken by Sathyaraj was taken from G. Umapathy, a popular film theatre owner who often used this line.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=சரவணன் |first=ஏவி.எம். |author-link=M. Saravanan (producer) |date=10 July 2005 |title=வரி விளக்கிய வள்ளல்! |url=https://archive.org/download/kalki2005-07-10/kalki2005-07-10.pdf |access-date=24 April 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=44–47 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The village portions were shot at former minister Mandradiyar's farm house while the song "Ennamma Kannu" was shot at [[Guindy Race Course]], Madras.{{sfn|Muthuraman|2017|pages=295–297}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=Mohan |author-link=Mohan Raman |date=25 August 2020 |title=#MadrasThroughTheMovies: Films that captured the 'sport'y Madras |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/madrasthroughthemovies-films-that-captured-the-sporty-madras/articleshow/77729580.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306041759/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/madrasthroughthemovies-films-that-captured-the-sporty-madras/articleshow/77729580.cms |archive-date=6 March 2024 |access-date=24 April 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> A fight sequence was shot at Vauhini Studios.<ref>{{cite news |date=17 November 1985 |title=ரஜினிகாந்திடம் சத்யராஜ் ஏமாற்றம் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_10_29/4.jp2/full/1000,1361/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250826004635/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_10_29/4.jp2/full/1000,1361/0/default.jpg |archive-date=26 August 2025 |access-date=26 August 2025 |work=Anna |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== Music ==
The music was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mr. Bharath Tamil Film LP Vinyl Record by Ilayaraaja |url=https://macsendisk.com/product/mr-bharath-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraaja-4/ |access-date=3 August 2024 |website=Macsendisk |language=en-US |archive-date=1 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240801211852/https://macsendisk.com/product/mr-bharath-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraaja-4/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mr. Bharath (1986) |url=http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/album/T0000513.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131224125717/http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/album/T0000513.html |archive-date=24 December 2013 |access-date=24 December 2013 |website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref> The song "Ennamma Kannu" was later remixed by [[D. Imman]] for the film ''[[Thiruvilaiyaadal Aarambam]]'' (2006).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jeshi |first=K. |date=2 November 2007 |title=Mix and match |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/mix-and-match/article3023973.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130161142/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/mix-and-match/article3023973.ece |archive-date=30 November 2016 |access-date=31 May 2020 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The title was also used for a [[Ennamma Kannu|2000 film]] also starring Sathyaraj.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chandrasekaran |first=Chandra |date=July 2000 |title=Sathyaraj strikes back! |url=http://minnoviyam.com/star/july00/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001030182123/http://minnoviyam.com/star/july00/index.html |archive-date=30 October 2000 |access-date=24 April 2024 |website=Minnoviyam}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| "En Thayin Meethu Aanai" || [[Malaysia Vasudevan]] ||[[Vairamuthu]] || 04:31
|-
| "Ennamma Kannu" || [[Malaysia Vasudevan]], [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] ||[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]|| 04:36
|-
| "Enthan Uyirin" || [[S. Janaki]] || [[Pulamaipithan]] || 04:24
|-
| "Kaathirukken" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], S. Janaki || Vaali || 06:08
|-
| "Pacha Molaga Athu" || Malaysia Vasudevan, S. Janaki || [[Gangai Amaran]] || 04:41
|}

== Release and reception ==
''Mr. Bharath'' was released on 10 January 1986, the week of [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 January 2020 |title=Baashha to Darbar: Here is a list of Rajinikanth's Pongal releases that turned super hits |url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/gallery/lifestyle/baashha-to-darbar-here-is-a-list-of-rajinikanth-s-pongal-releases-that-turned-super-hits-q3s7ap |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215045100/https://newsable.asianetnews.com/gallery/lifestyle/baashha-to-darbar-here-is-a-list-of-rajinikanth-s-pongal-releases-that-turned-super-hits-q3s7ap |archive-date=15 February 2021 |access-date=7 March 2021 |work=[[Asianet News]]}}</ref> [[Subha (writers)|Jayamanmadhan]] of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' appreciated Rajinikanth and Sathyaraj's performances, but criticised that of Ambika.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜெயமன்மதன் |author-link=Subha (writers) |date=9 February 1986 |title=மிஸ்டர் பாரத் |url=https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1986/feb/09-02-1986/p11.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220729122004/https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1986/feb/09-02-1986/p11.jpg |archive-date=29 July 2022 |access-date=17 March 2022 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |language=ta}}</ref> Balumani of ''Anna'' praised the acting, music, fights and direction.<ref>{{cite news |last=பாலுமணி |date=25 January 1986 |title=மிஸ்டர் பாரத் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_10_93/4.jp2/full/1000,1372/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250826005226/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_10_93/4.jp2/full/1000,1372/0/default.jpg |archive-date=26 August 2025 |access-date=26 August 2025 |work=Anna |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Saravanan |first=M. |author-link=M. Saravanan (producer) |title=AVM 60 Cinema |publisher=Rajarajan Pathippagam |year=2013 |edition=3rd |language=ta |oclc=1158347612 |orig-date=2005}}
*{{Cite book |last=Muthuraman |first=S. P. |author-link=S. P. Muthuraman |title=AVM Thandha SPM |publisher=Vikatan |year=2017 |edition=3rd |language=Tamil |oclc=607342391 |orig-date=2005}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
*{{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{S. P. Muthuraman}}
{{AVM Productions}}
{{Salim–Javed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mister Bharath}}
[[Category:1986 Indian films]]
[[Category:1980s masala films]]
[[Category:1986 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1986 films]]
[[Category:AVM Productions films]]
[[Category:Films about father–son relationships]]
[[Category:Films directed by S. P. Muthuraman]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Visu]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:Tamil remakes of Hindi films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Mahé Municipality

2026-02-24T04:14:38Z

LucasRowan: adding biography

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Mahé Municipality
| legislature =
| coa_pic = 
| coa_res =
| coa_alt =
| coa-pic =
| coa-res =
| house_type = [[Municipality]]
| body = Mahé, Puducherry
| houses =
| leader1_type = [[Municipal Commissioner (India)|Municipal Commissioner]]
| leader1 = Sunil Kumar
| leader2_type = Municipal Chairman
| leader2 = Vacant since 2011
| party1 =
| election1 =
| members = 10
| house1 =
| structure1 =
| structure1_res =
| political_groups1 =
| committees1 =
| voting_system1 = [[First Past the Post]]
| last_election1 = 2006
| session_room =
| session_res =
| meeting_place = Mahé Municipality, Mahé
| website = {{URL|mahe.gov.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Mahé Municipality''' is the seat of local administration of the Mahé Region which belongs to the Union Territory of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. Mahé Municipality has been in existence for more than 200 years since its establishment under the French Regime. Mahé Municipal area comprises 9 km2 with a single Assembly Constituency.<ref>{{Cite web|first=|title=Mahe District Website|url=https://mahe.gov.in/tehsil|website=mahe.gov.in}}</ref> The last [[Mayor]] and the first [[Chairman]] of this municipality was Late. [[V. N. Purushothaman]]. Municipal Council was not in existence with effect from 1978. Thereafter the Regional Administrator, Mahé / Regional Executive Officer, Mahé used to exercise the power of the chairman and [[Vice-chairman]] in the capacity of special officer of Mahé Municipal Council. After 1978, an elected Municipal Council was only in power during 2006–11.

[[File:Mahe Municipal Office, Mahe (front view).jpg|thumb|Mahé Municipal Office, Mahé]]

==Wards of Mahé Municipality==
Mahé Municipality consisted of 15 wards till 2021. These 15 wards were used for the 2006 municipal elections. They were:

'''Mahé Pocket'''
* [[Manjakkal]] ([[Women|W]])
* [[Choodikotta]]
* [[Parakkal]] ([[Women|W]])
* [[Valavil]] ([[Women|W]])
* [[Mundock]]

'''Cherukallayi Pocket'''
*Cherukallayi ([[Women|W]])

'''Naluthara Pocket'''
*[[Chalakkara]] (Chalakkara (South))
*[[Chembra]] (Chalakkara (North))
*Palloor (South-West) ([[Women|W]])
*Palloor (South-East)
*Palloor (North-West)
*Palloor (North-East)
*Pandakkal (South)
*Pandakkal (Centre)
*Pandakkal (North)

== Present situation ==
Civic election were held during 2006 after nearly 30 years. The [[chairman]] and the [[vice-chairman]] of Mahé Municipality were [[Ramesh Parambath]] and P.P. Vinodan. The chairman and the fifteen councillors of Mahé Municipality were sworn in July 2006.

The councillors were:<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006-07-14|title=Pondicherry Civic Elections 2006- Results|url=http://civicelections.pon.nic.in/results.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714093824/http://civicelections.pon.nic.in/results.htm|archive-date=14 July 2006}}</ref>
*A.P. Sheeja [Ward No.1 - Parakkal]
*P.P. Vinodan [Ward No.2 - Choodikotta] (Vice-chairman)
*P. Karthiyayani [Ward No.3 - Valavil]
*Pallian Pramod [Ward No.4 - Mundock]
*Sainaba [Ward No.5 - Manjakkal]
*Sathyan Keloth [Ward No.6 - Chalakkara (South)]
*K.V. Shobha [Ward No.6A - Cherukallayi]
*Uthaman Thittayil [Ward No.7 - Chalakkara (North)]
*P.T.C. Shobha [Ward No.8 - Palloor (South-West)]
*E.V. Narayanan [Ward No.9 - Palloor (South-East)]
*Arikulath M.P. Basheer [Ward No.10 - Palloor (North-East)]
*Kannipoyil Babu [Ward No.11 - Palloor (North-West)]
*Vadakkan Janardhanan [Ward No.12 - Pandakkal (South)]
*T.K. Gangadharan [Ward No.13 - Pandakkal (Centre)]
*K.V. Mohanan [Ward No.14 - Pandakkal (North)]

[[File:Mahé map without text.png|left|thumb|Mahé Municipality with ward boundaries used for the 2006 municipal election. There are 15 wards in total.]]

===Since 2011===
Fresh local body elections were not held in 2011 due to political issues and legal battles. Although there were some moves to conduct elections, they were thwarted by legal disputes or political infighting. The crisis became worse during the time of the 2016-21 Congress government when [[Kiran Bedi]] IPS (Retd.) was the [[List of lieutenant governors of Puducherry|Lt. Governor of Puducherry]]. The Supreme Court of India had ordered the Government to conduct polls in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SC directs Pondy govt to hold local body polls|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/amp/nation/current-affairs/090518/sc-directs-pondy-govt-to-hold-local-body-polls.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref> But polls didn't take place.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tripathi|first=Rahul|title=Pressure building up on Puducherry government to hold local body elections|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/pressure-building-up-on-puducherry-government-to-hold-local-body-elections/articleshow/79052867.cms|access-date=2021-06-30}}</ref> And in 2019, the Lt. Governor didn't accept the Government's choice for the State Election Commissioner. Instead, the Governor appointed a retired IFS officer, Roy P. Thomas as the State Election Commissioner.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-10-22|title=Puducherry Lieutenant Governor welcomes SEC appointment, said local body elections soon|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/puducherry-lieutenant-governor-welcomes-sec-appointment-said-local-body-elections-soon/article32916530.ece|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Legal and political battles on many issues like delimitation continued till 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-12-29|title=Narayanasamy refutes Modi's charge over local body polls|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/narayanasamy-refutes-modis-charge-over-local-body-polls/article33441154.ece|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=HC dismisses Puducherry Minister''s PIL against Bedi''s decision|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/hc-dismisses-puducherry-ministers-pil-against-bedis-decision/1753170|access-date=2021-06-30|website=www.outlookindia.com}}</ref>

In 2021, a Contempt petition was filed in the Supreme Court against the State Election Commission (SEC) for not holding local body elections.

The Supreme Court heard the case and pronounced its verdict on 5 April 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|last=www.ETGovernment.com|title=Puducherry to hold local body polls after 10 years following SC order - ET Government|url=https://government.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/governance/puducherry-to-hold-local-body-polls-after-10-years-following-sc-order/83802503|access-date=2021-06-30|website=ETGovernment.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Bosco Dominique|date=Apr 9, 2021|title=SC orders Puducherry local body polls within six months; can't brook further delay, it says {{!}} Puducherry News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/puducherry/sc-orders-puducherry-local-body-polls-within-six-months-cant-brook-further-delay-it-says/articleshow/81986340.cms|access-date=2021-06-30|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> The Court ordered that the State Government and the SEC should complete delimitation of wards, consider grievances from the people and hold the polls within four months of completing delimitation. It is widely expected that local body elections will be held between August and September.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Varma|first=M. Dinesh|date=2021-06-22|title=Electoral rolls for civic polls in U.T. to be published on June 28|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/puducherry-assembly/electoral-rolls-for-civic-polls-in-ut-to-be-published-on-june-28/article34918966.ece|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Municipal wards in Mahé were determined on the basis of the 2011 Census. Contrary to normal practice across India, Mahé had its municipal wards reduced from the earlier 15 to 10 despite registering a growth in the population between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Demography {{!}} Mahe {{!}} India|url=https://mahe.gov.in/demography/|access-date=2021-06-30|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/PuducherryA.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> The State Election Commission released the final delimitation report in June 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=G.O.Ms.No.15- 16 - 17 Delimitation of Municipal/Commune Panchayat/ Village Panchayat Wards - Notification {{!}} Official Website of Local Administration Department, Government of Puducherry, India|url=https://lad.py.gov.in/gomsno15-16-17-delimitation-municipalcommune-panchayat-village-panchayat-wards-notification|access-date=2021-06-30|website=lad.py.gov.in}}</ref>

'''Mahé Municipal wards from 2021 (based on the 2011 census):'''
[[File:Mahe municipality ward map-Jun-2021-2.jpg|left|thumb|Mahé Municipality with 2021 ward boundaries]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mahé Municipal Council<ref>{{Cite web|title=G.O.Ms.No.15- 16 - 17 Delimitation of Municipal/Commune Panchayat/ Village Panchayat Wards - Notification {{!}} Official Website of Local Administration Department, Government of Puducherry, India|url=https://lad.py.gov.in/gomsno15-16-17-delimitation-municipalcommune-panchayat-village-panchayat-wards-notification|access-date=2021-06-30|website=lad.py.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Mahe Ward Maps {{!}} Official Website of Local Administration Department, Government of Puducherry, India|url=https://lad.py.gov.in/mahe-ward-maps|access-date=2021-06-30|website=lad.py.gov.in}}</ref>
!Ward Number
!Ward Name
|-
|1
|Pandakkal (North)
|-
|2
|Pandakkal (South)
|-
|3
|Chalakkara (North)
|-
|4
|Palloor (West)
|-
|5
|Palloor (North)
|-
|6
|Palloor (South)
|-
|7
|Chalakkara (South)
|-
|8
|Mahé (North)
|-
|9
|Mahé (West)
|-
|10
|Mahé (South)
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://mahe.gov.in/tehsil Mahé Municipality] at the Mahé Administration website
*Local Administration Department, Government of Puducherry - [https://lad.py.gov.in Official website]
*State Election Commission, Government of Puducherry - [https://sec.py.gov.in Official website]

{{coord missing|Puducherry}}

[[Category:Municipalities of Puducherry]]
[[Category:Mahe district]]
[[Category:1978 disestablishments in India]]

Reema Sen

2026-02-23T01:55:27Z

LucasRowan: updated page

{{Short description|Indian actress and model (b. 1981)}}
{{Family name hatnote|Sen|lang=Bengali}}
{{Distinguish|Raima Sen|Rii Sen|Rimi Sen}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Reema Sen
| image = Reema sen (cropped).jpg
| caption = Reeama at an event
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|10|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| occupation = {{Plainlist|
*[[Actress]]
*[[Model (people)|Model]]
}}
| years active = 2000–2012
| children = 1
| other_names = Hema
| spouse = {{marriage|Shiv Karan Singh|2012}}
| education = [[St Thomas School, Kolkata]]
}}

'''Reema Sen''' ({{IPA|bn|rima ʃen}}; born 29 October 1981)<ref>{{cite web |publisher=bollyspice.com |title=Happy Birthday Reema Sen |url=http://bollyspice.com/view.php/3675-happy-birthday-reema-sen.html |access-date=16 May 2011 |date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103235444/http://www.bollyspice.com/view.php/3675-happy-birthday-reema-sen.html |archive-date=3 January 2010}}{{better source needed|date=July 2021}}</ref> is a former Indian actress and model who primarily appeared in [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]], and [[Bollywood|Hindi]] films.

==Early life and education==
Reema Sen was born in [[Kolkata]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Reema Sen to get hitched |url=http://www.sify.com/news/reema-sen-to-get-hitched-news-entertainment-mccalWifbijsi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803143943/http://www.sify.com/news/reema-sen-to-get-hitched-news-entertainment-mccalWifbijsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 August 2016 |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=7 June 2016 |date=1 February 2012}}</ref> on 29 October 1981. She completed high school from [[St Thomas School, Kolkata|St. Thomas Girls School]] in [[Kidderpore]], Kolkata, after which her family moved to [[Mumbai]].

==Personal life==

Sen married businessman Shiv Karan Singh in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-03-14 |title=Reema Sen weds hotelier in Delhi |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/reema-sen-weds-hotelier-in-delhi/story-Sonfms5RxtHItRY8V5cJ7M.html |access-date=2026-01-22 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=27 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127024915/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/reema-sen-weds-hotelier-in-delhi/story-Sonfms5RxtHItRY8V5cJ7M.html |url-status=live }}</ref> She gave birth to their son on 22 February 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |date=February 26, 2013 |title=Reema Sen delivers a baby boy |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/reema-sen-delivers-a-baby-boy-593217.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260122060458/https://www.news18.com/news/india/reema-sen-delivers-a-baby-boy-593217.html |archive-date=2026-01-22 |access-date=2026-01-22 |work=[[News18]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Career==

===Film and modelling career===
In Mumbai, she began her modelling career, appearing in a number of advertising campaigns. She then moved to films and made her acting debut with Telugu film ''[[Chitram]]'', in which she acted opposite [[Uday Kiran]], whom she later paired with in ''[[Manasantha Nuvve]]''. She also appeared in the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film ''[[Minnale]]'' alongside [[R. Madhavan|Madhavan]], which was very successful.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/gautham-vasudev-menon-the-souths-yash-chopra-557134.html |title=Gautham Vasudev Menon – the south's Yash Chopra |work=Firstpost |access-date=20 September 2018 |language=en-US |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920184008/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/gautham-vasudev-menon-the-souths-yash-chopra-557134.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Her first [[Hindi]] film ''[[Hum Ho Gaye Aapke]]'' flopped, and she decided to continue working in Tamil cinema. Her appearance in the Tamil film ''[[Rendu]]'', again alongside Madhavan, was successful. Audience found her expressions in the film ''[[Thimiru]]'' cute. Her negative role in ''[[Aayirathil Oruvan (2010 film)|Aayirathil Oruvan]]'' and ''[[Vallavan]]'' was highly praised by viewers and critics.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/jan/14/south-tamil-movie-review-aayirathil-oruvan.htm |title=Aayirathil Oruvan is not for the faint hearted |work=Rediff |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-date=16 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116214613/http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/jan/14/south-tamil-movie-review-aayirathil-oruvan.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Aayirathil Oruvan Movie Review {3/5}: Critic Review of Aayirathil Oruvan by Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/aayirathil-oruvan/movie-review/5452515.cms|access-date=20 September 2018}}</ref>

She ended her film career in 2012 after she got married. Her last Bollywood film was ''[[Gangs of Wasseypur]]'' alongside [[Manoj Bajpayee]], [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]] and [[Richa Chadda]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recap: What happened in 'Gangs of Wasseypur 1' |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/recap-what-happened-in-gangs-of-wasseypur-1-495969.html |date=7 August 2012 |website=News18 |access-date=11 May 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407155008/https://www.news18.com/news/india/recap-what-happened-in-gangs-of-wasseypur-1-495969.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Music video appearance===
In 1998, she appeared in the video of the song "Chandni Raatein" sung by Shamsa Kanwal.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/did-you-know/Reemma-Sen-appeared-in-the-video-of-Chandni-Raatein/articleshow/43142148.cms |title=Reemma Sen appeared in the video of Chandni Raatein |work=The Times of India |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921203725/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/did-you-know/Reemma-Sen-appeared-in-the-video-of-Chandni-Raatein/articleshow/43142148.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Controversy==

In April 2006, a [[Madurai]] court issued non-bailable warrants against Sen and [[Shilpa Shetty]] for "posing in an obscene manner" in photographs published by the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] newspaper ''Dinakaran'', owned by [[Sun Group]].<ref name="inrediff">{{cite web |work=in.rediff.com |title=Non-bailable warrants against Shilpa Shetty, Reema Sen |url=http://in.rediff.com/movies/2006/apr/21shilpa.htm |access-date=3 January 2007 |archive-date=26 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126110300/http://in.rediff.com/movies/2006/apr/21shilpa.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The report stated that the two actresses had failed to comply with earlier summons for the same reason, hence the issuance of the warrants.<ref name="inrediff" /> The petitioner submitted that the paper had published ''"very sexy blow-ups and medium blow-ups"'' in its December 2005 and January 2006 issues, and which allegedly violated the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act 1986, Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act 1956, and the [[Indian Penal Code]] Section 292 (Sale of Obscene Books). The petitioner further demanded that the images should be confiscated under the terms of the Press and Registration of Book Act 1867.

