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Sethu (film)

2026-05-08T10:19:42Z

Loz12: Added - done

{{Short description|1999 Indian film by Bala}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Sethu film poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Bala (director)|Bala]]
| writer = Bala
| producer = A. Kandasamy
| starring = [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] [[Abitha]]
| cinematography = [[R. Rathnavelu]]
| editing = Raghu Babu
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = Sharmatha Productions
| released = {{Film date|1999|12|10|df=y}}
| runtime = 130 minutes{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=212}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Sethu''''' ({{IPAc-en|s|eɪ|θ|u}}) is a 1999 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romantic drama]] [[tragedy]] film, written and directed by [[Bala (director)|Bala]] in his debut. The film stars [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] and [[Abitha]]. The score and soundtrack were composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]], with cinematography by [[R. Rathnavelu]] and editing by Raghu Baabu.

''Sethu'', released on 10 December 1999, initially began running as a single noon show in a suburban theatre, but gradually built up audiences through word-of-mouth publicity.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}} The film became a [[sleeper hit]] and Vikram's first major breakthrough film. It won the [[National Film Award for Best Tamil Feature Film]] and the Best Film award at the [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil|Filmfare Awards]] and the [[Cinema Express Award for Best Film – Tamil|Cinema Express Awards]]. Bala and Vikram also won several awards for their contributions. The film was remade in Kannada as ''[[Huchcha]]'', in Telugu as ''[[Seshu]]'' and in Hindi as ''[[Tere Naam]]''.

== Plot ==
{{plot|date=March 2026}} 
The film centres around Sethu, a tough and macho college student nicknamed as Chiyaan, who leads the Student Union and has a violent temper. He lives with his older brother Vasudevan, a magistrate whom he does not get along well. He roams with his circle of "yes sir" friends. Only his sister-in-law seems to truly understand him.

The story begins with Sethu winning the Student Union election as college chairman and getting into a fight with his rival contenders during the celebrations. Sethu is shown to be an aggressive and violent young man. But he begins to change after meeting Abitha, a timid Brahmin girl. Initially teasing her, he grows fond of her innocence and falls in love. Even his friends notice a positive change in him. Sethu also uses his college chairman powers to help Abitha to take an exam she had been earlier denied.

Meanwhile, Abitha’s sister returns home after facing dowry abuse from her husband. She struggles to repay a loan and rebuild her life. Around the same time, Sethu awkwardly confesses his love to Abitha. She is completely stunned and unable to respond, but Sethu assumes she reciprocates. He later learns she is engaged to a quiet and submissive priest. Feeling insecure, he threatens the priest to back off and the priest complies out of fear.

One day, when Sethu tries to present a romantic gift to Abitha, she openly rejects him and lets him know that she does not view him in such way. Unable to bear the truth, he lashes out at her which prompts her to scold him. Feeling dejected, he spends the night drinking with his friends who advise him to shed his rough behavior and to behave more timid Infront of her. The next day, Sethu beats up his rival at the college who earlier bullied his friend but stops short at the last minute after seeing Abitha, who had witnessed it. His friends noticing the profound effect in him, confront him about his loyalty to their friendship where tempers flare up where Sethu gets into a scuffle with them after one of the friend passes a crude remark about Abitha. Realizing that his love for Abitha is causing him to act recklessly, he later apologizes and makes amends to his friends. However, he still continues his days remaining heartbroken about Abitha.

At this juncture, Sethu discovers and busts a local brothel operation where a patron had misbehaved with his friend's sister. He beats the brothel owners up and informs the police for raid. While searching one of the brothel rooms, he accidentally stumbles into Abitha’s sister who is completely unaware that she had been conned into prostitution in exchange for her dowry loan. Sethu is unaware about her identity as Abitha's sister as well. While initially scornful and mistaking her for a prostitute, he quickly realizes she is innocent and rescues her discretely. Grateful for the help, she tells Sethu about her dowry abuse and about her husband after he enquires her. Sethu than goes off into the night. Meanwhile, Abitha's fiancé who had witnessed the entire incident and the grave help Sethu had done that night, comes to understand his good morals. The next day, Sethu beats up the Abitha's sister husband and threatens him to accept his wife back, which he does. Realising his altruistic character, Abitha's fiance explains to Abitha about Sethu's role on that fateful night where he rescued her sister. He also points out to her that his priest profession would not sustain her life with him. Hearing this, Abitha realises that Sethu, despite his roughness, has a good heart.

However, Sethu, desperate and impulsive, kidnaps Abitha to an abandoned building and expresses his deep feelings for her. Understanding the depth of his love, Abitha finally succumbs to his love and accepts him. His love finally succeeded, Sethu is overjoyed and ecstatic about his newfound love.

Just when things seem to turn in Sethu’s favour, he is suddenly attacked by the brothel goons who seek revenge on him for trying to ruin their business. They brutally assault him and take turns to beat him up. Sethu is completely overpowered in the fight, to humiliate him further the goon leader kicks him in his nuts crippling him completely. They then drag his body and smash his head on a rock, blooding his head. The severe impact causes his brain to lacerate and suffer critical damage to its insides. They then throw him on a cliff leaving him in a bloody and gruesome condition. Sethu is admitted into a mental institution where his condition is considered beyond recovery. He is then sent to a remote mental asylum at Yerwardi where the traditional ayurvedic treatment might cure him.

At the ashram, Sethu is barely recognisable—bald, emaciated and chained. Over time, he begins to recover, but the staff refuses to believe he’s sane. His attempt to escape backfires as he obtains serious injuries after suffering a fall. Abitha who has seen him for a long time, visits secretly, but leaves distraught at his condition, without hearing him call out to her due to the noise in the asylum.

Convinced Sethu will never return to normal, Abitha’s father and Vasudevan persuade her to marry her former fiancé. Sethu, determined, escapes again and this time round, he is successful. He limps to Abitha’s house to reunite with her. But there, he finds marriage decorations and a crowd. To his horror, he sees Abitha lying dead, adorned with garlands—she has taken her own life.

Devastated, Sethu limps away in silence. His friends and family run after him in tears, but he doesn’t respond. The ashram wardens arrive and take him back. The film ends with Sethu stepping into the van, broken and without reason to live after losing his true love.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] as Sethu a.k.a. Chiyaan
* [[Abitha]] as Abitha Kujalambal (voice dubbed by [[Savitha Reddy]])
* [[Sivakumar]] as Vasudevan
* [[Sriman (actor)|Sriman]] as Das
* Anju Mahendran as Sethu's friend
* Sriram as Sriram
* Vijaya Bharathi (aka Bharathi) as Latha
* [[Lavanya (actress)|Lavanya]] as Kamakshi, Abitha's sister
* [[Rasheed Ummer]] as Abitha's brother-in-law
* [[Mohan Vaidya (singer)|Mohan Vaithya]] as Abitha's uncle
* [[Manobala]] as Tamil Teacher
* [[Rajashree (actress)|Rajashree]] as Raji
* [[Hemalatha]] as Vasudevan's daughter
* Kavitha Tinku as Abitha's friend
* S. S. Raman as Abitha's father
* Anwar Alikhan as Brothel goon
* [[Jyothi Lakshmi]] as the old lady dancer in the "Gaana Karunkuyile" song
* [[M. Sasikumar|Sasikumar]] as a college student (uncredited role)<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 June 2020 |title=Did you know, Sasikumar appeared in a blink-and-miss part in Vikram's 'Sethu'? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/did-you-know/did-you-know-sasikumar-appeared-in-a-blink-and-miss-part-in-vikrams-sethu/articleshow/76622168.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510024008/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/did-you-know/did-you-know-sasikumar-appeared-in-a-blink-and-miss-part-in-vikrams-sethu/articleshow/76622168.cms |archive-date=10 May 2022 |access-date=10 May 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
*[[Ameer Sultan]] as a college student (uncredited role)
}}

== Production ==

=== Development ===
After working as an assistant director under [[Balu Mahendra]] for seven years, [[Bala (director)|Bala]] decided to make his directorial debut and wrote a script loosely based on an incident involving of one of his friends who had fallen in love, lost his mind and ended up at a mental asylum.<ref name="caravan" /> The film, produced by A. Kandasamy, was initially titled ''Akilan'' but eventually retitled ''Sethu''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Navaneethakrishnan |first=Stalin |date=1 January 2023 |title=Sethu Movie: 'என் சொத்து எல்லாத்தையும் வித்தேன்' சேது தயாரிப்பாளர் நெகிழ்ச்சி! |url=https://tamil.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/producer-kandasamy-interviewed-about-the-way-sethu-film-was-made-131672471019371.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230101033946/https://tamil.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/producer-kandasamy-interviewed-about-the-way-sethu-film-was-made-131672471019371.html |archive-date=1 January 2023 |access-date=3 January 2025 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=ta}}</ref> Cinematography was handled by [[R. Rathnavelu]] and editing by Raghu Babu.{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=212}}

=== Casting ===
Bala offered the lead role of Sethu to his then roommate [[Vignesh (actor)|Vignesh]], who did not accept.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2018 |title=வாரிசுகளுக்கு மட்டுமே வாய்ப்பு கிடைக்கக் கூடாது! விக்னேஷ் வலியுறுத்துகிறார் |url=http://kungumam.co.in/VArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=8846&id1=40&issue=20180907 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531044745/http://kungumam.co.in/VArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=8846&id1=40&issue=20180907 |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=[[Kungumam (magazine)|Kungumam]] |language=ta}}</ref> [[Murali (Tamil actor)|Murali]] was also considered, but the role ultimately went to [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2012 |title=Atharva explains why is he indebted to director Bala |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/atharva-explains-why-is-he-indebted-to-director-bala-525290.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531053556/https://www.news18.com/news/india/atharva-explains-why-is-he-indebted-to-director-bala-525290.html |archive-date=31 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=[[News18]]}}</ref> [[Keerthi Reddy]] was initially signed on as the lead actress, but was later replaced by Rajshri and then subsequently [[Abitha]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sandya |title=1997–98'ன் கோடம்பாக்கக் குஞ்சுகள் |trans-title=1997–98 Kodambakkam babies |url=http://indolink.com/tamil/cinema/People/97/Dec/kuttisp1.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981202080525/http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/People/97/Dec/kuttisp1.htm |archive-date=2 December 1998 |access-date=22 February 2008 |website=Indolink}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sandya |title=Tamil Movie News |url=http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/News/98/Mar/news3.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430054302/http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/News/98/Mar/news3.htm |archive-date=30 April 2016 |access-date=25 November 2016 |website=Indolink}}</ref> To prepare for the character, Vikram shaved his head, thinned down to half his size by losing 21 kilograms and grew out his nails and even exposed himself under the sun for hours for skin darkening as the script demanded it.<ref name="redwin" /><ref name="front" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 September 1999 |title=Bala's Sethu |url=http://www.newtamilfilms.com/news/archive/september1999.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010306121056/http://www.newtamilfilms.com/news/archive/september1999.html |archive-date=6 March 2001 |access-date=15 May 2021 |website=New Tamil Films Online}}</ref> Vikram lived off fruit juice for six months and once he lost the desired weight, he maintained the look by subsisting on a scanty diet: an egg white, one glass of beetroot or carrot juice and a single dry [[chapati]] through the day. Bala dissuaded Vikram from accepting other film offers during this period and also asked him to cease working as a dubbing artist.<ref name="caravan" /> [[M. S. Bhaskar]] lent his voice for S. S. Raman who appeared as a temple priest.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 November 2009 |title=Talent bides its time |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/talent-bides-its-time/article3022151.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222123651/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/talent-bides-its-time/article3022151.ece |archive-date=22 February 2022 |access-date=30 May 2023 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
The film's launch was held in April 1997 and production lasted close to two years as the film languished in [[production hell]]. The [[FEFSI strike of 1997]] halted filming across the Tamil film industry from June to December 1997 and as a small budget film, ''Sethu'' was unable to progress during the period. When the strike was called off, the producer left the project. Vikram and Bala's then assistant, [[Ameer Sultan]], pled with the producer to return, with filming resuming in January 1998. After further slow progression, the film was finally completed by June 1999.<ref name="caravan" /> Cinematographer [[R. Rathnavelu]] said he gave the asylum scenes a predominantly green tone for the intense psychological impact.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Reddy |first=T. Krithika |date=29 November 2014 |title=Lingaa through Randy's lens |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/interview-with-cinematographer-rathnavelu/article6646451.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328052209/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/interview-with-cinematographer-rathnavelu/article6646451.ece |archive-date=28 March 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

The filming was primarily held at [[Kumbakonam]] where scenes were shot at Vishnupuram, [[Konerirajapuram]], Udayalur and Thyagarajapuram [[agraharam]] while scenes in the asylum were shot at [[Veezhinathar Kovil, Thiruveezhimizhalai|Thiruvizhimizhilai Veezhinadeswarar temple]] and Thiruvidaimarudhur Maha Lingasamy temple.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 October 2013 |title=கோடம்பாக்கமாகும் கும்பகோணம்! |url=http://www.kungumam.co.in/Articalinnerdetail.aspx?id=6076&id1=4&issue=20131021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613153355/http://www.kungumam.co.in/Articalinnerdetail.aspx?id=6076&id1=4&issue=20131021 |archive-date=13 June 2024 |access-date=13 June 2024 |website=[[Kungumam (magazine)|Kungumam]] |language=ta}}</ref> To film the scenes of the title character's college, the makers checked at least 60 colleges before finalising one in Kumbakonam. They were unable to secure permission to film in mental institutions and could not afford to create sets resembling those places, so they filmed in temples instead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=An Interview with Cinematographer 'Rathnavelu' |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/specials/interviews/rathnavelu.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211171539/http://www.cinesouth.com/specials/interviews/rathnavelu.shtml |archive-date=11 December 2003 |access-date=13 February 2025 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]].<ref name="Apple">{{Cite web |date=1 January 1999 |title=Sethu (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) – EP |url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/sethu-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/506502489 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230109082315/https://music.apple.com/in/album/sethu-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/506502489 |archive-date=9 January 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mugavari – Sethu – Tamil Audio CD by Ilayaraaja – Deva |url=https://mossymart.com/product/mugavari-sethu-tamil-audio-cd-by-ilayaraaja-deva/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204160801/https://mossymart.com/product/mugavari-sethu-tamil-audio-cd-by-ilayaraaja-deva/ |archive-date=4 February 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=Mossymart}}</ref> The music rights were later bought by [[Sony Music South]].<ref name="Apple" />

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 34:03
| title1 = Enge Sellum Intha
| extra1 = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| lyrics1 = [[Arivumathi]]
| length1 = 05:07
| title2 = Gaana Karunkuyile
| extra2 = Kovai Kamala
| lyrics2 = Ponnadiyan
| length2 = 05:13
| title3 = Kadhalenna Kadhalenna
| extra3 = [[Swarnalatha]]
| lyrics3 = [[Palani Bharathi]]
| length3 = 05:13
| title4 = Maalai En Vethanai
| extra4 = [[P. Unnikrishnan]], [[Arunmozhi]], [[S. N. Surendar]]
| lyrics4 = Arivumathi
| length4 = 05:04
| title5 = Saranam Bhava
| extra5 = [[Sujatha Mohan|Sujatha]]
| length5 = 01:59
| title6 = Sethuvukku Sethuvukku
| extra6 = [[Arunmozhi]]
| lyrics6 = [[Mu. Metha]]
| length6 = 02:27
| title7 = Sikaadha Sitrondru
| extra7 = P. Unnikrishnan, [[Arunmozhi]], S. N. Surendar
| lyrics7 = Palani Bharathi
| length7 = 05:12
| title8 = Vaarthai Thavari Vittai
| extra8 = Ilaiyaraaja
| lyrics8 = Arivumathi
| length8 = 03:01
| title9 = Nenachu Nenachu
| extra9 = P. Unnikrishnan
| lyrics9 = Mu. Metha
| length9 = 00:47
}}

== Release ==
The film struggled to find a distributor and only after sixty-seven screenings did the film manage to find a buyer, with most refusing the film due to its perceived tragic climax.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamath |first=Sudhish |author-link=Sudhish Kamath |date=2 January 2003 |title=Making films for the real world |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/lf/2003/01/02/stories/2003010206620200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607041653/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/lf/2003/01/02/stories/2003010206620200.htm |archive-date=7 June 2013 |access-date=31 July 2011 |website=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref> At that time, Bala and Vikram used money from Vikram's wife, Shailaja, to organise press previews. Despite garnering good reviews, no one was interested in purchasing the film and it remained finished but unreleased.<ref name="front" /> The film ultimately released on 10 December 1999,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Karthik |first=Janani |date=4 August 2016 |title=People expect me to do something spectacular: Vikram |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/People-expect-me-to-do-something-spectacular-Vikram/articleshow/53523195.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817134526/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/People-expect-me-to-do-something-spectacular-Vikram/articleshow/53523195.cms |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref> and initially began running at a single noon show in a suburban theatre, but gradually built up audiences through word-of-mouth publicity, becoming a [[sleeper hit]]. The film ran over 100 days at several cinema halls across [[Chennai]], with Vikram being mobbed by people on the streets as a result of the film's success.<ref name="redwin" />

=== Critical reception ===
''Sethu'' received positive reviews from critics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2000 |title=Sethu director Bala |url=http://www.newtamilfilms.com/news/archive/january2000.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010306122124/http://www.newtamilfilms.com/news/archive/january2000.html |archive-date=6 March 2001 |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=New Tamil Films Online |language=en}}</ref> Malathi Rangarajan of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote, "AN AWARD winning performance by Vikram, a clear storyline, taut screenplay, powerful dialogues, crisp direction, superb background score – ''Sethu'' offers all these and much more".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=17 December 1999 |title=Film Reviews: The Haunting / Sethu |url=http://www.indiaserver.com/thehindu/1999/12/17/stories/09170222.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001117044500/http://www.indiaserver.com/thehindu/1999/12/17/stories/09170222.htm |archive-date=17 November 2000 |access-date=27 July 2023 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> K. N. Vijayan from the ''[[New Straits Times]]'' described the film as an "unforgettable experience" and described Vikram's performance as "praise-worthy".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vijayan |first=K. N. |date=12 February 2000 |title=Laughs and tears galore in 'Sethu' |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9lRIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lRQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4265%2C1960776 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421022532/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9lRIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lRQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4265%2C1960776 |archive-date=21 April 2024 |access-date=30 May 2023 |work=[[New Straits Times]] |pages=28 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref> Kanchana Prakash Rao of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised the first half but felt the film loses credibility after Sethu gets hurt, panning the film's second half and the ending.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=பிரகாஷ்ராவ் |first=காஞ்சனா |date=16 January 2000 |title=சேது |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2000-01-16/page/n131/mode/2up |url-status= |archive-url= |access-date=19 June 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=130 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Thamarai Manalan of ''[[Dinakaran]]'' wrote, "Bala, who has directed this film, having himself written the story, screenplay and dialogue, has given a complete, perhaps more than complete, film that throbs with poetic eloquence and thus has uniformly stunned the audiences".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Manalan |first=Thamarai |title=Review: "Sethu" |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/reviews/2000/sethu.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230202021/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/reviews/2000/sethu.htm |archive-date=30 December 2005 |access-date=11 January 2025 |website=[[Dinakaran]]}}</ref>

=== Accolades ===
''Sethu'' won the [[National Film Award for Best Tamil Feature Film]], while also securing wins in the [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil|Best Film – Tamil]] category at [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil|the Filmfare Awards]] and the [[Cinema Express Award for Best Film – Tamil|Cinema Express Awards]]. Bala won the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Director]] and the [[Filmfare Award for Best Director – Tamil]]. The performance also drew accolades for Vikram who won the [[Filmfare Special Award – South]] and the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize]] for his portrayal of the title character.{{sfn |Dhananjayan |2011 |p=213}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 December 2000 |title=Awards: Tamilnadu Government Announces Cinema State Awards -1999 |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/29-12-00/state.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622010121/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/29-12-00/state.htm |archive-date=22 June 2008 |access-date=15 August 2023 |website=[[Dinakaran]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ashok Kumar |first=S. R. |date=15 April 2000 |title=Star-spangled show on cards |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/star-spangled-show-on-cards/article28011666.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720053452/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/star-spangled-show-on-cards/article28011666.ece |archive-date=20 July 2021 |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 April 2000 |title=Southern Filmfare awards presented at glittering ceremony |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/southern-filmfare-awards-presented-at-glittering-ceremony/articleshow/883089902.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/bJamT |archive-date=23 April 2026 |access-date=16 December 2024 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref> He was reportedly a strong contender for the [[National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role]] but lost to [[Mohanlal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajitha |date=21 July 2000 |title=Ajit backs off Nanda |url=http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2000/jul/21spice.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026145436/http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2000/jul/21spice.htm |archive-date=26 October 2012 |access-date=31 July 2011 |website=[[Rediff.com]] |language=en}}</ref> Bala won the Dinakaran Cinema Award for Best Newface Director.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Awards: "Dinakaran Cinema Awards"--1999 |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/28-1.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625100834/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/28-1.htm |archive-date=25 June 2008 |access-date=27 September 2024 |website=[[Dinakaran]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
''Sethu'' was a milestone in Vikram's career. The film's success made Bala one of the most sought after directors in Tamil cinema. It continued the trend of films with themes that focused on realism and nativity. K. Jeshi, a journalist for ''The Hindu'', placed it in the category of films which propagates social issues, like ''[[Kaadhal]]'' (2004), ''[[Veyil (2006 film)|Veyil]]'' (2006), ''[[Mozhi (film)|Mozhi]]'' (2007) and ''[[Paruthiveeran]]'' (2007).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jeshi |first=K. |date=23 November 2007 |title=Formula is passé, freshness is in |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/formula-is-pass-freshness-is-in/article3024024.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530134024/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/formula-is-pass-freshness-is-in/article3024024.ece |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Post-''Sethu'', Vikram has said that the film would always remain close to him regardless of its commercial success and that it put him on the "right path", with Vikram choosing to adapt the prefix of Chiyaan to his screen name.<ref name="front" /> Owing to its success, the film was remade in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Huchcha]]'' (2001),<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 August 2020 |title=Did you know? Kiccha Sudeep was not the first choice for 'Huccha' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/did-you-know-kiccha-sudeep-was-not-the-first-choice-for-huccha/articleshow/77506134.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212231742/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/did-you-know-kiccha-sudeep-was-not-the-first-choice-for-huccha/articleshow/77506134.cms |archive-date=12 February 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Seshu]]'' (2002),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tulika |date=29 April 2002 |title=Another one bites the dust |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2002/apr/29ss.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602211805/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2002/apr/29ss.htm |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=31 May 2023 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> and in [[Hindi]] as ''[[Tere Naam]]'' (2003).<ref name="caravan" />

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="caravan">{{Cite web |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |author-link=Baradwaj Rangan |date=1 December 2013 |title=Man of Steel |url=http://www.caravanmagazine.in/arts/man-steel |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918094317/http://www.caravanmagazine.in/arts/man-steel |archive-date=18 September 2015 |access-date=28 May 2023 |website=[[The Caravan]]}}</ref>
<ref name="redwin">{{Cite web |last=Warrier |first=Shobha |author-link=Shobha Warrier |date=17 August 2004 |title=Vikram's obsession gets its reward |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/aug/17vikram.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034211/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/aug/17vikram.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=31 July 2011 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref>
<ref name="front">{{Cite magazine |last=Sivakumar |first=M. |date=11–24 September 2004 |title='I am a director's actor' |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2119/stories/20040924003910700.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507035929/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2119/stories/20040924003910700.htm |archive-date=7 May 2010 |access-date=31 July 2011 |magazine=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |volume=21 |issue=19}}</ref>
</references>

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Dhananjayan |first=G. |title=The Best of Tamil Cinema, 1931 to 2010: 1977–2010 |publisher=Galatta Media |year=2011 |oclc=733724281 |author-link=G. Dhananjayan}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}
{{Bala (director)}}
{{Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil}}
{{NationalFilmAwardBestFeatureFilmTamil}}

[[Category:1999 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:1999 Indian films]]
[[Category:1999 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:1999 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Best Tamil Feature Film National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Films about alcoholism]]
[[Category:Films about amnesia]]
[[Category:Films about depression]]
[[Category:Films about domestic violence]]
[[Category:Films about mental health]]
[[Category:Films about the caste system in India]]
[[Category:Films directed by Bala (director)]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Films set in Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Films set in universities and colleges]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kumbakonam]]
[[Category:Films shot in Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romantic drama films]]

Forum Mall Kochi

2026-05-03T22:45:57Z

Loz12: created

{{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|date=January 2026}}
{{Promotional|date=January 2026}}
{{Primary sources|date=January 2026}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox shopping mall
| name = Forum Kochi
| image = Forum Mall, Kochi.jpg
| caption =
| location = [[Kochi]], India
| coordinates = {{Coord|9|56|38|N|76|18|59|E|display=inline,title}}
| address = [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH 66]], [[Vytilla]]-[[Aroor]] Bypass, [[Kundannoor]], [[Maradu]], Kochi - 682304
| opening_date = {{start date and age|df=yes|2023|8|19}}
| developer = [http://www.Thomsun.com Thomsun Group], Prestige Group
| manager = Prestige Group Banglore|
| number_of_stores = 123
| number_of_anchors = 7
| floor_area = {{convert|6,39,606|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} <ref name=officialpage>{{cite web |url=https://www.forummalls.in/forum-kochi/ |title=Forum Kochi |publisher=Prestige Group |date=2021-01-01 |access-date=2021-12-17 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217052111/https://www.forummalls.in/forum-kochi/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| parking =
| floors = 5
| website = https://www.forummalls.in/pages/forum-kochi
}}

'''Forum Kochi''' is a premium shopping mall located in [[Maradu]], [[Kochi]], [[Kerala]], [[India]]. The mall is promoted by Prestige Group, one of India's largest real estate developers and Thomsun Group, a Dubai-headquartered diversified conglomerate, with a strong presence across GCC and the Indian subcontinent. Developed on approximately 10 acres of land, it has a total built-up area of about 1,036,135 square feet, with a retail leasable area of around 639,606 square feet.

Construction of the mall began in April 2011, with support from the Thomsun Group. The mall is jointly owned by Thomsun group and Prestige group. Forum Kochi opened to the public on 19 August 2023. In terms of retail space, it is among the largest shopping malls in Kochi.

The mall is accessible from major transport hubs in the city. It is located about 5 kilometres from Vyttila Mobility Hub and approximately 8 kilometres from Ernakulam Junction railway station.

Forum Kochi features several anchor tenants, including Lulu Hypermarket, PVR Luxe, Marks & Spencer, H&M, Fun City, Lifestyle, and Shoppers Stop. The mall also houses brands such as Lacoste, Bath & Body Works, Under Armour, Beverly Hills Polo Club, Superdry, Armani Exchange, and Calvin Klein.

The dining options at Forum Kochi include 21 food and beverage outlets, along with an approximately 850-seat food court located on the second floor.

The mall houses a nine-screen multiplex operated by PVR, including a PXL-format screen. Forum Kochi has also served as a venue for film promotions and public events. In addition, a 39-room hotel with a swimming pool is under development within the mall complex in collaboration with Marriott International.

Forum Kochi has hosted promotional events for several Indian films, including ''Thug Life'' starring Kamal Haasan, ''Barroz'' featuring Mohanlal, ''Amaran'' starring Sivakarthikeyan, ''Maharaja'' featuring Vijay Sethupathi, and ''ARM'' starring Tovino Thomas. The first film promotion held at the mall was for ''Guruvayoor Ambalanadayil'', starring Prithviraj Sukumaran.{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Shopping malls in India}}
{{Kochi (India) topics}}

[[Category:Shopping malls in Kochi]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures under construction in India]]
[[Category:Prestige Group]]

Cyberpark, Kozhikode

2026-04-30T00:34:03Z

Loz12: stub - done

{{Short description|Indian business}}
{{Multiple issues|{{more citations needed|date=September 2014}}
{{promotional|date=February 2012}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Cyberpark, Kozhikode
| logo = Cyberparknew.jpg
| type = Government Owned
| genre = Infrastructure Service Provider
| founded = 28 January 2009
| founder =
| location_city = Kozhikode, Kerala
| location_country = India
| location = 
| origins =
| key_people = Chief Minister of Kerala, Chairman
Dr. Rathan.U. Kelkar IAS
Mr Susanth Kurunthil, CEO
| area_served =
| industry = [[Information Technology]] Business Park
| subsid =
| owner = [[Government of Kerala]]
| company_slogan =
| homepage = {{URL|http://www.cyberparkkerala.org/}}
| dissolved =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Cyberpark Kozhikode''' is a [[Government of Kerala]] owned business park for the promotion and development of investment in Information Technology (IT) and Information Technology Enabled Services (ITES) industries in the Malabar region of [[Kerala]]. It was registered under the Societies Act 1860 on January 28, 2009. In addition to this, it has a General Body and a [[Board of directors|Board of Governors]], both of which include top officials of the government. Cyberpark, Kozhikode has been envisioned and conceptualized as a major IT hub catering to the northern part of Kerala for the development of IT/ITeS sector in the state. After a trail-blazing performance with the success of Technopark, Trivandrum and Infopark, Kochi under Kerala IT.

Cyberpark, Kozhikode the first IT park promoted by the state in the Malabar region was established under Cyberparks Kozhikode an autonomous society registered under the Society Registration Act 1860, on 28 January 2009. The ultimate objective was to facilitate state of the art infrastructure space with supporting facilities with an IT ecosystem which would enhance the development of information & communication technology, create [[Direct, indirect, and induced employment|direct and indirect job]] opportunities and parallelly contribute to the economic development of the state.

Cyberpark in association with KSITIL has leased out 5 acres of SEZ land from KSITIL (Developer) in a 45-acre campus and have developed the first IT SEZ building Sahya measuring around 3 lakhs sq.ft. with a structure of double basement + Ground + 4 upper floors. Cyberpark inaugurated the building on 29 May 2017 and is fully operational. Cyberpark presently has over 85 companies functioning, and 2000 IT professionals employed.

Cyberpark provides a unique business model with a quality IT space in terms of Smart Business Centers – Plug & Play module and Warm Shell Option on lease terms. IT/ITeS companies could establish their operations in Cyberpark and commence business operations either immediately or design their office space as per their specifications and investments after obtaining SEZ unit approval. In addition, Cyberpark also encourages land lease option for IT companies / investors on long term lease for 30 years extendable up-to 90 years for establishing their business operations or as commercial co-developer.

Cyberpark aims at providing all supporting facilities and amenities endowed with a self-sustainable IT Eco-system with an edge on the cost competitiveness in a highly secured Eco-friendly environment for IT/ITeS companies to establish their base. Cyberpark will cater to the entire northern part of Kerala and will serve as a major IT hub ensuring the brand equity and a status of recognition for the SME segments. Currently, the facilities include robust infrastructure, excellent digital connectivity, in-house power distribution with 100% power back-up and SEZ benefits.

Cyberpark is headed by '''Shri. Susanth Kurunthil''', Chief Executive Officer and governed by Board of Governance with Chairman being the IT Secretary, Electronics and IT department under IT Minister none other than Honorable Chief Minister of Kerala

==History==

In January 2007, the Government of Kerala announced its decision to promote Kozhikode as an IT hub. The proposal to set up an IT park in Kozhikode came in the announcement of the State Government's IT policy made by Chief Minister V.S. Achuthanandan.

Soon after the proposal, a convention under the auspices of Calicut IT Initiative (CITI) in Kozhikode was organized. The CITI includes representatives of the Malabar Chamber of Commerce, Calicut Forum for IT (CAFIT), IIM-Kozhikode, Calicut Management Association, Kerala Builders Forum and NIT-Calicut among others. The name Cyberpark was suggested by the convention.

An appeal was also made to the Calicut Corporation to include the IT Park in the master plan that was being prepared for the city.

At this convention, many companies, including IBS, US Technology, NeST Software and Leela Group offered to set up their units in the Kozhikode IT unit.

By March 2008, official sources pointed out that already over 10 companies have shown interest in starting their organizations in this IT Park.

The Park Centre of Cybercity Kozhikode was formally opened by Industries Minister P.K. Kunhalikuttty on 15 February 2014.<ref name="Cyberpark to place Kozhikode on IT map">{{cite news|title=Cyberpark to place Kozhikode on IT map|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cyberpark-to-place-kozhikode-on-it-map/article5686855.ece|access-date=16 February 2014|newspaper=The Hindu|date=14 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="Now, Cyberpark puts Kozhikode on the IT map">{{cite news|title=Now, Cyberpark puts Kozhikode on the IT map|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-Cyberpark-puts-Kozhikode-on-the-IT-map/articleshow/30482192.cms|access-date=16 February 2014|newspaper=The Times of India|date=16 February 2014}}</ref>

The project is expected to be completed in 2015.<ref name="Now, Cyberpark puts Kozhikode on the IT map" />

By May 2018 Minister for Labour [[T. P. Ramakrishnan|T.P . Ramakrishnan]] opened the new company – Infinite Open Source Solutions LLP – in the first warm shell space at Sahya IT building, measuring 7,000 sq.ft space.<ref name="First Warm shell Cyberpark Shya IT Building">{{cite news|title=Four new companies set up space at Cyberpark|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/four-new-companies-set-up-space-at-cyberpark/article23752618.ece|access-date=2 May 2018|newspaper=The Hindu|date=2 May 2018}}</ref> The Company incubated from Business Incubator TBI-NITC. On the same day, three new companies have also logged into the Smart Business Centre at Sahya – Zinfog Codelabs Pvt. Ltd., Limenzy Technologies Pvt. Ltd. and Ontash India Technologies.<ref name="First Warm shell Cyberpark Shya IT Building" /><ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2 May 2018 |title=കോഴിക്കോട് സൈബര്‍ പാര്‍ക്കില്‍ പുതിയ ഐ.ടി കമ്പനികള്‍ പ്രവര്‍ത്തനം തുടങ്ങി... |url=https://www.manoramanews.com/news/business/2018/05/02/new-it-companies-started-in-calicut-cyber-park.html |work=Manorana News}}</ref> Hrishikesh Nair inaugurated the Smart Business Centre.

Cyberpark hosts a number of information technology and IT-enabled services companies in its Sahya building and smart business centers. As of 2026, there are 150+ firms operating in the park. The area under lease has gone up from 8 per cent in 2017–18 to 73 percent in 2020–21. The number of employees is 850. Software exports marked an increase of nearly 390% from ₹3,01,71,390 in 2017–18 to ₹14,76,10,856 in 2019–20. The SEZ approval for Sahya building was pivotal in this growth.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cyberpark Kozhikode grows exponentially in 4 years|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/cyberpark-kozhikode-grows-exponentially-in-4-years/article33757510.ece|access-date=2021-07-01|website=@businessline|date=5 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==Expenditure==

The Government expenditure towards the land acquisition for Cyberpark is estimated to be around 430 million INR and planned spoke-parks in Kannur and Kasaragod are estimated to cost 1.50 billion INR each, spread over a five-year period.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scaria |first=Joe A |date=Jun 11, 2010 |title=Cyberpark gets SEZ approval |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/ites/cyberpark-gets-sez-approval/articleshow/6037499.cms?from=mdr |work=The Economic Times |pages=Business News - Tech - ITes}}</ref>

Total investment by the government will exceed 2.50 billion INR over the next two years.<ref name="Now, Cyberpark puts Kozhikode on the IT map" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scaria |first=Joe A |date=Jun 11, 2010 |title=Cyberpark gets SEZ approval |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/ites/cyberpark-gets-sez-approval/articleshow/6037499.cms?from=mdr |work=Economic Times}}</ref>

{{Scientific Research in Kerala |state=collapsed}}

{{coord|10.0015282|76.3030518|display=title}}

[[Category:Software technology parks in Kerala]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Thiruvananthapuram]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2009]]
[[Category:Special Economic Zones of India]]

Jewels of Elizabeth II

2026-04-29T03:47:32Z

Loz12: done

{{Short description|Historic collection of British royal jewellery}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2015}}

[[File:HM Queen Elizabeth II.jpg|upright=1.25|thumb|Queen [[Elizabeth II]] wearing the Kokoshnik Tiara, diamond earrings, a diamond necklace and bracelet, and a silver watch to a state banquet for the President of Mexico in 2015. The larger necklace is the [[Order of the Aztec Eagle|Grand Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle]] (awarded to her in 1973).]]
{{Elizabeth II series|expanded=Personal}}
[[Elizabeth II]] owned a historic collection of jewels – some as monarch and others as a private individual. They are separate from the [[Royal Collection#Gems and Jewels|gems and jewels]] of the [[Royal Collection]], and from the coronation and state [[regalia]] that make up the [[Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom|Crown Jewels]].

The origin of a distinct royal jewel collection is vague, though it is believed the jewels have their origin somewhere in the 16th century. Many of the pieces are from overseas and were brought to the United Kingdom as a result of civil war, coups and revolutions, or acquired as gifts to the monarch.<ref>{{cite book |author=Suzy Menkes |author-link=Suzy Menkes |year=1990 |title=The Royal Jewels |publisher=Contemporary Books |url=https://archive.org/details/royaljewels00menk|url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-8092-4315-0}}{{Page needed|date=May 2016}}</ref> Most of the jewellery dates from the 19th and 20th centuries.

The Crown Jewels are worn only at coronations ([[St Edward's Crown]] being used to crown the monarch) and the annual [[State Opening of Parliament]] (the [[Imperial State Crown]]). At other formal occasions, such as banquets, Elizabeth II wore the jewellery in her collection. She owned more than 300 items of jewellery,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20098145,00.html|title=Yank Leslie Field traces the rich history of the Queen's jewels|author=Bonnie Johnson|journal=People|date=25 January 1988|volume=29|issue=3|access-date=28 December 2015}}</ref> including 98 brooches, 46 necklaces, 37 bracelets, 34 pairs of earrings, 20 tiaras, 15 rings, 14 watches and 5 pendants,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tatler.com/news/articles/january-2014/the-monarch-and-her-money|title=The Monarch and her money|work=Tatler|author=Keith Dovkants|date=28 January 2014|access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> the most notable of which are detailed in this article.

==History==

===General history===
Unlike the Crown Jewels—which mainly date from the accession of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]—the jewels are not official regalia or insignia. Much of the collection was designed for [[queens regnant]] and [[queens consort]], though some kings have added to the collection. Most of the jewellery was purchased from other European heads of state and members of the aristocracy, or handed down by older generations of the royal family, often as birthday and wedding presents. In recent years, Elizabeth had worn them in her capacity as Queen of Australia, Canada and New Zealand, and can be seen wearing jewels from her collection in official portraits made specially for these realms.<ref>Field, p. 9.</ref>

===House of Hanover dispute===
In 1714, with the accession of [[George I of Great Britain|George I]], the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Electorate of Hanover]] both came to be ruled in personal union by the [[House of Hanover]]. Early Hanoverian monarchs were careful to keep the heirlooms of the two realms separate. [[George III]] gave half the British heirlooms to his bride, [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]], as a wedding present. In her will, Charlotte left the jewels to the 'House of Hanover'. The [[Kingdom of Hanover]] followed the [[Salic Law]], whereby the line of succession went through male heirs.

Thus, when [[Queen Victoria]] acceded to the throne of the United Kingdom, her uncle [[Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover|Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale]] became King of Hanover. King Ernest demanded a portion of the jewellery, not only as the monarch of Hanover but also as the son of Queen Charlotte. Victoria flatly declined to hand over any of the jewels, claiming they had been bought with British money. Ernest's son, [[George V of Hanover]], continued to press the claim. Victoria's husband, [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]], suggested that she make a financial settlement with the Hanoverian monarch to keep the jewels, but [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] informed Queen Victoria they would neither purchase the jewels nor loan funds for the purpose.

A parliamentary commission was set up to investigate the matter and in 1857 they found in favour of the House of Hanover. On 28 January 1858, seven years after Ernest's death, the jewels were handed to the Hanoverian Ambassador, [[Count Adolf Kielmansegg|Count Adolf von Kielmansegg]].<ref>Field, pp. 9–10.</ref> Victoria did manage to keep one of her favourite pieces of jewellery: a fine rope of pearls.<ref name="Rappaport2003">{{cite book|author=Helen Rappaport|author-link=Helen Rappaport|title=Queen Victoria: A Biographical Companion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLGhimIiFPoC&pg=PA138|year=2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-355-7|page=138}}</ref>

==Ownership and value==
Some pieces of jewellery made before the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 are regarded as heirlooms owned by the monarch in right of [[the Crown]] and pass from one monarch to the next in perpetuity. Objects made later, including official gifts,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/force-the-royal-family-to-declare-gifts-say-mps-7259318.html|title=Force the Royal Family to declare gifts, say MPs|date=30 January 2007|access-date=26 November 2016|newspaper=Evening Standard|location=London}}</ref> can also be added to that part of the [[Royal Collection]] at the sole discretion of a monarch.<ref name="Morton1989">{{cite book|author=Andrew Morton|title=Theirs Is the Kingdom: The Wealth of the Windsors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLwhAQAAIAAJ&q=%22minor+items%22|year=1989|publisher=Michael O'Mara Books|isbn=978-0-948397-23-3|page=156}}</ref> It is not possible to say how much the collection is worth because the jewels have a rich and unique history, and they are unlikely to be sold on the open market.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/theroyalfamily/9366102/Diamonds-for-a-Diamond-Queen.html|title='Diamonds' for a Diamond Queen|newspaper=The Telegraph|author=Hannah Betts|date=30 June 2012|access-date=21 January 2016}}</ref>

In the early 20th century, five other lists of jewellery, which have also never been published, supplemented those left to the Crown by Queen Victoria:<ref name="Twining1960">{{cite book|author=Edward Francis Twining|title=A History of the Crown Jewels of Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvIOAQAAMAAJ|year=1960|publisher=B. T. Batsford|asin=B00283LZA6|page=189}}</ref>

*Jewels left to the Crown by Queen Victoria
*Jewels left by Her Majesty to His Majesty the King ([[Edward VII]])
*Jewels left to King Edward VII by Queen Victoria, hereinafter to be considered as belonging to the Crown and to be worn by all future queens in right of it
*Jewels the property of King [[George V]]
*Jewels given to the Crown by Queen [[Mary of Teck|Mary]]
*Jewels given to the Crown by King George V

==Tiaras==

<gallery class="center" widths="150">
File:Queen Mary Wellcome L0069844 (cropped).jpg|Queen Mary wearing the Delhi Durbar Tiara (since redesigned)
File:Queen Elizabeth II official portrait for 1959 tour (retouched) (cropped) (3-to-4 aspect ratio).jpg|Elizabeth II in 1959 wearing the Vladimir tiara and the Queen Victoria Jubilee Necklace
File:President Trump and First Lady Melania Trump's Visit to the United Kingdom (48007831608) (cropped) (cropped).jpg|Elizabeth II wearing the Burmese Ruby Tiara at a state banquet in 2019
File:President Ford and Queen Elizabeth dance - NARA - 6923701.jpg|Elizabeth II wearing the Kokoshnik Tiara while dancing with President Ford at the White House in 1976
File:StateLibQld 1 180359 Queen Elizabeth II and the Lord Mayor of Brisbane at the Royal Ball, Brisbane, 1954.jpg|Elizabeth II wearing the Lover's Knot Tiara at the Royal Ball, Brisbane in 1954
File:President Trump and First Lady Melania Trump's Visit to the United Kingdom (48007906747) (cropped).jpg|The Duchess of Cornwall (later [[Queen Camilla]]) wearing the Greville Tiara at a state banquet in 2019
File:The Duchess of York, 1925.jpg|The Duchess of York (later [[Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother]]) wearing the Lotus Flower Tiara in 1925
File:The Canadian nurse (1939) (14771468775).jpg|The Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother) wearing the Strathmore Rose Tiara in 1927
</gallery>

===Delhi Durbar Tiara===

The Delhi Durbar Tiara was made by [[Garrard & Co]]. for Queen [[Mary of Teck|Mary]], the wife of King [[George V]], to wear at the [[Delhi Durbar]] in 1911.<ref name="royalcollection.org.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/delhi-durbar-tiara|title=Delhi Durbar Tiara|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305070647/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/delhi-durbar-tiara|archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref> As the Crown Jewels never leave the country, George V had the [[Imperial Crown of India]] made to wear at the Durbar, and Queen Mary wore the tiara. It was part of a set of jewellery made for Queen Mary to use at the event which included a necklace, [[stomacher]], brooch and earrings. Made of gold and platinum, the tiara is 8 cm (3 in) tall and has the form of a tall circlet of [[Lyre arm|lyres]] and S-scrolls linked by festoons of diamonds. It was originally set with 10 of the Cambridge emeralds, acquired by Queen Mary in 1910 and first owned by her grandmother, the [[Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel|Duchess of Cambridge]]. In 1912, the tiara was altered to take one or both of the [[Cullinan Diamond|Cullinan]] III and IV diamonds; the pear-shaped diamond was held at the top, and the cushion-shaped stone hung in the oval aperture underneath.<ref name="royalcollection.org.uk"/> Mary lent the tiara to Queen [[Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother|Elizabeth]] (later the Queen Mother) for the 1947 royal tour of South Africa, and it remained with her until she died in 2002, when it passed to Elizabeth II. In 2005, Elizabeth II lent the tiara to her daughter-in-law the Duchess of Cornwall (now [[Queen Camilla]]).<ref name="royalcollection.org.uk"/>

===Queen Mary Fringe Tiara===

This tiara, which can also be worn as a necklace, was made for Queen Mary in 1919. It has 47 tapering bars, set with brilliant-cut and rose-cut diamonds, alternated with smaller spikes with lozenge-set diamonds, involving gold and silver settings. It was designed to be a "Russian" pattern, based on [[Kokoshnik|kokoshoniks]], and was made by [[Garrard & Co]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Hills |first=Megan C. |date=2020-07-21 |title=Why Princess Beatrice's bridal tiara was a near-disaster for the Queen |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/royals/why-princess-beatrices-wedding-tiara-nearly-caused-a-disaster-for-queen-elizabeth-a4503361.html |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=The Standard |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-04 |title=The Most-Loved Royal Wedding Tiara in History |url=https://garrard.com/en/2022/the-most-loved-royal-wedding-tiara-in-history/ |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=Garrard |language=en-GB}}</ref> It is not, as has sometimes been claimed, made with diamonds that once belonged to George III, but reuses diamonds taken from a necklace/tiara purchased by Queen Victoria from Collingwood & Co. as a wedding present for Princess Mary in 1893. In August 1936, Mary gave the tiara to her daughter-in-law Queen [[Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother|Elizabeth]] (later the Queen Mother).<ref name="royal">{{cite web|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalwedding1947/object.asp?object=200184&row=53|title=Fringe Tiara}}</ref> When Queen Elizabeth, consort of King [[George VI]], first wore the tiara, Sir [[Henry Channon]] called it "an ugly spiked tiara".<ref name="Mortimer1986">{{cite book|author=Penelope Mortimer|title=Queen Elizabeth: Life of the Queen Mother|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=igYhAAAAMAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0-670-81065-9|page=157}}</ref> Later, she lent the piece to her daughter, Princess Elizabeth (future Elizabeth II), as "[[Something old|something borrowed]]" for [[Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten|her wedding]] to [[Prince Philip]] in 1947.<ref name="royal"/> As Princess Elizabeth was getting dressed at [[Buckingham Palace]] before leaving for [[Westminster Abbey]], the tiara snapped. Luckily, a Garrard jeweller was standing by in case of any emergency, and was rushed to his work room by a police escort.<ref name=":0" /> Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother) reassured her daughter that it would be fixed in time, and it was.<ref name="41-43"/> The Queen Mother lent it to her granddaughter, [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Anne]], for [[Wedding of Princess Anne and Mark Phillips|her wedding]] to Captain [[Mark Phillips]] in 1973.<ref name='41-43'/> It was later lent to [[Princess Beatrice]] for [[Wedding of Princess Beatrice and Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi|her wedding]] to [[Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi]] in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/07/18/uk/princess-beatrice-wedding-photos-intl-scli-gbr/index.html|title=Princess Beatrice, daughter of Prince Andrew, releases photos of her private wedding|publisher=CNN|first1=Amy|last1=Woodyatt|first2=Rob|last2=Picheta|first3=Max|last3=Foster|date=18 July 2020|access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref>

It was exhibited with a number of other royal tiaras in 2001.<ref>{{cite news | title = Queen and Sir Elton put tiaras on show | newspaper= The Telegraph | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1366192/Queen-and-Sir-Elton-put-tiaras-on-show.html | access-date = 22 October 2008 | location=London | date=24 December 2001}}</ref>

===Queen Adelaide's Fringe Necklace===

The Queen Adelaide's Fringe Necklace is a circlet incorporating brilliant diamonds that were formerly owned by George III. Originally commissioned in 1830 and made by [[Rundell and Bridge|Rundell, Bridge & Co]], the necklace has been worn by many [[queens consort]].<ref name="auto3">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |isbn=978-1-905686-38-4 |pages=28}}</ref> Originally, it could be worn as a collar or necklace. Queen Victoria modified it so it could be mounted on a wire to form the tiara.<ref name="auto3"/> Queen Victoria wore it as a tiara during a visit to [[the Royal Opera]] in 1839. In [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]]'s painting ''The First of May'', completed in 1851, Victoria can be seen wearing it as she holds [[Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn|Prince Arthur]], the future [[Duke of Connaught and Strathearn]]. In a veiled reference to the adoration of the [[Biblical Magi|Magi]], the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] is seen presenting the young prince with a gift.<ref name='41-43'>Field, pp. 41–43.</ref> It was classified as an "heirloom of the Crown" in [[Garrard & Co|Garrard]]'s 1858 inventory of Queen Victoria's jewels.<ref name="auto3"/>
{{Clear}}

===Grand Duchess Vladimir Tiara===
{{see also|House of Bolin#The Vladimir Tiara}}
[[File:Mary Of Teck (1934).jpg|thumb|Queen Mary wearing the tiara with the Cambridge emeralds]]The Grand Duchess Vladimir Tiara ([[:ru:Владимирская тиара|Владимирская тиара]]), sometimes the Diamond and Pearl Tiara, was bought, along with a diamond rivière, by Queen Mary from [[Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia]], mother of the [[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark|Duchess of Kent]], in 1921 for a price of £28,000.<ref>{{cite episode|url=https://www.dr.dk/tv/se/de-kongelige-juveler/de-kongelige-juveler-2-2|series=De Kongelige Juveler|title=2:2|language=da|network=[[DR (broadcaster)|DR]]|date=2011}}</ref> The grand duchess, known after her marriage as Princess Nicholas of Greece, inherited it from her mother, [[Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin|Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna]], who received it as a wedding gift from her husband in 1874. It originally had 15 large drop pearls, and was made by the jeweller Carl Edvard [[House of Bolin|Bolin]] at a cost of 48,200 rubles.<ref>Г.Н. Корнева, Т. Н. Чебоксарова. Великая княгиня Мария Павловна. Лики России. 2014 г. С-Петербург.</ref><ref>{{cite web |author = Osipova, I.|url = https://www.rbth.com/arts/327381-mysterious-stories-royal-jewelry|title = 5 mysterious stories involving Russia's royal jewelry | work=Russia Beyond |language = en |publisher = Russia Beyond the Headlines |date = 2018-01-27 |access-date = 2020-02-19 }}</ref>

During the [[Russian Revolution]] in 1917, the tiara was hidden with other jewels somewhere in [[Vladimir Palace]] in [[Petrograd]], and later saved from Soviet Russia by [[Albert Stopford]], a British art dealer and secret agent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/lot.pdf.N09234.html/f/406/N09234-406.pdf|publisher=Sotheby's|title=Magnificent Jewels|date=2014|access-date=27 December 2015|archive-date=7 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201007173655/http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/lot.pdf.N09234.html/f/406/N09234-406.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the years to follow, Princess Nicholas sold pieces of jewellery from her collection to support her exiled family and various charities.<ref name='89-91'>Field, pp. 89–91.</ref>

Queen Mary had the tiara altered to accommodate 15 of the Cambridge [[cabochon]] emeralds. The original drop pearls can easily be replaced as an alternative to the emeralds. Elizabeth II inherited the tiara directly from her grandmother in 1953.<ref name="Jackson1975">{{cite book|author=Stanley Jackson|title=Inside Monte Carlo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3yFoAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=W. H. Allen|isbn=978-0-491-01635-3|page=127}}</ref> It is almost exclusively worn together with the Cambridge and Delhi Durbar [[parure]]s, also containing large emeralds. Elizabeth wore the tiara in her official portrait as [[Monarchy of Canada|Queen of Canada]] as none of the [[Commonwealth realm]]s besides the United Kingdom have their own crown jewels.<ref name='89-91'/>

===Girls of Great Britain and Ireland Tiara===

[[File:Photograph of Queen Mary.jpg|thumb|right|Mary wearing the Girls of Great Britain and Ireland tiara in its original setting, 1912]]
Elizabeth II's first tiara was a wedding present in 1947 from her grandmother, Queen Mary, who received it as a gift from the Girls of Great Britain and Ireland in 1893 on the occasion of her marriage to the Duke of York, later George V.<ref name='38-40'>Field, pp. 38–40.</ref> Made by E. Wolfe & Co., it was purchased from [[Garrard & Co]]. by a committee organised by [[George Greville, 4th Earl of Warwick|Lady Eva Greville]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/2931046/lady-eva-dugdale-1860-1940 | title=Alice Hughes (1857-1939) - Lady Eva Dugdale (1860-1940) }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1550315/Portrait-of-royalty-reaches-across-the-decades.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=2 May 2007|title=Portrait of royalty reaches across the decades|author=Caroline Davies|access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref> In 1914, Mary adapted the tiara to take 13 diamonds in place of the large oriental pearls surmounting the tiara. Leslie Field, author of ''The Queen's Jewels'', described it as, "a festoon-and-scroll with nine large oriental pearls on diamond spikes and set on a base of alternate round and lozenge collets between two plain bands of diamonds". At first, Elizabeth wore the tiara without its base and pearls but the base was reattached in 1969.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalwedding1947/object.asp?exhibs=GIFTROYAL&grouping=&object=200192&row=8&detail=about|title=A Royal Wedding: The Girls of Great Britain tiara|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=22 October 2008}}</ref> The Girls of Great Britain and Ireland Tiara is one of Elizabeth's most recognisable pieces of jewellery due to its widespread appearance in portraits of the monarch on British banknotes and coinage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/queen-marys-girls-of-great-britain-and-ireland-tiara|title=Queen Mary's Girls of Great Britain and Ireland Tiara|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121054808/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/queen-marys-girls-of-great-britain-and-ireland-tiara|archive-date=21 January 2016}}</ref> Elizabeth II's daughter-in-law Queen Camilla wore this tiara for the first time when she visited [[Mansion House, London|Mansion House]] in 2023.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a45575798/queen-camilla-wears-queen-elizabeth-favorite-tiara-photos/|newspaper=The Telegraph|date= 19 October 2023|title=PQueen Camilla Wears One of Queen Elizabeth's Favorite Tiaras|author=VICTORIA MURPHY|access-date= 19 October 2023}}</ref>

===Burmese Ruby Tiara===

Elizabeth ordered the Burmese Ruby Tiara in 1973, and it was made by Garrard & Co. It is designed in the form of a wreath of roses, with silver and diamonds making the petals, and clusters of gold and rubies forming the centre of the flowers.<ref>Field, p. 69.</ref> A total of 96 rubies are mounted on the tiara; they were originally part of a necklace given to her in 1947 as a wedding present by the people of [[British Burma|Burma]] (now [[Myanmar]]), who credited them with having the ability to protect their owner from sickness and evil.<ref name="England)1947">{{cite book|publisher=Gemmological Association of Great Britain|title=The Gemmologist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7A5AAAAMAAJ|volume=16|year=1947|page=368}}</ref> The diamonds were taken from a floral tiara made by [[Cartier (jeweler)|Cartier]] in 1935 and chosen by Elizabeth herself as her wedding present from the wealthy [[Mir Osman Ali Khan|Nizam of Hyderabad]].<ref name="Krishnan20012">{{cite book |author=Usha R. Balakrishnan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cT_rAAAAMAAJ |title=Jewels of the Nizams |publisher=Department of Culture |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-85832-15-9 |location=India |page=60}}</ref><ref name="auto63">{{Cite web |title=40 Exquisite Tiaras Owned By The British Royal Family |url=https://www.marieclaire.com.au/british-royal-tiaras |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=Marie Claire |language=en-us}}</ref> While this floral tiara was dismantled, rose brooches were preserved. This tiara was later worn by Queen Camilla in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Queen Camilla Has a Glamorous Tiara Debut in Queen Elizabeth's Ruby and Diamond Headpiece |url=https://people.com/queen-camilla-wears-ruby-tiara-queen-elizabeth-collection-first-time-buckingham-palace-banquet-photos-korea-state-visit-8404683 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250724010415/https://people.com/queen-camilla-wears-ruby-tiara-queen-elizabeth-collection-first-time-buckingham-palace-banquet-photos-korea-state-visit-8404683 |archive-date=2025-07-24 |access-date=2026-03-13 |work=People.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Queen Alexandra's Kokoshnik Tiara===

The Kokoshnik Tiara was presented to [[Alexandra of Denmark|Alexandra, Princess of Wales]], as a 25th wedding anniversary gift in 1888 by [[Georgina Gascoyne-Cecil, Marchioness of Salisbury|Lady Salisbury]] on behalf of 365 [[Peerages in the United Kingdom|peeresses]] of the United Kingdom. She had always wanted a tiara in the style of a [[kokoshnik]] (Russian for "cock's comb"), a traditional Russian folk headdress, and knew the design well from a tiara belonging to her sister, [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Maria Feodorovna]], the Empress of Russia. It was made by Garrard & Co. and has vertical [[white gold]] bars pavé-set with diamonds, the longest of which is 6.5 cm (2.5 in).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/queen-alexandras-kokoshnik-tiara|title=Queen Alexandra's Kokoshnik Tiara|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|date=29 December 2015|archive-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617164717/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/queen-alexandras-kokoshnik-tiara}}</ref> In a letter to her aunt, the [[Princess Augusta of Cambridge|Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]], [[Mary of Teck|Princess Mary]] wrote, "The presents are quite magnificent [...] The ladies of society gave [Alexandra] a lovely diamond spiked tiara".<ref>{{cite book|title=Ladies' Home Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOEfAQAAMAAJ|volume=76|year=1959|publisher=LHJ Publishing|page=105}}</ref> Upon the death of Queen Alexandra, the tiara passed to her daughter-in-law Queen Mary, who bequeathed it to Elizabeth in 1953.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Vol|first1=Stellene|last2=es|date=2019-08-13|title=The Romanovs' Favorite Style of Tiara Is Back on Trend (Seriously)|url=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/style/jewelry-and-watches/a28662339/kokoshnik-tiara-princess-eugenie-queen-elizabeth/|access-date=2021-01-03|website=Town & Country|language=en-US}}</ref> The tiara is featured in a 1960 portrait of the Queen taken by Anthony Buckley, which was used as the banknote portrait of the Queen for several countries and territories. The tiara is also featured on a 1979 New Zealand coin effigy of the Queen designed by James Berry.

===Queen Mary's Lover's Knot Tiara===

In 1913, Queen Mary asked Garrard & Co. to make a copy of a tiara owned by her grandmother, [[Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel]], using Queen Mary's own diamonds and pearls. French in its neo-classical design, the tiara has 19 oriental pearls suspended from [[True lover's knot|lover's knot]] bows each centered with a large brilliant. Originally, the tiara had 38 pearls; 19 on the upright side and 19 hanging from the arches. The 19 upright pearls were removed. Mary left the tiara to Elizabeth II, who later loaned it to [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], for her wedding, but she wore her family tiara instead. She wore it often, notably with her 'Elvis dress' on a visit to [[Hong Kong]] in 1989, but on her divorce from [[Charles III|Prince Charles]] it was returned to Elizabeth.<ref>Field, pp. 113–115.</ref> [[Catherine, Princess of Wales]] has worn it to a number of state occasions since 2015.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/kate-middleton/12040776/Duchess-of-Cambridge-wears-Princess-Dianas-favourite-tiara-to-diplomatic-reception-at-Buckingham-Palace.html|title=Duchess of Cambridge wears Princess Diana's favourite tiara to diplomatic reception at Buckingham Palace|author=Lucy Clarke-Billings|date=9 December 2015|access-date=29 December 2015|newspaper=The Telegraph}}</ref>

===Meander Tiara===

This tiara was a wedding present to Elizabeth from her mother-in-law, [[Princess Alice of Battenberg|Princess Andrew of Greece and Denmark]].<ref name="Edwards1990">{{cite book|author=Anne Edwards|title=Royal Sisters: Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wcx5AAAAIAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Morrow|isbn=978-0-688-07662-7|page=171}}</ref> The Meander Tiara is in the classical [[Meander (art)|Greek key]] pattern, with a large diamond in the centre enclosed by a [[laurel wreath]] of diamonds. It also incorporates a wreath of leaves and scrolls on either side. Elizabeth II never wore this item in public, and it was given in 1972 to her daughter, Princess Anne, who has frequently worn the tiara in public, notably during her engagement to Captain [[Mark Phillips]]<ref>Field, p. 47.</ref> and for an official portrait marking her 50th birthday. Anne lent the tiara to her daughter, [[Zara Tindall|Zara Philips]], to use at her wedding to [[Mike Tindall]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.tatler.com/article/princess-anne-meander-tiara|title=Tiara of the Month: the lowdown on Princess Anne's Meander Tiara as she celebrates her birthday|magazine=Tatler|first=Emma|last=Samuel|date=15 August 2025|access-date=22 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Cartier Halo Tiara===

This tiara, made by [[Cartier (jeweler)|Cartier]] in 1936, was purchased by the Duke of York (later King George VI) for his wife (later the Queen Mother) three weeks before they became king and queen. It has a rolling cascade of 16 scrolls that converge on two central scrolls topped by a diamond. Altogether, it contains 739 brilliants and 149 baton diamonds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalweddingdress/MicroObject.asp?row=4&themeid=2444&item=4|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|title=The Halo Tiara|access-date=29 December 2015}}</ref> The tiara was given to Elizabeth on her 18th birthday in 1944, and was borrowed by [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon|Princess Margaret]], who used it at the 1953 [[coronation of Queen Elizabeth II]].<ref name="Munn2001">{{cite book|author=Geoffrey C. Munn|title=Tiaras: A History of Splendour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQQ4AQAAIAAJ|year=2001|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|isbn=978-1-85149-375-3|page=173}}</ref> Later, Elizabeth lent the Halo Tiara to Princess Anne, before giving her the Greek Meander Tiara in 1972. The Halo Tiara was lent to the then [[Catherine, Princess of Wales|Duchess of Cambridge]] to wear at her wedding to [[Prince William]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title=Royal wedding: Kate Middleton wears Queen's tiara|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8483330/Royal-wedding-Kate-Middleton-wears-Queens-tiara.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|access-date=30 April 2011|date=29 April 2011}}</ref>

===Greville Honeycomb Tiara===

This tiara was left to Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother) by Dame [[Margaret Greville]] upon Greville's death in 1942. Made by [[Boucheron]] in 1920, the tiara features a honeycomb-patterned diamond lattice and was a favorite of the Queen Mother. In 1953, the Queen Mother commissioned [[Cartier (jeweler)|Cartier]] to modify its height by rearranging the diamonds located on the upper row. Elizabeth II inherited the tiara from her mother in 2002 and subsequently placed it under long-term loan to the then [[Queen Camilla|Duchess of Cornwall]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/wedding/bridal-fashion/g23656976/best-royal-family-jewelry-of-all-time/?slide=4|title=Best Royal Family Jewelry of All Time|date=2018-10-10|language=en}}</ref>

===Queen Mary's Diamond Bandeau Tiara===

The tiara was made in 1932 for Queen [[Mary of Teck|Mary]].<ref name="NT-Jewels">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/19/style/meghan-markle-tiara.html|title=Meghan Markle's Tiara: It's Sparkly|work=The New York Times|first=Jonah|last=Engel Bromwich|date=19 May 2018|access-date=19 May 2018}}</ref> Its centre brooch had been a wedding gift from the [[Lincolnshire|County of Lincoln]] in 1893. The tiara is a platinum band, made up of eleven sections, a detachable centre brooch with interlaced opals and diamonds. The tiara was lent to the [[Meghan, Duchess of Sussex|Duchess of Sussex]] to use at her wedding to [[Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex|Prince Harry]] in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.brides.com/story/meghan-markle-wedding-tiara|title=Meghan Markle's Wedding Tiara: Everything You Need to Know|work=[[Brides (magazine)|Brides]]|access-date=19 May 2018|language=en}}</ref>

===Lotus Flower Tiara===

This tiara was created by Garrard London in the 1920s. Made out of pearls and diamonds, it was made from a necklace originally given to Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother) as a wedding gift. It was often worn by [[Princess Margaret]], upon whose death, the tiara was returned to Elizabeth II. The tiara has been worn at a number of state occasions by Elizabeth II's granddaughter-in-law the [[Catherine, Princess of Wales|Princess of Wales]].<ref name="tiara-time">{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/5237031/meghan-markle-tiara/|title=Analyzing Every Tiara Meghan Markle Could Wear at the Royal Wedding|magazine=Time|first=Raisa|last=Bruner|date=3 May 2018|access-date=6 July 2019}}</ref>

===Strathmore Rose Tiara===

Given to the Queen Mother as a wedding gift by her father [[Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne]], this floral piece was worn by the Queen Mother for a few years following her marriage. It was brought from Catchpole and Williams and the flowers can be detached and used as brooches. It became a part of Elizabeth II's collection since her mother's death in 2002.<ref name="tiara-time"/>

===Greville Emerald Kokoshnik Tiara===

Like the Greville Honeycomb Tiara, this tiara was also part of Dame [[Margaret Greville]]'s 1942 bequest to Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother). The tiara was constructed by [[Boucheron]] in 1919 and features diamonds and several large emeralds in a [[kokoshnik]]-style platinum setting. [[Princess Eugenie of York]] wore the tiara at her October 2018 [[Wedding of Princess Eugenie and Jack Brooksbank|wedding]]; this marked the first public wearing of the tiara by a member of the [[british royal family|royal family]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/a23692256/princess-eugenie-royal-wedding-tiara-photos/|title=Princess Eugenie's Wedding Tiara Was Her Something Borrowed|date=2018-10-12}}</ref> In 2025, Queen Camilla wore this tiara at the annual diplomatic reception.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-19 |title=Camilla stuns in Queen Elizabeth's tiara that was lent to Eugenie for her wedding day |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/queen-camilla-tiara-eugenie-cost-b2867931.html |access-date=2026-03-13 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>

===Queen Mother's Cartier Bandeau===

Composed of ruby, emerald, and sapphire bracelets given to Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother) by King George VI, the set was worn by the Queen Mother in the form of a bandeau. It is now a part of Elizabeth II's collection; she had worn the pieces individually as bracelets over the years and had also lent them to other members of the royal family.<ref name="tiara-time"/>

===Queen Victoria's Oriental Circlet Tiara===

Designed by Prince Albert and made by Garrard for Queen Victoria in 1853.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Oriental Tiara |url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/victoria-albert-art-love/the-queens-gallery-buckingham-palace/the-oriental-tiara |website=Royal Collection Trust |access-date=12 October 2022}}</ref> Originally a complete circlet set with diamonds and opals. Remodeled in 1858 to remove diamonds lost in the Hanoverian claim, leaving space open at the back of the tiara. Opals were replaced with rubies by Queen Alexandra in 1902. It is made up of 'Moghul arches and lotus flowers' in diamonds and rubies.<ref name="auto63"/><ref>Originally a complete circlet set with diamonds and opals. Remodeled in 1858 to remove diamonds lost in the Hanoverian claim, leaving space open at the back of the tiara.</ref> The tiara was seen multiple times on the Queen Mother, but Elizabeth II only wore it once during the state visit to Malta in 2005.<ref name="People-Nov25">{{cite magazine|url=https://people.com/kate-middleton-makes-debut-new-tiara-queen-victoria-oriental-circlet-tiara-fifth-ever-biggest-headpiece-germany-state-banquet-11855671|title=Kate Middleton makes jaw-dropping entrance in the biggest tiara she's ever worn at state banquet|magazine=People|first1=Stephanie|last1=Petit|first2=Simon|last2=Perry|date=3 December 2025|access-date=3 December 2025}}</ref> The tiara was later worn by Catherine, Princess of Wales during a state banquet in December 2025.<ref name="People-Nov25"/>

===Belgian Sapphire Tiara===
The tiara was originally a necklace belonging to [[Princess Louise of Belgium|Louise of Belgium]], Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1858. The Queen bought the necklace which was converted into a tiara in 1963 to add to her collection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sapphire and diamond Tiara, Sapphire Parure of necklace and earrings {{!}}Queen Elizabeth II Royal Jewels |url=https://royal-magazin.de/england/queen-elizabeth/elisabethII-sapphire-tiara.htm |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=royal-magazin.de}}</ref><ref name="auto63"/> She has paired the tiara with George VI Sapphire Parure which was seen multiple times on the state tours in the 60s and 70s.