In January 2007, outgoing [[Chief Justice]] Y. K. Sabharwal confirmed that Sen had written to him in order to enunciate guidelines against frivolous [[lawsuits]] against artists, but declined her plea on the grounds that she should have filed a formal [[petition]] instead of writing a letter.<ref>{{cite news |work=telegraphindia.com |title=Top judge snubs Shilpa's plea |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070114/asp/nation/story_7260510.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023844/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070114/asp/nation/story_7260510.asp |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 September 2007 |access-date=16 January 2007 |location=Calcutta, India |first=Our |last=Legal |date=14 January 2007}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Language
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
| 2000
| ''[[Chitram]]''
| Janaki
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| Telugu film
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-chitram.html |title=Movie Review - Chitram |website=Idlebrain.com |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=21 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921153725/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-chitram.html |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/telugu/profile.php?id=18833556&cid=2411 |title=Reema Sen |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=26 January 2020}}{{dead link|date=September 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2001
| scope="row" | ''[[Minnale (film)|Minnale]]''
| Reena Joseph
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| Tamil film; [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut - South]]
| <ref name=FF>{{cite web |title=Best Debutants down the years... |url=http://www.filmfare.com/features/best-debutants-down-the-years-6681.html |website=[[Filmfare]] |date=10 July 2014 |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=1 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701125207/http://www.filmfare.com/features/best-debutants-down-the-years-6681.html |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Five best characters played by Reema Sen">{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/photo/happy-birthday-reema-sen-five-best-characters-minnale-gangs-of-wasseypur-20562-2016-10-29 |title=Happy Birthday Reema Sen: Five best characters played by the birthday girl |website=India Today |date=29 October 2016 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175111/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/photo/happy-birthday-reema-sen-five-best-characters-minnale-gangs-of-wasseypur-20562-2016-10-29 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Bava Nachadu]]''
| Lahari
| Telugu
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-bavanachadu.html |title=Movie review - Bava Nachadu |website=Idlebrain.com |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=10 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210223836/http://idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-bavanachadu.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Hum Ho Gaye Aapke]]''
| Chandni Gupta
| [[Hindi]]
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/2001/aug/03hum.htm |title=Rich guys have all the luck! |website=Rediff.com |date=3 August 2001 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175111/https://m.rediff.com/movies/2001/aug/03hum.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/eyecatchers/story/20010820-reema-sen-mistaken-for-one-of-moon-moon-sens-bollywood-struck-daughters-riya-and-raima-774041-2001-08-20 |title=Reema Sen mistaken for one of Moon Moon Sen's Bollywood-struck daughters Riya and Raima |website=India Today |date=20 August 2001 |access-date=28 January 2020 |archive-date=28 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128034618/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/eyecatchers/story/20010820-reema-sen-mistaken-for-one-of-moon-moon-sens-bollywood-struck-daughters-riya-and-raima-774041-2001-08-20 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Manasantha Nuvve]]''
| Anu (Renu)
| rowspan="3" |Telugu
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bbfc.co.uk/releases/manasantha-nuvve-2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175614/https://bbfc.co.uk/releases/manasantha-nuvve-2002 |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2020 |title=MANASANTHA NUVVE |website=[[British Board of Film Classification]] |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-manasanta.html |title=Movie review - Manasanta Nuvve |website=Idlebrain.com |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=21 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821202655/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-manasanta.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |2002
| scope="row" | ''[[Seema Simham]]''
| Charulatha
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-seemasimham.html |title=Movie review - Seema Simham |website=Idlebrain.com |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222165647/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-seemasimham.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Adrustam]]''
| Asha
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-adrustam.html |title=Movie review - Adrustam |website=Idlebrain.com |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212180501/http://idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-adrustam.html |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/adrustam-review-telugu-pclurDjbcifad.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128134759/http://www.sify.com/movies/adrustam-review-telugu-pclurDjbcifad.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 November 2016 |title=Adrustam Review |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Bagavathi]]''
| Anjali
| rowspan="2" |Tamil
|
|
|-
| rowspan="8" |2003
| scope="row" | ''[[Dhool]]''
| Swapna
| Nominated - [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress – Tamil]]
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/jan/23dhool.htm |title=Vikram turns up trumps with Dhool |website=Rediff.com |date=23 January 2003 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=7 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307224311/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/jan/23dhool.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Jaal: The Trap]]''
| Anita Choudhary
| Hindi
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/jaal-the-trap/story-GellPHrjdVRgB3yQoItWFO.html |title=Jaal - The Trap Sunny Deol, Tabu, Reema Sen, Amrish Puri |website=Hindustan Times |date=19 July 2003 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175348/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/jaal-the-trap/story-GellPHrjdVRgB3yQoItWFO.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Veede]]''
| Swapna
| rowspan="2" |Telugu
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/veede |title=Veede (2003) |website=Rotten Tomatoes |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221014801/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/veede |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-veede.html |title=Movie review - Veede |website=Idlebrain.com |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=6 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706112239/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-veede.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''Neetho Vastha''
| Asha
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/hyderabad-times/Reema-aims-to-conquer/articleshow/201083.cms |title=Reema aims to conquer |website=The Times of India |date=25 September 2003 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221020049/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/hyderabad-times/Reema-aims-to-conquer/articleshow/201083.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Jodi Kya Banayi Wah Wah Ramji]]''
| Priyanka
| Hindi
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/jodi-kya-banayi-wah-wah-ramji/cast/ |title=Jodi Kya Banayi Wah Wah Ramji |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=14 November 2003 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175109/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/jodi-kya-banayi-wah-wah-ramji/cast/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Jay Jay]]''
| Herself
| rowspan="2" |Tamil
| Special appearance in the song "May Maasam"
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://movietimes.ca/movies/Jay-Jay/celebrities |title=Jay Jay Cast and Crew |website=MovieTimes.ca |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175403/https://movietimes.ca/movies/Jay-Jay/celebrities |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Enakku 20 Unakku 18]]''
| rowspan="2" | Priyanka
| rowspan="2" | Guest appearance; Bilingual film
| rowspan="2" | <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/hyderabad-times/Tollywood-was-too-busy-shooting-to-celebrate-Holi/articleshow/40812942.cms |title=Tollywood was too busy shooting to celebrate Holi! |website=The Times of India |date=20 March 2003 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221015007/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/hyderabad-times/Tollywood-was-too-busy-shooting-to-celebrate-Holi/articleshow/40812942.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Enakku 20 Unakku 18|Nee Manasu Naaku Telusu]]''
| rowspan="2" | Telugu
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2004
| scope="row" | ''[[Anji (film)|Anji]]''
| rowspan="2" | Herself
| Special appearance in the song "Mirapakaya Bajji"
|
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Aan: Men at Work]]''
| Hindi
| Special appearance in the song "Jugnu Ki Payal Bandhi Hai"
|
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Iti Srikanta]]''
| Rajlakshmi
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b8b6ae87c |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127030329/https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b8b6ae87c |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2020 |title=ITI SRIKANTA (2004) |website=[[British Film Institute]] |access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/reema-s-bengali-film-becomes-ilavarasi-in-tamil-imagegallery-kollywood-lhtlQaeegbjsi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210043836/http://www.sify.com/movies/reema-s-bengali-film-becomes-ilavarasi-in-tamil-imagegallery-kollywood-lhtlQaeegbjsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 February 2017 |title=Reema's Bengali film becomes Ilavarasi in Tamil! |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Chellamae]]''
| Mythili
| rowspan="2" |Tamil
| Nominated - [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil]]
| <ref name="Five best characters played by Reema Sen" />
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Giri (film)|Giri]]''
| Priya
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/nesamani-forever-12-films-are-still-remembered-only-vadivelus-comedy-102697 |title=Nesamani forever: 12 films that are still remembered only for Vadivelu's comedy |website=The News Minute |date=30 May 2019 |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=27 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127030329/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/nesamani-forever-12-films-are-still-remembered-only-vadivelus-comedy-102697 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 2005
| scope="row" | ''[[News (film)|News]]''
| Pooja
| [[Kannada]]
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/news/20050809.htm |title=Upendra's top class in News |website=Rediff.com |date=9 August 2005 |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=27 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127030329/https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/news/20050809.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=5|2006
| scope="row" | ''[[Malamaal Weekly]]''
| Sukmani
| Hindi
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/reema-sen-weds-hotelier-in-delhi/story-Sonfms5RxtHItRY8V5cJ7M.html |title=Reema Sen weds hotelier in Delhi |website=Hindustan Times |date=14 March 2012 |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=27 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127024915/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/reema-sen-weds-hotelier-in-delhi/story-Sonfms5RxtHItRY8V5cJ7M.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Bangaram (film)|Bangaram]]''
| Reporter
| Telugu
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/reema-in-bangaram-news-telugu-kkfvzugejbbsi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127024338/https://www.sify.com/movies/reema-in-bangaram-news-telugu-kkfvzugejbbsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2020 |title=Reema in 'Bangaram'! |website=[[Sify]] |date=6 October 2005 |access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/features/News/News34/20-10-05e/telugu-movies-news-reema.html |title=Reema Sen in Telugu movie Bangaram |website=Behindwoods.com |date=20 October 2005 |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=27 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127025800/http://www.behindwoods.com/features/News/News34/20-10-05e/telugu-movies-news-reema.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Thimiru]]''
| Srimathy
| rowspan="3" | Tamil
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/aug/04thimuru.htm |title=Thimiru is a time-pass flick |website=Rediff.com |date=4 August 2006 |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919190953/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/aug/04thimuru.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/reema-lucky-lady-news-tamil-kkfviAdgjgisi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127030615/https://www.sify.com/movies/reema-lucky-lady-news-tamil-kkfviAdgjgisi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2020 |title=Reema —Lucky lady! |website=[[Sify]] |date=8 August 2006 |access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Vallavan]]''
| Geetha
|
| <ref name="Five best characters played by Reema Sen" /> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/oct/23val.htm |title=Very little going for Vallavan |website=Rediff.com |date=23 October 2006 |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928122407/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/oct/23val.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/slideshow/kanna-3-laddu-thinna-aasaiya/vallavan---sandhya-reema-sen-nayanthara.html |title=VALLAVAN – SANDHYA, REEMA SEN, NAYANTHARA |website=Behindwoods.com |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906112132/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/slideshow/kanna-3-laddu-thinna-aasaiya/vallavan---sandhya-reema-sen-nayanthara.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Rendu]]''
| Velli
|
|
|-
|2007
|''[[Yamagola Malli Modalayindi]]''
|Vaijayanti
|Telugu
|
|
|-
|2009
|''[[Chal Chala Chal]]''
|Payal
|Hindi
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2010
| scope="row" | ''[[Aayirathil Oruvan (2010 film)|Aayirathil Oruvan]]''
| Anitha Pandian
| Tamil
|[[Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards|Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards for Best Villain — Female]] Nominated - [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil]] Nominated - [[Vijay Award for Best Actress]] Nominated - [[Vijay Award for Best Villain]]
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2010/jan/19/praises-pour-in-for-reemma-sen-161888.html |title=Praises pour in for Reemma Sen |website=The New Indian Express |date=19 January 2010 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=28 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128035813/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2010/jan/19/praises-pour-in-for-reemma-sen-161888.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Aakrosh (2010 film)|Aakrosh]]''
| Jhamunia
| Hindi
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/reema-sen-wants-to-make-a-comeback-to-bollywood-960.html |title=Reema Sen Wants To Make A Comeback To Bollywood |website=The Times of India |date=24 June 2010 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126180630/https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/reema-sen-wants-to-make-a-comeback-to-bollywood-960.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2011
| scope="row" | ''[[Mugguru]]''
| Balatripura Sundari
| Telugu
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/reema-sen-roots-for-commerce/article2213875.ece |title=Reema Sen roots for commerce |website=The Hindu |date=9 July 2011 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126180156/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/reema-sen-roots-for-commerce/article2213875.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Rajapattai]]''
| Herself
| Tamil
| Special appearance in the song "Rendu Laddu"
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/rajapattai-on-dec-23-imagegallery-kollywood-lmbrUKdihfasi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623081714/http://www.sify.com/movies/rajapattai-on-dec-23-imagegallery-kollywood-lmbrUKdihfasi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 June 2015 |title=Rajapattai on Dec 23 |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/rajapattai-will-hit-screens-in-december-412878.html |title='Rajapattai' will hit screens in December |website=CNN-News18 |date=25 October 2011 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175613/https://www.news18.com/news/india/rajapattai-will-hit-screens-in-december-412878.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2012
| scope="row" | ''[[Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 1]]''
| rowspan="2" | Durga
| rowspan="2" | Hindi
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | <ref name="Five best characters played by Reema Sen" /> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/anurag-took-me-to-a-different-level-reema-sen-news-bollywood-mhkjQafjhafsi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814151319/http://www.sify.com/movies/anurag-took-me-to-a-different-level-reema-sen-news-bollywood-mhkjQafjhafsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 August 2015 |title=Anurag took me to a different level: Reema Sen |website=[[Sify]] |date=1 August 2012 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/wellness/reema-slams-size-zero-trend-thanks-vidya-for-making-curves-trendy_114932.html |title=Reema slams "size zero" trend, thanks Vidya for making curves trendy |website=Zee News |date=9 July 2012 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126175422/https://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/wellness/reema-slams-size-zero-trend-thanks-vidya-for-making-curves-trendy_114932.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Gangs of Wasseypur – Part 2]]''
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Sattam Oru Iruttarai (2012 film)|Sattam Oru Iruttarai]]''
| Kausalya Raman
| Tamil
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/reema-resumes-shoot-for-sattam-oru-iruttarai-news-tamil-mhdm3pfhhgfsi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830160933/http://www.sify.com/movies/reema-resumes-shoot-for-sattam-oru-iruttarai-news-tamil-mhdm3pfhhgfsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 August 2015 |title=Reema resumes shoot for 'Sattam Oru Iruttarai' |website=[[Sify]] |date=3 July 2012 |access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Reema-Sen-turns-cop/articleshow/15892640.cms |title=Reema Sen turns cop! |website=The Times of India |date=15 January 2017 |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221015011/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Reema-Sen-turns-cop/articleshow/15892640.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Indian film actresses]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}
* {{Instagram}}

{{Portal bar|Bollywood}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sen, Reema}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Bengali cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards South winners]]
[[Category:Female models from Kolkata]]
[[Category:21st-century Bengali people]]

List of Gujarati films of 2016

2026-02-22T01:55:39Z

LucasRowan: correct references after review and updated info for accuracy

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
This is a list of [[Gujarati cinema|Gujarati language films]] that were released in 2016. The Gujarati films collectively grossed {{INRconvert|22|c}} in 2016, according to Ormax Box Office Report.<ref name="ormax 2025">{{cite web |date=15 January 2026 |title=The Ormax Box Office Report: 2025 |url=https://www.ormaxmedia.com/insights/stories/the-ormax-box-office-report-2025.html}}</ref>

{{expand list|date=June 2016}}

== Releases ==

=== January – March ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:8%;" | Opening
! Name
! Genre
! Director
! Cast
! style="width:2%;" | Source
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||1|1}} || ''Hutututu: Aavi Ramat Ni Rutu'' || Thriller || Shital Shah || Parth Oza, [[Raunaq Kamdar]], Shital Shah, Shaina Shah || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/Gujarati-movie-Hu-Tu-Tu-Tu-recently-launched-its-official-theatrical-trailer-and-music-in-Ahmedabad/articleshow/50159112.cms|title=Official theatrical trailer of Hu Tu Tu Tu is out |publisher=[[Times Of India]]}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||1|15}} || ''[[Romance Complicated]]'' || Romance || [[Dhwani Gautam]] || [[Malhar Pandya]], Divya Misra, Dharmesh Vyas, Shekhar Shukla, [[Darshan Jariwala]], Nisha Kalamdani, Umang Acharya, Yulia Yanina, Dhwani Gautam || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/romcomthefilm/photos/a.499465606854460.1073741827.497691077031913/736488169818868/?type=3&theater|title=Starting with record breaking opening in 163 theatres and 591 shows ! This #Uttrayan don't miss #RomanceComplicated |publisher=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||2|5}} || ''Sambandho Ni Sonography'' || Drama || Jaykrushna Rathod || Jaykrushna Rathod, Hasmukh Bhavsar || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://deshgujarat.com/2016/02/06/review-of-gujarati-movie-sambandho-ni-sonography/|title=Review of Gujarati movie Sambandho Ni Sonography |date=6 February 2016 |publisher=DeshGujarat]}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||2|12}} || ''[[Polam Pol]]'' || Comedy || Tejas Padia || [[Jimit Trivedi]], Ojas Rawal, Jinal Belani, Prem Gadhavi, Jayesh More, Sunil Vishrani, Sanat Vyas || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/Upcoming-Gujarati-movie-releases-Polam-Pol-releases-its-official-trailer/articleshow/50636331.cms|title=Gujarati movie Polam Pol releases its official trailer |publisher=[[Times Of India]]}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||2|19}} || ''Love U Baka'' || Comedy || Utpal Modi || Khyati Madhu, Mukesh Rao, Praysi Nayak, Rash Kavithiya, Chetan Dahiya || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/Khyati-Madhu-is-back-with-Love-U-Baka/articleshow/50802953.cms|title=Khyati says it encore with Love U Baka |publisher=[[Times Of India]]}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2|{{dts|format=dmy||2|26}} || ''Prem Rang'' || Romance || Rafique Pathan || [[Hiten Kumar]], Sonam, Chandani Chopra, Bharat Thakkar, Devendra Pandit, Jitu Pandya, Ayush Jadeja, Hari Rathod, Hetal Rathod, Usha Bhatia
|| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dholiwood.in/premrang/|title=Prem Rang |publisher=Dhollywood}}</ref>
|-
| ''Always Rahishu Saathe'' || Romance || Yuvraj Jadeja || Umang Acharya, Rishabh Tillana Desai, Yuvraj Jadeja, Bharvi, Komal Jhala || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.maffat.com/2016/02/always-rahishu-sathe-gujarati-movie-trailer-2016-upcoming-urban-gujarati-star-cast-details/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629210553/http://news.maffat.com/2016/02/always-rahishu-sathe-gujarati-movie-trailer-2016-upcoming-urban-gujarati-star-cast-details/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=29 June 2017|title=Always Rahishu Sathe Gujarati Movie Trailer 2016 : Upcoming Urban Gujarati Star Cast Details|date=8 February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||3|1}} || ''Dil Ma Vasto Desh'' || Drama || [[Deepak Antani]] || [[Hitu Kanodia]], [[Mona Thiba]], Rani Sharma, Jitu Pandya, Hitesh Rawal, Jaimini Trivedi, Hasmukh Bhavsar || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/gandhi-ashram-is-a-focal-point-in-our-story-hitu-kanodia-mona-thiba-kanodia/articleshow/107661590.cms|title=Gandhi Ashram is a focal point in our story: Hitu Kanodia & Mona Thiba Kanodia |publisher=[[Times Of India]]}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2|{{dts|format=dmy||3|4}} || ''Fillam'' || Romance || Vishal Vada Vala || [[Asrani]], [[Shakti Kapoor]], Sanatan Modi, Devendra Gupta, Ravi Sanghani, Bhumika Bhindi, Jaimin Khakhkhar, Niti Singh
|| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/fillamthemovie/|title=Fillam |publisher=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
|-
| ''Mangu Sayba Janamo Janam No Sath'' || Romance || Vinesh Prabhakar || Rakesh Barot, Harini Ahir, Geet Shah ||<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/Mangusaybajanamojanamnosath|title=Mangu Sayba Janamo Janam No Sath|publisher=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=1|{{dts|format=dmy||3|11}} || ''Ek Bija Mate'' || Drama || Mukesh Hariyani || Abhijeet Sametriya, Hardik Joshi || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/ek-bija-mate/ET00039682|title=Ek Bija Mate |publisher=Bookmyshow|access-date=16 June 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=1|{{dts|format=dmy||3|18}} || ''Chor Na Bhai Ghanti Chor'' || Comedy || Jagdish Soni || Umang Acharya, Karan Rajveer, Uren Almaula, Mahendra Panchal || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/chor-na-bhai-ghanti-chor/ET00040005|title=Chor Na Bhai Ghanti Chor |publisher=Bookmyshow|access-date=16 June 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=1|{{dts|format=dmy||3|25}} || ''3 Doba – Three Mistakes Of God'' || Comedy || Nishith Brahmbhatt || Nirav Mashurwala, Chetan Dahiya, Nishith Brahmbhatt || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/3-DOBA-Three-Mistakes-Of-God-1616392568623064/|title=3 DOBA – Three Mistakes Of God |publisher=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
|}

===April – June===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:8%;" | Opening
! Name
! Genre
! Director
! Cast
! style="width:2%;" | Source
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||4|22}} || ''Su Karisu'' || Drama || Subhash J. Shah, Haresh S. Pandya || [[Asrani]], Rittesh Mobh, [[Bhakti Rathod]], [[Kishore Bhanushali]] || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/su-karisu/ET00041152|title=Su Karisu|access-date=21 April 2016|work=Bookmyshow}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||5|20}} || ''16 Fight Against Ragging'' || Horror || Lagdhirsinh Jadeja || Sanjay Maurya, Chini Raval, Yuvraj Gadhvi, Nikita Soni || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/16-fight-against-ragging/ET00041910|title=16 Fight Against Ragging|access-date=19 May 2016}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||5|27}} || ''Jivan Sathi'' || Romance || Jeet Kanani || Aarthi Soni, Mehul Patel, Sunil Vasava || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/jivan-sathi/ET00042247|title=Jivan Sathi|access-date=31 May 2016}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||6|3}} || ''[[Thai Jashe!]]'' || Drama || Nirav Barot || [[Manoj Joshi (actor)|Manoj Joshi]], [[Malhar Thakar]], [[Monal Gajjar]] || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/thaijashe/|title=Thai Jashe |publisher=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||6|17}} || ''De Taali'' || Comedy || Sunil Suchak || Sanjay Maurya, Kiran Acharya, Vanraj Sisodiya, Bhairavi Vaidya || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/DeTaaliGujarati/|title=De Taali Gujarat movie|website=[[Facebook]] |access-date=16 June 2016}}</ref>
|-
| {{dts|format=dmy||6|24}} || ''Daav Thai Gayo Yaar'' || Comedy || Dushyant Patel || Mitra Gadhvi, [[Mayur Chauhan]], Sunil Vishrani || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://dnasyndication.com/showarticlerss.aspx?nid=D0Clj5ibCiWWk99DrdwMylY2pXHYhl01PXacNJthOlU=|title=Dushyant Patel no 'Daav Thai Gayo'! |publisher=[[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]]}}</ref>
|}

===July – September===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:8%;" | Opening
! Name
! Genre
! Director
! Cast
! style="width:2%;" | Source
|-
| 15 July || ''[[Romeo & Radhika]]'' || Romance || Siddharth Trivedi || Vidhi Parikh, Tushar Sadhu, Hemang Dave, Shyam Nair || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://romeoandradhika.com/|title=Romeo and Radhika|access-date=16 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827111322/http://romeoandradhika.com/|archive-date=27 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| 29 July || ''Chakravyuh'' || Thriller || Satyen Varma || Disha Patel, Jeet Upendra, Tej Sapru, Yamini Joshi || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/chikkamagaluru/movies/chakravyuh-gujarati/ET00044244|title=Chakravyuh (Gujarati)|access-date=17 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 12 August || ''Duniya Jale To Jale'' || Drama || Bipin Bapodra || [[Vikram Thakor]] || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/mehsana/movies/duniya-jale-to-jale/ET00045049|title=Duniya Jale To Jale|access-date=17 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 19 August || ''Chhokari Vinanu Gaam'' || Comedy || Rajesh Bhatt || Raaj Kumaar, Devami Pandya, Hitarth Dave, Sahil Shaikh || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/chhokari-vinanu-gaam/ET00044965|title=Chhokari Vinanu Gaam|access-date=19 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 25 August || ''Alya Have Shu?'' || Comedy || Aziz Sumariya, Divyesh Kathiriya || Nishant Pandya, Rajkumar Soni, Rubina Belim, [[Sunil Pal]] || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/alya-have-shu/ET00045569|title=Alya Have Shu?|access-date=24 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 26 August || | ''Navri Bazar'' || Comedy || Jitendra Thakkar, Rajesh Bhatt || Disha Patel, Jash Thakkar, Hemin Trivedi, Chetan Daiya || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/navri-bazar/ET00045577|title=Navri Bazar|access-date=24 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan = 3 | 2 September || ''Aapne toh chhie Bindaas'' || Drama || Nishant Dave || Vikee Shah, Pravin Gundecha, Kailash Shadadpuri, Priyanka Tiwari || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmyguru.com/gujarati-news/reveled-new-urban-gujarati-movie-aapne-toh-chhie-bindaas-teaser-with-movie-poster|title=Reveled New urban gujarati movie "aapne toh chhie Bindaas" teaser with movie poster|access-date=8 May 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Half Ticket'' || Romance || Ashish Bhatt || Nayan Shukla, Toral Trivedi, Sanat Vyas, Sharad Sharma || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/navsari/movies/half-ticket-gujarati/ET00045921|title=Half Ticket (Gujarati)|access-date=3 September 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Maa Ne Vahlo Dikaro Dikrane Vahali Maa'' || Drama || Batuk Thakor || Batuk Thakor, Gemini Trivedi, Gopal Raval, [[Hitu Kanodia]]|| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/mumbai/movies/maa-ne-vahlo-dikaro-dikrane-vahali-maa/ET00045824|title=Maa Ne Vahlo Dikaro Dikrane Vahali Maa|access-date=30 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2| 9 September || ''Tuu To Gayo'' || Comedy || [[Dhwani Gautam]] || Dharmesh Vyas, Tushar Sadhu, Raunaq Kamdar, Nilay Patel, Twinkle Vasisht || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/TuutoGayo/|title=Tuu To Gayo|website=[[Facebook]] |access-date=12 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Wrong Side Raju]]'' || Thriller || [[Mikhil Musale]] || [[Pratik Gandhi]], Kimberley Louisa McBeath, [[Asif Basra]], [[Kavi Shastri]], Hetal Puniwala || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/WrongSideRaju/|title=Wrong Side Raju|website=[[Facebook]] |access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=3| {{nowrap|16 September}} || ''College Bus'' || Comedy || Hitu Patel || Haard Parikh, Jayesh Lalwani, Naitik Desai, Rajan Thakar || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/college-bus/ET00046391|title=College Bus|access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Be Shak'' || Drama || Anil Vanjani || Amil B. Bukhari, Anil Vanjani, Heli Bhatt, Hetansh Shah || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/be-shak/ET00046490|title=Be Shak|access-date=15 September 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Ekko Badshah Rani'' || Comedy || Keshav Rathod || K. Chandan, Pranjal Bhatt, Kiran Acharya, Pal Rawal || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/ekko-badshah-rani/ET00046470|title=''Ekko Badshah Rani''}}</ref>
|-
| 23 September || ''Var To NRI J'' || Comedy || Dinesh Barot || Niharica Raizada, Vijay Bhatia, Shekhar Shukla, Rajul Diwan || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/var-to-nri-j/ET00046779|title=Var To Nri j|access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref>
|}

===October – December===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:8%;" | Opening
! Name
! Genre
! Director
! Cast
! style="width:2%;" | Source
|-
| rowspan = 2 | 14 October || ''[[Je Pan Kahish E Sachuj Kahish]]'' || Thriller || Naitik Raval ||Gaurav Paswala, Sneha Devganiya || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/JPKESK/|title=Je Pan Kahish E Sachuj Kahish|website=[[Facebook]] |access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Koi Aane Parnavo'' || Comedy || Haribhai Maniya || Kalpesh Rajgor, Jitu Pandya, Abhay Chandrana || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/movies/koi-aane-parnavo/ET00047684|title=Koi Aane Parnavo|access-date=13 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan = 2| 28 October || ''Patel Ni Patlai Ane Thakor Nee Khandani'' || Drama || Rafik Pathan || [[Vikram Thakor]], [[Hitu Kanodia]], Mamta Soni, Kamini Panchal || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/patel-ni-patlai-ane-thakor-nee-khandani/ET00048346|title=Patel Ni Patlai Ane Thakor Nee Khandani|access-date=27 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Shootout'' || Drama || Shain Leuva || Deep Dholakia, Pranjal Bhatt, Prapti Ajwalia, Rakesh Pujara || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/shootout/ET00048343|title=Shootout|access-date=27 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan = 3 | 4 November || ''Commitment'' || Drama || Atul Patel || Maulika Patel, Manash Shah, Vivek Shah, Kartik Rashtrapal || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/commitment/ET00048722|title=Commitment|access-date=3 November 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Lavari'' || Comedy || Rahu Thummar || Aishwaria Dusane, Harshida Pankhanya, Dhriti Patel, Rohan Patel, Mandeep Singh Basran, Sanjjeet Dhuri
|| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjzOSIhvQB4|title=Lavari|website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>
|-
| ''Passport'' || Comedy || Rajesh Sharma || [[Malhar Thakar]], Anna Ador, Ujjval Dave, Ashish Vashi, Jayesh More || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://buddybits.com/2016/10/gujarati-movie-passport-trailer/|title=Trailer of Gujarati movie Passport is out and it looks promising!|date=17 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan= 2| {{nowrap|11 November}}
|| ''[[Hardik AbhiNandan]]'' || Comedy || Dev Keshwala || [[Ragini Shah]], [[Devarshi Shah]], Gopal Parmar, Navjot Singh Chauhan, [[Vimmy Bhatt]] || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/HardikAbhiNandanTheFilm/|title=Hardik AbhiNandan|website=[[Facebook]] |access-date=23 July 2016}}</ref>
|-
|| ''Kaink Karne Yaar'' || Comedy || Kabir Jani || [[Tiku Talsania]], [[Aruna Irani]], Yatin Parmar, Raj Jatania || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/surat/movies/kaik-karne-yaar/ET00048932|title=Kaink Karne Yaar|access-date=18 November 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 9 December || ''[[Mission Mummy]]'' || Drama || Ashish Kakkad || Aarti Patel, Raj Vazir || <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://urbangujarati.com/2016/10/14/mission-mummy-gujarati-movie-star-cast/|title=Mission Mummy Gujarati movie star cast}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2| 30 December || ''Kookh'' || Drama || Nimesh Desai || Yogita Patel, Naresh Patel, Annapurna Shukla, Rutu Vani || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/kookh/ET00051035|title=Kookh|access-date=22 December 2016}}</ref>
|-
| ''Patel Paachho Na Pade Thakor Koi Thi Na Dare'' || Drama || Harry Baraiya || Jagdish Thakor, Umesh Barot || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/ahmedabad/movies/patel-paachho-na-pade-thakor-koi-thi-na-dare/ET00051503|title=Patel Paachho Na Pade Thakor Koi Thi Na Dare|access-date=1 January 2017}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Gujarati films]]
* [[List of highest-grossing Indian films#Gujarati|List of highest-grossing Gujarati films]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.imdb.com/search/title?at=0&languages=gu&sort=year,asc&title_type=feature&year=2016,2016 List of Gujarati films of 2016] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]

{{2016 films}}
{{Indian film list}}
{{Portal bar|Bollywood}}

[[Category:Lists of Gujarati films by year|2016]]
[[Category:Lists of 2016 films by language|Gujarati]]
[[Category:2016 in Indian cinema|Gujarati]]

Milind Mhamal

2026-02-16T19:04:50Z

LucasRowan: adding a data

{{Short description|Indian librarian and translator}}
'''Milind Mhamal''' is an Indian librarian and translator from Goa. He won the 2024 [[Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize]] in Konkani for ''Bhartiya Tathvagineanachi Ruprekha'', his translation of ''Outline of Indian Philosophy'' by [[M. Hiriyanna]].<ref>{{Cite web |agency=PTI |date=2025-03-07 |title=Turlapati Rajeswari among Sahitya Akademi translation prize winners |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/andhra-pradesh/turlapati-rajeswari-among-sahitya-akademi-translation-prize-winners-1865479 |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=..:: SAHITYA : Akademi Awards ::.. |url=https://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/awards/anuvad_samman_suchi.jsp |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=sahitya-akademi.gov.in}}</ref> Mhamal works as an Assistant Professor and Programme Director of Library and Information Science at the Goa Business School, [[Goa University]].<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.unigoa.ac.in/uploads/confg_docs/20251027.092651~Sahitya_Akademi_Mhamal.pdf |title=Sahitya Akademi's Prestigious translation prize 2024 |publisher=[[Goa University]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mhamal, Milind}}
[[Category:Writers from Goa]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Prize for Translation into Konkani]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-writer-stub}}

Ambika (goddess)

2026-02-15T20:04:00Z

LucasRowan:

{{Short description|Mother goddess of Indian origin}}
{{Other uses|Ambika (disambiguation){{!}}Ambika}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = File:Raja Ravi Varma, Ambika (Oleographic print).jpg
| name = Ambika
| caption = Painting of Ambika by [[Raja Ravi Varma]]
| affiliation = [[Mahadevi]], [[Durga]]
| god_of = Mother Goddess, Mother of the Universe and all Beings
| abode = [[Manidvipa]]
| weapon = [[Discus]], [[Shankha|Conch Shell]], [[Trident]], [[Gada (mace)|Mace]], [[Bow and arrow|Bow]], [[Sword]], [[Lotus Flower]]
| mount = [[Lion]] or [[Tiger]]
| texts = [[Markendeya Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Skanda Purana]]
}}

'''Ambika''' ({{langx|sa|अम्बिका}}, {{IAST3|Ambikā}}) is generally an epithet or form of [[Mahadevi]], the supreme goddess of Hinduism. In [[Shaktism]], she is revered as [[Adi Parashakti]], the mother of the universe and all beings. She is often identified with various incarnations such as [[Chandi]], [[Durga]], [[Bhagavati]], [[Tripura Sundari|Lalitambika]], [[Bhavani]], [[Mahalakshmi Temple, Kolhapur|Ambabai]] and many others.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA18 |title=Ambika |work=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |page=18 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2010 |access-date=22 June 2016|isbn=9780143415176 }}</ref>
In her iconography, she is typically depicted with eight arms holding multiple weapons.

== Legend ==
According to the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'', after the [[asura]] [[Mahishasura]] was slain by Durga, the divinities embarked on a pilgrimage to the [[Himalayas]] and sang a hymn of praise in honor of the supreme goddess. Meanwhile, Goddess [[Parvati]] had come to the source of the [[Ganges]] to bathe and observed the hymn. She asked the divinites to whom the hymn was dedicated. Before they could respond, she shed her outer corporeal form, revealing her true and auspicious form, who is then named Ambika.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Padma |first=Sree |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ&dq=ambika+form+of+mahadevi&pg=PA221 |title=Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move |date=2014-07-03 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9002-9 |pages=221 |language=en}}</ref> When identified with Parvati, Ambika is seen as the consort of [[Shiva]].

In the Vedic tradition, Ambikā is described as the sister of [[Rudra]] (Śiva).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Müller |first=Friedrich Max |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yp9MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA389&dq=sister+rudra+ambika%C2%A0&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjK76jrrc-QAxXBOzQIHXV9N5oQ6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q=sister%20rudra%20ambika%C2%A0&f=false |title=Vedic Hymns: Hymns to the Maruts, Rudra, Vâyu, and Vâta |date=1891 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-81-7030-755-6 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Yajurveda]] (Śukla recension, 3.57) invokes Rudra “together with his sister Ambikā” (svasrā-ambikā). The [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] (2.6.2.9) explains this line by stating explicitly that “Ambikā is the name of his (Rudra’s) sister.” A similar reference occurs [[Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa]] (1.6.10.5), where Ambikā is again identified in this ritual context. In the [[Nrisimha Tapaniya Upanishad]] of the [[Atharvaveda]], Lord [[Narasimha]] is described using various names, including ''Ambikāpati'' ''(husband of Ambika).'' In later Puranic literature, however, the name Ambika is also applied to Parvati.

==See also==
*[[Ambika (Jainism)]] - ''Yakshi'' of the 22nd [[Tirthankara]] [[Neminatha]], portrayed with children in sculpture.

==References==
{{Reflist}}{{More citations needed|article|date=May 2025|find=empty string}}{{HinduMythology}}

[[Category:Destroyer goddesses]]
[[Category:Hindu goddesses]]
[[Category:War goddesses]]
[[Category:Shaktism]]

S R Nair

2026-02-10T03:10:39Z

LucasRowan: added details

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name =
| image = SR Nair.jpg
| alt =
| caption = SR Nair in a panel discussion of the Kerala Management Association
| birth_name = Sreedharan Radhakrishnan Nair
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1959|05|31|df=y}}
| birth_place = Pallipuram, [[Kerala]], India
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = Entrepreneur, author, adjunct professor, mentor
| years_active =
| known_for = Start-up business, mentoring, public speaking
| organization = Chaired {{bulleted list|Kerala Management Association (2004), (2013) |
The Indus Entrepreneurs (TiE) Kerala Chapter (2003)|
Indian Society of Training & development, Kochi Chapter (2011–2013)|
Founder Secretary Better Kochi Response Group – (2008–2012)|
Rotary Cochin International 2002 }}

| notable_works =
| awards = {{bulleted list|Award from Governor of Kerala for spearheading management movement in the State (2008)| IT Man of the Year from Kerala Sahridaya Vedi (2013)|Kerala State Productivity Council Award(2000)|CRN Award for Best IT entrepreneurship in Kerala (2011) |Best District Secretary Rotary District 3200 (2000)}}
|website = {{URL|www.srnairblog.blogspot.com}}
}}

'''Sreedharan Radhakrishnan Nair''' (born 31 May 1959), known as SR, is a serial entrepreneur, author, [[adjunct professor]] and a mentor. Having chaired several professional and non-governmental organisations in [[Kerala]], India such as the Kerala Management Association, Indian Society for Training and Development, The Indus Entrepreneurs (TiE) (Kochi Chapter), Rotary Cochin International and having co-founded the Better Kochi Response Group, he is well known in business, social, academic and professional circles in the state of [[Kerala]]. He is a known public speaker who provides counsel to several governmental, educational and non-governmental organisations and individuals in areas such as management, entrepreneurship, marketing and technology.<ref>Programme to motivate entrepreneurs held in Kochi. (23 August 2014). The Hindu. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/programme-to-motivate-entrepreneurs-held-in-kochi/article6344765.ece</ref><ref>Taking a closer look at the budget. (24 March 2012). The Hindu. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/taking-a-closer-look-at-the-budget/article3208306.ece</ref><ref>Career guidance for graduates. (3 February 2012). The Hindu. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/career-guidance-for-graduates/article2856183.ece</ref><ref>Meet on learning methods. (11 January 2011). The Hindu. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/meet-on-learning-methods/article1079623.ece</ref>

==Biography==

Born to KPS Nair and Janakikutty Amma in [[Trivandrum]] district, [[Kerala]]; SR has three brothers and an elder sister. He did his schooling in his home town, higher studies in St Xavier's College (1976) and graduated with a Bachelor of Physics from [[Mahatma Gandhi College]], Trivandrum in 1979. While in employment, he also completed his MBA from [[Panjab University|Punjab University]] through the evening program in 1984.
SR started his career in 1980 as a Sales Engineer in Century Instruments Limited at [[Chandigarh]]. The job entailed him to travel across India which he did several times. He considers the travel as the best learning phase of his life. In 1985 he moved on and joined [[Hindustan Computers Limited]] & its assigns and for the next 11 years, worked in [[Chandigarh]], Delhi, [[Cochin]] and [[Bangalore]] in various capacities such as Regional Manager, Product Manager & National Manager (Distribution).
In 1996, SR returned to [[Cochin]], Kerala and started his entrepreneurial venture founding an IT system integration company by the name Team Frontline Limited. In times to come, he went on creating more enterprises such as Alltime Power Technologies Private Limited, Team e-biz Limited & Stallion System & Solutions Private Limited. After being in entrepreneurship for 20 years, SR moved on to become a CEO Mentor for start-up and early ventures by co-founding Mentorguru Professional Services Private Limited where he spends his energies now.
SR Nair is an adjunct professor at the [[Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode]] since 2012<ref>Workshop for councillors in city governance. (7 January 2016). The Hindu. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/workshop-for-councillors-in-city-governance/article8075250.ece</ref> where he teaches Entrepreneurship. He is also an adjunct professor at the [[Indian Maritime University]], Kochi campus where he imparts Strategic Management.<ref>Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation, National Institute of Technology (Calicut). (18 November 2015). ENTREPRENEURSHIP OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENGINEERS [Press release]. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.nitc.ac.in/app/webroot/img/upload/newsfile_1207.pdf</ref>

==Professional and social movements==

Beginning 1996, SR Nair has been active in professional and social movements in Kerala. He had chaired the Kerala Management Association twice in the year 2004 and 2013.<ref>Kerala Management Association meet on 5 February 2004. (30 January 2004). The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2004/01/31/stories/2004013100482100.htm</ref><ref>New office bearers of KMA elected. (14 July 2013) . The New Indian Express. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from [https://web.archive.org/web/20160816231157/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/New-office-bearers-of-KMA-elected/2013/07/14/article1683054.ece]</ref> He co-founded and chaired The Indus Entrepreneurs (TiE) Kerala Chapter in 2003, that took up mentoring of entrepreneurs as a regular activity. He had chaired the Kochi Chapter of the Indian Society of Training & Development between 2011 and 2013 and has since been a National Council Member.<ref>An avenue for skill development. (12 July 2010). The Hindu. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/an-avenue-for-skill-development/article512230.ece</ref><ref>NATCON Logo Released. (26 October 2015). The New Indian Express. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from [https://web.archive.org/web/20151106171218/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/NATCON-Logo-Released/2015/10/26/article3097377.ece]</ref> He is a co-founder of the Better Kochi Response Group.<ref>Kochi-based group plans development projects. (18 October 2008). The Hindu. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/kochibased-group-plans-development-projects/article1358597.ece</ref> In the year 2002, he charted Rotary Cochin International and was its founder President.<ref>Rotary Cochin International : The History. (2013). Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://rotarycochininternational.org/aboutus</ref> Besides, He was also associated with the Confederation of Indian Industries ([[Confederation of Indian Industry|CII]]) & [[Junior Chamber International]].
SR also was a director in Kerala Venture Capital Fund (KVCF) started by the [[Government of Kerala]] and is an independent director at Manappuram Comptech and Consultants Limited.
Nair serves the Seed Funding Committee of [[Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation]] (KSIDC) as an expert member.<ref>Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation, National Institute of Technology (Calicut). (18 November 2015). ENTREPRENEURSHIP OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENGINEERS [Press release]. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.nitc.ac.in/app/webroot/img/upload/newsfile_1207.pdf</ref>

==Family==

SR Nair is married to Shaleena Nair. The couple have two children, Naomi and Aditya.