===Brazilian Aquamarine Parure Tiara===
This tiara made by Garrard in 1957 comes as part of a set of necklace and earrings gifted to the Queen for her coronation in 1953 by President [[Getúlio Vargas]] and the people of Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Queen Elizabeth II. Aquamarines Parure, Diadem, Earpendants, Brooch and Bracelet{{!}} Queens Jewels |url=https://royal-magazin.de/england/queen/aquamarine-parure-queen.htm |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=royal-magazin.de}}</ref> It is made up of emerald-cut aquamarines and diamonds.<ref name="auto63"/> It has been redesigned in 1971 with aquamarines given by the Governor of São Paulo in 1968.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://royal-magazin.de/england/queen/aquamarine-parure-queen.htm | title=Queen Elizabeth II. Aquamarines Parure, Diadem, Earpendants, Brooch and Bracelet| Queens Jewels }}</ref>

==Earrings==

<gallery class="center" widths="150px">
File:Queen Elizabeth II 1963.jpg|The Queen wearing the Coronation Earrings and matching necklace at the opening of the New Zealand Parliament in 1963. She also wore the Kokoshnik Tiara.
File:Aditya Jha with the Queen 2010 (cropped).jpg|Elizabeth II wearing Greville Chandelier Earrings, 2010
</gallery>

===Coronation Earrings===

Like the Coronation Necklace, these earrings have been worn by queens regnant and consort at every coronation since 1901. Made for Queen Victoria in 1858 using the diamonds from an old [[Order of the Garter|Garter]] badge, they are of typical design: a large brilliant followed by a smaller one, with a large pear-shaped drop. The drops were originally part of the [[Koh-i-Noor]] armlet.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/the-coronation-earrings|title=The Coronation Earrings|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055810/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/the-coronation-earrings}}</ref> After they had been made, Victoria wore the earrings and matching necklace in the painting ''Queen Victoria'' by the European court painter, Franz Winterhalter.<ref>{{Royal Collection|405131|Queen Victoria}}</ref>

===The Duchess of Gloucester's Pendant Earrings===

These earrings originally had detachable pearl and diamond cluster tops. These tops were given to Princess Elizabeth by Queen Mary in 1947, and Princess Elizabeth wore them on her wedding day.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Publications |pages=114–117 }}</ref> The drops now have a diamond solitaire topper. The pendant earrings have been worn regularly by Queen Elizabeth including important state occasions, such as the State Opening of Parliament in Mauritius in 1972.<ref name="auto1"/>

===Queen Mary's Floret Earrings===

These earrings were made for Queen Mary by Garrards, and consist of a large central diamond surrounded by seven smaller diamonds.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Field |first1=Leslie |title=The Queen's Jewels |date=1987 |publisher=Abradale Press |page=44}}</ref> The two large central diamonds were a wedding present from Sir William Mackinnon.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |page=213}}</ref>

===Queen Mary's Cluster Earrings===

These earrings were made for Queen Mary by Garrards. The central stones were a wedding present from the Bombay Presidency.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |page=212}}</ref>

===Greville Chandelier Earrings===

These 7.5 cm (3 in) long chandelier earrings made by Cartier in 1929 have three large drops adorned with every modern cut of diamond.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/the-greville-chandelier-earrings|title=The Greville Chandelier Earrings|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063309/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/the-greville-chandelier-earrings}}</ref> The earrings were purchased by [[Margaret Greville]], who left them to her friend the Queen Mother in 1942, and Elizabeth's parents gave them to her in 1947 as a wedding present.<ref name="Coolican1986">{{cite book|author=Don Coolican|title=Tribute to Her Majesty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nH4lYwJxsAC|year=1986|publisher=Windward/Scott|isbn=978-0-7112-0437-9|page=24}}</ref> However, she was not able to use them until she had her ears pierced. When the public noticed that her ears had been pierced, doctors and jewellers found themselves inundated with requests by women anxious to have their ears pierced too.<ref name='Fields 53'>Field, p. 53.</ref> Catherine, Princess of Wales wore the earrings at the state banquet held following the [[wedding of Hussein, Crown Prince of Jordan, and Rajwa Al Saif]] in 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a44056879/prince-hussein-rajwa-al-saif-wedding-kate-middleton-lovers-knot-tiara-photos/|title=Kate Middleton Stuns in Lover's Knot Tiara at Crown Prince Hussein and Rajwa al Saif's Wedding|work=Town & Country|first=Sophie|last=Dweck|date=1 June 2023|accessdate=1 June 2023}}</ref>

===Greville Pear-drop Earrings===

As well as the chandelier earrings, and 60 other pieces of jewellery, Margaret Greville left the Queen Mother a set of pear-drop earrings that she had bought from Cartier in 1938. The pear-shaped drop diamonds each weigh about 20 carats (4 g). Diana, Princess of Wales, borrowed them in 1983 to wear on her first official visit to Australia. At a state banquet, she wore the earrings with a tiara from her family's own collection.<ref>Field, p. 52.</ref> The Greville Pear-drop Earrings passed to Elizabeth II upon her mother's death in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/the-greville-peardrop-earrings|title=The Greville Pear-drop Earrings|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063702/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/the-greville-peardrop-earrings}}</ref>

===Bahrain Diamond and Pearl Earrings===

Made out of a "shell containing seven pearls" that were given to Elizabeth as a wedding gift by the [[Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa I|Hakim of Bahrain]], these earrings consist of a round diamond followed by a circle diamond from which three baguette diamonds are suspended. At the bottom, three smaller diamonds are attached to the round pearl.<ref name="Catherine-Pieces"/> These earrings were occasionally lent by Elizabeth II to her daughters-in-law Diana and [[Sophie, Duchess of Edinburgh|Sophie]], and granddaughter-in-law Catherine.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/a29756574/kate-middleton-borrowed-queen-elizabeth-pearl-earrings/|title=Kate Middleton Borrowed the Queen's Pearl Earrings, and We Nearly Missed It|magazine=Harper's Bazaar|first=Amy|last=MacKelden|date=11 November 2019|access-date=22 September 2025}}</ref>

==Necklaces==

<gallery class="center" widths="150px">
File:ElizabethBowes-Lyon.jpg|Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother) wearing the Queen Anne and Queen Caroline pearls, 1939
File:George W. Bush toasts Elizabeth II 2007.jpg|Elizabeth II wearing the Girls of Great Britain and Ireland Tiara and the Festoon Necklace
File:Elizabeth II and Philip.jpg|Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II) wearing the Greville Ruby Floral Bandeau Necklace, 1950
</gallery>

===Queen Anne and Queen Caroline Pearl Necklaces===

Both necklaces consist of a single row of large graduated pearls with pearl clasps. The Queen Anne Necklace is said to have belonged to Queen [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]], the last British monarch of the [[Stuart dynasty]]. [[Horace Walpole]], the English art historian, wrote in his diary, "Queen Anne had but few jewels and those indifferent, except one pearl necklace given to her by Prince [[Prince George of Denmark|George]]". Queen [[Caroline of Ansbach|Caroline]], on the other hand, had a great deal of valuable jewellery, including no fewer than four pearl necklaces. She wore all the pearl necklaces to her coronation in 1727, but afterwards had the 50 best pearls selected to make one large necklace. In 1947, both necklaces were given to Elizabeth by her father as a wedding present. On her wedding day, Elizabeth realised that she had left her pearls at [[St James's Palace]]. Her private secretary, [[Jock Colville]], was asked to go and retrieve them. He commandeered the limousine of King [[Haakon VII]] of Norway, but traffic that morning had stopped, so even the King's car with its royal flag flying could not get anywhere. Colville completed his journey on foot, and when he arrived at St James's Palace, he had to explain the odd story to the guards who were protecting Elizabeth's 2,660 wedding presents. They let him in after finding his name on a guest list, and he was able to get the pearls to the princess in time for her portrait in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace.<ref>Field, pp. 104–105.</ref>

===King Faisal of Saudi Arabia Necklace===

A gift from King [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]], it is a necklace in design and set with brilliant and baguette cut diamonds. King Faisal bought the necklace, made by the American jeweller [[Harry Winston]], and presented it to Elizabeth II while on a state visit to the United Kingdom in 1967. Before his departure, she wore it to a banquet at [[The Dorchester]] hotel. She also lent the necklace to Diana, Princess of Wales, to wear on a state visit to Australia in 1983.<ref>Field, pp. 56–57.</ref> It was loaned to Elizabeth's daughter-in-law Sophie, then Countess of Wessex, in 2012.

===Festoon Necklace===

In 1947, George VI commissioned a three-strand necklace with over 150 brilliant cut diamonds from his inherited collection. It consists of three small rows of diamonds with a triangle motif. The minimum weight of this necklace is estimated to be {{convert|170|carat|g}}.<ref name='Fields 53' /> The necklace was worn by [[Catherine, Princess of Wales]] at the [[coronation of Charles III]] in 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vogue.com.au/fashion/news/kate-middleton-coronation-necklace/image-gallery/0b4b2b26e5d18118a389a86ee2f2640e|title=Princess Kate's coronation necklace was a touching tribute to Queen Elizabeth|work=Vogue Australia|first=Gladys|last=Lai|date=6 May 2023|accessdate=8 May 2023}}</ref>

===King Khalid of Saudi Arabia Necklace===
This necklace was given to Elizabeth II by King [[Khalid of Saudi Arabia]] in 1979. It is of the [[Crepuscular rays|sunray]] design and contains both round and pear shaped diamonds. Like the King Faisal necklace, it was made by Harry Winston, and Elizabeth often lent the necklace to Diana, Princess of Wales.<ref>Field, p. 57.</ref>

===Greville Ruby Floral Bandeau Necklace===

This necklace was made in 1907 by [[Boucheron]] for [[Margaret Greville]]. It was a part of her 1942 bequest to Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), and Elizabeth's parents gave them to her in 1947 as a wedding present. She wore the necklace frequently in her younger years up until the 1980s.<ref name='Fields 53' /> In 2017, it was loaned to the [[Catherine, Princess of Wales|Duchess of Cambridge]] for a State Banquet for King [[Felipe VI of Spain]].<ref name="Town-Greville">{{cite web|url=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/style/jewelry-and-watches/g38226860/who-was-margaret-grevillethe-socialite-royal-family-jewelry/|title=Who Was Margaret Greville—the Socialite Who Left Her Jewels to the Royal Family?|work=Town & Country|first=Leena|last=Kim|date=12 December 2021|accessdate=12 June 2022}}</ref> Elizabeth II wore it again for the first time in over 30 years in 2018 at a dinner as part of the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]].<ref name="Town-Greville"/>

===Greville Festoon Necklace===

Cartier had the piece designed as a 2-row necklace in 1929 but three more strands were added in 1938 at the owner's request. The piece was frequently worn by Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother throughout her life. It was worn by the [[Queen Camilla|Duchess of Cornwall]] for the first time during the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] in 2007.<ref name="Town-Greville"/>

===Nizam of Hyderabad Necklace===

A diamond necklace made by Cartier in the 1930s. It was a gift to Elizabeth on her wedding to [[Prince Philip]] from the last [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], [[Mir Osman Ali Khan]], in 1947. The Nizam's entire gift set for the future Queen of the United Kingdom included a diamond tiara and matching necklace, whose design was based on English roses. The tiara has three floral brooches that can be detached and used separately. Catherine, Princess of Wales has also worn the necklace.<ref name="Catherine-Pieces">{{cite news|url=https://www.vogue.com.au/fashion/accessories/17-pieces-of-jewellery-kate-middleton-has-borrowed-or-been-gifted-from-the-royal-family/image-gallery/57420a9a81b9d9b1677bcb7d30b31230?pos=1|title=The crown jewels: every piece of jewellery Kate Middleton has borrowed or been gifted by the royal family|date=12 June 2019|access-date=25 June 2019|author=Angelica Xidias|work=Vogue Australia}}</ref>

===Coronation Necklace===

Made for Queen Victoria in 1858 by [[Garrard & Co]]., the Coronation Necklace is 38 cm (15 in) long and consists of 25 cushion diamonds and the 22-carat (4.4 g) Lahore Diamond as a pendant. It has been used together with the Coronation Earrings by queens regnant and consort at every coronation since 1901.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/the-coronation-necklace|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|title=The Coronation Necklace|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061320/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/the-coronation-necklace}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/royal-family/queen-camilla-coronation-necklace-history-b2336200.html|publisher=independent|date= 10 May 2023|title=The story behind Queen Camilla's diamond necklace for the coronation|access-date= 4 November 2023}}</ref>

===Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee Necklace===

Presented to Queen Victoria by [[Louisa Montagu Douglas Scott, Duchess of Buccleuch]] on 30 July 1888 on behalf of the “Daughters of Her Empire”. Made by Carrington & Co. in 1888.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |pages=68–73}}</ref>

===Queen Alexandra's Collet Necklace===

This necklace and a pair of matching earrings were given to Princess Alexandra as a wedding present from the City of London.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Publications |pages=94–97 }}</ref>

===Queen Alexandra's Dagmar Necklace===

This necklace was given to Princess Alexandra as a wedding present from King [[Frederick VII of Denmark]]. The necklace was made by the Danish Court Jeweller and modified by Garrard.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Publications |pages=98–101 }}</ref>

===Diamond and Pearl Choker===

The four-strand piece of "layered strings of cultured pearls" was originally given to Elizabeth from Japan in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hess |first1=Liam |title=The Deeper Meaning Behind Kate Middleton's Pearl Necklace |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/the-deeper-meaning-behind-kate-middleton-necklace |website=Vogue |date=17 April 2021 |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="tcpearls">{{cite web |last1=Hosken |first1=Olivia |title=What the Pearl Necklace Kate Middleton Wore to Prince Philip's Funeral Signifies |url=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/style/jewelry-and-watches/a36163473/kate-middleton-pearl-necklace-prince-philip-funeral-princess-diana-meaning/ |website=Town & Country |date=19 April 2021 |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref> She wore it to many occasions, including [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s 70th birthday in 1995.<ref name="tcpearls"/> It was loaned to Diana, Princess of Wales, for one of her first engagements as a royal, as well as a 1982 banquet at [[Hampton Court Palace]] and a trip to the Netherlands in the same year.<ref name="tcpearls"/><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Gonzales |first1=Erica |title=Kate Middleton Wore the Queen's Pearl Necklace to Prince Philip's Funeral |url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/a36151975/kate-middleton-queen-pearl-necklace-philip-funeral/ |magazine=Harper's Bazaar |date=17 April 2021 |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref> Later, the piece was loaned to the Duchess of Cambridge, who wore it to the 70th wedding anniversary of Elizabeth II and Prince Philip in 2017<ref name="Catherine-Pieces"/> as well as [[Death and funeral of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Philip's funeral]] in 2021. She later wore it for [[Death and funeral of Queen Elizabeth II|Elizabeth II's funeral]] in 2022.<ref name="tcpearls"/>

===South African Necklace===

In 1947, Princess Elizabeth was presented with a necklace consisting of 21 diamonds from the South African government as a 21st birthday present.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/platinum-jubilee-the-queens-accession/buckingham-palace/the-queens-south-africa-necklace|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|title=The South African Necklace|access-date=9 October 2022 }}</ref> This was later shortened to 15 diamonds and the remainder was used to create a matching bracelet.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/platinum-jubilee-the-queens-accession/buckingham-palace/the-queens-south-africa-bracelet|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|title=The South African Bracelet|access-date=9 October 2022}}</ref>

===City of London Fringe Necklace===

This necklace was a gift from the [[City of London]] to Princess Elizabeth on her marriage to Philip.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/a-royal-wedding/buckingham-palace/the-queens-city-of-london-necklace|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|title=The Queen's City of London Necklace|access-date=9 October 2022}}</ref>

===Delhi Durbar Necklace===

This necklace was made by Garrards in 1911 for Queen Mary as part of a suite of jewellery made for the 1911 Delhi Durbar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/buckingham-palace/delhi-durbar-necklace-and-cullinan-vii-pendant|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|title=Delhi Durbar Necklace and Cullinan VII Pendant|access-date=9 October 2022}}</ref> The diamond pendant is the Cullinan VII, and the 9 cabochon emeralds are from a cache of 40 emeralds won by Princess Augusta, Duchess of Cambridge in a State lottery in Frankfurt.<ref>Field, p. 88.</ref>

==Bracelets==

===Queen Victoria's Bracelet===

This large bracelet is made of five square foliage pieces. It was worn by Queen Victoria for her official [[Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria|Golden Jubilee]] portrait photograph.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Publications |pages=44–45 }}</ref> It was classified as an ‘heirloom of the Crown’ in 1858.

===Queen Mary's Bangles===

This pair of bangles were a wedding present from the [[Bombay Presidency]]. They were given to Princess Elizabeth by Queen Mary as a wedding present.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |isbn=978-1-905686-38-4 |page=153}}</ref>

==Rings==

=== Cullinan IX Ring===

This ring was thought to be made by Garrards in 1911, and is made using the smallest of the main stones cut from the Cullinan diamond (4.4 carat pear-shaped diamond.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cullinan IX Ring |url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/buckingham-palace/cullinan-ix-ring |website=Royal Collection Trust |access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref>

==Brooches==
<gallery class="center" widths="150px">
File:Elizabeth II 2012.jpg|Elizabeth II wearing the Prince Albert Sapphire Brooch, 2012
File:Cullinan diamonds IV and III.jpg|Cullinan diamonds IV and III
File:Cullinan V brooch.jpg|Cullinan V brooch
File:Catherine - 2011 royal tour of Canada.JPG|The Duchess of Cambridge (now the Princess of Wales) wearing the Maple leaf brooch, 2011
File:Queen of New Zealand in 1953.jpg|The Queen wearing the New Zealand Silver Fern Brooch during the Royal tour of New Zealand, 1953
File:The Queen's Wattle Spray Brooch.jpg|Australian Wattle Spray Brooch
</gallery>

===Queen Adelaide's Brooch===

The brooch was made by Rundell, Bridge & Co. in 1831. It was originally commissioned by [[William IV]] for Queen [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Adelaide]] as a clasp to a necklace.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |isbn=978-1-905686-38-4 |pages=34–37}}</ref> Subsequent Queens have always worn it as a brooch. It is classified as an “heirloom of the Crown” and was inherited by Queen Elizabeth II in 1952.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |isbn=978-1-905686-38-4 |page=34}}</ref>

===Prince Albert Sapphire Brooch===

The Prince Albert sapphire brooch was given by Prince [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Albert]] to Queen Victoria at Buckingham Palace on 9 February 1840. It was the day before their wedding, and Victoria wrote in her diary that Albert came to her sitting room and gave her "a beautiful sapphire and diamond brooch".<ref name="Duyckinck1873">{{cite book|author=Evert A. Duyckinck|title=Portrait Gallery of Eminent Men and Women of Europe and America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khtfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA101|volume=2|year=1873|publisher=Johnson, Wilson|page=101}}</ref>

===Queen Victoria's Diamond Fringe Brooch===

This piece is made out of "nine chains pave-set with brilliant-cut diamonds" at the bottom and larger diamonds put together at the top, which were given to Queen Victoria by the Ottoman Sultan [[Abdulmejid I]] in 1856. The piece was frequently worn by Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, and after her death it formed part of Elizabeth II's collection.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/buckingham-palace/queen-victorias-diamond-fringe-brooch|title=Queen Victoria's Diamond Fringe Brooch|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref>

===Queen Victoria's Bow Brooches===

These brooches were made in 1858 for Queen Victoria by R. & S. Garrard & Co.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |isbn=978-1-905686-38-4 |pages=60–61}}</ref> They were designated as “heirlooms of the Crown” by Queen Victoria.<ref name="auto2"/>

===Queen Victoria's Wheat-Ear Brooches===

Six wheat-ear brooches or hair ornaments were commissioned by William IV for Queen Adelaide, and made in 1830 by Rundell, Bridge & Co.<ref name="auto5">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |pages=64–67}}</ref> Three were remade in 1858 after the successful Hanover claim. They were designated heirlooms of the crown by Queen Victoria.<ref name="auto5"/>

===Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee Brooch===

Made by Garrard in 1897, and was given to her by her Household as part of her Diamond Jubilee celebrations. It was designated as an “heirloom of the Crown” by Queen Victoria.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Hugh |title=The Queen's Diamonds |date=2012 |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |isbn=978-1-905686-38-4 |pages=74–77}}</ref>

===Queen Mary's Dorset Bow Brooch===

Made out of gold and silver and set with pave-set brilliants and a hinged pendant loop, the brooch resembles a ribbon-tied bow.<ref name="RCT-Dorset">{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/a-royal-wedding/buckingham-palace/queen-marys-dorset-bow-brooch|title=Queen Mary's Dorset bow brooch 1893|work=Royal Collection Trust|accessdate=16 July 2022}}</ref> The piece was made in 1893 by Carrington & Co. as a wedding present by [[County of Dorset]] to Mary, Duchess of York (later Queen Mary).<ref name="RCT-Dorset"/> Mary gave the brooch to her granddaughter Princess Elizabeth (later Elizabeth II) in 1947 as a wedding present.

===Duchess of Cambridge's Pearl Pendant Brooch===

Made by Garrard for [[Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel|Augusta, Duchess of Cambridge]], it features a large pearl surrounded by a cluster of diamonds.<ref name="Cambridge-Brooch">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/royal-family/kate-middleton-duchess-of-cambridge-brooch-b2107717.html|title=Kate Middleton wears Queen's Duchess of Cambridge brooch for first time in new portrait|work=The Independent|first=Joanna|last=Whitehead|date=23 June 2022|accessdate=24 June 2022}}</ref> Hanging from it as a pendant is a smaller pearl.<ref name="Cambridge-Brooch"/> It was inherited by Augusta's daughter, [[Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck]], who passed it on to her daughter, Queen Mary.<ref name="Cambridge-Brooch"/> The piece had been worn occasionally by Queen Elizabeth II and appeared in the first formal [[Portrait of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge|joint portrait]] of [[Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge]], with her husband [[Prince William]].<ref name="Cambridge-Brooch"/>

===Richmond Brooch===

The Richmond Brooch was made by Hunt and Roskell in 1893, and given to Queen Mary as a [[Wedding of Prince George and Princess Victoria Mary|wedding]] present.<ref name="tcrichmond"/> She wore it on her honeymoon, and bequeathed it to Elizabeth after her death.<ref name="tcrichmond"/> It features "diamonds, set with two pearls—one large round center pearl and the detachable pearl", as well as a pear-shaped, pearl-drop component that is removable.<ref name="tcrichmond"/> The grand diamond piece is one of the largest within Elizabeth II's collection.<ref name="tcrichmond">{{cite web |last1=Weaver |first1=Hilary |title=Queen Elizabeth Wore a Deeply Symbolic Brooch to Prince Philip's Funeral |url=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a36163528/queen-elizabeth-prince-philip-funeral-brooch/ |website=Town & Country |date=19 April 2021 |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref> Elizabeth had worn it to many evening receptions and engagements, including the 2018 [[Festival of Remembrance]] and the 2021 funeral of her husband.<ref name="royex">{{cite web |title=The Richmond Brooch |url=https://royalexhibitions.co.uk/queens-jewels/queens-brooches/the-richmond-brooch/ |website=Royal Exhibitions |access-date=13 June 2021 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613022423/https://royalexhibitions.co.uk/queens-jewels/queens-brooches/the-richmond-brooch/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Cullinan III & IV ("Granny's Chips")===

Cullinan III and IV are two of several stones cut from the [[Cullinan Diamond]] in 1905. The large diamond, found in South Africa, was presented to [[Edward VII]] on his 66th birthday. Two of the stones cut from the diamond were the {{convert|94.4|carat|g|adj=on}} Cullinan III, a clear pear-shaped stone, and a {{convert|63.6|carat|g|adj=on}} cushion-shaped stone. Queen Mary had these stones made into a brooch with the Cullinan III hanging from IV. Elizabeth II inherited the brooch in 1953 from her grandmother. On 25 March 1958, while she and Prince Philip were on a state visit to the Netherlands, she revealed that Cullinan III and IV are known in her family as "Granny's Chips". The couple visited the [[Royal Asscher Diamond Company|Asscher Diamond Company]], where the Cullinan had been cut 50 years earlier. It was the first time the Queen had publicly worn the brooch. During her visit, she unpinned the brooch and offered it for examination to Louis Asscher, the brother of Joseph Asscher who had originally cut the diamond. Elderly and almost blind, Asscher was deeply moved by her bringing the diamonds, knowing how much it would mean to him seeing them again after so many years.<ref name="Mears1988">{{cite book|author=Kenneth J. Mears|title=The Tower of London: 900 Years of English History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_kgAAAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-2527-4|page=150}}</ref>

===Cullinan V===

The smaller {{convert|18.8|carat|g|adj=on}} Cullinan V is a heart-shaped diamond cut from the same rough gem as III and IV. It is set in the centre of a platinum brooch that formed a part of the stomacher made for Queen Mary to wear at the Delhi Durbar in 1911. The brooch was designed to show off Cullinan V and is pavé-set with a border of smaller diamonds. It can be suspended from the VIII brooch and can be used to suspend the VII pendant. It was often worn like this by Mary who left all the brooches to Elizabeth when she died in 1953.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/sites/default/files/null/diamonds_fact_sheet_1.pdf|title=The diamonds and their history|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=24 January 2016|archive-date=31 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131031944/https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/sites/default/files/null/diamonds_fact_sheet_1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Cullinan VI and VIII Brooch===

The Cullinan VI stone (11.5 carats) was bought for Queen Alexandra by Edward VII in 1908.<ref name="auto4">{{cite web |title=Cullinan VI and VIII Brooch |url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/diamonds-a-jubilee-celebration/buckingham-palace/cullinan-vi-and-viii-brooch |website=Royal Collection Trust |access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref> Since Queen Mary inherited it, it has been worn as a pendant to the Cullinan VIII brooch (6.8 carats).<ref name="auto4"/>

===Diamond Maple Leaf Brooch===

The piece was crafted by J. W. Histed Diamonds Ltd. in [[Vancouver]], Canada.<ref name="harpersmaple"/> It holds baguette-cut diamonds mounted in platinum, formed in the shape of the [[Maple leaf|sugar maple tree leaf]], the national emblem of Canada.<ref name="harpersmaple"/> The brooch was originally presented to Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother) on her tour of Canada with her husband in 1939.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} The piece was worn by Elizabeth II, then a princess, on her 1951 trip to Canada, and multiple instances since both within the country and in Britain.<ref name="harpersmaple"/> It was worn by the Duchess of Cornwall (now Queen Camilla) on her trips to the nation in 2009 and 2012.<ref name="harpersmaple"/> The Duchess of Cambridge (now the Princess of Wales) has worn it during both her tours of Canada in [[2011 royal tour of Canada|2011]] and 2016.<ref name="harpersmaple">{{cite magazine |title=The Story Behind Kate Middleton's Maple Leaf Brooch |url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com.sg/watches-jewels/kate-middleton-maple-leaf-brooch-jewellery/ |magazine=Harper's Bazaar |date=28 September 2016 |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref>

===The Queen's Cartier Aquamarine Clips===

This pair of aquamarine and diamond clips was given to Princess Elizabeth as an 18th birthday present by her parents.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Field |first1=Leslie |title=The Queen's Jewels |date=1987 |publisher=Abradale Press |page=23}}</ref>

===New Zealand Silver Fern Brooch===

The brooch was given to Elizabeth II by Annie Allum, wife of [[John Allum]], [[Mayor of Auckland]], during her [[1953–1954 royal tour of New Zealand]],<ref name="mariefern">{{cite web |last1=Malivindi |first1=Diandra |title=A Brief History Of Queen Elizabeth II's Ornate And Jaw-Dropping Brooch Collection |url=https://www.marieclaire.com.au/queen-elizabeth-brooch-collection#:~:text=Gifted%20to%20the%20Queen%20by,one%20of%20New%20Zealand's%20emblems. |website=Marie Claire |date=21 December 2020 |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="Catherine-Pieces"/> as a Christmas present "from the women of Auckland".<ref name="mariefern"/> It is "bejewelled with round brilliant and baguette shaped diamonds", having been designed to form the shape of a [[silver fern]], an emblem of New Zealand.<ref name="mariefern"/> Various members of the royal family have worn the piece on visits to the country, including the Duchess of Cambridge.<ref name="mariefern"/><ref name="Catherine-Pieces"/>

===Australian Wattle Spray Brooch===

The Queen owns a Wattle brooch, which was gifted to her by Prime Minister [[Robert Menzies]] on behalf of the Government and people of Australia on her first visit in 1954.<ref name=aubr9/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/queen-and-commonwealth-the-royal-tour/buckingham-palace/the-queens-australian-wattle-brooch|work=Royal Collection Trust|access-date=17 November 2021|title=The Queen's Australian Wattle brooch}}</ref> Made of platinum, and set with yellow and white diamonds, the brooch is in the form of a spray of [[golden wattle]] and [[Melaleuca|tea tree]] blossoms, both Australian symbols.<ref name=aubr9>{{cite web|title=Queen wears special Australian jewel for meeting with Prime Minister Scott Morrison|url=https://honey.nine.com.au/royals/queen-elizabeth-wears-australian-brooch-for-meeting-with-scott-morrison-responds-to-being-the-hit-of-g7-summit/da8b54ec-4c48-4dec-9bc1-8c0ed9444d13|work=9Honey|date=16 June 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vogue.com.au/fashion/trends/a-guide-to-the-queens-collection-of-brooches-which-are-more-influential-than-you-think/image-gallery/0bbf3aa517a25bcd978acb089348c7d1|title=A guide to The Queen's collection of brooches, which are more influential than you think|date=20 July 2021|work=Vogue Australia}}</ref> The Queen had worn the brooch many times on her visits to Australia, for instance, at the [[Randwick Racecourse]] in Sydney in 1970, [[Sydney Opera House]] in 2000, and during her arrival to Canberra in 2006 and 2011, or to Australia-related events in Britain.<ref name=aubr9/>

===Sapphire Jubilee Snowflake Brooch===

The [[Governor General of Canada]], [[David Johnston (governor general)|David Johnston]], presented Elizabeth II with the Sapphire Jubilee Snowflake Brooch at a celebration of Canada's [[150th anniversary of Canada|sesquicentennial]] at [[Canada House]] on 19 July 2017 as a gift from the Government of Canada to celebrate her [[Sapphire jubilee]] and to commemorate [[150th anniversary of Canada|Canada 150]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gg.ca/document.aspx?id=16947&lan=eng|title=The Governor General of Canada|last=General|first=The Office of the Secretary to the Governor|date=20 September 2017 |language=en|access-date=2018-07-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/united_kingdom-royaume_uni/media/newsletter-canada_plus-bulletin_nouvelles_08_2017.aspx?lang=eng&_ga=2.38363235.1503459723.1532026576-1410971427.1532026576|title=Canada Plus – August 2017|website=Global Affairs Canada, UK Embassy|access-date=2018-07-19}}</ref> Johnston presented her with the brooch moments before she and the [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Duke of Edinburgh]] unveiled a new Jubilee Walkway panel outside Canada House. The brooch was designed as a companion to the diamond maple leaf brooch, the piece was made by Hillberg and Berk of Saskatchewan and consists of [[sapphire]]s from a cache found in 2002 on [[Baffin Island]] by brothers Seemeega and Nowdluk Aqpik.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}}

===Infinity Isle of Man Brooch===

To mark her [[Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Platinum Jubilee]], the Manx government gave the Queen a brooch in the shape of the island, made there by [[Element Isle]]. The 'Infinity Isle of Man' brooch design outlines the Island with four gems (Blue Topaz, Citrine, Amethyst and Emerald) representing the towns of [[Ramsey, Isle of Man|Ramsey]], [[Peel, Isle of Man|Peel]], [[Castletown, Isle of Man|Castletown]] and the city of [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]. The colours of the stones were selected to represent Manx tartan.<ref>{{cite news|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-isle-of-man-61638728|date=1 June 2022|title=Platinum Jubilee: Isle of Man brooch marks Queen's reign}}</ref>

===Greville Scroll Brooch===

Made by Cartier in 1929, the piece features "three pearls anchoring a simple diamond-flecked scroll design" and was worn by the Queen Mother who eventually passed it down to the Queen.<ref name="Town-Greville"/>

===Sri Lankan Trumpet Brooch===

Gifted by the mayor of [[Colombo]] to the Queen during her state visit in 1981, the piece features "pink, blue and yellow sapphires, garnets, rubies
and aquamarine."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/queen-and-commonwealth-the-royal-tour/buckingham-palace/brooch|title=Sri Lankan Brooch 1981|work=Royal Collection Trust|accessdate=15 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dailynews.lk/2022/09/16/business/287324/slgja-recalls-late-queen-elizabeth-ii-and-her-love-sri-lankan-gemstones | title=SLGJA recalls late Queen Elizabeth II and her love for Sri Lankan gemstones }}</ref>

==Parures==

A [[parure]] is a set of matching jewellery to be used together which first became popular in 17th-century Europe.

<gallery class="center" widths="150px">
File:Elizabeth II Southern Cross.png|Elizabeth II wearing the Aquamarine Tiara with the Brazil necklace, earrings and bracelet
</gallery>

=== The Kent Demi-Parure===

This set of jewellery was owned by Queen Victoria's mother, the [[Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld|Duchess of Kent and Strathearn]]. The set consists of a necklace, three brooches, a pair of earrings, and a pair of haircombs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Field |first1=Leslie |title=The Queen's Jewels |date=1987 |publisher=Abradale Press |page=22}}</ref>

=== Brazil Parure ===

The Brazil Parure is one of the newest items of jewellery in the collection. In 1953, [[Getúlio Vargas|the president]] and people of Brazil presented Elizabeth II with the coronation gift of a necklace and matching pendant earrings of [[Aquamarines|aquamarine]]s and diamonds.<ref name=Dress>{{cite web|title=Dress for the Occasion|publisher=Royal Collection Trust|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/dressfortheoccasion/object.asp?exhibs=BPSO2006jewellery&item=8|access-date=13 October 2008}}</ref> It had taken the jewellers [[Mappin & Webb]] an entire year to collect the perfectly matched stones. The necklace has nine large oblong aquamarines with an even bigger aquamarine pendant drop. Elizabeth II had the drop set in a more decorative diamond cluster and it is now detachable. She was so delighted with the gift that in 1957 she had a tiara made to match the necklace.<ref name=Dress/> The tiara is surmounted by three vertically set aquamarines. Seeing that she had so liked the original Coronation gift that she had a matching tiara made, the Government of Brazil decided to add to its gift, and in 1958 it presented her with a bracelet of oblong aquamarines set in a cluster of diamonds, and a square aquamarine and diamond brooch.<ref>Field, p. 21.</ref>

=== George VI Victorian Suite ===

The George VI Victorian Suite was originally a wedding present by George VI to his daughter Elizabeth in 1947. The suite consists of a long necklace of oblong sapphires and diamonds and a pair of matching square sapphire earrings also bordered with diamonds. The suite was originally made in 1850. The stones exactly matched the colour of the robes of the [[Order of the Garter]]. Elizabeth had the necklace shortened by removing the biggest sapphire in 1952, and later had a new pendant made using the removed stone. In 1963, a new sapphire and diamond tiara and bracelet were made to match the original pieces. The tiara is made out of a necklace that had belonged to [[Princess Louise of Belgium]], daughter of [[Leopold II of Belgium|Leopold II]]. In 1969, Elizabeth wore the complete parure to a charity concert.<ref>Field, pp. 148–149.</ref>

=== Queen Alexandra Wedding Parure ===

This set, a larger diamond and pearl parure made by Garrard in 1862, was commissioned by [[Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] (later Edward VII) for his bride Alexandra of Denmark.<ref name="Newsweek-Suites"/> It included an all-diamond tiara with knot and fleur-de-lis motifs, accompanied by a necklace, a brooch, and a pair of earrings, which feature button-style pearl and diamond clusters and pear-shaped pearl pendants.<ref name="Newsweek-Suites"/> On Alexandra's death, the tiara, known as the "Rundell Tiara", passed to her daughter [[Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom|Princess Victoria]], and was disposed of by her.<ref>Roberts, Hugh, ''The Queen's Diamonds'' (2012), Royal Collection Trust</ref> The rest of the parure was passed down to Queen Mary, who wore the brooch and lent the necklace to her daughter-in-law the Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother).<ref name="Newsweek-Suites"/> The necklace became a favourite of hers, and upon her death it was bequeathed to Elizabeth II, who lent it to her granddaughter-in-law the Duchess of Cambridge.<ref name="Newsweek-Suites"/>

=== Greville Emerald Suite ===

The exact origin of the suite, which consists of an emerald necklace and emerald earrings, is unknown.<ref name="Town-Greville"/> The necklace features square-cut emeralds set in diamond clusters, and the earrings consist of pear-shaped cabochon emeralds suspended from diamond studs. The suite was frequently worn by the Queen Mother and later passed on to the Queen.<ref name="Town-Greville"/>

=== Dubai Sapphire Suite ===

In 1979, the ruler of [[Dubai]], Sheikh [[Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum]], gifted the Queen a suite from [[Asprey]], which included a necklace of diamond loops, a pair of earrings and a ring, during the Queen's tour of the Gulf States. The earrings were worn by the Duchess of Cambridge at a movie screening in 2021.<ref name="Newsweek-Suites">{{cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/eight-times-kate-middleton-queen-elizabeth-loan-diamonds-1694700|title=Eight Times Kate Middleton Borrowed Queen Elizabeth II's Diamonds|work=Newsweek|first=James|last=Crawford-Smith|date=9 April 2022|accessdate=12 June 2022}}</ref>

=== Emerald Tassel Suite ===

First worn by the Queen in the 1980s, the suite consists of a necklace, a pair of earrings, a bracelet, and a ring. The earrings and the bracelet were worn by the Duchess of Cambridge during a tour of Jamaica in 2022.<ref name="Newsweek-Suites"/>

==1937 coronets==

For the [[Coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth|coronation of their parents]] in 1937, it was decided that Elizabeth and Margaret should be given small versions of crowns to wear at the ceremony. Ornate coronets of gold lined with crimson and edged with [[Stoat|ermine]] were designed by Garrard & Co. and brought to the royal couple for inspection. However, the King and Queen decided they were inappropriately elaborate and too heavy for the young princesses.<ref name="p179">Field, p. 179.</ref> Queen Mary suggested the coronets be silver-gilt in a medieval style with no decorations. George VI agreed, and the coronets were designed with [[Maltese cross]]es and [[fleurs-de-lis]]. After the coronation, Mary wrote: "I sat between Maud and Lilibet (Elizabeth), and Margaret came next. They looked too sweet in their lace dresses and robes, especially when they put on their coronets".<ref name="Cathcart1974">{{cite book|author=Helen Cathcart|title=Princess Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vJKfAAAAMAAJ|year=1974|publisher=W. H. Allen|isbn=978-0-491-01621-6|page=36}}</ref> The coronation ensembles are in the [[Royal Collection]] Trust.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/themes/exhibitions/fashioning-a-reign-90-years-of-style-from-the-queens-wardrobe-0-0 |title=Ensembles worn by Princess Elizabeth and Princess Margaret for the Coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth |publisher=Royal Collection Trust |access-date=7 February 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Williamson pink diamond]]
*[[Canadian royal symbols#Clothing and jewellery|Canadian royal clothing and jewellery]]
*[[Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Jewels of Diana, Princess of Wales]]
*[[George IV State Diadem]]
*[[Royal Family Order]]
*[[Jewels of Mary, Queen of Scots]]
*[[Jewels of Anne of Denmark]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book
| last = Field
| first = Leslie
| title = The Queen's Jewels: The Personal Collection of Elizabeth II
| publisher = [[Harry N. Abrams]]
| year = 2002
| location = London
| isbn = 978-0-8109-8172-0}}

{{Elizabeth II}}
{{Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Elizabeth II]]
[[Category:Jewellery in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British royal attire]]

Venu Chitale

2026-04-29T00:30:26Z

Loz12: Added - done

{{Short description|Indian writer and BBC broadcaster (1912–1995)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox writer
| embed =
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Venu Chitale
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Venu Chitale at the BBC 18 July 1944.png
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Venu Chitale at the BBC, 1944
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| pseudonym = Weenoo
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 28 December 1912
| birth_place = [[Shirol]], [[Kolhapur]], [[Kolhapur State]] (present-day Maharashtra, India)
| death_date = 1 January 1995 (aged 82)
| death_place = Mumbai, India
| resting_place =
| occupation = [[BBC Radio]] broadcaster, secretary to [[George Orwell]]
| language = English, Hindustani, Marathi
| nationality = 
| citizenship = 
| education = *[[Huzurpaga]]
*[[Wilson College, Mumbai|Wilson College]]
*[[University College London]]
*[[Oxford University]]
| alma_mater =
| period =
| genre = 
| subject = 
| movement =
| notable_works = ''In Transit'' (1950)
| spouse = 
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}}
'''Venu Dattatreye Chitale''', also known as '''Leela Ganesh Khare''' (28 December 1912 – 1 January 1995), was an Indian writer, [[BBC Radio]] broadcaster, and secretary to [[George Orwell]] during the early years of the Second World War.

Chitale was born in [[Kolhapur]], Maharashtra, India, and was in England between 1934 and late 1947. In 1940, after assisting with volunteer work in a local [[Air Raid Precautions|air raid precaution unit]] in Oxford, she moved to London to work with Orwell, then BBC Radio's talks producer. She became a broadcaster for both the [[BBC World Service|India section of the BBC's Eastern Service]], where she read news and gave recipes in Marathi, and the [[BBC Home Service]], where she taught British listeners vegetarian cooking at a time when meat was rationed and in short supply.

Around 1944, Chitale began working for [[Krishna Menon]] at the [[India League]] in London. Towards the end of 1947, after [[Independence of India|India's independence]], she returned there and assisted [[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit]] at refugee camps set up in Delhi following the [[Partition of India]]. Her first novel, ''In Transit'', was published in 1950.

Chitale's life is recorded in a chapter in Vijaya Deo's ''Sakhe Soyare'', a book in [[Marathi language|Marathi]]. In 2017, the [[BBC]] produced a video about her, and in 2023, a [[Google Doodle]] was made celebrating her 111th birthday.

==Early life and education==
Venu Chitale was born in [[Shirol]], [[Kolhapur]], in present-day [[Maharashtra]], India.<ref name=Kumar>{{cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=Anu |title=The Indian woman who braved World War II bombing to chart an unconventional life for herself |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/922997/the-indian-woman-who-braved-world-war-ii-bombing-to-chart-an-unconventional-life-for-herself |website=Scroll.in |date=27 May 2019 |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722185444/https://scroll.in/magazine/922997/the-indian-woman-who-braved-world-war-ii-bombing-to-chart-an-unconventional-life-for-herself |archive-date=22 July 2022}}</ref> Her date of birth is given as 28 December 1910 in the [[National Registration Act 1939|1939 England and Wales Register]],<ref name=ewr>{{cite news |title=1939 England and Wales Register|url=https://www.ancestry.co.uk/discoveryui-content/view/1670217:61596?tid=&pid=&queryId=08481bffb4c00c0f112202f90faa82a7&_phsrc=arJ2&_phstart=successSource |access-date=21 August 2022 |work=Borough- Oxford|date=1939 |page=12|via=ancestry.co.uk|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and as 1912 in [[Sahitya Akademi]]'s ''Who's Who of Indian Writers'' (1961).<ref name=SA1961>{{cite book |title=Who's Who Of Indian Writers |date=1961 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |location=New Delhi |page=165 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.278465/page/n173/mode/2up}}</ref>{{efn|The Sahitya Akademi incorrectly give the publication date of her first novel, ''In Transit'', as 1951.<ref name=SA1961/><ref name=Naik1985/>}} She was the second youngest of seven children and raised by her older siblings following the death of both her parents.<ref name=Kumar/> After attending [[Huzurpaga]], one of the oldest girls schools in Pune, she went to [[St. Columba High School]] in Mumbai's Gamdevi district before gaining admission to [[Wilson College, Mumbai|Wilson College]], Mumbai, where she was a boarder.<ref name=Kumar/> There she met the [[Afrikaaners|Afrikaaner]] teacher Johanna Adriana Quinta Du Preez, who was impressed by Chitale's interest in theatre.<ref name=Kumar/>

Chitale and Du Preez travelled to England together after an astrologer had predicted family troubles should Chitale marry.<ref name=Kumar/> She subsequently entered [[University College London]], where in 1934 she studied [[Montessori education|Montessori ways of learning]].<ref name=Kumar/> At the onset of the [[Second World War]] in 1939, they were both at the [[University of Oxford]]; Chitale registered as an external student while Du Preez was studying journalism.<ref name=Kumar/><ref name=ewr/> There, she volunteered at a local [[Air Raid Precautions]] unit, where her role included alerting locals to bombings and assisting in rescues.<ref name=Kumar/>

==Early career==
===BBC Radio===
[[File:BBC Broadcasting House, about 1937 (geograph 4877368).jpg|thumb|BBC Broadcasting House (late 1930s)|alt=Refer to caption]]
In 1940, at the request of [[Zulfiqar Ali Bukhari|Z. A. Bukhari]], Chitale began her career with BBC Radio as secretary to the BBC talks producer [[George Orwell]] with the India Section of BBC Radio's Eastern Service.<ref name=Sutaria>{{cite news |last1=Sutaria |first1=Sejal |title=Walking the Line: Venu Chitale |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/100-voices/pioneering-women/venu-chitale/ |access-date=22 July 2022 |work=www.bbc.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722190155/https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/100-voices/pioneering-women/venu-chitale/ |archive-date=22 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=Rodrigues1994>{{cite web |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Abha Sharma |title=George Orwell, the B.B.C. and India: a critical study |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/7154 |publisher=Edinburgh University |access-date=28 December 2023 |date=1994|page=105 |quote=This thesis focuses attention on the two years that George Orwell spent, between August 1941 and November 1943, at the Indian Section of the B.B.C., producing propaganda talks for listeners in India and elsewhere.}}</ref>{{efn|Du Preez was already a BBC announcer, according to her death certificate (1948) issued in Cape Town.<ref name=Kumar/>}} There, her contemporaries included [[Una Marson]], [[Mulk Raj Anand]], [[Balraj Sahni]], and [[Princess Indira of Kapurthala]].<ref name=Rodrigues1994/><ref name=Collett2022>{{cite book |last1=Collett |first1=Nigel |title=Developing the Heart: E.M. Forster and India |date=2022 |publisher=City University of Hong Kong Press |isbn=978-962-937-590-4 |chapter=Notes|page=232|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abFYEAAAQBAJ&dq=chitale&pg=PA232 |language=en}}</ref> Every month she wrote and delivered a programme preview, which Orwell edited, and regularly read out translated scripts in Marathi, her mother tongue.<ref name=Rodrigues1994/><ref name=Orwell2017>{{cite book |last1=Orwell |first1=George |title=The Collected Non-Fiction: Essays, Articles, Diaries and Letters, 1903–1950 |date=2017 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-0-241-25347-2 |page=1351 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D13CCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1351 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1941, in one programme titled "The kitchen in wartime: some suggestions for doing without meat", Chitale gave her suggestion of a vegetarian alternative to [[bangers and mash|sausage and mash]] and spoke of what she thought an Indian housewife might do in Britain with the limited availability of ingredients and fuel;<ref name=Chit1941>{{cite web|last=Chitale|first=Venu|date=1941|url=https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/women/The%20Kitchen%20In%20Wartime%20-%20Venu%20Chitale%20-%2021-01-1941.pdf|title=The kitchen in wartime: some suggestions for doing without meat|work=BBC Home Service}}</ref> in another, she talked of "appetising curries".<ref name=Northern1941>{{cite news |title=Tomorrow |work= Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail|date=10 February 1941|page=4|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000378/19410210/002/0001|via=British Newspaper Archive|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 1942 she approached Orwell's wife, [[Eileen Blair]], with a request to help out with Blair's ''In the Kitchen'' series on the [[BBC Home Service]].<ref name=Rodrigues1994/><ref name=Webster2018>{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=Wendy |title=Mixing it: Diversity in World War Two Britain |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-873576-2 |page=114 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPhJDwAAQBAJ&q=Venu+Chitale&pg=PA114 |language=en |chapter=3. The Empire comes to Britain}}</ref> Chitale also talked to a British audience on the cooking series ''[[The Kitchen Front]]'' and taught listeners vegetarian cooking at a time when [[Rationing in the United Kingdom#Second World War 1939–1945|meat was rationed]].<ref name=Kumar/><ref name=Topp2020>{{cite book |last1=Topp |first1=Sylvia |title=Eileen: The Making of George Orwell |date=2020 |publisher=Unbound Publishing |isbn=978-1-78352-750-2 |pages=329 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UF6vDwAAQBAJ&dq=venu+chitale&pg=PT329 |language=en |chapter=15. But smooth sailing was never an option}}</ref><ref name=Potter2022>{{cite book |last1=Potter |first1=Simon J. |title=This is the BBC: Entertaining the Nation, Speaking for Britain, 1922–2022 |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-289852-4 |page=99 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |language=en |chapter=3. Propaganda and war 1939-1945}}</ref> In addition she broadcast recipes to Indians in India in the programme ''In Your Kitchen''.<ref name=Topp2020/><ref name=CMG1943>{{cite news |title=Todays highlights |work=Civil & Military Gazette |location= Lahore|date=17 February 1943|page=4|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19430217/071/0004|via=British Newspaper Archive|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In 1943, Chitale contributed the chapter on the European refugee children's exhibition in [[E. M. Forster]]'s, [[Ritchie Calder]]'s, [[Cedric Dover]]'s, and [[Hsiao Ch'ien]]'s book ''[[Talking to India]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Talking To India |date=1943 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.241082/page/n127/mode/2up?q=venu|page=128}}</ref> How popular she was with Indian listeners was documented in 1943 in an unclear [[Report on Indian Programmes (1943)|Report on Indian Programmes]].<ref name=Rodrigues1994/> BBC producer [[Trevor Hill (producer)|Trevor Hill]] later recalled in his memoirs ''[[Over the Airwaves]]'', that during his early years with the BBC's Overseas Services at 200 Oxford Street, when he was still in his teens "the person I knew best and enjoyed working with was a diminutive, cheerful young Indian woman from Poona, Venu Chitale. Her beautifully embroidered sari and those of her countrywomen gave a marvellous splash of colour to a drab wartime building and to drab studios".<ref name=Hill2005>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Trevor |title=Over the Airwaves: My Life in Broadcasting |date=2005 |publisher=The Book Guild|location=Sussex |isbn=1-85776-832-9|language=en|chapter=3. 200 Oxford Street, with the BBC's Overseas Service|pages=28–29|oclc=1245625342 }}</ref>{{efn|The India Section worked at first from 55 Portland Place, near Broadcasting House, and moved to 200 Oxford Street sometime before October 1942.<ref name=Orwell2013>{{cite book |last1=Orwell |first1=George |title=George Orwell: A Life in Letters |date=2013 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-87140-462-6 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WE4AAAAQBAJ&dq=bbc+moved+to+200+oxford+street&pg=PA197 |language=en}}</ref>}} Not understanding Marathi, he once [[Tape recorder|played]] her broadcast from end to beginning.<ref name=Hill2005/> According to Sejal Sutaria, who has written on Chitale, her programmes "illustrate how Indians hired by the BBC during the Second World War faced conflicting needs—to establish their solidarity with Britain during the war while maintaining their allegiance to Indian independence from the Raj".<ref name=Sutaria/>

===India League===
Around 1944, Chitale began working for [[Krishna Menon]] at the [[India League]] in London.<ref name=CMG1945>{{cite news |title=First day's session of All India Conference|work=Civil & Military Gazette |location= Lahore|date=30 December 1945|page=5|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19451230/088/0005|via=British Newspaper Archive|url-access=subscription}}</ref> There, she became acquainted with [[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit]].<ref name=Inst1928>{{cite web |title=Story |url=https://www.1928institute.org/the-india-league-story |website=The 1928 Institute |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418033718/https://www.1928institute.org/the-india-league-story |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other members at that time included [[Bhicoo Batlivala]], [[Ellen Wilkinson]] and [[Aneurin Bevan]].<ref name=Inst1928/> She was also elected a member of [[The Asiatic Society]].<ref name=Kumar/>

In 1945 she visited India to attend the eighteenth [[All India Women's Conference]] in Hyderabad, held 28 December 1945 to 1 January 1946.<ref name=AIWC18>{{cite book |title=The All India Women's Conference Vol Xviii |date=1946 |location=Hyderabad |pages=87–89 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.116079/page/n59/mode/2up}}</ref> There, she was introduced by [[Sarojini Naidu]] and spoke of the little interest in India she found in England; she suggested to Indians to learn as many Indian languages as possible to encourage more unity.<ref name=Kumar/><ref name=AIWC18/> Chitale later recounted her time in England:<ref name=Kumar/><ref name=Khare1963>{{cite book |last1=Khare |first1=Leela G. |title=Careers and courses(July-Dec)1963 |date=1963 |publisher=N.A. |pages=694–698 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.11700/page/n115/mode/2up |chapter=Contemporary trends in English literature}}</ref>

<blockquote>I was in England for fourteen years, fourteen precious young healthy years of my life. I lived in a cottage full of dainty flowers, and more full of wonderful books... I dined on nuts and fruit and on the most luscious greens and vegetables that any fastidious naturopath could prescribe. And I did this in company of English friends who lived for ideals, whether they were humble or elevated did not matter.</blockquote>

==Later career==
Chitale left Liverpool for Bombay on 4 December 1947, on the RMS ''[[RMS Empress of Australia (1919)|Empress of Australia]]''.<ref name=Pass1947>{{cite news |title=UK and Ireland, Outward Passenger Lists, 1890–1960|url=https://www.ancestry.co.uk/imageviewer/collections/2997/images/41039_b001605-00117?treeid=&personid=&usePUB=true&_phsrc=iAw3&_phstart=successSource&pId=145951567 |page=3|access-date=25 August 2022 |work=Canadian Pacific Steamships|date=1947 |via=ancestry.co.uk|url-access=subscription}}</ref> That year she assisted Pandit with refugee women and children in the camps set up in Delhi following [[Partition of India|India's Partition]].<ref name=Kumar/>

She published her first novel, ''[[In Transit (book)|In Transit]]'', in 1950, about three generations of an Indian family during the [[interwar years]].<ref name=Naik1985>{{cite book |last1=Naik |first1=M. K. |title=Perspectives on Indian Fiction in English |date=1985 |publisher=Abhinav Publications|location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7017-199-7 |pages=203–204 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MW1rYykQvZ0C&dq=Venu+Chitale&pg=PA203 |language=en}}</ref> Anand wrote the preface.<ref name=Kumar/> That same year, she married Ganesh Khare, a chartered accountant, and became known as Leela Ganesh Khare.<ref name=Kumar/> They had a daughter, Nandini Apte.<ref name=Kumar/> In February 1951 a reception by the publisher [[Hind Kitabs]] was held in Bombay, where Chitale was introduced by [[M. C. Chagla]], chief justice of Bombay.<ref name=CMG1951>{{cite news |title=First day's session of All India Conference |work=Civil & Military Gazette |location= Lahore|date=22 February 1951|page=7|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19510222/093/0007|via=British Newspaper Archive|url-access=subscription}}</ref> She also wrote for ''[[Navshakti]]'', a Marathi newspaper, and spoke occasionally on [[All India Radio]].<ref name=Kumar/> In 1993, she published another book, ''Incognito'', using the pen name 'Weenoo'.<ref name=Kumar/>

==Death and legacy==
Chitale died on 1 January 1995, aged 82.<ref name=Open>{{cite web |title=Venu Chitale {{!}} Making Britain |url=https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/venu-chitale |website=www.open.ac.uk |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722191025/https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/venu-chitale |archive-date=22 July 2022}}</ref> Her life is recorded in a chapter in ''Sakhe Soyare'', a book in Marathi authored by Vijaya Deo.<ref name=Kumar/> In 2017, the BBC produced a video about her.<ref name=Kumar/> On 28 December 2023, a [[Google Doodle]] was made celebrating her 111th birthday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Venu Chitale's 111st Birthday Doodle |url=https://doodles.google/doodle/venu-chitales-111st-birthday/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228082303/https://doodles.google/doodle/venu-chitales-111st-birthday/ |archive-date=2023-12-28 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=Google Doodles |language=en}}</ref>

==Selected works==
*{{cite book |title=In Transit |date=1950 |publisher=Hind Kitabs |location=Bombay |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.536290/page/n3/mode/2up}}

==See also==
* [[Madhur Jaffrey]]

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last1=De Souza |first1=Eunice |last2=Pereira |first2=Lindsay |title=Women's voices: selections from nineteenth and early-twentieth century Indian writing in English |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-566785-1 |oclc=55005746 |language=English}}
*{{cite book |last1=Morse |first1=Daniel Ryan |title=Radio Empire: The BBC's Eastern Service and the Emergence of the Global Anglophone Novel |date=2020 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55259-2 |url=http://cup.columbia.edu/book/radio-empire/9780231198370}}
*[https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/women/Through%20Eastern%20Eyes%20-%20The%20Hand%20that%20Rocks%20the%20Cradle%20-%20Venu%20Chitale%20-%2001-01-1942.pdf Through eastern eyes: the hand that rocks the cradle, then and now]. Eastern transmission (1 January 1942)

==External links==
* {{YouTube|SopHz9DyD3E|Venutai Chitale : First voice of BBC Marathi । वेणूताई चितळे : BBC मराठीचा पहिला आवाज}}
*[https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-19-metre-band-1941-online BBC documentary: 19 Metre Band ("Go behind the scenes of Indian programmes on the BBC General Overseas Service (later the World Service)")]
*{{cite web |title=BBC Photos: Venu Chitale |url=https://bbcphotosales.co.uk/search/?searchQuery=venu+chitale |access-date=6 September 2022}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chitale, Venu}}

[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1995 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Kolhapur]]
[[Category:BBC radio presenters]]
[[Category:Indian women radio presenters]]
[[Category:Alumni of University College London]]
[[Category:Expatriates from British India in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:BBC World Service presenters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women novelists]]

Assam Board of Secondary Education

2026-04-26T16:09:32Z

Loz12: creating a entry

{{Short description|Government agency in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2014}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2014}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Board of Secondary Education, Assam
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption = [[File:1658722979 logo-org (1).png|thumb|SEBA]]
| map =
| map_size =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| map2 =
| map2_size =
| map2_alt =
| map2_caption =
| abbreviation = SEBA
| predecessor =
| merged_into = [[Assam State School Education Board]]
| successor = Assam State School Education Board
| formation = 29 January 1962
| founder = S. C. Rajkhowa
| dissolved = {{Start date and years ago|df=y|2024|09|13}} <ref>{{cite web|title=Assam State School Education Council Inaugurated with New Leadership|url=https://dy365.in/topstories/assam-state-school-education-council-inaugurated-with-new-leadership-14443|website=DY365|date=2024-09-13|access-date=13 September 2024|archive-date=13 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113165741/https://dy365.in/topstories/assam-state-school-education-council-inaugurated-with-new-leadership-14443|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| merger =
| type = [[Regulatory Agency|State Education Regulatory Board]]
| status = Available
| purpose =
| headquarters = [[Guwahati]], [[Assam]], [[India]]
| location =
| coordinates = 
| region_served = [[Assam]], [[India]]
| services =
| num_members =
| language = [[Bodo language|Bodo]],
[[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[English language|English]], [[Hindi]]{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}
| secretary_general =
| leader_title = Chairman
| leader_name = R.C. Jain, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
| leader_title2 = Secretary
| leader_name2 = Naranarayan Nath, [[Indian Administrative Service|ACS]]
| leader_title3 = Exam Controller
| leader_name3 = Nayan Jyoti Sarmah
| leader_title4 =
| leader_name4 =
| board_of_directors =
| key_people =
| main_organ =
| parent_organisation = Ministry of Education, [[Government of Assam]]
| subsidiaries =
| secessions =
| affiliations =
| budget =
| num_staff =
| num_volunteers =
| website = https://sebaonline.org/
| remarks =
| former_name =
| footnotes =
}}
The '''Board of Secondary Education, Assam''' commonly known as '''SEBA''', was the [[Regulatory Agency|state education regulatory board]] under the [[jurisdiction]] of [[Government of Assam|Ministry of Education]], [[Government of Assam]] for conducting examinations and providing assurance for the quality of education imparted in schools within [[Assam]], [[India]] that are affiliated to it. It offers education in [[Bodo language|Bodo]], [[Indian English|English (IL)]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], Bengali, [[Hindi]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]), Hmar, Nepali, Mizo, Khasi, Garo, Karbi and [[Urdu]] languages.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-17 |title=Assam HSLC Exam Routine 2023 Revised: SEBA To Conduct All Class 10 Language Papers Including English On April 1 |url=https://www.india.com/education/assam-hslc-exam-routine-2023-revised-seba-to-conduct-all-class-10-language-paper-including-english-on-april-1-after-assamese-paper-leak-himanta-biswa-sarma-5950004/ |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=India.com |language=en |quote=In addition to Assamese, the other MIL subjects are Bengali, Bodo, Hindi, Manipuri, Hmar, Nepali, Mizo, Khasi, Garo, Karbi and Urdu.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-17 |title=Assam paper leak case: MIL exam of Class 10 boards rescheduled for April 1 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/assam-paper-leak-case-mil-exam-of-class-10-boards-rescheduled-for-april-1-101679043225385.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en |quote=The MIL paper includes languages such as English (IL), Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Hindi, Manipuri, Hmar, Nepali, Mizo, Khasi, Garo, Karbi and Urdu.}}</ref>

[[High School Leaving Certificate (India)|High School Leaving Certificate]] (HSLC) is the award given through the authority of this board to students who have passed the HSLC examination successfully.

==History==
The Assam Secondary Education Act, 1961 (Assam Act, XXV of 1961) was passed to provide for the establishment of a Board of Secondary Education to regulate, supervise and develop Secondary Education in the State of Assam. The Act came into force with effect from 29 January 1962 with the publication of Government of Assam, Education Department Notification no. 159/61/37 dated 29/1/1962. Thus the Board of Secondary Education, Assam (popularly known as [[Www.devlibrary.in|SEBA]]) came into existence on 14 March 1962. It started functioning with the conduct of 11 year [[High School Leaving Certificate (India)|H.S.L.C]]. Examination of 1962. Under the provisions of the Act the Govt. of Assam constituted the Board with Sri S.C. Rajkhowa, D.P.I., Assam as chairman and Md. N. Islam, Inspector of Schools (Central Assam Circle) as Secretary.<ref>{{cite web|title=Abiut us Board of secondary education council|url=https://site.sebaonline.org/about-us/|access-date=21 April 2023|df=}}</ref>

===Accommodation===
The Board was first accommodated in the Conference Room of the office of D.P.I., Assam at Shillong. It was shifted to a rented house at Rehabari ([[Guwahati]]). The Board functioned here from 1/6/1962 to 26/2/1963. The Board office was then shifted to old University Campus of Gauhati University, Panbazar (the then New Hostel campus of Cotton College) where it functioned from 27/2/1963 to 15/01/1976. A part of the office functioned at Bhagawati Prasad Baruah Bhawan which housed the chairman, the Education Officers and the Evaluation Unit during 1965–66. The Board office was shifted to the Assam type building constructed on its own premises at Bamunimaidan, Guwahati-21 on 16 January 1976. On this occasion the opening ceremony was held with Sri H.N. Talukdar p(Hon'ble Education Minister of Assam) in the chair and Sri Sarat Chandra Sinha, Hon'ble Chief Minister of Assam as chief-guest. The present site comprising 6 bighas of land was allotted by the Government of Assam to the Board in 1965. The then Education Minister, Sri D.K. Barooah allotted these 6 bighas to the Board on 99 years' lease. The lease was executed by the Board by paying Rs.1 (one) lakh as advance rent for the entire period. The present multi-storeyed building (plinth area 1575 sq. metres) constructed by the side of the Assam type building was completed in 1989.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} ...

==Jurisdiction of the Board==
The jurisdiction of SEBA was the territory of the erstwhile State of Assam comprising the many North East states of the country. With the creation of the Provinces/States [[Meghalaya]], [[Nagaland]], [[Mizoram]], and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] out of Assam at different times and with the establishment of their separate/own [[Secondary Education Board of Assam|Boards of School Education]], the jurisdiction of SEBA got reduced. Presently the territory of the State of Assam is the jurisdiction of the Board.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}
{{School education in India}}

[[Category:Education in Assam]]
[[Category:State secondary education boards of India|Assam]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Assam]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1962]]
[[Category:State agencies of Assam]]

Gola Gokrannath Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:26:51Z

Loz12: stub - done

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Gola Gokarannath गोला गोकर्णनाथ
| constituency_no = 139
| map_image = 139-Gola Gokrannath.svg
| mla = [[Aman Giri]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Lakhimpur Kheri district|Lakhimpur]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 344,128 (2012)
| type= SLA
}}
'''Gola Gokrannath Assembly constituency''' is one of the 403 constituencies of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]], [[India]]. It is a part of the [[Lakhimpur Kheri district|Lakhimpur]] district and one of the five assembly constituencies in the [[Kheri Lok Sabha constituency]]. The first election in this assembly constituency was held in 2012 after the "Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008" was passed and the constituency was formed in 2008. The constituency is assigned identification number 139.<ref name="Uttar Pradesh Delimitation Old & New, 2008">{{cite news|title= Uttar Pradesh Delimitation Old & New, 2008|publisher= [[Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh]]|access-date= 17 Dec 2015|url= http://ceouttarpradesh.nic.in/Instructions/delimitation_Old_New.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111113181505/http://ceouttarpradesh.nic.in/Instructions/delimitation_Old_New.pdf|archive-date= 13 November 2011|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref name="Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008">{{cite news|title= Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] official website|access-date=17 Dec 2015|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf}}</ref><ref name="All MLAs from Assembly constituency">{{cite news|title=All MLAs from Assembly constituency|publisher=Elections.in|access-date=17 Dec 2015|url=http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/gola-gokrannath.html}}</ref><ref name="Member list">{{cite news|title=Member list|publisher=[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] website|access-date=17 Dec 2015|url=http://uplegisassembly.gov.in/ENGLISH/member-list.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630050217/http://uplegisassembly.gov.in/ENGLISH/member-list.htm|archive-date=30 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Wards / Areas==
The extent of Gola Gokrannath Assembly constituency is KCs Aliganj, Haiderabad, Daudpur, Gola Gokarannath MB & Mailani NP of Gola Gokrannath Tehsil.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|rowspan=2| [[Arvind Giri]]<ref name=" 2017 Election Results ">{{cite news|title= GOLA GOKRANNATH Election Result 2017, Uttar Pradesh
|publisher=NDTV Elections|access-date=16 March 2018|url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections/uttar-pradesh/gola-gokrannath-mla-results}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|-
|2022^<ref name="BJP candidate Aman Giri wins Gola Gokarnnath bypolls in UP">{{cite news |title=BJP candidate Aman Giri wins Gola Gokarnnath bypolls in UP |url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/politics/2240695-bjp-candidate-aman-giri-wins-gola-gokarnnath-bypolls-in-up |access-date=7 November 2022 |work= |date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107034917/https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/politics/2240695-bjp-candidate-aman-giri-wins-gola-gokarnnath-bypolls-in-up |archive-date=7 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|[[Aman Giri]]
|}
^ bypoll

==Election results==

===2022 bypoll===
{{Election box begin|
|title=Bye-election, 2022: Gola Gokrannath<ref name="BJP candidate Aman Giri wins Gola Gokarnnath bypolls in UP"/> }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Aman Giri<ref name="Election Commission of India">{{cite news |title=Election Commission of India |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcByeNov2022/ConstituencywiseS24139.htm?ac=139 |access-date=7 November 2022 |work= |date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107123719/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcByeNov2022/ConstituencywiseS24139.htm?ac=139 |archive-date=7 November 2022}}</ref>|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=1,24,810|percentage=55.88|change=+7%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Vinay Tiwari|party=Samajwadi Party|votes=90,542|percentage=40.52|change=+3}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 34,310
|percentage = +7
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 2,23,352
|percentage = 56.97
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gola Gokrannath<ref name="BJP candidate Aman Giri wins Gola Gokarnnath bypolls in UP"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Arvind Giri
|votes = {{formatnum:126534}}
|percentage = 48.67
|change = {{decrease}}0.16
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Vinay Tiwari
|votes = {{formatnum:97240}}
|percentage = 37.4
|change = {{increase}}10.5
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Patel Shikha Ashok Kanaujiya
|votes = {{formatnum:26970}}
|percentage = 10.37
|change = {{decrease}}10.18
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Prahlad Patel
|votes = {{formatnum:3513}}
|percentage = 1.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1973}}
|percentage = 0.76
|change = {{decrease}}0.46
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:29294}}
|percentage = 11.27
|change = {{decrease}}10.66
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:259993}}
|percentage = 65.62
|change = {{decrease}}2.96
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
[[Seventeenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh|17th Vidhan Sabha: 2017 General Elections]]<ref name=" 2017 Election Results ">{{cite news|title= GOLA GOKRANNATH Election Result 2017, Uttar Pradesh
|publisher=NDTV Elections|access-date=16 March 2018|url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections/uttar-pradesh/gola-gokrannath-mla-results}}</ref>
{{Election box begin | title=2017 General Elections: Gola Gokrannath}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Arvind Giri]]
|votes = {{formatnum:122497}}
|percentage = 48.83
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = [[Vinay Tiwari]]
|votes = {{formatnum:67480}}
|percentage = 26.9
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Brij Swaroop Kanaujia
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:51542}}
|percentage = 20.55
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3022}}
|percentage = 1.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:55017}}
|percentage = 21.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:250840}}
|percentage = 68.58
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Samajwadi Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=2012 General Elections: Gola Gokrannath}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = [[Vinay Tiwari]]
|votes = 82439
|percentage = 37.04
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Simmi Bano
|votes = 67480
|percentage = 30.32
|change = -
}}

{{Election box end}}

<ref name=" 2012 Election Results ">{{cite news|title= 2012 Election Results|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] website|access-date=17 Dec 2015|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_Report_UP2012.pdf}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Kheri Lok Sabha constituency]]
*[[Lakhimpur Kheri district]]
*[[Sixteenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh]]
*[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Vidhan Bhawan]]

{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

== References ==

{{Reflist|colwidth=40em}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh|state=collapsed}}
{{Uttar Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Lakhimpur Kheri district]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Hojai Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:40:02Z

Loz12: Created some data added tags

{{short description|Assembly constituency of Assam}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Hojai
| map_caption =
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year =
| state = [[Assam]]
| division = [[Central Assam Division|Central Assam]]
| district = [[Hojai district|Hojai]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Kaziranga Lok Sabha constituency|Kaziranga]]
| established = 1967
| reservation = None
| electors =
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 63
| map_image = Hojai Assembly constituency map 2023.svg
}}

'''Hojai Assembly constituency''' is one of the 126 [[Assam Legislative Assembly|state legislative assembly]] constituencies in [[Assam]] state in [[Northeast India|North Eastern]] India. It is also one of the 10 state legislative assembly constituencies included in the [[Kaziranga Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies of State of Assam|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date = 2025-11-28}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Election
! Member
! colspan="2"|Political Party
! Tenure
|-
|2021
|[[Ramkrishna Ghosh]]
|rowspan=2 style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}| ||rowspan=2| [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|2021-''[[Incumbent]]''
|-
|2016
|[[Shiladitya Dev]]
|2016-21
|-
|2011
| Ardhendu Kumar Dey
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|2011-16
|-
|2006
|Aditya Langthasa
|{{Full party name with color|All India United Democratic Front}}
|2006-11
|-
|2001
|rowspan=3|[[Ardhendu Kumar Dey]]
|rowspan=3 style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}| ||rowspan=3|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|rowspan=3|1991-06
|-
|1996
|-
|1991
|-
|1985
|Santi Ranjan Dasgupta
|style="background-color:{{party color|Independent}}| ||[[Independent politician|IND]]
|1985-91
|-
|1983
|Sadhan Ranjan Sarkar
|style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}| ||[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|1983-85
|-
|1978
|Santi Ranjan Dasgupta
|style="background-color:{{party color|Janata Party}}| ||[[Janata Party|JP]]
|1978-83
|-
|1972
|Idris Ali Fakir
|style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}| ||[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|1972-78
|-
|1967
|R Ahmed
|style="background-color:{{party color|Swatantra Party}}| ||[[Swatantra Party|SWA]]
|1967-72
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Hojai}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Shiladitya Dev]]|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Jhilli Chowdhury|party=Indian National Congress |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]|party=None of the above (India) |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box turnout |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=|loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Hojai<ref>{{cite news |url=http://ceoassam.nic.in/assembly/2021/form21E_2021.html |title=AC_Wise Final Result as per Form 21E |work=CEO Assam |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Ramkrishna Ghosh]]|votes=125,790|percentage=56.64%|change=+2.25}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Debabrata Saha|votes=92,008|percentage=41.43%|change=+23.30}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=1,724|percentage=0.78%|change=+0.09}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes = 33,782
|percentage = 15.33%
|change =-13.44
}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=220,372|percentage=83.24%|change=-2.87}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =+2.25
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Hojai}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Shiladitya Dev]]
|votes = 1,05,615
|percentage = 54.39
|change = +35.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|candidate = Dhaniram Thousen
|votes = 49,756
|percentage = 25.62
|change = -6.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Ardhendu Kumar Dey]]
|votes = 35,207
|percentage = 18.13
|change = -26.26
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Md. Zakir Hussain
|votes = 1,432
|percentage = 0.73
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Mainul Hoque
|votes = 795
|percentage = 0.40
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 1,342
|percentage = 0.69
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 55,859
|percentage = 28.77
|change = +16.27
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,94,147
|percentage = 86.11
|change = +6.85
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing = +4.64
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Hojai}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Ardhendu Kumar Dey]]
|votes = 70,649
|percentage = 44.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|candidate = Dr. Aditya Langthasa
|votes = 50,755
|percentage = 31.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Shiladitya Dev]]
|votes = 30,011
|percentage = 18.86
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Asom Gana Parishad
|candidate = Narayan Chandra Bhowmik
|votes = 2,623
|percentage = 1.64
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Jogeshwar Das
|votes = 1,577
|percentage = 0.99
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Deba Prasad Chauhan
|votes = 1,420
|percentage = 0.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Debashish Dutta
|votes = 941
|percentage = 0.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India Minorities Front
|candidate = Md. Abdul Karim
|votes = 672
|percentage = 0.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Arun Dev
|votes = 476
|percentage = 0.29
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 19,894
|percentage = 12.50
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,59,124
|percentage = 79.26
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = All India United Democratic Front
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Hojai]]
* [[Hojai district]]
* [[List of constituencies of Assam Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Assam Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/67-assam/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:Hojai district]]
[[Category:Politics of Assam]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Assam]]

AJAX Engineering

2026-04-07T06:59:09Z

Loz12: creating details

{{Short description|Indian concrete construction machinery company}}
{{Infobox company
| name = AJAX Engineering Limited
| logo = AJAX Engineering logo.svg
| logo_class = 
| logo_size =
| logo_upright = 
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image = EXCON 2025, Bangalore International Exhibition Centre (697).jpg
| image_size =
| image_upright = 1.2
| image_alt =
| image_caption = AJAX Engineering at [[EXCON]] 2025, [[Bangalore International Exhibition Centre|BIEC]]
| trade_name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = 
| romanized_name =
| former_name =
| type = Public limited
| traded_as =
| ISIN = 
| industry = Concrete, concrete machines
| genre =
| predecessor = 
| incorporated = 
| founded = 1992 in [[Bangalore]], India<ref name="one"/>
| founder = 
| fate =
| successor = 
| hq_location = [[Peenya]] Industrial Area,
| hq_location_city = Bangalore
| hq_location_country = India
| num_locations =
| num_locations_year = 
| area_served = Bangladesh, Sri-Lanka, Myanmar, Mozambique, Philippines, Kenya, Tunisia, UAE, Vietnam, Cambodia, Oman, Uganda, and Egypt<ref name="one"/>
| key_people =
| products =
| production =
| production_year = 
| brands =
| services =
| revenue =
| revenue_year = 
| operating_income =
| income_year = 
| net_income = 
| net_income_year = 
| aum = 
| assets =
| assets_year = 
| equity =
| equity_year = 
| owner = 
| members =
| members_year = 
| num_employees =
| num_employees_year = 
| parent = [[Fiori Group]]
| divisions = 3 ([[Doddaballapura]], [[Gauribidanur]])<ref name="one"/>
| subsid =
| module = 
| ratio = 
| rating = 
| website = {{URL|https://www.ajax-engg.com/}}
| footnotes = 
| embed =
}}
'''AJAX Engineering''' is an Indian [[concrete]] [[construction machinery]] company.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AJAX Engineering Unveils UDAAN at EXCON 2025 |url=https://www.autocarpro.in/news/ajax-engineering-unveils-udaan-at-excon-2025-130149 |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=Auto Car Professional |language=en |archive-date=2025-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251212112225/https://www.autocarpro.in/news/ajax-engineering-unveils-udaan-at-excon-2025-130149 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=AJAX Engineering Leads with Innovative Concreting Solutions at EXCON 2025 – Motorindia |url=https://www.motorindiaonline.in/ajax-engineering-leads-with-innovative-concreting-solutions-at-excon-2025/ |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=motorindiaonline.in |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 17, 2025 |title=Nuvama initiates 'Buy' rating on Ajax Engineering, sets target price at Rs 800 - BusinessToday |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/markets/stocks/story/nuvama-initiates-buy-rating-on-ajax-engineering-sets-target-price-at-rs-800-472339-2025-04-17 |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=[[Business Today (India)|Business Today]] |language=en |archive-date=2025-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250521195853/https://www.businesstoday.in/markets/stocks/story/nuvama-initiates-buy-rating-on-ajax-engineering-sets-target-price-at-rs-800-472339-2025-04-17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 17, 2025 |title=Nuvama initiates coverage on Ajax Engineering: 3 reasons why |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/market/nuvama-initiates-coverage-on-ajax-engineering-3-reasons-why-3812725/ |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=February 18, 2025 |title=Ajax Engineering shares jump 4% after Morgan Stanley offloads Rs 45 crore stake via block deal |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/ajax-engineering-shares-in-focus-after-morgan-stanley-offloads-rs-45-crore-stake-via-block-deal/articleshow/118344530.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-11 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |issn=0013-0389 |archive-date=2025-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250218045550/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/ajax-engineering-shares-in-focus-after-morgan-stanley-offloads-rs-45-crore-stake-via-block-deal/articleshow/118344530.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Company==
AJAX Engineering is a joint venture of [[Fiori Group]].<ref name="one">{{Cite web |title=AJAX About Us |url=https://www.ajax-engg.com/about-us |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=www.ajax-engg.com |publisher=AJAX Engineering Ltd. |language=en-GB |archive-date=2025-11-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251108161348/https://ajax-engg.com/about-us |url-status=live }}</ref>

It is the first Indian concreting equipment manufacturer to export Slip-Form Paver.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AJAX Engineering becomes first Indian concreting equipment manufacturer to export SLIP-FORM PAVER
|url=https://equipmenttimes.in/ajax-engineering-becomes-first-indian-concreting-equipment-manufacturer-to-export-slip-form-paver-1653 |website=Equipment Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Media gallery==
{{Gallery
|title=AJAX Engineering at [[EXCON]] 2025, [[Bangalore International Exhibition Centre|BIEC]]
|width=175 | height=175 |mode=nolines
|File:EXCON 2025, Bangalore International Exhibition Centre (690).jpg
|File:EXCON 2025, Bangalore International Exhibition Centre (674).jpg
|File:EXCON 2025, Bangalore International Exhibition Centre (696).jpg
|File:EXCON 2025, Bangalore International Exhibition Centre (701).jpg
|File:EXCON 2025, Bangalore International Exhibition Centre (695).jpg
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{commons category}}

[[Category:Construction and civil engineering companies of India]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1992]]
[[Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1992]]

Egypt

2026-03-29T13:47:12Z

Loz12: cleaned up details additionally and improved wording

{{Short description|Country in Northeast Africa and Southwest Asia}}
{{About|the country}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Cleanup|reason=Article should use [[British English]] spelling, but many parts do not|date=December 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Arab Republic of Egypt
| name = {{native name|ar|جمهورية مصر العربية}} {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ar|Jumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʻArabiyyah}}
| common_name = Egypt
| image_flag = Flag of Egypt.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg
| coa_size = 75
| image_map = EGY orthographic.svg
| map_caption =
| national_anthem = {{ubl|''[[Bilady, Bilady, Bilady]]''|{{lang|ar|"بلادي، بلادي، بلادي"}}|({{Langx|en|italic=yes|My country, my country, my country}})|[[File:Bilady, Bilady, Bilady.ogg]]}}
| official_languages = [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]<ref name="CoARE"/>
| languages_type = [[National language]]
| languages = [[Egyptian Arabic]]{{efn|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] is the sole official language.<ref name="Provisional Constitution">{{cite web |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155 |title=Constitutional Declaration: A New Stage in the History of the Great Egyptian People |date=30 March 2011 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |access-date=15 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427083143/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155 |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Egyptian Arabic]] is the [[spoken language]]. Other [[Languages of Egypt|dialects and minority languages]] are spoken regionally.|name=lang}}
| religion = See ''[[Religion in Egypt]]''{{efn|While [[Islam]] is the majority and official religion of the country, the size of the country's historic [[Christianity in Egypt|Christian minority]] is highly controversial and disputed by various entities and groups. Estimates range from as low as 5% to as high as 20%. Since 2006, religion has been omitted from censuses after widespread claims that the figures had been distorted.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/|title=How many Christians are there in Egypt?|date=16 February 2011|work=Pew Research Center|access-date=19 March 2018|archive-date=2 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002004401/https://www.pewresearch.org/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="churches-deleg"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/53839/Egypt/Politics-/Egyptian-Copts-reject-population-estimate.aspx|title=Egyptian Copts reject population estimate – Politics|website=english.ahram.org.eg|access-date=28 February 2018|archive-date=29 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029011854/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/53839/Egypt/Politics-/Egyptian-Copts-reject-population-estimate.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=relig}}
| demonym = Egyptian
| capital = [[Cairo]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|30|2|N|31|13|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = capital
| government_type = Unitary [[semi-presidential republic]] under an [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] government{{refn|<ref name="Truex & Tavana 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Truex |first1=Rory |last2=Tavana |first2=Daniel L. |title=Implicit Attitudes toward an Authoritarian Regime |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=July 2019 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=1014–1027 |doi=10.1086/703209 }}</ref><ref name="foreignpolicy">{{Cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/22/egypts-sisi-is-getting-pretty-good-at-being-a-dictator/ |title=Egypt's Sisi Is Getting Pretty Good ... at Being a Dictator |last1=Cambanis |first1=Thanassis |date=22 May 2015 |website=Foreign Policy |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-date=10 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210231855/https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/22/egypts-sisi-is-getting-pretty-good-at-being-a-dictator/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Egypt: A Move to Enhance Authoritarian Rule|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/12/egypt-move-enhance-authoritarian-rule|date=2019|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=4 January 2024|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713152806/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/02/12/egypt-move-enhance-authoritarian-rule|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=9 July 2020|access-date=22 November 2022|title=Egypt tries to silence its critics in the United States by jailing their relatives|newspaper=The Washington Post|first=Sudarsan|last=Raghavan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-tries-to-silence-its-critics-in-the-united-states-by-jailing-their-relatives/2020/07/08/c93a809e-c053-11ea-864a-0dd31b9d6917_story.html|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109023939/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-tries-to-silence-its-critics-in-the-united-states-by-jailing-their-relatives/2020/07/08/c93a809e-c053-11ea-864a-0dd31b9d6917_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Al-Arian|first=Abdullah|date=27 February 2020|title=Hosni Mubarak's legacy is Abdel Fattah el-Sisi|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/2/27/hosni-mubaraks-legacy-is-abdel-fattah-el-sisi|url-status=live|access-date=2 November 2021|website=Al Jazeera|language=en|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201019213139/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/2/27/hosni-mubaraks-legacy-is-abdel-fattah-el-sisi/ |archive-date = 19 October 2020 }}</ref>}}
| leader_title1 = [[President of Egypt|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Mostafa Madbouly]]
| leader_title3 =
| leader_name3 =
| legislature = [[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]]
| upper_house = [[Senate (Egypt)|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[House of Representatives (Egypt)|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Egypt|History]]
| established_event1 = Unification of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]<ref name="goldschmidt_oldest_nation">{{cite book |last1=Goldschmidt |first1=Arthur |title=Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YmZyAAAAMAAJ&q=nation-state |year=1988 |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, CO |isbn=978-0-86531-182-4 |page=5 |quote=Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217150902/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Modern_Egypt/YmZyAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=nation-state |archive-date=17 December 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm |title=Background Note: Egypt |date=10 November 2010 |publisher=United States Department of State [[Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs]] |access-date=5 March 2011 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183905/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| established_date1 = {{circa}} 3150 BC
| established_event2 = [[Fatimid Caliphate]]
| established_date2 = {{circa}} 973
| established_event3 = [[Ayyubid dynasty]] inaugurated
| established_date3 = {{circa}} 1171
| established_event4 = [[Mamluk Egypt]]
| established_date4 = {{circa}} 1261
| established_event5 = [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|Alawiyya dynasty]] inaugurated
| established_date5 = 9 July 1805<ref>{{cite book |last=Crabitès |first=Pierre |year=2013 |orig-year=1935 |title=Ibrahim of Egypt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NbCRckI3EoC&pg=PA1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509064900/http://books.google.com/books?id=1NbCRckI3EoC&pg=PA1 |archive-date=9 May 2013 |url-status=live |volume=8 |publisher=Routledge |page=1 |isbn=978-0-415-81121-7 |access-date=10 February 2013 |quote=... on July 9, 1805, Constantinople conferred upon Muhammad Ali the pashalik of Cairo ... |doi=10.4324/9780203069387 }}</ref>
| established_event6 = [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|Declaration of Independence]]
| established_date6 = 28 February 1922
| established_event7 = [[1952 Egyptian revolution|Revolution Day]]
| established_date7 = 23 July 1952
| established_event8 = [[Declaration of the Republic|Republic declared]]
| established_date8 = 18 June 1953
| established_event9 = [[Constitution of Egypt|Current constitution]]
| established_date9 = 18 January 2014
| area_rank = 29th
| area_km2 = 1,010,408<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/StaticPages.aspx?page_id=5035|title=Density By Governorate 1/7/2020 – Area km2 (Theme: Population – pg.14)|publisher=Capmas.gov.eg|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=2 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102023819/https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/StaticPages.aspx?page_id=5035|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf |title=Total area km2, pg.15 |publisher=Capmas.Gov – Arab Republic of Egypt |access-date=8 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321110107/http://capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf |archive-date=21 March 2015 }}</ref>
| area_sq_mi = 387,048
| percent_water = 0.632
| population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 94,798,827<ref>{{cite web|title=الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء|url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20/Admin/Pages%20Files/2017109143840cns.pdf|website=www.capmas.gov.eg|access-date=13 October 2017|archive-date=13 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013224804/http://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20%2FAdmin%2FPages%20Files%2F2017109143840cns.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2017
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 107,868,296<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.capmas.gov.eg/publications/150 |title=Population estimates by Sex & Governorate |publisher=[[Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (Egypt)|CAPMAS]] |website=www.capmas.gov.eg |access-date=27 January 2026}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = July 2025
| population_estimate_rank = 15th
| population_density_km2 = 106.8
| population_density_sq_mi = 276.6
| population_density_rank = 102nd
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $2.372 trillion<ref name="IMFAPR2025">{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april/weo-report?c=469,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LUR,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGSB,GGSB_NPGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2025&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |website=IMF |access-date=3 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 18th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $21,668<ref name="IMFAPR2025" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 87th
| GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $347.342 billion<ref name="IMFAPR2025" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 44th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $3,174<ref name="IMFAPR2025" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 138th
| Gini_year = 2021
| Gini_change = decrease 
| Gini = 28.5 
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |title=Gini Index coefficient|publisher=[[The World Factbook]]|access-date=28 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251214092912/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/|archive-date=2025-12-14|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| HDI_year = 2023 
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI = 0.754 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 100th
| currency = [[Egyptian pound]] (LE/E£/£E)
| currency_code = EGP
| time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]{{efn|Known locally as [[Egypt Standard Time]] (EGY) ({{Langx|ar|توقيت مصر القياسي}} ''Tawqīt Miṣr al-qiyāsiyy'')|name=UTCoff2}}
| utc_offset = +2
| time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]{{efn|See [[Daylight saving time in Egypt]].|name=UTCoff}}
| utc_offset_DST = +3
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[+20]]
| cctld = {{unbulleted list |[[.eg]] |{{lang|ar|[[مصر.]]}}}}
| footnote_a =
| footnote_b =
| footnote_c =
| footnote_d =
}}

'''Egypt''',{{efn|{{langx|ar|مصر|Miṣr|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|ar|mɪsˤr|pron|audio=Ar-Misr2.oga}}, {{IPA|arz|mɑsˤr|lang|link=yes}}}} officially the '''Arab Republic of Egypt''', is a country spanning the [[Northeast Africa|northeast corner of Africa]] and [[Western Asia|southwest corner of Asia]] via the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. It is bordered by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to [[northern coast of Egypt|the north]], [[Palestine]] and [[Israel]] to [[Egypt–Israel barrier|the northeast]], the [[Red Sea]] to the east, [[Sudan]] and the [[Sahara]] to [[Egypt–Sudan border|the south]], and [[Libya]] to [[Egypt–Libya border|the west]]. The [[Gulf of Aqaba]] in the northeast separates Egypt from [[Jordan]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. [[Cairo]] is the capital, [[list of cities and towns in Egypt|largest city]], and leading cultural centre, while [[Alexandria]] is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism.<ref name=gov>{{Cite web|url=https://www.egy-map.com/|title=محافظة الأسكندرية |website=Egypt's Projects Map |access-date=13 May 2022|archive-date=25 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525194517/https://www.egy-map.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> With over 107 million inhabitants, Egypt is [[List of Arab League countries by population|the most populous]] country in the [[Arab world]], [[List of African countries by population|third-most populous]] country in Africa, and [[List of countries and dependencies by population|15th-most populated in the world]].

Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the [[Nile Delta]] back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a [[cradle of civilisation]], [[Ancient Egypt]] saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings|last=Midant-Reynes|first=Béatrix|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|location=Oxford}}</ref> Egypt was an early and important [[Christianity in Egypt|centre of Christianity]], later [[Islamization of Egypt|adopting Islam]] from the seventh century onwards. [[Alexandria]], Egypt's former capital and currently second largest city, was a hub of global knowledge through its [[Library of Alexandria|Library]]. Cairo became the capital of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] in the tenth century and of the subsequent [[Mamluk Sultanate]] in the 13th century. Egypt then became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1517, until its local ruler [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] established modern Egypt as an autonomous [[Khedivate of Egypt|Khedivate]] in 1867. The country was then [[History of Egypt under the British|occupied]] by the [[British Empire]] along with [[British Sudan|Sudan]] and gained independence in 1922 as [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|a monarchy]].

Following the [[1952 Egyptian revolution|1952 revolution]], Egypt declared itself a [[Republic of Egypt (1953–58)|republic]]. Between 1958 and 1961, Egypt [[Second Syrian Republic|merged with Syria]] to form the [[United Arab Republic]]. Egypt fought [[Arab–Israeli conflict|several armed conflicts]] with Israel in [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948]], [[Suez Crisis|1956]], [[Six-Day War|1967]] and [[Yom Kippur War|1973]], and [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by the United Arab Republic|occupied]] the [[Gaza Strip]] intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the [[Camp David Accords]], which [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|recognised Israel]] in exchange for its withdrawal from the occupied Sinai. After the [[Arab Spring]], which led to the [[2011 Egyptian revolution]] and overthrow of [[Hosni Mubarak]], the country faced a [[Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)|protracted period of political unrest]]; its first [[2012 Egyptian presidential election|democratic election in 2012]] resulted in the short-lived, [[Muslim Brotherhood]]-aligned government of [[Mohamed Morsi]], which was [[2013 Egyptian coup d'etat|overthrown]] by the military after [[June 2013 Egyptian protests|mass protests in 2013]]. The current government is a [[semi-presidential republic]] led by [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]], who was [[2014 Egyptian presidential election|elected in 2014]] but is widely regarded as [[authoritarian]].<ref name="dictator">Sources that categorise Sisi as a dictator:

{{bulleted list|{{Cite news |title=Egypt's rushed election shows Abdel-Fattah al-Sisi is nervous |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/10/03/egypts-rushed-election-shows-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-is-nervous |access-date=27 December 2024 |newspaper=The Economist |quote="Last month Abdel-Fattah al-Sisi, Egypt's military dictator..." |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231006190405/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/10/03/egypts-rushed-election-shows-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-is-nervous |archive-date=6 October 2023|url-status=live}}|{{Cite web |last=Dunne |first=Michele |date=8 April 2019 |title=Why Is Trump Helping Egypt's Dictator Entrench His Power? |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/04/08/donald-trump-abdel-fattah-al-sisi-egypt-226579/ |access-date=27 December 2024 |website=POLITICO Magazine |language=en}}|{{Cite web |title=President Trump, Condemn This Sham Egyptian Election |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/president-trump-condemn-sham-egyptian-election |access-date=27 December 2024 |website= The Washington Institute |quote="...issued a statement praising the Egyptian dictator's magnificent work for the country"}}|{{Cite news |title=A Blank Check for Egypt's Dictator |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-06-26/u-dot-s-dot-gives-egypts-dictator-a-blank-check?embedded-checkout=false |access-date=27 December 2024 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}|{{Cite web |last=Toosi |first=Nahal |date=12 July 2021 |title=In D.C. visit, Egypt spy boss claims U.S. agreed—in writing—to jail American activist |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/07/12/egypt-spy-boss-jail-american-498983 |access-date=27 December 2024 |website=POLITICO |language=en |quote="...Abdel Fattah El-Sisi, the Egyptian dictator who has imprisoned tens of thousands of dissidents."}}{{Cite web |last=Lawler |first=Dave |date=23 April 2019 |title=Egypt's President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi could rule until 2030 after winning referendum |url=https://www.axios.com/2019/04/23/sisi-referendum-rule-egypt-2030-constitution |access-date=27 December 2024 |website=Axios |language=en |quote="He has now cemented his status as Egypt's dictator without losing his position as a U.S. ally."}}|{{Cite web |last=Greenwald |first=Glenn |date=31 March 2015 |title=Obama Personally Tells the Egyptian Dictator That U.S. Will Again Send Weapons (and Cash) to His Regime |url=https://theintercept.com/2015/03/31/obama-lifts-freeze-weapons-transfer-egyptian-dictator/ |access-date=27 December 2024 |website=The Intercept |language=en-US}}|{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Jennifer |date=3 April 2017 |title=Egypt's president is a bloodthirsty dictator. Trump thinks he's done a "fantastic job." |url=https://www.vox.com/world/2017/4/3/15160358/trump-egypt-abdel-fattah-el-sisi-white-house |access-date=27 December 2024 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}|{{Cite news |date=1 December 2020 |title=Egypt President Abdul Fattah al-Sisi: Ruler with an iron grip |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-19256730 |access-date=22 November 2024 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}|{{Cite news |title=Egypt is again under military rule, but Sisi lacks Nasser's appeal |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2021/08/24/egypt-is-again-under-military-rule-but-sisi-lacks-nassers-appeal |access-date=25 November 2024 |url-access=subscription|newspaper=The Economist |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210826144020/https://www.economist.com/special-report/2021/08/24/egypt-is-again-under-military-rule-but-sisi-lacks-nassers-appeal|archive-date=26 August 2021|url-status=live}}|{{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=Sharan |title=Soldiers of Democracy? |chapter=Egypt: A Coup against Democracy |date=2023 |pages=136–176 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780192873910.003.0007 |isbn=978-0-19-287391-0 }}|{{Cite web |date=15 March 2024 |title=EU Deal with Egypt Rewards Authoritarianism, Betrays 'EU Values' {{!}} Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/03/15/eu-deal-egypt-rewards-authoritarianism-betrays-eu-values |access-date=14 December 2024 |language=en}}}}</ref>

Egypt is a [[developing country]] with the [[List of African countries by GDP (nominal)|second-largest economy in Africa]]. It is considered to be a [[regional power]] in the Middle East, North Africa and the [[Muslim world]], and a [[middle power]] worldwide. [[Islam]] is the [[State religion|official religion]] and [[Arabic]] its official language. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[Arab League]], the [[African Union]], [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], [[World Youth Forum]], and a member of [[BRICS]].<ref name="CoARE">{{cite web |title=Constitution of The Arab Republic of Egypt 2014 |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718052913/http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2015 |access-date=13 April 2017 |website=sis.gov.eg}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cooper |first1=Andrew F. |last2=Antkiewicz |first2=Agata |last3=Shaw |first3=Timothy M. |title=Lessons from/for BRICSAM about South-North Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else?: Economic Size Trumps All Else? |journal=International Studies Review |date=10 December 2007 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=673–689 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2486.2007.00730.x |jstor=4621867 }}</ref><ref name="IMFOCT2024">{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=469,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LUR,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGSB,GGSB_NPGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2023&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |website=IMF |access-date=24 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== Names ==

[[Ancient Egypt]] had several names; one of them was ([[wikt:Special:Search/𓆎|𓆎]] [[wikt:Special:Search/𓅓|𓅓]] [[wikt:Special:Search/𓏏|𓏏]]𓊖) {{transliteration|engvar=gb|egy|km.t}}, which is formed from [[wiktionary:km#Egyptian|𓆎 𓅓]], meaning black.<ref>{{citation|title=Ancient Egypt Etymology|url=http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/gri/9kemet.html|access-date=9 January 2026}}</ref> This likely refers to the [[Soil fertility|fertile]] black soils of the [[Nile flood|Nile floodplains]], distinct from the ''deshret'' {{angbr|{{transliteration|engvar=gb|egy|dšṛt}}}}, or "red land" of the [[desert]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Rosalie, David |title=Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZWuVAL2GooC&pg=PA43 |title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa |author=Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār |page=43 |access-date=28 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131155854/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZWuVAL2GooC&pg=PA43 |archive-date=31 January 2017 |url-status=live |isbn=978-0-85255-092-2 |year=1990 |publisher=Currey }}</ref> This name is commonly vocalised as ''Kemet'' {{IPA|[kɛmɛt]}}, but was pronounced differently in Ancient Egyptian.<ref>Antonio Loprieno, "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", in ''Phonologies of Asia and Africa (including the Caucasus). Vol 1 of 2.'' Ed: Alan S Kaye. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997: p. 449</ref> Scholars reconstruct its [[Old Egyptian]] pronunciation as {{IPA|[ˈkuːmat]}},<ref>{{Cite book |last=Loprieno |first=Antonio |url=http://archive.org/details/ancientegyptianl0000lopr |title=Ancient Egyptian : a linguistic introduction |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-521-44384-5}}</ref> its [[Middle Egyptian]] pronunciation as {{IPA|[ˈkuːmaʔ]}}, and its [[Late Egyptian]] pronunication as {{IPA|[ˈkeːmə]}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Loprieno |first=Antonio |title=Language Typology and Language Universals |year=2001}}</ref> The name is realised as ''{{transliteration|engvar=gb|cop|K(h)ēmə}}'' ({{Langx|cop|ⲭⲏⲙⲓ|label=[[Coptic language#Dialects|Bohairic]]}}, {{Langx|cop|ⲕⲏⲙⲉ|label=[[Coptic language#Dialects|Sahidic]]}}) in [[Coptic language|Egyptian Coptic]], and appeared in [[Greek language|Early Greek]] as {{lang|grc|Χημία}} (''{{transliteration|engvar=gb|grc|Khēmía}}'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Χ χ, χεσι^φωνέω, Χημία |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic+letter=*x:entry+group=20:entry=*xhmi/a |access-date=9 April 2023 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419212900/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic+letter=*x:entry+group=20:entry=*xhmi/a |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html|title=A Brief History of Alchemy|publisher=University of Bristol School of Chemistry|access-date=21 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005180735/http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html|archive-date=5 October 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> Another name was {{angbr|{{transliteration|engvar=gb|egy|tꜣ-mry}}}} "land of the riverbank".<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Records of Egypt |last=Breasted |first=James Henry |author2=Peter A. Piccione |year=2001 |publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-06975-8 |pages=76, 40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC}}</ref>

The names of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]] were ''Ta-Sheme'aw'' ({{angbr|{{transliteration|engvar=gb|egy|tꜣ-šmꜥw}}}}) "[[Sedge|sedgeland]]" and ''Ta-Mehew'' ({{angbr|{{transliteration|engvar=gb|egy|tꜣ mḥw}}}}) "northland", respectively. They were also collectively called "tꜣwy" (tāwy), meaning [[Upper and Lower Egypt#Structure|The Two Lands]], referring to both Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt after unification.<ref name="TaWy">{{citation|last1=Sleim |first1=Ahmed |url=https://www.academia.edu/97245539|website=academia.edu|title=tAwy The Two Lands: The North and the South or the East and the West?|date=January 2020 |access-date=9 January 2026}}</ref>

The English name "Egypt" is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] "{{transliteration|engvar=gb|grc|Aígyptos}}" ("{{lang|grc|Αἴγυπτος}}"), via [[Middle French]] "Egypte" and [[Latin]] "{{lang|la|Aegyptus}}". It is reflected in early Greek [[Linear B]] tablets as "a-ku-pi-ti-yo".<ref>Breyer, Fr. A. K. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=JpNY7VPn1WUC&dq=%22a-ku-pi-ti-yo%22&pg=PA381 Morgenländische Wörter im Deutschen: Die ägyptischen Lehnwörter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409180842/https://books.google.com/books?id=JpNY7VPn1WUC&dq=%22a-ku-pi-ti-yo%22&pg=PA381 |date=9 April 2024 }}". In: W. Raunig/St. Wenig. ''Afrikas Horn: Akten der Ersten Internatio-nalen Littmann-Konferenz 2. bis 5. Mai 2002 in München''. Meroitica 22. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005. p. 381. {{ISBN|9783447051750}}.</ref> The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[geographer]] [[Strabo]] provided a [[folk etymology]] stating that "''{{lang|grc|Αἴγυπτος}}''" (Aigýptios) had originally evolved as a [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] from "''{{lang|grc|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}''" ({{transliteration|engvar=gb|grc|Aegaeou huptiōs}}), meaning "[[Aegean Sea|Below the Aegean]]".<ref name="Engsheden">{{cite journal |last1=Engsheden |first1=Åke |title=An etymological safari to Aigyptos |journal=Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur |date=2018 |volume=47 |pages=1–30 |jstor=26863322 }}</ref> Another tradition claims that it was named after the legendary king [[Aegyptus]].<ref name="Jerome-Chronicon">[https://topostext.org/work/530#B1479 St. Jerome, Chronicon (Hier.+Chron.), B1479]</ref> The actual derivation is thought to be from ''[[wikt:ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ|ḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ]]'' (''Hutkaptah'', [[Late Egyptian]] pronunciation {{IPA|egy|ħəjˌkojpəˈtaħ|}}), "[[Egyptian temple|Temple]] of the [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul#Ka (vital essence)|''Ka'']] of [[Ptah]]," a term for the city of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/736963/hwt-ka723-pth|title=ḥwt-kꜣ-Ptḥ: a Pleiades name resource|first1=B.|last1=Siewert-Mayer|first2=W.|last2=Röllig|first3=H.|last3=Kopp|date=21 March 2025|website=Pleiades: a gazetteer of past places}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindthename.com/name/egypt|title=Meaning, origin and history of the name Egypt|first=Mike|last=Campbell|website=Behind the Name}}</ref>

Greco-Roman writers report that Egypt was sometimes called Aeria (Ἀερία).<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0072%3Abook%3D14%3Achapter%3D6 Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, 14.6]</ref><ref name="Jerome-Chronicon"/><ref name="Stephanus of Byzantium-Aeria">[https://archive.org/details/STEPHANUSBYZANTIUSETHNICAvol.AALPHAGAMMA2006ByMargaretheBillerbeck/page/60/mode/2up Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, p.61, 70]</ref><ref name="George W. Mooney">[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0068%3Atext%3Dcomm%3Abook%3D4%3Acommline%3D267 George W. Mooney, Commentary on Apollonius: Argonautica]</ref> [[Stephanus of Byzantium]] derives the name from aer (ἀήρ, "air"), explaining that Egypt was a "misty land". From this name, the ethnic form Aerioi (Ἀέριοι) is also recorded for its inhabitants.<ref name="Stephanus of Byzantium-Aeria"/> [[Thomas George Tucker]] suggested that Aeria could derive not only from "misty" or "hazy air", but also be understood in the sense of "far-off" or "dimly seen".<ref name="George W. Mooney"/>

"{{transliteration|engvar=gb|ar|Miṣr}}" ({{IPA|ar|misˤɾ}}; "{{lang|ar|مِصر}}") is the [[Classical Arabic|Classical Quranic Arabic]] and modern official name of Egypt, while "{{transliteration|engvar=gb|arz|Maṣr}}" ({{IPA|arz|mɑsˤɾ}}; {{lang|arz|مَصر}}) is the local pronunciation in [[Egyptian Arabic]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Il-Malti |last=Z. |first=T. |date=1928 |volume=2 |issue=1 |language=mt |publisher=Il-Ghaqda tal-Kittieba tal-Malti |title=Il-Belt (Valletta) |edition=2 |url=http://melitensiawth.com/incoming/Index/Il-Malti/Il-Malti.%20004(1928)2/01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417234107/http://melitensiawth.com/incoming/Index/Il-Malti/Il-Malti.%20004%281928%292/01.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2016 |page=35 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> The current name of Egypt, Misr/Misir/Misru, stems from the [[Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|Ancient]] [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] name for it. The term originally connoted "[[Civilization|Civilisation]]" or "[[Metropolis]]".<ref name="AncientCivils">{{Citation|title=Civilizations and World Order|isbn = 9780739186077|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5QeqBAAAQBAJ&q=misr+means+civilization&pg=PA87|last1 = Dallmayr|first1 = Fred|last2 = Akif Kayapınar|first2 = M.|last3 = Yaylacı|first3 = İsmail| date=24 September 2014 | publisher=Lexington Books|access-date=31 July 2024}}</ref> [[Classical Arabic]] ''{{transliteration|engvar=gb|ar|Miṣr}}'' (Egyptian Arabic ''{{transliteration|engvar=gb|arz|Maṣr}}'') is directly cognate with the [[Biblical Hebrew language|Biblical Hebrew]] ''Miṣráyīm'' (מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]. Also mentioned in several Semitic languages as ''Mesru'', ''Misir'' and ''Masar''.<ref name="AncientCivils"/> The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")<ref>The ending of the Hebrew form is either a [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] or an ending identical to the dual in form (perhaps a [[locative]]), and this has sometimes been taken as referring to the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, the application of the (possibly) "dual" ending to some toponyms and other words, a development peculiar to Hebrew, does not in fact imply any "two-ness" about the place. The ending is found, for example, in the Hebrew words for such single entities as "water" ("מַיִם"), "noon" ("צָהֳרַיִם"), "sky/heaven" ("שָׁמַיִם"), and in the ''[[Qere and Ketiv|qere]]'' – but not the original "ketiv" – of "Jerusalem" ("ירושל[י]ם"). It should also be noted that the dual ending – which may or may not be what the ''-áyim'' in "Mitzráyim" actually represents – was available to other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, but was not applied to Egypt. See ''inter alia'' Aaron Demsky ("Hebrew Names in the Dual Form and the Toponym Yerushalayim" in Demsky (ed.) ''These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics'', Vol. 3 (Ramat Gan, 2002), pp. 11–20), [{{GBurl|p1AMBAAAQBAJ|p=128}} Page 128] in {{cite book |last1=Hurvitz |first1=Avi |title=A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew |chapter=List of Abbreviations and Sigla |date=2014 |pages=18–243 |doi=10.1163/9789004266438_004 |isbn=978-90-04-26643-8 }} and {{cite journal |last1=Na'aman |first1=Nadav |title=Shaaraim – The Gateway To The Kingdom Of Judah |journal=The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures |date=31 December 2008 |volume=8 |doi=10.5508/jhs.2008.v8.a24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Izre'el |first1=Shlomo |title=On the So-Called Ventive Morpheme in the Akkadian Texts of Amurru |journal=Ugarit-Forschungen |volume=16 |date=1984 |pages=83–92 }}</ref> related to ''miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru'', meaning "border" or "frontier".<ref name="akkadian">{{cite book|title = A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&pg=PA212|publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year= 2000|isbn = 978-3-447-04264-2|first1 = Jeremy A.|last1 = Black|first2 = Andrew|last2 = George|first3 = J.N.|last3 = Postgate}}</ref> The [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] used the derived term [[File:Rassam cylinder Mu-s,ur.jpg|60px]], ''Mu-ṣur''.<ref>As in inscriptions such as the [[Rassam cylinder]] of [[Ashurbanipal]]. For transcription, the word being written Mu-s,ur [https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P421807] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613113247/https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P421807|date=13 June 2020}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Egypt}}

=== Prehistoric Egypt ===
{{Main|Prehistoric Egypt}}

[[File:Predynastic collage.png|thumb|'''Clockwise''': a [[Badarian culture|Badarian]] mortuary figurine, a [[Naqada culture|Naqada]] jar, a [[Naqada culture|Naqada]] statuette of the goddess [[Bat (goddess)|Bat]], the [[Cosmetic palette|Four dogs palette]], the [[Gebel el-Arak Knife]], and a [[Naqada culture|Naqada]] diorite vase.]]
Evidence of [[rock carvings]] along the [[Nile]] and in surrounding oases indicates early habitation. In the [[10th millennium BCE]], a culture of [[hunter-gatherer]]s and [[fishing|fishers]] was replaced by a [[cereal|grain]]-grinding culture. Climate changes or [[overgrazing]] around 8000 [[before common era|BCE]] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the [[Sahara]]. Early [[tribal people]]s migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralised society.<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref>

By about 6000 BCE, a [[Neolithic]] culture took root in the Nile Valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |title=The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BCE Neolithic |publisher=The British Museum |year=2005 |access-date=21 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214084636/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |archive-date=14 February 2009 }}</ref> During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]. The [[Badarian]] culture and the successor [[Naqada]] series are generally regarded as precursors to [[Ancient Egypt|dynastic Egypt]]. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian hieroglyphic]] inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Ian|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-19-280458-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/69 69]|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/69}}</ref>

===Ancient Egypt (3150 BCE–305 BCE)===
{{Main|Ancient Egypt}}

[[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Giza Necropolis]] is the oldest of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World|ancient Wonders]] and the only one still in existence.]]

Around {{circa|3150}} BCE, King [[Menes]] unified Egypt, establishing a succession of [[List of Egyptian dynasties|dynasties]] that ruled for three millennia. [[Culture of Egypt|Egyptian civilisation]] thrived with distinctive achievements in [[Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]], [[Art of Ancient Egypt|art]], and [[Egyptian language|writing]]. The [[Old Kingdom]] ({{circa|2700–2200}} BCE) saw the construction of the [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], including those at [[Giza Necropolis|Giza]]. A brief [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|interregnum]] followed, succeeded by the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] ({{circa|2040}} BCE), a phase of renewed stability and prosperity under rulers such as [[Amenemhat III]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml|title=The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom |publisher=BBC |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117133705/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml|archive-date=17 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]] and the [[Hyksos]] occupation, Egypt was reunified by [[Ahmose I]], founder of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]] and the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] ({{circa|1550–1070}} BCE). This era marked Egypt's height as a major power in the region, extending influence into [[Nubia]] and the [[Levant]]. It produced many of Egypt's most renowned [[Pharaoh]]s, [[Hatshepsut]], [[Thutmose III]], [[Akhenaten]], [[Tutankhamun]], and [[Ramesses II]], and witnessed the rise of [[Atenism]], one of the earliest forms of [[monotheism]]. Despite later invasions by [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]], [[Kingdom of Kush|Nubians]], and [[Assyria]]ns, native dynasties eventually reasserted control.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm |title=The Kushite Conquest of Egypt |publisher=Ancientsudan.org |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201014554/http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm|archive-date=1 February 2011}}</ref>
[[File:BD Weighing of the Heart.jpg|thumb|The Weighing of the Heart from the ''[[Papyrus of Ani|Book of the Dead of Ani]]'']]
In 525 BCE, [[Cambyses II of Persia]] conquered Egypt, beginning the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] [[satrapy]] period (the [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-seventh Dynasty]]). Although several revolts occurred, Egypt remained under Persian control until briefly regaining independence before falling again in 343 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Shaw|editor-first=Ian|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-280458-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/383 383]|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/383}}
</ref> The [[Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth Dynasty]] was the last native royal house. Following renewed Persian domination, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered Egypt in 332 BCE, after which his general [[Ptolemy I Soter]] established the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Prudence J.|title=Cleopatra: A Sourcebook|url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/cleopatrasourceb0000jone/page/14 14]|location=Norman|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0806137414|quote=They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.}}</ref>

===Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt (305 BCE–641 CE)===
{{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom|Roman Egypt}}

[[File:Denderah3 Cleopatra Cesarion.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The Ptolemaic Queen [[Cleopatra VII]] and her son by Julius Caesar, [[Caesarion]], at the [[Dendera Temple complex|Temple of Dendera]]]]

The [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] was a [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] state from southern Syria to [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and south to Nubia, with [[Alexandria]] as its capital and a centre of [[Greeks|Greek]] culture and trade. The Ptolemies adopted pharaonic traditions to legitimise their rule, appearing on monuments in Egyptian style and participating in local religious life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bowman |first=Alan K |title= Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1996 |edition=2nd |pages=25–26 |isbn=0-520-20531-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Stanwick |first=Paul Edmond |title= Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |location=Austin |year=2003 |isbn=0-292-77772-8}}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref> The [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]], built c. 280 BCE, was one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]], later destroyed by earthquakes. The last ruler, [[Cleopatra VII]], committed suicide after [[Octavian]] captured Alexandria, ending the dynasty and paving the way for Roman annexation. Native rebellions and dynastic disputes weakened the kingdom, facilitating its annexation by Rome.

Egypt was a wealthy imperial province of the [[Roman Empire]], supplying grain and hosting the major city of Alexandria.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2025 |title=Ancient Egypt - Roman, Byzantine, 30 BCE-642 CE |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt/Roman-and-Byzantine-Egypt-30-bce-642-ce |access-date=26 April 2025 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Governed with Roman administration and Hellenistic culture, its population primarily spoke [[Koine Greek|Greek]] in major cities and [[Coptic language|Coptic Egyptian]] in rural areas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bowman |first1=Alan |title=Settlement, Urbanization, and Population |chapter=Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt |date=2011 |pages=317–358 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199602353.003.0011 |isbn=978-0-19-960235-3 }}</ref><ref name="pop">{{cite web |last1=Janzen |first1=Mark |title=Ancient Egypt Population Estimates: Slaves and Citizens |url=https://thetorah.com/ancient-egypt-population-estimates-slaves-and-citizens/ |website=TheTorah.com |access-date=18 August 2019 |date=2017}}</ref> Christianity reached Egypt in the 1st century, brought by [[Saint Mark the Evangelist]].<ref name=georgetown/> During [[Diocletian]]'s reign (284–305 CE), the [[New Testament]] had been translated into Egyptian and many Egyptian Christians were persecuted. By CE 451, a distinct [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Church]] was firmly established.<ref>Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and Guide''. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39</ref>

=== Middle Ages (641–1517) ===
{{Main|Egypt in the Middle Ages}}
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| image3 = مسـجد الحاكم بأمر الله 06.jpg
| footer = The [[Al-Hakim Mosque]] in Cairo, of [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], the sixth [[Fatimid]] caliph
| caption2 = The [[Ibn Tulun Mosque]] in Cairo, of [[Ahmad Ibn Tulun]]
| caption1 = The [[Amr ibn al-As]] mosque in Cairo, recognised as the oldest in Africa
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| alt2 = The [[Ibn Tulun Mosque]] in Cairo, of [[Ahmad Ibn Tulun]]

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The Byzantines regained control of Egypt after a brief [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid Persian]] invasion early in the 7th century, until 639–42, when the country was conquered by Arab Muslim forces under [[Amr ibn al-As]] during the [[Early Muslim conquests]]. The Arabs defeated the Byzantine armies, bringing [[Islam]] to Egypt. Alexandria briefly returned to Byzantine control in 645 but fell again to the Arabs in 646. In 654, an invasion fleet sent by [[Constans II]] was repulsed.<ref name=georgetown>{{cite web|url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=14 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |archive-date=20 December 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Arabs founded [[Fustat]], later replaced by Cairo in 969.

Under the [[Abbasid]] caliphate, Egypt was governed through deputies residing in Baghdad. Revolts occurred frequently, including the Egyptian revolt of 828 and the uprising of 831 when Copts joined Muslims against the government. Semi-independent dynasties arose, including the [[Tulunid dynasty]] (868–905) and [[Ikhshidid dynasty]] (935–969), which maintained Abbasid allegiance while exercising local authority.

The [[Fatimid Caliphate]] ruled Egypt from the 10th century, with [[Cairo]] as their capital. After the Fatimids, the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] governed until 1250, when the [[Mamluk]]s, a military caste of [[Turkic people|Turco]]-[[Circassians|Circassian]] origin, took control. The Mamluks ruled Egypt for the next three centuries and maintained control over parts of the Levant. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked trade routes connecting the Red Sea with India, Malaya, and the East Indies.<ref name="Abu-Lughod">{{cite book|last=Abu-Lughod|first=Janet L.|author-link=Janet Abu-Lughod|title=Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|orig-year=1989|pages=[https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243 243–244]|isbn=978-0-19-506774-3|chapter=The Mideast Heartland|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&pg=PA244|url=https://archive.org/details/beforeeuropeanhe00abul_1/page/243}}</ref> The mid-14th century [[Black Death]] killed about 40% of Egypt's population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm|title=Egypt – Major Cities |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=8 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117011718/http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867) ===
{{Main|Egypt Eyalet|History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty}}
{{multiple image
| image1 = ModernEgypt, Muhammad Ali by Auguste Couder, BAP 17996.jpg
| image2 = Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty map en.png
| footer = [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]], founder of the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]], and the extent of their realm.
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Egypt was conquered by the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1517, following the defeat of the [[Mamluk Sultanate]], and became a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Mamluks, who had dominated Egypt's military and political life for centuries, retained influence under Ottoman rule, creating a semi-autonomous power structure. The Ottomans faced repeated challenges in maintaining control, while plagues and famines weakened the economy and civil society. Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six major famines, including the 1784 famine that killed roughly one-sixth of the population.<ref name="Abu-Lughod"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm |title=Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows |website=ScienceDaily |date=22 November 2006 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013900/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1798, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] invaded Egypt, defeating the Mamluks at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]]. The French occupation was short-lived, but it destabilised the region and set the stage for Muhammad Ali Pasha's rise. After the French were expelled, power struggles ensued between the Ottomans, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries in Ottoman service, leaving Egypt politically fragmented.

In 1805, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] seized power, massacring the remaining Mamluks and establishing a dynasty that would rule Egypt until 1952. He reorganised the army along European lines, introduced conscription, and developed a centralised administration. At the same time, he promoted cash-crop agriculture, especially long-staple cotton, to integrate Egypt into global markets.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2">{{cite book|title=Nasser of the Arabs: an Arab assessment|last=Izzeddin|first=Nejla M. Abu|publisher=Third World Centre for Research and Publishing|year=1981|isbn=978-0-86199-012-2|page=2}}</ref> His successors, including [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], [[Abbas I of Egypt|Abbas I]], [[Sa'id of Egypt|Sa'id]], and [[Isma'il Pasha of Egypt|Isma'il Pasha]], continued reforms in agriculture, science, and industry, and abolished slavery.

Muhammad Ali expanded Egypt's control over [[Northern Sudan]] (1820–1824), [[Syria]] (1833), and parts of [[Arabia]] and [[Anatolia]], but European powers intervened in 1841, forcing him to relinquish most of his conquests. He modernised Egypt's infrastructure, built factories and irrigation networks, and strengthened the military, while broader education remained largely limited to military and technical training.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=217|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> The centralisation of power and focus on military and economic modernisation laid the foundation for Egypt's transformation into a regional power.

=== Monarchical Egypt (1867–1952) ===
{{Main|Khedivate of Egypt {{!}} Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914)|Sultanate of Egypt {{!}} Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)|Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953)}}

In 1867, Egypt was formally granted autonomous status as a [[Khedivate of Egypt|vassal state]] of the Ottoman Empire. The [[Suez Canal]], completed in 1869 with French assistance, became a key strategic and commercial asset. Financial mismanagement and mounting debts led Isma'il Pasha to sell Egypt's shares in the canal to Britain in 1875, increasing European influence. Rising discontent culminated in the [[Urabi revolt]], after which Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, establishing a de facto protectorate while maintaining nominal Ottoman sovereignty.<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', p. 2.</ref><ref>Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, ''Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981''. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p. 11.</ref><ref>De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt''. Metuchen, NJ; 1984; Scarecrow. p. 17.</ref> The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899 placed Sudan under joint Egyptian and British administration, though Britain retained real control. Incidents such as the [[Denshawai incident]] in 1906 intensified nationalist sentiment, laying the groundwork for political movements that challenged both Ottoman and European dominance.

[[File:Cairo-Demonstrations1919.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Female nationalists demonstrating in [[Cairo]] during the [[1919 revolution]], 1919]]
In 1914, as the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined World War I alongside the Central Powers, Khedive [[Abbas II of Egypt|Abbas II]] declared support for the Ottoman side. In response, the British deposed him and installed his brother [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]], who assumed the title of [[Sultanate of Egypt|Sultan of Egypt]]. Egypt was formally declared independent from the Ottoman Empire but remained under British protection.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne|title=Treaty of Lausanne – World War I Document Archive|website=wwi.lib.byu.edu|access-date=29 January 2020|archive-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613183950/https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne|url-status=live}}</ref>

After [[World War I]], nationalist sentiments surged. [[Saad Zaghlul]] and the [[Wafd Party]] secured popular support, but the British exiled Zaghlul and his colleagues to Malta on 8 March 1919, prompting the [[Egyptian revolution of 1919|first modern revolution]]. This uprising pressured the UK to issue a [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|declaration of independence]] on 22 February 1922.<ref name=jankowski-112>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=112}}</ref> Sultan [[Fuad I of Egypt|Fuad I]] then assumed the title of King of Egypt. Despite nominal independence, Britain retained military presence and political influence.<ref name=jankowski-112/>

In 1923, a new constitution established a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] government. The Wafd Party won a decisive victory in the 1923–24 elections, with [[Saad Zaghloul]] becoming prime minister. The [[Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|1936 treaty]] led to British troop withdrawal from most of Egypt, except the Suez Canal. The treaty left the status of [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]] unresolved, as real control remained with Britain.<ref name="ModernSudan">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zpShVWIxwIC&q=%22Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium+Agreement%22+%221899%22&pg=PA33|title=A History of Modern Sudan|last1=Collins|first1=Robert O.|last2=Collins|first2=Professor of History Robert O.|date=29 May 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85820-5|language=en|access-date=10 November 2020|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175515/https://books.google.com/books?id=-zpShVWIxwIC&q=%22Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium+Agreement%22+%221899%22&pg=PA33|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Fuad I of Egypt, Edward VIII, & Mohamed Sa'id Paşa.jpg|thumb|[[Fuad I of Egypt]] with [[Edward VIII|Edward, Prince of Wales]], 1932|left|223x223px]]
During [[World War II]], Egypt served as a strategic base for [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] operations, particularly in [[North Africa]]. Although Egypt declared martial law and severed diplomatic relations with [[Axis powers]], the Egyptian army did not engage directly. Political tensions persisted, highlighted by the 1942 [[Abdeen Palace Incident of 1942|Abdeen Palace Incident]], in which British forces pressured King Farouk to install a Wafd-coalition government.<ref name= Britro>{{cite web | title=British troops in Egypt. | url=https://www.britishmilitaryhistory.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/124/2020/07/British-Troops-Egypt-History-Personnel.pdf | access-date=29 July 2025}}</ref>

After the war, nationalist and anti-British sentiments intensified. British troops largely withdrew in 1947, leaving a residual presence around the Suez Canal. Egypt's defeat in the [[First Arab-Israeli War]] fuelled anti-monarchy feeling. The Wafd Party's 1950 election victory forced King Farouk to appoint [[Mostafa El-Nahas]] as prime minister. In 1951, Egypt unilaterally renounced the [[Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936|1936 treaty]] and demanded British troop withdrawal. The situation around the Suez Canal escalated, culminating in violent confrontations that led to the killing of 43 Egyptian policemen in 1952 by British troops. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt and led to the subsequent [[Cairo fire|Black Saturday]] anti-British riots, which saw widespread destruction in Cairo.<ref name="factbook-his">{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|work=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|access-date=2 February 2011|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009073315/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

These events precipitated the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952|Free Officers Movement coup]] on 22–23 July 1952, led by [[Muhammad Naguib]] and [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. King Farouk abdicated in favour of his infant son, [[Fuad II of Egypt|Fuad II]], but real power rested with the [[Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council]]. By 18 June 1953, the monarchy was formally abolished, the 1923 constitution suspended, and Egypt was declared a republic, with Naguib as president and Nasser as prime minister.<ref name="factbook-his"/>

=== Republican Egypt under Nasser (1952–1970) ===
{{Main|History of republican Egypt|History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser}}

[[File:Port Said from air.jpg|thumb|Smoke rises from oil tanks beside the [[Suez Canal]] hit during the initial [[Suez Crisis|Anglo-French assault]] on Egypt, 5 November 1956.]]
Following the [[Egyptian revolution of 1952|1952 Revolution]] led by the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers Movement]], Egypt came under military control, and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the [[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Republic of Egypt]] was officially declared, with [[Muhammad Naguib]] serving as the first President. His presidency lasted less than a year and a half, as [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], a [[Pan-Arabist]] and the principal architect of the 1952 movement, gradually consolidated power. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 and placed under [[house arrest]]. The presidency remained vacant until Nasser was formally elected in 1956.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://modernegypt.bibalex.org/Types/Persons/Details.aspx?type=ruler&ID=ieiMjZc32OCIOCRsXII4PA==|title=ذاكرة مصر المعاصر – السيرة الذاتية|website=modernegypt.bibalex.org|access-date=24 September 2018|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226053316/http://modernegypt.bibalex.org/Types/Persons/Details.aspx?type=ruler&ID=ieiMjZc32OCIOCRsXII4PA==|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to end the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement]] of 1899, granting Sudan full independence, which came into effect on 1 January 1956. In June 1956, Nasser assumed the presidency and immediately became the central figure in Egypt's domestic and foreign policy. British forces completed their withdrawal from the Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. Later that year, on 26 July, Nasser [[nationalised]] the Suez Canal, provoking the [[Suez Crisis]] when Israel, with support from France and the United Kingdom, invaded the Sinai Peninsula and targeted the Canal. The conflict ended following diplomatic pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union, restoring the pre-war status quo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Suez-Crisis|title=Suez Crisis | Definition, Summary, Location, History, Dates, Significance, & Facts | Britannica|date=22 October 2025|website=www.britannica.com|accessdate=20 November 2025}}</ref>
[[File:Nasser in Mansoura, 1960.jpg|thumb|Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in [[Mansoura, Egypt|Mansoura]], 1960]]
In 1958, Egypt formed a political union with Syria, creating the [[United Arab Republic]]. The union, also loosely connected with [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|North Yemen]] in the [[United Arab States]], was short-lived; Syria seceded in 1961. During this period, Egypt became heavily involved in the [[North Yemen Civil War]], with military interventions and peace conferences ultimately leading to a prolonged stalemate.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Orkaby |first1=Asher Aviad |title=The International History of the Yemen Civil War, 1962-1968 |date=2014 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12269828 }}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref>
In May 1967, tensions with Israel escalated after warnings from the Soviet Union, deployment of Egyptian forces to Sinai, expulsion of UN peacekeepers, and closure of the [[Straits of Tiran]]. These measures precipitated the [[Third Arab-Israeli War|Six-Day War]], during which Israel captured the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]. In response to the conflict, an [[Emergency law in Egypt|Emergency Law]] was enacted, greatly expanding police powers, restricting constitutional rights, and legalising censorship; it remained in force until 2012, except for a brief break in 1980–81.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Emergency Law in Egypt|url=http://www.fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT|work=International Federation for Human Rights|access-date=2 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201210318/http://fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT|archive-date=1 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Socially and economically, Nasser's policies transformed Egypt. At the time of the monarchy's fall, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class, four million were middle class, and seventeen million were lower class or poor.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p. 120">''Egypt on the Brink'' by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p. 120</ref> Education was expanded, with school enrolment more than doubling from 1953 to 1966. Land reforms, industrial support, and growth in public-sector employment created a larger middle class, including doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, and journalists. However, by the late 1960s, the Egyptian economy faced stagnation, political freedoms had declined, and Nasser's personal popularity began to wane.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p. 120"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Jesse Ferris|title=Nasser's Gamble: How Intervention in Yemen Caused the Six-Day War and the Decline of Egyptian Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UC4_aVRh7MgC&pg=PA172|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15514-2|page=2|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906085333/https://books.google.com/books?id=UC4_aVRh7MgC&pg=PA172|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Egypt under Sadat and Mubarak (1971–2011) ===
{{Main|History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat|History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak}}
[[File:Egyptian Armor.jpg|thumb|Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai desert during the [[Yom Kippur War]], 1973]]

After the death of [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in 1970, [[Anwar Sadat]] assumed the presidency of Egypt. Sadat consolidated his power by marginalising Nasserist and leftist factions, while controlling opposition both secular and religious. He shifted Egypt's Cold War alignment from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and renamed the country the Arab Republic of Egypt in 1971. Sadat launched the [[Infitah]] ("open door") economic reforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amin |first1=Galal A. |title=Egypt's Economic Predicament |date=1995 |doi=10.1163/9789004491175 |isbn=978-90-04-49117-5 }}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref> Some measures of this economic liberalisation caused social tensions, most notably the removal of food subsidies in 1977 which sparked widespread [[1977 Egyptian bread riots|bread riots]].