== Public speaking, training and writing==

SR Nair is a public speaker and debater and often appears in print and electronic media on various contemporary topics, in addition to partaking in keynote speaking and training for podiums such as Kerala Management Association, National Institute Personnel Management, Indian Society for Training Development, TiE, Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Institute, Naval Training Institute, Universities and other academic & research institutions.<ref>The importance of soft skills. (3 September 2008). The Hindu. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/the-importance-of-soft-skills/article1331695.ece</ref><ref>Industrial Motivation Campaign for Aspiring Entrepreneurs. (1 October 2014). The New Indian Express. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from [https://web.archive.org/web/20141203040255/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/Industrial-Motivation-Campaign-for-Aspiring-Entrepreneurs/2014/10/01/article2457128.ece]</ref><ref>‘FORUM-12’ begins. (1 December 2012). The New Indian Express. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from [http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article1361855.ece]{{dead link|date=February 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> He spends his spare time in providing career guidance to students of lesser means in suburban and village schools.<ref>Career guidance for graduates. (3 February 2012). The Hindu. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/career-guidance-for-graduates/article2856183.ece</ref><ref>Promoting entrepreneurship among educated women. (20 January 2006). The Hindu. Retrieved 19 June 2016, from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/promoting-entrepreneurship-among-educated-women/article3242433.ece</ref> Rotary Cochin International chartered by him conducts an annual youth festival and competition, titled ‘Bhavana’ among special schools of the state and he actively takes part in it, year after year.<ref>Cultural Fest for Special Kids. (29 January 2015). The New Indian Express. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from [https://web.archive.org/web/20151123221446/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/Cultural-Fest-for-Special-Kids/2015/01/29/article2641297.ece]</ref>
In 2014, SR authored the book ‘Subhayatra’ ({{ISBN|978-81-8266-100-4}}) published by [[Mathrubhumi]] Books.
SR Nair is a regular blogger (srnairblog.blogspot.com) and an avid traveler. He regularly contributes original articles in research publications and business magazines on IT, management and other contemporary topics.<ref>Nair, V. (2004). Stuck in the comfort zone. The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/ew/2004/06/07/stories/2004060700020100.htm
</ref><ref>Columns by SR Nair. (n.d.). Update Kerala. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.updatekerala.com/index.php?id=604</ref>

==Awards and recognition==

* He received Award from Governor of Kerala for spearheading management movement in the State in the year 2008<ref>Kerala Govt felicitates SR Nair. (30 June 2008). The DQ Week. Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.dqweek.com/kerala-govt-felicitates-sr-nair/</ref>
* Kerala Sahridaya Vedi recognized him with IT Man of the year in 2013
* He is the recipient of Kerala State Productivity Council Award in 2000.<ref>Awards to SR Nair and Team E Biz. (2005). Retrieved 31 May 2016, from http://www.teamebiz.com/media.htm</ref>
* CRN Xcellence Award for Best IT entrepreneurship in Kerala for 2011<ref>CRN Xcellence Awards. (15 September 2011). Computer Reseller News (CRN), 5(10), 10–38.</ref>
* Best District Secretary Award from Rotary District 3200 in the year 2000.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nair, S R}}
[[Category:Indian industrialists]]
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Koottickal Jayachandran

2026-02-07T23:39:59Z

LucasRowan: article

{{short description|Indian film Actor in Malayalam movies}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox person 
| name = Koottickal Jayachandran
| image =
| caption =
| native_name =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Kottayam]]
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| years_active = 2002–present
| spouse = Basanthi
| children =
| parents =
| website =
| awards =
| signature =
}}
'''Koottickal Jayachandran''' is an Indian [[actor]] who works in the [[Malayalam film industry]]. He started his career as a [[Mimicry artist]]. He is a well known [[mimicry artist]] and [[Television presenter|presenter]] of shows like 'Jagathy v. Jagathy' and 'Comedy Time' on [[Surya TV]].<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/if-it-wasnt-for-dileep-i-wouldnt-have-got-an-opportunity-to-act-in-films-again-koottickal-jayachandran/articleshow/59724106.cms News Times of India]</ref><ref>[https://in.bookmyshow.com/person/koottickal-jayachandran/IEIN028501 Bookmyshow]</ref>

==Personal life==
'Koottickal Jayachandran was born in [[Kottayam]], [[Kerala]], India. He married Basanthi.<ref>[https://www.thehindu.com/lf/2002/07/17/stories/2002071702440200.htm News The Hindu]{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>[http://www.mangalam.com/news/detail/147556-latest-news-koottickal-jayachandrans-facebook-post-for-meenakshi.html News Mangalam]</ref>

==Filmography==
{{Pending films key}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2001 || ''Raasaleela'' || Eby ||
|-
| 2002 || ''Thilakam'' || Raghu ||
|-
| 2002 || ''Chirikkudukka'' || Harikrishnan ||
|-
| 2004 || ''Freedom'' || Kumaran ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Chanthupottu]]'' || Lawrence ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Vargam]]'' || Const. Poulose ||
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Detective (2007 film)|Detective]]'' || Ashokan ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[My Boss]]'' ||Villager ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2013 || ''[[Memories (2013 film)|Memories]]'' || Merchant ||
|-
| ''[[Ezhamathe Varavu]]'' || Driver ||
|-
| ''[[Nadodimannan]]'' || Padmanabhan's friend ||
|-
| ''[[Drishyam]]'' || Murali ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2014 || ''[[Njaan]]'' || C.B.I Officer ||
|-
| ''[[Beware of Dogs]]'' || Sabu ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2015 || ''[[Life of Josutty]]'' || Babukuttan (Cameo) ||
|-
| ''Nellikka'' || Raghu ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Second Class Yathra]]'' || James ||
|-
| ''Akkaldhamayile Pennu'' || Ambulance driver ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2017 || ''[[Rakshadhikari Baiju Oppu]]'' || Panchayath Member ||
|-
| ''[[Lakshyam (2017 film)|Lakshyam]]'' || Sunny Eeppan ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2022 || ''[[Naradhan]]'' || Tommy Kanjikkadan ||
|-
| ''Kara'' || Govindh ||
|-
| ''[[Pathonpatham Noottandu]]'' || Achupilla ||
|-
| rowspan=2 |2024 || ''Chithini'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-07-12 |title=Chithini Trailer: Amith Chakalakkal and Vinay Forrt in a supernatural horror thriller |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jul/12/chithini-trailer-amith-chakalakkal-and-vinay-forrt-in-a-supernatural-horror-thriller |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Thanupp]]''|| Prakash ||<ref>https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-reviews/2024/10/04/thanupp-movie-review.html. Manoramaonline.2024 October 4.</ref>
|}

; TV series
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Film !! Channel !! Notes
|-
|2022-2023||''[[Rani Raja]]''||[[Mazhavil Manorama]]||
|-
|2022-2024
|[[Anuraga Ganam Pole]]||[[Zee Keralam]]||
|-
|2023||''Muttathe Mulla''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||
|-
|2024–present||''Constable Manju''||[[Surya TV]]||
|}
; TV shows
*Comedy time (Surya TV) as Host
*Padam Namukku Padam (Surya TV) as Host
*Jagathy vs Jagathy (Surya TV) as Host
*Star Magic (Flowers TV)
*Funs upon a time (Amrita TV)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1334387}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jayachandran, Koottickal}}
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Kottayam]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Purnima Yadav

2026-02-07T22:20:08Z

LucasRowan: added info

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}

'''Purnima Yadav''' (born 1977)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Purnima Yadav (JD (U)):Constituency- Gobindpur (Nawada) - Expense Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/Bihar2020/expense.php?candidate_id=9982 |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Bihar]]. She was a former member of the [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]] from [[Gobindpur Assembly constituency]] in [[Nawada district]]. She won the [[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]] representing [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-10-26 |title=Bihar Assembly Election 2020: Will Congress hold on its old bastion of Gobindpur? |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bihar-election/bihar-assembly-election-2020-will-congress-hold-on-its-old-bastion-of-gobindpur/story-nGL8387pl6ReDgr8GUKltM.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422182051/https://www.hindustantimes.com/bihar-election/bihar-assembly-election-2020-will-congress-hold-on-its-old-bastion-of-gobindpur/story-nGL8387pl6ReDgr8GUKltM.html |archive-date=2021-04-22 |access-date=2025-04-16 |work=Hindustan Times |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gobindpur Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/gobindpur-bihar-assembly-constituency |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Yadav is from [[Gobindpur block|Gobindpur]], Nawada district, Bihar. She married [[Kaushal Yadav (politician)|Kaushal Yadav]].<ref name=":0" /> She completed her MA at [[Magadh University]], Bodh Gaya in 1994. Earlier, she did BA Honours at Magadh University Bodh Gaya in 1990.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Purnima Yadav(Janata Dal (United)(JD(U))):Constituency- GOBINDPUR(NAWADA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/Bihar2020/candidate.php?candidate_id=9982 |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Yadav won from Gobindpur Assembly constituency representing the Indian National Congress in the 2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election. She polled 43,016 votes and defeated her nearest rival, Fula Devi of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], by a margin of 4,399 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=कभी पिता तो कभी बेटा, सास-बहू भी रहीं MLA; गोविंदपुर सीट पर 40 साल से एक ही परिवार का दबदबा |url=https://ndtv.in/india/bihar-elections-2020-seat-profile-of-govindpur-assembly-seat-of-nawada-known-as-mini-madhepura-of-bihar-kaushal-yadav-and-wife-purnima-yadav-2304710 |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=ndtv.in |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-24 |title=गोविंदपुर विधानसभा सीट: चार दशक से कौशल यादव के परिवार का डंका, क्या इस बार बदलेगा इतिहास? |url=https://www.aajtak.in/elections/bihar-assembly-elections/story/bihar-election-2020-gobindpur-assembly-seat-jdu-kaushal-yadav-mla-purnima-yadav-congress-1134680-2020-09-24 |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yadav, Purnima}}
[[Category:1977 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2015–2020]]
[[Category:People from Nawada district]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Bihar]]
[[Category:Women members of the Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women politicians]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2005–2010]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2010–2015]]
[[Category:Independent politicians in India]]
[[Category:Janata Dal (United) politicians]]
[[Category:Magadh University alumni]]

Garry Sandhu

2026-02-07T19:18:48Z

LucasRowan: Revised content for better accuracy

{{short description|Indian singer, actor, song-writer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Garry-sandhu.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = During video shoot of Banda Ban Ja
| birth_name = Gurmukh Singh Sandhu
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1984|4|4}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.spotboye.com/pollywood/pollywood-news/happy-birthday-garry-sandhu-few-interesting-facts-about-the-singer/5ca5bd8164a3154dc1eb2cc8|title=Happy Birthday Garry Sandhu: Few interesting facts about the singer|website=spotboye.com|date=4 April 2019|access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref>
| birth_place = Rurka Kalan, [[Jalandhar]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[India]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|rapper|songwriter|actor}}
| years_active = 2010–present
| awards = [[#Awards and nominations|Full List]]
| notable_works =
| module = {{Infobox musical artist
| embed = yes
| genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]]
* [[Romantic love|romantic]]}}
| label = {{flatlist|
* Fresh Media Records}}
}}
}}

'''Gurmukh Singh "Garry" Sandhu''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/pages/category/Artist/OfficialGarrySandhuFanpage/about/|title=Garry Sandhu|website=facebook.com|access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref> is an Indian singer, songwriter, rapper and actor known for his work in [[Music of Punjab|Punjabi music]]. Originally, he came to the United Kingdom on a study visa, and worked as a construction worker situated in the Birmingham area illegally and got deported. Whilst working, he would aspire to eventually make his songwriting into an actual career. He made his singing debut in 2010 with song "Main Ni Peenda" and acting debut with the film ''[[Romeo Ranjha]]'' (2014).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.garrysandhumusic.com/about/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810223252/http://www.garrysandhumusic.com/about/|title=Garry Sandhu – Singer, actor, Lyricst|archive-date=10 August 2015|website=garrysandhumusic.com|access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref> He has released songs including Illegal Weapon, Yeah Baby, Banda Ban Ja, Excuses etc. He also owns his record label ''Fresh Media Records''. In 2019, his song "Yeah Baby" was released in a bollywood film [[De De Pyaar De]] as "[[Hauli Hauli]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/de-de-pyaar-de-new-song-hauli-hauli-gets-ajay-devgn-tabu-and-rakul-preet-grooving-on-the-dance-floor/articleshow/69052989.cms|title='De De Pyaar De' new song: 'Hauli Hauli' gets Ajay Devgn, Tabu and Rakul Preet grooving on the dance floor – Times of India ►|website=The Times of India|date=26 April 2019 |access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref> He has been nominated for [[#Awards and nominations|many awards]] at PTC Punjabi Music Awards.<ref name=BAMA2011>{{cite news |title=Brit Asia TV Music Awards 2011 "AND THE WINNERS ARE..." |url=https://punjab2000.com/brit-asia-tv-music-awards-2011-qand-the-winners-areq/ |access-date=3 September 2020 |work=Punjab2000.com |date=3 October 2011}}</ref>[[Business Today (India)|Business Today]] reported that Sandhu's song ''Illegal Weapon'' was one of the top YouTube music videos in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/trends/badshah-carry-minati-bb-ki-vines-youtube-reveals-top-10-creators-videos-of-2020/story/424866.html|title = Badshah, Carry Minati, BB Ki Vines: YouTube reveals top 10 creators, videos of 2020 | date=14 December 2020 }}</ref>

== Discography ==

=== Albums ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
!Year
!Music
!Label
|-
|''Fresh''
|2011
|DJ Dips, Roach Killa, Kam Frantic, DJ H, GV
|MovieBox/Goyal Music
|-
|''Magic''
|2012
|Rupin Kahlon, DJ Dips, Dr. Zeus
|MovieBox/Fresh Media Records
|-
|''Fresh All The Way''
|2014
|Beat Minister
|Fresh Media Records
|}
''Still Here''
2023
Rahul Sathu, Josh Sidhu
Fresh Media Records
|-

===EPs===
{| class="wikitable"
! Title
!Year
!Music
!Label
!Notes
|-
|''Adhi Tape''
|2021
|Daddy Beats, Rahul Sathu, Mohpreet Singh, Josh Sidhu, Jrocs & Shaye
|Fresh Media Records
|6 tracks
|}

=== Singles ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:15em;" |Title
! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Year
! rowspan="2" |Music
!Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2" |Lyrics
! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;" |[[Official Charts Company#Chart synopsis|UK Asian]] <ref>Chart History:
https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/24189/garry-sandhu

Singles on UK Asian Music Chart:

* "Sahan To Pyariya" & "Main Nee Peenda": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 8 May 2011 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20110508/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-09 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Fresh" & "Din Raat": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 18 December 2011 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20111218/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Ik Gal", "Brick" & "Sangdi": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 26 August 2012 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20120826/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-09 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Ja Ni Ja": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 16 February 2014 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20140216/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Laddu" & "Rabb Jane": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 21 July 2017 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20170721/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Illegal Weapon": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 18 May 2018 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20180518/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Yeh Baby" & "I Swear": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 3 August 2018 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20180803/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Hauli Hauli" & "Doabey Wala": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 31 May 2019 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20190531/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Like You": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 18 October 2019 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20191018/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Illegal Weapon 2.0": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 17 April 2020 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20200417/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-04 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}
* "Jatt": {{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40: 15 May 2020 |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20200515/asian/ |access-date=2020-05-26 |website=[[Official Charts Company]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''"Sahan To Pyariya"''
| rowspan="5" |2011
| DJ H || 1
| rowspan="5" | Garry Sandhu || rowspan="5" |''Fresh''
|-
! scope="row"|''"Main Nee Peenda"''
|Kam Frantic
| 16
|-
! scope="row"|''"Fresh"''
|GV
| 2
|-
!scope="row"|''"Tohar"''
| rowspan="2" |DJ Dips
|1
|-
! scope="row"|''"Din Raat"''
| 3
|-
! scope="row"|''"Ik Gal" ( Ft Sudesh Kumari)''
| rowspan="6" |2012
| DJ Dips|| 1
| rowspan="2" |Garry Sandhu || {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" |"Raatan"
| rowspan="3" |Rupin Kahlon
|2
| rowspan="3" |Magic
|-
! scope="row" |''"Door"''
|1
|Deepa
|-
!scope="row"|''"Hang"''
|3
|Chandra Sarai
|-
! scope="row" |''"Brick"''
|GV
| 1
|Tari
Banwal

puria
| ''Old Habits Die Hard''
|-
! scope="row" |''"Sangdi"''
|DJ Dips
| 7
|Garry Sandhu || ''Project: Bhangra''
|-
! scope="row" |''"Ja Ni Ja"''
| 2013
| Rupin Kahlon || 3
|Chandra Sarai
|Non-Album Singles
|-
!scope="row" |''"Ban Ban Ja"''
| rowspan="3" |2014
| rowspan="3" |Beat Minister
| -
| rowspan="2" |Veet Baljit
| rowspan="3" |Fresh All The Way
|-
!scope="row" |''"Do Botlaan"''
| -
|-
!scope="row" |''"Ego"''
| -
|Pinka
|-
!scope="row" |''"Mere Baare"''
|2015
|DJ Dips
|
| rowspan="3" |Garry Sandhu
| rowspan="19" |Non- Album Singles
|-
!scope="row" |''"Jaanu"''
| rowspan="3" |2016
|GV
|
|-
!scope="row" |''"Tadap"''
|Prit
|
|-
!scope="row" |''"One Touch"''
|Deep Jandu
|
|Lally Mundi
|-
!scope="row" |''"Excuses"''
| rowspan="6" |2017
|Vee
|
|Ricky Khan
|-
! scope="row" |''"Laddu"{{small|(featuring [[Jasmine Sandlas]])}}''
| Goldboy|| 11
| Baljit Pasla, Beat Minister
|-
! scope="row" |''"Rabb Jane"''
|Jhony Vik & Vee
| 16
|Shah Ali
|-
! scope="row" |''"Illegal Weapon"{{small|(featuring Jasmine Sandlas)}}''
|Intense
| 3
|Garry Sandhu
|-
!scope="row" |''"Dil De Kareeb"''
|John Samuel
| --
|Fateh Shergill
|-
! scope="row" |''"Kill"''
|Vee
| —
| rowspan="4" |Garry Sandhu
|-
! scope="row" |''"Ola Ola"''
| rowspan="7" |2018
| Intense|| —
|-
! scope="row" |''"Yeh Baby"''
| rowspan="2" |Ikky
| 7
|-
! scope="row" |''"I Swear"''
| 32
|-
! scope="row" |''"Tutya Garoor"''
|Habib Kaler
| —
|Shah Ali
|-
!scope="row" |''"Snapchat"''
|Lovey Akhtar
| --
| rowspan="5" |Garry Sandhu
|-
! scope="row" |''"Love You Jatta"''
| rowspan="2" |Rahul Sathu
| —
|-
! scope="row" |''"Do Gallan"''
| —
|-
! scope="row" |''"Alert Kudey"''
| rowspan="9" |2019
| Ikky|| —
|-
! scope="row" |''"Dobara Milde Aan"''
|Lovey Akhtar
| —
|-
! scope="row" |''"Hauli Hauli"''
|Tanishk Bagchi
| 6
|Tanishk Bagchi, Garry Sandhu || ''[[De De Pyaar De]]''
|-
! scope="row" |''"Take Off"''
|Lovey Akhtar
| —
|Kharewala Brar
| rowspan="2" {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" |''"Doabey Wala"''
|Ikky
| 30
|Garry Sandhu
|-
! scope="row" |''"Meri Aakad"''
|Intense
| —
|Happy Pasowal
| rowspan="2" |''[[Laiye Je Yaarian]]''
|-
! scope="row" |''"U & I"''
|Snappy
| —
|Rav Hanjra
|-
! scope="row" |''"Like You"''
|Rahul Sathu
| 10
| rowspan="2" |Garry Sandhu
| rowspan="2" {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" |''"Bottle"''
|Ikky
| —
|-
! scope="row" |''"Illegal Weapon 2.0"''
| rowspan="9" |2020
| rowspan="2" | Tanishk Bagchi || 1
| Priya Sariya
| rowspan="2" |''[[Street Dancer 3D]]''
|-
! scope="row" |''"Sip Sip 2.0"{{small|(featuring Jasmine Sandlas)}}''
| —{{efn|The song didn't appear on UK Asian chart, but the original version had peaked at number one on the chart.}}
|Garry Sandhu, Kumaar
|-
! scope="row" |''"Wallah Wallah"''
|Ikky / Yeah Proof
| —
| rowspan="3" |Garry Sandhu
| {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" |''"Techi"''
|Lovey Akhtar
| —
| ''Fresh Side Vol. 1''
|-
! scope="row" |''"Pabb Hauli"{{small|(featuring Pav Dharia)}}''
|Pav Dharia
| —
| rowspan="7" {{n/a|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row" |''"Faida Chak Gayi"''
|Lovey Akhtar
| —
|Mani Kakra
|-
! scope="row"|''"Jatt"{{small|(featuring Sultaan)}}''
|J Statik
| 22
|Garry Sandhu
|-
! scope="row"|''"Zindagi & Chingari "''
|Beat Minister & Jhonny Vick
| —
|Garry Sandhu Gurwinder
|-
! scope="row"|''"Coming Home"{{small|(featuring Naseebo Lal, Sultana, Roach Killa)}}''
|Roack Killa
| 34
| rowspan="6" |Garry Sandhu
|-
! scope="row"|''"Ishq"{{small|(featuring [[Shipra Goyal]], Myles Castello)}}''
| rowspan="5" |2021
|Ikky
|
|-
! scope="row"|''"Coming Home"''
|Rahul Sathu
|
|-
! scope="row"|''"Feelinga"''
|Daddy Beats
|
| rowspan="3" |Adhi Tape
|-
! scope="row"|''"Fitoor"''
| rowspan="2" |Josh Sidhu
|
|-
! scope="row"|''"Too Much"''
|
|-
|''"Jigar Da Tota"''
|2022
|Habib Kaler
| -
|Garry Sandhu
|Non-album singles
|}

=== As featured Artist or Lyricist===
{| class="wikitable"
!Title
!Year
!Artist(s)
!Lyricist
!Music
|-
|''Channa''
|2015
|Sartaj Virk
|Garry Sandhu
|Beat Minister
|-
|''Gora Rang''
| rowspan="2" |2018
|G Khan, Garry Sandhu
|Ricky Khan
|Ar Deep
|-
|''Sip Sip''
|[[Jasmine Sandlas]]
|Garry Sandhu
|Intense
|-
|''Chandigarh Shehar''
| rowspan="3" |2019
|G Khan, Afsana Khan
|Garry Sandhu
|Aman Hayer
|-
|''Dollar''
|G Khan, Garry Sandhu
|Fateh Shergill
|Goldboy
|-
|''Pachtayian''
|Mehar Vaani, G Khan
|Garry Sandhu
|Kaler Habib
|-
|''Jee Karda''
| rowspan="2" |2020
|G Khan, Khan Saab, Mehar Vaani
|Garry Sandhu
|Kaler
Habib, Enzo
|-
|''Chan Makhna''
|G Khan
|Garry Sandhu
|Kaler Habib
|-
|''Pyaar Ni Karda''
| rowspan="11" |2021
|G Khan
|Garry Sandhu
|Daddy Beats
|-
|''Tenu Soh Lagge''
|Uday Shergill, Garry Sandhu
|Lavvi Tibi
|Daddy Beats
|-
|''Grow''
|Sartaj Virk, Garry Sandhu
|Homeboy,
Garry Sandhu
|Yeah Proof
|-
|''Nachdi''
|G Khan, Garry Sandhu
|Garry Sandhu
|Daddy Beats
|-
|''Teru Yaad''
|G Khan
|Garry Sandhu
|ProdGk
|-
|''Are You Ok''
|Harpinder Gill, Garry Sandhu
|Garry Sandhu
|The Kidd
|-
|''80 90''
|Ikky, Amrit Maan, Garry Sandhu
|Amrit Maan, Garry Sandhu
|Ikky
|-
|''Duniya Saari''
|Sartaj Virk
|Garry Sandhu
|Kaler Habib
|-
|''Good Luck''
''( Female Version)''
|Simran Kaur Dhadli
|Garry Sandhu
|Rahul Sathu
|-
|''Patli Patang''
|G Khan, Sartaj Virk
|Garry Sandhu
|Daddy Beats
|-
|''Do Gallan''
|[[Neha Kakkar]], [[Rohanpreet Singh]]
|Garry Sandhu
|[[Rajat Nagpal]]
|-
|''Tod Gayi''
|2022
|Khan Saab, Garry Sandhu
|Garry Sandhu
|Daddy Beats
|}