In 1973, Sadat coordinated with Syria in the [[Fourth Arab-Israeli War]] to reclaim the [[Sinai Peninsula]] from Israeli occupation. Though militarily mixed, the war restored Arab morale and strengthened Sadat's domestic legitimacy. His historic 1977 visit to Jerusalem led to the 1979 [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|Egypt-Israel peace treaty]], with Israel withdrawing from Sinai and Egypt recognising Israel as a sovereign state. This initiative provoked widespread controversy across the Arab world, resulting in Egypt's temporary expulsion from the [[Arab League]], but remained popular domestically.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P. J.|title=The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=443|edition=4.}}</ref> Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by an Islamic extremist opposed to his domestic policies and peace initiative.
[[File:Hosni Mubarak - Official Photo.JPG|left|thumb|222x222px|[[Hosni Mubarak]], president of Egypt from 1981 to 2011]]
[[Hosni Mubarak]] succeeded Sadat in a 1981 referendum in which he was the sole candidate.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |last=Cambanis |first=Thanassis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html
|title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt |location=Egypt |work=The New York Times |date=11 September 2010 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027041857/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html
|archive-date=27 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> He maintained Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and improved relations with Arab neighbours. Domestically, he faced widespread poverty, high unemployment, and urban overcrowding. The 1986 Security Police riots, sparked by reports of extended military service, led to violent protests, destruction of businesses, and 107 deaths.<ref>Middle East International No. 270, 7 March 1986, Publishers [[Christopher Mayhew|Lord Mayhew]], [[Dennis Walters]]. Simon Ingram p. 8, [[Per Gahrton]] p. 20</ref>

Terrorist attacks, particularly by Islamist groups like [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]], targeted government officials, foreigners, and Christian [[Copts]], devastating tourism, Egypt's primary source of hard currency.<ref>Murphy, Caryle ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience'', Scribner, 2002, p. 4</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm |title=Al-Ahram Weekly | Egypt | Fearing the worst |access-date=13 August 2013 |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924131816/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> The political scene was dominated by the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|NDP]], which curtailed freedoms of association, expression, and political participation through laws such as the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 NGOs Law.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Dunne |first1=Michele |title=Evaluating Egyptian Reform |date=2006 |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |jstor=resrep12830 |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CP66.Dunne.FINAL.pdf }}</ref>
[[File:Cairo north.JPG|thumb|Cairo grew into a [[metropolitan area]] with a population of over 22 million.<ref name="citypopulation2025">{{cite web |title=Major Agglomerations of the World - Population Statistics and Maps |url=http://citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/ |website=citypopulation.de |access-date=3 May 2025}}</ref>]]
In 1997, the [[Luxor massacre]] left 62 dead, mostly tourists, highlighting the continuing threat to security and the economy. In 2005, limited reforms allowed multi-candidate presidential elections, but restrictions on candidates and alleged government interference ensured Mubarak's easy reelection. Voter turnout was less than 25%, and opposition leader [[Ayman Nour]] was subsequently imprisoned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html
|title=United States 'Deeply Troubled' by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=24 December 2005 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021051128/http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html
|archive-date=21 October 2011 }}</ref>

[[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] reported widespread human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary detention, and the use of Egypt as an international "torture hub" in the context of the [[war on terror]].<ref name="HRW">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm
|title=Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt |chapter=Egypt: Events of 2005 |date=5 January 2006 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114115428/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm
|archive-date=14 November 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm
|title=Egypt torture centre, report says |publisher=BBC News |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126031108/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm
|archive-date=26 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Constitutional changes in 2007 further expanded presidential powers, restricted religious parties, and broadened police authority. Egypt remained under strong military influence, described by officials as a "pharaonic" system, with democracy as a distant aspiration.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm
|title=Anger over Egypt vote timetable |work=BBC News |date=20 March 2007 |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129222423/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm
|archive-date=29 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Contemporary (2011–present) ===
{{Main|2011 Egyptian revolution||Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)||2013 Egyptian protests|2013 Egyptian coup d'état}}

{{multiple image
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| footer = '''Top:''' Celebrations in [[Tahrir Square]] after the announcement of [[Hosni Mubarak]]'s resignation, 2011. '''Bottom:''' Protests in Tahrir Square against [[Mohamed Morsi|Morsi]], 2012.
| image1 = Tahrir Square on February11.png
| image2 = TahrirSquareAgainstMorsi.jpg
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On 25 January 2011, [[2011 Egyptian revolution|widespread protests]] erupted against President Hosni Mubarak's government, triggered by demands for political freedom, social justice, and the end of long-standing corruption. Demonstrations rapidly spread across major cities, particularly in [[Cairo]]'s [[Tahrir Square]], capturing global attention.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html
|title=Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control |work=Huffington Post |date=11 February 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322095317/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html
|archive-date=22 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> After 18 days of escalating unrest, Mubarak resigned on 11 February 2011 and fled Cairo. The [[Egyptian military]] assumed control, with [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]], chairman of the [[Supreme Council of the Armed Forces]], acting as interim head of state.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military |work=The New York Times |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |first=David D. |last=Kirkpatrick |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211081712/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html
|archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |title=Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader |publisher=BBC |date=11 February 2010 |access-date=11 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211192204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045
|archive-date=11 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 February, the military dissolved parliament and suspended the constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|title=Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended|publisher=BBC|date=13 February 2011|access-date=13 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214045727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|archive-date=14 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> A constitutional referendum followed on 19 March 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Marty |title=The Egyptian constitutional referendum of March 2011 a new beginning|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2011/March/The_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum_of_March_2011_a_new_beginning |website=www.aph.gov.au |language=en-AU |access-date=21 November 2022 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121104622/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2011/March/The_Egyptian_constitutional_referendum_of_March_2011_a_new_beginning |url-status=live }}</ref> Later that year, Egypt held its first parliamentary elections since the previous regime, with high voter turnout and no major reported irregularities.<ref>{{cite news |last=Memmott|first=Mark|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |title=Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections |newspaper=NPR |publisher=Npr.org |date=28 November 2011 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202183307/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Mohamed Morsi]], affiliated with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], won the [[2012 Egyptian presidential election|presidency]] on 24 June 2012 and was sworn in on 30 June.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's new president moves into his offices, begins choosing a Cabinet|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics|publisher=CNN|access-date=13 February 2013|date=25 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512224527/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics/|archive-date=12 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mohamed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/7/1/mohamed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president |work=www.aljazeera.com|language=en |access-date=2 September 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820031904/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/7/1/mohamed-morsi-sworn-in-as-egypts-president
|url-status=live }}</ref> His cabinet, announced in August 2012, included significant representation from the Muslim Brotherhood, prompting liberal and secular groups to withdraw from the [[Constituent Assembly of Egypt]] over concerns of imposing strict Islamic law.<ref>{{cite news|title= Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post |date= 3 August 2012}}</ref> In November 2012, Morsi issued a decree granting immunity to his decisions and protecting the constituent assembly's work, sparking [[2012–2013 Egyptian protests|mass protests and violent clashes]] across the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |title=Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers |work=BBC News |date=22 November 2012 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122182256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |archive-date=22 November 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tensions escalated, with the largest confrontations between Islamist supporters and opponents since the 2011 revolution occurring on 5 December 2012.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |title=Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=6 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421184804/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768
|archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Morsi refused to cancel the December 2012 [[2012 Egyptian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|title=Morsi refuses to cancel Egypt's vote on constitution|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 December 2012|access-date=8 December 2012|first=Jeffrey|last=Fleishman|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208041127/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|archive-date=8 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following growing public discontent, the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état|military removed Morsi]] on 3 July 2013, dissolved the [[Senate (Egypt)|Shura Council]], and installed [[Adly Mansour]], chief justice of the [[Supreme Constitutional Court (Egypt)|Supreme Constitutional Court]], as interim president.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Holpuch |first1=Amanda |last2=Siddique |first2=Haroon |last3=Weaver |first3=Matthew |title=Egypt's interim president sworn in - Thursday 4 July|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/egypt-revolution-new-president-live-updates |work=The Guardian |date=4 July 2013 |access-date=21 November 2022 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175613/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/04/egypt-revolution-new-president-live-updates |url-status=live }}</ref> Authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood, jailing thousands and conducting mass trials. Violence during [[Rabaa massacre|dispersals of pro-Morsi camps]] left hundreds dead.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt protests: Hundreds killed after police storm pro-Morsi camps|newspaper=ABC News|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=15 August 2013|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804050054/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|archive-date=4 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Abuse claims rife as Egypt admits jailing 16,000 Islamists in eight months|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|newspaper=The Independent|date=16 March 2014|access-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904163847/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A new [[Constitution of Egypt|constitution]] was approved by referendum on 18 January 2014 with 98.1% voting in favour.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=18 January 2014|access-date=18 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119234504/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|archive-date=19 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 January 2014 |title=Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi |access-date=25 November 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175646/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] won the [[2014 Egyptian presidential election|presidential elections]] in June 2014 with 96.1% of the vote and was sworn in on 8 June. Under his rule, Egypt intensified security on the Gaza border, dismantled tunnels between Sinai and Gaza, and consolidated political power. Presidential terms were extended to six years in 2019, allowing El-Sisi to run for a third term in 2024. Parliamentary elections in 2020 confirmed a pro-El-Sisi majority for the [[Nation's Future Party|Mostaqbal Watan Party]]. The constitutional reforms and strengthened military authority under El-Sisi have been described as a return to authoritarianism.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mehmood |first1=Ashna |date=31 March 2021 |title=Egypt's Return to Authoritarianism |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2021/03/31/egypts-return-to-authoritarianism/ |work=Modern Diplomacy}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=23 April 2019 |title=Sisi wins snap Egyptian referendum amid vote-buying claims |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/23/sisi-wins-snap-egyptian-referendum-amid-vote-buying-claims |work=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In December 2023, El-Sisi won the elections that gave him a third six-year term.<ref>{{cite web | title=Egypt election: President Sisi wins third term | website=BBC Home | date=2023-12-18 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67751459 | access-date=2026-01-09}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Egypt}}

[[File:Egypt Topography.png|thumb|Egypt's topography]]
Egypt lies primarily between latitudes [[22nd parallel north|22°]] and [[32nd parallel north|32°N]], and longitudes [[25th meridian east|25°]] and [[35th meridian east|35°E]]. At {{convert|1001450|km2|-1}}, it is the world's 29th largest country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |title=World Factbook area rank order |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |archive-date=9 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/383/1/Hamza.pdf |title=Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324233515/http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/383/1/Hamza.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fouberg|first1=Erin H.|last2=Murphy|first2=Alexander B.|author3=de Blij|title=Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThFncGxOrzEC&pg=PT91|access-date=10 February 2013|year=2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-57647-2|page=91|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509151021/http://books.google.com/books?id=ThFncGxOrzEC&pg=PT91|archive-date=9 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Sand Dunes (Qattara Depression).jpg|thumb|The [[Qattara Depression]] in Egypt's north west]]
Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. A [[transcontinental nation]], it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the [[Suez Canal]]) that [[Indo-Mediterranean|connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean]] by way of the Red Sea.

Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few [[oasis|oases]] scattered about. Winds create prolific [[Dune|sand dunes]] that peak at more than {{convert|100|ft|m|order=flip|-1}} high. Egypt includes parts of the [[Sahara]] desert and of the [[Libyan Desert]].

Sinai peninsula hosts the highest mountain in Egypt, [[Mount Catherine]] at 2,642 metres. The [[Red Sea Riviera]], on the east of the peninsula, is renowned for its wealth of coral reefs and marine life.

Towns and cities include [[Alexandria]], the second largest city; [[Aswan]]; [[Asyut]]; [[Cairo]], the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; [[El Mahalla El Kubra]]; [[Giza]], the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; [[Hurghada]]; [[Luxor]]; [[Kom Ombo]]; [[Port Safaga]]; [[Port Said]]; [[Sharm El Sheikh]]; [[Suez]], where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; [[Zagazig]]; and [[Minya, Egypt|Minya]]. [[Oasis|Oases]] include [[Bahariya Oasis|Bahariya]], [[Dakhla Oasis|Dakhla]], [[Farafra, Egypt|Farafra]], [[Kharga Oasis|Kharga]] and [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]]. [[Protectorates]] include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.

On 13 March 2015, plans for a [[proposed new capital of Egypt]] were announced.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt to build new administrative and business capital|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-31874886|work=BBC News|date=13 March 2015|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216003921/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-31874886|archive-date=16 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Egypt}}

[[File:Snow in St. Katherine, Sinai Egypt - March 1, 2009.jpg|thumb|Snow in [[Saint Catherine, Egypt|Saint Catherine]], [[Sinai Peninsula]]]]
Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soliman |first1=K. H. |title=Rainfall over Egypt |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |date=July 1953 |volume=79 |issue=341 |pages=389–397 |doi=10.1002/qj.49707934106 |bibcode=1953QJRMS..79..389S }}</ref> South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around {{convert|2|to|5|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as {{convert|410|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60326&refer= |title=Marsa Matruh, Egypt |publisher=Weatherbase.com |access-date=3 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104040540/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60326&refer= |archive-date=4 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as [[Damietta]], [[Baltim]] and [[Sidi Barrani]], and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.<ref>{{cite news |title= Biblical snowstorm: Rare flakes in Cairo, Jerusalem paralyzed by over a foot |first= Jason |last= Samenow |newspaper= The Washington Post |date= 13 December 2013 |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/wp/2013/12/13/rare-snow-in-cairo-jerusalem-paralyzed-in-historic-snow/ |access-date= 26 August 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150903233952/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/wp/2013/12/13/rare-snow-in-cairo-jerusalem-paralyzed-in-historic-snow/ |archive-date= 3 September 2015 |url-status=live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> [[Frost]] is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.

Egypt has a very hot, sunny and dry climate. Average temperature highs are very high to extremely high throughout most of the country. The exception to this is the northern part of the country, which, although still hot, has its temperatures moderated by the cool Mediterranean winds consistently blowing in over the sea coast, especially at the height of summer. The [[Khamaseen]] is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over {{convert|40|°C}} and sometimes over {{convert|50|°C}} in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less.

Prior to the construction of the [[Aswan Dam]], the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.

Egypt's hot and arid climate is increasingly strained by climate change, leading to extreme temperatures, droughts, floods, and rising sea levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Resilience for Energy Transition in Egypt – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/climate-resilience-for-energy-transition-in-egypt |access-date=29 October 2023 |website=IEA |date=3 July 2023 |language=en-GB}}</ref> As a highly vulnerable nation, these environmental shifts threaten food security, water availability, public health, and economic stability.<ref>{{Cite web |last=USAID |date=1 November 2024 |title=Egypt Climate Change Country Profile {{!}} Fact Sheet |url=https://www.usaid.gov/climate/country-profiles/egypt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204143712/https://www.usaid.gov/climate/country-profiles/egypt |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 December 2023 |access-date=14 January 2025 |website=U.S. Agency for International Development |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=UNDP Climate Change Adaptation |title=Egypt |url=https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/arab-states/egypt |access-date=14 January 2025 |website=www.adaptation-undp.org |date=25 April 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Egypt}}

[[File:Eastern Imperial Eagle cr.jpg|thumb|The [[Eastern Imperial Eagle]] is the national animal of Egypt.]]
Egypt signed the Rio [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |access-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124005746/http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |archive-date=24 January 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has subsequently produced a [[Biodiversity Action Plan|National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan]], which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/eg/eg-nbsap-01-en.pdf |title=Egypt: National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation |access-date=9 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012234/http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/eg/eg-nbsap-01-en.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Where many [[Center for Biological Diversity|CBD]] [[Biodiversity Action Plan|National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans]] neglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fungal-conservation.org/micheli.htm |title=The Micheli Guide to Fungal Conservation |access-date=9 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219063643/http://www.fungal-conservation.org/micheli.htm |archive-date=19 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.<ref>A.M. Abdel-Azeem, ''The History, Fungal Biodiversity, Conservation, and Future Perspectives for Mycology in Egypt'' IMA Fungus 1 (2): 123–142 (2010).</ref> For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ibrahim|first1=Kamal M.|last2=Hosni|first2=Hasnaa A.|last3=Peterson|first3=Paul M.|title=Grasses of Egypt|date=2016|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo67060|access-date=16 April 2016|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518190122/https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GOVPUB-SI-PURL-gpo67060|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Government ==
{{Main|Politics of Egypt}}

{{multiple image
| total_width = 340
| image1 = AbdelFattah Elsisi (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] [[President of Egypt|President]] 
| image2 = Mostafa Madbouly (cropped).jpg
| caption2 = [[Mostafa Madbouly]] [[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]] 
| caption_align = center
}}

The [[House of Representatives (Egypt)|House of Representatives]], whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. [[Elections in Egypt|Elections]] were held between [[2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election|November 2011 and January 2012]], which were later dissolved.

After a wave of public discontent with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] government of President [[Mohamed Morsi]],<ref name="morsi-think-again">{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|title=Think Again: The Muslim Brotherhood|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=28 January 2013|access-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202110236/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> on 3 July 2013 then-[[Egyptian Army ranks|General]] [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the [[Egyptian Constitution of 2012|constitution]]. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying [[Egyptian Constitution of 2014|the constitution]], which was later published for [[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2014|public voting]] and was adopted on 18 January 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/80519.aspx|title=Who's Who: Members of Egypt's 50-member constitution committee|newspaper=Al-Ahram|access-date=1 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903224524/http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/80519.aspx|archive-date=3 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Egyptian parliamentary election, 2015|The next parliamentary election]] was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.<ref name="ao30aug">{{Cite news |date=30 August 2015 |title=Timetable for Egypt's parliamentary elections announced; voting to start 17 Oct |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/139288/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-parliamentary-elections-to-start--October---.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904023424/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/139288/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-parliamentary-elections-to-start--October---.aspx |archive-date=4 September 2015 |access-date=11 September 2015 |agency=Ahram Online}}</ref> Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president [[Adly Mansour]] pushed the date.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 January 2014 |title=Egypt to Hold Presidential Polls First: Interim President |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/92617.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407072629/http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/92617.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2014 |access-date=2 April 2014 |publisher=Ahram Online}}</ref> The [[2014 Egyptian presidential election]] took place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for [[Hamdeen Sabahi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91% |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102841/Egypt/Politics-/BREAKING-PEC-officially-announces-AbdelFattah-ElSi.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731100838/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102841/Egypt/Politics-/BREAKING-PEC-officially-announces-AbdelFattah-ElSi.aspx |archive-date=31 July 2014 |access-date=28 July 2014 |website=English.Ahram.org |publisher=Ahram Online}}</ref>

In 2024, as part of its [[Freedom in the World]] report, [[Freedom House]] rated [[political rights]] in Egypt at 6 (with 40 representing the most free and 0 the least), and [[civil liberties]] at 12 (with 60 being the highest score and 0 the lowest), which gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free".<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/egypt/freedom-world/2024|work=Freedom in the World 2024|publisher=Freedom House|access-date=3 March 2024|archive-date=2 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302233711/https://freedomhouse.org/country/egypt/freedom-world/2024|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the 2023 [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] Egypt is the eighth least [[democracy in Africa|democratic country in Africa]].<ref name="vdem_dataset">{{cite web |last=V-Dem Institute |date=2023 |title=The V-Dem Dataset |url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |access-date=14 October 2023 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208183458/https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 2023 edition of [[The Economist Democracy Index]] categorises Egypt as an "authoritarian regime", with a score of 2.93.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Democracy Index 2023: Age of conflict |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Democracy-Index-2023-Final-report.pdf |website=[[Economist Intelligence Unit]] |page=3 |language=en-GB |access-date=3 March 2024 |archive-date=20 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240320115317/http://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Democracy-Index-2023-Final-report.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.<ref name="pogar" /> The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.<ref name="pogar">{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Nathan J.|title=Mechanisms of Accountability in Arab Governance: The Present and Future of Judiciaries and Parliaments in the Arab World|url=http://www.undp-pogar.org/publications/governance/nbrown/potential.html#foot1|publisher=Programme on Governance in the Arab Region|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605005203/http://www.undp-pogar.org/publications/governance/nbrown/potential.html#foot1|archive-date=5 June 2012}}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Egypt}}

{{multiple image
| width1 = 185
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| direction = vertical
| footer = Top: Former President [[Hosni Mubarak]] with former US President [[George W. Bush]] at Camp David in 2002. Bottom: President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] in Sochi, August 2014.
| image1 = Hosni Mubarak with George W. Bush.jpg
| image2 = Sisi and Putin meeting on 16 August 2014 (1).jpg
}}

Egypt's foreign policy is shaped by its strategic geographical position, historical legacy, and diplomatic influence in Africa, the Mediterranean, and Southwest Asia. As a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the United Nations, Egypt has maintained a non-aligned stance while playing a pivotal role in regional diplomacy. Cairo, historically a crossroads of commerce and culture, remains a centre of intellectual and political influence in the region.

The [[Egypt–United States relations|United States]] has been a key partner, providing Egypt with US$1.3 billion in annual military assistance as of 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/mar/31/obama-restores-us-military-aid-to-egypt |title=Obama restores US military aid to Egypt over Islamic State concerns |date=31 March 2015 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214044811/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/mar/31/obama-restores-us-military-aid-to-egypt |archive-date=14 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1989, Egypt was designated a [[major non-NATO ally]], but relations soured following the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état]], as the [[Obama administration]] criticised Egypt's crackdown on the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and suspended joint military exercises.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-protests-obama-idUSBRE97E0N020130816 |title=Obama cancels military exercises, condemns violence in Egypt |work=Reuters |date=15 August 2013 |access-date=8 October 2014 |author1=Holland, Steve |author2=Mason, Jeff |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014033253/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/16/us-egypt-protests-obama-idUSBRE97E0N020130816 |archive-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Under President [[Donald Trump]], relations improved, with [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]'s 2017 visit to the White House marking the first by an Egyptian president in eight years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/03/world/middleeast/-egypt-sisi-trump-white-house.html|title=Trump Shifts Course on Egypt, Praising Its Authoritarian Leader|last1=Baker|first1=Peter|date=3 April 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 February 2019|last2=Walsh|first2=Declan|language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215120743/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/03/world/middleeast/-egypt-sisi-trump-white-house.html|archive-date=15 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Relations with [[Egypt–Russia relations|Russia]] strengthened after Morsi's removal, with both nations expanding military cooperation<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-egypt-arms-idUSKBN0HC19T20140917 |title=Russia, Egypt seal preliminary arms deal worth $3.5 billion: agency |work=Reuters |date=17 September 2014 |access-date=8 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014032747/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/17/us-russia-egypt-arms-idUSKBN0HC19T20140917 |archive-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and trade relations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/russia-boost-wheat-supplies-egypt-mulls-free-trade-144820576--sector.html |title=Russia to boost trade with Egypt after Western food ban |work=Yahoo News |date=12 August 2014 |access-date=8 October 2014 |author=Anishchuk, Alexei |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014204101/http://news.yahoo.com/russia-boost-wheat-supplies-egypt-mulls-free-trade-144820576--sector.html |archive-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, [[China–Egypt relations|relations with China]] have deepened, culminating in the establishment of a "comprehensive strategic partnership" in 2014.<ref>"[https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/chinas-egypt-opportunity/ China's Egypt Opportunity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927040951/https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/chinas-egypt-opportunity/ |date=27 September 2015 }}". ''[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]''. 24 December 2014</ref>

In 2024, Egypt and the [[European Union]] elevated their relationship to a "strategic and comprehensive partnership", emphasising political cooperation, and economic collaboration. Additionally, both sides are working on deepening trade relations under the Association Agreement, supporting Egypt's economic stability, and strengthening counterterrorism efforts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/joint-declaration-strategic-and-comprehensive-partnership-between-arab-republic-egypt-and-european-2024-03-17_en |title=Joint Declaration on the Strategic and Comprehensive Partnership between the Arab Republic of Egypt and the European Union |publisher=European Commission |date=17 March 2024 |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

Egypt remains an influential mediator in Middle Eastern conflicts, particularly in brokering ceasefires in Gaza and facilitating the [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maddy-weitzman |first1=Bruce |title=Middle East Contemporary Survey: Volume XIX, 1995 |date=1997 |publisher=The Moshe Dayan Center |isbn=978-0-8133-3411-0 |url={{GBurl|E6H6GAzdrXcC|p=265}} |page=265 }}</ref> It is also a Member State of the [[African Union]] and the [[Arab League]], hosting the Arab League headquarters in Cairo. The Arab League temporarily moved to Tunis in 1978 in protest of the [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty]], but returned to Cairo in 1989. Egypt has also cultivated strong economic ties with Gulf nations such as [[Egypt–Saudi Arabia relations|Saudi Arabia]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]], both of which have provided billions of dollars in financial assistance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/saudi-arabia-uae-prop-egypt-5bn-aid-boost-1469781 |title=Saudi Arabia and UAE to Prop Up Egypt With $5bn Aid Boost |website=International Business Times |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=17 October 2014 |author=Wilson, Nigel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019104420/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/saudi-arabia-uae-prop-egypt-5bn-aid-boost-1469781 |archive-date=19 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Egyptian Armed Forces}}

{{Further|Military industry of Egypt}}

[[File:Defense.gov photo essay 090421-N-0696M-106.jpg|thumb|[[Egyptian Republican Guard|Egyptian honour guard soldiers]] in 2009]]

The [[Egyptian Armed Forces]] constitute Egypt's military establishment, comprising the [[Egyptian Army]], [[Egyptian Navy|Navy]], [[Egyptian Air Force|Air Force]], and [[Egyptian Air Defence Forces|Air Defense Forces]] under the direct supervision of the Chief of Staff,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/02/14/egypt.military.facts/index.html|title=Egypt's military: Key facts|access-date=12 April 2017|language=en}}</ref> with their headquarters at the [[The Octagon (Egypt)|State Strategic Command Center]], commonly known as the Octagon, in the [[New Administrative Capital]]. The military primarily oversees external defence but also plays a domestic role, assisting police in protecting vital infrastructure during emergencies and counterterrorism operations.<ref name="NYT 2011" /> They also participate in foreign peacekeeping missions and engage in bilateral and multinational military exercises.<ref name=CIA-military>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Egypt|section=Military and Security |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

The military wields significant political influence, operating autonomously and remaining exempt from many civilian laws.<ref name="NYT 2011">{{cite news|last=Cambanis|first=Thanassis|title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html?_r=1&ref=global-home&pagewanted=all|access-date=11 September 2010|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=11 September 2010}}</ref> A significant amount of military information is not made publicly available, including budget information, the names of the general officers and the military's size (which is considered a state secret).<ref name="NYT 2011" /> In addition, the military is a major driver of Egypt's economic landscape, engaging in infrastructure development, consumer goods production, and real estate holdings through the [[National Service Products Organization|National Service Projects Organization]].

With an active personnel strength of 438,500 and 479,000 reservists,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/04/15/egyptian-armed-forces-and-remaking-of-economic-empire |title=The Egyptian Armed Forces and the Remaking of an Economic Empire |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |date=15 April 2015 |access-date=23 June 2015 |author=Marshall, Shana |work=Carnegie Middle East Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709153851/http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/04/15/egyptian-armed-forces-and-remaking-of-economic-empire |archive-date=9 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> it is one of the largest and best-equipped militaries in the region.<ref name=CIA-military/> Conscription is mandatory for men aged 18–30, with service obligations ranging from 14 to 36 months, depending on educational level, followed by a nine-year reserve duty. Voluntary enlistment is possible from age 16 for men and 17 for women.<ref name=CIA-military/>

The military operates a diverse arsenal sourced primarily from China, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Recent efforts have focused on modernisation and procurement of advanced weaponry.<ref name=CIA-military/> The domestic defence industry is also well-established, manufacturing small arms, armoured vehicles, and naval vessels, while maintaining licensed production agreements with countries such as [[Germany]] and the [[United States]].<ref name=CIA-military/>

Egypt is one of few countries in the region to possess spy satellites, launching [[EgyptSat 1]] in 2007,<ref>{{cite news |last=Katz |first=Yaacov|url=https://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=48099|title=Egypt to launch first spy satellite|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=15 January 2007}}</ref> followed by [[EgyptSat 2]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/16egyptsat2/ |title=Egyptian reconnaissance satellite launched by Soyuz |author=Stephen Clark |publisher=Spaceflight Now |date=16 April 2014 |access-date=18 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419013018/http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/16egyptsat2/ |archive-date=19 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, Egypt launched MisrSat-A, an observation satellite,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/egyptsat-a.htm |title=EgyptSat-A |website=Gunter's Space Page |access-date=5 April 2025}}</ref> followed later that year by Tiba-1, a civilian and military communications satellite.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://spaceinafrica.com/2019/11/27/egypt-launches-tiba-1-communications-satellite-on-board-ariane-5-rocket/ |title=Egypt Launches Tiba-1 Communications Satellite on Board Ariane 5 Rocket |website=Space in Africa |date=27 November 2019 |access-date=5 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/tiba-1.htm |title=Tiba-1 |website=Gunter's Space Page |access-date=5 April 2025}}</ref> In 2023, Egypt launched Horus-1 and Horus-2, about a month apart. The country also placed MisrSat-2 into orbit later that year. All three of them are high-resolution observation satellites.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atalayar.com/en/articulo/new-technologies-innovation/egypt-already-has-its-fourth-spy-satellite-orbit-and-emirates-its-second-astronaut/20230304094404182042.html |title=Egypt already has its fourth spy satellite in orbit, and the Emirates its second astronaut |date=4 March 2023 |publisher=Atalayar |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://spaceinafrica.com/2023/12/04/egypt-launches-misrsat-2/ |title=Egypt Launches MisrSat-2 |date=4 December 2023 |publisher=Space in Africa |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/horus-1.htm |title=Horus-1 |website=Gunter's Space Page |access-date=5 April 2025}}</ref> In 2024, two months after MisrSat-2's launch, the country successfully completed the initial operational phase of NEXSAT-1, its first experimental Earth observation satellite, achieving milestones such as developing indigenous onboard software, advanced attitude-control systems, and independently capturing and processing satellite imagery, all of which marked a major step forward in Egypt's national space capabilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://spaceinafrica.com/2024/07/31/egypt-marks-milestone-with-its-experimental-satellite-nexsat-1/ |title=Egypt Marks Milestone With Its Experimental Satellite Nexsat-1 |website=Space in Africa |date=31 July 2024 |access-date=5 April 2025}}</ref>

=== Law ===
{{Main|Egyptian Civil Code}}

[[File:Egyptian High Court of Justice.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The High Court of Justice in [[Downtown Cairo]]]]
The legal system is based on [[Sharia law|Islamic]] and civil law (particularly the [[Napoleonic Code]]); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory [[International Court of Justice]] jurisdiction only with reservations.<ref name="factbook-his" /> The highest judicial authority of Egypt is the [[Supreme Constitutional Court (Egypt)|Supreme Constitutional Court]], located in the [[Maadi]] district of Cairo.

Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the [[Ministry of Justice (Egypt)|Ministry of Justice]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7235357.stm |title=Incorporating Sharia into legal systems |work=BBC News |date=8 February 2008 |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425031043/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7235357.stm |archive-date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt Gender Equality Profile|url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Egypt-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=20 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019172446/https://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Egypt-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a [[Egyptian constitutional referendum, 2012|referendum]] held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Egyptian constitution 'approved' in referendum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20829911|work=BBC News|date=23 December 2012|access-date=23 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223022054/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20829911|archive-date=23 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> It replaced the [[2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt]], adopted following the revolution.

The Penal code was unique as it contains a "[[Blasphemy law in Egypt|Blasphemy Law]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/oeur/lxweegy.htm |title=Legislation Egypt |publisher=Lexadin.nl |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012239/http://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/oeur/lxweegy.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual [[tried in absentia|tried ''in absentia'']]. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |title=7 Egyptian Christians, Florida pastor sentenced to death for anti-Islam film |url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/7-egyptian-christians-florida-pastor-sentenced-to-death-for-anti-islam-film |publisher=Fox News |date=28 November 2012 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105210156/https://www.foxnews.com/world/7-egyptian-christians-florida-pastor-sentenced-to-death-for-anti-islam-film |archive-date=5 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more [[Egyptian Constitution of 2014|secular constitution]].<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25796110 |title=BBC News – Egypt referendum: '98% back new constitution' |last=BBC |date=18 January 2014 |work=[[BBC Online]] |access-date=19 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118203701/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25796110|archive-date=18 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.<ref name="BBC" /> The parliament may impeach the president.<ref name="BBC" /> Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute [[Freedom of Religion|freedom of thought]].<ref name="BBC" /> The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.<ref name="BBC" /> Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".<ref name="BBC" />

==== Human rights ====
{{Main|Human rights in Egypt}}

{{See also|August 2013 Rabaa massacre|Persecution of Copts}}
[[File:Neither Morsi nor the military - Egypt's Third Square Movement seeks an alternative vision for the future.jpg|thumb|Protesters from the Third Square movement, which supported neither the former Morsi government nor the Armed Forces, 31 July 2013]]
The [[National Council for Human Rights]] was established in 2003, but it has faced criticism from activists who argue it serves as a government propaganda tool to justify human rights violations and repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nchregypt.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=3 |title=Law No. 94 of 2003 Promulgating The National Council for Human Rights |publisher=Nchregypt.org |date=16 February 2010 |access-date=8 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012238/http://www.nchregypt.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=3 |archive-date=17 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eohr.org/PRESS/2003/6-3.HTM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030701015847/http://www.eohr.org/PRESS/2003/6-3.HTM |archive-date=1 July 2003 |title=Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs |publisher=EOHR |date=3 June 2003 |access-date=8 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://anhri.net/en/discussion/2004/ehrc.shtml |title=The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree |publisher=ANHRI |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105202323/http://www.anhri.net/en/discussion/2004/ehrc.shtml |archive-date=5 January 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Egypt has been ranked among the worst countries for religious freedom, with widespread discrimination against minorities such as [[Coptic Christians]], [[Baháʼís]], and other Muslim sects. A 2009 report by [[Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life]] ranked Egypt fifth worst globally for religious freedom,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipsnorthamerica.net/news.php?idnews=2748 |title=Religion: Few States Enjoy Freedom of Faith, Report Says |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=17 December 2009 |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112201851/http://www.ipsnorthamerica.net/news.php?idnews=2748 |archive-date=12 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> while the [[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]] has placed Egypt on its watch list due to state-tolerated violations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uscirf.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1457&Itemid=1 |title=USCIRF Watch List – USCIRF |publisher=Uscirf.gov |access-date=1 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114131553/http://www.uscirf.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1457&Itemid=1 |archive-date=14 November 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2010 [[Pew Research Center|Pew]] survey found that 84% of Egyptians supported the death penalty for [[Apostasy in Islam|apostasy]], 77% backed amputations for theft, and 82% endorsed stoning for [[adultery]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Muslim Publics Divided on Hamas and Hezbollah|date=2 December 2010|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/12/02/muslims-around-the-world-divided-on-hamas-and-hezbollah/|publisher=Pew Global Attitudes Project|access-date=8 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513123330/http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/12/02/muslims-around-the-world-divided-on-hamas-and-hezbollah/|archive-date=13 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the [[2013 Egyptian coup d'état]], political repression has intensified, with mass arrests and harsh crackdowns on dissent. During the [[August 2013 Egyptian raids|August 2013 sit-in dispersal]], 595 protesters were killed, making 14 August 2013 the deadliest day in Egypt's modern history.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Mohsen, Manar |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |title=Health Ministry raises death toll of Wednesday's clashes to 638 |newspaper=Daily News Egypt |date=16 August 2013 |access-date=19 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821044205/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |archive-date=21 August 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/14/world/middleeast/memory-egypt-mass-killing.html Memory of a Mass Killing Becomes Another Casualty of Egyptian Protests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325055057/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/14/world/middleeast/memory-egypt-mass-killing.html |date=25 March 2017 }}". ''The New York Times.'' 13 November 2013.</ref> Since then, an estimated 60,000 [[political prisoners in Egypt|political prisoners]] remain behind bars.<ref>{{cite news |title=My brother is one of Egypt's 60,000 political prisoners – and Trump is happy to let him rot in jail |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/moustafa-kassem-abdel-fattah-el-sisi-trump-egypt-us-prisoner-a9288401.html |work=The Independent |date=17 January 2020 |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-date=27 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127171138/https://www.independent.co.uk//voices/moustafa-kassem-abdel-fattah-el-sisi-trump-egypt-us-prisoner-a9288401.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Egypt has also drawn international condemnation for mass death sentences, including a 2014 ruling sentencing 529 people to death in a single hearing.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences nearly 530 to death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-529-morsi-supporters-to-death/2014/03/24/46b21f46-b32c-11e3-bab2-b9602293021d_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325150616/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-529-morsi-supporters-to-death/2014/03/24/46b21f46-b32c-11e3-bab2-b9602293021d_story.html|archive-date=25 March 2014|newspaper=Washington Post|date=24 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[United Nations]] and human rights groups have condemned these trials as gross violations of [[international law]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/26/world/middleeast/un-expresses-alarm-over-egyptian-death-sentences.html |work=The New York Times |first=Nick |last=Cumming-Bruce |title=U.N. Expresses Alarm Over Egyptian Death Sentences |date=25 March 2014 |access-date=24 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718152729/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/26/world/middleeast/un-expresses-alarm-over-egyptian-death-sentences.html |archive-date=18 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[LGBT rights in Egypt|Homosexuality]] remains [[de facto]] criminalised, with 95% of Egyptians opposing its acceptance, according to a 2013 [[Pew Research Center|Pew]] survey.<ref name="pewglobal.org">[http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/ "The Global Divide on Homosexuality."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103034522/http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/ |date=3 November 2013 }} ''pewglobal''. 4 June 2013.</ref> A poll by the [[Thomson Reuters Foundation]], based on assessments from specialists in women's rights, ranked Cairo as the worst megacity for women, evaluating cities on sexual harassment, healthcare access, harmful cultural practices, and economic opportunities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://poll2017.trust.org/|publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation|title=The world's most dangerous megacities for women 2017|work=poll2017.trust.org|access-date=24 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025024053/http://poll2017.trust.org/ |archive-date=25 October 2017}}</ref>

==== Freedom of the press ====
[[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked Egypt in their 2017 [[Press Freedom Index|World Press Freedom Index]] at {{abbr|No.|Number}} 160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, {{as of|2015|August|lc=y}}. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defence".<ref>Gehlen, M. (2015) [http://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2015-08/aegypten-al-dschasira-journalisten-haft Al-Dschasira-Journalisten zu drei Jahren Haft verurteilt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830030511/http://www.zeit.de/politik/ausland/2015-08/aegypten-al-dschasira-journalisten-haft |date=30 August 2015 }}, Zeit Online, 29 August 2015</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Egypt}}

Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.<ref name="Beckouche2017">{{cite book|author=Pierre Beckouche|title=Europe's Mediterranean Neighbourhood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tHpHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA121|year=2017|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-78643-149-3|page=121}}</ref>

[[File:Egypt - Administrative Divisions - Nmbrs - colored.png|center|thumb|upright=2|Governorates of Egypt:
{{divcol|colwidth=17em|style=column-count:2}}
{{ordered list
|
[[Matrouh Governorate|Matrouh]] [[File:Matrouh Governorate-logo.PNG|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Matrouh Governorate]]
|
[[Alexandria Governorate|Alexandria]] [[File:Flag of Alexandria.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Alexandria Governorate]]
|
[[Beheira Governorate|Beheira]] [[File:Flag of Behira Govenorate.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Beheira Governorate]]
|
[[Kafr El Sheikh Governorate|Kafr El Sheikh]] [[File:Flag of Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Kafr El Sheikh Governorate]]
|
[[Dakahlia Governorate|Dakahlia]] [[File:Dakahlya Governorate Flag - Egypt.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Dakahlia Governorate]]
|
[[Damietta Governorate|Damietta]] [[File:Flag of Damietta Governorate.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Damietta Governorate]]
|
[[Port Said Governorate|Port Said]] [[File:Port Said Flag Version 2.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Port Said Governorate]]
|
[[North Sinai Governorate|North Sinai]] [[File:North Sinai (New Flag).svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=North Sinai Governorate]]
|
[[Gharbia Governorate|Gharbia]] [[File:Flag of Gharbia Governorate.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Gharbia Governorate]]
|
[[Monufia Governorate|Monufia]] [[File:Flag of Menoufia Governorate.PNG|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Monufia Governorate]]
|
[[Qalyubia Governorate|Qalyubia]] [[File:Governadorat de Qalyubiya.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Qalyubia Governorate]]
|
[[Sharqia Governorate|Sharqia]] [[File:Flag Of Sharkia Governorate.svg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Sharqia Governorate]]
|
[[Ismailia Governorate|Ismailia]] [[File:Governadorat d'Ismailiya.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Ismailia Governorate]]
|
[[Giza Governorate|Giza]] [[File:Flag of Giza Governorate.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Giza Governorate]]
|
[[Faiyum Governorate|Faiyum]] [[File:Governadorat de Faium.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Faiyum Governorate]]
|
[[Cairo Governorate|Cairo]] [[File:Flag Cairo Governorate.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Cairo Governorate]]
|
[[Suez Governorate|Suez]] [[File:Flag of the governorate of suez.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Suez Governorate]]
|
[[South Sinai Governorate|South Sinai]] [[File:Flag of the South Sinai Governorate.svg|frameless|border|upright=0.12|link=South Sinai Governorate]]
|
[[Beni Suef Governorate|Beni Suef]] [[File:Beni Suef Governorate New Flag.svg|frameless|border|upright=0.12|link=Beni Suef Governorate]]
|
[[Minya Governorate|Minya]] [[File:Flag of Minya Governorate.jpg|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Minya Governorate]]
|
[[New Valley Governorate|New Valley]] [[File:Flag of New Valley Governorate.png|frameless|border|upright=0.12|link=New Valley Governorate]]
|
[[Asyut Governorate|Asyut]] [[File:Flag of Assiut Governorate.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Asyut Governorate]]
|
[[Red Sea Governorate|Red Sea]] [[File:Red sea governorate flag.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Red Sea Governorate]]
|
[[Sohag Governorate|Sohag]] [[File:Governadorat de Suhaj.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Sohag Governorate]]
|
[[Qena Governorate|Qena]] [[File:Flag of Qena Governorate.png|frameless|border|upright=0.12|link=Qena Governorate]]
|
[[Luxor Governorate|Luxor]] [[File:Eg luxor1.png|frameless|border|upright=0.12|link=Luxor Governorate]]
|
[[Aswan Governorate|Aswan]] [[File:Flag of Aswan Governorate.png|frameless|upright=0.12|link=Aswan Governorate]]
}}
{{divcolend}}]]

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Egypt}}

[[File:GDP per capita development of Egypt.svg|thumb|Change in per capita GDP of Egypt, 1820–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.|right]]

The economy of Egypt is the second-largest in [[Africa]] and ranks [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|44th worldwide]] as of 2025.<ref name="IMFAPR2025" /> It is a major [[emerging market]] economy, marked by its membership in organisations like the [[African Union]], [[Arab League]], [[BRICS]], and its participation in the [[African Continental Free Trade Area]] (AfCFTA).<ref name=intro1>{{cite news | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2024-03-11/egypt-stocks-rally-saudi-aramco-s-dividend-biden-warns-israel | title=Egypt Stocks Rally, Saudi Aramco's Dividend, Biden Warns Israel | date=11 March 2024 | access-date=27 February 2025 }}</ref> The Egyptian economy has evolved significantly since the early 2000s, transitioning toward a market-oriented system through fiscal and monetary reforms, privatisation efforts, and foreign investment incentives. These measures have contributed to macroeconomic stability and improved unemployment and poverty rates.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Egypt's Unemployment Falls to Lowest Levels in 14 Years|url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2794696/egypt%E2%80%99s-unemployment-falls-lowest-levels-14-years|access-date=3 March 2021|website=Asharq AL-awsat|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Egypt's poverty rate declines to 29.7%: CAPMAS - Economy - Business|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/396107/Business/Economy/Egypt%E2%80%99s-poverty-rate-declines-to--CAPMAS.aspx|access-date=3 March 2021|website=Ahram Online|language=en|archive-date=13 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313123200/https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/396107/Business/Economy/Egypt%E2%80%99s-poverty-rate-declines-to--CAPMAS.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Despite waves of privatisation and fiscal reforms, the government remains one of the country's largest employers, and state contracts continue to stimulate activity in other sectors of the still partly [[Socialist economics|socialised economy]].<ref name=britannica-economy>{{cite web |title=Egypt: The service sector |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/The-service-sector |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=6 October 2025 }}</ref> Construction, particularly large-scale [[public works]], has remained a major source of employment and public expenditure.<ref name=britannica-economy/> However, as part of an $8 billion [[International Monetary Fund]] programme launched in 2024, Egypt has committed to rationalising such spending.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt is promising change – do investors believe it? |work=Euromoney |date=25 November 2024|url=https://www.euromoney.com/article/2e2er5lw9n9fknd84jdog/sponsored-content/egypt-is-promising-change-do-investors-believe-it |access-date=6 October 2025 |publisher=Euromoney Limited}}</ref> As a result, private investments rose to 47.5% of total executed investments in FY 2024/25, up from 39.6%, while public investment fell to 43.3%. This marks the highest private share in five years and represents a clear shift in Egypt's investment landscape.<ref>{{cite news |title=Egypt private investment hits 5-year high in FY24/25 |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/554176.aspx |work=Ahram Online |date=1 October 2025 |access-date=6 October 2025 |author=Doaa A. Moneim}}</ref>
[[File:Central business district 2, New Administrative Capital.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The central business district in Egypt's [[New Administrative Capital|new capital]]]]
Egypt is among the world's top five recipients of [[remittances]],<ref name=remittances-dne>{{cite news | url=https://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2024/12/24/egypts-remittances-hit-23-7bn-in-10m-2024-marking-45-3-growth/ | title=Egypt's Remittances Hit $23.7bn in 10M 2024, Marking 45.3% Growth | work=Daily News Egypt | date=24 December 2024 | access-date=28 February 2025 }}</ref> which have more than doubled over the past decade, rising from $17.1 billion in FY 2015/2016 to a record $36.5 billion in FY 2024/2025, according to data from the [[Central Bank of Egypt]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Egyptian Remittances Double in Ten Years and Surge 66% in One Year |url=https://weetracker.com/2025/10/02/egyptian-remittances-double-in-ten-years-and-surge-66-in-one-year/ |website=WeeTracker |publisher=Wee Media |author=Staff Reporter |date=2 October 2025 |access-date=4 October 2025}}</ref> These inflows are crucial for Egypt's foreign reserves and household incomes.<ref name="egypt.iom.int">{{cite web |title=Migration and Development in Egypt |url=http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011709/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf |archive-date=5 February 2011 |access-date=2 December 2015 |publisher=International Organization for Migration Cairo}}</ref>

International trade is a key component of Egypt's economy, accounting for 40% of GDP according to the [[World Bank]]. The country has pursued broader economic integration through free trade agreements, including the EU-Egypt Association Agreement and [[African Continental Free Trade Area|AfCFTA]].<ref name=trade-lloyd>{{cite web | url=https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/egypt/trade-profile#:~:text=In%202022%2C%20Egypt's%20main%20export,4.2%25%20%2D%20data%20Comtrade). | title=Egypt - Trade Profile | publisher=Lloyds Bank Trade | access-date=28 February 2025 }}</ref> Egypt's exports have seen significant growth in the past years,<ref name="OEC2023">{{cite web |title=Egypt (EGY) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners {{!}} OEC |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/egy?yearSelector1=2023|website=OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity |access-date=27 February 2025 |language=en}}</ref> and the government aims to raise them to $145 billion by 2030.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/50/1202/538582/AlAhram-Weekly/Economy/New-support-for-exports.aspx | title=New support for exports | date=11 March 2024 | access-date=27 February 2025 }}</ref>

Since 1979, Egypt has received substantial [[United States foreign aid]], averaging $1.5 billion annually, with approximately $200 million allocated to economic assistance and the remainder directed toward military aid for procuring weapon systems from American suppliers.

===Manufacturing===
{{See also|Automotive industry in Egypt}}
[[File:MCV C127 EV, Busworld Europe 2023, Brussels (P1140238).jpg|thumb|The fully electric [[Manufacturing Commercial Vehicles|MCV]] C127 EV, made in Egypt for the German market]]

Egypt has the largest manufacturing sector in Africa, accounting for approximately 22% of the continent's total manufacturing value.<ref>{{cite book |title=Production Transformation Policy Review of Egypt |series=OECD Development Pathways |date=2023 |doi=10.1787/3ac95e0c-en |isbn=978-92-64-53990-7 }}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref> Under [[Egypt Vision 2030]] and its related development plans, the country has relied on [[industrial parks]], [[Free-trade zone|free zones]] and [[special economic zones]] to boost industrialisation and manufacturing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Egypt shifts towards technology-intensive manufacturing |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/egypt/2022-report/economy/focus-on-local-higher-value-added-activities-targeted-as-emphasis-shifts-towards-more-sustainable-technology-intensive-manufacturing
|website=Oxford Business Group |access-date=6 October 2025 |year=2022 }}</ref>

The industrial base is diverse, spanning [[Chemical products|chemicals]], [[electronics]], [[steel]], [[automotive manufacturing]], [[pharmaceuticals]], and [[textiles]]. The chemical industry, one of the largest, includes [[plastics]], [[rubber]], [[detergents]], [[fertilizers|fertilisers]], and [[glass]], with [[petrochemicals]] alone contributing about 12% of industrial output, while total sector exports are projected to reach $9 billion in 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.investinegypt.gov.eg/english/pages/exploremap.aspx?secId=105| title=Investment Map of Egypt | publisher=Invest in Egypt | access-date=27 February 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.arabfinance.com/News/newdetails/14935 | title=Chemical Industry: Transforming Egypt's Economy | publisher=Arab Finance | access-date=27 February 2025 | archive-date=16 July 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250716144944/https://www.arabfinance.com/News/newdetails/14935 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Light manufacturing is a pillar of Egypt's industrial base, with several government-led programmes aiming to accelerate its growth.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ebatamehi |first=Sebastiane |title=Top 10 Light Manufacturing Hubs in Africa in 2025 |website=The African Exponent |url=https://www.africanexponent.com/top-10-light-manufacturing-hubs-in-africa-in-2025/ |date=15 August 2025 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref> The ''Egypt Makes Electronics'' initiative has attracted factories from international firms, including [[Vivo (technology company)|Vivo]], [[Infinix]], [[Oppo]], [[Xiaomi]], [[Nokia]], [[Electrolux]], [[Samsung]], [[Hisense]], [[Beko]], and [[Haier]], contributing to Egypt's emergence as a regional hub for electronics and home appliance production.<ref>{{cite web |title=Egypt's Handset Market Set to Double by 2031 on Local Assembly Push |url=https://techafricanews.com/2025/08/29/egypts-handset-market-set-to-double-by-2031-on-local-assembly-push/ |website=TechAfrica News |publisher=TechAfrica Media |author=Akim Benamara |date=29 August 2025 |access-date=4 October 2025}}</ref><ref name=electronics>{{cite web |title=Where we stand on Egypt's plans to localize electronics manufacturing |url=https://enterprise.press/industries/where-we-stand-on-egypts-plans-to-localize-electronics-manufacturing/|website=Enterprise |access-date=27 February 2025}}</ref><ref name=appliances>{{cite web |title=International investment heats up Egypt's home appliances sector |url=https://enterprise.news/egypt/en/news/story/38b5c5b6-12da-4675-8d04-d24da127f663/international-investment-heats-up-egypt%25e2%2580%2599s-home-appliances-sector |website=Enterprise |date=21 April 2024 |access-date=27 February 2025}}</ref> The [[textile industry]] is also a cornerstone of Egypt's economy, contributing around 12% of export earnings and employing 2.5 million people. It spans the entire production chain from cotton cultivation to finished garments and is globally recognised for its premium [[Gossypium barbadense#Egyptian|Giza cotton]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The textile industry of Egypt |url=https://www.egypt-business.com/paper/details/2303-the-textile-industry-of-egypt/425541 |website=Egypt Business Directory |date=23 January 2023 |access-date=22 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Textile Sector in Egypt – Dec 2023 |url=https://elsewedydevelopment.com/case-studies/textile-sector-in-egypt-dec-2023/ |website=Elsewedy Industrial Development |access-date=21 April 2025}}</ref>

In addition to light manufacturing, heavy industry plays a major role. Egypt is Africa's leading [[steel]] producer and ranks 20th globally, with 9.8 million tons in 2022.<ref name=steel>{{Cite web |title=Egypt's steel: a flourishing industry with future potential |url=https://www.zawya.com/en/economy/north-africa/egypts-steel-a-flourishing-industry-with-future-potential-cmlch9kw |access-date=27 February 2025 |website=Zawya}}</ref> Egyptian steel company [[EZDK]] is the largest in the region, ranked 77th globally in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top Producers |url=https://worldsteel.org/steel-by-topic/statistics/top-producers/
|access-date=12 April 2022 |website=worldsteel.org |language=en-US}}</ref> The country's [[Automotive industry in Egypt|automotive industry]], led by [[El Nasr Automotive Manufacturing Company|Nasr]], [[Ghabbour Group|Ghabbour]], and [[Manufacturing Commercial Vehicles|MCV]], is expanding through partnerships with global manufacturers under the government's ''2024–2030 National Automotive Industry Development Strategy'', which targets 500,000 vehicles annually and promotes local [[electric vehicle]] production.<ref name=automobiles>{{cite web | url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/537157.aspx| title=All eyes on the car industry | publisher=Ahram Online | date=18 December 2024 | access-date=27 February 2025 }}</ref>

===Retail and services===
[[File:National Bank of Egypt-2020.jpg|thumb|The [[National Bank of Egypt]] towers in [[Cairo]]]]
Egypt's retail and services sector has expanded steadily in recent years, driven by population growth, rising incomes, and urbanisation.<ref name="oxford-retail" /> As of 2020 the country's retail market, encompassing shopping malls, supermarkets, convenience stores, and e-commerce platforms, was worth around $200 billion.<ref name=oxford-retail>{{cite web |title=Diverse approach: A mix of legislation, private investment and consumer spending is spurring steady growth in the retail market|url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/egypt/2022-report/economy/diverse-approach-a-mix-of-legislation-private-investment-and-consumer-spending-is-spurring-steady-growth-in-the-retail-market |website=Oxford Business Group |date=2022 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>

The retail food and grocery sector is still largely dominated by traditional, family-run stores and [[wet markets]], although supermarket and convenience store chains expanded in both size and popularity between 2015 and 2020.<ref name=oxford-retail/> [[Hypermarkets]] and [[Discount store|wholesale discounters]] recorded the highest growth rates over this period, at 153% and 162% respectively, accounting for 26% of the sector's sales.<ref name=oxford-retail/>

The country has also seen significant growth in [[shopping malls]]. With over 20 operating malls, [[Cairo]] has the highest number in the country, while smaller cities such as [[Mansoura, Egypt|Mansoura]] and [[Tanta]] have seen the opening of their first commercial malls in recent years.<ref name=oxford-retail/>

The Egyptian government plays a major role in the telecommunications sector through its majority ownership of [[Telecom Egypt]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Government sells 9.5% of state-controlled Telecom Egypt |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/14/government-sells-9-5-of-state-controlled-telecom-egypt|work=Al Jazeera |date=14 May 2023 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref> Between 2019 and 2022, mobile internet subscriptions in Egypt grew 77.9%, from 39 million to 69.4 million, with total mobile subscriptions reaching 106.2 million by December 2023.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/519378.aspx | title=Mobile and internet subscriptions in Egypt increased by 6 million in 2023| publisher=Ahram Online| date=13 March 2024 | access-date=28 February 2025 }}</ref> Internet penetration reached 72.2% in early 2024, with 82 million users.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/462957/internet-users-egypt/| title=Number of Internet Users in Egypt | publisher=Statista | access-date=28 February 2025 }}</ref> Since 2022 Egypt has the fastest internet speeds in Africa.<ref name=digitalegy>{{cite web |url=https://we.hse.ru/en/irs/cas/passeg | title=Egypt's Digital Transformation and ICT Growth | publisher=Higher School of Economics | access-date=28 February 2025 }}</ref>

Egyptian banks are among the largest and most dynamic in the region. Most Egyptian lenders are adopting new technologies to expand into nonbanking financial services.<ref>{{cite web |last=Domat |first=Chloe |title=Egypt's Cautious Comeback: IMF Support and Rising FDI Fuel Growth |website=Global Finance Magazine |date=6 October 2025 |url=https://gfmag.com/banking/egypts-cautious-comeback-imf-support-and-rising-fdi-fuel-growth/ |access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> The [[fintech]] sector has grown 5.5-fold since 2020, with 177 startups, ranking Egypt 10th among emerging markets.<ref name=fintech>{{cite news | url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/541157.aspx | title=Egypt's Fintech Sector Expands Fivefold in Five Years | date=27 February 2025 | access-date=27 February 2025 }}</ref> The banking sector is dominated by four state-owned commercial banks, the [[National Bank of Egypt]], [[Banque Misr]], [[Banque du Caire]], and [[Bank of Alexandria]], which together account for about 55% of total banking assets.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gebba |first=Tarek Roshdy Abdel Halem |title=Corporate Governance of Egyptian State-Owned Banks |journal=International Journal of Applied Business and Economic Research |volume=15 |issue=21 |year=2017 |publisher=Serials Publications Pvt. Ltd.|url=http://www.serialsjournal.com/abstract/13487_ch_23_f_-_ijaber-04.pdf |access-date=6 October 2025}}{{dead link|date=January 2026}}{{predatory}}</ref> [[Commercial International Bank|CIB]] is the country's largest private bank and the third-largest overall.<ref>{{cite report |title=Commercial International Bank (Egypt) S.A.E |publisher=Fitch Ratings |date=27 November 2024 |url=https://www.fitchratings.com/research/banks/commercial-international-bank-egypt-sae-27-11-2024 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>

===Hydrocarbons and mining===
{{Main|Mining industry of Egypt|Energy in Egypt}}

[[File:Darfeel plat.png|thumb|An offshore platform in the Darfeel Gas Field]]
Egypt's oil production is concentrated in the Western Desert, the [[Gulf of Suez]], and the Nile Delta, with peak crude oil output reaching approximately {{convert|941000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}} in 1993 before declining to {{convert|630000|oilbbl/d|abbr=on}} by 2008.<ref name="The World Factbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Egypt|access-date=4 March 2015}}</ref> This decline transformed Egypt into a net oil importer by 2008–2009, prompting a strategic shift toward natural gas.

Natural gas has since become central to Egypt's economy, drawing major foreign investment.<ref name="The World Factbook"/> The [[Zohr gas field]], discovered by [[Eni]] in 2015, is the Mediterranean's largest reserve, containing about 30 trillion cubic feet of gas. Production began in 2017 and reached 2.7 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d) by 2019,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eni.com/en-IT/actions/global-activities/egypt/zohr.html|title=Zohr Gas Field – Egypt|publisher=Eni|access-date=28 February 2025}}</ref> greatly enhancing Egypt's energy outlook, though recent technical issues have reduced output; new drilling is planned to restore capacity.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/50/1202/541105/AlAhram-Weekly/Economy/Tightening-the-deficit-on-gas.aspx | title=Tightening the Deficit on Gas | publisher=Al-Ahram Weekly | date=22 February 2024 | access-date=28 February 2025 }}</ref> [[BP]] has made major investments, including a $12 billion commitment in 2015 to the West Nile Delta project, along with other developments such as Atoll, North Damietta, and Qattameya, which began production in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/07/business/international/bp-signs-12-billion-deal-to-develop-natural-gas-in-egypt.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/07/business/international/bp-signs-12-billion-deal-to-develop-natural-gas-in-egypt.html|archive-date=1 January 2022|title=BP Signs $12 Billion Deal to Develop Natural Gas in Egypt|first=Stanley|last=Reed|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 March 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/what-we-do/bp-worldwide/bp-in-egypt.html|title=BP in Egypt|publisher=BP|access-date=28 February 2025}}</ref>

Egypt possesses substantial mineral wealth, with deposits of [[gold]], [[copper]], [[iron ore]], [[phosphate]], [[uranium]], [[tantalum]], [[manganese]], [[chromium]], [[coal]], [[zinc]], [[lead]], [[tin]], and black sand minerals such as [[ilmenite]], [[zircon]], [[rutile]], and [[magnetite]].<ref name=minerals>{{cite news |url=https://www.intellinews.com/egypt-s-mineral-wealth-shifting-away-from-oil-and-gas-dependence-321266/ |title=Egypt's mineral wealth: shifting away from oil and gas dependence |date=23 April 2024 |work=bne IntelliNews |access-date=22 April 2025}}</ref> It also produces abundant industrial materials like [[granite]], [[marble]], [[limestone]], white sand, [[kaolin]], and [[feldspar]].<ref name=minerals/> The [[gold mining]] sector has grown rapidly following investment reforms and exploration bids involving [[AngloGold Ashanti]] and [[Alexander Nubia International]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Mariaan|first=Webb|title=AngloGold and JV partner to accelerate exploration in Egypt|url=http://www.miningweekly.com/article/anglogold-and-jv-partner-to-accelerate-exploration-in-egypt-2011-04-20|access-date=7 September 2012|newspaper=Mining Weekly|date=20 April 2011|archive-date=28 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228033911/http://www.miningweekly.com/article/anglogold-and-jv-partner-to-accelerate-exploration-in-egypt-2011-04-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Sukari mine]] remains the core operation, with the sector's GDP share expected to reach 5–6% by 2030.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.miningmagazine.com/africa/news-analysis/4401327/egypt-goes-gold | title=Egypt Goes Gold: Mining Sector Reforms | publisher=Mining Magazine | date=22 February 2024 | access-date=28 February 2025 }}</ref> Gold exports doubled to $2.17 billion in 2024, with Egypt aiming to join the world's top ten exporters by 2027.<ref name=gold-xin>{{cite news | url=https://english.news.cn/20241217/f6a7cbe3c21d4d99893d6572e10c5f8e/c.html| title=Egypt's Gold Industry Sees Strong Growth in Exports | publisher=Xinhua | date=17 December 2024 | access-date=28 February 2025 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Agriculture===
[[File:Egyptian Countryside R02.jpg|thumb|Farmland in the Egyptian countryside]]
Egypt's agricultural sector remains essential to its economy, though its share of GDP and employment has declined over time. Egypt produces substantial quantities of [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[sugarcane]], [[fruits]], [[vegetables]], [[fodder]], and [[rice]], yet remains reliant on wheat and maize imports, primarily from Ukraine and Russia, despite yield improvements since 1970.<ref name="IbrahimIbrahim2003">{{cite book|first1=Fouad N.|last1=Ibrahim|first2=Barbara|last2=Ibrahim|title=Egypt: An Economic Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdyv_lA95aUC&pg=PA133|date=5 December 2003|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-548-8|pages=133–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt: main crops by production volume 2021 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1063560/egypt-main-crops-by-production-volume/ |access-date=28 June 2024 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> This dependency stems from high domestic demand, driven by subsidies and a [[Egyptian cuisine#Bread|culinary preference for bread]], as well as Egypt's limited arable land and its emphasis on high-value export crops.<ref name="IbrahimIbrahim2003"/> In 2024, Egypt exported $4.1 billion in agricultural goods<ref>{{cite web |last=Bower |first=Edmund |title=Egypt's food exports grow by a third |website=Arabian Gulf Business Insight|date=8 November 2024 |url=https://www.agbi.com/agriculture/2024/11/egypt-food-exports-grow-by-a-third-this-year/ |access-date=25 October 2025}}</ref> and roughly $6.1 billion in food industry products.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2025/05/14/egypts-food-exports-surge-21-in-2024/ |title=Egypt's food exports surge 21% in 2024 |work=Daily News Egypt |date=14 May 2025 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>

The country has achieved self-sufficiency in several key agricultural products, including [[vegetables]], [[fruits]], [[poultry]], [[dairy]], [[Eggs as food|eggs]], and [[rice]], while nearing full self-sufficiency in [[sugar]] and [[fish]], with production reaching approximately 90% of demand.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://see.news/egypt-achieved-self-sufficiency-in-7-agricultural-crops-minister |title=Egypt Achieved Self-sufficiency in 7 Agricultural Crops: Minister |publisher=Sada Elbalad |date=1 October 2023 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref> Self-sufficiency ratios are lower for [[red meat]] (60%),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.foodbusinessmea.com/egypt-is-producing-60-of-red-meat-nears-full-poultry-self-sufficiency-ministry-of-agriculture-and-land-reclamation/ |title=Egypt is producing 60% of red meat, nears full poultry self-sufficiency – Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation |publisher=Food Business Middle East & Africa |date=18 September 2025 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref> [[cereals]] (58%), [[vegetable oils]] (26%), and [[food oil|oil crops]] (35%). Consequently, Egypt relies on imports for roughly 45% of its domestic food demand.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.siani.se/news-story/egypts-food-system/ |title=Egypt's Food System Under a Perfect Storm |publisher=SIANI |date=10 March 2023 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>

The [[Aswan High Dam]], completed in 1971, significantly improved irrigation stability.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ross |first=Michael |date=26 December 1987 |title=Parched Egypt Watches Anxiously as Waters Behind Aswan Dam Recede |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-12-26-mn-7439-story.html |access-date=8 February 2025 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2010, 3.6 million hectares were cultivated, with the government targeting 4.8 million hectares by 2030.<ref name=faoun>{{cite web |title=Country profile – Egypt (Version 2016) |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i9729en/I9729EN.pdf |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> Major initiatives include the New Delta and [[Toshka Project]], designed to convert desert areas into farmland using advanced irrigation techniques, [[wastewater treatment]], [[groundwater]] and water [[desalination]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/482357/Business/Economy/Egypt-expands-land-reclamation-projects-to-boost-f.aspx | title=Egypt expands land reclamation projects to boost food security | date=20 December 2023 | access-date=3 March 2025 }}</ref> Efforts to deregulate agriculture have improved price alignment with global markets, but climate change and water scarcity continue to pose long-term challenges.

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Egypt}}

[[File:Camel and the pyramids.jpg|thumb|Tourists riding a [[Arabian camel|camel]] in front of [[Pyramid of Khafre]]. The [[Giza Necropolis]] is one of Egypt's main tourist attractions.]]
Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. 2024 saw a record 15.7 million tourists, surpassing 14.9 million in 2023. This growth, driven by government efforts to enhance security and tourism support, reflects a strong recovery from the pandemic-induced decline of 2020. Tourism revenues have also surged, reaching $14.1 billion, reflecting steady improvement over previous years.<ref name=tourism>{{cite web |url=https://sis.gov.eg/Story/204112/A-record-15.7-million-tourists-visited-Egypt-in-2024?lang=en-us |title=A record 15.7 million tourists visited Egypt in 2024 |publisher=State Information Service |date=2024 |access-date=27 February 2025 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>

Egypt's tourism strategy aims to attract 30 million tourists by 2028, with a focus on infrastructure improvements, high-profile projects like the [[Grand Egyptian Museum]], and enhancing visitor experiences. In 2024, the country's top tourism markets included Germany, Russia, and Saudi Arabia.<ref name=tourism/>
The [[Giza Necropolis]] is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] still in existence.

Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over {{convert|3,000|km|abbr=off}}, are also popular tourist destinations; the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] beaches, [[Safaga]], [[Sharm el-Sheikh]], [[Hurghada]], [[Luxor]], [[Dahab]], [[Ras Sidr]] and [[Marsa Alam]] are popular sites.

==Infrastructure==
=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in Egypt|Electricity sector in Egypt}}

[[File:Aswan Dam.jpg|thumb|Power plant of the [[Aswan High Dam]], with the dam itself in the background]]
Egypt's electricity sector has shifted from full state control to a more diversified energy mix that includes [[Fossil fuel power station|natural gas]], [[Renewable energy|renewables]], and [[nuclear power]], with growing private sector participation and regional interconnections. [[Fossil fuels]] still dominate, generating 88% of electricity in 2023, while hydropower provides 7% and wind and solar together 5%, up from 1% in 2015 but still below the global average of 13% and Africa's 6%.<ref name="Egypt">{{cite web |url=https://ember-energy.org/countries-and-regions/egypt/ |title=Egypt |publisher=Ember Energy |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref> Egypt remains Africa's largest producer of gas-fired electricity, accounting for 45% of the continent's total in 2022, yet its per capita carbon emissions remain below the global average.<ref name="Egypt"/>

The government undertook a series of rapid reforms in response to [[Power outage|blackouts]] during the summer of 2014 that lasted for up to six hours per day, cutting energy subsidies, and quickly developing the [[Zohr gas field]] in the Mediterranean, which was discovered in 2015. The country now has an oversupply of electricity and aims to source 20% of its electricity from [[Renewable energy|renewables]] by 2022 and 55% by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 March 2021|title=France's Coface favours Egypt to lead Africa's economic recovery|url=https://www.theafricareport.com/69219/frances-coface-favours-egypt-to-lead-africas-economic-recovery/|access-date=7 March 2021|website=The Africa Report.com|language=en-US}}</ref> As part of its renewable energy strategy, Egypt has undertaken large-scale projects like the [[Benban Solar Park]] and the Gabal El Zeit wind farm. Benban, located near Aswan, has a total capacity of 1650 MW and generates about 3.8 TWh annually, making it the fourth-largest solar power plant globally.<ref name="One">{{cite web |access-date=23 April 2018 |location=Beijing |author=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201804120269.html |title=Egypt: China's Green Energy Company Starts Construction of Biggest Solar Plant in Egypt |date=11 April 2018 |publisher=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation via [[AllAfrica.com]] |archive-date=24 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424072329/http://allafrica.com/stories/201804120269.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, the Gabal El Zeit wind farm, costing €340 million, spans 100 square kilometres with 300 turbines, generating 580 MW of electricity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.evwind.es/2018/07/23/middle-easts-largest-wind-farm-in-jabal-al-zeit/64021|title=Middle East's largest wind farm in Jabal al-Zeit, Egypt - REVE News of the wind sector in Spain and in the world|date=23 July 2018 |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Egyptian winds, a clean energy source {{!}} EU Neighbours|url=https://www.euneighbours.eu/en/south/eu-in-action/stories/egyptian-winds-clean-energy-source|access-date=14 November 2021|website=www.euneighbours.eu|language=en}}</ref> Egypt is currently constructing its first nuclear power facility, the [[El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant]], in the northern coastal region.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia to lend Egypt $25 billion to build nuclear power plant|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-russia-nuclear-idUSKCN0YA1G5|date=19 May 2016|access-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516193807/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-russia-nuclear-idUSKCN0YA1G5|archive-date=16 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Egypt and [[Cyprus]] are considering implementing the proposed [[EuroAfrica Interconnector]] project.<ref name="EA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.euroafrica-interconnector.com/|title=EuroAfrica Interconnector|website=www.euroafrica-interconnector.com|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=18 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418180827/https://www.euroafrica-interconnector.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> This consists of laying a 2 GW [[high-voltage direct current|HVDC]] [[submarine power cable|undersea power cable]] between them and between Cyprus and Greece, thus connecting Egypt to the greater European power grid.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 February 2017|title=ENERGY: EuroAfrica 2,000MW cable boosts Egypt-Cyprus ties|url=https://www.financialmirror.com/2017/02/08/energy-euroafrica-2000mw-cable-boosts-egypt-cyprus-ties/}}</ref> The interconnector will make Egypt an electricity hub between Europe and Africa.<ref>{{Cite news|date=8 February 2017|title=Electricity Cable Aims to Link Cyprus, Egypt, Greece|newspaper=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-02-08/electricity-cable-aims-to-link-cyprus-egypt-greece|via=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref> The president of Egypt and the prime minister of Cyprus met in [[Nicosia]] on 21 November 2017 and showed their full support for the EuroAfrica Interconnector pointing out its importance for their energy security.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio2013.nsf/All/D5A706294139C3B3C22581DF004E38D7?Opendocument&L=E|title=Joint Declaration following the 5th Cyprus – Egypt – Greece Trilateral Summit, PIO Cyprus, Nicosia, 21 November 2017|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-date=4 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204123922/http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio2013.nsf/All/D5A706294139C3B3C22581DF004E38D7?Opendocument&L=E|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Egypt President El-Sisi fully endorses EuroAfrica Interconnector "electricity corridor" in historic meeting, Press release|url=http://www.euroafrica-interconnector.com/20171120_press.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204000429/http://www.euroafrica-interconnector.com/20171120_press.html|archive-date=4 February 2018|access-date=5 February 2018}}</ref>

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Egypt}}

[[File:المترو من جهة اخرى.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Cairo Metro Line 3]]]]
Transport in Egypt is primarily concentrated around Cairo, following the Nile River's settlement patterns. The country's {{convert|4800|km|mi|adj=on}} railway network is operated by [[Egyptian National Railways]], with its main line running from [[Alexandria]] to [[Aswan]]. In 2021, Egypt launched a $4.5 billion [[High-speed rail in Egypt|high-speed rail project]] to connect [[Ain Sokhna]], [[Mersa Matruh]], and [[Alexandria]], later expanding to include routes linking [[Greater Cairo]] to [[Aswan]] and [[Luxor]] to [[Hurghada]] and [[Safaga]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=High-speed train El Ain El Sokhna - Marsa Matrouh |url=http://www.nat.gov.eg/LocationActivity.aspx?id=2082 |access-date=18 August 2022 |website=National Authority for Tunnels}}</ref><ref name="2022-05-30-rt">{{cite news |title=Siemens Mobility secures high-speed rail contract in Egypt |url=https://www.railway-technology.com/news/siemens-mobility-rail-contract/ |access-date=30 May 2022 |work=Railway Technology |date=30 May 2022}}</ref>

The [[Cairo Metro]] operates three lines, with a fourth line under construction and plans for additional expansions in the future. Meanwhile, two [[Cairo Monorail|monorail lines]] are also being built in the city, along with a [[Alexandria Metro|metro system]] in [[Alexandria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/138743/Phase-1-of-Alexandria-Metro-Construction-Ongoing-Says-Ministry-of |title=Phase 1 of Alexandria Metro Construction Ongoing, Says Ministry of Transport |date=28 February 2025 |publisher=Egypt Today |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

Egypt has undertaken major road infrastructure expansion through the [[National Roads Project]], increasing the total length of main roads by nearly 30% from 23,500 km in 2014 to 30,500 km in 2024. Alongside constructing new highways, thousands of kilometres of roads have been upgraded, leading to improvements in Egypt's Road Quality Index, which rose from 118th place in 2015 to 18th place in 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lca.logcluster.org/23-egypt-road-network |title=Egypt Road Network |publisher=Logistics Capacity Assessment |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

Egypt's aviation sector is led by [[EgyptAir]], the country's [[flag carrier]] and largest airline, founded in 1932 by [[Talaat Harb]]. Now state-owned, EgyptAir operates from its [[Cairo International Airport]] hub, with scheduled passenger and cargo services to over 75 destinations across the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The airline's current fleet consists of 80 aircraft.

The [[Suez Canal]], an artificial sea-level waterway, connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, enabling direct shipping between Europe and Asia without navigating around Africa. In 2023 it generated a record $9.4 billion in revenue for Egypt.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 June 2023 |title=Suez Canal annual revenue hits record $9.4 billion, chairman says |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/suez-canal-annual-revenue-hits-record-94-bln-chairman-2023-06-21/ |access-date=15 August 2023}}</ref> Opened in November 1869, the {{convert|193.30|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=on}} canal runs from [[Port Said]] in the north to [[Port Tawfiq]] in the south, with [[Ismailia]] situated {{convert|3|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=off}} west of its midpoint.<ref name="SuezExpansion"/>
[[File:Capesize bulk carrier at Suez Canal Bridge.JPG|thumb|The [[Suez Canal Bridge]]]]
The canal is {{convert|24|m|ft|abbr=off}} deep and {{convert|205|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide {{As of|2010|lc=y}}, consisting of a {{convert|22|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} northern access channel, a {{convert|162.25|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=on}} main section, and a {{convert|9|km|mi|frac=2|abbr=on}} southern access channel. The Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake provide passing points along the canal, which operates without locks, allowing seawater to flow freely. [[New Suez Canal|Expansions]] completed in 2015 increased its daily capacity from 49 to 97 ships, reducing transit times and boosting global maritime trade.<ref name="SuezExpansion">{{cite news |title=New Suez Canal project proposed by Egypt to boost trade |url=http://www.caironews.net/index.php/sid/224460353 |access-date=7 August 2014 |publisher=Cairo News |archive-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129022814/http://www.caironews.net/index.php/sid/224460353|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt Says Work Finished on New Suez Canal|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/egypt-says-work-is-finished-on-new-suez-canal/2883548.html|publisher=Voice of America|date=29 July 2015|access-date=24 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803133542/http://www.voanews.com/content/egypt-says-work-is-finished-on-new-suez-canal/2883548.html|archive-date=3 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33800076|title=Egypt launches Suez Canal expansion|date=6 August 2015|access-date=6 August 2015|agency=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806152649/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33800076|archive-date=6 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Water supply and sanitation ===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}

[[File:Egypt sat.png|thumb|Green irrigated land along the Nile amidst the desert and in the [[Nile Delta]]]]

Egypt's [[water supply]] is heavily dependent on the [[Nile River]], which provides approximately 90% of the country's total water resources, with an annual share of 55 billion cubic metres, unchanged since 1954. An additional 0.5 billion cubic metres comes from non-renewable groundwater sources. However, national demand exceeds 90 billion cubic metres annually, creating a persistent water deficit. As a result, Egypt's per capita water share fell to 570 cubic metres in 2018, well below the 1,000 cubic metre international water scarcity threshold. To address this, the government has prioritised efficient water management, particularly in response to population growth and agricultural expansion.<ref name=sanitation>{{cite web |url=https://sdgs.un.org/basic-page/egypt-34124#:~:text=The%20country%20highlights%20the%20following,soap%20and%20water%20increased%20from |title=Egypt |publisher=United Nations Sustainable Development Goals |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

Despite these challenges, water access has significantly improved. Between 1990 and 2010, piped water coverage rose from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas, eliminating [[open defecation]] in rural regions and achieving near-universal access to an [[improved water source]]. By 2015, 90% of the population had access to safely managed drinking water, increasing to 96.9% by 2019. Similarly, proper sanitation coverage expanded from 50% in 2015 to 66.2% in 2019, while the percentage of treated wastewater relative to total wastewater rose from 50% to 68.7% in the same period, reaching 74% in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sdg6data.org/en/country-or-area/Egypt |title=Egypt - SDG 6 Data |publisher=United Nations SDG 6 Data Portal |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref> However, gaps in sanitation infrastructure have historically led to health concerns, with a 2007 report estimating 17,000 child deaths annually from diarrhoeal diseases linked to poor sanitation.<ref name="IDRC">National Water Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (2007): [https://web.archive.org/web/20160118112500/http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-127200-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html Actualizing the Right to Water: An Egyptian Perspective for an Action Plan], Shaden Abdel-Gawad. Retrieved 30 April 2012.</ref>

Egypt has made significant investments in wastewater treatment infrastructure as part of its broader water management strategy. In 2021, the Bahr El Baqar Wastewater Treatment Plant was completed, becoming the largest in the world at the time, with a capacity of 5 million cubic metres per day. The treated water from this facility is allocated to irrigating 342,000 acres under the Sinai Peninsula Development Plan.<ref name=sanitation/> In 2023, Egypt inaugurated the [[New Delta Wastewater Treatment Plant]], surpassing Bahr El Baqar as the largest wastewater facility globally, with a capacity of 7.5 million cubic metres per day.<ref name=treatmentplant>{{cite news | url=https://www.metito.com/news-detail/egypts-new-delta-treatment-plant-sets-four-guinness-world-records-revolutionizing-and-setting-unprecedented-agriculture-and-environmental-preservation-standards/ | title=Egypt's New Delta Treatment Plant Sets Four Guinness World Records | date=29 March 2023 | access-date=1 March 2025 | archive-date=1 March 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250301124322/https://www.metito.com/news-detail/egypts-new-delta-treatment-plant-sets-four-guinness-world-records-revolutionizing-and-setting-unprecedented-agriculture-and-environmental-preservation-standards/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> A key component of Egypt's agricultural expansion strategy, the plant supports the New Delta reclamation project while also reducing pollution in [[Lake Mariout]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name=treatmentplant/>

Given Egypt's arid climate and lack of appreciable rainfall, agriculture is entirely dependent on irrigation. The Nile River, regulated by the [[Aswan High Dam]], releases an annual average of 55 billion cubic metres, of which 46 billion cubic metres are diverted into irrigation canals.<ref name="ewup">Egyptian Water Use Management Project (EWUP), 1984. Improving Egypt's Irrigation System in the Old Lands, Final Report. Colorado State University and Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources.</ref> This irrigation sustains 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 square miles) of agricultural land in the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, producing an average of 1.8 crops per year.<ref name="ewup" />

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Egypt|Egyptians}}

[[File:Egypt 2010 population density1.png|thumb|Egypt's population density (people per km2)]]

Egypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on the [[African continent]], with about 95 million inhabitants {{As of|2017|lc=y}}.<ref name="popclock">{{cite web |url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/?lang=2 |title=Population Clock |date=27 April 2013 |publisher=[[Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics]] |access-date=27 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117121826/http://capmas.gov.eg/?lang=2 |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to [[History of medicine#Late modern medicine|medical advances]] and increases in agricultural productivity<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm |title=The limits of a Green Revolution? |work=BBC News |date=29 March 2007 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728055441/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> enabled by the [[Green Revolution]].<ref>{{cite web|author=admin |url=http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html |title=Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy |publisher=Foodfirst.org |date=8 April 2000 |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714215036/http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html |archive-date=14 July 2009 }}</ref> Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] invaded the country in 1798.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/egypt/55.htm |title=Egypt – Population |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117011712/http://countrystudies.us/egypt/55.htm |archive-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The great majority of its people live near the banks of the [[Nile]] River, an area of about {{convert|40000|km2|-3}}, where the only [[arable land]] is found. The large regions of the [[Sahara]] desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt's residents live across the country's urban areas,<ref>{{cite web |title=Urban population (% of total population) - Egypt, Arab Rep. |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=EG |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314193242/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=EG |archive-date=14 March 2024 |access-date=1 August 2022 |work=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.

Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the [[fellah]]in, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes [http://citypopulation.de/Egypt-Cities.html only 77,041 km2], putting the [[physiological density]] at over 1,200 people per km2, similar to Bangladesh.

While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the [[Arab Cold War]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsourapas |first1=Gerasimos |title=Nasser's Educators and Agitators across al-Watan al-'Arabi : Tracing the Foreign Policy Importance of Egyptian Regional Migration, 1952-1967 |journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies |date=2 July 2016 |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=324–341 |doi=10.1080/13530194.2015.1102708 }}</ref> Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsourapas |first1=Gerasimos |title=Why Do States Develop Multi-tier Emigrant Policies? Evidence from Egypt |journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies |date=10 November 2015 |volume=41 |issue=13 |pages=2192–2214 |doi=10.1080/1369183X.2015.1049940 }}</ref> An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).<ref name="IOMEgypt">{{cite web|url=http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|publisher=International Organization for Migration|title=Migration and Development in Egypt: Facts and Figures|year=2010|access-date=21 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011709/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|archive-date=5 February 2011}}</ref> The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Egypt to Europe: globalisation and migration across the Mediterranean|last=Talani |first=Leila Simona |date=1 January 2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies|oclc=650606660}}</ref>

=== Ethnic groups ===
Ethnic [[Egyptians]] are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population.<ref name="factbook-his" /> Ethnic minorities include the [[Abaza people|Abazas]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Greeks]], [[Bedouin]] Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the [[Sinai Peninsula]], the [[Berber language|Berber]]-speaking [[Siwis]] ([[Berber people|Amazigh]]) of the [[Siwa Oasis]], and the [[Nubian people|Nubian]] communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal [[Beja people|Beja]] communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number of [[Dom people|Dom]] clans mostly in the Nile Delta and [[Faiyum]] who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases.

Egypt hosts a migrant population of over 9 million, constituting 8.7% of the country's total population, according to the International Organization for Migration. These migrants originate from 133 countries, with the largest groups being [[Sudanese]] (4 million), [[Syrians]] (1.5 million), [[Yemenis]] (1 million), and [[Libyans]] (1 million), collectively making up 80% of all international migrants in Egypt.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://egypt.iom.int/news/iom-egypt-estimates-current-number-international-migrants-living-egypt-9-million-people-originating-133-countries |title=IOM Egypt estimates the current number of international migrants living in Egypt at 9 million people originating from 133 countries |publisher=International Organization for Migration |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of Egypt}}

The [[official language]] of Egypt is [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitutional Declaration 2011|url=http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/laws/constitution/|website=Egyptian Government Services|access-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201095854/http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/laws/constitution/|archive-date=1 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[spoken language]]s are: [[Egyptian Arabic]] (68%), [[Sa'idi Arabic]] (29%), [[Bedawi Arabic|Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic]] (1.6%), [[Sudanese Arabic]] (0.6%), [[Domari language|Domari]] (0.3%), [[Nobiin language|Nobiin]] (0.3%),<ref>{{cite web | last=Sawe | first=Benjamin Elisha | title=Languages Spoken In Egypt | website=WorldAtlas | date=2016-09-23 | url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/languages-spoken-in-egypt.html | access-date=2025-12-08}}</ref> [[Beja language|Beja]] (0.1%), [[Siwi language|Siwi]] and others.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Additionally, Greek, [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and Italian, and more recently, African languages like [[Amharic language|Amharic]] and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrigna]] are the main languages of immigrants.

The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian.

Historically [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] was spoken, the latest stage of which is [[Coptic language|Coptic Egyptian]]. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in [[Upper Egypt]] as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]].<ref name=extinct>The language may have survived in isolated pockets in [[Upper Egypt]] as late as the 19th century, according to {{cite news |last1=Quibell |first1=J. E. |date=1901 |title=Wann starb das Kobtische aus? |trans-title=When did Coptic become extinct? |language=de |page=87 |hdl=2027/hvd.32044098373418?urlappend=%3Bseq=107 |hdl-access=free }} in {{cite journal |title=Miscellen |journal=Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde |date=1901 |volume=39 |pages=83–88 |doi=10.1524/zaes.1901.39.jg.83 }}</ref><ref name="Daily Star Egypt">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=106|title=Daily News Egypt – Full Article|date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721071828/http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=106|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> It forms a separate branch among the family of [[Afroasiatic languages]].

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Egypt}}

[[File:Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan (4).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan|Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hassan]]]]
Islam is the [[state religion]] of Egypt. Egypt has the largest Muslim population in the [[Arab world]] and the world's [[Islam by country|sixth largest Muslim population]], accounting for five percent of all Muslims worldwide.<ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|date=December 2012|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=5 November 2018|archive-date=17 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117084054/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|url-status=live}}</ref> Egypt also has the [[Christianity in the Middle East|largest Christian population]] in the [[Middle East and North Africa]].<ref name="Global Christianity">{{cite web |author=Analysis |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx |title=Global Christianity |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226061838/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Official data about religion is lacking due to social and political sensitivities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hackett |first=Conrad |date=16 February 2011 |title=How many Christians are there in Egypt? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/02/16/how-many-christians-are-there-in-egypt/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> An estimated 85–90% are identified as Muslim, 10–15% as [[Coptic Christians]], and 1% as other Christian denominations; other estimates place the Christian population as high as 15–20%.{{efn|The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian, though estimates vary.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/egypt/180843.htm|title=Background Note: Egypt|date=10 November 2010|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=5 March 2011|archive-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722024956/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/egypt/180843.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|title=Egypt|date=4 September 2008|publisher=CIA|access-date=15 May 2007|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009073315/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|title=Egypt|date=27 January 2008|publisher=UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121212135632/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|archive-date=12 December 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=16 February 2016}}</ref> Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Egypt|publisher=Microsoft Encarta Online|url=http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html|date=30 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003619/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html|archive-date=21 October 2009}}</ref> The [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]] gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population, at 94.6%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|title=Mapping The Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life|page=8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010050756/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2009|url-status=dead|access-date=25 July 2011}}</ref> In 2017, the government-owned newspaper ''[[Al Ahram]]'' estimated the percentage of Christians at 10 to 15%.<ref name="churches-deleg">{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx|title=Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo|work=Al Ahram|date=19 November 2017|author=Alhram Online|access-date=26 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504020907/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx|archive-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

Egypt was an early and leading centre of Christianity into [[late antiquity]]. The [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] was founded in the first century and remains the largest church in Egypt. With the arrival of Islam in the seventh century, Egypt was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Encyclopedia Coptica: The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt|url = http://www.coptic.net/EncyclopediaCoptica/|website = www.coptic.net|access-date = 6 January 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050831164722/http://www.coptic.net/EncyclopediaCoptica/|archive-date = 31 August 2005|url-status=live|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Arab Conquest of Egypt|last = Butler|first = Alfred J.|publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 1978|isbn = 978-0-19-821678-0}}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref> It is unknown when Muslims reached a majority, variously estimated from {{Circa|1000 CE}} to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the [[Muslim world]]. Under [[Anwar Sadat]], Islam became the official [[state religion]] and [[Sharia]] the main source of law.<ref name="georgetown"/>

[[File:StMarkCathAlex.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|[[Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral (Alexandria)|St. Mark Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria]]]]

The majority of Egyptian Muslims adhere to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni branch of Islam]]. [[Non-denominational Muslims|Nondenominational Muslims]] form roughly 12% of the population.<ref name="churches-deleg" /><ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|date=26 December 2016}} retrieved 4 September 2013</ref> There is also a [[Shi'a]] minority. The [[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs|Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs]] estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million<ref>{{cite web |author=Col. (ret.) Jacques Neriah |url=http://jcpa.org/article/egypts-shiite-minority-between-the-egyptian-hammer-and-the-iranian-anvil/ |title=Egypt's Shiite Minority: Between the Egyptian Hammer and the Iranian Anvil |publisher=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]] |date=23 September 2012 |access-date=6 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909234700/http://jcpa.org/article/egypts-shiite-minority-between-the-egyptian-hammer-and-the-iranian-anvil/ |archive-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> and could measure as much as 3 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.sky.com/story/1107961/egypt-attack-on-shia-comes-at-dangerous-time |title=Egypt: Attack On Shia Comes At Dangerous Time |author=Tim Marshall |publisher=Sky News |date=25 June 2013 |access-date=6 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630001649/http://news.sky.com/story/1107961/egypt-attack-on-shia-comes-at-dangerous-time |archive-date=30 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Ahmadiyya]] population is estimated at less than 50,000,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others|author=Mohammad Hassan Khalil|date=2013|page=297 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-994541-2}}</ref> whereas the [[Salafi]] (ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/politics/6073/what-salafism-and-should-we-be-worried |title=What is Salafism and should we be worried? |author=Venetia Rainey |publisher=Theweek.co.uk |date=20 April 2011 |access-date=6 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711010603/http://www.theweek.co.uk/politics/6073/what-salafism-and-should-we-be-worried |archive-date=11 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Cairo]] is famous for its numerous mosque [[minaret]]s and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".<ref>{{cite news|title= Cairo: Welcome to the city of 1,000 minarets|url= https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/africa/cairo-welcome-to-the-city-of-1000-minarets-692635.html|work= [[The Independent]]|location= London|author= Robin Barton|date= 19 February 2001|access-date= 26 August 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150925234721/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/africa/cairo-welcome-to-the-city-of-1000-minarets-692635.html|archive-date= 25 September 2015|url-status=live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> The city also hosts [[Al-Azhar University]], which is considered the preeminent institution of Islamic higher learning and jurisprudence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2024 |title=Egypt - Arabic, Coptic, Nubian {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/Languages |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Founded in the late tenth century, it is by some measures the second oldest continuously operating university in the world.<ref>Indira Falk Gesink, ''Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam'' (I.B.Tauris, 2014), p. 2.</ref>

It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow native Sufi [[Tariqah|orders]],<ref>{{cite web |author=Kristin Deasy |date=October 2012 |title=The Sufis' Choice: Egypt's Political Wild Card |url=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/sufis%E2%80%99-choice-egypt%E2%80%99s-political-wild-card |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724235845/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/sufis%E2%80%99-choice-egypt%E2%80%99s-political-wild-card |archive-date=24 July 2013 |access-date=6 July 2013 |publisher=World Affairs Journal}}</ref><ref name="HuffPost15Million">{{cite news |author=Hassan Ammar |date=14 June 2013 |title=Sufis In Egypt Thrive With More Than 15 Million Despite Attacks By Islamist Hardliners |url=https://huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/14/sufis-in-egypt_n_3441037.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708021321/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/14/sufis-in-egypt_n_3441037.html |archive-date=8 July 2013 |access-date=6 July 2013 |work=Huffington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Valerie J. |title=Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |year=1995}}</ref> with [[Sufism|Sufi]] leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater, as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.<ref name="HuffPost15Million" /> At least 305 people were killed during a [[2017 Sinai mosque attack|November 2017 attack]] on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.<ref>Walsh, Declan, and Youssef, Nour, ''[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/mosque-attack-egypt.html Militants Kill 305 at Sufi Mosque in Egypt's Deadliest Terrorist Attack] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126223759/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/mosque-attack-egypt.html|date=26 November 2017}}'', The New York Times, 24 November 2017</ref>

Of the [[Christianity in Egypt|Christian population in Egypt]] over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an [[Oriental Orthodox]] Christian Church.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrGL7o69KBIC&pg=PA145|title=Who are the Christians in the Middle East?|year=2009|publisher=Betty Jane Bailey |isbn=978-0-8028-1020-5}}</ref> Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the [[Coptic Catholic Church]], the [[Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile)|Evangelical Church of Egypt]] and various other [[Protestant]] denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the [[Syro-Lebanese in Egypt|Syro-Lebanese]], who belong to [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Greek Catholic]], [[Greek Orthodox]], and [[Maronite Catholic]] denominations.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Catholics in Egypt Reflect Church's Rich and Varied Traditions|magazine=L'Osservatore Romano|date=1 March 2000|pages=6–7|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/EGPTCATH.HTM|access-date=23 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125104510/http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/EGPTCATH.HTM|archive-date=25 January 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Egyptian government recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects, such as the small [[Baháʼí Faith]] and [[Ahmadiyya]] communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.<ref>{{cite news |last =al-Shahat |first =Abdel Moneim |title =Shahat: Baha'is threaten Egypt's national security |newspaper =Egypt Independent |date =18 February 2012 |url =http://www.egyptindependent.com/node/666371 |access-date =25 February 2012 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120220192155/http://www.egyptindependent.com/node/666371 |archive-date =20 February 2012 |url-status=live |df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/egypt-ahmadis-detained-under-emergency-law-rights-group/ |title=Egypt Ahmadis detained under emergency law: rights group |date=14 May 2010 |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606215554/https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/egypt-ahmadis-detained-under-emergency-law-rights-group/ |archive-date=6 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards [[Egyptian identification card controversy|are denied this ability]], and were put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.<ref name="International Religious Freedom Report 2008">{{cite web|url= https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108481.htm|title= Egypt, International Religious Freedom Report 2008|date= 19 September 2008|publisher= [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]]|access-date= 24 June 2017|df= dmy-all|archive-date= 16 April 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160416000126/http://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108481.htm|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="reuters">{{cite news|first=Cynthia |last=Johnston |title= Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers|url=http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215133731/http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html|archive-date=15 February 2008 |work=Reuters |date=29 January 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=30 January 2008}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Egypt}}

[[File:UIS Literacy Rate Egypt population plus15 1980 2015.png|thumb|Egyptian literacy rate among the population aged 15 years and older by UNESCO Institute of Statistics]]

In 2022, Egypt's adult literacy rate was 74.5%, compared to 71.1% in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt - Literacy rate 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/572680/literacy-rate-in-egypt/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> Literacy is lowest among those over 65 years of age, at 32.9% in 2021,<ref>{{cite web |title=GAL Country Profile — Egypt |url=https://www.uil.unesco.org/sites/default/files/medias/files/2022/03/GAL%20Country%20profile%20-%20Egypt.pdf |website=UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning |publisher=UNESCO |date=December 2021 |access-date=8 October 2025 }}</ref> and highest among youth between 15 and 24 years of age, at 92.2% in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt: youth literacy rate |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1253111/youth-literacy-rate-in-egypt/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:CairoUniv.jpg|thumb|[[Cairo University]]]]
A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.<ref name="edu-chatham" /> Under British occupation, investment in education was curbed drastically, and
secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.<ref name="edu-chatham" />

In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.<ref name=edu-chatham /> The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.<ref name=edu-chatham /> Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.<ref name=edu-chatham /> Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.<ref name=edu-chatham>{{cite web|title=Education in Egypt: Key Challenges|url=http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf|publisher=Chatham House|date=March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224022844/http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2012}}</ref>

Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.<ref name=oecd-edu>{{cite book |title=Reviews of National Policies for Education: Higher Education in Egypt 2010 |date=2010 |doi=10.1787/9789264084346-en |isbn=978-92-64-07723-2 }}{{page needed|date=January 2026}}</ref> After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the [[Thanaweya Amma]], the leaving exam.<ref name=oecd-edu /> In 2025 Egypt introduced a new Baccalaureate Certificate System which will replace the [[Thanaweya Amma]] starting 2026.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2025/01/09/egypt-introduces-baccalaureate-certificate-system-as-alternative-to-thanaweya-amma/ |title=Egypt Introduces Baccalaureate Certificate System as Alternative to Thanaweya Amma |publisher=Egyptian Streets |date=9 January 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.<ref name=oecd-edu />

The [[QS World University Rankings]] 2025 includes 15 Egyptian universities, with [[Cairo University]] ranked highest among them. The [[American University in Cairo]] follows, improving its position to 410th place. Several Egyptian universities have advanced in rankings compared to the previous year, reflecting ongoing improvements in higher education.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/2/524891/Egypt/Society/Cairo-University-ranked--in-QS-World-Rankings-.aspx |title=Cairo University ranked in QS World Rankings 2025 |publisher=Ahram Online |date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

The country is currently opening new research institutes with the aim of modernising scientific research and development; the most recent example is [[Zewail City of Science and Technology]]. Egypt was ranked 86th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/egypt |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=World Intellectual Property Organization |title=Global Innovation Index 2025 |date=2025 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |doi-access=free |page=19 }}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Egypt|Healthcare in Egypt}}

[[File:مستشفى سرطان الاطفال 57357.jpg|thumb|[[Children's Cancer Hospital Egypt|Egypt's children cancer hospital]] known as '' 57357 hospital'']]

As of 2024, Egypt's average life expectancy stands at 75 years, with 73.8 years for males and 76.2 years for females.<ref name=cia-health>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Egypt|access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref> Healthcare access has significantly improved in both urban and rural areas, with immunisation programmes now covering 98% of the population. Life expectancy has risen from 45 years in the 1960s to its current level, reflecting advancements in medical services and disease prevention. The infant mortality rate has also declined sharply, dropping from 101 to 132 deaths per 1,000 live births in the 1970s and 1980s to 50–60 per 1,000 in 2000, and further to 16–18 per 1,000 in 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsurance.com/health-insurance/egypt/|title=Egypt Health Insurance|work=globalsurance.com|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905232826/http://www.globalsurance.com/health-insurance/egypt/|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=cia-health/>

The [[Ministry of Health and Population (Egypt)|Ministry of Health and Population]] oversees most public hospitals, while the [[Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (Egypt)|Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research]] manages university hospitals, offering free medical services. Other ministries operate hospitals for employees, and the [[Ministry of Defence (Egypt)|Ministry of Defence]] and [[Ministry of Interior (Egypt)|Ministry of Interior]] run facilities that require out-of-pocket payments for non-service members.<ref name=healthcare1>{{cite journal |last1=Shokr |first1=Hisham |last2=Rishworth |first2=Andrea |last3=Wilson |first3=Kathi |title=Access to emergency care in Egypt: Tiered health care and manifestations of inequity |journal=Social Science & Medicine |date=November 2023 |volume=336 |article-number=116212 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116212 |pmid=37783622 }}</ref>

The private sector provides about 60% of healthcare services, including for-profit and nonprofit organisations, private hospitals, pharmacies, and independent practitioners. Numerous [[nongovernmental organizations|nongovernmental organisations]] also offer healthcare, including religious and charitable institutions. As of 2021, Egypt had 1,145 private hospitals, a 23.69% increase since 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1389898/number-private-hospitals-egypt/ |title=Number of private hospitals in Egypt |publisher=Statista |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref> Private healthcare facilities in Egypt are generally of high quality.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.allianzcare.com/en/support/health-and-wellness/national-healthcare-systems/healthcare-in-egypt.html#:~:text=Private%20healthcare%20in%20Egypt,facilities%20for%20more%20specialised%20care. |title=Healthcare in Egypt |publisher=Allianz Care |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

Egypt grants refugees and asylum-seekers access to public healthcare on equal terms with citizens, allowing them to receive care at primary health facilities either free or at low cost.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://help.unhcr.org/egypt/en/health-services/health-2/ |title=Health Services in Egypt |publisher=UNHCR |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

A 2008 report by the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]] estimated that 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to [[Female genital mutilation|genital mutilation]]. Government measures have reduced the practice among younger generations. By 2014, rates had dropped to 10.4% in urban areas and 15.9% in rural areas among girls aged 1–14. In June 2025 the [[Ministry of Social Solidarity|Minister of Social Solidarity]] announced that the percentage of girls aged 15 to 17 who had undergone the practice dropped to 37 percent in 2021, compared to 61 percent in 2014. Public support for FGM has also fallen, with the proportion of women endorsing the practice decreasing from 75 percent in 2000 to 30 percent in 2021.
Legislative reforms, awareness campaigns, and stricter law enforcement contributed to this decline. In 2016, penalties for performing the practice were increased, with prison sentences of up to 15 years for practitioners and up to 3 years for [[Legal guardian#Guardianship for minors|guardians]] who facilitate the procedure.<ref>{{cite web |last=Samir |first=Farah |title=FGM Rate Among Egyptian Teenage Girls Drops to 37%, Says Social Solidarity Minister |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2025/06/22/fgm-rate-among-egyptian-teenage-girls-drops-to-37-says-social-solidarity-minister/ |website=Egyptian Streets |date=22 June 2025 |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fgmcri.org/country/egypt/ |title=Egypt - Country Profile on FGM |publisher=FGM Country Risk Index |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's parliament passes bill designating FGM a felony, imposes stricter penalties|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/242112/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-parliament-passes-bill-designating-FGM-a-fe.aspx|access-date=1 December 2016|agency=Ahram Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202101139/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/242112/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-parliament-passes-bill-designating-FGM-a-fe.aspx|archive-date=2 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Largest cities ===
{{See also|List of cities and towns in Egypt}}
{{Largest cities
| country = Egypt
| stat_ref = [http://citypopulation.de/Egypt-Cities.html 2023 estimate]
| list_by_pop = List of cities and towns in Egypt
| div_name = Governorate
| div_link =

| city_1 = Cairo
| div_1 = Cairo Governorate{{!}}Cairo
| pop_1 = 9,801,536

| city_2 = Alexandria
| div_2 = Alexandria Governorate{{!}}Alexandria
| pop_2 = 5,362,517

| city_3 = Giza
| div_3 = Giza Governorate{{!}}Giza
| pop_3 = 4,458,135

| city_4 = Shubra El Kheima
| div_4 = Qalyubia Governorate{{!}}Qalyubia
| pop_4 = 1,275,700

| city_5 = Port Said
| div_5 = Port Said Governorate{{!}}Port Said
| pop_5 = 791,749

| city_6 = Suez
| div_6 = Suez Governorate{{!}}Suez
| pop_6 = 716,458

| city_7 = Mansoura
| div_7 = Dakahlia Governorate{{!}}Dakahlia
| pop_7 = 632,330

| city_8 = El Mahalla El Kubra
| div_8 = Gharbia Governorate{{!}}Gharbia
| pop_8 = 614,202

| city_9 = Tanta
| div_9 = Gharbia Governorate{{!}}Gharbia
| pop_9 = 597,694

| city_10 = Asyut
| div_10 = Asyut Governorate{{!}}Asyut
| pop_10 = 562,061

| city_11 = Faiyum
| div_11 = Faiyum Governorate{{!}}Faiyum
| pop_11 = 531,861

| city_12 = Khusus
| div_12 = Qalyubia Governorate{{!}}Qalyubia
| pop_12 = 502,864

| city_13 = Zagazig
| div_13 = Sharqia Governorate{{!}} Sharqia
| pop_13 = 460,501

| city_14 = Ismailia
| div_14 = Ismailia Governorate{{!}}Ismailia
| pop_14 = 450,388

| city_15 = Aswan
| div_15 = Aswan Governorate{{!}}Aswan
| pop_15 = 401,890

| city_16 = 6th of October (city){{!}} 6th of October
| div_16 = Giza Governorate{{!}}Giza
| pop_16 = 376,302

| city_17 = Damanhur
| div_17 = Beheira Governorate{{!}}Beheira
| pop_17 = 329,572

| city_18 = New Cairo
| div_18 = Cairo Governorate{{!}}Cairo
| pop_18 = 319,488

| city_19 = Damietta
| div_19 = Damietta Governorate{{!}}Damietta
| pop_19 = 312,863

| city_20 = Minya, Egypt{{!}}Minya
| div_20 = Minya Governorate{{!}}Minya
| pop_20 = 298,021
}}

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Egypt}}

Egypt is a recognised cultural trendsetter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061 |title=Mideast: Egypt Makes Cultural Clout Count (IPS, Oct. 29, 2009) |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=29 October 2009 |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427044804/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061 |archive-date=27 April 2011 }}</ref>

[[File:حديقة الأزهر ومسجد محمد على.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Azhar Park]] is listed as one of the world's sixty great public spaces by the [[Project for Public Spaces]].]]
Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate [[Islam]], Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and its spoken descendant, [[Egyptian Arabic]], which has a significant [[Coptic language|Coptic-Egyptian]] [[Stratum (linguistics)|substrate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm|title=The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?|author=Raymon Kondos|date=15 February 2004|access-date=21 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829005958/http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm|archive-date=29 August 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>

The work of early 19th century scholar [[Rifa'a al-Tahtawi]] renewed interest in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian antiquity]] and exposed Egyptian society to [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer [[Ali Mubarak]] a native [[Egyptology]] school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as [[Suyuti]] and [[Maqrizi]], who themselves studied the [[History of ancient Egypt|history]], [[Egyptian language|language]] and [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|antiquities]] of Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|last=El-Daly|first=Okasha|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium|year=2005|publisher=UCL Press|location=London|page=29}}</ref>

Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like [[Muhammad Abduh]], [[Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed]], [[Muhammad Loutfi Goumah]], [[Tawfiq el-Hakim]], [[Louis Awad]], [[Qasim Amin]], [[Salama Moussa]], [[Taha Hussein]] and [[Mahmoud Mokhtar]]. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, [[secularism]] and faith in science to bring progress.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=130}}</ref>

=== Arts ===
{{Main|Contemporary art in Egypt|Art of ancient Egypt}}

{{See also|Architecture of Egypt}}
[[File:The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The "weighing of the heart" scene from the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'']]
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|architecture]]. [[Egyptian blue]], also known as calcium copper silicate, is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the [[Pharaoh]]s followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], [[Egyptian temple|temples]] and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the [[Pyramid of Djoser]] designed by ancient architect and engineer [[Imhotep]], the [[Sphinx]], and the temple of [[Abu Simbel]].

Modern and contemporary Egyptian art spans a wide range of disciplines, ranging from the vernacular architecture of [[Hassan Fathy]] and [[Ramses Wissa Wassef]] to the iconic sculptures of [[Mahmoud Mokhtar]] and the distinctive [[Coptic art|Coptic iconography]] of [[Isaac Fanous]]. Its development in the twentieth century reflected a complex dialogue between national identity, global artistic trends, and social change. Early modern Egyptian artists sought to reconnect with their national heritage through Neo-Pharaonic styles in architecture, sculpture, and painting, with artists such as [[Mahmoud Mokhtar]] and [[Mahmoud Sa'id]] incorporating symbolic references to ancient Egypt and rural life.<ref name=met-mikdadi>{{cite web |last=Mikdadi |first=Salwa |title=Egyptian Modern Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/egyptian-modern-art |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=October 2004 |access-date=1 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="Engelstad">{{cite web|last=Engelstad|first=Svein|title=Historical Themes in Modern Egyptian Art|url=http://folk.uio.no/sveinen/egypt/egypt-art-lund01.pdf|publisher=Oslo University|access-date=18 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727160612/http://folk.uio.no/sveinen/egypt/egypt-art-lund01.pdf|archive-date=27 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Later generations embraced international movements like [[Surrealism]], [[Cubism]], [[Dadaism]], and [[Abstract art|abstraction]], while the [[Art et Liberté]] group, including [[Ramses Younan]], promoted individual expression and antifascist ideals.<ref name=met-mikdadi/> The Contemporary Art Group, with artists such as [[Gazbia Sirry]] and [[Abdel Hadi Al Gazzar]], explored social realism and the quest for the Egyptian soul, while experimental painters and sculptors like Munir Canaan and Salah Abdel Kerim explored [[Abstract Expressionism]] and [[Assemblage (art)|assemblage]].<ref name=met-mikdadi/> In the latter half of the century, artists responded to political and cultural shifts with Islamic-inspired calligraphy and geometric abstraction, exemplified by the Calligraphic School of Art.<ref name=met-mikdadi/> Other notable artists from this era include [[Inji Efflatoun]] and [[Kamal Amin]].

The launch of institutions such as the [[Townhouse Gallery]] in 1998 democratised art access and introduced new media forms like video and installation art,<ref>{{cite web|last=Rocha|first=Sean|title=Vision of Cairo|work=Travel + Leisure |url=http://www.travelandleisure.com/articles/visions-of-cairo/1|publisher=Travel and Leisure|access-date=18 April 2013}}</ref> providing a platform for younger artists such as [[Fathi Hassan]], [[Ghada Amer]], Medhat Shafik, [[Moataz Nasr]], and Mona Marzouk to experiment with installation, video, and photography.<ref name=met-mikdadi/> The [[2011 Egyptian revolution]] ushered in a new era of politically and socially engaged art. [[Graffiti]] emerged as a prominent medium to document protests and communicate revolutionary messages,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naguib |first1=Saphinaz Amal |title=Engaged Ephemeral Art: Street Art and the Egyptian Arab Spring |journal=Transcultural Studies |date=7 April 2017 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=53–88 |doi=10.17885/HEIUP.TS.2016.2.23590 }}</ref> with artists like [[Bahia Shehab]], [[Alaa Awad]], [[Aya Tarek]], and [[Ganzeer]] creating works that memorialised martyrs, critiqued political figures, and reclaimed public spaces.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morayef|first=Soraya|title=Street Art and The City|url=http://www.thearabreview.org/cairo-street-art-revolution/|access-date=16 April 2013}}</ref>
{{multiple image
| width = 120
| image1 = Khayamiya-7.jpg
| image2 = Khayamiya-3.jpg
| footer = ''Khayamiya'' design motives.
}}

[[Khayamiya]] is a traditional Egyptian appliqué textile art primarily made in Cairo's historic ''ShareʿEl Khayamiya'' ({{langx|ar|شارع الخيامية|lit=Street of the Tentmakers|translit=Shāriʿ al-Khayāmiyya|engvar=gb}}), also known as the Tentmakers Market. The craft, thought to date back to [[ancient Egypt]], involves a labour-intensive hand-stitching process that can take weeks to complete, with designs ranging from geometric motifs to scenes drawn from Egyptian history and folklore. It was originally associated with decorated tents, but today it is also used for quilts, cushion covers, and wall hangings.<ref>{{cite web |last=Vermillion |first=Stephanie |title=This Ancient Egyptian Textile Is Hanging By a Thread |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/egyptian-traditional-textile-artisan-cairo |website=Atlas Obscura |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=3 October 2025}}</ref>

The [[Cairo Opera House]] is Egypt's main performing arts venue, with the [[Alexandria Opera House|Sayed Darwish Theatre]] in [[Alexandria]] and the [[Port Said Opera House]] in [[Port Said]] serving their respective cities. In 2012 the [[Downtown Contemporary Arts Festival]] (D-CAF) was launched to revitalise Cairo's cultural scene and to provide an inclusive platform for contemporary arts. It is an annual arts festival held in Cairo, Egypt, presenting a range of performances, exhibitions, and workshops in theatre, dance, and visual arts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Downtown Contemporary Arts Festival: How Cairo's arts scene has become more inclusive than ever before |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/downtown-contemporary-arts-festival-how-cairo-s-arts-scene-has-become-more-inclusive-than-ever-before-1.849437 |website=The National |date=16 April 2019 |access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Egyptian literature}}

The literary tradition of Egypt began in [[ancient Egypt]], making it among the earliest in human history. Writing was first used by Egyptians to record texts on materials such as papyrus and carved inscriptions.<ref>{{Citation |last=Edwards |first=Amelia |title=The literature and religion of ancient egypt. |url=http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-6.html
|access-date=30 September 2007 |archive-date=20 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020082547/http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-6.html
|url-status=dead }}</ref> The ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'' is perhaps its best-known work;<ref>{{Citation |last= Lichtheim |first=Miriam|author-link=Miriam Lichtheim |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol 1|publisher=University of California Press|year=1975|location=London, England|isbn=0-520-02899-6|page=11}}</ref> and the autobiography has been called the earliest form of Egyptian literature.<ref>{{Citation|title=Ancient Egyptian Stories, Biographies, and Myths|url=http://www.eternalegypt.org/EternalEgyptWebsiteWeb/HomeServlet?ee_website_action_key=action.display.module&module_id=254&language_id=1&story_id=38|access-date=30 September 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726042715/http://www.eternalegypt.org/EternalEgyptWebsiteWeb/HomeServlet?ee_website_action_key=action.display.module&module_id=254&language_id=1&story_id=38|archive-date=26 July 2011}}
</ref> By the eighth century Egypt became part of the Muslim Arab world. Literature and libraries thrived under the new order, papyrus was replaced by paper, and calligraphy became central.<ref>{{Citation |title=Groups of books and book production in Islamic Egypt |url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/writing/library/islamic.html
|access-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> In the 13th century, [[Ibn al-Nafis]] wrote ''[[Theologus Autodidactus]]'', a theological novel with proto-science fiction elements.<ref name=Roubi>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html
|date=6 February 2008 }}, ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> Literary practices such as the ''taqriz'' (commendatory blurbs) appeared in 14th-century Egypt,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenthal |first1=Franz |title='Blurbs' (taqrîẓ) from Fourteenth-Century Egypt |journal=Oriens |date=1981 |volume=27/28 |pages=177–196 |doi=10.2307/1580566 |jstor=1580566 }}</ref> and Egyptian folklore contributed to ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]''.<ref name=Burton-1991>Zipes, Jack David; [[Richard Francis Burton|Burton, Richard Francis]] (1991). ''The Arabian Nights: The Marvels and Wonders of the Thousand and One Nights '' pg 585. Signet Classic</ref>

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Egypt was central to the ''[[Nahda]]'', the Arab cultural renaissance.<ref>{{Citation|title=MSN Encarta entry on Egypt |url=http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___17/Egypt.html|access-date=30 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031113050122/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___17/Egypt.html|archive-date=13 November 2003 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Encarta]] }}</ref> [[Muhammad Abduh]], a leading figure of Islamic modernism,<ref name="Meisami 1998">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sx1bqgibKhQC&pg=PA305|title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature|last1=Meisami|first1=Julie Scott|last2=Starkey|first2=Paul|date=1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-18571-4|language=en}}</ref> co-founded the revolutionary journal ''[[Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa]]'' with [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani]] in 1884; though quickly banned by the British, it circulated widely across the Arab world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2440|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426215503/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2440|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 April 2014|title=Urwat al-Wuthqa, al- - Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|access-date=12 November 2019
}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=http://www.alkhaleej.ae/studiesandopinions/page/3f1e120f-f5db-417f-b9ab-3b798a609b1c|title="العروة الوثقى" عبر الهند|website=www.alkhaleej.ae|access-date=7 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.islamonline.net/?p=9729|website=archive.islamonline.net|access-date=12 November 2019 |title=الرياضة في تاريخ المسلمين }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/urwa-al-wuthqa-al|title=Urwa al-Wuthqa, al- {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=7 December 2019
}}</ref> [[Ahmad Shawqi]] pioneered the expansion of the classical [[qasida]] form, though his work remained firmly rooted in neo-classical style. Following him, poets such as [[Hafez Ibrahim]] began addressing themes of [[anti-imperialism|anticolonialism]] alongside traditional poetic subjects.<ref name=ansari-literature>{{Cite book |title=Thoughts and Ideologies of Mikhail Nu'aima, the Mahjar Poet in the development of Modern Arabic Poetry; A critical study |last=Ansari |first=Abdul Latif |publisher=Shodhganja |year=2010 |hdl=10603/116505 |at=Chapter 1}}</ref> [[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]]'s ''[[Zaynab (novel)|Zaynab]]'' is considered the first modern Egyptian novel.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P.J.|title=The history of modern Egypt: from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=486|edition=4}}</ref> This novel started a movement of modernising Arabic fiction.<ref name=ansari-literature/> Poetry remained vibrant, with figures such as [[Aziz Pasha Abaza]] contributing classical-style verse with [[Pan-Arabism]] themes. The Abaza family produced several notable literary figures, including [[Fekry Pasha Abaza]], [[Tharwat Abaza]], and Desouky Pasha Abaza.<ref>{{Cite web |title=مكتبة البوابة: أهم 10 كتب للأديب المصري ثروت أباظة {{!}} البوابة |url=https://article.albawaba.net/ar/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8-%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9/%D9%85%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%85-10-%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8-%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA-%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%A9-1462416
|access-date=14 May 2024 |website=article.albawaba.net |language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=سمير |first=رانيا |date=3 January 2024 |title=عائلة أباظة: تاريخ طويل وأثر عميق في مصر |url=https://sqawoa.com/archives/47555
|access-date=14 May 2024 |website=صوت القبائل العربية والعائلات المصرية |language=ar}}</ref>
[[File:Nagib Mahfouz.jpg|thumb|[[Naguib Mahfouz]], the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature|180px]]
In the 20th century, modernist movements shaped Egyptian literature. ''[[Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha]]'' focused on the short story,<ref>{{Cite web |title=مجلة الكلمة - المدرسة الحديثة.. جيل ما بعد الريادة |url=http://www.alkalimah.net/Articles/Read/5532
|access-date=29 September 2022 |website=www.alkalimah.net}}</ref> while two of the most prominent figures were [[Taha Hussein]] and [[Naguib Mahfouz]], the latter the first Egyptian and Arabic-language writer to receive the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. Avant-garde literary activity emerged through magazines like ''[[Galerie 68]]'', founded by [[Edwar al-Kharrat]], giving voice to Egypt's 1960s generation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/icons/2015/12/1/الخراط-رحيل-صاحب-الزمن-الآخر|title=الخراط.. رحيل صاحب "الزمن الآخر"|website=www.aljazeera.net|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>

In the 1990s, Egyptian literature responded to socio-economic changes such as urbanisation and rising living costs, focusing on isolated individuals in a changing society, exemplified by Mustafa Zikri, [[Nura Amin]], and [[May Telmissany]].<ref name="Safez">{{cite journal|last=Safez|first=Sabry|title=The New Egyptian Novel|journal=New Left Review |date=August 2010 |issue=64|pages=46–62 |url=http://newleftreview.org/II/64/sabry-hafez-the-new-egyptian-novel}}</ref> This era also saw the rise of women writers, often called ''kitabat al-banat'' ("girls' writing"), with shorter, first-person narratives.<ref>{{cite book|last=Elsadda|first=Hoda|title=Gender, Nation, and the Arabic Novel|date=2012|pages=146, 147, 151}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mehrez|first=Samia|title=Egypt's Culture Wars: Politics and Practice|url=https://archive.org/details/egyptsculturewar00mehr|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|pages=https://archive.org/details/egyptsculturewar00mehr/page/n142 126]}}</ref>

Egyptians constitute the largest share of shortlisted authors for the [[International Prize for Arabic Fiction]], with [[Bahaa Taher]]'s ''Sunset Oasis'' winning the inaugural edition in 2008, followed the next year by [[Youssef Ziedan]]'s ''Azazeel''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Will Tarek Emam become the youngest Egyptian writer to receive the International Prize for Arabic Fiction?|url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/116080/Will-Tarek-Emam-become-the-youngest-Egyptian-writer-to-receive|website=Egypt Today|date=22 May 2022|access-date=3 October 2025}}</ref> Other notable contemporary authors include [[Radwa Ashour]], acclaimed for the ''[[Granada (Trilogy)|Granada]]'' trilogy; [[Ahdaf Soueif]], whose English-language novel ''The Map of Love'' was shortlisted for the [[Booker Prize]] in 1999; [[Ahmed Khaled Tawfik]], who introduced horror and science fiction to Egyptian literature with his ''Ma Waraa al-Tabiaa'' series; and [[Ahmed Mourad]], known for bestselling novels such as ''Vertigo'' and ''[[The Blue Elephant (novel)|The Blue Elephant]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aravanis |first=Mary |date=19 February 2020 |title=Seven Contemporary Egyptian Writers Shedding Light on Egyptian Culture & Beyond |website=Egyptian Streets |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2020/02/19/seven-contemporary-egyptian-writers-shedding-light-on-egyptian-culture-beyond/ |access-date=3 October 2025}}</ref> Feminist themes are explored by [[Nawal El Saadawi]] and [[Alifa Rifaat]], while vernacular poetry is represented by [[Ahmed Fouad Negm]], [[Salah Jaheen]], and [[Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Culture of Egypt |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/hellochina/egyptambassador09/2009-08/24/content_8607968.htm |access-date=9 May 2022|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref>

=== Media ===
{{Main|Media of Egypt}}

{{See also|List of radio stations in Egypt}}

[[File:الصادرة الاولى الوقائع المصرية.jpg|thumb|left|230px|The first issue of [[Al-Waqa'i' al-Misriyya]], printed in 1828 by the [[Bulaq Press|Amiriya Press]]. It and its predecessor [[Jurnal al-Khidiw]] are the oldest Arabic-language newspapers.]]
Egypt is a major regional media hub, with its press among the most influential in the Arab world. The [[printing press]] was first introduced to Egypt by [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]] during his [[French Campaign in Egypt and Syria]].<ref name="Cole 2007 148">{{cite book|last=Cole|first=Juan|title=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonsegyptin00cole_945|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/napoleonsegyptin00cole_945/page/n162 148]}}</ref> [[Alexandria]] was the centre of Egyptian journalism for much of the 1800s,<ref name="kendallp339">Kendall, p. 339</ref> with many literary journals starting there before moving to [[Cairo]].<ref>Kendall, p. 338</ref> By the 1890s, Cairo had become dominant, hosting 65% of publications, while Alexandria accounted for 28%.<ref name="kendallp339" /> The written press in Egypt today is highly diverse, with more than 600 newspapers, journals, and magazines.<ref>{{cite report |title=Freedom of the Press 2007: A Global Survey of Media Independence |editor1=Karin Deutsch Karlekar |editor2=Eleanor Marchant |publisher=Freedom House / Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |location=New York / Lanham |year=2007 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTP%202007%20Full%20Report.pdf |access-date=30 September 2025 |language=en}}</ref> The three leading state-owned press institutions are ''[[Al-Ahram]]'', [[Al-Akhbar (Egypt)|''Al-Akhbar'']] and ''Dar Al-Tahrir,<ref name="arabmediasoc">{{cite web |last=El Shaer |first=Gamal |date=15 February 2015 |title=Mapping Egypt's Media: State Influence in a Transforming Landscape |url=https://www.arabmediasociety.com/mapping-egypts-media-state-influence-in-a-transforming-landscape/ |access-date=3 October 2025 |website=Arab Media & Society}}</ref>'' the latter being a major publishing house that issues a wide range of newspapers and magazines in different languages, including ''[[Al Gomhuria|Al-Gomhuria]]'', ''[[The Egyptian Gazette]]'', ''[[Le Progrès Egyptien]],'' among others.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 January 2019 |title=Dar El Tahrir for Printing and Publishing |url=https://egypt.mom-rsf.org/en/owners/companies/detail/company/company/show/dar-el-tahrir-for-printing-and-publishing/ |access-date=3 October 2025 |website=Media Ownership Monitor Egypt |publisher=Reporters Without Borders (RSF) & Global Media Registry}}</ref>

Egypt was the first country in the region to introduce radio broadcasts to a wide population in 1926, initially through private short-wave stations with limited range, primarily located between [[Cairo]] and [[Alexandria]].<ref name=ahram-radio>{{cite web |date=31 May 2024 |title=Here is Cairo: Egyptian Radio celebrates 90th anniversary |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/524570.aspx |access-date=3 October 2025 |publisher=Ahram Online}}</ref> The official Egyptian radio service launched on 31 May 1934, with the first broadcast featuring [[Muhammad Rifat]], a Quran reciter.<ref name=ahram-radio/> Following the [[1952 Egyptian Revolution]], radio became a central tool of state communication and regional influence. Under President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], Egypt developed the [[Voice of the Arabs]] ({{langx|ar|صوت العرب|translit=Sawt El Arab|engvar=gb}}) service, launched in the 1950s as one of the most prominent Arabic-language broadcasts of its time.<ref name="Boyd1975">{{cite journal |last=Boyd |first=Douglas A. |title=Development of Egypt's Radio: 'Voice of the Arabs' under Nasser |journal=Journalism Quarterly |volume=52 |issue=4 |year=1975 |pages=645–653 |doi=10.1177/107769907505200406 }}</ref> Initially modest in size, Egypt's radio system was rapidly expanded by the revolutionary government. It was used to promote Arab unity, strengthen Egypt's leadership role in the region, often calling for solidarity and revolutionary action, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name="Boyd1975" /> Contemporary radio in Egypt is largely operated by the [[Egyptian Radio and Television Union]] (ERTU), established in 1970, which manages multiple national and local stations. Private FM stations also exist, but state radio remains the most widespread. Programming includes news, cultural content, educational programmes.<ref name=arabmediasoc/>
[[File:Maspiro building (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Maspero television building|Maspero building]] in [[Cairo]], headquarters of the [[Egyptian Radio and Television Union]]|230x230px]]
Egyptian television began in 1960 when Channel 1 launched with [[Quran]] readings and a speech by President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]], followed by Channel 2 in 1961 offering cultural, informational, and instructional programmes. Over the following decades, additional channels were launched regionally.<ref name=arabmediasoc/> In the 21st century, Egypt's television and film industry continue to supply much of the region through Cairo's [[Egyptian Media Production City|Media Production City]]. Television remains the most popular medium in the country, with [[Egyptian Radio and Television Union|ERTU]] operating two national terrestrial channels, six local terrestrial channels covering all 27 governorates, three satellite channels, and over ten specialised channels, including news, sport, culture, education, and entertainment.<ref name=arabmediasoc/> In addition, numerous private satellite television channels operate alongside the state networks.<ref name=arabmediasoc/> Egypt is a major force in satellite broadcasting, being the first Arab country to launch its own satellite, [[Nilesat]].