=== Soundtracks ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Song
!Year
!Film/Album
|-
|''"Main Kina Tenu Karda"''
|2013
|''Jatt Boys Putt Jattan De''
|-
|''"Chandri Raat, Athroo"''
|2014
|''[[Romeo Ranjha]]''
|-
|''"Hauli Hauli"''
| rowspan="3" |2019
|''[[De De Pyaar De]]''
|-
|''"Meri Aakad"''
| rowspan="2" |''[[Laiye Je Yaarian]]''
|-
|''"U & I"''
|-
|''"Sip Sip 2.0"''
| rowspan="2" |2020
| rowspan="2" |''[[Street Dancer 3D]]''
|-
|''"Illegal Weapon 2.0"''
|}

== Filmography ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
!Playback
! Notes
|-
| 2014 ||''[[Romeo Ranjha]]''|| Ranjha
|''Chandri Raat, Athroo''|| Debut Film
|-
|2020
|''[[Chal Mera Putt 2]]''|| Deepa || ||
|-
|}

== Awards and nominations ==

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! Year
! Song/Album
! Award Ceremony
! Category
! Result
! Ref
|-
| rowspan="2"|2011
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2"|[[Brit Asia TV Music Awards]]
| Best Newcomer || {{won}}
| rowspan="2"|<ref name=BAMA2011/>
|-
| Best Male Act || {{won}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|2012
| rowspan="2"|Sahan To Piyariya
| rowspan="8"|[[PTC Punjabi Music Awards]]
| Best Debut Vocalist (Male)
| {{won}}
| rowspan="2"|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.planetpunjab.com/ptc-punjabi-music-awards-2012-nominations|title=PTC Punjabi Music Awards 2012 Nominations – PlanetPunjab|last=PlanetPunjab|access-date=21 June 2019}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unp.me/f163/ptc-punjabi-music-awards-2012-winners-179984/|title=PTC Punjabi Music Awards 2012 Winners|date=25 March 2012|website=UNP|access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Most Romantic Ballad of the Year
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="6"|2013
| Ik Gal
| Best Bhangra Song
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="6"|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vancouver.redfm.ca/nominations-for-ptc-punjabi-music-awards-2013/|title=Nominations for PTC Punjabi Music Awards 2013|date=18 March 2013|website=RED 89.1FM / 93.1FM Vancouver|access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/music/PTC-Punjabi-Music-Awards-winners/articleshow/19187663.cms|title=PTC Punjabi Music Awards winners|website=The Times of India|date=10 January 2017 |access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Raatan
| Romantic Ballad of the Year
| {{nom}}
|-
| Hang
| Most Popular Song of the Year
| {{nom}}
|-
| Raatan
| Best Pop Vocalist (Male)
| {{nom}}
|-
| Magic
| Best Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
|-
| Ik Gal
| Best Duet Vocalists
| {{won}}
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{notelist}}

== External links ==
* {{Facebook|OfficialGarrySandhuFanpage}}
* [https://www.lyricstalk.in/2020/07/coming-home-lyrics-garry-sandhu.html Coming Home - Garry Sandhu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707144732/https://www.lyricstalk.in/2020/07/coming-home-lyrics-garry-sandhu.html |date=7 July 2020 }} (A song sung by Garry Sandhu)
* https://www.mysoftduniya.com/2020/07/coming-home-lyrics-garry-sandhu-ft.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719190753/https://www.mysoftduniya.com/2020/07/coming-home-lyrics-garry-sandhu-ft.html |date=19 July 2020 }} Coming Home - Garry Sandhu
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sandhu, Garry}}
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Indian singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:Bhangra (music) musicians]]
[[Category:Indian rappers]]
[[Category:Indian expatriates in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:People deported from the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Illegal immigration to the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Male actors in Punjabi cinema]]

Telangana dialect

2026-01-31T08:57:10Z

LucasRowan: basic rework layout per sources

{{Short description|Variety of Telugu}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Telangana dialect
| nativename = {{lang|te|తెలంగాణ భాష}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|te|ˈtelaŋɡaːɳa ˈlanguage|}}
| states = [[India]]
| region = [[Telangana]]
| familycolor = Dravidian
| fam2 = [[Dravidian languages#Classification|Southern]]
| fam3 = [[Dravidian languages#Classification|Southern II]]{{sfnp|Zvelebil|1990|p=57}}
| fam4 = [[Telugu language#Dialects|Teluguic]]
| fam5 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Dravidian language|Proto-Dravidian]]
* [[Old Telugu]]
| script = [[Telugu script]]
| nation = [[India]]
* [[Telangana]]
| minority =
| map = IN-TG.svg
| mapcaption = [[Telangana]]
| agency = [[Government of Telangana]]
}}

'''Telangana dialect''' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]: తెలంగాణ భాష), often referred to by its sub-dialect, '''Hyderabadi Telugu''' ({{Langx|te|హైదరాబాదీ తెలుగు|}}), is a dialect of the [[Telugu language]]. It is spoken mostly in the Indian state of [[Telangana]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-22 |title=Telangana slang can do without 31 Telugu letters, Telangana University professor says |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/telangana-slang-can-do-without-31-telugu-letters-telangana-university-professor-says/articleshow/30744511.cms |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=The Times of India}}</ref> It is influenced by [[Hyderabadi Urdu]], a dialect of [[Dakhani|Deccani Urdu]], at least in the vocabulary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shivaprasad|first1=S.|last2=Sadanandam|first2=M.|date=2020-06-01|title=Identification of regional dialects of Telugu language using text independent speech processing models|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10772-020-09678-y|journal=International Journal of Speech Technology|language=en|volume=23|issue=2|pages=251–258|doi=10.1007/s10772-020-09678-y|s2cid=254584454 |issn=1572-8110|url-access=subscription}}</ref> But it also has so many Dravidian roots or distinct desi words.

== History ==
This language's history can be tracked back around the early centuries of BCE. The language spoken in the Telangana region during the BCE era was referred to as 'Andhramu' or early Telugu. When this region was under the rule of Satavahana, Ikshwaku, and Vishnukundins the official languages are Sanskrit and Prakrit. But the people language is Telugu. The establishment of [[Delhi Sultanate]] around the 14th century CE. Later, other Muslim empires such as the [[Tughlaq dynasty]] and [[Bahmani Sultanate]], influenced the culture of the [[Hyderabad]] area, as well as the Telangana region. The [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]], established in 1518, played a key role in shaping Hyderabadi Telugu. The empire had extended to smaller portions in present-day [[Maharashtra]] and [[Karnataka]]. This introduced more [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Kannada]] loanwords into the language. Another key reason for the evolution of the dialect is the influence of [[Islam|Islamic dynasties]], whose official languages were [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Deccani language|Deccani Urdu]]. Before the formation of Telangana state this language is Telugu. Afterwards official records also states that this as Telugu language. But the Telangana movement brought the term 'Telangana Language' to the forefront. The term was officially recognized when the Telangana government declared September 9th as Telangana Language Day in 2014, to mark the 100th birth anniversary of Kaloji Narayana Rao.

== Vocabulary ==

=== Unique words ===
A few words are unique to the Telangana Telugu, listed below.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Standard Telugu
!'''Telangana Telugu'''
!Meaning
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|jāgratta}} ({{lang|te|జాగ్రత్త}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|pailaṁ}} ({{lang|te|పైలం}})
|Be careful
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|dāhaṁ}} ({{lang|te|దాహం}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|dūpa}} ({{lang|te|దూప}})
|thirsty
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|gōṅgurā}} ({{lang|te|గోంగురా}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|puṇṭikūrā}} ({{lang|te|పుంటికూర}})
|[[Gongura]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|ekkaḍa}} ({{lang|te|ఎక్కడ}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|ēḍa}} ({{lang|te|ఏడ}})
|where
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|akkaḍa}} ({{lang|te|అక్కడ}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|āḍa}} ({{lang|te|ఆడ}})
|there
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|ikkaḍa}} ({{lang|te|ఇక్కడ}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|īḍa}} ({{lang|te|ఈడ}})
|here
|}

=== Loanwords ===
A few loanwords in the Telangana Telugu, listed below.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Standard Telugu
!'''Telangana Telugu'''
!Meaning
!Source language
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|baṅgāḷadumpa}} ({{lang|te|బంగాళదుంప}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|ālugaḍḍa}} ({{lang|te|ఆలుగడ్డ}})
|[[potato]]
|[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]/[[Sanskrit]] + Telugu
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|adde}} ({{lang|te|అద్దె}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|kirāyi}} ({{lang|te|కిరాయి}})
|rent
|[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|āsupatri}} ({{lang|te|ఆసుపత్రి}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|davākhānā}} ({{lang|te|దవాఖానా}})
|hospital, pharmacy
|[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|bābāy}} ({{lang|te|బాబాయ్}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|kākā}} ({{lang|te|కాకా}})
|uncle
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|ḍabbulu}} ({{lang|te|డబ్బులు}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|paisalu}} ({{lang|te|పైసలు}})
|money
|[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|prāntaṁ}} ({{lang|te|ప్రాంతం}})
|{{Transliteration|te|ISO|jāgā}} ({{lang|te|జాగా}})
|area
|[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
|}

== Regional variants ==
There are regional variants in the language. The dialect spoken in the interiors of Telangana has localized influences and varies with community. The border regions have mutual influence with languages on the other side of the border.

== Influence ==
The Telangana language has always influenced the culture of Telangana. The language became notable after the [[Telangana movement|Telangana state]] was formed. It became influential in [[politics]], [[Cinematography|cinema]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-16|title=From 'Fidaa' to 'iSmart Shankar': The rise of Telangana dialect in mainstream cinema|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/fidaa-ismart-shankar-rise-telangana-dialect-mainstream-cinema-107328|access-date=2021-01-07|website=The News Minute|language=en}}</ref> [[economics]], [[arts]], and other fields that are related to [[Telangana]], besides standard Telugu.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bharath|first=Kalyan|title=12 Raw And Rustic Telangana Movie Dialogues In Recent Times - Wirally|url=https://wirally.com/12-raw-and-rustic-telangana-movie-dialogues/|access-date=2021-01-07|website=wirally.com/|language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Deccani language]]
*[[Hyderabadi Urdu]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{citation | last = Zvelebil | first = Kamil | title = Dravidian Linguistics: An Introduction | publisher = Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-81-8545-201-2 }}

== External links ==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7RW7fkzi_hA History of Hyderabad Deccan]

[[Category:Telugu dialects]]
[[Category:Culture of Telangana]]
[[Category:Culture of Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Languages of Telangana]]

Second Marri Chenna Reddy ministry

2026-01-22T15:23:42Z

LucasRowan: creating article!

{{Short description|Andhra Pradesh Council of Ministers headed by Marri Chenna Reddy (1989–1990)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox government cabinet
| cabinet_type = Ministry
| cabinet_number = 16th
| jurisdiction = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| flag =Emblem of Andhra Pradesh before 2014.svg
| flag_border =
| incumbent =
| image = DrMChannaReddy (cropped).jpg
| image_size = 125px
| date_formed = 3 December 1989
| date_dissolved = 17 December 1990
| government_head = [[Marri Chenna Reddy]]
| government_head_history =
| state_head = [[Kumudben Joshi]] [[Krishan Kant]]
| members_number =
| former_members_number =
| total_number =
| political_parties = {{Color box|{{party color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}|border=darkgray}} [[Indian National Congress (Indira)]]
| legislature_status = [[Majority government|Majority]]
| opposition_cabinet =
| opposition_party = {{Color box|{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}|border=darkgray}} [[Telugu Desam Party]]
| opposition_leader = [[N. T. Rama Rao]] ({{small|[[List of leaders of the opposition in the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Leader of the opposition]]}})
| election = [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| last_election = [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| legislature_term = 5 years
| budget =
| advice_and_consent1 =
| advice_and_consent2 =

| incoming_formation =
| outgoing_formation =
| previous = [[Second and Third N. T. Rama Rao ministry]]
| successor = First N. Janardhana Reddy ministry
|flag_width=125|state_head_title=[[List of governors of Andhra Pradesh|Governor]]|government_head_title=[[List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Chief Minister]]}}

The '''Second Marri Chenna Reddy ministry''' (or also known as '''16th''' '''ministry of Andhra Pradesh''') formed the executive branch of the [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]] after the [[Indian National Congress]] securing majority seats in the [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/19891215-andhra-pradesh-voters-reject-rama-raos-eccentric-politics-and-incompetence-816835-1989-12-14|title= Andhra Pradesh voters reject Rama Rao's eccentric politics and incompetence|access-date=2024-07-09|date=15 December 1989|website=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiavotes.com/vidhan-sabha/1989/andhra-pradesh/86/27|title= 1989 Vidhan Sabha / Assembly election results Andhra Pradesh|access-date=10 July 2024|website=India Votes}}</ref>

The state cabinet of [[Andhra Pradesh]] was sworn with a total of 19 ministers along with [[Marri Chenna Reddy]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sessions.aplegislature.org/preview.do?filePath=archivesPath&fileName=A-000665_03-01-1990.pdf|title=ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ శాసన సభ కార్యకలాపాలు|access-date=2024-07-09|date=1990-01-08|archive-date=9 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709191053/https://sessions.aplegislature.org/preview.do?filePath=archivesPath&fileName=A-000665_03-01-1990.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=India Today |title= Andhra CM Chenna Reddy makes a 'blunder' by releasing assets of cabinet members|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19900415-andhra-cm-chenna-reddy-makes-a-blunder-by-releasing-assets-of-cabinet-members-812449-1990-04-14 |access-date=9 July 2024 |date=15 April 1990|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref>

==Council of ministers==
This is a former Cabinet of Andhra Pradesh headed by the then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, [[Marri Chenna Reddy]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sessions.aplegislature.org/preview.do?filePath=archivesPath&fileName=A-000665_03-01-1990.pdf|title=ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ శాసన సభ కార్యకలాపాలు|website=aplegislature|access-date=10 July 2024|date=8 January 1990|archive-date=9 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709191053/https://sessions.aplegislature.org/preview.do?filePath=archivesPath&fileName=A-000665_03-01-1990.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19900731-with-andhra-pradesh-cm-chenna-reddy-away-dissidence-mounts-812815-1990-07-30|title= With Andhra Pradesh CM Chenna Reddy away, dissidence mounts|website=India Today|access-date=28 July 2024|date=31 July 1990}}</ref>
{| class ="wikitable"
! Portfolio
! Minister
! Constituency
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|-style="text-align: center;"
|colspan=5 |'''[[List of Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Chief Minister]]'''
|-style="text-align: center;"
|
*General Administration
*Law & Order
*Major Industries
*Major Irrigation
*Home
*Subjects not allotted to any other Minister
| '''[[Marri Chenna Reddy]]'''
|[[Sanathnagar Assembly constituency|Sanathnagar]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|-style="text-align: center;"
|colspan=5 |'''Cabinet Ministers'''
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Panchayati Raj & Rural Development
*Minor Irrigation including Ground Water
| '''Reddyvari Chenga Reddy'''
|[[Nagari Assembly constituency|Nagari]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Co-operation
*Sericulture
*I & P R
| '''[[J. C. Diwakar Reddy]]'''
|[[Tadpatri Assembly constituency|Tadpatri]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Youth Affairs and Sports
*Printing & Stationery
*Cinematograph Act & Film Development Corporation
*Flying & Gliding Clubs
| '''[[V. Hanumantha Rao]]'''
|Himayatnagar
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Agriculture,
*Command Area Development
*Forests
| '''[[Nedurumalli Janardhana Reddy]]'''
|[[Venkatagiri Assembly constituency|Venkatagiri]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Civil Supplies
*Excise
| '''[[Mudragada Padmanabham]]'''
||[[Prathipadu, Kakinada Assembly constituency|Prathipadu]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Housing
*A.P. Housing Board
*Municipal Administration & Urban Development
| '''[[Koneru Ranga Rao]]'''
|[[Tiruvuru Assembly constituency|Tiruvuru]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Endowments
*Commercial Taxes
| '''Maganti Ravindranath Chowdary'''
|[[Denduluru Assembly constituency|Denduluru]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Finance
*Power
*Handlooms & Textiles
*Legislative Affairs
| '''[[Konijeti Rosaiah]]'''
|[[Chirala Assembly constituency|Chirala]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Revenue
*Law & Courts
| '''D. K. Samarasimha Reddy'''
|[[Gadwal Assembly constituency|Gadwal]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Roads & Buildings
*Ports
*Mines & Geology including A.P. State Mining corporation
*Health & Medical
| '''[[Srinivasulu Reddy Nallapareddy|Nallapareddy Srinivasulu Reddy]] '''
|[[Kovur Assembly constituency|Kovur]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Transport
*Sugar Industry
| '''G. V. Sudhakar Rao'''
|Luxettipet
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Animal Husbandry
*Commerce & Export Promotion including State Trading Corporation
| '''Sangitha Venkata Reddy'''
|Alamuru
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Labour
*Employment
*Employees State Insurance
*Factories
*Tourism and Tourism Development Corporation
| '''Jakkula Chittaranjan Das'''
|[[Kalwakurthy Assembly constituency|Kalwakurthi]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Social Welfare
*Cultural Affairs
| '''[[J. Geeta Reddy|Jetti Geetha Reddy]]'''
|[[Gajwel Assembly constituency|Gajwel]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Waqfs
*Urdu Academy
*Minorities
*Small Sca!e Industries including Khadi & Village Industries Board
| '''Mohammad Jani'''
|Guntur-I
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Technical Education
*Higher Education
*Public Libraries
*Archives & Archaeology
| '''Katari Eswar Kumar'''
|[[Gudivada Assembly constituency|Gudivada]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Women & Child Welfare
*Leather Industries Development Corporation of Andhra Pradesh
*Secondary Education
| '''Pamidi Samanthakamani'''
|[[Singanamala Assembly constituency|Singanamala]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
|
*Marketing
*Ware Housing
*Medium Irrigation
*Flood Control and Drainage
| '''Mukkapati Venkateswara Rao'''
|[[Nandigama Assembly constituency|Nandigama]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress (Indira)}}
|}

==See also==
* [[Andhra Pradesh Council of Ministers]]
* [[Second N. T. Rama Rao ministry]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Andhra Pradesh ministries|Marri II]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress state ministries of Andhra Pradesh|Chenna Reddy 2]]
[[Category:Indian ministries established in 1989|Marri II]]
[[Category:1989 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian ministries disestablished in 1990|Marri II]]

Mrinal Gore

2026-01-12T17:11:49Z

LucasRowan:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox office holder
| name = Mrinal Gore
| birth_name = Mrinal Mohile
| birth_date = 24 June 1928
| death_date = 17 July 2012 (aged 84)
| nationality = British Indian {{small|(1928-1947)}} Indian {{small|(1928-1947)}}
| spouse = Keshav Gore
| children = 1 (Daughter)
| occupation = Politician, social
activist
| party = [[Janata Party]]
| nickname = ''Paaniwali Bai'' ''Mrinal Tai''
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]]
| term1 = 1977 - 1980
| predecessor1 = ''position established''
| successor1 = [[Ravindra Varma]]
| constituency1 = [[Mumbai North Lok Sabha constituency|Mumbai North]]
| office2 = 12th [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Leader of Opposition in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| term2 = 23 December 1988 – 19 October 1989
| predecessor2 = [[Datta Narayan Patil]]
| successor2 = Datta Narayan Patil
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
'''Mrinal Gore''' (c. 24 June 1928 – 17 July 2012, Vasai) was a veteran socialist leader of India, and was a member of the [[Parliament of India]].
She died on 17 July 2012 at the age of around 84. Her death was mourned by Prime Minister of India [[Manmohan Singh]] and many other Indians.<ref>{{cite news | title = PM condoles Gore's death| work = The Business Standard| date = 17 July 2012| url = http://www.business-standard.com/generalnews/news/pm-condoles-gores-death/33508/| accessdate = 17 July 2012 | agency = Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>[http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2511/stories/20080606251102900.htm Frontline Article on Mrinal Gore]</ref>

== Early life ==
Mrinal Gore was born Mrinal Mohile in a Marathi [[CKP]] family and was a medical student. Towards the end of her schooling she came in contact with Rashtra Seva Dal - the cultural and social wing of the Socialist Party. Her inspiration was [[Sane Guruji]] and it was RSD that brought her in touch with dynamic leaders like Keshav Gore, a [[Marathi Brahmin]], who mentored the young recruits during the days prior to Independence. She and Keshav Gore married and had a daughter. Unfortunately, Keshav died when Mrinal was 30 and the daughter was only 5.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Janata weekly, Vol. 69 No. 22|url=http://lohiatoday.com/Periodicals/2014-06-29.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810055119/http://lohiatoday.com/Periodicals/2014-06-29.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 August 2018|editor=G. G. Parikh|author=Sonal Shah| date=29 June 2014|page=8|quote="Penned by [retired professor of political science and PhD]Rohini Gawankar, Mrinal Gore’s close friend and colleague of over six decades, it is an inspiring, virtually eyewitness account of one of India’s tallest women leaders. ...Of a brave young woman widowed at 30, with a five-year-old daughter, who despite stringent financial circumstances and parental duties fulfilled the dream she and her husband Keshav had set out to achieve. Of a pair of young socialists belonging to different castes, (she, a woman from the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu caste and medical student; he, a Brahmin and fulltime party worker)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Illustrated Weekly of India |volume=91 |issue=3|page=14|date=July 1970 |publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Company |quote=B.T. Ranadive (b. 1904), a member of the Politbureau of the CPI.(M).Other notable C.K.Ps in this sphere are Mrinal Gore, V. B. Karnik and Datta Tamhane}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title='''Rajkarnatil char chaughi'''(Tr: four women politicians)|author=Dr.Rohini Gawankar( retired head of the department of political science of S.N.D.T. Women's University, Mumbai, Maharashtra. She is the founder president of Maharashtra's Women's Studies Association and also Women's Development Cell of the University of Mumbai)|publisher= Indus Source books|language=marathi|page=0|url=http://www.bookganga.com/Preview/BookPreview.aspx?BookId=5558504777541180620&PreviewType=books|quote=The index page refers to her as ''paniwali bai-Mrinal Mohile-Gore''}}</ref>

== Work ==
She earned the sobriquet ''Paaniwali Bai'' (water lady) for her effort to bring drinking water supply to [[Goregaon]], a North [[Mumbai]] suburb.<ref name="The Hindu Obituary"/> She led many protests along with her contemporaries [[Ahilya Rangnekar]] and [[Pramila Dandavate]].<ref name="The Hindu Obituary"/> She was the leader of opposition in [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]<ref name="The Hindu Obituary"/> and elected to 6th [[Lok Sabha]] from [[Mumbai North (Lok Sabha constituency)]] in 1977. When she was elected MP in 1977, the same election that [[Indira Gandhi]] lost, the popular slogan was ''Paaniwali bai Dilli mein, Dilliwali bai paani mein'', meaning the water lady (Mrinal) has reached Delhi (Parliament) but the Delhi lady (Indira Gandhi) is in the water. She declined the offer of Health Ministry by then Prime Minister [[Morarji Desai]].