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Egypt}}

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[[Egyptian cinema]], the oldest in Africa and the Arab world, began in 1896 with film screenings in [[Alexandria]], [[Cairo]], and [[Port Said]]. Early production started in 1907 with short documentaries, and the first feature films appeared in 1917, directed by [[Mohammed Karim]]. By the 1920s and 1930s, the country's film scene expanded with productions such as [[Laila (1927 film)|Layla]] and [[Sons of Aristocrats]], the first Egyptian talkie.<ref name=chamber-cinema>{{Cite web |title=History of Egyptian Cinema |website=Chamber of Cinema Industry |date=17 March 2024 |url=https://cci.org.eg/en/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9/ |access-date=5 October 2025}}</ref> In 1936, [[Studio Misr]], financed by industrialist [[Talaat Pasha Harb|Talaat Harb]], emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.<ref>{{cite book|last=Darwish|first=Mustafa|title=Dream Makers on the Nile: A Portrait of Egyptian Cinema|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|location=Cairo|pages=12–13|year=1998}}</ref> For over 100 years, more than 4,000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Houissa|first=Ali|title=LibGuides: Middle Eastern & North African Cinema & Film: Egyptian Cinema & Film|url=https://guides.library.cornell.edu/MidEastCinema/Egypt|access-date=4 October 2021|website=guides.library.cornell.edu|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dajani |first1=Karen Finlon |title=Cairo: the Hollywood of the Arab World |journal=Gazette |date=May 1980 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=89–98 |doi=10.1177/001654928002600202 }}</ref>

The industry has been a dominant cultural force in the Arab world since its inception, earning the nickname "Arab Hollywood" and "Hollywood of the East".<ref name=meer-cinema>{{Cite web |last=El Abbassi |first=Mariem |date=14 June 2023 |title=The influence of Egyptian cinema in the Arab World |website=Meer |url=https://www.meer.com/en/73865-the-influence-of-egyptian-cinema-in-the-arab-world |access-date=5 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The golden age of Egyptian cinema - Focus|url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/50/1209/366778/AlAhram-Weekly/Focus/The-golden-age-of--Egyptian-cinema-.aspx|access-date=4 February 2022|website=Ahram Online}}</ref><ref name=chamber-cinema/> Its golden age, spanning the 1940s to the 1960s, saw Egypt become the world's third-largest film producer, with hundreds of films across genres achieving widespread regional popularity.<ref name=meer-cinema/> Iconic filmmakers such as [[Youssef Chahine]] and [[Henry Barakat]], and celebrated actors including [[Faten Hamama]], helped establish Egyptian cinema as a major influence on Arab cultural identity. Today, Egyptian films continue to reach audiences across the Arab world and beyond, maintaining the country's historic role as a central hub for Arabic-language cinema.<ref name=meer-cinema/>

Egypt hosts several film festivals, which have become important platforms for both local and international filmmakers. The [[Cairo International Film Festival]], established in 1976, showcases a range of films from dramas to experimental works and attracts filmmakers and audiences from around the world.<ref name=film-festivals>{{cite web |last=Nawar |first=Belal |title=Lights, Camera, Egypt! Unveiling the Glamour of Egypt's Most Celebrated Film Festivals |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2023/12/07/lights-camera-egypt-unveiling-the-glamour-of-egypts-most-celebrated-film-festivals/ |website=Egyptian Streets |date=7 December 2023 |access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref> It is listed by the [[FIAPF|International Federation of Film Producers' Associations]] as one of the 11 competitive film festivals in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://azam.net/ukhotmovies/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/ |title=Cairo International Film Festival information |work=UKHotMovies |date=1 December 2005 |access-date=17 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105193710/http://azam.net/ukhotmovies/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/ |archive-date=5 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Luxor African Film Festival]] highlights African cinema, while the [[El Gouna Film Festival]] presents Arabic and international films. Other notable events include the Ismailia International Film Festival, which focuses on social and environmental themes, and the Alexandria Short Film Festival, which features narrative, documentary, and animated short films.<ref name=film-festivals/>

The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of [[talking film]]s, and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962. The cinema count fell to 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995, due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centres. Their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009.<ref>{{Cite book|last=سعد|first=عبدالمنعم|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJaOQgAACAAJ&q=%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9|title=موجز تاريخ السينما المصرية|date=1976|publisher=مطابع الأهرام التجارية|language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Shafik|first=Viola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QusdDAAAQBAJ&q=egyptian+cinema+history|title=Popular Egyptian Cinema: Gender, Class, and Nation|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-977-416-053-0|language=en}}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Egypt}}

[[File:Ancient Egyptians playing music.png|alt=Ancient Egyptians playing music|thumb|An ancient Egyptian mural of people playing music.|left]]
[[Music of Egypt|Egyptian music]] is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of [[culture of Egypt|Egyptian culture]] since antiquity. The ancient [[Egyptians]] credited one of their gods [[Hathor]] with the invention of music, which [[Osiris]] in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.<ref>[http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/AncientEgypt/AncientEgypt.html Music of Ancient Egypt] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013114158/http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/AncientEgypt/AncientEgypt.html |date=13 October 2015}}, [[Kelsey Museum of Archaeology]], [[University of Michigan]].</ref>

Contemporary Egyptian music has its roots in the work of early artists such as [[Abdu al-Hamuli]], Almaz, and Mahmoud Osman, whose contributions shaped and inspired later generations. It was recorded as early as the 1910s, with a thriving classical tradition developing in Cairo by the 1930s, blending indigenous folk influences with Western elements and producing iconic 20th-century stars such as [[Sayed Darwish]], [[Umm Kulthum]], [[Mohammed Abdel Wahab]], [[Abdel Halim Hafez]], and [[Baligh Hamdi]], many of whom became central to both popular culture and national identity.
[[File:Umm Kulthum 1969.jpg|thumb|[[Umm Kulthum]], an icon of Egyptian music, often referred to as "Egypt's [[Giza pyramid complex|Fourth Pyramid]]".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/Archive/2008/903/special.htm |title=Umm Kulthoum, the fourth pyramid |year=2008}}</ref> In 2023, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' ranked Umm Kulthum at number 61 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.<ref>{{citation|title=Rolling Stone Magazine named iconic singer Umm Kulthum among the greatest 200 singers of all time.|date=8 January 2023 |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/121771/Rolling-Stone-Magazine-named-iconic-singer-Umm-Kulthum-among-the}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|date=1 January 2023|title=The 200 Greatest Singers of All Time|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-singers-all-time-1234642307/umm-kulthum-1234643089/|access-date=15 August 2023|magazine=Rolling Stone|language=en-US}}</ref>|230x230px]]
The music scene evolved from the golden age of mid-20th century [[Music of Egypt#Modern Egyptian classical and pop music|modern Egyptian classical]] heavyweights, to the rise of [[Arabic pop|Egyptian pop]] in the 1980s–90s with artists such as [[Amr Diab]], [[Hisham Abbas]], and [[Mostafa Amar]].<ref name="aravanis-music">{{cite web |last=Aravanis |first=Mary |title=A Closer Look at Contemporary Egyptian Music Trends |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2020/01/18/a-closer-look-at-contemporary-egyptian-music-trends/ |website=Egyptian Streets |date=18 January 2020 |access-date=30 September 2025 |language=en}}</ref> At the same time, [[Omar Khairat]] emerged as a leading composer and pianist, blending [[Western classical music]] with distinctive Egyptian influences. He has written numerous acclaimed film scores and symphonic works which has made him one of Egypt's most internationally respected contemporary musicians.<ref>{{cite web |last=Al-Haggar |first=Kadry |title=I am proud of my success in Egypt more than any other place in world: Composer Omar Khairat |website=Daily News Egypt |date=8 March 2022 |url=https://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2022/03/08/i-am-proud-of-my-success-in-egypt-more-than-any-other-place-in-world-composer-omar-khairat/ |access-date=4 October 2025}}</ref>

In the 21st century, globalisation and the [[2011 Egyptian revolution|2011 revolution]] spurred diverse underground movements, with musicians and bands like [[Ramy Essam]] and [[Cairokee]] addressing identity and political themes.<ref name="aravanis-music"/> [[Mahraganat]] emerged from working-class communities to become mainstream, developing out of [[shaabi]] music, which has been part of Egyptian culture since the 1970s with pioneers such as [[Ahmed Adaweya]]. Meanwhile, Egyptian [[rap]], [[Trap music|trap]], and [[techno]] gained prominence through artists like Abyusif, [[Marwan Pablo]], and [[Wegz]].<ref name="aravanis-music"/>

In recent years, Egypt's music scene has seen a generational shift, with new artists emerging as leading figures alongside established icons. According to [[Spotify Wrapped]] 2024, seven of the ten most-streamed songs in Egypt came from newer performers experimenting with [[rap]], [[R&B]], [[Electronic music|electronic fusions]], and [[underground music|street music]] alongside traditional influences. Rising artists such as Eslam Kabonga, Shehab, [[TUL8TE]], Mahmoud El Leithy, and Essam Sasa gained significant popularity, while established acts like Marwan Pablo, [[Sherine]], [[Cairokee]], and [[Tamer Ashour]] also remained highly streamed. The trend coincided with an 85 percent rise in local music consumption, underscoring the growing dominance of homegrown talent.<ref>{{cite web |last=K. |first=Mirna |title=2024: The Rise of Gen Z and Egyptian Local Talent on Spotify |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2024/12/08/2024-the-rise-of-gen-z-and-egyptian-local-talent-on-spotify/ |website=Egyptian Streets |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=30 September 2025 |language=en}}</ref> Egypt's music industry has seen rapid international growth through streaming platforms, with [[Spotify]] reporting a fivefold rise in royalties since 2022, over 90 percent of earnings going to independent artists, and more than 80 percent of revenue coming from listeners outside Egypt.<ref>{{cite web |title=Egypt's Music Scene Goes Global — Thanks To Streaming Powerhouses |url=https://news.broadcastmediaafrica.com/2025/06/23/egypts-music-scene-goes-global-thanks-to-streaming-powerhouses/ |website=Broadcast Media Africa |date=23 June 2025 |access-date=30 September 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Dances ===
Egypt has a rich tradition of folk dances that reflect the country's regional and cultural diversity. In [[Lower Egypt]], dances such as ''[[Ghawazi|ghawazi el sonbat]]'' ({{lang|arz|غوازي سنباط}}), ''raqs el hagala'' ({{lang|arz|رقص الحجلة}}), and ''welad el sayala'' ({{lang|arz|أولاد السيالة}}) incorporate colourful costumes and props to tell a story. For example, ''welad el sayala'', performed in [[Alexandria]], uses pocket knives and chairs to represent the lives and celebrations of fishermen and their communities.<ref name=nadine-khaled>{{cite web |last=Khaled |first=Nadine |title=5 Iconic Dances that Capture Egypt's Passion for Folk |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/10/06/5-iconic-dances-that-capture-egypts-passion-for-folk/ |website=Egyptian Streets |date=6 October 2021 |access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref> In [[Upper Egypt]], dances include stick dances such as ''raqs el assaya'' ({{lang|arz|رقص العصا}}) and ''[[tahtib]]'' ({{lang|arz|تحطيب}}), which are traditionally performed by men at weddings and festive occasions. These dances often symbolise strength and skill, with tahtib in particular originating from ancient martial arts traditions.<ref name=nadine-khaled/> Nubian dance, originating in [[Nubians|Nubian communities]] in Egypt's south, are characterised by rhythmic arm movements and upbeat tempos, often accompanied by the tambourine duff.<ref name=nadine-khaled/>
[[File:Tanoura Dancing.jpg|thumb|A [[Tanoura (dance)|tanoura]] dancer performing|230x230px]]
Egypt is often considered the home of [[belly dance]]. Egyptian [[belly dance]] has two main styles: ''[[raqs baladi]]'' ({{lang|arz|رقص بلدي}}) and ''[[raqs sharqi]]'' ({{lang|arz|رقص شرقي}}). There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern ''shaabi'' dance ({{lang|arz|رقص شعبي }}), which shares some elements with [[raqs baladi]]. Belly dancing emphasises fluid movements of the hips, belly, and arms, often performed to the rhythm of the tabla drum, and is closely associated with femininity and performance in cinema and theatre.<ref name=nadine-khaled/>

Other prominent forms of Egyptian dance include Sufi ''[[Tanoura (dance)|tanoura]]'' ({{lang|arz|رقص التنورة}}) dancing, which involves multilayered skirts and is performed both as a spiritual practice to achieve trance-like states and as a cultural performance at festivals and tourist sites.<ref name=nadine-khaled/>

=== Museums ===
{{Main|List of museums in Egypt}}

[[File:Egyptian Museum in Cairo in May 2015.JPG|thumb|229x229px|The [[Egyptian Museum]] in Cairo]]
Egypt is home to one of the world's oldest civilisations. It has engaged with numerous cultures and nations throughout its history and has experienced a vast array of eras, from the prehistoric age to modern times, encompassing periods such as [[ancient Egypt]], [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic]], [[Roman Egypt|Roman]], [[Medieval Egypt|Medieval]], [[Ottoman Egypt|Ottoman]], and the [[History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty|Alawiyya dynasty]].
[[File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|thumb|212x212px|Tutankhamun's burial mask is one of the major attractions of the [[Egyptian Museum]].|left]]
Notable museums in Egypt include the [[Egyptian Museum]] in Cairo, which houses over 120,000 items and is one of the world's largest museums as well as the first national museum in the Middle East, opened in 1902;<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Egyptian Museum – The Egyptian Museum in Cairo |url=https://www.egyptianmuseumcairo.com/egyptian-museum-cairo/history-of-the-egyptian-museum/ |access-date=15 February 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=27 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127183044/https://www.egyptianmuseumcairo.com/egyptian-museum-cairo/history-of-the-egyptian-museum/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> the [[National Museum of Egyptian Civilization]], home to 50,000 artefacts from various eras and the resting place of 22 ancient Egyptian kings and queens relocated there in 2021 during the [[Pharaohs' Golden Parade]]; and the [[Abdeen Palace Museum]], one of Egypt's most famous royal palaces, which contains five museums showcasing arms, royal belongings, silverware, historical documents, and presidential gifts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Abdeen Palace Museum |url=https://cairo.gov.eg/en/Culture/Pages/Cairo-Museums-details.aspx?ID=13 |website=Cairo Governorate |publisher=Official Portal of Cairo Governorate |access-date=27 September 2025}}</ref>

The [[Grand Egyptian Museum]] is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artefacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://marketplace.publicradio.org/shows/2006/07/25/AM200607251.html |title=Marketplace: Egypt's next big thing |author=Nancy Farghalli |work=Marketplace |publisher=American Public Media |date=25 July 2006 |access-date=31 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515221138/http://marketplace.publicradio.org/shows/2006/07/25/AM200607251.html |archive-date=15 May 2008 }}</ref> The museum is sited on {{convert|50|ha|acre}} of land approximately {{convert|2|km|mi|spell=in|abbr=off}} from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ftnnews.com/travel-news/tours/the-grand-egyptian-museum-finally-opens-in-2025/ |title=The Grand Egyptian Museum Finally Opens in 2025 |publisher=FTN News |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref> It features a six-storey atrium with the 82-ton [[Statue of Ramesses II]] and a grand staircase, while its galleries display artefacts spanning ancient Egypt's history. The Tutankhamun exhibition will showcase 5,600 objects from his tomb, including his gold mask and royal regalia. It is arranged around three central themes, life, death, and the afterlife, and features two opposing pathways: a chronological journey through his life and reign, and a forensic exploration of his tomb and excavation. The museum is set to open on 1 November 2025.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tutankhamun has a new stage in Egypt. Meet the architect behind its creation |url=https://monocle.com/magazine/issues/187/tutankhamun-has-a-new-stage-in-egypt/
|website=Monocle |date=20 September 2025 |access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Festivals ===
[[File:مولد شارع المعز.jpg|thumb|200px|Moulid celebrations in [[Muizz Street]], Cairo]]
Egypt observes several religious Muslim and Christian festivals as public holidays. These include [[Christmas|Coptic Christmas]], [[Eid al-Fitr]], [[Eid al-Adha]], [[Islamic New Year]], the [[Day of Arafah]], and [[Mawlid|Moulid al-Nabawi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=National Holidays |url=https://www.presidency.eg/en/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9/|website=Presidency of the Arab Republic of Egypt |access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref>

''[[Sham Ennessim]]'' ({{lang|ar|شم النسيم}}) is an annual [[festival]] in Egypt marking the beginning of spring, celebrated by Egyptians of all religions and recognised as an official [[public holiday]].<ref name="asante">Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). ''[[iarchive:culturecustomsof00mole/page/75/mode/2up|Culture and Customs of Egypt]]''. Greenwood Press. p. 75. {{ISBN|0-313-31740-2}}.</ref> It is observed on [[Easter Monday]], the day after [[Easter]],<ref name=":3-shamenessim">Celebrations of the Feast of Shamm Al-Nassim in Egypt: The Past and the Present], Annals of Ain Shams Literature 42, 323-350, 2014 [French]</ref> typically between the [[Egyptian calendar|Egyptian months]] of [[Paremoude]] (April) and [[Pashons]] (May). The festival is traditionally celebrated outdoors, with picnics in public gardens, along the [[Nile]], or at the zoo. Typical foods include ''[[fesikh]]'', lettuce, [[scallion|green onions]], and [[lupin bean]]s. Boiled eggs are often coloured and eaten or exchanged as gifts.<ref name="asante" /> it is generally held that Sham Ennessim is a continuation of early forms of springtime festivities dating back over 4,500 years.<ref name="asante" />

[[Mawlid#Other uses|Moulids]], or saint's festivals, are a long-standing tradition throughout Egypt, celebrating both Islamic and Christian saints. The majority are Islamic and typically feature [[dhikr]], the ritual chanting and recitation of prayers, as well as performances by Sufi groups, including music and spiritual gatherings.<ref name=googlearts-moulid>{{Cite web |title=Celebrating Saints: Egyptian Moulids |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/celebrating-saints-egyptian-moulids-american-research-center-in-egypt/wQXRQhO-lFCL1g?hl=en |website=Google Arts & Culture |publisher=American Research Center in Egypt |access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref> Christian moulids follow comparable festive patterns. These events blend religious devotion with communal celebration, often centring on a shrine or mosque where pilgrims seek blessings through prayer, recitation of religious texts, circumambulation, and other acts of veneration.<ref name=googlearts-moulid/> They are also social and cultural occasions, with food, games, rides, and temporary stalls set up in the surrounding streets.<ref name=googlearts-moulid/> Major festivals, such as the ''[[Abu Haggag Mosque#Mawlid celebration|Moulid Abu El Haggag]]'' ({{lang|ar| مولد أبو الحجاج}}) in [[Luxor]], attract thousands of participants. It features boats and shrines paraded through the city in his honour, a tradition with origins dating back to [[ancient Egypt]].<ref name=googlearts-moulid/> The procession closely resembles the rituals of the [[Opet Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web |title= Sufis celebrate birthday of Sheikh Abu El-Haggag at Luxor mosque|url= https://www.arabnews.com/node/2266696/middle-east|website=Arab News|date= 11 March 2023|language=en}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Egyptian cuisine}}

[[File:Egyptian food Koshary.jpg|thumb|[[Koshary]], one of Egypt's national dishes]]

[[Egyptian cuisine]] is deeply rooted in the agricultural traditions of the [[Nile Valley]] and [[Nile Delta|Delta]], making heavy use of poultry, legumes, vegetables, and fruits. Staple dishes include ''[[Dolma|mahshi]]'', rice-stuffed vegetables and grape leaves, ''[[falafel]]'', mainly known locally as ''ta'ameya'', ''[[shawarma]]'', ''[[Kebab#Egypt|kabab]]'', and ''[[koftet el hati|kofta]]''. Traditional Egyptian specialties include ''[[ful medames]]'', mashed fava beans; ''[[feteer]]'', flaky, layered pie with various fillings;<ref name=Marzouk>{{cite news |last=Marzouk |first=Sarah |title=A Brief History of Fiteer, Egypt's Pizza-Like Pastry |url=https://theculturetrip.com/africa/egypt/articles/a-brief-history-of-fiteer-egypts-pizza-like-pastry/ |access-date=26 June 2018 |work=The Culture Trip |date=12 February 2017 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330083849/https://theculturetrip.com/africa/egypt/articles/a-brief-history-of-fiteer-egypts-pizza-like-pastry/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[hawawshi]]'', spiced minced meat baked inside bread;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bassel |first=Mona |title=Exploring the History of the Egyptian Burger: Hawawshi |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/10/01/exploring-the-history-of-the-egyptian-burger-hawawshi/|website=Egyptian Streets |date=1 October 2021 |access-date=5 October 2025}}</ref> ''[[molokhiya]]'', a jute leaf stew; and ''[[koshary]]'', a mix of lentils, rice, and pasta. Many Egyptian dishes are traditionally prepared hands on at home, often slow-cooked, based on the culinary practices of rural kitchens passed down through generations,<ref>{{Cite web |last=K. |first=Mirna |date=23 May 2024 |title=How Egyptian Cuisine Can Follow Lebanese Footsteps on the Global Stage |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2024/05/23/how-egyptian-cuisine-can-follow-lebanese-footsteps-on-the-global-stage/ |website=Egyptian Streets |access-date=5 October 2025}}</ref> including stews such as ''[[bamia]]'', okra stew; ''[[qolqas]]'', taro root stew; and baked dishes, such as ''[[rozz me'ammar]]'', a baked rice dish made with milk, butter, and [[qeshta|eshta]]; as well as ''[[macarona bil-bechamel]]'', a pasta bake with [[penne]], spiced meat sauce, and [[bechamel sauce|béchamel]].

Bread holds a central place in Egyptian cuisine and dining traditions, with more than 60 different types found across the country.<ref name=rawigivinglife>{{cite journal |last1=Barakat |first1=Hala |title=Giving Life: Bread in Egypt |journal=Rawi |issue=10 |url=https://rawi-publishing.com/articles/giving-life
|access-date=21 March 2025}}</ref> ''[[Eish baladi]]'', a round, whole-wheat flatbread, is a staple of nearly every meal and is commonly used as an edible utensil for dipping and scooping rather than simply accompanying dishes.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bassel |first=Mona |title=Soaking Up the Flavor: Dipping Culture in Egyptian Cuisine |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/10/16/soaking-up-the-flavor-dipping-culture-in-egyptian-cuisine/|website=Egyptian Streets |date=16 October 2021 |access-date=5 October 2025}}</ref><ref name="Basan2007">{{cite book |author=Ghillie Basan |title=Middle Eastern Kitchen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&pg=PA33 |year=2007 |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-1190-3 |pages=33–}}</ref> Cheesemaking in Egypt dates back to the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]],<ref name="LucasHarris2012">{{cite book|author1=A. Lucas|author2=J. Harris|title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWHvAgAAQBAJ|date=30 April 2012|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-14494-8}}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref> with ''[[Domiati cheese]]'' being the most widely consumed today.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to Cheese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRnGDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA248|date=25 October 2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-933089-8|pages=248–}}</ref><ref name="RobinsonTamime1996">{{cite book |author1=Robinson, R. K. |author2=Tamime, A. Y. |title=Feta & Related Cheeses |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zs4NzrRWhQC |date=12 May 1996|publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-7476-0077-0|pages=160, 183}}</ref> Meat plays an important role in Egyptian cuisine, with poultry such as [[squab]],<ref name="newly translated cookbook">{{cite web |last1=Perreault |first1=Abbey |title=Exploring a 'Treasure Trove' of Medieval Egyptian Recipes |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/egyptian-recipes |website=Atlas Obscura |date=4 September 2018 |access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref> chicken, duck, [[quail]], and goose being common, alongside lamb and beef for grilling and stews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/egypt/in-location/eating/a/nar/16eb6f4b-d335-4778-889e-23ce4647576d/355224|title=Eating in Egypt|first=Lonely|last=Planet|website=Lonely Planet}}</ref> Cured meats such as ''[[bastirma]]'' and ''[[sogoq]]'' are traditionally consumed. Egyptian ''bastirma'' is made from salted, spiced, and air-dried beef or water buffalo,<ref name=gagaoua>{{cite journal |last1=Gagaoua |first1=Mohammed |last2=Boudechicha |first2=Hiba-Ryma |title=Ethnic meat products of the North African and Mediterranean countries: An overview |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |date=June 2018 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=83–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.004 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Basturma (Pastirma or Just Bastirma?) |url=https://amiraspantry.com/basturma-pastirma-or-just-bastirma/
|website=Amira's Pantry |date=12 June 2020
|access-date=17 March 2025}}</ref> and ''sogoq'', a spicy sausage of ground beef stuffed into thin casings and left to dry and ferment.<ref>{{cite web |title=طريقة عمل السجق الشرقي في المنزل.. اعرف سر المطاعم والجزارة|url=https://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/7562559
|website=El Watan News |date=18 September 2024
|language=ar |access-date=17 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Egyptian Sausage |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/egyptian-sausage/NwEZcjTHbojDNg?hl=en
|website=Google Arts & Culture |access-date=17 March 2025}}</ref> Fish, especially [[tilapia]] and [[Mullet (fish)|mullet]], are widely consumed, with seafood in general being particularly prevalent in coastal cities like [[Alexandria]], [[Suez]], and [[Port Said]]. A large portion of Egyptian cuisine is vegetarian due to limited grazing land, historical agricultural practices, and the religious customs of [[Coptic Christians]], who periodically observe a [[Lent|vegan diet]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=El Dorry |first1=Mennat-Allah |title=Fasting and Feasting: The Diet of the Desert Fathers |journal=Rawi |issue=10 |url=https://rawi-publishing.com/articles/fasting-and-feasting |access-date=21 March 2025}}</ref>

The cuisine commonly features an assortment of spices and aromatics such as [[cumin]], [[coriander]], [[cardamom]], [[chili pepper|chilli]], [[aniseed]], [[bay leaves]], [[dill]], [[parsley]], [[garlic]], [[ginger]], [[cinnamon]], [[Lamiaceae|mint]], and [[cloves]], with [[cumin]] being the most commonly used.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spices of the Egyptian Cuisine|url=http://www.nilevalley.nl/spices-of-the-egyptian-cuisine/|website=Nile Valley Hotel|access-date=5 June 2017|archive-date=16 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716134505/http://www.nilevalley.nl/spices-of-the-egyptian-cuisine/|url-status=dead}}
</ref> Popular desserts include [[baqlawa]], [[basbousa]], [[kunafa]], and [[qatayef]], often featuring dates, honey, syrup, nuts and [[semolina]]. Tea is the national drink, while coffee is also common and is traditionally prepared in the [[Turkish coffee|Turkish style]]. Other popular beverages in Egypt include ''[[karkadeh]]'', hibiscus tea; ''[[Sugarcane juice|'asir asab]]'', sugarcane juice; ''{{'}}[[erq sous]]'', liquorice juice; ''[[kharob]]'', carob juice; ''[[qamar al-din|amar eddin]]'', apricot drink; and ''[[sobia]]'', sweet coconut milk drink. [[Beer in Egypt|Beer]] is the most popular alcoholic beverage,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rios|first1=Lorena|title=Drinking Alcohol Is Always an Open Secret in Egypt|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/drinking-alcohol-is-always-an-open-secret-in-egypt/|access-date=13 December 2016|agency=Munchies}}</ref> including traditional types like ''[[Bouza (beer)|bouza]]'', made from [[barley]] and bread and consumed since the [[Prehistoric Egypt|Predynastic era]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Caballero|first1=Benjamin|last2=Finglas|first2=Paul|last3=Toldrá|first3=Fidel|title=Encyclopedia of Food and Health|publisher=Academic Press|page=348}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Egypt}}

[[File:Crowd in Cairo Stadium.jpg|thumb|A crowd at Cairo Stadium watching the [[Egypt national football team]]]]

[[Association football|Football]] is the most popular [[national sport]] of Egypt. The [[Cairo Derby]] is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm |title=BBC Sport Academy | Al-Ahly v Zamalek |publisher=BBC News |date=5 August 2002 |access-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511124932/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Al Ahly SC|Al Ahly]] is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals [[Zamalek SC]]. They are known as the "[[CAF Clubs of the 20th Century|African Club of the Century]]". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's [[A.C. Milan]] and Argentina's [[Boca Juniors]], both having eighteen.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/11/al-ahly-master-world/ |title=Al-Ahly – master of the world |newspaper=Daily News Egypt |date=11 December 2014 |access-date=22 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211115406/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/11/al-ahly-master-world/ |archive-date=11 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Egypt national football team|Egyptian national football team]], known as the Pharaohs, won the [[African Cup of Nations]] seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]] three times. Two goals from star player [[Mohamed Salah]] in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/08/world-cup-round-up-egypt-poland-qualify|title=Mo Salah's late penalty gives Egypt first World Cup qualification since 1990|date=8 October 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206052043/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/08/world-cup-round-up-egypt-poland-qualify|archive-date=6 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the [[2001 FIFA World Youth Championship|2001 FIFA youth world cup]] in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928]] and the [[1964 Summer Olympics|1964]] Olympics.

[[Squash (sport)|Squash]] and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. [[Amr Shabana]], [[Ali Farag]] and [[Ramy Ashour]] are Egypt's best players and all were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships five times, with the last title being in [[2019 Men's World Team Squash Championships|2019]].

In 1999, Egypt [[1999 World Men's Handball Championship|hosted]] the [[IHF World Men's Handball Championship]], and hosted it again in [[2021 World Men's Handball Championship|2021]]. In 2001, the [[Egypt men's national handball team|national handball team]] achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the [[African Men's Handball Championship]] five times, being the best team in Africa. Egypt won the [[Egypt at the 2013 Mediterranean Games|Mediterranean Games]] in [[Handball at the 2013 Mediterranean Games|2013]], the [[Beach Handball World Championships]] in [[2004 Beach Handball World Championships|2004]] and the [[Egypt at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics|Summer Youth Olympics]] in [[Handball at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics – Boys' tournament|2010]]. Among all African nations, the [[Egypt national basketball team]] holds the record for best performance at the [[FIBA Basketball World Cup|Basketball World Cup]] and at the [[Basketball at the Summer Olympics|Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2902/_/1950_FIBA_World_Championship_for_Men/index.html |title=1950 World Championship for Men |publisher=FIBA |date=9 June 2012 |access-date=9 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113212042/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2902/_/1950_FIBA_World_Championship_for_Men/index.html |archive-date=13 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/team/p/sid/2933/tid/276/_/1952_Olympic_Games_Tournament_for_Men/index.html |title=Egypt – 1952 Olympic Games; Tournament for Men |publisher=FIBA |date=9 June 2012 |access-date=9 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811212844/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/team/p/sid/2933/tid/276/_/1952_Olympic_Games_Tournament_for_Men/index.html |archive-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the [[FIBA Africa Championship|African Championship]].

[[Egypt at the Olympics|Egypt has taken part]] in the [[Summer Olympic Games]] since 1912 and has hosted [[:Category:International sports competitions hosted by Egypt|several other international competitions]] including [[1951 Mediterranean Games|the first Mediterranean Games]] in 1951, the [[1991 All-Africa Games]], the [[2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup]] and the [[1953 Pan Arab Games|1953]], [[1965 Pan Arab Games|1965]] and [[2007 Pan Arab Games|2007]] editions of the [[Pan Arab Games]].

== See also ==
* [[Outline of ancient Egypt]]
* [[Outline of Egypt]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}
* [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=EG Key Development Forecasts for Egypt] from [[International Futures]]

=== Government ===
* [https://www.eip.gov.eg/ Information Portal] – Official Egypt Information Portal
* [http://www.idsc.gov.eg/ Information and Decision] – Egypt Information and Decision Support Center
* [https://www.sis.gov.eg/ Information Services] – official website of Egypt State Information Services
* [https://www.presidency.eg/en/ Presidency] – official website of the president of Egypt
* [https://www.cabinet.gov.eg/ Prime Minister] – official website of the prime minister of Egypt
* [http://www.parliament.gov.eg House of Representatives] – official website of Egypt House of Representatives
* [https://senate.eg Senate] – official website of the Senate of Egypt
* [https://sccourt.gov.eg Supreme Constitutional Court] – official website of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt
* [https://www.capmas.gov.eg Mobilization and Statistics] – official website of Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics

=== History ===
* [https://www.sis.gov.eg/section/0/701?lang=en-us "History"] – Egyptian history at Egypt Information Portal
* [https://descegy.bibalex.org/en "Description de l'Egypte"] – Ancient, modern and natural history of Egypt at The [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]]
* [https://modernegypt.bibalex.org/ "Modern Egypt"] – website from the Bibliotheca Alexandrina

=== Tourism ===
* [https://www.experienceegypt.eg/ Experience Egypt] – Egypt's official tourism portal

=== Maps ===
* {{Wikiatlas}}
* {{OSM relation|1473947}}

{{Egypt topics}}
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Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016

2026-03-26T12:14:25Z

Loz12:

{{update|date=February 2017}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}

{{Infobox legislation
| short_title = Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016
| legislature = [[Parliament of India]]
| long_title = An Act to provide for the establishment of funds under the public accounts of India and the public accounts of each State and crediting thereto the monies received from the user agencies towards compensatory afforestation, additional compensatory afforestation, penal compensatory afforestation, net present value and all other amounts recovered from such agencies under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; constitution of an authority at national level and at each of the State and Union territory Administration for administration of the funds and to utilise the monies so collected for undertaking artificial regeneration (plantations), assisted natural regeneration, protection of forests, forest related infrastructure development, Green India Programme, wildlife protection and other related activities and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
| autocollapse_long_title = true
| citation = [https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/2151/1/A2016-38.pdf Act No. 38 of 2016]
| territorial_extent = whole of India
| enacted_by = Lok Sabha
| date_passed = 3 May 2016
| enacted_by2 = Rajya Sabha
| date_passed2 = 28 July 2016
| assented_by = President
| date_assented = 3 August 2016
| date_commenced = 30 September 2018<ref>[http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2018/188570.pdf Gazette of India notification]</ref>
| bill_history_url = https://prsindia.org/billtrack/the-compensatory-afforestation-fund-bill-2015
| bill = Compensatory Afforestation Fund Bill, 2015
| bill_citation = [https://prsindia.org/files/bills_acts/bills_parliament/2015/CAMPA_bill_as_passed_by_LS_1.pdf Bill No. 153-C of 2015]
| introduced_by = [[Prakash Javadekar]], [[Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change|MoEFCC]]
| date_introduced = 8 May 2015
| committee_whole_label = Standing Committee
| committee_whole = 21 May 2015–26 February 2016
| passed = 3 May 2016
| passed2 = 28 July 2016
| status = in force
}}

The '''Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016''' ('''CAMPA Act''') is an Indian legislation that seeks to provide an appropriate institutional mechanism, both at the Center and in each State and Union Territory, to ensure expeditious utilization efficiently and transparently of amounts released instead of forest land diverted for non-forest purposes, which would mitigate the impact of diversion of such forest land. The Act and the related CAF Rules, 2018, were notified on 10 August 2018, and the Act came into force w.e.f. 30 September 2018.

==History==
The Ministry of Environment and Forest, New Delhi, issued a notification on 23 April 2004 describing the constitution, management, and functions of the CAMPA committee.<ref name="Gazette">{{cite web |last1=Bahuguna |first1=V.K. |title=CAMPA gazette Notification |url=http://mahaforest.gov.in/fckimagefile/1)%20Gazt_Notification_23%20April2004.pdf |website=www.mahaforest.gov.in |publisher=Ministry of Environment & Forests |access-date=5 May 2020}}</ref> The act was sent for examination under a standing committee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gktoday.in/blog/compensatory-afforestation-fund-bill-2015/|title=Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2015|website=IASPOINT}}</ref> It was passed by [[Rajya Sabha|the Rajya Sabha]] on 28 July 2016.<ref>{{citation |title=Bottleneck on fine print cleared, CAMPA Act passes |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/campa-bill-passes-minister-anil-madhav-dave-new-rules-save-forest-2941290 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=29 July 2016 }}</ref>

==Compensatory Afforestation Fund==
This is money paid by developers who have cleared forest land for their construction projects, and the idea is that such land destroyed needs to be made good by regenerating forest elsewhere on non-forest land.

==Purpose==
The legislation established the Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) and the Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF).<ref>{{citation |title=CAMPA Act set to clear House; Govt, Cong reach compromise |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/monsoon-session-campa-bill-clear-congress-government-compromise-gst-afforestation-2926726 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=21 July 2016 }}</ref> The proposed legislation will also ensure expeditious utilization of accumulated unspent amounts available with the ad hoc Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), which presently is of the order of Rs. 95,000 crore, and fresh accrual of compensatory levies and interest on accumulated unspent balance, which will be of the order of approximately Rs. 6,000 crore per annum, efficiently and transparently.<ref>{{citation |title=CAMPA: The manager of afforestation funds |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/campa-afforestation-bill-rajya-sabha-green-india-mission-narendra-modi-2817475 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=25 May 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Din in Rajya Sabha delays CAMPA Act |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/din-in-rajya-sabha-delays-campa-bill-331296-2016-07-25 |work=[[India Today]] |date=25 July 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prsindia.org/billtrack/the-compensatory-afforestations-fund-bill-2015-3782/|title=PRS - Bill Track - The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2015|website=www.prsindia.org}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Compensatory Afforestation|Compensatory afforestation]]
* [[Forest Conservation Act, 1980]]
* [[The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Forestry in India]]
[[Category:Forestry initiatives]]
[[Category:Indian forest law]]
[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of India 2016]]

{{India-law-stub}}

Battle of Samugarh

2026-03-25T08:40:25Z

Loz12: creating new details

{{Short description|1658 battle in the Mughal war of succession}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Samugarh
| partof = [[Mughal war of succession (1658–1659)]]
| image = [[File:The Battle of Samugarh.jpg|250px]]
| caption = Battle of Samugarh
| date = 29 May 1658
| place = Samugarh, [[Mughal Empire]], about 10 miles (16 km) east of [[Agra]]
| result = [[Aurangzeb]]'s victory 
* Coronation of the Aurangzeb as [[Mughal Emperor]]
| territory =
| combatant1 =
| combatant2 =
| commander1 = [[Aurangzeb]] [[Murad Bakhsh]]{{WIA}} Bahadur Khan{{WIA}} Shaikh Mir [[Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung|Zulfiqar Khan]] [[Kilich Khan]]
| commander2 = [[Dara Shikoh]] [[Sulaiman Shikoh]] [[Rao Raja Chattar Sal|Rao Chhatrasal Hada]]{{KIA}} Rustam Khan{{KIA}}
| strength1 = 50,000–60,000 men<ref name=SC/>
| strength2 = 50,000–60,000 men<ref name=SC/>
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
}}

'''Battle of Samugarh''', also known as '''Jang-e-Samugarh''' (29 May 1658), was a decisive battle in the struggle for the throne during the Mughal war of succession (1658–1659) between the sons of [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] after the emperor's serious illness in September 1657. The battle of Samugarh was the [[Battle of Dharmat|second]] battle fought between [[Dara Shikoh]] (the eldest son and heir apparent) and his three younger brothers [[Aurangzeb]], [[Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)|Shah Shuja]] and [[Murad Baksh]] (third and fourth sons of Shah Jahan) to decide who would be the heir of the throne after their father.<ref name="britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520843/Battle-of-Samugarh|title=Battle of Samugarh | Mughal history | Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=britannica.com|access-date=2015-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/toi-edit-page/not-plassey-1757-but-samugarh-1658-fateful-day-in-history-that-fixed-the-subcontinents-future-fate/|title=Not Plassey 1757 but Samugarh 1658: Fateful tipping point that fixed the subcontinent's future course|newspaper=The Times of India |last1=Baig |first1=Murad Ali }}</ref>

==Background==
Both sides had around 50,000 to 60,000 men however Aurangzeb was a much better general and his army was more experienced. Dara depended on his Hada Rajputs and Saiyids of Barha but the major bulk of his army was hastily recruited and had no experience in war. Dara was also overconfident and did not try to get help from the nobility of his father's empire.<ref name=SC>{{Cite book|first=Satish|last=Chandra|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=2005|pages=271–272|isbn=9788124110669 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rm9MC4DDrcC&q=samugarh|quote=the sides being almost equally matched in numbers (about 50,000 to 60,000 on each side)...The Hada Rajputs and Saiyads of Barha upon whom Dara largely depended could not make up for the weakness of the rest of the hastily recruited army.}}</ref>

==Battle==
Dara Shikoh started the battle with cannonade, which continued for one hour. Dara's cavalry under Rustam Khan then attacked Aurangzeb's artillery under Saif Shikan Khan, Rustam was soon attacked by Aurangzeb's infantry and both sides started cutting into each other. However, Dara's van continued to weaken as Rustam died fighting and his men fled after his death. In Aurangzeb's army, Bahadur Khan was seriously wounded and fell from his horse, but Aurangzeb quickly sent reinforcements under Shaikh Mir to Bahadur's aid. The Rajputs of Dara, who formed the vanguard and right wing of Dara's army were able to penetrate into Aurangzeb's van and attacked Zulfiqar and Murad. Murad was wounded in the fight and the left wing of Aurangzeb was completely routed by the Rajputs, who now attacked Aurangzeb's centre. However, Aurangzeb used his numbers to cut down the Rajputs and check their advance. Dara Shukoh, upon seeing the Rajputs fall, became indecisive and chose to dismount his elephant and retreat. According to Saqi Mustad Khan, Dara had control of his large reserves and Aurangzeb's army had grown tired. However, instead of reinforcing his van, Dara chose to escape from the battlefield, resulting in a decisive victory for Aurangzeb.<ref name=KR>{{Cite book|first=Kaushik|last=Roy|title=Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500BCE to 1740CE|date=3 June 2015 |publisher=Routledge|pages=139|isbn=9781317586920 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xx7ICQAAQBAJ&q=horses+guns+and+warfare+kaushik+roy|quote=In the close quarter combat...Bahadur Khan fell...the Rajput troopers from Dara's vanguard and his right wing penetrated between Zulfiqar Khan...Murad was wounded...and after defeating Aurangzebs left wing the rajputs turned towards Aurangzeb's centre...the outnumbered rajputs were finally checked by Aurangzeb's centre...Dara had a large reserve, but instead of feeding the reserve into the battle...Aurangzebs force was exhausted....Dara lost heart...he dismounted from his elephant and escaped.}}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb|author=Lal, M.|date=1988|publisher=Vikas Pub. House|isbn=978-0-7069-4017-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTZuAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2015-02-22}}</ref>

During the battle, the [[Mughal artillery]] of both armies included [[iron]]-cased [[rocket artillery]]. French traveller [[François Bernier]] was present during the battle, describing the Mughal ''ban'' iron rockets used in the battle.<ref name="Throwing Fire Projectile Technology Through History">{{cite book |author1=Alfred W. Crosby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyFxldb2GJQC |title=Throwing Fire Projectile Technology Through History |date=April 8, 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521791588 |language=En |format=Hardcover |access-date=6 December 2023}}</ref>{{rp|133}}

==Conclusion==
[[File:Aurangzebs palace.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Sepoy]]s loyal to the [[Mughal Emperor]] Aurangzeb, maintain their positions around [[Agra]], in the year 1658. - by William Purser]]

Dara Shikoh's army fled to [[Goindval|Goindwal]] where [[Guru Har Rai]] had deployed his army, the [[Akal Sena]], to prevent and delay Aurangzeb's army from pursuing Dara Shikoh.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last1=Takhar |first1=Opinderjit Opinderjit |title=Global Sikhs: Histories, Practices and Identities |last2=Jakobsh |first2=Doris R. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2023 |isbn=9781000847352 |series=Routledge Critical Sikh Studies |quote=During the time of the seventh Guru, the emphasis on armed conflict with the Mughals receded, but Guru Har Rai held court and kept a regular force of Sikh horsemen. He had favorable relations with Dara Shikoh (eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan and heir apparent to the Mughal throne), who sought the Guru's help while he was fleeing in front of the army of his younger brother Aurangzeb, after his defeat in the battle of Samugrah on May 29, 1658. According to Mahimà Prakäsh Värtak, Guru Har Rai deployed his own troops at the ferry at Goindval to delay Aurangzeb's army, which was pursuing Dara Shikoh at his heels}}</ref>

After his victory, Aurangzeb would go on to imprison his brother Murād and father Shah Jahān, while Dara, escaped and tried to fight Aurangzeb again but was defeated and executed in 1659.<ref name="britannica"/>

==See also==
*[[Shah Jahan]]
*[[Mughal Empire]]
*[[Battle of Machhiwara]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Mughal Empire|state=expanded}}
{{coord missing|Uttar Pradesh}}

[[Category:Battles involving the Mughal Empire|Samugarh]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1658|Samugarh]]
[[Category:1658 in India]]
[[Category:1650s in the Mughal Empire]]

Dindigul

2026-03-25T02:02:03Z

Loz12: expanded lead and corrected details per sources

{{distinguish|Dundigal}}
{{About|the City in Tamil Nadu, India|the district|Dindigul district}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Dindigul
| other_name = ( Dindimaanagaram )
| official_name = Holland of Tamil Nadu Lock City
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| image_skyline = Dindigul Fort2.JPG
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Dindigul City viewed from Dindigul Fort
| nicknames = Holland of Tamil Nadu, City of Locks City of Biryani, City of Flowers
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|10.35|N|77.95|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_type3 = Metro
| subdivision_type4 = Division
| subdivision_type5 = [[Administrative divisions of India|Region]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|..Tamil Nadu Flag(INDIA).png}} [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[dindigul district|Dindigul]]
| subdivision_name3 = 
| established_title = 
| established_date = 300 BCE - 300 AD<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.oneindiaonline.com/history-of-dindigul-tamil-nadu-india.php#:~:text=Sangam%20Era%20(300%20BCE%E2%80%93300,prosperity%20of%20the%20Tamil%20kingdoms|newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |title=History of Dindigul}}</ref>
| subdivision_name5 = [[Pandya Nadu]]
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = City Corporation
| governing_body = [[Dindigul Municipal Corporation|Dindigul City Municipal Corporation]]
| leader_title1 = Collector
| leader_name1 = Thiru S.SARAVANAN, IAS.,
| leader_title2 = Commissioner of City Corporation
| leader_name2 = Thiru. S. Sivasubramanian, B.Sc, BL.,
| leader_title3 = Mayor
| leader_name3 = Tmt. J. Ilamathi
| leader_title4 = Deputy Mayor
| leader_name4 = Thiru. S. Rajappa
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = 
| area_total_km2 = 46.9
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 268
| population_total = 310,000
| population_metro = 438,000
| population_as_of = 2026
| population_rank = [[List of urban agglomerations in Tamil Nadu|10th in Tamil Nadu]]
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = automatic
| population_demonym = Dindigultie
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 624001
| area_code = +91-451
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = TN-57
| website = [http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/abus_municip.htm Dindigul Municipal Corporation]
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[English language|English]]
}}
'''Dindigul''' (Tamil [[ISO 15919|ISO:]] {{IAST|Tiṇṭukkal}}, {{ipa|ta|t̪iɳɖukːɐl|ipa}}) is a city in the [[India]]n state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is the administrative headquarters of the [[Dindigul district]]. Dindigul City is Located in the Southwest Region of Tamil Nadu. Dindigul is an ancient settlement region and has been ruled at different times by the [[Cheras]], [[Early Pandyas]], [[Cholas]], [[Pallava dynasty]], [[later Pandyas]], [[Madurai Sultanate]], [[Vijayanagara Empire]], [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty]], [[Kingdom of Mysore]], [[Chanda Sahib]], and [[British Empire|British]]. It is the 10th-largest [[Urban agglomerations in Tamil Nadu|Urban Agglomeration]] in the state. Dindigul has a number of historical monuments, the [[Dindigul Fort]] being the most prominent. Dindigul is located {{convert|420|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest from the state capital, [[Chennai]], {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from [[Tiruchirappalli]],{{convert|66|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from [[Madurai]] and {{convert|162|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from [[Coimbatore]]. The city is known for its Famous Locks and its Authentic Biriyani.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Narayanan |first=Chitra |date=2023-02-19 |title=A biryani baron and the grains of ambition |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/catalyst/a-biryani-baron-and-the-grains-of-ambition/article66528122.ece |access-date=2025-03-13 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref>

The Dindigul Municipality has been upgraded as [[City Corporation]] with effect from 19 February 2014. Hon'ble Chief Minister [[Jayalalithaa]] handed over the government order to Municipal Chairman V. Marudharaj.

Industries in Dindigul include safety lock makers, leather tanneries, textile spinning, administrative services, agricultural trading, banking, agricultural machinery and educational services. Dindigul is upgraded to a municipal corporation. The city covers an area of {{convert|14.01|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}} and had a population of 207,327 in 2011. Dindigul is well-connected by road and rail with the rest of Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/02/15/stories/2010021550520200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218110423/http://www.hindu.com/2010/02/15/stories/2010021550520200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-02-18 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |title=Tamil Nadu News : Dindigul District – A Profile |date=2010-02-15 |access-date=2013-03-03}}</ref> it had a population of 292,512 according to Tamil Nadu's 2011 census. Dindigul has 200,000 hectares of cultivation land, and agriculture continues to be the main occupation of its inhabitants. Located between the [[Palani]] and [[Sirumalai]] Hills, Dindigul has a reserved forest area of 85 hectares.<ref name=heady>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/05/31/stories/2008053150670200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623183228/http://www.hindu.com/2008/05/31/stories/2008053150670200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-06-23 |title=Tamil Nadu News : A heady mix of all, for all |date=2008-05-31 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2013-03-03}}</ref>

It is one of the few towns and cities in [[List of AMRUT Smart cities in Tamil Nadu]] selected for AMRUT Schemes <ref>{{cite web | url=http://tufidco.in/amrut.aspx | title=Tufidco }}</ref> from central government and the developmental activities are taken care by government of Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tcp.tn.gov.in/amrutscheme | title=Directorate of Town and Country Planning, Government of Tamil Nadu }}</ref>

==Etymology==
The [[Shaivism|Śaiva]] poet [[Tirunavukkarasar|{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Tirunāvukkarasar}}]] visited the city and noted it in his ''[[Tevaram]]''. Dindigul was mentioned in poet Palupatai sokkanathar's book {{lang|ta|Padmagiri Nadhar Thenral Vidu thudhu}}. This was later stated by [[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer]] (1855-1942) in his foreword to the above book. He also mentions that Dindigul was originally called '''Thindicharam'''.<ref name="history"/>

In popular culture, the city's name comes from a portmanteau of the Tamil words Thindu "pillow" and Kal "rock" and refers to the bare hill located in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-09 |title=Dindigul {{!}} Temple Town, Hill Station, Textile Hub {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Dindigul |access-date=2025-03-13 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
{{Multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
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|foot_notes=Images of the temple in 1913 and in modern times
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The history of Dindigul is centered around the Dindigul Fort, located on a small rock hill near the city. Dindigul was on the border of the ''moovendars'' of ancient [[Tamilakam]], the [[Pandyas]], [[Chera Dynasty|Cheras]] and [[Cholas]]. The Chera king Dharmabalan is believed to have built the temples of Abirami and Padmagirinathar. The ancient Tamil book, ''[[Silappathikaram]]'' records the city as the northern border of the Pandya kingdom whose capital was Madurai.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rose |first=Beulah |date=2024-01-04 |title=Malaikottai in Dindigul, a cauldron of rebellions for two millennia |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/malaikottai-in-dindigul-a-cauldron-of-rebellions-for-two-millennia/article67707490.ece#:~:text=Silappathikaram,%20the%20Tamil%20epic%20written%20around%20the,the%20Pandyas,%20the%20Cheras%20and%20the%20Cholas. |access-date=2025-03-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Historian [[Strabo]] mentions about the city in his 20 A.D. work and [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]], the great historian of the time described the Pandya king in his works.<ref name="history"/>

During the 1st century CE, the Chola king [[Karikala|Karikal Cholan]] captured the Pandya kingdom and Dindigul came under Chola rule. During the sixth century, the [[Pallavas]] took over Dindigul along with most of southern India, and was ruled by them until 8th century CE when the Cholas retook it. During the [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultanate's]] raids into southern India, Dindigul was not attacked, and later that century the city became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. The commander of the Vijayanagara army [[Kumara Kampana|Kampanna Udayar]] played an important role in the war in capturing Madurai which was under the Madurai Sultanate. In 1559 Nayaks became powerful and their territory bordered with Dindigul in the north. After the death of king [[Viswanatha Nayak]] in 1563, Muthukrisna Nayakka became the king of a kingdom in 1602 A.D who built the strong hill fort in 1605 A.D. He also built a fort at the bottom of the hill. Muthuveerappa Nayak and Thirumalai Nayak followed Muthukrishna Nayak. Dindigul came to prominence once again during Nayaks rule of Madurai under Thirumalai Nayak. After his immediate unsuccessful successors, [[Mangammal|Rani Mangammal]] became the ruler of the region who ruled efficiently.<ref name="history"/>

[[File:Dindigul Fort5.JPG|250px|thumb|Image of temple in the fort]]
In 1736 [[Chanda Sahib]], the Nawab of [[Carnatic Sultanate]] and lieutenant of [[Mughal Empire]] seized power from Vangaru Nayak. In 1742, the Mysore army under the leadership of [[Venkata Rayar|Venkatarayar]] conquered Dindigul. He governed Dindigul as a representative of Maharaja of Mysore. There were 18 palayams (a small region consists of few villages) during his reign and all these palayams were under Dindigul Semai, with Dindigul as the capital. These palayams wanted to be independent and refused to pay taxes to Venkatarayar.<ref name="history"/><ref>[[#Nelson|Nelson]] 1989, p. 258</ref> In 1748, Venkatappa was made governor of the region in place of Venkatarayar, who also failed. In 1755, the Maharaja sent [[Hyder Ali|Haider Ali]] to Dindigul to handle the situation. Later Haider Ali became the Maharaja of Mysore, and in 1777, he appointed Purshana Mirsaheb as governor of Dindigul. Mirsaheb strengthened the fort and the garrison around it. His wife Ameer-um-Nisha-Begam died during her delivery and her tomb is now called Begambur. In 1783 the British Army, led by Captain Long, occupied Dindigul. In 1784, after an agreement between Mysore and the British army, Dindigul was restored by Mysore province. In 1788, [[Tipu Sultan]], the Son of Haider Ali, was crowned as King of Dindigul.<ref name="history"/><ref name="Nelson-p268-293">[[#Nelson|Nelson]] 1989, pp. 286-93</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=History of Tipu Sultan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hkbJ6xA1_jEC&q=history+of+dindigul&pg=PA68|pages=68–69|last=Hasan|first=Mohibbul|publisher=Aakar Books|isbn=81-87879-57-2|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A comprehensive history of India, civil, military and social, from the first landing of the English to the suppression of the Sepoy revolt:including an outline of the early history of Hindoostan, Volume 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyBOAAAAMAAJ&q=history+of+dindigul&pg=PA222|pages=222–24|last=Beveridge|first=Henry|year=1867|publisher=Blackie and son}}</ref> In 1790, James Stewart of the British army conquered Dindigul again during third war of Mysore. In a pact made on 1792, Tipu ceded Dindigul to the British. Dindigul was the first region to come under British rule in Madurai District. In 1798, the British army strengthened the hill fort with cannons and built sentinel rooms in every corner. The British army, under Statten stayed at Dindigul fort from 1798 to 1859. After that Madurai was made headquarters of the British army and Dindigul was attached to it as a taluk. Dindigul was under the rule of the British until India gained Independence on 15 August 1947.<ref name="history">{{cite web |title=Historical moments |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/abcity_Historical%20Moments.htm |publisher=Dindigul municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729054103/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/Dindigul/abcity_Historical%20Moments.htm |archive-date=2009-07-29 }}</ref><ref name="Nelson-p268-293" /> Recently the city has been experiencing new growth and new companies are opening branches here like Chennai Silks, UnlimitED, Jos Allukas and Tanishq.<ref name="urbaninfra4" />

==Geography==
[[File:Dindigul1.JPG|250px|thumb|A view of a lake and paddy fields in Dindigul as viewed from Dindigul fort]]
Dindugul is located at {{Coord|10.35|N|77.95|E|}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/25/Dindigul.html|title= Falling Rain Genomics, Inc – Dindigul|publisher=Falling Rain Genomics Inc}}</ref> and has an average elevation of {{convert|265|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The town is in Dindigul district, {{convert|420|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Chennai]] and {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-west of [[Tiruchirappalli]]. Dindigul is located in the foothills of [[Sirumalai|Sirumalai hills]]. The topography is plain and hilly, with the variation resulting in climatic changes. There are no notable mineral resources available in and around the town. The soil type is thin veneer soil, which is mostly black clayey soil with red soil. Summer season is from March to July, while December to January marks the winter season. The temperature ranges from a maximum of {{convert|37|°C|°F}} to a minimum of {{convert|27|°C|°F}} during summer and a maximum of {{convert|26|°C|°F}} to a minimum of {{convert|16|°C|°F}} during winter. Dindigul receives rainfall with an average of {{convert|812| mm|in|abbr=on}} annually. The Southwest monsoon, with an onset in June and lasting up to August, brings scanty rainfall. Bulk of the rainfall is received during the North East [[Monsoon of South Asia|monsoon]] in the months of October, November and December.<ref name="about">{{cite web |title=About city |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/abcity_city.htm |publisher=Dindigul municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516191211/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/Dindigul/abcity_city.htm |archive-date=2009-05-16 }}</ref>

The climatic conditions of Dindigul are favourable for [[horticulture]] and cultivation of different flower varieties. Apart from flowers, Dindigul is famous for producing fruits like orange, pineapple, guava, vegetables like onions, and other non-food crops like tobacco, eucalyptus, and coffee.<ref name="gaatha.org">{{Cite web|date=2021-07-22|title=Dindigul Saree Weaving- Research on Indian Tamil Nadu Handloom|url=https://gaatha.org/Craft-of-India/dindigul-saree-weaving/|access-date=2021-07-29|website=gaatha.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{bar box|title=Religions in Dindigul|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Religion|right1=Percent(%)|float=left|bars={{bar percent|[[Hinduism|Hindu]]|Orange|69.11}}{{bar percent|[[Christianity|Christian]]|Blue|16.59}}{{bar percent|[[Islam|Muslim]]|Green|14.17}}{{bar percent|[[Sikhism|Sikh]]|darkkhaki|0.02}}{{bar percent|[[Buddhism|Buddhist]]|yellow|0.02}}{{bar percent|[[Jainism|Jain]]|pink|0.01}}{{bar percent|Other|grey|0.1}}}}

{{Historical populations
|align = right
|state=collapsed
|1901|25182
|1911|25052
|1921|30922
|1931|43617
|1941|56275
|1951|78361
|1961|92947
|1971|128429
|1981|164103
|1991|182477
|2001|196619
|2011|207327
|footnote=Sources: 
* 1901 – 2001<ref name="urbaninfra24">[[#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2008, pp. 2-4</ref>
* 2011<ref name=2011census/>
}}

According to [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Dindigul had a population of 207,327 with a sex-ratio of 1,012 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.<ref name="dashboard">{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusinfodashboard/index.html|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 Jan 2014}}</ref> A total of 19,603 were under the age of six, constituting 10,126 males and 9,477 females. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] accounted for 7.58% and 0.07% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city was 81.69%, compared to the national average of 72.99%.<ref name="dashboard"/> The city had a total of 53573 households. There were a total of 77,813 workers, comprising 387 cultivators, 366 main agricultural labourers, 5,328 in house hold industries, 68,163 other workers, 3,569 marginal workers, 46 marginal cultivators, 176 marginal agricultural labourers, 187 marginal workers in household industries and 3,160 other marginal workers.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals - Dindigul|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=690848|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 Jan 2014}}</ref> As per the religious census of 2011, Dindigul had 69.11% [[Hindus]], 14.17% [[Muslims]], 16.59% [[Christians]], 0.02% [[Sikhs]], 0.02% [[Buddhists]], 0.01% [[Jainism|Jains]] and 0.1% following other religions.<ref name=religion2011>{{cite web|title=Population By Religious Community - Tamil Nadu|year=2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html|format=XLS|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref>

As of the provisional population totals of 2011 census, Dindigul urban agglomeration had a population of 292,132, with 145,438 males and 146,694 females. The sex ratio of the town was 1,009 females per 1,000 males; the child sex ratio stood at 964. Dindigul had an average literacy rate of 89.1% with a male literacy of 93.41% and a female literacy of 84.83%. A total of 26,169 of the population of the town was under 6 years of age.<ref name=2011Cities>{{cite web | url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |page=12 | title=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011; Cities having population 1 lakh and above | publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=2012-12-29}}</ref>

As of 2001, 15 slums were identified in the town and a total of 85,235 people resided in the slums in 16,841 households. The slum population increased from 16 per cent to 43 per cent during the period of 1991–2001. The town experienced a growth rate of 28 per cent to 40 per cent during the 70s, but declined to 11 percent in 80s and 8 percent.<ref name="urbaninfra8">[[#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2008, p. 8</ref>

The city covers an area of {{convert|14.01|sqkm|sqmi}}. The population density of the city in the 2001 census was 153 persons per hectare, compared with 2,218 persons per square kilometer in 1971. The density of population is higher in the central areas and along major roads. Hindus form the majority of the urban population, followed by Muslims and Christians. Tamil is the main language spoken in the city, but the use of English is relatively common; English is the medium of instruction in most educational institutions and offices in the service sector.<ref name="urbaninfra4">[[#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2008, p. 4</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Dindigul2.JPG|250px|thumb|View of the city centre from Dindigul fort]]
According to Indian Census of 2001, Dindigul town's urban workforce participation rate is 35.24 percent. Dindigul, being the headquarters of the district, has registered growth in the secondary and tertiary sectors, with a corresponding decrease in the primary Sector. Major employment in the city is provided by industrial estates, hand loom, trading and commerce activities. Approximately 90 percent of the workforce is employed in the tertiary sector. The district at large has only two industrial estates, with one of them located in the city.
[[Oddanchatram]] is one of the important towns in Dindigul district. [[[[Oddanchatram|Oddanchatram Vegetable market]]]] (also known as [https://oddanchatramvegetablemarket.net/ Gandhi market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812103743/https://oddanchatramvegetablemarket.net/ |date=12 August 2019 }}) is the largest vegetable market in Tamil Nadu. As of 2001, there were approximately 60 tanneries, 165 lock manufacturing units and large number of cotton spinning mills.<ref name="urbaninfra7-9">[[#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2008, pp. 7-9</ref>

[[Lock (security device)|Locks]] and [[steel]] safes are manufactured in Dindigul and operated as a co-operative sector. Locks manufactured in Dindigul are sold in national and international markets and it is well known all over India for the quality of locks.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thiagarajan |first1=Kamala |title=The Devilishly Difficult Locks of Dindigul |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/locks-dindigul-india |website=Atlas Obscura |date=21 February 2020 |access-date=9 January 2021}}</ref> Dindigul locks received [[geographical indication]] on 30 August 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://maharashtranews.com/en/2019/featured/6895/GI-tag-Kandangi-Sari-Dindigul-locks-tamilnadu-handwoven-sarees-lock-city-geographical-indication.htm|title=Kandangi saree and Dindigul lock get GI tag|last=S|first=Meghna|date=30 August 2019|website=Maharashtra News|access-date=30 August 2019|archive-date=30 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830110236/https://maharashtranews.com/en/2019/featured/6895/GI-tag-Kandangi-Sari-Dindigul-locks-tamilnadu-handwoven-sarees-lock-city-geographical-indication.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> A decline in lock industry is observed in modern times and other industries like leather, handloom, and aggro opportunities have gained significance. Silk, muslin and blanket manufacturing is common in Dindigul and after [[Coimbatore]], the city has the second largest textile spindling capacity in the State. [[Chinnalapatti silk]], a brand of silk saree is produced out of Chinnalapatti located {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the city.<ref name=heady/> The climate condition of the region is conducive for horticulture and agriculture. The district at large produce non-food crops like coffee, flowers, tobacco, and eucalyptus. Dindigul is the center for wholesale trading of fruits like orange, pineapple, sapota and guava, and vegetables like onion.<ref name="urbaninfra7-9"/>

Dindigul was an important center of trade in tobacco and manufacture of cigars during the [[British rule|British times]].<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Dindigul |volume=8 |page=275}}</ref> A favorite cigar of Winston Churchill called Churut, the 'Light of Asia', was produced in Dindigul. The tobacco industry is one of the main sources of employment for the inhabitants of Dindigul. The central government has a research center for tobacco in Vedasandur. This is one of the two centers in India, the other one is Rajamundri. In modern times, it has the largest trading center in the state for chewing tobacco and scented betel nuts. Well-known brands of scented chewing tobacco like Angu Vilas, Roja Supari etc. operate out of the city and sent to various places in the state and outside. Dindigul is also one of the leading leather producers and suppliers in the state.<ref name=heady/>

==Municipal Administration and Politics==
{| style="clear:right; float:right; background:#ffffff; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;" class="toccolours" width="400" font-size : "90%" |-
!style="background:#A8BDEC" align="center" colspan="2"|'''Corporation officials'''
|-
|align="Left"| Mayor||Tmt. J. Ilamathi
|-
|align="Left"| Deputy Mayor||Thiru. S. Rajappa
|-
|align="Left"| Commissioner|| Thiru. S. Sivasubramanian, B.Sc, BL.,
|-

!style="background:#A8BDEC" align="center" colspan="2"|'''Structure'''
|-
|*[[Corporation Councillor]](48)*<ref>https://www.tnurbantree.tn.gov.in/dindigul/corporation-councillor/</ref>
*'''[[Secular Progressive Alliance|SPA]] (37)'''
:*[[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] (30)
:*[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (2)
:*[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] (3)
:*[[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]] (1)
:*[[Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi|VCK]] (1)

'''[[Opposition (politics)|Opposition]] (6)'''
:*[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|AIADMK]] (5)
:*[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (1)

'''Others (5)'''
:*[[Independent politician|Independent]] (5)
|-

!style="background:#A8BDEC" align="center" colspan="2"|'''Elected members'''
|-
|align="Left"|[[Member of Legislative Assembly]]||[[C. Sreenivaasan|Dindigul C. Sreenivasan]]<ref name="MLA of Dindigul">{{cite web|title=MLA of Dindigul|url=http://www.tn.gov.in/government/mlas?page=3|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|year=2016}}</ref>
|-
|align="Left"|[[Member of Parliament]]||[[P. Velusamy]]<ref name="MP">{{cite web|title=Members of Lok Sabha from Tamil Nadu|url=http://www.tn.gov.in/government/loksaba?page=1|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|year=2014|access-date =26 May 2019}}</ref>
|}
On 1 November 1866, Dindigul became a municipality.<ref name="history"/> It was promoted to a special-grade municipality as of 1988 and the entire municipal area was included in the jurisdiction of the municipality.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Municipality|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/abus_municip.htm|publisher=Dindigul municipality|access-date=2012-12-29|year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916010849/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/abus_municip.htm|archive-date=16 September 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> On 10 April 2013, it was announced that the municipality would be upgraded to a municipal corporation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Thanjavur Corporation|url=http://m.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/dindigul-thanjavur-to-be-upgraded-as-corporations/article4603121.ece/?maneref=http://www.google.co.in/search?q=thanjavur&hl=en&safe=off&source=lnms&tbm=nws&sa=X&ei=4VhqUYHQDYWKrgentIDAAQ&ved=0CAoQ_AUoAw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020212927/http://m.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/dindigul-thanjavur-to-be-upgraded-as-corporations/article4603121.ece/?maneref=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.in%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dthanjavur%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26source%3Dlnms%26tbm%3Dnws%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D4VhqUYHQDYWKrgentIDAAQ%26ved%3D0CAoQ_AUoAw|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-10-20|newspaper=The Hindu|year=2013|access-date=2013-04-14}}</ref><ref name="Thanjavur to be upgraded as City Municipal Corporations">{{cite web|title=Thanjavur to be upgraded as City Municipal Corporations|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130411/news-current-affairs/article/thanjavur-dindigul-made-corporations|publisher=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|year=2013|access-date=2013-04-11|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414232718/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130411/news-current-affairs/article/thanjavur-dindigul-made-corporations|archive-date=2013-04-14}}</ref> On 19 February 2014, [[Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu]], [[J Jayalalithaa|J. Jayalalithaa]] declared that Dindigul Municipality has been upgraded to Corporation status with immediate effect. The said government order was handed over to the Municipal Chairman, G. Marudharaj<ref name=corp>{{cite news|title=Dindigul becomes Corporation|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/dindigul-becomes-corporation/article5708841.ece|access-date=20 February 2014|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=20 February 2014|location=Dindigul}}</ref> The Dindigul municipality has 48 wards and there is an elected councillor for each of those wards.<ref>{{cite web|title=About the municipality |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/Dindigul/abs_municipality.htm |publisher=Dindigul municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments: general administration/personnel, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, city planning and Information Technology (IT). All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the executive head.<ref>{{cite web|title=Commissionerate of Municipal Administration |url=http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/chart5.htm |publisher=Commissionerate of Municipal Administration |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106103849/http://www.tn.gov.in/cma/chart5.htm |archive-date=2012-11-06 }}</ref> The legislative powers are vested in a body of 48 members, one each from the 48 wards.<ref>{{cite web|title=Councillors of municipality |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/who_councilors.htm |publisher=Dindigul municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225120411/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/who_councilors.htm |archive-date=2014-02-25 }}</ref> The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Economic and political weekly, Volume 30|pages=2396|publisher=Sameeksha Trust|year=1995}}</ref>

Dindigul comes under the [[Dindigul (State Assembly Constituency)|Dindigul assembly]] constituency and it elects a member to the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] once every five years.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/Const_map/map.htm
|title = List of Assembly Constituencies
|year = 2010
|access-date = 2012-12-28
|work = Tamil Nadu
|publisher = Tamil Nadu state government
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120614070155/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/const_map/map.htm
|archive-date = 2012-06-14
}}</ref> From the 1977 elections, [[ADMK|All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam]] (AIADMK) won the assembly seat two times (in 1984 and 1991 elections); [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)) six times (1977, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2006 and 2011) and once by [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK, 1996).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/electionanalysis/AE/S22/partycomp207.htm|title=Partywise Comparison Since 1977|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|year=2011}}</ref> The current MLA of the constituency is C.Sreenivasan from AIADMK party.<ref name="MLA of Dindigul"/>

Dindigul is a part of the [[Dindigul (Lok Sabha constituency)|Dindigul Lok Sabha constituency]] and elects its member to Parliament once in five years. The constituency was held by the Indian National Congress four times (1957, 1962, 2004 and 2009 elections),<ref name="MP"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1957/Vol_I_57_LS.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1957 to the Second Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1962/Vol_I_LS_62.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1962 to the Third Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=49}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_2004/Vol_I_LS_2004.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 2004 to the Fourteenth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=94}}</ref> Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) three times (1967, 1971 and 1980 elections),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1967/Vol_I_LS_67.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1967 to the Fourth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=67}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS_71.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1971 to the Fifth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=71}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1980/Vol_I_LS_80.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1980 to the Seventh Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=79}}</ref> Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (ADMK) for seven times (1977, 1984, 1989, 1991, 1998, 1999 and 2014 elections)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1977 to the Sixth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1984/Vol_I_LS_84.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1984 to the Eighth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=73}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1989/Vol_I_LS_89.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1989 to the Ninth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1991/VOL_I_LS_91.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1991 to the Tenth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=51}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1998/Vol_I_LS_98.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1998 to the Twelfth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1999/Vol_I_LS_99.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1999 to the Thirteenth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=85}}</ref> and by [[Tamil Maanila Congress]] (TMC) once (1996 elections).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1996/Vol_I_LS_96.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1996 to the Eleventh Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2012-12-29|page=86}}</ref><ref name="MP"/>

Law and order in the town is maintained by the Dindigul sub division of the [[Tamil Nadu Police]] headed by a Deputy Superintendent. There are three police stations in the town, one of them being an all-women police station. There are special units like prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police.