Gore was arrested on 21 December 1975 and detained under MISA at Bombay Central Prison. Then she was moved to Akola Jail to completely isolate her from other political detainees. She was put in one barrack that had one door but no window. A criminal with advanced stage of leprosy was put in adjoining cell while a violent lunatic female prisoner was in opposite cell. This was done to torture Mrs Gore physically and mentally.<ref name="The Hindu Obituary">{{cite news | title = Veteran social activist Mrinal Gore passes away| work = The Hindu| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3650751.ece | date = 18 July 2012 | accessdate = 18 July 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box
| before=
| title=Leader of the Opposition in the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| years=
| after=
}}
{{s-end}}

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box
| before=
| title=MP of 6th [[Lok Sabha]] for North Mumbai ([[Maharashtra]])
| years=1977–1980
| after=
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gore, Mrinal}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:2012 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian socialists]]
[[Category:India MPs 1977–1979]]
[[Category:Janata Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 1985–1990]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Leaders of the opposition in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Indian people imprisoned during the Emergency (India)]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women politicians]]
[[Category:Women members of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

{{Maharashtra-politician-stub}}

Karan Hegiste

2026-01-05T22:15:56Z

LucasRowan: done

{{Short description|Indian Sprinter (born 2002)}}
{{Orphan|date=November 2022}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| headercolor =
| name = Karan Hegiste
| image = IMG Karan Hegiste.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| fullname = Karan Vivek Hegiste
| nickname =
| nationality = [[India]]n
| residence =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2002|03|23|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| height = 174 cm
| weight = 75 kg
| website =
| sport = [[Track and field]]
| event = 100m, 200m
| collegeteam =
| club =
| team = India
| turnedpro =
| coach =
| retired =
| pb = 100m '''10.70 sec''' ([[Nashik]] 2018)
200m-21.98 sec
| show-medals =
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport | Men's [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]]}}
{{MedalCountry |{{IND}} }}
{{MedalCompetition|Asian youth Games}}
}}

'''Karan Hegiste''' (born 23 March 2002) is an Indian [[sprint (running)|sprinter]]. He was a gold medallist at the 3rd [[Asian Youth Games]]. He also represented Team India in the 100m race in that event. Hegiste has been a national medallist in several 100m and 200m events, including the 1st Khelo India School Games and 33rd National Junior Championship.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

==Career==
In March 2019, Hegiste ran the first leg (100m) in a medley relay representing Team India. Team India won a gold medal in that race and Hegiste played an important role in it.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}} He trains in Mumbai under Sandarsh Shetty and hold many championship records including the Maharashtra State 100m record with the performance of 10.70 sec. Hegiste has claimed several national medals including the 1st Khelo India School Games and several national championships.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.affairscloud.com/current-affairs-march-18-2019/|title=Current Affairs March 18 2019|website=www.affairscloud.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldathletics.org/athletes/india/karan-hegiste-374534|title=World Athletics | Karan HEGISTE | Profile|website=worldathletics.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/athletics/khelo-india-youth-games-sprint-heats-to-kick-start-athletics-events/articleshow/67459446.cms|title=Khelo India Youth Games: Sprint heats to kick-start athletics events|newspaper=The Times of India |date=9 January 2019|accessdate=29 August 2020}}</ref>
karan hegiste is also a future athlete of India as he may be represented in India in Olympic games in the future also.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hegiste, Karan}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2002 births]]
[[Category:Indian men sprinters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]

Chota Nagpur Plateau

2025-12-21T14:17:02Z

LucasRowan: fixes

{{Short description|Plateau in eastern India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Chota Nagpur Plateau
| other_name =
| etymology =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| photo = Chota Nagpur Plateau-IGI.jpg
| photo_caption = [[Orography|Orographical]] map of the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.
| map = India Jharkhand#India
| map_size =
| map_caption = Map of the Chota Nagpur [[ecoregion]]
| label =
| label_position =
| country = [[India]]
| state = {{hlist|[[Chhattisgarh]]|[[Jharkhand]]|[[West Bengal]]|[[Odisha]]}}
| region =

| part_type =
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| highest= [[Parasnath]]
| elevation =
| elevation_m = 1350
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| area_km2 =65000
| area_ref =<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last= |first= |date=15 July 2025 |title=Chota Nagpur Plateau |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Chota-Nagpur-plateau|encyclopaedia= Britannica |access-date=31 July 2025}}</ref>
| coordinates = {{coord|23|21|N|85|20|E|display=inline,title}}
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The '''Chota Nagpur Plateau''' ({{ipa|hi|t͡ʃʰoːʈaː naːɡpʊɾ|ipa}}) is a [[plateau]] in eastern India, which covers much of [[Jharkhand]] state as well as adjacent parts of [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Bihar]]. The [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] lies to the north and east of the plateau, and the basin of the [[Mahanadi]] River lies to the south. The total area of the Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately {{convert|65000|km2}}.<ref name=maps>{{cite web |url = http://www.mapsofindia.com/chhattisgarh/geography/chhota-nagpur-plateau.html |title = Chhota Nagpur Plateau |publisher = mapsofindia |access-date = 2 May 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090917115436/http://www.mapsofindia.com/chhattisgarh/geography/chhota-nagpur-plateau.html |archive-date = 17 September 2009 }}</ref>

==Etymology==
The name ''Nagpur'' is probably taken from [[Nagvanshi dynasty|Nagavanshi]]s, who ruled in this part of the country. ''Chhota'' (''small'' in Hindi) is the misunderstood name of "Chutia" village in the outskirts of [[Ranchi]], which has the remains of an old fort belonging to the Nagavanshis.<ref name=houlton>[[John Wardle Houlton|Sir John Houlton]], ''Bihar, the Heart of India'', pp. 127–128, Orient Longmans, 1949.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334291170|title=CHOTA NAGPUR: A NOMENCLATURE IN CONTRADICTION|website=researchgate}}</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Jonha falls, Jharkhand.jpg|alt=Jonha falls, Jharkhand|thumb|[[Jonha Falls]], Jharkhand]]

===Formation===
[[File:Damodar River in its upper reaches.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Damodar River]] flows through Chota Nagpur Plateau]]
The Chota Nagpur Plateau is a continental plateau—an extensive area of land thrust above the general land.The plateau is composed of [[Precambrian]] rocks (i.e., rocks more than about 540 million years old). The plateau has been formed during the [[Cenozoic]] by continental uplift due to [[tectonic]] forces.<ref name=yashplasingh>{{Cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-JtQE2FmsIkC&q=Ranchi+plateau&pg=PA107 |title = Geography By Yash Pal Singh |publisher = FK Publications |isbn = 978-81-89611-85-9 |access-date = 2 May 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The [[Gondwana]] substrates attest to the plateau's ancient origin. It is part of the [[Deccan Plate]], which broke free from the southern continent during the [[Cretaceous]] to embark on a 50-million-year journey that was interrupted by the collision with the Eurasian continent. The northeastern part of the [[Deccan Plateau]], where this ecoregion sits, was the first area of contact with Eurasia.<ref name=ecoregion>{{cite web|url = http://www.eoearth.org/article/Chhota-Nagpur_dry_deciduous_forests | title = Chhota-Nagpur dry deciduous forests |publisher = The Encyclopaedia of Earth |access-date = 2 May 2010 }}</ref> The history of metamorphism, granitic activities and igneous intrusions in the Chotanagpur area continued for a period from over 1000 Ma to 185 Ma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghose |first1=N. C. |last2=Shmakin |first2=B. M. |last3=Smirnov |first3=V. N. |title=Some geochronological observations on the Precambrians of Chotanagpur, Bihar, India |journal=Geological Magazine |date=September 1973 |volume=110 |issue=5 |pages=477–482 |doi=10.1017/S0016756800036268 }}</ref>

===Fossil record===

The Chota Nagpur region has a notable fossil presence. The fossil-rich sedimentary units host fossilized remains across a range of biota, such as angiosperm leaves, fruits, flowers, wood, and fish. This stratigraphy has been associated with the Neogene, specifically the Pliocene epoch, despite a lack of conclusive evidence. Earlier studies identified vertebrate fossils in these sediments, with reported fish fossils with affinities to modern families, linking these deposits to recent ichthyofauna adaptations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Puri |first1=S. N |last2=Mishra |first2=V. P |title=On the find of Upper Tertiary plant, fish and bird fossils near Rajdanda, Palamau district, Bihar |journal=Records of the Geological Survey of India |date=1982 |volume=112 |pages=55–58 |url=https://www.gsi.gov.in/ |access-date=28 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hazra |first1=Manoshi |last2=Hazra |first2=Taposhi |last3=Bera |first3=Subir |last4=Khan |first4=Mahasin Ali |title=Occurrence of a cyprinid fish (Leuciscinae) from latest Neogene (?Pliocene) sediments of Chotanagpur plateau, eastern India |journal=Current Science |date=2020 |volume=119 |issue=8 |pages=1367–1370 |doi=10.18520/cs/v119/i8/1367-1370 |jstor=27139024 |issn=0011-3891|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Divisions==
[[File:Physical Map of India.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Chhota Nagpur 1902.jpg|thumb|Map of Chhota Nagpur in 1906]]
The Chota Nagpur Plateau consists of three steps. The highest step is in the western part of the plateau, where ''pats'' as a plateau is locally called, are {{convert|3000|to|3500|ft|m|order=flip}} above sea level. The highest point is {{convert|3819|ft|m|order=flip}}. The next part contains larger portions of the old Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts and some parts of old Palamu district, before these were broken up into smaller administrative units. The general height is {{convert|2000|ft|m|order=flip}}. The topography in undulating with prominent gneissic hills, often dome-like in outline. The lowest step of the plateau is at an average level of around {{convert|1000|ft|m|order=flip}}. It covers the old Manbhum and Singhbhum districts. High hills are a striking part of this section – [[Parasnath Hills]] rise to a height of {{convert|4480|ft|m|order=flip}} and [[Dalma Hills]] to {{convert|3407|ft|m|order=flip}}.<ref name=houlton/> The large plateau is subdivided into several small plateaus or sub-plateaus.

===Pat region===
The western plateau with an average elevation of {{convert|1000|m}} above mean sea level merges into the plateau of the [[Surguja district]] of Chhattisgarh. The flat topped plateau, locally known as ''pats'' are characterized by level surface and accordance of their summit levels shows they are part of one large plateau.<ref>{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pzuBxr3AFp4C&q=Pat+region+Ranchi+plateau&pg=PA212 | title = Perspectives in geomorphology By Hari Shanker Sharma |access-date = 2 May 2010 | last1 = Sharma | first1 = Hari Shanker | year = 1982 }}</ref> Examples include Netarhat Pat, Jamira Pat, Khamar Pat, Rudni Pat and others. The area is also referred to as Western Ranchi Plateau. It is believed to be composed of [[Deccan Traps|Deccan basalt]] lava.<ref name=overview>{{cite web |url =http://jharenvis.nic.in/files/State%20Of%20Jharkhand-Overview.pdf |title =Jharkhand Overview |access-date =2 May 2010 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090410035843/http://jharenvis.nic.in/files/State%20Of%20Jharkhand-Overview.pdf |archive-date =10 April 2009 }}</ref>

===Ranchi Plateau===
[[File:Dassam falls.jpg|thumb|270px|[[Dassam Falls]] in the plateau]]
The Ranchi Plateau is the largest part of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. The elevation of the plateau surface in this part is about {{convert|700|m|ft|abbr=on}} and gradually slopes down towards south-east into the hilly and undulating region of Singhbhum (earlier the Singhbhum district or what is now the [[Kolhan division]]).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Effects+of+Urbanisation+on+ground+water+in+Ranchi.-a0222519725 |title = Effects of Urbanisation on ground water in Ranchi. |access-date = 2 May 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The plateau is highly dissected. The [[Damodar River]] originates here and flows through a [[rift valley]].<ref name=yashplasingh/> To the north it is separated from the Hazaribagh plateau by the Damodar trough.<ref name=overview/> To the west is a group of plateaus called ''pat''.<ref name=yashplasingh/>

There are many waterfalls at the edges of the Ranchi plateau where rivers coming from over the plateau surface form waterfalls when they descend through the precipitous escarpments of the plateau and enter the area of significantly lower elevation. The [[North Karo River]] has formed the {{convert|17|m|ft|adj=on|abbr=on}} high Pheruaghaugh Falls at the southern margin of the Ranchi plateau. Such falls are called scarp falls. [[Hundru Falls]] (75 m) on the [[Subarnarekha River]] near Ranchi, [[Dassam Falls]] (39.62 m) on the Kanchi River, east of Ranchi, [[Sadni Falls]] (60 m) on the Sankh River (Ranchi plateau) are examples of scarp falls. Sometimes waterfalls of various dimensions are formed when tributary streams join the master stream from great heights forming hanging valleys. At [[Rajrappa]] (10 m), the Bhera River coming over from the Ranchi Plateau hangs above the Damodar River at its point of confluence with the latter. The [[Jonha Falls]] (25.9 m) is another example of this category of falls. The Ganga River hangs over its master stream, the Raru River (to the east of Ranchi city) and forms the said falls.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1Y_Ytx9wp4C&q=Ranchi+plateau&pg=PA161 |title=Physical Geography: Hydrosphere By K. Bharadwaj |isbn=978-81-8356-167-9 |access-date=2 May 2010 |last1=Bharatdwaj |first1=K. |year=2006 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House }}</ref>

===Hazaribagh Plateau===
The Hazaribagh plateau is often subdivided into two parts – the ''higher plateau'' and the ''lower plateau''. Here the higher plateau is referred to as Hazaribagh plateau and the lower plateau as Koderma plateau. The Hazaribagh plateau on which [[Hazaribagh|Hazaribagh town]] is built is about {{convert|40|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} east by west and {{convert|15|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} north by south with an average elevation of {{convert|2000|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}}. The north-eastern and southern faces are mostly abrupt; but to the west it narrows and descends slowly in the neighbourhood of Simaria and Jabra where it curves to the south and connects with the Ranchi Plateau through Tori pargana.<ref name=lister>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ROvfeX34PAC&q=Hazaribagh+plateau&pg=PA44 |title=Hazaribagh By Edward Lister |isbn=978-1-115-79277-6 |access-date=2 May 2010 |last1=Lister |first1=Edward |date=October 2009 |publisher=BiblioBazaar }}</ref> It is generally separated from the Ranchi plateau by the Damodar trough.<ref name=overview/>

The western portion of Hazaribagh plateau constitutes a broad watershed between the [[Damodar River|Damodar]] drainage on the south and the [[Lilajan River|Lilajan]] and [[Mohana River|Mohana]] rivers on the north. The highest hills in this area are called after the villages of Kasiatu, Hesatu and Hudu, and rise fronting the south {{convert|600|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} above the general level of the plateau. Further east along the southern face a long spur projects right up to the Damodar river where it ends in Aswa Pahar, elevation {{convert|2465|ft|m|order=flip}}. At the south-eastern corner of the plateau is Jilinga Hill at {{convert|3057|ft|m|order=flip}}. Mahabar Jarimo at {{convert|2185|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} and Barsot at {{convert|2180|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} stand in isolation to the east, and on the north-west edge of the plateau Sendraili at {{convert|2210|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} and [[Mahuda]] at {{convert|2409|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} are the most prominent features. Isolated on the plateau, in the neighbourhood of Hazaribagh town are four hills of which the highest Chendwar rises to {{convert|2810|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}}. On all sides it has an exceedingly abrupt scarp, modified only on the south-east. In the south it falls almost sheer in a swoop of {{convert|2200|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} to the bed of [[Bokaro River]], below Jilinga Hill. Seen from the north the edge of this plateau has the appearance of a range of hills,<ref name=lister/> at the foot of which (on the Koderma plateau) runs the [[Grand Trunk Road]] and [[National Highway 2 (India, old numbering)|NH 2]] (new [[National Highway 19 (India)|NH19]]).

===Koderma Plateau===
The Koderma plateau is also referred to as the Hazaribagh lower plateau<ref name=lister/><ref>{{cite web |url = http://nrdms.gov.in/acquifer_geometry.asp |title = Natural Resources Data Management System |publisher = Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt. of India |access-date = 2 May 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100925044956/http://nrdms.gov.in/acquifer_geometry.asp |archive-date = 25 September 2010 }}</ref> or as the Chauparan-Koderma-Girighi sub-plateau.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.jharkhandforest.com/files/Hazaribagh_Introduction.pdf |title = Forest Resources Survey, Hazaribagh 2004 |access-date = 2 May 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141028111157/http://www.jharkhandforest.com/files/Hazaribagh_Introduction.pdf |archive-date = 28 October 2014 }}</ref>

The northern face of the Koderma plateau, elevated above the plains of Bihar, has the appearance of a range of hills, but in reality it is the edge of a plateau, {{convert|800|ft|m|order=flip}} from the level of the Gaya plain. Eastward this northern edge forms a well-defined watershed between heads of the tributaries of [[Gaya district|Gaya]] and those of the [[Barakar River]], which traverses the [[Koderma district|Koderma]] and [[Giridih district|Giridih]] districts in an easterly direction. The slope of this plateau to the east is uniform and gentle and is continued past the river, which bears to the south-east, into the Santhal Parganas and gradually disappears in the lower plains of Bengal. The western boundary of the plateau is formed by the deep bed of the [[Lilajan River]].The southern boundary consists of the face of the higher plateau, as far as its eastern extremity, where for some distance a low and undistinguished watershed runs eastward to the western spurs of [[Parasnath Hills]]. The drainage to the south of this low line passes by the [[Jamunia River]] to the Damodar.<ref name=lister/>

===Damodar trough===
The Damodar basin forms a trough between the Ranchi and Hazaribagh plateaus resulting from enormous fractures at their present edges, which caused the land between to sink to a great depth and incidentally preserved from denudation by the Karanpura, Ramgarh and Bokaro coalfields. The northern boundary of the Damodar valley is steep as far as the southeastern corner of the Hazaribagh plateau. On the south of the trough the Damodar keeps close to the edge of the Ranchi plateau till it has passed Ramgarh, after which a turn to the north-east leaves on the right hand a wide and level valley on which the [[Subarnarekha River|Subarnarekha]] begins to intrude, south of Gola till the Singhpur Hills divert it to the south. Further to the east the Damodar River passes tamely into the Manbhum sector of lowest step of the Chota Nagpur plateau.<ref name=lister/>

===Palamu===
The [[Palamu division]] generally lies at a lower height than the surrounding areas of Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the east the Ranchi plateau intrudes into the division and the southern part of the division merges with the Pat region. On the west are the Surguja highlands of Chhattishgarh and Sonbhadra district of Uttar Pradesh. The [[Son River]] touches the north-western corner of the division and then forms the state boundary for about {{convert|45|mi|km|order=flip}}. The general system of the area is a series of parallel ranges of hills running east and west through which the [[North Koel River]] passes. The hills in the south are the highest in the area, and the picturesque and isolated cup-like Chhechhari valley is surrounded by lofty hills on every side. [[Lodh Falls]] drops from a height of {{convert|150|m}} from these hills, making it the highest waterfall on the Chota Nagpur Plateau. [[Netarhat]] and Pakripat plateaus are physiographically part of the Pat region.<ref>Sir John Houlton, p. 159</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.palamu.nic.in/gazette/general_gazette.doc|title = Gazetteer of Palamu District|access-date = 4 May 2010|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721172839/http://www.palamu.nic.in/gazette/general_gazette.doc|archive-date = 21 July 2011}}</ref>

===Manbhum-Singhbhum===
[[File:Joy chandi pahar.jpg|thumb|270px|Joychandi Pahar in [[Purulia district]] in [[West Bengal]]]]
In the lowest step of the Chota Nagpur Plateau, the Manbhum area covers the present [[Purulia district]] in [[West Bengal]], and [[Dhanbad district]] and parts of [[Bokaro district]] in Jharkhand, and the Singhbhum area broadly covers [[Kolhan division]] of Jharkhand. The Manbhum area has a general elevation of about {{convert|1000|ft|m|order=flip}} and it consists of undulating land with scattered hills – Baghmundi and Ajodhya range, Panchakot and the hills around Jhalda are the prominent ones.<ref>Sir John Houlton, p. 170</ref> Adjacent [[Geography of Bankura district|Bankura district]] of West Bengal has been described as the "connecting link between the plains of Bengal on the east and Chota Nagpur plateau on the west."<ref>O'Malley, L.S.S., ICS, ''Bankura'', Bengal District Gazetteers, pp. 1-20, 1995 reprint, Government of West Bengal</ref> The same could be said of the [[Birbhum district]] and the [[Asansol subdivision|Asansol]] and [[Durgapur subdivision|Durgapur]] subdivisions of [[Paschim Bardhaman district]].