==Education and utility services==
[[File:Stmarys hss dindigul Cathedral.jpg|250px|thumb|St. Mary's Hr. Sec. School is one of the oldest schools in the city, since 1850.]]

As of 2011, there are 19 municipal primary schools, 23 other primary schools, eight middle schools and 13 higher secondary schools in the city. There were ten other private schools within the town. There were three engineering colleges and three arts and science colleges. [[Gandhigram Rural Institute|Gandhigram Rural university]] and Mother Teresa Women's University are the two universities present in Dindigul.<ref>{{cite web|title=Educational Institutions |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/srv_edu.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624222823/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/srv_edu.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-24 |publisher=Dindigul municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 }}</ref>

'''Engineering Colleges'''
* [[PSNA College of Engineering and Technology]]
* SSM Institute of Engineering and Technology<ref>https://ssmiet.ac.in/</ref>
* SBM College of Engineering and Technology<ref>https://sbmengineeringcollege.com/</ref>
* NPR College of Engineering and Technology<ref>https://www.nprcet.org/</ref>
* Jainee College of Engineering and Technology<ref>https://microtec.in/index.php/college/jainee-college-of-engineering-technology-jcet-dindigul</ref>
* Veerammal Engineering College<ref>https://www.pvpveerammal.com/</ref>

Electricity supply to Dindigul is regulated and distributed by the [[Tamil Nadu Electricity Board]] (TNEB). The town along with its suburbs forms the Dindigul Electricity Distribution Circle. A Chief Distribution engineer is stationed at the regional headquarters.<ref>{{cite web|title=Important Address |url=http://www.windpro.org/pdf/MISC/TNEB%20Address.pdf |publisher=Indian Wind Power Association |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016045943/http://www.windpro.org/pdf/MISC/TNEB%20Address.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-16 }}</ref> Water supply is provided by the Dindigul Municipal Corporation from [[Athoor]] Kamarajar Water Supply Scheme (9.6 MLD), Peranai Water Supply Scheme (7.5 MLD) and Cauvery combined water supply Scheme (6-10 MLD). As of 2001, the total water supply of the town in 14 MLD every day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Water Supply Details |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_watersupply.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624222828/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_watersupply.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-24 |publisher=Dindigul Municipality |year=2011 |access-date=2012-12-29 }}</ref> As per the municipal data for 2011, about 92 metric tonnes of solid waste were collected from Dindigul every day by door-to-door collection and subsequently the source segregation and dumping was carried out by the sanitary department of the Dindigul municipality.<ref>{{cite web|title=Waste management programme |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_solidwastemanagement.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624222834/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_solidwastemanagement.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-24 |publisher=Dindigul Municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 }}</ref> There is no underground drainage system in the town and the sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks, open drains and public conveniences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dindigul sewarage |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_sewerage.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624222740/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_sewerage.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-24 |publisher=Dindigul municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 }}</ref>

The municipality maintained a total of {{convert|117.0|km|mi|abbr=on}} of storm water drains in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Storm water drains of Dindigul |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_storm.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624222827/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_storm.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-24 |publisher=Dindigul municipality |access-date=2012-12-29 |year=2011 }}</ref> As of 2011, the municipality maintained a total of 5,489 street lamps: 754 sodium lamps, 173 mercury vapour lamps, 4,551 tube lights and eight high mast beam lamp.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dindigul street lights |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_streetlight.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624222836/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_streetlight.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-24 |publisher=Dindigul Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu |year=2011 |access-date=2012-12-29 }}</ref> The municipality operates one daily market, namely the Dindigul Municipal Market that cater to the needs of the town and the rural areas around it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dindigul markets |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_markets.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624222740/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_markets.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-24 |publisher=Dindigul Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu |year=2011 |access-date=2012-12-29 }}</ref>

The municipality maintains four dispensaries, five maternity homes, eight family planning centres, three [[Siddha]] and one [[Ayurvedic]] centre. The Government District Headquarters Hospital is located in Dindigul and has 350 beds. The town has more than five private hospitals, 35 maternity centres, 15 laboratories and one blood bank. The historic St. Joseph Mission Hospital with a bed strength of 250 beds is one of the major hospitals in the city. For all the advanced health care systems, Madurai city is the nearest destination.<ref name="urbaninfra9">[[#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2008, p. 9</ref>

The houses of the people in this city are placed very close together due to which the society here is deeply integrated and collective. The most interesting feature about the houses here is that they painted in bright yellow, orange and blue have much in common with the current colour palette that seems to have taken over the temple facades in the region. This displays their connection with religion and how they are inspired to create a godly presence within their homes as well.

There are several noteworthy architectural constructions in Dindigul, owing to its rich history and glorified past.<ref name="gaatha.org"/>

==Transportation==
<mapframe latitude="10.352547" longitude="77.983897" zoom="8" width="200" height="100" align="center" />
The Dindigul city corporation maintains {{convert|131.733|km|mi|abbr=on}} of roads. The town has {{convert|21.66|km|mi|abbr=on}} concrete roads, {{convert|98.311|km|mi|abbr=on}} bituminous roads, {{convert|9.352|km|mi|abbr=on}} earthen roads and {{convert|2.41|km|mi|abbr=on}} cut stone pavements. There are three national highways, [[National Highway 44 (India, old numbering)|NH 44]] (largest highway in India) connecting Dindigul to [[Madurai]] and [[NH 45A]] connecting [[Chennai]] to [[Kanyakumari]], and [[NH 83]] [[Coimbatore]] to [[Nagapattinam]] via [[Oddanchatram]], [[Palani]], Dindigul, [[Tiruchirapalli]], [[Thanjavur]] via the city. [[National Highway 383 (India)]] NH383 is connecting Dindigul City to [[Karaikudi]] towards east direction for a distance of {{convert|108|km|mi|abbr=on}}. Natham road and Bathalagundu road are the two state highways that pass via the city. Being the district headquarters, a lot of district roads also connect Dindigul to other parts of the district.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dindigul roads |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_roads.htm |publisher=Dindigul municipality |year=2011 |access-date=2012-12-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004224820/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_roads.htm |archive-date=2013-10-04 }}</ref><ref name="urbaninfra40">[[#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2008, p. 40</ref>

Dindigul is served by town bus service, which provides connectivity within the town and the suburbs. Minibus service operated by private companies cater to the local transport needs. There are 150 town buses operated daily across 128 different routes.<ref name="about"/> The Kamarajar bus stand is an A-grade bus stand covering an area of {{convert|5.37|acre|sqm|abbr=on}} as of 2007 and is located in the heart of the town.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dindigul bus stand |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_busstand.htm |publisher=Dindigul municipality |year=2011 |access-date=2012-12-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407055427/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/sal_busstand.htm |archive-date=2014-04-07 }}</ref><ref name="urbaninfra64"/> The [[Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation]] operates daily services connecting various cities to Dindigul.<ref name="urbaninfra64"/><ref>{{cite web|title=S.E.T.C. Tamil Nadu Ltd., Computer reservation centres|url=http://www.tnstc.in/counter_address.html|publisher=Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation Ltd.|year=2011|access-date=2012-12-29|archive-date=16 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616204353/http://www.tnstc.in/counter_address.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="how"/> The [[State Express Transport Corporation (Tamil Nadu)|State Express Transport Corporation]] operates long-distance buses to [[Chennai]], [[Bengaluru]] and [[Tirupati]]. There is a significant truck transport with around 400–450 trucks entering the town for loading and unloading activities daily. Three wheelers, called [[Auto rickshaw|autos]] and Call Taxi are also a common public transport system.<ref name="urbaninfra64">[[#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2008, p. 64</ref>

[[Dindigul Junction railway station]] was established in 1875 when rail line for Trichy to Tuticorin was constructed.<ref name="history"/> Dindigul railway junction is located in the rail head from [[Chennai]] to [[Madurai]] and [[Karur]] to [[Madurai]]. It is connecting Dindigul to [[Palani]]. All south bound trains plying south to [[Madurai]] from [[Chennai]] pass via Dindigul. There are also passenger trains running either side from [[Madurai]] to [[Tiruchirapalli]] and [[Palani]].<ref name="how" /> The Dindigul to Palani railway line was electrified in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Inspection of Dindigul - Palani electrified railway line underway |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/inspection-of-dindigul-palani-electrified-railway-line-underway/article65885428.ece |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=The Hindu |date=13 September 2022 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

The nearest local and [[international airport]] is [[Madurai Airport]] located {{convert|90|km}} away.<ref name="how">{{cite web|title=Dindigul how to reach |url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/abcity_How%20to%20reach.htm |publisher=Dindigul municipality |year=2011 |access-date=2012-12-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155401/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/dindigul/abcity_How%20to%20reach.htm |archive-date=2014-04-13 }}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:Dindigul Fort8.JPG|thumb|Temple at Dindigul Fort]]
[[File:Begampur Mosque2.JPG|thumb|[[Begumpur Mosque, Dindigul|Begampur Mosque]], the oldest mosque in the city, with Dindigul fort in the background]]

Dindigul is the 18th Shakthi Peetam known as "Sri Abhiraamaa Peetam".<ref>[[Shakta pitha#In Skanda Purana]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=March 2019}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/AbiramiammanSthalaPuranam | title=Dindigul Padmachala Sthala Puranam (Rockfort Abiramiamman temple) }}</ref>

Numerous temples, mosques and churches are found in Dindigul.

The Kalahastheeswara-Gnanambika temple was built during the 14th century. The Seenivasaperumal temple built in the bottom of the hill was eroded by time. By the 16th century Pandyan acquired the whole chera kingdom with the support of Vijayanagar king Sachudevarayer. Sachudevarayer, on his visit in 1538 A.D. ordered for the repair works of the temple of Abirami Amman and Padmagirinathar. This is inferred from the script written over stone in the Fort temple. Muthukrisna Nayak became the king of Pandaya kingdom in 1602 A.D. He built the strong hill fort in 1605 to secure Dindigul from invasion. He also built a fort at the bottom of the hill, which was later called Pettaiwall. Thirumalai Nayak redressed the Hill fort and he built the front hall of the Kalahastheeswaraswamy temple. Soundararaja Perumal temple in Thadikombu was erected during his reign. During his Nayak's stay in Dindigul, he fell into sickness and believed to have prayed Rangaperumal to relieve his sickness. Rani Mangammal built the six hundred steps for the hill fort.<ref name="history"/><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/article1167754.ece | work=The Hindu | title=Trial run of Sri Kottai Mariamman temple car draws huge crowd | date=2011-02-08}}</ref> during the months of January and February, a festival honoring [[Mariamman]] is celebrated in this temple. It has a sri abirami amman temple, which is reconstructed.
Arulmigu Abirami Amman temple is a holy place situated in Dindigul in Tamil Nadu, India. This is one of the important "Shivasthalam" where you can find Padmagiriswarar—Abirami Amman and Kalahastheeswarar—Gnanambigai Sannathi's. The rock hill is called Padmachala, Padmagiri, Lotus Hill.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dindigulabiramiammantemple.tnhrce.in/ |title=Arulmigu Abirami Amman Temple |access-date=28 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114123230/http://www.dindigulabiramiammantemple.tnhrce.in/ |archive-date=14 November 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Dindigul fort is the most appreciated and widely acclaimed. The architecture of this fort has evolved through the different dynasties that ruled over Dindigul. The rock fort is 900 feet tall and has a circumference of 2.75 kilometres. Cannon and gunfire artillery were included in the fort during the 17th century.<ref name="gaatha.org"/> The people here are eloquent in different formats of arts such as- visual arts, music and dances. In Dindigul, classical dance is one of the favourite hobbies of the people. Apart from classical dance, classical vocal music and Karnatic Raag Sangeet are very common amongst the people here. A number of music and dance schools in Dindigul trains both young and adults on classical music and dance.<ref name="gaatha.org"/>

Dindigul is famous for its biryani. The [[Biryani#Dindigul biryani|Dindigul biryani]] chains are famous all over Tamil Nadu. Dindigul biryani is a common and popular dish, and Dindigul is sometimes called Biryani City.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/life/2004/02/23/stories/2004022300120100.htm |title=Business Line : Features / Life News |publisher=Thehindubusinessline.com |access-date=2013-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2010/03/11/stories/2010031151680400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610104244/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2010/03/11/stories/2010031151680400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-10 |title=Metro Plus Madurai / Food : Biryani bistro |date=2010-03-11 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2013-03-03}}</ref>

Sherumalai Mountain, which is the home for a very special variety of small but sweet bananas, is located in the vicinity. Dindigul's food pallet enjoys the taste of it in raw and in various snack forms. Rice, Sambar and Rasam form the main meals of the people here.

Joseph's Church at the heart of the town is known for its vast space, architecture and the glass works and special artistic work all over the church. The church was built between 1866 and 1872. It is the headquarters of Dindigul diocese of Roman Catholic Churches in Dindigul.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://catholiconline.in/st-josephs-church-dindigul/ |title = St. Joseph's Church, Dindigul. {{!}} Catholic Online| date=12 July 2012 }}</ref>

== People ==
The people of Dindigul are known to be extremely hard working and loving. They harbour feelings of great pride in the culture of their city and have taken up various traditional and generational occupations in order to ensure the continuity of various Indian traditions and handicrafts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Saree weaving ~ Dindigul|url=https://gaatha.org/Craft-of-India/dindigul-saree-weaving/|website=gaatha.org|date=22 July 2021 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref>

According to 2011 census, Dindigul had a population of 207,327 with a sex-ratio of 1,012 females for every 1,000 males. This was much above the national average of 929. The average literacy of the city was 81.69% against the national average of 72.99%.The city had a total of 53573 households.<ref name="gaatha.org"/>

Women generally wear a fabric drape around them, 6 to 8 yards of length. First tied round the waist with pleats gathered in front and then brought over the right shoulder, covering their breasts. A part of the drape is either let free hanging from the shoulder or brought in front along the waist. Apart from sari, younger and unmarried women can also be seen wearing stitched salwars and Kurtas and skirts and blouses. There is also a considerable variety of gold jewellery, women like to adorn themselves with. Ornaments like nose pins, anklets, ear rings, bangles and waist belts or a waist dangler carrying bunch of keys are common to this place. Some common designs of nose pins may have a circular metal ring.<ref name="gaatha.org"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

Engineering College List <ref>https://www.annauniv.edu/cai/District%20wise/district/Dindigul.php</ref>

==More references==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|title=The Madura Country: A Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QpN1BDaS4cC&q=history+of+dindigul&pg=PA287|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1989|last=Nelson|first=James Henry|isbn=9788120604247|ref=Nelson}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

{{Adjacent communities
| Centre = Dindigul
| North = [[Karur]]
| Northeast = [[Tiruchirappalli]]
| East =
| Southeast =
| South = [[Madurai]]
| Southwest = [[Sivakasi]]
| West = [[Palani]]
| Northwest = [[Tiruppur]]
}}
{{Dindigul district}}
{{Municipalities of Tamil Nadu}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dindigul| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Dindigul district]]

M2 Browning

2026-03-24T07:22:19Z

Loz12:

{{Short description|.50-caliber heavy machine gun}}
{{Redirect2|Fifty cal|.50 cal|cartridges in this caliber|12 mm caliber}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox weapon
| image = PEO Browning M2E2 QCB (c1).jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = M2E2 with a quick change barrel and tripod
| name = Browning machine gun, cal. .50, M2, HB
| type = [[Heavy machine gun]]
| origin = United States
| is_ranged = yes
| designer = [[John Browning]]
| design_date = 1918
| manufacturer = {{plainlist|
*'''Active'''
**[[Fabrique Nationale]]
**[[General Dynamics]]
**Ohio Ordnance Works Inc.
**[[U.S. Ordnance]]
*'''Former'''
**Manroy Engineering
**[[Sabre Defence|Sabre Defence Industries]]
**[[Colt's Manufacturing Company|Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company]]
**[[High Standard Manufacturing Company|High Standard Firearms]]
**[[Savage Arms|Savage Arms Corporation]]
**Buffalo Arms Corporation
**'''[[General Motors Corporation]]'''
***[[Frigidaire]]
***[[ACDelco|AC Spark Plug]]
***[[Nexteer Automotive#History|Saginaw Steering Gear Division]]
***Brown-Lipe-Chappin Divisions
**Kelsey Hayes Wheel Company
**[[Springfield Armory]]
**Wayne Pump Company
**ERMCO
**[[TRW Inc.#History|Ramo Manufacturing]]
**[[Rock Island Arsenal]]}}
| production_date = 1921–present (M2HB/M2A1)
| number = 3 million<ref name="worldpolicy2000">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldpolicy.org/projects/arms/reports/smallarms.htm |title=Report: Profiling the Small Arms Industry |date=November 2000 |website=World Policy Institute |access-date=2010-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011093831/http://www.worldpolicy.org/projects/arms/reports/smallarms.htm |archive-date=2017-10-11 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| service = 1933–present
| used_by = See ''[[#Users|Users]]''
| wars = [[World War II]] [[1947-1949 Palestine war]] [[Indonesian National Revolution ]] [[Korean War]] [[First Indochina War]] [[Suez Crisis]] [[1958 Lebanon crisis]] [[Cuban Revolution]] [[Portuguese Colonial War]] [[Rhodesian Bush War]] [[Vietnam War]] [[Laotian Civil War]] [[Cambodian Civil War]] [[Colombian Armed Conflict]] [[Dominican Civil War]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Power Pack: U.S. Intervention in the Dominican Republic, 1965-1966 |series=Leavenworth Papers, Number 15|last=Yates|first=Lawrence A. |date=July 1988|page=123|publisher=[[United States Army Command and General Staff College]] |url=https://history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/dom_republic/Power_Pack-US_Intervention_Dominican_Republic_1965-1966.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906182310/http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/dom_republic/Power_Pack-US_Intervention_Dominican_Republic_1965-1966.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> [[Ethiopian Civil War]] [[Lebanese Civil War]] [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War]] [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] [[Nicaraguan Revolution]] [[Falklands War]] [[Operation Urgent Fury]] [[Kurdistan Workers' Party insurgency|Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–2025)]] [[Iran–Iraq War]] [[Operation Just Cause]] [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] [[Rwandan Civil War]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rwandan-government-soldier-fires-on-june-12-1994-to-rwandan-news-photo/456391190 |title=A Rwandan government soldier fires on June 12, 1994 to Rwandan |access-date=10 August 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306194014/https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rwandan-government-soldier-fires-on-june-12-1994-to-rwandan-news-photo/456391190 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Somali Civil War]] [[Yugoslav Wars]] [[Operation Uphold Democracy]] [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kiA_W9-pW9Y |title=50 Cal. Gunner Engages Taliban Positions During Ambush |author=FUNKER530 - Veteran Community & Combat Footage |date=21 June 2013 |access-date=4 June 2017 |via=YouTube |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316003317/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kiA_W9-pW9Y |archive-date=16 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Iraq War]] [[Mexican drug war]] [[Syrian Civil War (2011–present)]] [[War in Iraq (2013–2017)]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=du8J30kRNMA |title=Iraqi Capture of Saqlawiyah Northwest of Fallujah From Da'esh |website=YouTube |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602100745/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=du8J30kRNMA |archive-date=2 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)]] [[Russo-Ukrainian War]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bulgarianmilitary.com/2022/03/22/ukraine-has-received-browning-50-caliber-heavy-machine-gun/ |title=Ukraine has received Browning .50 caliber heavy machine gun |website=Bulgarian Military|date=22 March 2022 |access-date=24 March 2022}}</ref>
| weight = {{plainlist|
*{{cvt|38|kg}} {{cvt|28|kg}} (AN/M2)
*{{cvt|58|kg}} with [[tripod (weapon)|tripod]] and traverse and elevation mechanism (T&E)}}
*{{cvt|24|lb}} barrel weight<ref name="FM23-65">{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/Fm23-65/mode/2up?view=theater |title=FM 23-65 Browning Machine Gun caliber.50 HB, M2 2002 |date=23 December 2002}}</ref>
| length = {{convert|1654|mm|in|abbr=on}} {{convert|1429|mm|abbr=on|1}} (AN/M2)
| part_length = {{convert|1143|mm|abbr=on|1}} {{convert|910|mm|abbr=on|1}} (AN/M2)
| cartridge = [[.50 BMG|.50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO)]]
| action = [[Recoil operation|Short recoil-operated]]
| rate = {{plainlist|
*450–600 rounds/min (M2HB)<ref name="M2HB-QCB">{{cite web |url=http://www.fnherstal.com/index.php?id=280&backPID=306&productID=61&pid_product=233&pidList=306&categorySelector=2&detail=&cHash=b6f6442733 |title=FN M2HB-QCB |website=FN Herstal |access-date=25 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225174447/http://www.fnherstal.com/index.php?id=280&backPID=306&productID=61&pid_product=233&pidList=306&categorySelector=2&detail=&cHash=b6f6442733 |archive-date=25 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunlap|1948|pp=310–311}}
*750–850 rounds/min (AN/M2)
*1,200–1,300 rounds/min (AN/M3)<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|loc='''III''' pp. 315, 323–334}}. In 1939, H. Arnold sought a cyclic rate greater that 1000 rounds/minute. The T25E3 gun was standardized as M3, and 2,400 had been made by September 1945. "The standardized basic machine gun fired at the rate of 1,200 rounds per minute."</ref>}}
| velocity = {{convert|2910|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} (M33 ball), {{cvt|78|ft}} from muzzle<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dtic.mil/dticasd/sbir/sbir032/a044a.pdf |title=Army Ammunition Data Sheets for Small Caliber Ammunition |publisher=Defense Technical Information Center |page=150 |date=April 1994 |access-date=27 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202134237/http://www.dtic.mil/dticasd/sbir/sbir032/a044a.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> {{convert|3050|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}} in manual<ref name="FM23-65"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usord.com/content/docs/manuals/usord_m2hb_op-manual.pdf |title=M2 HB/QCB}}</ref>
| range = {{convert|1800|m|yd|abbr=on}}<ref name="M2HB-QCB"/>
| max_range = {{convert|7400|m|yd|abbr=on}}
| feed = [[Belt (firearm)|Belt-fed]] (M2 or M9 links)
| sights =
}}

The '''M2 machine gun''' or '''Browning .50-caliber machine gun''' (informally, "'''Ma Deuce'''")<ref>{{Cite web |title=24th MEU ACE 'lock and load' Ma Deuce: photo essay |url=https://www.24thmeu.marines.mil/News/Article/Article/510719/24th-meu-ace-lock-and-load-ma-deuce-photo-essay/ |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=24th Marine Expeditionary Unit |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon |title=The US Army in the Vietnam War 1965–73 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84603-239-4 |location=Reading, UK |page=56}}</ref> is a [[heavy machine gun]] that was designed near the end of [[World War I]] by [[John Browning]]. While similar to Browning's [[M1919 Browning machine gun]], which was chambered for the [[.30-06 Springfield|.30-06]] cartridge, the M2 uses Browning's larger and more powerful [[.50 BMG]] (12.7 mm) cartridge. The design has had many designations; the official U.S. military designation for the infantry type is '''Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, Flexible'''. It has been used against infantry, light armored vehicles, watercraft, light fortifications, and low-flying aircraft.

The gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and for aircraft armament by the United States since the 1930s. It was heavily used during [[World War II]], the [[Korean War]], the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Falklands War]], the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], the [[Gulf War]], the [[Iraq War]], and the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]]. It is the primary heavy machine gun of [[NATO]] countries and has been used by many other countries as well. U.S. forces have used the M2 longer than any other firearm except the [[.45 ACP]] [[M1911 pistol]], which was also designed by John Browning.

The '''M2HB''' (heavy barrel) is manufactured in the U.S. by [[General Dynamics]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4360 |title=Contracts for Friday, September 3, 2010 |website=United States Department of Defense |access-date=2011-09-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529135851/http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4360 |archive-date=29 May 2011}}</ref> Ohio Ordnance Works,<ref>{{Cite web |title=.50 M2HB QCB (M2A1) |url=http://oow-govmil.com/firearms/50-m2hb-qcb-2/ |work=Ohio Ordnance Military |date=28 October 2016 |access-date=2020-08-24 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219111604/https://oow-govmil.com/firearms/50-m2hb-qcb-2/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[U.S. Ordnance]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4072 |title=Contracts for Wednesday, July 15, 2009 |publisher=United States Department of Defense |access-date=2011-09-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529135853/http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4072 |archive-date=29 May 2011}}</ref> and [[FN Herstal]] for sale to the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]] and other nations via [[Foreign Military Sales]].

==History==
Machine guns were heavily used in World War I, and weapons of larger-than-rifle caliber began appearing on both sides of the conflict. The larger rounds were needed to pierce the armor that was being introduced to the battlefield, both on the ground and in the air. Germany introduced the [[Junkers J.I]] aircraft, whose armor could render ineffective aircraft machine guns that used conventional rifle ammunition such as the [[.30-06 Springfield|.30-06]].<ref name="Chinn 1951 333">{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|p=333}}, stating "The Germans put a heavily armored plane into service during the closing days of World War I. This act made obsolete for all time the rifle-caliber machine gun for aerial use. Some countries were slower to accept the fact than others but nevertheless, it cannot be disputed. The United States was among the first to come to this realization."</ref> Consequently, the [[American Expeditionary Force]]'s commander General [[John J. Pershing]] asked for a larger-caliber machine gun.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|pp=181–182}}</ref> Pershing asked the Army Ordnance Department to develop a machine gun with a caliber of at least {{convert|0.50|in|mm|sigfig=3}} and a muzzle velocity of at least {{convert|2700|ft/s|m/s}}.<ref name="Chinn 1951 333"/>

Around July 1917, John Browning began redesigning his .30-06 [[M1917 Browning machine gun|M1917 machine gun]] to use a larger and more powerful round. Winchester worked on the cartridge, which was a scaled-up version of the .30-06. Winchester initially added a rim to the cartridge because the company intended to use the cartridge in an [[anti-tank rifle]], but Pershing insisted the cartridge be [[Rim (firearms)|rimless]].<ref name="Chinn182">{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|p=182}}</ref> The first .50-caliber machine gun underwent trials on 15 October 1918. It fired at less than 500 rounds per minute, and the muzzle velocity was only {{convert|2300|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}}. Cartridge improvements were promised.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|p=183}}</ref> The gun was heavy, difficult to control, fired too slowly for the [[Anti-personnel weapon|anti-personnel]] role, and lacked sufficient power for the anti-armor role.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|p=184}}</ref>

While the .50-caliber was being developed, some [[13.2×92mmSR]] [[Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr]] anti-tank rifles and their ammunition were captured. The 13.2 mm German rounds had a muzzle velocity of {{convert|2700|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}}, an {{convert|800|gr|g|abbr=on}} bullet, and could penetrate armor {{convert|1|inch|mm|abbr=on}} thick at a range of {{convert|250|yard|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|p=184}}. Chinn states that the German round was 12.7-mm anti-tank, but it may have been the [[13.2mm TuF]] round. The Germans were working on their [[MG 18 TuF]] heavy machine gun.</ref> Winchester improved the .50 caliber round to have similar performance. Ultimately, the muzzle velocity was {{Convert|2750|ft/s|m/s|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|p=186}}</ref>

Efforts by Browning and Fred T. Moore resulted in the water-cooled, .50-caliber [[M1921 Browning machine gun]] and an aircraft version. These guns were used experimentally from 1921 until 1937. They had lightweight barrels and the ammunition fed only from the left side. Service trials raised doubts about whether the guns would be suitable for aircraft or for anti-aircraft use. A heavy-barrel M1921 was considered for ground vehicles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|pp=333–335}}</ref>

John M. Browning died in 1926. Between 1927 and 1932, S. H. Green studied the design problems of the M1921 and the needs of the armed services. The result was a single receiver design that could be turned into seven types of .50-caliber machine guns by using different jackets, barrels, and other components. The new receiver allowed right or left side feed. In 1933, Colt manufactured several prototype Browning machine guns (including what would be known as the M1921A1 and M1921E2). With support from the [[United States Navy|Navy]], Colt started manufacturing the M2 in 1933.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chinn|1951|pp=336–337}}</ref> [[FN Herstal]] (Fabrique Nationale) has manufactured the M2 machine gun since the 1930s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fnherstal.com/index.php?id=655 |title=Major Product Achievements |website=FN Herstal |access-date=2011-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927060025/http://www.fnherstal.com/index.php?id=655 |archive-date=2011-09-27}}</ref> [[General Dynamics]], [[U.S. Ordnance]] and Ohio Ordnance Works Inc. are other current manufacturers.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}

A variant without a water jacket, but with a thicker-walled, air-cooled [[gun barrel|barrel]] was designated the M2 HB (''HB'' for ''Heavy Barrel''). The added mass and surface area of the heavy barrel compensated somewhat for the loss of water-cooling, while reducing bulk and weight: the M2 weighs {{convert|121|lb|abbr=on}} with a water jacket, but the M2 HB weighs {{convert|84|lb|abbr=on}}. Due to the long procedure for changing the barrel, an improved system was developed called QCB (quick change barrel). The lightweight "Army/Navy" prefixed '''AN/M2''' "light-barrel" version of the Browning M2 weighing {{Convert|60|lb|kg}} was also developed, and became the standard .50-caliber aviation machine gun of the World War II–era for American military aircraft of nearly every type,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.skylighters.org/history/mgs/ |title=AAA Weapons in Focus - The M2 .50-Caliber Machine Gun |website=Skylighters, The Web Site of the 225th AAA Searchlight Battalion |access-date=2008-09-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606055546/http://www.skylighters.org/history/mgs/ |archive-date=2008-06-06 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source|date=November 2021}} readily replacing Browning's own [[M1919 Browning machine gun#.30 AN/M2|air-cooled .30 caliber machine gun]] design in nearly all American aircraft installations.{{Cn|date=November 2021}}

==Design details==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2021}}

The Browning M2 is an [[air-cooled]], [[Belt (firearm)|belt-fed]] machine gun. The M2 fires from a [[closed bolt]], operated on the [[short recoil]] principle. The M2 fires the .50 BMG cartridge, which offers longer range, greater accuracy, and immense [[stopping power]]. The closed bolt firing cycle made the M2 usable as a synchronized machine gun on aircraft before and during World War II, as on the early versions of the [[Curtiss P-40]] fighter. The M2 is a scaled-up version of John Browning's [[M1917 Browning machine gun|M1917 .30 caliber machine gun]].

===Features===
The M2 has varying cyclic rates of fire, depending on the model. The M2HB air-cooled ground gun has a cyclical rate of 450–575 rounds per minute.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunlap|1948|pp=310–311}}: "The official rate during WWII was 450–575 rpm, but it was extremely rare to encounter an M2HB that exceeded 550 rpm."</ref> The early M2 water-cooled AA guns had a cyclical rate of around 450–600 rpm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_50cal-M2_MG.htm |title=USA 0.50"/90 (12.7 mm) M2 Browning Machine Gun |first=Tony |last=DiGiulian |date=2007 |website=Navweaps.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102231537/http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_50cal-M2_MG.htm |archive-date=2008-11-02}}</ref> The AN/M2 aircraft gun has a cyclic rate of 750–850 rpm; this increases to 1,200 rpm for AN/M3 aircraft guns. These maximum rates of fire are generally not achieved in use, as sustained fire at that rate will wear out the bore within a few thousand rounds, necessitating replacement. In addition to full automatic, the M2HB can be selected to fire single shots, fire slowly at less than 40 rounds per minute, or fire rapidly for more than 40 rounds per minute. Slow and rapid firing modes use 5–7 round bursts with different lengths of pause between bursts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m2hb.net/manuals/fm23_65.pdf |title=FM 23-65: Browning Machine Gun Caliber .50 HB, M2 |date=December 2002 |website=U.S. Department of the Army |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430022123/http://m2hb.net/manuals/fm23_65.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-30}}</ref>

[[File:M2 - 24th MEU.jpg|thumb|left|A U.S. Marine mans a .50-caliber machine gun as part of a security force during a training exercise with the [[24th Marine Expeditionary Unit]] in November 2002.]]
The M2 has an effective range of {{convert|1830|m|yard}} and a maximum effective range of {{convert|2000|m|yard}} when fired from the [[M3 tripod]]. In its ground-portable, crew-served role as the M2HB, the gun itself weighs {{convert|84|lb|kg}} and the assembled M3 tripod another {{convert|44|lb|kg}}. In this configuration, the V-shaped "butterfly" trigger is located at the very rear of the weapon with a "spade handle" handgrip on either side of it and the bolt release in the center. The spade handles are gripped and the butterfly trigger is depressed with one or both thumbs. Recently, new rear buffer assemblies have used squeeze triggers mounted to the handgrips, doing away with the butterfly triggers.

When the bolt release is locked down by the bolt latch release lock on the buffer tube sleeve, the gun functions in fully automatic mode. Conversely, the bolt release can be unlocked into the up position resulting in single-shot firing (the gunner must press the bolt latch release to send the bolt forward). Unlike virtually all other modern machine guns, it has no safety (although a sliding safety switch has recently been fielded to [[United States Marine Corps|USMC]] armorers for installation on their weapons and is standard issue for the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] for all M2s). Troops in the field have been known to add an improvised safety measure against accidental firing by slipping an expended shell casing under the butterfly trigger.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mcdetflw.tecom.usmc.mil/usmc-mp2006/READ%20AHEAD/ADVANCE%20COURSE%20READ%20AHEAD/ADVANCE%20COURSE%20OUTLINES/Crew%20Served%20Weapons%20lesson%20plan.doc |title=Lesson Plan: Crew Served Weapons |date=25 June 2007 |website=United States Marine Corps |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227120628/http://mcdetflw.tecom.usmc.mil/usmc-mp2006/READ%20AHEAD/ADVANCE%20COURSE%20READ%20AHEAD/ADVANCE%20COURSE%20OUTLINES/Crew%20Served%20Weapons%20lesson%20plan.doc |archive-date=2009-02-27}}</ref> The upgraded M2A1 has a manual trigger block safety.

[[File:Twin M2HB machine gun.jpg|thumb|upright|Twin M2HB machine gun during a pre-action calibration fire (PACFIRE) exercise in May 2005]]
The M2 was designed to operate in many configurations; it can be adapted to feed from the left or right side of the weapon by exchanging the belt-holding pawls and the front and rear cartridge stops (three-piece set to include link stripper), then reversing the bolt switch. The operator must also convert the top-cover belt feed slide assembly from left- to right-hand feed as well as the spring and plunger in the feed arm. A skilled operator can perform this conversion in under two minutes.

The charging assembly can also be swapped from left-hand to right-hand charge, though a right-hand charging handle spring is required. The M2 can be more easily interchanged if it is preemptively fitted with a retracting slide assembly on both sides of the weapon system.

At some point during World War II, the [[Frankford Arsenal]] developed a [[squeeze bore]] version of the M2HB which reduced the bullet size from .50 to .30 caliber.<ref name="WeaponsMan">{{cite web |title=Exotic Barrels Part 1: Squeeze Bores |url=http://weaponsman.com/?p=21443 |website=WeaponsMan.com |access-date=18 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709035248/http://weaponsman.com/?p=21443 |archive-date=9 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ammunition===
There are several different types of ammunition used in the M2HB and AN aircraft guns. From [[World War II]] through the [[Vietnam War]], the Browning was used with standard ball, [[Armour-piercing ammunition|armor-piercing]] (AP), armor-piercing incendiary (API), and armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) rounds. All .50 ammunition designated "armor-piercing" was required to completely perforate {{convert|0.875|in|mm}} of hardened steel armor plate at a distance of {{convert|100|yd|m}} and {{convert|0.75|in|mm}} at {{convert|547|yd|m}}.<ref name="Barnes, Frank C. 1989 p.432">{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Frank C. |date=1989 |title=Cartridges of the World |chapter=U.S. Army .50 BMG Cartridge Specifications |publisher=DBI Books |page=432 |isbn=0-87349-033-9}}</ref> The API and APIT rounds left a flash, report, and smoke on contact, useful in detecting strikes on enemy targets; they were primarily intended to incapacitate thin-skinned and lightly armored vehicles and aircraft, while igniting their fuel tanks.{{sfn|Dunlap|1948|pp=311–312}}

Current ammunition types include M33 Ball (706.7 grain) for personnel and light material targets, M17 tracer, M8 API (622.5 grain), M20 API-T (619 grain), and M962 SLAP-T. The latter ammunition along with the M903 SLAP (Saboted Light Armor Penetrator) round can perforate {{convert|1.34|in|mm}} of FHA (face-hardened steel plate) at {{convert|500|m|yd}}, {{convert|0.91|in|mm}} at {{convert|1200|m|yd}}, and {{convert|0.75|in|mm}} at {{convert|1500|m|yd}}. This is achieved by using a {{convert|0.30|in|mm|adj=mid|-diameter}} tungsten penetrator. The SLAP-T adds a tracer charge to the base of the ammunition. This ammunition was type classified in 1993.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

[[File:US Navy 070821-F-8678B-034 Machinery Repairman Fireman Edward O. Pastoral mans a M2 .50 caliber machine gun.jpg|thumb|M2 with blank-firing adapter]]
When firing blanks, a large [[blank-firing adapter]] (BFA) of a special type must be used to allow the recoil-operated action to cycle. This functions on the principle of a [[recoil booster]], to increase the recoil force acting on the short recoil action. This is the exact antithesis of a [[muzzle brake]]. Without this adaptor, the reduced-charge blank cartridge would develop too little recoil to cycle the action fully. The adapter is very distinctive, attaching to the muzzle with three rods extending back to the base. The BFA can often be seen on M2s during peacetime operations.

==Deployment==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2021}}
[[File:M2 on a RHIB.jpg|thumb|upright |An M2 fired from a [[rigid-hulled inflatable boat]].]]
[[File:B-25H.jpg|thumb|B-25H "Barbie III" showing four M2 feeds and [[75 mm gun (US)#Variants|75 mm M5 gun]]]]

The M2 .50 Browning machine gun has been used for various roles:
* A medium infantry support weapon
* As a light [[anti-aircraft]] (AA) gun in some ships; up to six M2 guns could be mounted on the same turret.
* As an anti-aircraft gun on the ground. The original water-cooled version of the M2 was used on a tall AA tripod or vehicle-mounted anti-aircraft weapon on pedestal mount. In later variants, twin and quadruple M2HB Brownings were used, such as the [[M45 Quadmount]] (aka "meat chopper") used on the U.S. [[M3 Half-track|M16 half-track]] carrier. Twin or quad-mount .50 M2 guns normally used alternating left-hand and right-hand feed.
* Primary or secondary weapon on an [[armored fighting vehicle]].
* Primary or secondary weapon on a naval patrol boat.
* Spotting for the primary weapon on some [[armored fighting vehicle]]s.
* Secondary weapon for anti-boat defense on large naval vessels (corvettes, frigates, destroyers, cruisers, etc.).
* [[Coaxial gun]] or independent mounting in some tanks, including but not limited to: the [[M47 Patton]], [[M48 Patton]], [[M4 Sherman]], [[M24 Chaffee]], [[M6 heavy tank|Heavy tank M6]], [[Heavy Tank T34|Heavy Tank T29]], [[M1 Abrams]], [[M60 tank|M60 Patton]], [[M46 Patton]], and the [[M26 Pershing]].
* Fixed-mounted forward-firing primary aircraft armament (AN/M2 and AN/M3 light-barrel versions only). The AN/M2 was used as primary armament in almost all World War II U.S. [[Fighter aircraft|pursuit]] aircraft (such as the [[North American P-51 Mustang]], [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt]], [[Lockheed P-38 Lightning]], [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]], [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]], [[Grumman F6F Hellcat]], and [[Vought F4U Corsair]]). It was also used in fixed mountings in bombers and ground attack aircraft like the [[Douglas SBD Dauntless]] dive bomber, [[Grumman TBF Avenger]] torpedo bomber, and medium bombers such as [[North American B-25 Mitchell]], [[Martin B-26 Marauder]], and [[Douglas A-26 Invader]]; usually 4–8 per aircraft but the bombers could mount 12 or more in certain configurations. The later, faster-firing electrically feed-boosted AN/M3 was used in many [[Korean War]]–era [[USAF]] fighter aircraft such as the [[Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star]], [[Republic F-84 Thunderjet]], [[North American F-86 Sabre]], and early versions of the [[Martin B-57 Canberra]] bomber. The [[US Navy|U.S. Navy]] had largely completed their move to the (unrelated) [[Hispano-Suiza HS.404|M2/AN]] 20 mm [[autocannon]] for aircraft armament by this time.
* [[Gun turret|Turret]]-mount or flexible-mounted defensive armament, again only with the AN/M2 light-barrel version, in almost all U.S. World War II–era bombers and patrol aircraft such as the [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]], [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator]] and [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress]] heavy bombers, North American B-25 Mitchell and Martin B-26 Marauder medium bombers, [[Consolidated PBY Catalina]] patrol flying boats, Goodyear [[K-class blimp|K-]] and [[M-class blimp]]s, [[Grumman TBF Avenger|Grumman TBF/TBM Avenger]] torpedo bombers, and in a combined offensive/defensive turret mounting in many [[Northrop P-61 Black Widow]] [[night fighter]]s. The AN/M3 was used as a flexible, quad-mounted, radar-directed tail-defense gun as late as 1980 on the [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress]], until replaced by 20 mm [[M61 Vulcan]] [[Gatling gun|Gatling-type]] cannon on the H model.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon |title=Browning .50-caliber Machine Guns |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2010 |page=23}}</ref>
* Variants of the AN/M3 are used as flexible door guns or as flexible remotely controlled armament subsystems on many U.S. Army, Navy, Marine Corps and [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] helicopters, such as the [[Bell UH-1 Iroquois]], [[Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk]] and variants, [[Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion]], [[Bell OH-58 Kiowa]], and others.

===United States===
[[File:Browning M2HB Normandy.jpg|thumb|A U.S. soldier in [[Normandy]] stands guard with the M2HB installed on a dual-purpose mounting, 1944.]]

At the outbreak of the Second World War, the United States had versions of the M2 in service as fixed aircraft guns, anti-aircraft defensive guns (on aircraft, ships, or boats), infantry (tripod-mounted) guns, and as dual purpose anti-aircraft and anti-vehicular weapons on vehicles.{{sfn|Dunlap|1948|p=225}}<ref>{{harvnb|George|1981|p=404}}: "By World War II, the M2HB had been designated as a dual-purpose anti-aircraft and anti-vehicular weapon for motorized, armored, and infantry divisions; the designation "''anti-vehicular''" included thin-skinned and lightly armored vehicles, as it was already recognized by 1940 that the .50 M2 AP round would not be useful against modern medium or heavy tanks."</ref>

The .50 AN/M2 light-barrel aircraft Browning used in planes had a rate of fire of approximately 800 rounds per minute and was used singly or in groups of up to eight guns for aircraft ranging from the [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt]] to the [[North American B-25 Mitchell]] bomber, which in the last J-version of the Mitchell could have up to 14 M2s firing forward for ground attack missions – eight in a solid metal-structure nose, four more mounted in a pair of conformal twin-gunned [[gun pod]]s on the lower cockpit sides, and two more if the forward dorsal turret's pair of M2 guns were also aimed straight forward. The later A-26 bested this with up to a maximum of 16/18 machine guns, 8 in the nose, four more per wing in flush-mount pods, plus 2 guns in the dorsal turret.

In the dual-purpose vehicle mount, the M2HB proved extremely effective in U.S. service: the Browning's .50-caliber AP and API rounds could easily penetrate the engine block or fuel tanks of a German [[Messerschmitt Bf 109|Bf 109]] fighter attacking at low altitude,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.45thdivision.org/Veterans/BirdA160.htm |title=Recollections of James R. Bird, A Battery, 160th F.A., 45th Inf. Div. |first=James |last=Bird |website=45thdivision.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223025915/http://www.45thdivision.org/Veterans/BirdA160.htm |archive-date=2008-12-23}}</ref> or perforate the hull plates and fuel tanks of a German [[Sd.Kfz. 251 |half-track]] or [[Leichter Panzerspahwagen |light armored car]]. It could even penetrate the sides and rear of the [[Panzer I]], [[Panzer II]], [[Panzer III]], and [[Panzer IV]] tanks.<ref name="Barnes, Frank C. 1989 p.432"/><ref>{{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Green |first2=Gladys |last2=Green |name-list-style=amp |date=2000 |title=Weapons of Patton's Armies |publisher=Zenith Imprint Press |page=34 |isbn=978-0-7603-0821-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bishop |first=Chris |date=2002 |title=The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc |page=86 |isbn=978-1-58663-762-0}}</ref> While the dual-purpose mounting was undeniably useful, it did normally require the operator to stand when using the M2 in a ground role, exposing him to return fire.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Green |first2=Gladys |last2=Green |name-list-style=amp |date=2000 |title=Weapons of Patton's Armies |publisher=Zenith Imprint Press |pages=32–34 |isbn=978-0-7603-0821-9}}</ref> Units in the field often modified the mountings on their vehicles, especially tanks and tank destroyers, to provide more operator protection in the anti-vehicular and anti-personnel role.{{sfn|Yeide|2004|p=185}} The weapon was particularly hated by the Germans, whose attacks and ambushes against otherwise helpless stalled motor convoys were frequently broken up by .50-caliber machine gun fire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burgett |first=Donald |date=1999 |title=Seven Roads To Hell |publisher=Dell Publishing |page=129 |isbn=0-440-23627-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jarymowycz |first=Roman J. |date=2001 |title=Tank Tactics: From Normandy to Lorraine |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |page=212 |isbn=978-1-55587-950-1}}</ref> Vehicles would frequently perform "recon by fire" with the M2 Browning; i.e., they would fire continuously at suspected points of ambush while moving through areas still containing enemy forces.

Heavy weapons companies in some Army infantry battalions and regiments were issued a single M2 Browning with tripod (ground) mount.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rush |first=Robert S. |date=2003 |title=GI: The US Infantryman in World War II |publisher=Osprey Publishing Ltd |page=33 |isbn=1-84176-739-5}}</ref> The M2HB proved particularly useful as a defensive weapon against German infantry and motorized forces. It could be mounted on a tripod and secured in place with sandbags, denying the enemy access to intersections and other choke points. {{sfn|Dunlap|1948|pp=225, 311–312}} Hearing the sound of an M2 was often enough to convince enemy infantry to take cover.<ref name="Henry, Mark R. 2000 p. 20">{{cite book |last=Henry |first=Mark R. |date=2000 |title=The US Army in World War II (2): The Mediterranean |publisher=Osprey Publishing |page=20 |isbn=978-1-84176-085-8}}</ref> There are numerous recorded instances of the M2 Browning being used against enemy personnel, particularly in infantry assaults<ref>Abramski, Anthony V. (Pfc.), ''Eyewitness Account of Pfc. Anthony V. Abramski'', Citation In Support Of Congressional Medal of Honor Award to 2nd Lt. [[Audie Murphy]] at [[Holtzwihr]], France, 26 January 1945.</ref> or to suppress and eliminate artillery observers and snipers at long range.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wolfe |first=Clarence B. |date=2006 |title=I Kept My Word |publisher=AuthorHouse Press |page=68 |isbn=978-1-4259-6951-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/11-4/chapter21.htm |last=Lee |first=Ulysses |date=1966 |title=The United States Army in World War II: Special Studies, The Employment of Negro Troops |chapter=Ch. XXI: Artillery & Armored Units in the ETO |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Historical Division, U.S. Army |page=646}}{{dead link|date=April 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jarymowycz |first=Roman J. |date=2001 |title=Tank Tactics: From Normandy to Lorraine |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |page=212 |isbn=978-1-55587-950-1}} M2HBs fitted to tanks and M3 half-tracks were frequently employed against German rearguard forces including snipers and anti-tank teams, often firing preemptively into locations suspected of hiding such forces (so-called ''speculative fire'').</ref>

[[File:Firebase Phoenix overlooking the Korengal Valley.jpg|thumb|An M2 overlooking the [[Korengal Valley]] at [[Firebase Phoenix]], Afghanistan, in 2007]]
The M2HB was not widely used in the [[Pacific War|Pacific campaign]] for several reasons, including the weight of the gun, the nature of infantry jungle combat, and because road intersections were usually easily outflanked.{{sfn|George|1981|p=404}}{{Primary source inline|date=March 2022}} However, it was used by fast-moving motorized forces in the [[Philippines]] to destroy Japanese blocking units on the advance to [[Manila]].{{sfn|Dunlap|1948|pp=225, 311–312}} The [[M45 Quadmount |quad mount .50]] was also used to destroy Japanese emplacements.<ref name="Article"/>

The M2HB was used in Korea and Vietnam, and later in both [[Gulf War |Operation Desert Storm]], the Afghan theater of [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present) |Operation Enduring Freedom]] and in [[Iraq War |Iraq]]. In 2003, U.S. Army SFC [[Paul Ray Smith]] used his M2HB mounted on an [[M113 armored personnel carrier]] to kill 20 to 50 enemies who were attacking a U.S. outpost, preventing an aid station from being overrun and allowing wounded soldiers to be evacuated,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E7D7123FF933A05750C0A9639C8B63 |title=Medal of Honor to Be Awarded to Soldier Killed in Iraq, a First |first=Eric |last=Schmitt |date=30 March 2005 |newspaper=The New York Times |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701043709/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E7D7123FF933A05750C0A9639C8B63 |archive-date=2017-07-01}}</ref> SFC Smith was killed during the firefight and was posthumously awarded the [[Medal of Honor]].

====M45 Quadmount====
{{Main|M45 Quadmount}}

[[File:Multiple Gun Motor Carriage.jpg|thumb|An M45 Quadmount installed on an [[M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage]]]]

The M45 Quadmount was a mounting of four .50 M2HB guns with a single gunner situated behind an armored housing. This was used by U.S. anti-air battalions, fitted either on a towed trailer or mounted on a half-track carrier. With 200 rounds per gun in a powered tracking mount, the guns proved very effective against low-flying aircraft. The use of four guns adequately compensated for the fact that the individual M2HB's rate of fire (450–550 rounds per minute) was low for an effective anti-aircraft weapon.<ref name="RottmanBrowning">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TaixfxwdCwEC&pg=PA20 |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |date=2010 |title=Browning .50-Caliber Machine Guns |publisher=Osprey Publishing |pages=19–20 |isbn=978-1-84908-331-7}}</ref>

Towards the end of the war, as [[Luftwaffe]] attacks became less frequent, the quad .50 (nicknamed the ''Meat Chopper'' or ''Krautmower''<ref name="RottmanBrowning" />) was increasingly used in an anti-personnel role, similarly to the earlier-introduced (1940) and more powerful—but much more difficult to keep well-fed with ammunition when in action—German 20 mm [[FlaK 30#2 cm Flakvierling 38 |Flakvierling]]. Snipers firing from trees were engaged by the quad gunner at trunk level; the weapon would cut down and destroy the entire tree, and the sniper with it.<ref name="Henry, Mark R. 2000 p. 20"/><ref name="Article">{{cite web |url=http://www.skylighters.org/quad50/index.html |title=AAA Weapons of the U.S. Army, Part I: The "Quad 50" Machine Gun Mount |website=225th AAA Searchlight Battalion (Skylighters) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222001357/http://www.skylighters.org/quad50/index.html |archive-date=2008-12-22}}</ref>

The M45 Quadmount was still in use during the Vietnam War.

===Commonwealth and other forces===
{{Multiple image
|align =
|direction = vertical
|width = 220
|image1 = East timor independence un2.jpg
|caption1 = Australian M113 with twin mounted [[M1919 Browning machine gun|M1919 Browning]] and M2 Browning Quick Change Barrel machine guns, 17 May 2002
|image2 = IDF-M2-Browning-v01-by-Zachi-Evenor.jpg
|caption2 = [[Israel Defense Forces]] M2HQCB
}}
The [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] use of the M2 Browning .50-caliber machine gun (known as the .5 Browning in British and Commonwealth service) began in World War II, though from 1942 it was standard armament on U.S.-built [[Armoured fighting vehicle|AFVs]] provided under [[Lend-Lease]] such as the [[M4 Sherman]], [[M7 Priest]], [[M8 Greyhound]], or [[M10 tank destroyer]] variously used by British, Canadian, Australian, South African, and New Zealand units. Nevertheless, the heavy Browning's effectiveness was praised by many British and Commonwealth soldiers in infantry, armored, and ordnance branches.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shore |first=C. |date=1988 |title=With British Snipers to the Reich |location=Mt. Ida, AR |publisher=Lancer Militaria |pages=197–198 |isbn=978-0-93585-602-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunlap|1948|pp=35, 145}} Many commanders thought that the .50 Browning was the best weapon in its class, certainly the best of the American weapons, including the [[M1 Garand]] and [[M1 Carbine]].{{sfn|Dunlap|1948|pp=35, 145}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Shore |first=C. |date=1988 |title=With British Snipers to the Reich |location=Mt. Ida, AR |publisher=Lancer Militaria |pages=197–198 |isbn=978-0-93585-602-6}} They especially liked the "hell's brew" of AP, API, and APIT ammunition.</ref> In [[North Africa]], after Commonwealth units began to obtain sufficient parts, manuals, gauges, and ammunition for the new weapon, the .50 Browning was increasingly used, eventually replacing the [[15 mm Besa|15 mm Besa]],{{sfn|Dunlap|1948|pp=35, 145}} but in Italy, it was often deleted from top turret mountings because the mount exposed the operator to low branches and enemy fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunlap|1948|p=153}}: "The New Zealand and South African divisions, in particular, loved the big Browning and were frequently encountered trading for spare parts and gauges."</ref> All [[Long Range Desert Group|LRDGs]], and some [[Special Air Service|SAS]] units, used the aircraft (AN/M2) version of the gun, while beam/waist-mounted and turret-mounted Brownings were used later in the war in such aircraft as the [[Short Sunderland]] and [[Avro Lancaster|Lancaster bomber]].

After World War II, the .50 Browning continued to see action in Korea and other theaters, in aircraft, tripod (ground), ground AA (hip-ring), and vehicle mounts. One of its most notable actions in a ground role was in a fierce battle with a nine-man Special Air Service team at the [[Battle of Mirbat]] in [[Oman]] in July 1972, where the heavy Browning and its API ammunition was used to help repulse an assault by 250 Yemeni [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman|Adoo]] guerrillas, though the more famous weapon from the battle is a [[25 pounder gun]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Michael Paul |date=1990 |title=Soldier I: SAS |location=London, UK |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=0-7475-0750-3}}</ref> The [[Scots Guards]] used the weapon in the 1982 [[Falklands War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Boyce |first=D George |date=2005 |title=The Falklands War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=btMcBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |location=Basingstoke, Hants |publisher=Palgrave |page=76 |isbn=978-0-33375-396-5}}</ref>

A .50-caliber Browning was installed along with a .30-caliber Browning machine gun in each compact one-man turret on M113 APCs used by the Royal Australian Armoured Corps in South Vietnam.

The M2HB has been in service with the [[Israel Defense Forces]] since its establishment and has served in all of Israel's [[Israeli wars|wars, operations, and conflicts]]. In 2012, the IDF upgraded its M2HB machine guns to the M2HQCB model, with a heavy quick-change barrel. Today, the M2 serves as an infantry crew-served heavy machine gun, as a remote-controlled external [[coaxial gun]] on [[Merkava]] [[main battle tank]]s, as the main weapon on the [[Samson RCWS]], and as a secondary weapon on [[Israeli Sea Corps]] [[gunboat]]s and [[missile boat]]s.

Nigerian troops have extensively deployed the .50-caliber Browning, mounted on Otokar Cobra APCs, Panhard VBL M11s and Landcruiser gun-trucks in counterinsurgency operations in the Niger Delta, N.E Nigeria, the Jos Plateau, and in Mali.

===Sniper rifle===
[[File:USMC-110909-M-UO859-002.jpg|thumb|USMC M2 fitted with a [[Leupold & Stevens|Leupold]] CQBSS variable power scope]]

The M2 machine gun has also been used as a long-range [[sniper rifle]] when equipped with a high-powered [[telescopic sight]]. Soldiers during the Korean War used scoped M2s in the role of a sniper rifle, but the practice was most notably used by U.S. Marine Corps sniper [[Carlos Hathcock]] during the Vietnam War. Using an [[Unertl Optical Company|Unertl]] telescopic sight and a mounting bracket of his own design, Hathcock could quickly convert the M2 into a sniper rifle, using the traversing-and-elevating (T&E) mechanism attached to the [[tripod (weapon)|tripod]]. When firing semi-automatically, Hathcock hit man-size targets beyond {{convert|2000|yd|m|order=flip}}—twice the range of the standard-caliber sniper rifle of the time (a [[.30-06]] [[Winchester Model 70]]). Hathcock set the record for the longest confirmed kill at {{convert|2460|yd|m|order=flip}}—about 1.4 statute miles, a [[Longest recorded sniper kills#Confirmed kills 1,250 m (1,367 yd) or greater|record]] which stood until 2002, when it was broken in Afghanistan by Canadian Army sniper [[Arron Perry]].<ref name="Hathcockshotb">{{cite web |title=Marine Corps Sniper Carlos N. Hathcock II |author=Sgt. Grit |year=2006 |website=Grunt.com |access-date=2008-03-24 |url=http://www.grunt.com/scuttlebutt/corps-stories/heroes/carloshathcock.asp |quote=Viet Cong shot dead by a round fired from a scope-mounted Browning M-2 .50 caliber machine gun at the unbelievable range of {{convert|2500|yd|m}}. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214173658/http://www.grunt.com/corps/scuttlebutt/marine-corps-stories/marine-corps-sniper-carlos-hathcock/ |archive-date=2012-02-14 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Variants and derivatives==

===Manufacturers===
Licensed historic production:<ref>accessed 3 September 2023, https://www.hitechcreations.com/wiki/index.php/M2_Browning_machine_gun</ref><ref>accessed 3 September 2023, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Canadian Firearms Program, Firearms Reference Table (FRT)</ref>

* [[Aircraft Armaments Incorporated]] (AAI)
* [[Australian Defence Industries]]
* Canadian Arsenals Limited (CAL)
* [[Colt's Manufacturing Company|Colt's Patent Fire Arms Company]]
* Buffalo Arms Company
* three divisions of [[General Motors]]: [[AC Spark Plug|AC Sparkplug]]; [[Frigidaire]]; and Brown-Lipe-Chapin<ref>Accessed 3 September 2023, https://usautoindustryworldwartwo.com/General%20Motors/onemillionbrownings.htm</ref>
* [[High Standard Manufacturing Company]]
* Kelsey Hayes Wheel Company
* [[Saco-Lowell Shops]]
* [[Savage Arms|Savage Arms Corporation]]
* [[Springfield Armory]] (U.S. arsenal), and
* Wayne Pump Company
* [[Sumitomo Heavy Industries]]
Current production (2023):{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}
* [[Canik Arms]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.canikarms.com/en/products_detail/canik-m2-qcb | title=Canik Arms }}</ref>
* [[FN Herstal]] (Fabrique Nationale)
* [[General Dynamics]]
* [[U.S. Ordnance]]
* Ohio Ordnance Works Inc, and
* Manroy Engineering (UK)

===Variants===
{{Multiple image
| align =
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Cal50 Browning 2REI 2.jpg
| caption1 = An M2HB in the [[2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment|French Foreign Legion's 2nd Infantry Regiment]] during an exercise
| image2 = Operação Ágata 11 (27209909483).jpg
| caption2 = [[Jungle warfare|Jungle Infantry]] soldier of the [[Brazilian Army]] manning an M2HB in the [[Amazon rainforest]]
}}

The basic M2 was deployed in U.S. service in a number of subvariants, all with separate complete designations as per the U.S. Army system. The basic designation as mentioned in the introduction is Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, with others as described below.

The development of the [[M1921 Browning machine gun|M1921]] water-cooled machine gun which led to the M2, meant that the initial M2s were, in fact, water-cooled. These weapons were designated '''Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, Water-Cooled, Flexible'''. There was no fixed water-cooled version.

Improved air-cooled heavy barrel versions came in three subtypes: the basic infantry model, '''Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, Flexible'''; a fixed developed for use on the [[M6 Heavy Tank]] designated '''Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, Fixed'''; and a "turret type" whereby "Flexible" M2s were modified slightly for use in tank turrets (this subvariant's designation '''Browning Machine Gun, Cal. .50, M2, HB, TT''' was only used for manufacturing, supply, and administration identification and separation from flexible M2s).

A number of additional subvariants were developed after the end of World War II. The M2 Heavy Barrel, M48 Turret Type was developed for the commander's cupola on the [[M48 Patton]] tank. The cupola mount on the M48A2 and M48A3 was thoroughly disliked by most tankers, as it proved unreliable in service.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zumbro |first=Ralph |date=1986 |title=Tank Sergeant |publisher=Presidio Press |page=92 |isbn=978-0-89141-265-6}}</ref>{{Secondary source needed|date=March 2022}} An externally mounted M2 was later adopted for the commander's position on the [[M1 Abrams]] tanks. Three subvariants were also developed for use by the [[U.S. Navy]] on a variety of ships and watercraft including the soft mount and fixed type versions. The fixed types fire from a [[solenoid]] trigger and come in left- or right-hand feed variants for use on the Mk 56 Mod 0 dual mount and other mounts.

Huaqing Machinery has made a clone of the M2HB known as the CS/LM6, which was released publicly in 2010 at foreign weapons expo conventions.<ref name="LM6">{{cite web |url=http://www.qbq.com.cn/a/bencandy.php?fid=73&aid=1632&page=3 |title=第四届中国（北京）国际警用装备及反恐技术装备展览会新品呈献 - 本刊专递 - QBQ-轻兵器 |trans-title=New products presented at the 4th China (Beijing) International Police Equipment and Anti-terrorism Technology and Equipment Exhibition - Special Issue - QBQ - Light Weapon |language=zh |website=QBQ.com.cn |access-date=2018-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829105924/http://www.qbq.com.cn/a/bencandy.php?fid=73&aid=1632&page=3 |archive-date=2018-08-29 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It was made with a picatinny rail on the receiver in order to have quick installation of various optics.<ref name="LM6"/> The original M2HB tripod and parts can be used on the CS/LM6.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zgjunshi.com/Article/Class38/Class88/Class121/200803/20080301200344.html |title=中国版M2HB：CS/LM6 0.50英寸重机枪 |trans-title=Chinese version of M2HB: CS/LM6 0.50 inch heavy machine gun |language=zh |website=Zgjunshi.com |access-date=2018-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621073633/http://zgjunshi.com/Article/Class38/Class88/Class121/200803/20080301200344.html |archive-date=2017-06-21 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===M2A1===
[[File:PEO M2E2-QCB HMG.jpg|thumb|M2E2 modification with quick-change barrel (QCB)]]

When the M2 was first being designed, John Browning faced two design challenges. With the machine tools available at that time, the dimensions that established the location of the bolt face and the depth of the chamber could not be held tightly enough to control the fit of the cartridge in the chamber. The round can be too tight in the chamber and the gun would not fire, or be too loose in the chamber, resulting in a stoppage or ruptured cartridge. The other dimension that could not be held closely enough was when the firing pin would fall. The solution to these problems was adjustable timing and headspace ("timing" is the adjustment of the gun so that firing takes place when the recoiling parts are in the correct position for firing; "headspace" is the distance between the face of the bolt and the base of the cartridge case, fully seated in the chamber); the operator had to screw the barrel into the barrel extension, moving the barrel toward the bolt face to reach the proper headspace with simple gauges to allow the operator to adjust to the proper dimensions. By the late 20th century, the M2 was the only adjustable headspace weapon in the U.S. inventory. With rising reports of injuries from improperly headspaced weapons, the U.S. military held a competition for a quick-change barrel conversion kit with fixed timing and headspace in 1997. Three companies offered kits and [[Saco Defense]] won the competition. However, funding was lost before the design could be fully evaluated and the program ended. In 2007, the military found money to start a new competition. Saco Defense had since been acquired by [[General Dynamics]], which won the competition.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://sadefensejournal.com/wp/?p=428 |title=New .50 Cal Machine Guns, No Tanks |first=George |last=Kontis |date=19 August 2011 |journal=Small Arms Defense Journal |volume=1 |number=4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014190604/http://sadefensejournal.com/wp/?p=428 |archive-date=2013-10-14}}</ref>

[[File:RSOV at National War College April 19, 2001.JPEG|thumb|U.S. Army [[Ranger Special Operations Vehicle]] armed with RAMO M2HB-QCB machine gun]]

On 15 October 2010, the ''M2A1'' heavy machine gun was type classified by the U.S. Army. Formerly known as the M2E2, the M2A1 incorporates improvements to the design including a quick-change barrel (QCB) with a removable carrying handle, a new slotted flash suppressor that reduces muzzle flash by 95 percent, fixed headspace and timing, a modified bolt, and a manual trigger block safety. When a standard M2 had a barrel change, the headspace and timing had to be manually set. Improper adjustment could damage the weapon and cause serious injury to the user. Fixed headspace and timing reduces risk, and the carrying handle allows the barrel to be switched in seconds.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dawson |first=D. |date=3 January 2011 |url=http://peosoldier.armylive.dodlive.mil/2011/01/03/M2a1/ |title=Ma Deuce version M2A1 - Proven Performer gets an Upgrade |website=PEOSoldier.mil |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219061002/http://peosoldier.armylive.dodlive.mil/2011/01/03/M2a1/ |archive-date=2013-02-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/ma-deuce-still-going-strong-03539/ |title=Ma Deuce Still Going Strong |date=1 November 2012 |website=Defense Industry Daily |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127084019/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/ma-deuce-still-going-strong-03539/ |archive-date=2013-01-27}}</ref> In June 2011, the Army began conversion of M2HB machine guns to M2A1s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2011/08/06/army-to-convert-browning-M2-to-M2a1/ |title=Army to convert Browning M2 to M2A1 |date=6 August 2011 |website=The Firearm Blog |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114054200/http://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2011/08/06/army-to-convert-browning-M2-to-M2a1/ |archive-date=2012-11-14}}</ref> The M2A1 was named one of the greatest Army inventions of 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2012/09/21/M2a1-among-greatest-army-inventions-of-2011/ |title=M2A1 Among Greatest Army Inventions of 2011 |date=21 September 2012 |website=The Firearm Blog |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127194519/http://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2012/09/21/M2a1-among-greatest-army-inventions-of-2011/ |archive-date=2012-11-27}}</ref> As of 30 November 2012, 8,300 built or converted M2A1s had been fielded by the U.S. Army; the program upgraded the Army's entire M2 inventory of more than 54,000 guns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/article/92130/ |title=M2A1 Machine Gun Features Greater Safety, Heightened Lethality |first=Kevin |last=Doell |date=30 November 2012 |website=Army.mil |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015043857/http://www.army.mil/article/92130/ |archive-date=2013-10-15}}</ref> The [[U.S. Marine Corps]] upgraded all of their ground-mounted M2s to M2A1 standard. The first phase of conversions was completed in March 2017, with 3,600 M2A1s planned to be fielded by the Marines in total.<ref>{{cite news |last=South |first=Todd |date=27 April 2017 |title=Improved .50-caliber machine gun hits fleet |url=https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/articles/improved-50-caliber-machine-gun-hits-fleet |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428002038/https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/articles/improved-50-caliber-machine-gun-hits-fleet |archive-date=2017-04-28 |newspaper=Marine Corps Times}}</ref> The [[Israel Defense Forces]] adopted the M2-HQCB (the commercial version of the M2A1) in 2012 as a replacement to the M2HB.<ref>{{Cite web |title=הכירו את כלי הנשק החדשים של זרוע היבשה |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911000141/http://www.idf.il/1133-14686-he/Dover.aspx |archive-date=11 September 2016 |language=he |trans-title=Familiarize yourself with the new weapons of the land arm |url=http://www.idf.il/1133-14686-he/Dover.aspx |website=[[Israel Defense Forces]] |date=2012}}</ref>

=== 13,2 mm FN Browning ===
One derivative of the M2 Browning is the ''[[Mitrailleuse d´Avion Browning - F.N. Calibre 13,2 mm]]'', more commonly known as the FN Browning M.1939. The FN Browning M.1939 was a heavily modified M2 Browning for aircraft use designed by [[FN Herstal]] for export. Their aim was to make a light, reliable heavy machine gun with the same damage output as a 20 mm autocannon. To achieve this, they raised the firing rate to 1080 rpm and gave it a more powerful cartridge in the form of the [[13.2×99mm Hotchkiss]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=La mitrailleuse Browning FN booklet}}</ref> This cartridge was a popular Eurasian analog of [[.50 BMG]] developed independently in 1920s with a 13.2 mm bullet (.52 in) and more propellant. A new projectile was designed for this gun. It was of a high-explosive type and was designed to take down a small aircraft with a single hit. Tests showed that it was very effective against both cloth- and aluminum-skinned aircraft.<ref>{{Cite book |title=La mitrailleuse Browning FN, kapitel XII. Les munitions F.N. calibre 13,2 mm}}</ref>

Due to the aforementioned improvements, the gun received interest from numerous nations when it entered the export market in 1939. Due to the start of World War II and the invasion of [[Belgium]], it was exported only to [[Romania]] and [[Sweden]].<ref name=":0" /> Sweden was able to buy the majority of the weapons along with the blueprints to produce the weapon on their own without paying for a license. In Sweden, the weapon received the designation ''Automatkanon m/39'' ("Autocannon m/39"), Akan m/39 for short, and was later produced by [[Ericsson]] as the Akan m/39A. Sweden also gave the blueprints to [[Finland]] so they could produce the weapon. Since Finland was already producing 12.7 mm ammunition, the Finnish variant was rechambered to 12.7 mm (.50 BMG). The Finnish variant was designated VKT 12,70 LKk/42 and was produced by Finland.