The Singhbhum area contains much more hilly and broken country. The whole of the western part is a mass of hill ranges rising to {{convert|3000|ft|m|order=flip}} in the south-west. Jamshedpur sits on an open plateau, {{convert|400|to|800|ft|m|order=flip}} above mean sea level, with a higher plateau to the south of it. The eastern part is mostly hilly, though near the borders of West Bengal it flattens out into an alluvial plain.<ref>Sir John Houlton, p. 165</ref> In the Singhbhum area, there are hills alternating with valleys, steep mountains, deep forests on the mountain slopes, and, in the river basins, some stretches of comparatively level or undulating country. The centre of the area consists of an upland plateau enclosed by hill ranges. This strip, extending from the Subarnarekha River on the east to the Angarbira range to the west of Chaibasa, is a very fertile area. [[Saranda forest]] is reputed to have the best Sal forests in Asia.<ref name=forest>{{cite web |url = http://www.jharkhandforest.com/files/Chaibasa_Introduction.pdf |title = The West Singhbhum District |access-date = 20 April 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110713104524/http://www.jharkhandforest.com/files/Chaibasa_Introduction.pdf |archive-date = 13 July 2011 }}
</ref>

==Climate==
The Chota Nagpur Plateau has an attractive climate. For five to six months of the year, from October onward the days are sunny and bracing. The mean temperature in December is {{convert|73|F|C|order=flip}}. The nights are cool and temperatures in winter may drop below freezing point in many places. In April and May the day temperature may cross {{convert|100|F|C|order=flip}} but it is very dry and not sultry as in the adjacent plains. The rainy season (June to September) is pleasant.<ref>Sir John Houlton, p. 126</ref> The Chota Nagpur Plateau receives an annual average rainfall of around {{convert|1400|mm|in}}, which is less than the rainforested areas of much of India and almost all of it in the [[monsoon]] months between June and August.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/cltech/Damodar/1.1.htm | title = Damodar Valley | access-date = 25 May 2008 | work = About the Region – Damodar Basin | publisher = Ministry of Environments and Forests | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182506/http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/cltech/Damodar/1.1.htm | archive-date = 27 September 2007 }}</ref>

==Ecology==
[[File:Ecoregion IM0203.svg|thumb|Chotanagpur dry deciduous forest region]]
[[File:Palash Tree.jpg|thumb|A Palash tree in [[Ranchi]], Jharkhand]]
[[File:Sal (Shorea robusta)- new leaves with flower buds at Jayanti, Duars W Picture 120.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Sal tree]]s (''Shorea robusta'') are found in forests of Chota Nagpur Plateau]]
The ''Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests'', a [[tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]] [[ecoregion]], encompasses the plateau. The ecoregion has an area of {{convert|122100|km2|mi2}}, covering most of the state of Jharkhand and adjacent portions of Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.

The ecoregion is drier than surrounding ones, including the [[Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests]] that covers the [[Eastern Ghats]] and [[Satpura Range]] to the south, and the [[Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests]] in the lowlands to the east and north.

The plateau is covered with a variety of various habitats of which [[Shorea robusta|Sal]] forest is predominant. The plateau is home to the [[Palamau Tiger Reserve]] and other large blocks of natural habitat which are among the few remaining refuges left in India for large populations of [[tiger]] and [[Asian elephant]]s.<ref name=ecoregion/>

=== Flora ===
The flora of the Chota Nagpur Plateau ranges from dry to wet forests, with trees reaching heights of up to {{convert|25|m|ft}}. Some areas are swampy, while others feature bamboo grasslands and shrubs like ''[[Holarrhena]]'' and ''[[Dodonaea]]''.
Key species include sal (''[[Shorea robusta]]''), which provides valuable timber and supports diverse wildlife, and mahua (''[[Madhuca longifolia]]''), known for its fragrant flowers used to make a traditional alcoholic beverage and as a food source for animals. Other significant plants include bamboo (''[[Bambusa]]''), teak (''[[Tectona grandis]]''), and wild mango (''[[Mangifera indica]]''), flame of the forest (''[[Butea monosperma]]'').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Agarwal |first1=Vijayluxmi |last2=Paul |first2=S. R. |title=Floristic elements and distribution pattern in the flora of Chotanagpur (Bihar) India |journal=Feddes Repertorium |date=January 1992 |volume=103 |issue=5–6 |pages=381–398 |doi=10.1002/fedr.19921030518 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fedr.19921030518 |language=en |issn=0014-8962|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Fauna ===
[[File:RAJNI.jpg|thumb|A Female elephant at [[Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary]]]]
[[File:Wild gaur.jpg|thumb|[[Gaur]] in [[Betla National Park]]]]
The region is home to diverse wildlife, including apex predators like the [[tiger]] (''Panthera tigris'') and large herbivores such as the [[Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus''). Ungulates such as the [[four-horned antelope]] (''Tetracerus quadricornis''), [[blackbuck]] (''Antilope cervicapra''), and [[chinkara]] (''Gazella bennettii'') are also common, alongside predators like the [[dhole]] (''Cuon alpinus'') and the [[sloth bear]] (''Melursus ursinus''). Bird species include the threatened [[lesser florican]] (''Sypheotides indicus''), various [[hornbills]] including the [[Indian grey hornbill]] (''Ocyceros birostris''), and a variety of raptors and migratory birds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nath |first1=Bhola |title=On a collection of mammals from Chota Nagpur, Bihar |journal=Records of the Zoological Survey of India |date=1951 |volume=116 |pages=29–44 |doi=10.26515/rzsi/v116/i1/1951/162157 |url=https://recordsofzsi.com/index.php/zsoi/article/download/162157/113274 |access-date=28 October 2024|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Conservation===
The Chota Nagpur Plateau was once extensively forested, but today over half of its natural forest cover has been removed, largely for grazing land and increasingly intense mining activities. These disruptions pose significant ecological threats. Mining for minerals like coal, iron ore, and bauxite has led to large-scale deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat fragmentation, which critically affects the survival and movement of native wildlife, particularly larger species such as elephants, tigers, and leopards that require extensive, undisturbed areas.

Some conservation efforts are underway, including the establishment of protected areas and wildlife corridors<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Lalit Kumar |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Tanoy |last3=Saren |first3=Phakir Chandra |last4=Chandra |first4=Kailash |title=Identifying suitable habitat and corridors for Indian Grey Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) in Chotta Nagpur Plateau and Lower Gangetic Planes: A species with differential management needs |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 April 2019 |volume=14 |issue=4 |article-number=e0215019 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0215019 |doi-access=free |pmid=30969994 |language=en |issn=1932-6203|pmc=6457547 }}</ref> aimed at reconnecting fragmented habitats. However, challenges remain due to limited enforcement of conservation policies and the economic dependence of local communities on mining and agriculture, which places continual pressure on the plateau's ecological resources.

====Protected areas====
About 6 percent of the ecoregion's area is within protected areas, comprising {{convert|6720|km2|mi2}} in 1997. The largest are [[Palamau Tiger Reserve]] and [[Guru Ghasidas - Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve]].<ref>Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). ''Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment.'' Island Press; [[Washington, DC]]. pp. 321-322</ref>

* [[Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary]], Jharkhand (630 km2)
* [[Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary]], Bihar (110 km2)
* [[Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary]], Jharkhand (450 km2)
* [[Koderma Wildlife Sanctuary]], Jharkhand (180 km2)
* [[Lawalong Wildlife Sanctuary]], Jharkhand (410 km2)
* [[Palamau Tiger Reserve]], Jharkhand (1,330 km2)
*[[Palkot Wildlife Sanctuary]], Jharkhand (182.83 km2 )
* [[Semarsot Wildlife Sanctuary]], Chhattisgarh (470 km2)
* [[Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary]], Chhattisgarh (600 km2)
* [[Topchanchi Wildlife Sanctuary]], Jharkhand (40 km2)

==Culture==
{{see also
|Culture of Jharkhand
}}
The Chota Nagpur region is a culturally rich area with a diverse population comprising various indigenous ethinic group of [[Sadan people|Sadan]] and tribes.<ref name="Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics">{{Cite journal|last1=Paudyal|first1=Netra P.|last2=Peterson|first2=John|date=2020-09-01|title=How one language became four: the impact of different contact-scenarios between "Sadani" and the tribal languages of Jharkhand|journal=Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics|language=en|volume=7|issue=2|pages=275–306|doi=10.1515/jsall-2021-2028|issn=2196-078X|doi-access=free}}</ref> The region is home to tribes like the [[Santal people|Santhal]], [[Munda people|Munda]], [[Kurukh people|Oraon]], and [[Ho people|Ho]], alongside non-tribal groups. These groups have distinct traditions, languages, and spiritual practices, often tied closely to nature and ancestral worship. Festivals like Sarhul, Holi and Karam are central to their culture, celebrating harvests and nature with traditional music, dance, and rituals. Craftsmanship is a strong aspect, with communities creating intricate beadwork, pottery, and metalwork.
[[File:CELEBRATING MOTHER NATURE.jpg|thumb|Kurmi women celebrating [[Karam festival]] in [[Purulia]]]]
[[File:Artistes performing Chhau dance.jpg|thumb|Artists performing [[Chhau dance]], Odisa]]

Human habitation in the region dates back to the Mesolithic-Chalcolithic period, as evidenced by various ancient cave paintings.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/indiaprehistoric00indi|title=India – Pre-historic and Proto-historic periods|date=2016|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting|isbn=978-81-230-2345-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiaprehistoric00indi/page/14 14]|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Cave paintings lie in neglect">{{cite news|date=13 March 2008|title=Cave paintings lie in neglect|work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1080313/jsp/jharkhand/story_9013558.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906124608/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1080313/jsp/jharkhand/story_9013558.jsp|archive-date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Pearson Education India">{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Upinder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA220|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|date=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|page=220|language=en|archive-date=25 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225190408/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA220|url-status=live}}</ref> Stone tools from the Chota Nagpur Plateau indicate human activity dating back to the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.<ref name="books.google.com" /> Additionally, ancient cave paintings at Isko in [[Hazaribagh district]] date to the Meso-Chalcolithic period (9000–5000 BCE). Large-scale extraction industries in coal and iron mining dominate the economy, alongside growing steel production, power generation, and related infrastructure developments. However, agriculture remains important, with rice, maize, and pulses as staple crops.

==Mineral resources==
[[File:Open pit mine in Jharia.jpg|thumb|Jharia coalfields]]
Chota Nagpur plateau is a store house of mineral resources such as [[mica]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], [[limestone]], [[iron ore]] and [[coal]].<ref name=yashplasingh/> The Damodar valley is rich in coal, and it is considered as the prime centre of [[Coke (fuel)|coking coal]] in the country. Massive coal deposits are found in the central basin spreading over {{convert|2883|km2|mi2}}. The important coalfields in the basin are [[Jharia]], [[Raniganj Coalfield|Raniganj]], [[West Bokaro Coalfield|West Bokaro]], [[East Bokaro Coalfield|East Bokaro]], [[Ramgarh Coalfield|Ramgarh]], [[South Karanpura Coalfield|South Karanpura]] and [[North Karanpura Coalfield|North Karanpura]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/cltech/Damodar/2.4.htm |title=Mineral Resources and Coal Mining |access-date=3 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815182912/http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/cltech/Damodar/2.4.htm |archive-date=15 August 2011 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Chota Nagpur Division]]
* [[Ecoregions of India]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Gupta, Satya Prakash. ''Tribes of Chotanagpur Plateau: An Ethno-Nutritional & Pharmacological Cross-Section''. Land and people of tribal Bihar series, no. 3. [Patna]: Govt. of Bihar, Welfare Dept, 1974.
* Icke-Schwalbe, Lydia. ''Die Munda und Oraon in Chota Nagpur - Geschichte, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Abhandlungen und Berichte des Staatlichen'' [[Museum für Völkerkunde Dresden]], Band 40; Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1983
* Mukhopadhyay, Subhash Chandra. ''Geomorphology of the Subarnarekha Basin: The Chota Nagpur Plateau, Eastern India''. [Burdwan]: University of Burdwan, 1980.
* Sinha, Birendra K. Light at the End of the Tunnel: A Journey Towards Fulfilment in the Chotanagpur Plateau : a Study in Dynamics of Social-Economic-Cultural-Administrative-Political Growth. [S.l: s.n, 1991.
* Sinha, V. N. P. Chota Nagpur Plateau: A Study in Settlement Geography. New Delhi: K.B. Publications, 1976.
* Chakrabarti D.K. (1994c). Archaeology of the Chhotanagpur plateau and the Bengal basin. In: J.M. Kenoyer (ed.), From Sumer to Meluhha: Contributions to the Archaeology of South and West Asia in Memory of George F. Dales Jr, Wisconsin Archaeological Report, Volume 3, pp. 253–259. Madison: Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin
* Goswami Prodipto (2020). Untold Story of Chota Nagpur: Its Journey with the Colonial Army 1767-1947. Chennai Notion: Press, 2020

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Chota Nagpur |volume=6 |page=272 |short=1}}

{{Ecoregions of India}}
{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{Damodar Valley}}
{{Plateaus of India}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests|.]]
[[Category:Plateaus of India]]
[[Category:Landforms of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Landforms of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Landforms of Odisha]]
[[Category:Natural regions of India]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]]
[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Jamshedpur]]

Jaffna hospital massacre

2025-12-11T17:40:20Z

LucasRowan: minor edit

{{Short description|Massacre in October 1987 during the Sri Lankan Civil War}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Jaffna hospital massacre
| partof = [[Sri Lankan Civil War]]
| image = LocationSriLanka.png
| caption = Location of Sri Lanka
| location = [[Jaffna]], [[Sri Lanka]]
| coordinates =
| target = [[Sri Lankan Tamil]] patients, nurses, doctors and staff of the hospital<ref name=SL/><ref name = Krishna>{{cite book | last = Krishna | first=Sankaran | title= Postcolonial Insecurities: India, Sri Lanka, and the Question of Nationhood | date= 2005 | publisher= [[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn= 0-8166-3330-4 | pages = 190–2}}</ref>
| date = October 21–22, 1987
| time =
| timezone = +6 GMT
| type = Shooting, grenade explosion<ref name=Krishna/><ref name=UTHR/>
| fatalities = 60<ref name=Somasundaram/>–70<ref name=Krishna/>
| injuries = 50+ (estimated)
| perps = [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] soldiers deployed in Sri Lanka<ref name=Krishna/><ref name=Dejong/><ref name=Richardson/>
| susperps =
| weapons = Firearms, grenades
}}
The '''Jaffna hospital massacre''' occurred on October 21 and 22, 1987, during the [[Sri Lankan civil war|Sri Lankan Civil War]], when troops of the [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] entered the premises of the [[Jaffna Teaching Hospital]] in [[Jaffna]], [[Sri Lanka]], an island nation in [[South Asia]], and killed between 60 and 70 patients and staff.<ref name = Somasundaram>{{cite book | last1 = Somasundaram | first1 = Daya| title = Trauma, War, and Violence: Public Mental Health in Socio-Cultural Context | year = 2002 | publisher = Springer| isbn= 978-0-30646709-7| first2 = CS | last2 = Jamunanantha| editor-first =Joop | editor-last = de Jong| page= 213}}</ref> The rebel [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]],<ref name= LTTE>{{cite web | title = Jaffna Hospital massacre | publisher = LTTE peace secretariat | date = 2006-11-22 | url = http://www.ltteps.org/?view=1736&folder=25| access-date = 2008-12-19}}</ref> the government of Sri Lanka,<ref name=SL>{{cite web | last = Dayasri | first = Gomin | title = Eminent Persons' displayed lack of independence | publisher = Ministry of Defense, Sri Lanka | date = 2008-04-26 | url =http://www.defence.lk/PrintPage.asp?fname=20080426_03 | access-date = 2008-12-19 | quote = These crimes against humanity include the Mass Murders committed by the IPKF at the Jaffna Hospital on the 20th October 1987 when they entered the hospital and indiscriminately murdered patients, doctors, nurses and attendants by shooting and exploding grenades indiscriminately}}</ref> and independent observers such as the [[University Teachers for Human Rights]]<ref name= UTHR/> and others<ref name= Krishna/><ref name= Dejong/><ref name= Richardson /><ref>International Committee of the Fourth International
Fourth International Vol. 15 No. 1 (March 1988), Mass Murder in Jaffna, Rajiv Gandhi’s Dirty War Against Tamil Eelam https://www.wsws.org/en/special/library/fi-15-1/09.html</ref> have called it a [[massacre]] of civilians.

However, the Indian Army maintains that the soldiers were fired upon<ref name=PP/> and the Indian army officer in charge of the military operations, Lt. Gen. Depinder Singh, claimed that these civilians were killed in a crossfire between soldiers and rebels.<ref name = Ghosh /> Soldiers responsible for this massacre were not prosecuted by the Indian government.<ref name=UTHR/>

==Background information==
{{See also|Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war}}
During the 1950s, around 50% of civil service jobs in Ceylon were held by the Tamil minority, who comprised approximately 23% of the population. This was enabled partly because of the availability of western-style education provided by [[American Ceylon Mission|American missionaries]] and others in the Tamil-dominant [[Jaffna peninsula]]. The preponderance of Tamils over their proportionate share of the population was an issue for populist majority Sinhalese politicians, who came to political power by promising to elevate the [[Sinhalese people]]. The resultant [[Sinhala Only Act|discriminative measures]] such as the [[Sinhala Only Act]] and the [[policy of standardisation]], as well as [[Riots and pogroms in Sri Lanka|riots and pogroms]] that targeted the minority Sri Lankan Tamils, led to the formation of a number of [[Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups|rebel groups]] advocating [[Tamil Eelam|independence for Sri Lankan Tamils]]. Following the 1983 [[Black July]] [[pogrom]] full-scale [[Sri Lankan civil war|civil war]] began between the government and rebel groups.

In 1987 the governments of Sri Lanka and India entered into an agreement and invited the Indian Army to be used as peacekeepers. Eventually the [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] (IPKF) came into conflict with one of the rebel groups, namely the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE). By October 1987 Indian forces were trying to wrest control of the [[Jaffna peninsula]] from the LTTE.<ref name=UTHR/>

==Attack==
{{See also|Operation Pawan}}
The Jaffna hospital, also known as the Jaffna Teaching Hospital and Jaffna General Hospital, is the premier healthcare providing institution within the densely populated [[Jaffna peninsula]], situated in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. It had functioned throughout the period of civil war as a sanctuary that was out of bounds for combatants. After the deterioration of the relationship between the rebel LTTE and the IPKF, an attempt by the IPKF to capture [[Jaffna| Jaffna town]] was expected. Because of fears of a military operation by the Indian Army, some staff of the hospital had kept away from duty, but others had reported to work assuming that the Indian Army would be considerate because of assurances provided by the Indian Embassy in [[Colombo]] to a group of prominent Jaffna citizens that a major military action was not imminent. By October 21, 1987, which was [[Diwali]], a high [[Hindu]] holiday, over 70 dead bodies had accumulated in the [[mortuary]] as a result of shelling and other military activities.<ref name=UTHR>{{Cite document | last1 = Hoole | first1 = Ranjan | author1-link = Ranjan Hoole | last2 = Thiranagama | first2 = Ranjani | author2-link = Ranjani Thiranagama | title = The Broken Palmyra, the Tamil Crisis in Sri Lanka, An Inside Account | publisher = The Sri Lanka Studies Institute | year = 1992 | id = ASIN: B000OGS3MW | pages = 265–71}}</ref>

==Eyewitness accounts==

One eyewitness recalled the following:

{{Blockquote
|text="The Indian Army came firing into the Radiology Block and fired indiscriminately at this whole mass of people huddled together. We saw patients dying. We lay there without moving a finger pretending to be dead. We were wondering all the time whether we would be burnt or shot when the bodies of the dead were collected."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items/2014/02/02/indian-war-crimes-in-sri-lanka-ipkf-massacre-of-tamil-doctors-and-nurses-inside-jaffna-hospital/|title=LankaWeb – Indian War Crimes in Sri Lanka: IPKF Massacre of Tamil Doctors and Nurses inside Jaffna Hospital|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref>}}

Another eyewitness, Mr Sivagurunathan, recounted the following:

{{Blockquote
|text="I was in Ward 8, where my wife was, when they came in shooting at random into the hospital from behind.

Some employees ran in the direction of the X-ray room, and I followed them there with my wife. I was one of the first to reach it and went in with the rest. Soon the others ran into the room and the room got filled and we were pressed against the wall.

Then, the attackers, driving a group of people before them, arrived in front of the room. They pushed everybody inside. They threw grenades inside and started shooting. People were screaming and falling on each other."<ref name="wsws.org">International Committee of the Fourth International Fourth International Vol. 15 No. 1 (March 1988), Mass Murder in Jaffna, Rajiv Gandhi’s Dirty War Against Tamil Eelam https://www.wsws.org/en/special/library/fi-15-1/09.html</ref>}}

==Timeline of events==

===October 21, 1987===
{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2017}}

*11h – The hospital environment came under cannon fire from the vicinity of [[Jaffna Dutch Fort]] and from overhead helicopters.
*11h30 – A shell fell on the Outpatients Department (O.P.D) building.
*13h – The chief consultant on duty was informed that Indian troops had been sighted at nearby Shanti Theatre Lane.
*13h30 – A shell fell on Ward 8, killing seven persons. The chief consultant who went out with another doctor to survey the situation spotted some empty cartridges, suggesting that persons had been firing from inside the hospital premises.
*14h – The chief consultant's attention was drawn to the presence of some armed LTTE fighters inside the hospital. The chief consultant went with Dr. Ganesharatnam and asked the group to leave the premises. The leader of the group agreed and they left.
*14h5 – The chief consultant was informed that another group of LTTE men had come inside. Dr. Ganesharatnam requested that the chief consultant go with another doctor to speak to the LTTE group and ask them to leave. It is not clear if the LTTE men ever left the hospital.
*14h, 16h – A few staff members left the hospital for lunch through the back door.
*16h – Staff heard shooting for 15–20 minutes from the vicinity of the gasoline station on Hospital Road. No retaliatory fire from the hospital was heard.
*16h20 and onward – According to an [[Witness|eyewitness]], the IPKF entered the hospital grounds through the front gate, came up along the corridor and warned everybody inside the hospital. The IPKF fired into the Overseer's office and other offices. The eyewitness saw many of his fellow workers killed, including the overseer and an ambulance driver. The eyewitness also saw a soldier throw a grenade at a man, killing several people.<ref name = Krishna>{{cite book | last = Krishna | first=Sankaran | title= Postcolonial Insecurities: India, Sri Lanka, and the Question of Nationhood | date= 2005 | publisher= [[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn= 0-8166-3330-4 | pages = 190–2}}</ref><ref name= UTHR /> According to another eyewitness, the IPKF came into the Radiology room, which was filled with people including the patients evacuated from Ward 8, and fired indiscriminately. Those who pretended to be dead by lying on the floor escaped the attack.<ref name =Krishna/><ref name=UTHR/><ref name="wsws.org">International Committee of the Fourth International Fourth International Vol. 15 No. 1 (March 1988), Mass Murder in Jaffna, Rajiv Gandhi’s Dirty War Against Tamil Eelam https://www.wsws.org/en/special/library/fi-15-1/09.html</ref>
*Throughout the night a few bursts of fire and grenade explosions were heard.<ref name=UTHR/>

===October 22, 1987===
*8h30 – Dr. Sivapathasundaram was seen walking out of the hospital with three nurses. They were walking with their hands up shouting, "We surrender, we are innocent doctors and nurses."<ref name= UTHR/> Shots were fired; Dr. Sivapathasundaram was killed and the nurses injured.<ref name="wsws.org">International Committee of the Fourth International Fourth International Vol. 15 No. 1 (March 1988), Mass Murder in Jaffna, Rajiv Gandhi’s Dirty War Against Tamil Eelam https://www.wsws.org/en/special/library/fi-15-1/09.html</ref>
*11h – An Indian Army officer turned up at one of the wards and was confronted by a doctor. The doctor explained the situation to the officer and later, with help of the officer, she called out to her colleagues and those who were injured to come out with their hands up. About 10 staff members who were alive were escorted out. They found their colleague Dr. Ganesharatnam dead. Later in the day all the dead bodies in the hospital were collected and burned.<ref name = UTHR />

==Reactions==
The Indian Army had maintained that it was fired upon from inside the hospital and people were caught in a crossfire.<ref name=PP>{{cite book | last=Pathak | first=Saroj | title= War or Peace in Sri Lanka | date=2005 | publisher= Popular Prakashan | location = India |isbn=81-7991-199-3 | page = 122}}</ref> This was reiterated by Lt. Gen. Depinder Singh.<ref name=Ghosh>{{cite book | last=Ghosh | first=PA | title= Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka and Role of Indian Peace Keeping Force | date=1998 | publisher= APH Publishing |isbn=81-7648-107-6}} p.125</ref> The rebel LTTE and the government of Sri Lanka have maintained that it was an unprovoked massacre of civilians. The government of Sri Lanka in 2008 termed it a [[crime against humanity]].<ref name = SL /> A number of independent observers such as [[University Teachers for Human Rights]], a Human Rights organization from Sri Lanka, and western observers such Mr. John Richardson<ref name = Richardson>{{cite book | last= Richardson | first= John | title= Paradise Poisoned: Learning About Conflict, Terrorism and Development from Sri Lanka's Civil Wars | date = 2005 | publisher = [[International Centre for Ethnic Studies]] | isbn = 955-580-094-4 | page = 546}}</ref> and others<ref name= Krishna /><ref name= Dejong>{{cite book | editor-last= De Jong | editor-first= Joop | title= Trauma, War, and Violence: Public Mental Health in Socio-Cultural Context | date=2002 | publisher = Springer |isbn=0-306-46709-7 | page = 213}}</ref><ref name= Somasundaram1997>{{cite journal| last = Somasundaram | first = D | year = 1997| title = Abandoning jaffna hospital: Ethical and moral dilemmas | journal = Medicine, Conflict and Survival|volume = 13 | issue = 4|pages = 333–47|doi = 10.1080/13623699708409357}}</ref><ref name="wsws.org">International Committee of the Fourth International Fourth International Vol. 15 No. 1 (March 1988), Mass Murder in Jaffna, Rajiv Gandhi’s Dirty War Against Tamil Eelam https://www.wsws.org/en/special/library/fi-15-1/09.html</ref> maintain that it was a massacre of civilians.

==In popular culture==
The massacre and other alleged atrocities of the war are covered in the award-winning 2002 film ''[[In the Name of Buddha]]'' directed by [[Rajesh Touchriver]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=23568 20th anniversary of hospital massacre remembered in Jaffna]
*[http://www.tamilnet.com/pic.html?path=/img/publish/2005/10/JH1021_01.jpg&width=640&height=480&caption= Pictures of the murdered staff members]

{{Sri Lankan Civil War}}

{{coord missing|Sri Lanka}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jaffna Hospital Massacre}}
[[Category:Massacres in 1987]]
[[Category:Attacks on civilians attributed to the Indian Peace Keeping Force]]
[[Category:Attacks on hospitals during the Sri Lankan civil war]]
[[Category:History of Jaffna|Hospital massacre]]
[[Category:Indian Peace Keeping Force attacks in the Sri Lankan civil war]]
[[Category:Massacres of Sri Lankan Tamils]]
[[Category:1980s massacres in the Sri Lankan civil war]]
[[Category:1987 murders in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by India]]
[[Category:October 1987 in Asia]]
[[Category:Hospital shootings in Asia]]

Banu Israil

2025-11-21T11:37:28Z

LucasRowan: put up details

{{Short description|Indian Muslim community}}
{{for|similar uses|Children of Israel (disambiguation){{!}}Children of Israel}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
The '''Banu Israil''' or Bani Israili are a [[Indian Muslim|Muslim]] community of [[Jews|Jewish]] origin.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-07-05 |title=Aligarh's Muslims of 'Jewish descent' wary of tag |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/agra/aligarhs-muslims-of-jewish-descent-wary-of-tag/articleshow/53049802.cms |access-date=2025-06-17 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Their name means 'Children of Israel', and the community claims descent from the Jewish community of [[Madinah]], in Arabia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anas |first=Mohammed |date=2022-03-14 |title=Madrasa with Jewish roots lights up a new path in western UP |url=https://www.indianarrative.com/world-news/madrasa-with-jewish-roots-lights-up-a-new-path-in-western-up-33200.html |access-date=2025-06-17 |website=Indianarrative |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Benjamin |first=Joshua M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZ1tAAAAMAAJ&q=banu+israil,+uttar+Pradesh |title=The Mystery of Israel's Ten Lost Tribes and the Legend of Jesus in India |date=2001 |publisher=Mosaic Books |isbn=978-81-85399-57-7 |pages=111 |language=en}}</ref> They belong to the [[Shaikhs in South Asia|Shaikh]] caste{{Clarify|reason=Where are these people mainly located or were mainly located after migrating from wherever they had migrated from? parts of India? Pakistan?|date=September 2025}} and typically carry the surname ''Israily''. They should not be confused with the [[Bene Israel]], a Jewish community in western India.<ref>The Lost Tribes of Israel: The History of a Myth by Tudor Parfit {{ISBN|0-297-81934-8}} page 131</ref>

== Origin ==

The exact circumstances of their settlement in India is unclear, but their traditions make clear that they were Jews at the time of their settlement. They are largely an urban community, occupying distinct quarters in a number of towns and cities in western [[Uttar Pradesh]], such as Banu Israilyan in [[Aligarh]]. Quite a few of them occupied important administrative positions under both the [[Sultanate of Delhi]] and its successor, the [[Mughal Empire]]. This was especially true of the Banu Israil of Aligarh, where the community were the heredity ''[[kotwal]]s'', a post which entailed being both the head of police and garrison commander.<ref>Boundaries and identities : Muslims, work and status in Aligarh by E. A. Mann {{ISBN|0-8039-9422-2}}</ref>{{pn|date=October 2023}}

== See also ==
* [[Shaikh of Uttar Pradesh]]
* [[Allahdad]]
* [[Donmeh]]
* [[Chala (Jews)|Chala]]
* [[Converso]]
* [[Marrano]]
* [[Neofiti]]
* [[Makhamra family]]
* [[Jewish tribes of Arabia]]
* [[Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/06/26/religion-journal-the-indian-muslims-with-ties-to-israel/ Religion Journal: The Indian Muslims with Ties to Israel] – ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''

{{Indian Muslim}}
{{Jews and Judaism in Pakistan}}

[[Category:Shaikh clans]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in India]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Groups claiming Israelite descent]]
[[Category:Hejazi Jews]]

Hatim (TV series)

2025-11-21T08:23:29Z

LucasRowan:

{{short description|2003 TV series}}
{{about|the 2003 TV series on [[Star Plus]]|the 2013 series on [[Life OK]]|The Adventures of Hatim}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox television
| image = HATIM TV.png
| caption =
| alt_name = Maaveeran Hatim
| genre = {{ubl|[[Action genre|Action]]|[[Adventure]]|[[Fantasy television]]}}
| company = [[Sagar Films]]
| writer = Deepali Junjappa
| director = {{ubl|[[Amrit Sagar]]|Shakti Sagar}}
| starring = [[#Cast|See Below]]
| country = India
| language = Hindi

| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 47
| executive_producer = Jyoti Sagar
| location =
| runtime = 45 minutes
| network = [[StarPlus]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=y|2003|12|26}}<ref name=Date>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k3/nov/nov216.htm|title=Hatim Tai to debut on Star Plus on 26 Dec|date=28 November 2003|access-date=8 September 2019|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813141612/http://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k3/nov/nov216.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| last_aired = {{End date|2004|11|12|df=y}}
}}

'''''Hatim''''' is an Indian [[fantasy]] television series that aired on [[StarPlus]] from 26 December 2003 until 12 November 2004.<ref name="Date" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Hazarika |first=Gautamee |date=5 December 2021 |title=Hatim, a low-budget epic about an Arabian prince, gripped Indian viewers in the early 2000s |url=https://theprint.in/feature/brandma/hatim-a-low-budget-epic-about-an-arabian-prince-gripped-indian-viewers-in-the-early-2000s/776513/ |work=[[ThePrint]] |location=New Delhi |access-date=13 August 2024}}</ref> It has elements of fantasy, drama, action and many other genres. It was directed by [[Amrit Sagar]] and is inspired by the arabic story recounting the adventures of [[Hatim al-Tai]] of the [[Tayy]]i [[Arabian tribe|tribe of Arabia]].<ref>{{Cite web|title="The fate of a program is governed by the channel it is telecasted on": Sagar Arts' Amrit Sagar|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/interviews/y2k4/director/amrit_sagar.htm|website=Indian Television dot com|date=3 January 2004 |access-date=16 July 2020|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805204129/https://www.indiantelevision.com/interviews/y2k4/director/amrit_sagar.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Plot ==
In the Middle Ages, ''Hatim'', the newborn son of the emperor of [[Yemen]], is proclaimed to spread the messages of peace and goodness. The son of the Emperor of Jaffar is born at the same time, and a palace resident named Najumi performs black magic to make the baby a servant of evil spirits.

The Emperor of Jaffar decides that it would be better for the world if his newborn son is killed and orders the baby's heart to be burned. Najumi burns a rabbit's heart instead and shows it to the emperor, leading the emperor to believe that his orders have been carried out. Najumi takes the child, names him ''Dajjal'', and teaches him the dark arts.

Twenty years pass. In Yemen, Hatim grows into a kind-hearted and beloved prince. In Jaffar, Dajjal kills his parents and becomes the emperor. Dajjal creates an eternal fire at the top of the palace's tower that grants him dark powers. Najumi explains to Dajjal that Dajjal can become the supreme lord of the world if he is able to capture the forces of goodness. Dajjal can achieve this by marrying Sunena, the princess of Durgapur, who is goodness personified.

Dajjal arrives in Durgapur to ask Sunena for her hand in marriage, but she declines. When Dajjal threatens Sunena's teenage brother Suraj, Suraj slices Dajjal's hand with his sword. Dajjal's hand heals and Dajjal turns Suraj into a stone statue. Dajjal tells Sunena that he will only turn Suraj human again if she accepts his proposal. He gives Sunena seven months to accept the proposition, after which the curse will become permanent.

In Yemen, Hatim's marriage is fixed with Jasmin, the princess of Paristan (Fairyland). Hatim and Jasmin meet for the first time and fall in love. Sunena's lover, Prince Vishal of Janakpur, arrives disguised as a beggar. Vishal pleads with Hatim to help him fight Dajjal. The Emperor of Yemen, Hatim, the Emperor of Paristan and Vishal meet. The Emperor of Paristan reveals that when the forces of goodness created Paristan, a prophecy was made that an evil lord would control this world unless the angel of good intervenes.

Hatim must journey to distant lands and solve seven questions to destroy Dajjal's dark power. The emperor offers Hatim a magical sword. Jasmin lends Hatim her childhood friend and servant, as well as an elf named Hobo, as his bodyguard. As Hatim answers the questions, Dajjal's powers and magical towers are gradually destroyed. However, after Hatim answers the sixth question, there isn't enough time left to solve the seventh question.

The armies of Yemen, Paristan, Durgapur, and Janakpur descend on Jaffar for the final battle. As they fight against Dajjal's zombie army, Hatim enters the castle and fights Dajjal to death. They both die simultaneously, but Hatim defeats death by obtaining the answer to the seventh question.

==Cast==
* [[Rahil Azam]] as [[Hatim al-Tai|Hatim]], The Prince of Yemen
* [[Kiku Sharda]] as Hobo<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/kiku-sharda-opens-up-about-how-he-bagged-his-first-show-hatim-says-shakti-offered-me-a-role-in-hatim-and-i-was-hesitant-initially/articleshow/105695250.cms|title=Kiku Sharda opens up about how he bagged his first show Hatim, says "Shakti offered me a role in Hatim and I was hesitant initially"|date=3 December 2023|work=The Times of India|access-date=13 August 2024}}</ref>
* Pooja Ghai Rawal as Jasmine, The Princess of Paristan
* [[Nirmal Pandey]] as Dajjal, King of Jaffar
* Vijay Ganju as Najumi
* Yashwant Mahilwar as Younger Hatim
* [[Aditi Pratap]] as Princess Sunayna, Princess of Durgapur
* [[Romiit Raaj]] as Prince Vishal, Prince of Janakpur
* [[Jhanak Shukla]] as Little Jasmine
* Ravi Khanvilkar as The King of Yemen, Hatim’s father
* [[Neha Bam]] as The Queen of Yemen, Hatim's mother
* Reshma Modi as The Queen of Paristan
* [[Tom Alter]] as The King of Paristan
* [[Jaya Bhattacharya]] as Zalima
* Rushali Arora as Battila
* [[Usha Bachani]] as Princess Nadira
* Anisha Hinduja as Red-haired Queen
* Kumar Hegde as Azlaf
* [[Kishwer Merchant]] as Rubina
* [[Manasi Varma]] as Mallika-e-Hayat
* [[Tej Sapru]] as Pasha
* [[Kavi Kumar Azad]] as Argois
* [[Shilpa Shinde]] as Shakila
* [[Amrapali Gupta]] as Chaya, Maya's twin sister
* [[Sonia Kapoor]] as Mallika-e-Husn
* [[Shital Thakkar]] as Maya, Aishwarya's (Mallika-e-Husn) sister
* Tarakesh Chauhan as King of Durgapur and Father of Sunena
* Ankit Shah as Younger Hobo
* [[Vinod Kapoor]] as Anant
* Anwar Fatehan as Hakibo
* Rajeeta Kochhar as Teesta
* [[Akhil Mishra]] as Butler
* Devender Chaudhary as Ulta
* [[Jay Soni]] as Suarush
* Ram Awana as Cagaa
* [[Kamya Punjabi]] as Jaan-e-Jahan
* [[Nimai Bali]] as Shaitan Keharmaan
* [[Gireesh Sahdev]] as King Aashkaan
* [[Mukul Nag]] as Bezawal
* [[Rajeev Paul]] as Ramizo
* [[Iqbal Azad]] as Grand Vizier of Akalchand's Kingdom
* Harry Josh as Dracula
* Sunil Chauhan as Katib-e-Taqdeer
* Pappu Prem

==Broadcast==
The series has been [[broadcast syndication|syndicated]] to various Indian channels such as [[Star Plus]], [[Disney Channel (Indian TV channel)|Disney Channel India]], [[STAR Utsav]] and [[Hungama TV]].<ref name=AQI>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/special/y2k9/spl_report_kids.php|title=Kids Channel gains viewership|date=June 9, 2009|access-date=July 22, 2017|archive-date=27 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827140042/http://www.indiantelevision.com/special/y2k9/spl_report_kids.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The series has also been dubbed in [[Tamil language]] for [[STAR Vijay]] channel titled ''Maaveeran Hatim''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/special/y2k5/vijay1.htm|title=Vijay TV scripts a turnaround tale|date=30 April 2005|access-date=24 April 2018|archive-date=25 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625005350/http://www.indiantelevision.com/special/y2k5/vijay1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Awards ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2010}}

===In 2004===
; The Indian Television Academy Awards|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gr8mag.com/posts.php?id=323|title=GR8! TV Magazine - THE INDIAN TELEVISION ACADEMY AWARDS, 2004|website=gr8mag.com|access-date=2021-09-04|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105165225/https://www.gr8mag.com/posts.php?id=323|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Best Costumes - Nikhat Marriam Neerusha
* Best Editing - Papu Trivedi
* Best Make-up - Sagar Entertainment saga
* Best Visual Effects - Jyoti Sagar
* Best Mythological /Historical Serials - Jyoti Sagar Amrit Sagar
* Best Packaging - Amrit Sagar

===In 2005===
* Best Children Programme Jyoti Sagar Amrit Sagar
* Best Art Direction - Mukesh Kalola
* Best Audiography - Sagar Entertainment
* Best Costumes - Nikhat Mariyam
* Best Make-up - Hari Nawar
* Best Visual Effects - Jyoti Sagar

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|5201864}}

{{Children television series in India}}
{{SP Shows}}
{{Sagar Arts}}

[[Category:2003 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2004 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:StarPlus original programming]]
[[Category:Indian children's television series]]
[[Category:Works based on One Thousand and One Nights]]
[[Category:Indian fantasy television series]]
[[Category:Indian epic television series]]
[[Category:Television shows about genies]]

Agrizhan

2025-09-14T13:09:44Z

LucasRowan: put up a post.

{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{multiple issues|{{more citations|date=July 2025}}}}

The '''Agrizhan''' ({{langx|ru|Агрыжанские татары}} ''Agryzhanskie tatary'') are primarily [[Muslim]] descendants of [[Tatarstan|Tatar]] women and Indian merchants who operated in [[Astrakhan]]. The children of these Indo-Tatar unions were known as Agrizhan Tatars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://openthemagazine.com/columns/astrakhans-india-connection/ | title=Astrakhan's India Connection | date=16 March 2020 }}</ref>

== History ==
The community's decline began in the early 19th century, when the Russian Empire imposed strict regulations on foreign trade.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rbth.com/blogs/2014/09/12/early_traces_of_indian_life_in_russia_38261 | title=Early traces of Indian life in Russia | date=12 September 2014 }}</ref> By 1857, their population had dwindled to 107, and they eventually assimilated into the broader [[Tatars|Astrakhan Tatar]] population.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dale |first=Stephen Frederic |title=The Indian diaspora in the Volga basin |date=1994 |work=Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600–1750 |pages=101–127 |editor-last= |editor-first= |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/indian-merchants-and-eurasian-trade-16001750/indian-diaspora-in-the-volga-basin/C8F5444323A5442BBB645CE233EDBB4C |access-date= |series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511523977.007 |isbn=978-0-521-45460-5 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Some of the earliest Indian merchants were [[Hindus]], closely linked to [[Bukharan]] merchants in Astrakhan. They were part of a vibrant trade network that connected Astrakhan with [[Bukhara]] and [[Iran]], both before and after the Russian conquest of the city. Over time, these merchants converted to Islam. Like the Gilani Tatars and the Bukharan Tatars, they retained special privileges until 1836<ref>Allen J. Frank, ''Bukhara and the Muslims of Russia: Sufism, Education and the Paradox of Muslim Prestige'' (Brill), p. 50-52</ref>

Between 1860 and 1914, some Agrizhan Tatars migrated to the [[Ottoman Empire]] alongside other Muslim groups from Russia.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4129110 | jstor=4129110 | title=Immigration, Return, and the Politics of Citizenship: Russian Muslims in the Ottoman Empire, 1860-1914 | last1=Meyer | first1=James H. | journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies | date=2007 | volume=39 | issue=1 | pages=15–32 | doi=10.1017/S0020743807212516 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.5555/AAI28114952 | title=Imperial Refuge: Resettlement of Muslims from Russia in the Ottoman Empire, 1860-1914 | date=2018 | publisher=Stanford University | last1=Hamed-Trojansky | first1=Vladimir }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*Wixman, Ronald. ''The Peoples of the USSR: An Ethnographic Handbook''. (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc, 1984) p. 6

{{Ethnic groups of Russia}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Russia]]
[[Category:Hinduism in Russia]]
[[Category:Islam in Russia]]
[[Category:Astrakhan]]
[[Category:Russian people of Indian descent]]

{{Europe-ethno-group-stub}}
{{India-ethno-stub}}