==Aircraft guns==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2021}}
=== .50 Browning AN/M2 ===
[[File:12,7 mm automatkanon m45.jpg|thumb|.50 AN/M2 aircraft machine gun]]
[[File:P-47 040315-F-9999G-029.jpg|right|thumb|A P-47 Thunderbolt firing its eight AN/M2 machine guns]]

The M2 heavy machine gun was widely used during [[World War II]], and in later [[Post-war|postwar]] conflicts, as a remote or flexible aircraft gun. For fixed (offensive) or flexible (defensive) guns used in aircraft, a dedicated M2 version was developed called the ".50 Browning AN/M2" or the "12.7 mm AN/M2".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Beskrivning över 12,7 & 13,2 mm akan m/39 & m/45 |trans-title=Description of 12.7 & 13.2 mm akan m/39 & m/45 |language=sv |publisher=Svenska flygvapnet [Swedish Air Force] |year=1949 |location=Krigsarkivet [Swedish Military Archive]}} (The 12.7 mm akan m/45 was the Swedish designation for the 12.7 mm AN/M2, as its described in the book.)</ref> The "AN" stands for "Army/Navy", since the gun was developed jointly for use by both services. The [[AN/M2 (disambiguation)|AN/M2]] designation was also used for other aircraft guns and therefore it is important to write the caliber before the designation.

The 12.7 mm AN/M2 had a cyclic rate of 600–800 rounds per minute, with the ability to be fired from an electrically operated remote-mount solenoid trigger when installed as a fixed gun.<ref name=":0" /> Cooled by the aircraft's slip-stream, the air-cooled 12.7 mm AN/M2 was fitted with a substantially lighter {{convert|36|in|cm|adj=on}} length barrel, reducing the weight of the complete unit to {{convert|61|lb|kg}},<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://browningmgs.com/AirGunnery/01_50cal.htm |title=Aircraft Gunnery .50 Cal. |author= |website=BrowningMGs.com |access-date=9 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130110100127/http://browningmgs.com/AirGunnery/01_50cal.htm |archive-date=10 January 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> which also had the effect of increasing the rate of fire. The full official designation for this weapon was "Browning Machine Gun, Aircraft, Cal. .50, AN/M2" (Fixed) or (Flexible).

The 12.7 mm AN/M2 was used on many aircraft during [[WWII]], as it served as the main aircraft armament in the U.S. military. Most U.S. fighter aircraft were armed with four, six or eight AN/M2 MGs mounted in the wings. Some examples being the [[Curtiss P-40]], [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt]], and [[North American P-51 Mustang]] for the [[USAAF]] and the [[F4F]], [[F6F]], and [[Vought F4U Corsair]] for the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]. For bombers, the AN/M2 was used in both flexible and fixed positions for both offensive and defensive use. In flexible defensive positions, the [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants#B-17G|Boeing B-17G Flying Fortress]] heavy bomber was armed with 13 AN/M2 guns in both turreted and flexible positions. In fixed offensive configurations, like on the [[North American B-25 Mitchell]], commonly carried 6to 12 fixed guns for strafing.

In foreign use, the AN/M2 is often just referred to as the M2 Browning. In Sweden, it was redesignated '''''12,7 mm automatkanon m/45''''' (short ''12.7mm akan m/45'') meaning 12.7 mm autocannon m/45.<ref name=":0" /> The [[Swedish Air Force]] used a different designation system which recognized the incendiary rounds as grenades, thus it was called autocannon.<ref name=":0" /> The AN/M2 was also produced in Finland under the export name '''Colt MG 53-2'''.

===M296===
The XM296/M296 is a further development of the AN/M2 machine gun for the [[Bell OH-58 Kiowa|OH-58 Kiowa Warrior]] helicopter. The M296 differs from previous remote firing variants in that it has an adjustable firing rate (500–850 rpm), while lacking a bolt latch (allowing single-shot operation).<ref name="FAS-M296">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/equip/M296.htm |title=M296 .50 cal. (12.7 mm) Machine Gun |date=1999 |website=FAS.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308070405/http://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/equip/M296.htm |archive-date=2016-03-08}}</ref> As an air-cooled gun used aboard a relatively slow [[Rotorcraft|rotary-wing aircraft]], the M296 has a burst restriction rate of 50 rounds per minute sustained fire or 150 rounds per minute maximum while conducting peacetime training requirements; the combat firing rate is unrestricted but a ten-minute cooling period after prolonged firing is mandated to avoid stoppages due to overheating.<ref name="FAS-M296" />

===XM213/M213, XM218, GAU-15/A, GAU-16/A, and GAU-18/A===
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2010}}
The XM213/M213 was a modernization and adaptation of existing .50-caliber AN/M2s in inventory for use as a [[pintle]]-mounted door gun on helicopters using the [[U.S. Helicopter Armament Subsystems#UH-1 Iroquois|M59 armament subsystem]].

The GAU-15/A, formerly identified as the XM218, is a lightweight member of the M2/M3 family. The GAU-16/A was an improved GAU-15/A with modified grip and sight assemblies for similar applications. Both of these weapons were used as a part of the [[U.S. Helicopter Armament Subsystems#UH-1 Iroquois|A/A49E-11 armament subsystem]] (also known as the Defensive Armament System).

The GAU-18/A is a lightweight variant of the M2/M3 and is used on the [[United States Air Force|USAF]]'s [[MH-53 Pave Low]] and [[HH-60 Pave Hawk]] helicopters. These weapons use the M2HB barrel and are typically set up as left-hand feed, right-hand charging weapons, but on the HH-60 Pave Hawks that use the EGMS (External Gun Mount System), the gun is isolated from the shooter by a recoil-absorbing cradle and all weapons are set up as right-hand charge but vary between left- and right-hand feed depending on what side of the aircraft it is on. A feed chute adapter is attached to the left- or right-hand feed pawl bracket allowing the weapon to receive ammunition through a feed chute system connected to externally mounted ammunition containers holding 600 rounds each.

===AN/M3, GAU-21/A, and M3P===
[[File:B-52 tail turret.jpg|thumb|left|AN/M3 quad mount on a [[B-52D]]]]

During World War II, a faster-firing Browning was developed for aircraft use. The ''AN/M3'' increased the rate of fire to around 1,200 rounds per minute while firing the same round with minimal change in weight or size.<ref name="Carel, M3" /> The AN/M3 was used in [[First Republic of Korea|South Korea]] on the [[F-82 Twin Mustang]], [[F-86 Sabre]], [[F-84 Thunderjet]], and [[F-80 Shooting Star]], and in Vietnam in the [[U.S. aircraft gun pods|XM14/SUU-12/A]] [[gun pod]]. Two are installed in the [[Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano]] aircraft as a fixed wing-mounted standard weapon as designated as M3W with minor modification with reduced weight barrel, electronic box triggered from the cockpit with 250 rounds each.{{cn|date=April 2022}}

[[File:Doorgunner CH-53GS.jpg|thumb|A [[German Army]] ramp gunner manning an M3M on a [[Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion|CH-53 Sea Stallion]]]]
The M3 series is used by the U.S. military in two versions, the M3M and M3P. The fixed, remote-firing version, the FN ''M3P'', is employed on the [[AN/TWQ-1 Avenger|Avenger Air Defense System]] and was used on the [[OH-58 Kiowa|OH-58D]], augmenting the XM296 .50-cal. machine gun.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.army.mil/article/19271/6-6-cavalry-aircrews-field-new-kiowa-warrior-weapons-system/ |title=6-6 Cavalry aircrews field new Kiowa Warrior weapons system |first=Stephanie |last=van Geete |date=6 April 2009 |website=U.S. Army |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504140124/http://www.army.mil/-news/2009/04/06/19271-6-6-cavalry-aircrews-field-new-kiowa-warrior-weapons-system/ |archive-date=2009-05-04}}</ref> The FN ''M3M'' flexible machine gun has been adopted by the U.S. Navy under the designation GAU-21/A for use on helicopters. The GAU-21/A is also being used by the U.S. Marine Corps to upgrade from the XM218/GAU-16 .50-cal. machine gun for the CH-53E,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marines.mil/unit/3rdmaw/Pages/2006/Sea%20Stallions%20implement%20new%20ramp-mounted%20weapon%20system.aspx/ |title=Sea Stallions Implement New Ramp Mount Weapon System |first=James B. |last=Hoke |date=21 May 2006 |website=U.S. Marine Corps |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120804203921/http://www.marines.mil/unit/3rdmaw/Pages/2006/Sea%20Stallions%20implement%20new%20ramp-mounted%20weapon%20system.aspx/ |archive-date=2012-08-04}}</ref> on the UH-1Y Venom, on the Canadian Forces' CH-146 Griffon via the INGRESS upgrade{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} and is to be used on the CH-53K.{{cn|date=April 2023}} The Air Force is looking to replace the GAU-18 on the HH-60G Pave Hawk with the GAU-21 because of its higher 1,100 rpm rate of fire, longer 10,000-round barrel life, and lower recoil through the use of a soft mount.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eglin.af.mil/News/story/id/123466807/ |title=Test teams aim at new machine gun for Pave Hawk |first=Rebecca |last=Amber |date=14 January 2016 |website=U.S. Air Force |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208044457/http://www.eglin.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123466807 |archive-date=2016-02-08}}</ref> The M3M is also the primary machine gun used by the British Royal Navy's [[Fleet Air Arm]] for helicopter armament on [[AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat |Wildcat]] and [[AW101 Merlin|Merlin]] aircraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2019/april/10/190410-847-nas-joint-warrior |title=Royal Marine Fliers Direct 'Rain of Fire' during UK's Biggest Exercise |date=2019-04-10 |website=Royal Navy |access-date=2020-02-19}}</ref> It is also used by the German Bundeswehr on their [[NHIndustries NH90|NH-90]] helicopters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doorgunner |url=https://www.bundeswehr.de/en/organization/army/doorgunner |access-date=2022-12-26 |website=www.bundeswehr.de |language=en |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226143452/https://www.bundeswehr.de/en/organization/army/doorgunner |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Myths regarding use against personnel==
It is often stated in military circles that the use of the M2 Browning against human targets is prohibited under the [[Geneva Conventions]]. This is false; the Geneva Conventions, contrary to popular belief, do not regulate the use of any weapon of war. They only regulate the treatment and protection of prisoners of war and non-combatants.<ref name="ABA Journal">{{cite journal |last1=Keeva |first1=Steven |date=December 1991 |title=Lawyers in the War Room |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AmTKRXXaeOUC&pg=PA55 |journal=[[ABA Journal]] |page=55 |issn=0747-0088 |access-date=12 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="Killing a Myth">{{cite web |last=Parks |first=Maj. W. Hays |date=January 1988 |title=Killing a Myth |url=https://www.mca-marines.org/gazette/killing-myth |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307164434/https://www.mca-marines.org/gazette/killing-myth |archive-date=7 March 2016 |access-date=12 April 2016 |website=[[Marine Corps Association]]}}</ref> There has been controversy surrounding the use of .50-caliber ammunition against enemy personnel, specifically [[Raufoss Mk 211]] explosive/incendiary rounds. The [[Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868]] states that the "military or naval" use of explosive or incendiary projectiles with a mass of under {{convert|400|g|abbr=on}} is forbidden by its signatory parties.<ref>{{cite web |title=St Petersburg Declaration 1868 |url=http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/WebART/130-60001?OpenDocument |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929224205/http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/WebART/130-60001?OpenDocument |archive-date=2009-09-29 |accessdate=2010-08-27 |work=International Humanitarian Law |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]}}</ref>

Similarly, the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907]], which do regulate the use of specific weaponry, do not prohibit the use of .50-caliber weapons like the M2 against personnel. The U.S. Army's field manual for the M2 includes instructions on how to employ the weapon against personnel.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Training Circular 3-22.50 - Heavy Machine Gun M2 Series |publisher=Headquarters, Department of the Army |year=2017 |location=Washington, DC |pages=2–1}}</ref> One possible source of the misconception is from World War II, when American [[half-track]] units in Germany were told to stop firing their M2s at ground targets, to conserve ammunition in case of a [[Luftwaffe]] attack.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon |title=The Big Book of Gun Trivia: Everything You Want to Know, Don't Want to Know, and Don't Know You Need to Know |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2013 |pages=317}}</ref> Also, U.S. troops were told to use their M2s only against enemy equipment due to shortages of ammunition during the [[Korean War|Korean]] or [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="Stars and Stripes">{{cite news |last=Schogol |first=Jeff |date=9 February 2011 |title=Can you use the .50-caliber on human targets? |newspaper=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |url=http://www.stripes.com/blogs/the-rumor-doctor/the-rumor-doctor-1.104348/can-you-use-the-50-caliber-on-human-targets-1.134278 |url-status=live |access-date=12 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418222912/http://www.stripes.com/blogs/the-rumor-doctor/the-rumor-doctor-1.104348/can-you-use-the-50-caliber-on-human-targets-1.134278 |archive-date=18 April 2016}}</ref> It is also possible that a restriction during the latter period limiting the use of the [[M40 recoilless rifle]]'s .50-caliber spotting gun to destroy enemy equipment only, since the M40 was meant to be used against armor and firing it at personnel would give away their position before it could be used as intended, was mistakenly applied to all .50-caliber weapons.<ref name="Killing a Myth" />

==Users==
[[File:M2 Browning Users.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map with M2 Browning users in blue]]
The M2 family has been widely used abroad, primarily in its basic infantry configuration. A brief listing of designations for M2 family weapons follows:
{{clear}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country
! Is [[NATO]] member
! Designation
! Description
|-
|{{flag|Afghanistan}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://taskandpurpose.com/news/taliban-weapons-afghanistan/ |title=Here's all the US military equipment that likely ended up in Taliban hands |website=Task & Purpose |date=18 August 2021 |access-date=2022-04-11}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" {{no}}
|
| rowspan="25" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Argentina}}<ref name="jones2009">{{cite book |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Richard D. |date=27 January 2009 |title=Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009/2010 |edition=35th |publisher=Jane's Information Group |isbn=978-0-7106-2869-5}}</ref>
|M2HB, AN/M3
|-
|{{flag|Australia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|Global Partner
|M2HB-QCB<ref>{{Cite web |title=12.7 Millimetre M2 Heavy Barrel Quick Change Barrel Machine Gun (M2HB QCB) {{!}} Army.gov.au |url=https://www.army.gov.au/our-work/equipment-uniforms/equipment/support-weapons/127-millimetre-m2-heavy-barrel-quick-change-barrel-machine-gun-m2hb-qcb |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213120417/https://www.army.gov.au/our-work/equipment-uniforms/equipment/support-weapons/127-millimetre-m2-heavy-barrel-quick-change-barrel-machine-gun-m2hb-qcb |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 Dec 2022 |website=Army.gov.au {{!}} Australian Army |publisher=[[Australian Army]]}}</ref> (M2HB Quick Change Barrel)
|-
|{{flag|Austria}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="4" {{no}}
|üsMG M2
|-
|{{flag|Azerbaijan}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkish defense firm Canik aims to foster new partnerships at expo in Azerbaijan |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/turkish-defense-firm-canik-aims-to-foster-new-partnerships-at-expo-in-azerbaijan/3340677 |access-date=10 November 2025 |work=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref>
|Canik M2 QCB
|-
|{{flag|Bahrain}}<ref>{{cite report |title=Report of the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry |publisher=Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry |url=http://files.bici.org.bh/BICIreportEN.pdf |date=23 November 2011 |access-date=26 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804093946/http://files.bici.org.bh/BICIreportEN.pdf |archive-date=4 August 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|page=77}}
|
|-
|{{Flag|Bangladesh}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2021 |title=Spare Parts for 12.7 mm Cal 0.50 HMG Type-K-6 (Korea) |url=https://dgdp.gov.bd/dgdp/AP_TEN/doc/4815.pdf |website=[[Directorate General of Defence Purchase (Bangladesh)|Directorate General of Defence Purchase]] |access-date=12 April 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412040219/https://dgdp.gov.bd/dgdp/AP_TEN/doc/4815.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|{{ill|K6 machine gun|ko|K6 기관총}} (Imported from [[South Korea]])
|-
|{{flag|Belgium}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Benin}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|rowspan="3" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Bolivia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Brazil}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|mtr .50 M2 HB "BROWNING" and M3
|-
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|rowspan="4" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Bosnia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Burundi}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Cameroon}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Canada}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|FN M2HB-QCB, GAU-21
|-
|{{CAF}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Central African Republic and Small Arms: A Regional Tinderbox |first1=Eric G. |last1=Berman |first2=Louisa N. |last2=Lombard |date=December 2008 |publisher=[[Small Arms Survey]] |isbn=978-2-8288-0103-8 |url=http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/D-Book-series/book-07-CAR/SAS-Central-African-Republic-and-Small-Arms.pdf |pages=43–44 |access-date=2018-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107035838/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/D-Book-series/book-07-CAR/SAS-Central-African-Republic-and-Small-Arms.pdf |archive-date=2017-01-07 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|rowspan="3" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Chad}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Chile}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Colombia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|Global Partner
|-
|{{Flag|Cyprus}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cyprus army {{!}} Cyprus Blog {{!}} DOM LiVE |url=https://dom.com.cy/en/live/blog/cyprus-army/ |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=DOM |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2024-10-24 |title=Θαλάσσια περιπολία με το ΠΑΘ "ΙΩΑΝΝΙΔΗΣ" στην Ανατολική Μεσόγειο |url=https://doureios.com/thalassia-peripolia-me-to-path-ioannidis-stin-anatoliki-mesogeio/ |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=Δούρειος Ίππος |language=en-US}}</ref>
|{{no}}
|-
|{{flag|Croatia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of Congo}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |{{flag|Denmark}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="4" {{yes}}
|m/50 TMG<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armee.lu/materiel/armement |title=Armement |website=Armée luxembourgeoise |access-date=2011-06-24 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810225555/http://www.armee.lu/materiel/armement |archive-date=2014-08-10 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|M/2001 TMG
|12.7 × 99 mm FNH M2HB-QCB<ref>{{cite web |title=Geværer |url=http://www2.forsvaret.dk/viden-om/vaaben/gevaerer/Pages/Gevaerer2.aspx |website=[[Danish Defence|Forsvaret]] |access-date=19 October 2014 |language=da |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102141727/http://www2.forsvaret.dk/viden-om/vaaben/gevaerer/Pages/Gevaerer2.aspx |archive-date=2 November 2014}}</ref>
|-
|
|12.7 × 99 mm FNH M3M machine gun<ref>{{cite journal |author=Combat Support Wing |title=Eskadrille 615 støtter Søværnet |journal=Mjølner |date=December 2007 |page=5 |language=da |trans-title=Squadron 615 aids the Navy |url=http://forsvaret.dk/CSW/Mjoelner/Documents/Mjoelner%20december%202007.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210214653/http://forsvaret.dk/CSW/Mjoelner/Documents/Mjoelner%20december%202007.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-12-10}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Czech Republic}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|12.7 × 99 mm FNH M2HB-QCB<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acr.army.cz/technika-a-vyzbroj/pechotni/tezky-kulomet-browning-raze-12-7-mm-M2-hbqcb-94773/ |title=Těžký kulomet Browning ráže 12,7 mm M2 HBQCB |language=cs |first=Pavel |last=Kout |website=[[Ministry of Defence & Armed Forces of the Czech Republic]] |access-date=2017-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901162053/http://www.acr.army.cz/technika-a-vyzbroj/pechotni/tezky-kulomet-browning-raze-12-7-mm-M2-hbqcb-94773/ |archive-date=2017-09-01 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Djibouti}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|rowspan="5" {{no}}
|
|rowspan="5" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Ecuador}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Egypt}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|El Salvador}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Estonia}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mil.ee/?menu=tehnika1&sisu=browning |title=Tehnika - Raskekuulipilduja Browning M2 0.50 HB |language=et |website=[[Eesti Kaitsevägi]] |access-date=25 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103055957/http://www.mil.ee/?menu=tehnika1&sisu=browning |archive-date=3 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|{{yes}}
|''Browning M2'' sometimes as ''Raskekuulipilduja Browning M2''
|12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB. Usually mounted on vehicles, such as the [[Patria Pasi#Operators|pasi XA-180 and XA-188]], but the tripod version is also in use.
|-
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{no}}
|
|rowspan="2" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|France}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|MIT 50 (Mitrailleuse cal. 50)
|-
|{{flag|Finland}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puolustusvoimat.fi/wcm/Erikoissivustot/pvsh11/Suomeksi/Joukot+ja+kalusto/Maavoimien+kalusto/ |title=Maavoimien kalusto |trans-title=Army equipment |language=fi |website=[[Puolustusvoimat]] |date=2011-05-13 |access-date=2011-09-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427153713/http://www.puolustusvoimat.fi/wcm/Erikoissivustot/pvsh11/Suomeksi/Joukot%2Bja%2Bkalusto/Maavoimien%2Bkalusto/ |archive-date=2012-04-27}}</ref>
|{{yes}}
|12,7 RSKK 2005
|12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun in [[Protector (RWS)|protector]] [[remote weapon station]]s in [[Patria AMV]] APCs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puolustusvoimat.fi/portal/puolustusvoimat.fi/!ut/p/c5/vZHLrqpAFES_5X4AshuwgSFi2_JUeQlMCHhQAVFQfPXXH5OT3Du6jk7cNazUXkkVn_IvHfNbtcuH6nTMD3zMpzijAlbmJiB1YTkTMBY2RLK9RLog8ms-Binz62dnsIZ5NVuJASDTCTZ3xybgkgYcewEBARaEF-Y2FfgEwCEtAkdF0WxFNI1bsUr58_qVvqNReO8D-vGxSCziUgnRpS6B4U9DNQhlkYb4bX7hyT8-_Oc04BM-lf_lKXKVVz5YCtSbAVgSH_xiG-9Z-IOs8QdZ8udY-u_uZfJpVbSj-6YdwUhRkYJVNFZELCkCCPz6kDC7uJjalETZw38qrNgb_cTcaoMwTqwqjVhQ-2W9de5-18MuavbbeMzkDXgoY06iksFQmORyD46Ghmqo-4PvPTp76dONMAyq1xBp3Poei6Wr1LLLDq3S-olnUS7GFh1aWmVFr59uzhlnRXjuz0l3zK7kpDNFXaf9Dtu-ATiqcah9Ge4dl2aWWNYzbHKgQ1mGfXKbLDnqyFtideJlsc61ctZzXNyI1Vdr3HQqXK7xtCwmmFOE9asPd35qS75rbx3x5iz-q1L7BifARvY!/dl3/d3/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/?pcid=77edd7004914a0699ef5ff30a8ea04e8 |title=Raskas konekivääri 12.7 RSKK 2005 |trans-title=Heavy machine gun 12.7 RSKK 2005 |date=2013-10-07 |website=Puolustusvoimat |language=fi |access-date=2016-02-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714154533/http://www.puolustusvoimat.fi/portal/puolustusvoimat.fi/%21ut/p/c5/vZHLrqpAFES_5X4AshuwgSFi2_JUeQlMCHhQAVFQfPXXH5OT3Du6jk7cNazUXkkVn_IvHfNbtcuH6nTMD3zMpzijAlbmJiB1YTkTMBY2RLK9RLog8ms-Binz62dnsIZ5NVuJASDTCTZ3xybgkgYcewEBARaEF-Y2FfgEwCEtAkdF0WxFNI1bsUr58_qVvqNReO8D-vGxSCziUgnRpS6B4U9DNQhlkYb4bX7hyT8-_Oc04BM-lf_lKXKVVz5YCtSbAVgSH_xiG-9Z-IOs8QdZ8udY-u_uZfJpVbSj-6YdwUhRkYJVNFZELCkCCPz6kDC7uJjalETZw38qrNgb_cTcaoMwTqwqjVhQ-2W9de5-18MuavbbeMzkDXgoY06iksFQmORyD46Ghmqo-4PvPTp76dONMAyq1xBp3Poei6Wr1LLLDq3S-olnUS7GFh1aWmVFr59uzhlnRXjuz0l3zK7kpDNFXaf9Dtu-ATiqcah9Ge4dl2aWWNYzbHKgQ1mGfXKbLDnqyFtideJlsc61ctZzXNyI1Vdr3HQqXK7xtCwmmFOE9asPd35qS75rbx3x5iz-q1L7BifARvY%21/dl3/d3/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/?pcid=77edd7004914a0699ef5ff30a8ea04e8 |archive-date=2014-07-14}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Gabon}}<ref name="jones2009" />
| rowspan="4" {{no}}
| rowspan="3" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Gambia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|-
|{{flag|Ghana}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|-
|{{GEO}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://civil.ge/archives/396867 |title=Georgia Receives New Military Weaponry with U.S. Support |date=11 February 2021 |website=Civil.ge}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|Germany}}<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.diesigns.com/down/HHK_CH-53.pdf |title=Die CH-53 als Brücke in die Zukunft |trans-title=The CH-53 as a bridge to the future |date=2006 |magazine=Hardthöhenkurier |number=3 |pages=12–17 |language=de |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428220339/http://www.diesigns.com/down/HHK_CH-53.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-28}}</ref>
|rowspan="2" {{yes}}
|M3M, MG50
|Produced by [[FN Herstal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=B. |first=Eric |date=14 January 2021 |title=German Door Gunners Get More FN Herstal M3M MK3 Heavy Machine Guns |url=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2021/01/14/the-bundeswehr-buys-fn-herstal-m3m-mk3-heavy-machine-guns-for-doorgunners/ |website=The Firearm Blog}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Greece}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
| rowspan="6" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Guatemala}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="5" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Honduras}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|India}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Indonesia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Iran}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Ireland}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="2" {{no}}
|.5 Heavy Machine Gun (HMG)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.military.ie/army/weapons/battalion/ |title=Battalion Level Weapons |website=[[Defence Forces (Ireland)|Óglaigh na hÉireann]] |access-date=26 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612071350/http://www.military.ie/army/weapons/battalion |archive-date=12 June 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Israel}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|מק"כ 0.5
{{check quotation}}|12.7 × 99 mm M2HB-QCB, used by all ground forces (infantry, armored fighting vehicles and tanks) and naval forces
|-
|{{flag|Italy}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|
| rowspan="6" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Ivory Coast}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Identifier les sources d'approvisionnement: Les munitions de petit calibre en Côte d'Ivoire |url=http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/C-Special-reports/SAS-SR21-CotedIvoire-FR.pdf |first=Holger |last=Anders |date=June 2014 |publisher=[[Small Arms Survey]] and [[United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire]] |isbn=978-2-940-548-05-7 |page=15 |language=fr |access-date=2018-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009093415/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/C-Special-reports/SAS-SR21-CotedIvoire-FR.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-09 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Jamaica}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Japan}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|Global Partner
|12.7mm Heavy Machine Gun M2
|-
|{{flag|Jordan}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="2" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Katanga}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Modern African Wars: The Congo 1960–2002 |last=Abbot |first=Peter |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |date=February 2014 |isbn=978-1-78200-076-1 |page=14}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|South Korea}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|Global Partner
|{{ill|K6 machine gun|ko|K6 기관총}} (standard HMG), MG50 (being phased out), M3M (used by [[Cheonghae Unit]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bemil.chosun.com/nbrd/gallery/view.html?b_bbs_id=10044&num=195644 |title=청해부대 M3M 중기관총 사용 사진 |trans-title=Cheonghae Unit M3M heavy machine gun use photo |language=ko |date=25 January 2015 |website=유용원의 군사세계 |access-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420164143/http://bemil.chosun.com/nbrd/gallery/view.html?b_bbs_id=10044&num=195644 |archive-date=20 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>)
|The [[Republic of Korea Armed Forces|Armed Forces]] received 664 M2s before the [[Korean War]], and 4,445 were in service by the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bak |first=Dongchan |url=http://medcmd.mil.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_202105270240172800.pdf |title=Korean War : Weapons of the United Nations |publisher=Ministry of Defense Institute for Military History |date=March 2021 |isbn=979-11-5598-079-8 |location=Republic of Korea |pages=57–59 |language=Korean |access-date=27 June 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920170621/http://medcmd.mil.kr/user/imhc/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_202105270240172800.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Later, produced locally by [[S&T Dynamics|Yehwa Shotgun]].
|-
|{{flag|Kuwait}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="5" {{no}}
|
|rowspan="4" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Lebanon}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Lesotho}}<ref name="Beyond Blue Helmets">{{cite book |title=Beyond Blue Helmets: Promoting Weapons and Ammunition Management in Non-UN Peace Operations |first=Eric G. |last=Berman |publisher=[[Small Arms Survey]]/MPOME |date=March 2019 |url=http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/U-Reports/SAS-MPOME-Report-WAM-Non-UN-Peace-Ops.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603103636/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/U-Reports/SAS-MPOME-Report-WAM-Non-UN-Peace-Ops.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 June 2019 |page=43}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|Liberia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Libya}}
|
|12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB and M3 machine guns<ref>{{cite book|first=Leigh|last=Neville|date=19 Apr 2018 |title=Technicals: Non-Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces|series=New Vanguard 257|isbn=9781472822512|publisher=Osprey Publishing|page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGlPDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Latvia}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mod.gov.lv/Papildriki/Iepirkumi/Results.aspx?i=1&itm=3097&do=rez |language=lv |title=12,7mm ložmetējs Browning M2HB-QCB |website=[[Latvian Land Forces]] |access-date=2014-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011094137/http://www.mod.gov.lv/Papildriki/Iepirkumi/Results.aspx?i=1&itm=3097&do=rez |archive-date=2017-10-11 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|rowspan="3" {{yes}}
|M2HB-QCB
| rowspan="46" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Lithuania}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kariuomene.kam.lt/lt/ginkluote_ir_karine_technika/kulkosvaidziai/sunkusis_12.7_mm_50_kulkosvaidis_m-2_browning.html |title=Ginkluotė ir karinė technika » Kulkosvaidžiai » Sunkusis 12.7 mm (50) kulkosvaidis M-2 Browning |trans-title=Weapons and military equipment: Machine guns: Heavy 12.7 mm (50) machine gun M-2 Browning |language=lt |website=[[Lithuanian Land Forces]] |date=2009-12-15 |access-date=2011-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007183512/http://kariuomene.kam.lt/lt/ginkluote_ir_karine_technika/kulkosvaidziai/sunkusis_12.7_mm_50_kulkosvaidis_m-2_browning.html |archive-date=2011-10-07 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|Luxembourg}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|Mitrailleuse .50 M2 HB<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armee.lu/materiel/armement.php |title=Armement: Mitrailleuse .50 M2 HB |website=[[Luxembourg Armed Forces]] |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720110506/http://www.armee.lu/materiel/armement.php |archive-date=2011-07-20}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Madagascar}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|rowspan="7" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Malaysia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Mauritania}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Mauritius}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Mexico}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Morocco}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Myanmar}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Netherlands}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|
|-
|{{flag|New Zealand}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|rowspan="1" |Global Partner
|
|-
|{{flag|Nicaragua}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|rowspan="3" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Niger}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Nigeria}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Norway}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|12,7 mitraljøse
|-
|{{flag|Oman}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Pakistan}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|Global Partner
|
|-
|{{flag|Panama}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="4" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Paraguay}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Peru}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Philippines}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| M3P<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ph.usembassy.gov/us-military-delivers-php183-million-in-new-weapons-and-equipment-to-afp/ | title=U.S. Military Delivers Php183 Million in New Weapons and Equipment to AFP | date=22 June 2021 }}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Poland}}<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.milmag.pl/news/view?news_id=3247 |title=Black Hawki przekazane Wojskom |trans-title=Black Hawks handed over to the Army |first=Rafał |last=Muczyński |date=20 December 2019 |magazine=MILMAG |language=pl}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" {{yes}}
| GAU-21
|-
|{{flag|Portugal}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|m/951<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abbott |first1=Peter |last2=Rodrigues |first2=Manuel |title=Modern African Wars 2: Angola and Mozambique 1961–74 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=1998 |page=18}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Qatar}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Romania}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Rwanda}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="5" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Senegal}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Serbia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Singapore}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Slovenia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.slovenskavojska.si/en/weapons-and-equipment/infantry/#c4206|title=HECKLER & KOCH GMG Automatic Grenade Launcher|access-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408132122/https://www.slovenskavojska.si/en/weapons-and-equipment/infantry/#c4206|archive-date=8 April 2023|url-status=live}}</ref>
|{{yes}}
|FN HERSTAL M2HB QCB Heavy Machine Gun
|-
|{{flag|Somalia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="3" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|South Africa}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|12.7mm L4 Browning Machine Gun
|-
|{{flag|Soviet Union}}
|M2 AA variant, [[Lend-Lease]], 3100 pieces<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/ref/LL-Ship/LL-Ship-3A.html |title=Lend-Lease Shipments, World War II: Section III-A Ordnance |website=Hyperwar |access-date=25 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131202453/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/ref/LL-Ship/LL-Ship-3A.html |archive-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Spain}}<ref name="jones2009"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infodefensa.com/es/2016/01/20/noticia-helicopteros-cougar-chinook-incorporaran-nuevas-ametralladoras-mag58.html |title=Los helicópteros Cougar y Chinook incorporarán las nuevas ametralladoras MAG-58, M3M y M-240 |trans-title=The Cougar and Chinook helicopters will incorporate the new MAG-58, M3M and M-240 machine guns |language=es |date=20 January 2016 |website=Noticias Infodefensa España |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131004123/http://www.infodefensa.com/es/2016/01/20/noticia-helicopteros-cougar-chinook-incorporaran-nuevas-ametralladoras-mag58.html |archive-date=31 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" {{yes}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Sweden}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/sv/Materiel-och-teknik/Vapen/Tung-kulspruta |title=Kulspruta 88 |language=sv |website=[[Swedish Armed Forces|Försvarsmakten]] |date=2007-08-23 |access-date=2011-09-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811153247/http://www.forsvarsmakten.se/sv/Materiel-och-teknik/Vapen/Tung-kulspruta/ |archive-date=2011-08-11}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|Switzerland}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="6" {{no}}
|MG 64
|-
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Syria}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZuEMh4HgqA|title=Syria War 2016 – Battle of Aleppo: Heavy Clashes and Intense Urban Fighting|last=War Clashes|date=2 November 2016|via=YouTube|access-date=26 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216143704/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZuEMh4HgqA|archive-date=16 February 2018}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|Taiwan}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Thailand}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Togo}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Tonga}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Tunisia}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Turkey}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|{{yes}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Ukraine}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.corriere.it/politica/22_febbraio_28/italia-aiuti-ucraina-guerra-russia-armi-decreto-d0340b7c-980b-11ec-97aa-535db4de4386.shtml |title=Dall'Italia aiuti all'Ucraina nella guerra contro la Russia con missili, mitragliatrici e munizioni: oggi il decreto |trans-title=From Italy, aid to Ukraine in the war against Russia with missiles, machine guns and ammunition: today the decree |language=it |date=28 February 2022 |website=Corriere della Sera |access-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428141035/https://www.corriere.it/politica/22_febbraio_28/italia-aiuti-ucraina-guerra-russia-armi-decreto-d0340b7c-980b-11ec-97aa-535db4de4386.shtml |archive-date=28 April 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
| rowspan="8" |{{flag|United Kingdom}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="9" {{yes}}
|M2
|Original U.S.-made model<ref>{{cite web |title=THE BRITISH ARMY IN NORTH-WEST EUROPE 1944-45 |url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205203327 |website=[[Imperial War Museum]] |access-date=24 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=THE BRITISH ARMY IN BURMA 1945 |url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205205504 |website=[[Imperial War Museum]] |access-date=24 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
|Mk 1
|M2 with a 36-inch barrel<ref name=rottmanmgsp27>{{cite book |last1=Rottman |first1=Gordon L. |title=Browning .50-caliber Machine Guns |date=10 October 2010 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=9781849083300 |page=27}}</ref>
|-
|L1A1, L1A2
|12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun with a 36-inch barrel (L1A1) or 45-inch barrel (L1A2); mounted on tripods, anti-aircraft stands, or [[Land Rover Wolf#Weapons Mount Installation Kit|WMIK-fitted Land Rovers]]<ref name=50calhandbook>{{cite book|author=[[War Office]] |title = W.O. Code No. 10408, User Handbook for the Gun, Machine, .50 L1A1 (Browning Heavy Barrel) with Mounting, MG, .50 A.A. L1A1 and Stand, Vehicle, L1A1 or Stand, Ground, L2A1|year= 1960}}</ref><ref name="supportwpn">{{cite web|access-date=23 June 2020|publisher=[[British Army]]|title=The Infantry - Support Weapons|url=http://www.army.mod.uk/infantry/current_equipment/the_infantry_support_weapons.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227111128/http://www.army.mod.uk/infantry/current_equipment/the_infantry_support_weapons.htm |archive-date=27 December 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rottman |first1=Gordon L. |title=Browning .50-caliber Machine Guns |date=10 October 2010 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=9781849083300 |pages=7, 27}}</ref>
|-
|L6A1
|12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun; [[ranging gun]] for the [[Royal Ordnance L7 |L7 105 mm]] tank gun on the [[Centurion tank]]<ref name=rottmanmgsp27 />
|-
|L11A1
|12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun; ranging gun
|-
|L21A1
|12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun; ranging gun for the 120 mm tank gun on the [[Chieftain tank]]<ref name=rottmanmgsp27 />
|-
|L111A1<ref>{{cite web |url=http://manroy.co.uk/manroy/ |title=Home |website=Manroy.co.uk |access-date=2008-09-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012144017/http://manroy.co.uk/manroy/ |archive-date=2008-10-12 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|12.7 × 99 mm M2QCB machine gun
|-
|L114A1<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rottman |first1=Gordon L. |title=Browning .50-caliber Machine Guns. |date=2010 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=9781849083317 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gla3CwAAQBAJ&q=L114A1+M3M&pg=PA25 |access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref>
|12.7 × 99 mm M3M door gun for use on [[Commando Helicopter Force]] and other helicopter units' airframes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/EquipmentAndLogistics/CommandoHelicopterForceGetToGripsWithNewGun.htm |title=Commando Helicopter Force get to grips with new gun |date=25 August 2010 |website=UK Ministry of Defence |access-date=26 September 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921023844/http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/EquipmentAndLogistics/CommandoHelicopterForceGetToGripsWithNewGun.htm |archive-date=2010-09-21}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|United States}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|Browning Caliber .50 M2, M2HB, XM218/GAU-16, GAU-21
| rowspan="5" |12.7 × 99 mm Browning M2HB machine gun
|-
|{{flag|Uruguay}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
| rowspan="5" {{no}}
|
|-
|{{flag|Venezuela}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Vietnam}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kienthuc.net.vn/quan-su-viet-nam/kham-pha-dai-lien-m2-huyen-thoai-my-trong-qdnd-viet-nam-584583.html|title=Khám phá đại liên M2 huyền thoại Mỹ trong QĐND Việt Nam | Báo Tri thức và Cuộc sống - TIN TỨC PHỔ BIẾN KIẾN THỨC 24H|date=8 November 2015}}</ref>
|
|-
|{{flag|Yemen}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|-
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}<ref name="jones2009"/>
|
|}

==See also==
* [[DShK]], [[NSV (machine gun)|NSV]], and [[Kord machine gun|Kord]], 12.7mm machine guns, Soviet/Russian equivalents.
* [[FN BRG-15]], 15.5mm caliber machine gun
* [[HMG PK-16]], [[12.7×108mm]] [[Pakistan|Pakistani]] equivalent
* [[KPV heavy machine gun]], 14.5mm caliber machine gun
* [[List of crew-served weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces]]
* [[List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces]]
* [[List of U.S. Army weapons by supply catalog designation]]
* [[M85 machine gun]], a vehicle-borne replacement for the M2 that proved unreliable and was removed from service.
* [[XM312]], [[XM806]], U.S. prototype heavy machine guns that failed to replace the M2.
* [[MG 131 machine gun]], [[World War II]] 13mm German aircraft-mounted gun
* [[MG 18 TuF]], a German 13.2mm machine gun from WWI
* [[Type 77 heavy machine gun|Type 77/85]], [[W85 heavy machine gun|W85]], [[QJZ-89|Type 89]], [[QJZ-171|Type 171]] 12.7mm machine guns, Chinese equivalents.

==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Carel, M3">
{{Cite thesis
|title=The History of the Aerial Gatling Gun
|year=1987
|publisher=US Air Command and Staff College
|id=87-0415
|last=Carel |first=Dennis C.
|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a179871.pdf
|page=3
|access-date=2019-05-12
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512222703/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a179871.pdf
|archive-date=2019-05-12
|url-status=live}}
</ref>
}}

=== General and cited references ===
{{Refbegin|45em}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=George M. Chinn |last=Chinn |first=George M. |title=The Machine Gun: History, Evolution and Development of Manually Operated, Full Automatic, and Power Driven Aircraft Machine Guns |year=1951 |volume=1 |publisher=Department of the Navy, Bureau of Ordnance}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dunlap |first=Roy F. |year=1948 |title=Ordnance Went Up Front: Some Observations and Experiences of a Sergeant of Ordnance, who served throughout World War II with the United States Army in Egypt, the Philippines and Japan, including way stations |publisher=Small-Arms Technical Publishing Co. |location=Plantersville, SC |series=A Samworth Book on Firearms |oclc=6081851}}
* {{Cite book |last=George |first=John B. |date=1981 |title=Shots Fired In Anger |publisher=NRA Press |isbn=0-935998-42-X}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Gresham |first=John D. |date=December 2001 |title=Weapons: John Browning's (M2) .50-caliber |magazine=[[Military Heritage]] |volume=3 |number=3 |pages=22, 24, 26, 28, 30}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hogg |first=Ian |date=2001 |title=The American Arsenal : The World War II official standard ordnance catalog of artillery, small arms, tanks, armored cars, antiaircraft guns, ammunition, grenades, mines, etc. |location=London, UK |publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1-85367-470-9}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.doctrine.usmc.mil/signpubs/w3151.pdf |title=Marine Corps Warfighting Publication 3-15.1: Machine Guns and Machine Gun Gunnery |date=1 September 1996 |website=U.S. Marine Corps |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041015143444/https://www.doctrine.usmc.mil/signpubs/w3151.pdf |archive-date=2004-10-15}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yeide |first=Harry |date=2004 |title=The Tank Killers |location=Havertown, Penn |publisher=Casemate |isbn=978-1-932033-26-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |date=2002 |title=M8 Greyhound Light Armored Car 1941–91 |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-468-9}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Browning M2}}
* {{Cite web |title= M2 .50 Caliber Machine Gun |url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m2-50cal.htm |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |access-date=6 March 2016 |archive-date=20 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820053548/https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/m2-50cal.htm |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite web |title=Ambush in Mogadishu: Browning M2 HB .50 Caliber Heavy Machine Gun |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ambush/weapons/50cal.html |website=[[Frontline (U.S. TV series)|Frontline]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-ach|rec}}
{{Succession box |before=[[M1903 Springfield]] |after=[[McMillan TAC-50]] |title=Longest confirmed combat sniper-shot kill |years=1967–2002 {{convert|2286|m|yd|0|abbr=on}} by [[Carlos Hathcock]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Browning M1917 derivatives}}
{{John Browning}}
{{FN Herstal firearms}}
{{WWIIUSInfWeaponsNav}}
{{ModernUSInfWeaponsNav}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:M2 Browning Machine Gun}}
[[Category:Heavy machine guns]]
[[Category:.50 BMG machine guns]]
[[Category:Cold War firearms of the United States]]
[[Category:Machine guns of the United States]]
[[Category:Military equipment introduced in the 1930s]]
[[Category:Short recoil firearms]]
[[Category:Weapons of the Philippine Army]]
[[Category:World War II firearms of the United States]]
[[Category:World War II infantry weapons of the United States]]
[[Category:World War II machine guns]]
[[Category:World War II infantry weapons of Brazil]]
[[Category:Sarsılmaz Arms]]

Islam

2026-03-18T03:03:19Z

Loz12:

{{Short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}}
{{About|the religion||Islam (disambiguation)}}
{{good article}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox religion
| native_name = {{lang|ar|{{Script|Arab|الإسلام}}}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Islām}}
| image = The Kaaba during Hajj.jpg
| imagewidth = 275px
| caption = The [[Kaaba]] at [[Masjid al-Haram]] in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[Holiest sites in Islam|holiest Islamic site]]
| type =
| main_classification = [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]]
| scripture = [[Quran]] Traditions: [[Hadith]]<ref>{{cite web |title=The saheeh Sunnah is wahy (Revelation) from Allah |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/77243/the-saheeh-sunnah-is-wahy-(revelation)-from-allah |website=islamqa.info |access-date=15 June 2025}}</ref> Exegesis: [[Tafsir]]<ref>Mir, Mustansir. (1995). "Tafsīr". In John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>
| theology = [[Tawhid|Monotheistic]]
| area = [[West Asia]], [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], [[North Africa]], [[East Africa]], [[West Africa]], [[Caucasus]], [[Balkans]], [[Guianas]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Center |first=Pew Research |date=2013-04-30 |title=The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025124036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth_to_the_twentieth_century#:~:text=While%20the%20motivations%20of%20early,intensified%20the%20Trans%2DSaharan%20trade | title=The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from }}</ref>
| language = [[Classical Arabic|Quranic Arabic]]
| territory = [[Islamic world]]
| founder = [[Muhammad]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |entry=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |entry-url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref>
| founded_date = {{circa|610 CE}}
| founded_place = [[Jabal al-Nour]], [[Mecca]], [[Hejaz]], [[Arabian Peninsula]]
| number_of_followers = {{est.}} 2 billion<ref name="pew2010–2020" /> {{increase}} (individually referred to as [[Muslims]], collectively referred to as the {{transliteration|ar|[[Ummah]]}})
| separations = [[Druze faith]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam |first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad |year=2014 |isbn=9780199862634 |page=142|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> [[Yazidism]]<ref name="GG">[https://web.archive.org/web/20250126163831/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yazidi "Yazīdī"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. (2025) [1998].</ref> [[Baháʼí Faith]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van der Vyer |first=J. D. |year=1996 |title=Religious human rights in global perspective: religious perspectives |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |isbn=90-411-0176-4 |page=449 |url=https://archive.org/details/religioushumanri0000unse |url-access=registration}}</ref>
}}
{{Islam|expanded=}}
{{Islam and iman}}

'''Islam'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|æ|m}} {{respell|IZ|la(h)m}};<ref>{{cite Cambridge Dictionaries |Islam}}</ref> {{langx|ar|{{Script|Arab|الإسلام|al-Islām}}|al-Islām}}, {{IPA|ar|alʔisˈlaːm|IPA}}, {{lit|submission [to the [[will of God]]]}}}} is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[monotheistic]] religion based on the [[Quran]] and the [[Sunnah|teachings]] of [[Muhammad]]. The religion's adherents, called [[Muslims]], are estimated to number [[Islam by country|2 billion worldwide]] and are the world's [[Major religious groups|second-largest religious population]] after [[Christianity|Christians]].
[[File:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Surah]] [[Al-Fatiha|al Fatiha (''The Opener'')]], from the [[Quran]].]]
Muslims believe that there is a [[Fitra|primordial faith]] that was revealed many times through earlier [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets and messengers]], including [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Noah in Islam|Noah]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], and they believe that Islam is the universal and complete version of this faith. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of [[God in Islam|God]] and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous [[Islamic holy books|revelation]]s, such as the [[Torah in Islam|''Tawrat'']] (the [[Torah]]), the ''[[Zabur]]'' ([[Psalms]]), and the [[Gospel in Islam|''Injil'']] ([[Gospel]]). They believe that [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] is the main and [[Last prophet|final]] of [[Seal of the Prophets|God's prophets]], through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the [[Sunnah]], documented in accounts called the [[hadith]], provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in the oneness and uniqueness of God ({{Transliteration|ar|[[tawhid]]}}), and belief in an afterlife ({{Transliteration|ar|[[akhirah]]}}) with the [[Judgement Day in Islam|Last Judgment]]—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise ({{Transliteration|ar|[[jannah]]}}) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell ({{Transliteration|ar|[[jahannam]]}}). The [[Five Pillars of Islam|Five Pillars]], considered [[Fard|obligatory]] acts of worship, are the Islamic oath and creed ({{Transliteration|ar|[[shahada]]}}), daily prayers ({{Transliteration|ar|[[salah]]}}), almsgiving ({{Transliteration|ar|[[zakat]]}}), fasting ({{Transliteration|ar|[[sawm]]}}) in the month of [[Ramadan]], and a [[pilgrimage]] ({{Transliteration|ar|[[hajj]]}}) to [[Mecca]]. Islamic law, {{Transliteration|ar|[[sharia]]}}, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from [[Islamic banking and finance|banking and finance]] and [[Zakat|welfare]] to [[Gender roles in Islam|men's roles]] and [[Women in Islam|women's roles]] and the [[Islamic ethics#Environmentalism|environment]]. The two main [[Islamic holidays|religious festivals]] are [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]]. The three [[holiest sites in Islam]] are [[Masjid al-Haram]] in Mecca, [[Prophet's Mosque]] in [[Medina]], and [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].

The religion of Islam originated in Mecca c. 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when [[Muhammad's first revelation|Muhammad received his first revelation]]. By the time of his death, most of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] had [[Conversion to Islam|converted to Islam]]. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. The two main [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic branches]] are [[Sunni Islam]] (87–90%) and [[Shia Islam]] (10–13%).{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} While the [[Shia–Sunni divide]] initially arose from disagreements over the [[succession to Muhammad]], they grew to cover a broader dimension, both [[Schools of Islamic theology|theologically]] and [[Fiqh|juridically]]. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of [[Kutub al-Sittah|the six books]], while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of [[The Four Books|the four books]]. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 53 countries.<ref name="pew2010–2020">{{cite web |date=June 9, 2025 |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020. Muslims grew fastest; Christians lagged behind global population increase |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |access-date=2025-06-28 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}

*{{cite web |author1=Conrad Hackett |author2=Marcin Stonawski |author3=Yunping Tong |author4=Stephanie Kramer |author5=Anne Shi |author6=Dalia Fahmy |date=2025-06-09 |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf |access-date=2025-06-10 |publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live [[Islam in Indonesia|in Indonesia]], the most populous Muslim-majority country; {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% live [[Islam in South Asia|in South Asia]]; 20% live [[MENA#Religion|in the Middle East–North Africa]]; and 15% live [[Religion in Sub-Saharan Africa|in sub-Saharan Africa]]. Muslim communities are also present [[Islam in the Americas|in the Americas]], [[Islam in China|China]], and [[Islam in Europe|Europe]]. Muslims are the [[Muslim population growth|world's fastest-growing]] major religious group, according to [[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]]. This is primarily due to a higher [[fertility rate]] and younger age structure compared to other major religions.

== Etymology{{anchor|Etymology}} ==
{{See also|Muslims#Etymology}}
In Arabic, ''Islam'' ({{langx|ar|إسلام|lit=submission [to God]}})<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of Islam {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509110220/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haywood |first=John |title=Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) |publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc. |year=2002 |isbn=0-7607-1975-6 |edition=1st |location=Spain |pages=3.13 |language=en}}</ref> is the verbal noun of [[wikt:أسلم#Arabic|Form IV]] originating from the verb {{lang|ar|سلم}} ({{transliteration|ar|salama}}), from the [[Semitic root|triliteral root]] {{lang|ar|س-ل-م}} ({{transliteration|ar|[[Š-L-M|S-L-M]]}}), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.<ref>"[http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm Siin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907230044/http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm |date=7 September 2011 }}." ''Lane's Lexicon'' 4. – via ''[[The Study Quran|StudyQuran]]''.</ref> In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of [[God]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Barnard |last2=Churchill |first2=Buntzie Ellis |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi |title=Islam: The Religion and The People |publisher=Wharton School Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-13-223085-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi/page/8 8]}}</ref> A ''[[Muslims|Muslim]]'' ({{lang|ar|مُسْلِم}}), the word for a follower of Islam,<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20190913192608/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim Muslim]." ''[[Lexico]]''. UK: [[Oxford University Press]]. 2020.</ref> is the [[Participle|active participle]] of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". However, [[Quranic studies]] scholar [[Mohsen Goudarzi]] has argued that in the Quran the word ''[[dīn]]'' means "[[worship]]", the ''islām'' means "[[monotheism]]" and the ''muslim'' means "monotheist".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goudarzi |first=Mohsen |date=2023-08-01 |title=Worship (dīn), Monotheism (islām), and the Qurʾān's Cultic Decalogue |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/jiqsa-2023-0006/html |journal=Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=30–71 |doi=10.1515/jiqsa-2023-0006 |issn=2474-8420|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In the [[Hadith of Gabriel]], ''Islam'' is presented as one part of a triad that also includes {{transliteration|ar|[[Iman (Islam)|imān]]}} (faith), and {{transliteration|ar|[[Ihsan|ihsān]]}} (excellence).{{sfnp|Esposito|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/page/76 76–77]}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmutćehajić |first=Rusmir |url=https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm |title=The mosque: the heart of submission |publisher=[[Fordham University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm/page/n104 84] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Islam itself was historically called [[Mohammedan|''Mohammedanism'']] in the [[English-speaking world]]. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be [[Religious offence|offensive]], as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| last = Gibb| first = Sir Hamilton| title = Mohammedanism: an historical survey|isbn=9780195002454| year = 1969| page=1 | quote=Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.}}</ref>

== Articles of faith ==
{{Main|Aqidah|Iman (Islam)|l2 = Iman}}

The Islamic [[creed]] (''[[aqidah]]'') requires belief in [[Iman (Islam)#The Six Articles of Faith|six articles]]: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the [[Day of Resurrection]], and the divine predestination.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality|publisher=New World Library|pages=68–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68|editor-first=Joel|editor-last=Beversluis|year=2011|isbn=9781577313328|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022948/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== God ===
[[File:Istanbul,_Hagia_Sophia,_Allah.jpg|thumb|Calligraphy showing the word [[Allah]] in Arabic in [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]]]
{{Main|God in Islam}}

The central concept of Islam is ''[[Tawhid|tawḥīd]]'' ({{langx|ar|توحيد|link=no}}), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a ''precise [[monotheism]]'', but is also [[panentheism|panentheistic]] in Islamic mystical teachings.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107041300/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gimaret|first=D.|year=2012|c=Tawḥīd |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454}}</ref> God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the [[Christian Trinity]], and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as [[idolatory]], called [[Shirk (Islam)|''shirk'']]. Thus, Muslims are not [[iconodule]]s and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several [[Names of God in Islam|names or attributes]], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān'' ({{lang|ar|الرحمان}}) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and ''Ar-Rahīm'' ({{lang|ar|الرحيم}}) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=34|loc="Allah"}}

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the [[universe]] was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "[[Be, and it is]],"<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|2|117|b=yl}}</ref><ref name="Schimmel">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504201633/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |url-status=live }}</ref> and that the [[Purpose of life|purpose of existence]] is to worship God.<ref>Leeming, David. 2005. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}}. p. 209.</ref> He is viewed as a personal god<ref name="Schimmel" /> and there are no intermediaries, such as [[clergy]], to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as [[Taqwa]]. ''[[Allāh]]'' is a term with no [[plural]] or [[gender]] being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ''{{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' ({{lang|ar|إله}}) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>{{cite web |title=God |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |access-date=18 December 2010 |website=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=[[PBS]] |archive-date=27 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Angels ===
[[File:Rashid al-Din Tabib - Jami al-Tawarikh, f.45v detail - c. 1306-15.png|thumb|Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. From the manuscript [[Jami' al-Tawarikh]] by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]], 1307.]]
{{Main|Angels in Islam}}

Angels (singular: {{langx|ar|ملك|link=no}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|malak}}'') are beings described in the Quran{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=23}} and hadith.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating [[revelation]]s from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's [[soul]] at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' ([[Nūr (Islam)|''nūr'']])<ref>"[https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur Nūr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423085030/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur |date=23 April 2022 }}." ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]''. – via ''[[Encyclopedia.com]]''.</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=Hartner, W.|last2=Tj Boer |year=2012 |c=Nūr |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Elias |first=Jamal J. |year=2003|c=Light |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261}}</ref> or 'fire' (''nār'').<ref>{{harvc |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar |c=Nar |in=Martin |year=2004}}. – via [[Encyclopedia.com]].</ref><ref>{{harvc|last=Fahd, T. |year=2012 |c=Nār |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Toelle |first=Heidi |year=2002 |c=Fire |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|McAuliffe|2003|p=45}}</ref> Islamic angels are often represented in [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic forms]] combined with [[supernatural]] images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|pp=97–99}}<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Webb |first=Gisela |c=Angel |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=MacDonald, D. B.|last2=Madelung, W. |year=2012 |c=Malāʾika |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}{{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642}}</ref> Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|p=140}} Some of them, such as [[Gabriel]] (''Jibrīl'') and [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]] (''Mika'il''), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the [[Isra and Mi'raj|Mi'raj]], where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} Further angels have often been featured in [[Islamic eschatology]], [[Kalam|theology]] and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]].{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=22}}

=== Scriptures ===
[[File:Quran rzabasi1.JPG|thumb|A [[Quran]] manuscript resting on a [[Rehal (book rest)|rehal]], a book rest for the holy text, {{Circa|9th-century}}]]
{{Main|Islamic holy books|Quran|Wahy}}

{{See also|History of the Quran}}
The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the [[Quran]]. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the [[archangel]] Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE<ref name="610CE">{{harvc|c=Muhammad|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|last2=Welch|first2=A.T.|last1=Buhl|first1=F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5 |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5 |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022949/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and 632, the year Muhammad died.{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=17–18, 21}} While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by [[Muhammad's companions|his companions]], although the primary method of transmission was orally through [[Hafiz (Quran)|memorization]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al Faruqi |first1=Lois Ibsen |author-link=Lois Lamya al-Faruqi |year=1987 |title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an |journal=[[Society for Asian Music|Asian Music]] |issue=Autumn – Winter 1987 |pages=3–4}}</ref> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (''[[sūrah]]'') which contain a combined 6,236 verses (''[[ayah|āyāt]]''). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at [[Mecca]], are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later [[Medina]]n chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref name="Ringgren">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ringgren |first=Helmer |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran |title=Qurʾān |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran |url-status=live }} "The word ''Quran'' was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are [[Quran#Etymology and meaning|two different theories]] about this term and its formation."</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as ''[[tafsir]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |title=Tafsīr |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019035210/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=79–81}} In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in [[Arabic literature]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Alan|last=Jones|location=London|publisher=[[Charles E. Tuttle Company]]|year=1994|page=1|title=The Koran|quote="Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence."|isbn=1842126091}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Arthur|last=Arberry|title=The Koran Interpreted|location=London|publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]]|year=1956|quote="It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it."|page=191|isbn=0684825074}}</ref> and has influenced art and the Arabic language.<ref>Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In ''[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an]]'' 3. pp. 213, 216.</ref>

Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called ''[[wahy]]'', to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the ''[[Tawrat]]'' ([[Torah]]) and the ''[[Injil]]'' ([[Gospel in Islam|Gospel]]), have become [[tahrif|distorted]]—either in interpretation, in text, or both,<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5">{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9">{{harvp|Peters|2003|p=9}}</ref><ref name="610CE" /><ref>{{harvc|c=Tahrif |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=[[Hava Lazarus-Yafeh]]}}</ref> while the Quran ({{Lit|Recitation}}) is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.<ref name="Ringgren" /><ref>{{harvp|Teece|2003|pp=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|2006|p=42}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bennett|2010|p=101}}

=== Prophets ===
{{Main|Prophets and messengers in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}}

[[File:Medieval Persian manuscript Muhammad leads Abraham Moses Jesus.jpg|thumb|left|A 15th century<ref>{{cite web |title=BnF. Département des Manuscrits. Supplément turc 190 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16 |publisher=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909130407/https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Persian miniature]] depicting [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] leading [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] and other prophets in prayer]]
Prophets (Arabic: {{langx|ar|أنبياء|label=none|translit=anbiyāʾ}}) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" ({{langx|ar| رسول&lrm;|label=none|translit=rasūl}}).<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=225}}</ref> Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered [[prophets in Islam]], including [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Noah in Islam|Noah]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[David in Islam|David]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=[[Leiden]] |page=177 |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the ''[[Qisas Al-Anbiya|Qisas al-Anbiya]]'' (Stories of the Prophets).

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("[[Seal of the prophets]]") to convey the completed message of Islam.<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 quick reference] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110124812/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 |date=10 January 2021 }}.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref>Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 quick reference] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926053837/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 |date=26 September 2020 }}.) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.{{'"}}</ref> In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the ''[[sunnah]]'' (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>{{harvp|Martin|2004|p=666}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Hadith|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=J. Robson}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Sunna|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=D.W. Brown}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Elizabeth |title=Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World |date=1995 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-508240-1 |location=Oxford |page=63}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as [[hadith]], which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. [[Hadith qudsi|Hadith Qudsi]] is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called [[Hadith studies#Traditional importance of the sanad|''sanad'']], and the actual wording, called ''[[Hadith studies|matn]]''. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" ({{langx|ar|صحيح|links=no|translit=[[Authentic hadith|ṣaḥīḥ]]|label=none}}); "good" ({{langx|ar|حسن|links=no|label=none|translit=[[Hasan (hadith)|ḥasan]]}}); or "weak" ({{langx|ar|ضعيف|label=none|translit=[[Da'if|ḍaʻīf]]}}), among others. The ''[[Kutub al-Sittah]]'' are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in [[Sunni Islam]]. Among them is ''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]'', often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most [[Hadith terminology#Terminology relating to the authenticity of a hadith|authentic]] sources after the Quran.<ref>[[Aisha Abd al-Rahman|al-Rahman, Aisha Abd]], ed. 1990. ''[[Introduction to the Science of Hadith|Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ]]''. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69</ref> Another well-known source of hadiths is known as ''[[The Four Books]]'', which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<ref>Awliya'i, Mustafa. "[https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books The Four Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912144702/https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books |date=12 September 2017 }}." In ''Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith'' 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref><ref>[[Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi|Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar]]. "[https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu'l-Arb'ah)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912191319/https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah |date=12 September 2017 }}." Ch 4 in ''The Qur'an and Hadith''. Tanzania: [[Bilal Muslim Mission]]. – via [[Al-Islam.org]]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref>

=== Resurrection and judgment ===
[[Image:Syria, Damascus, The Umayyad Mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Umayyad Mosque]] in [[Damascus]], where according to Islamic tradition [[Jesus in Islam|Isa]] (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the [[Judgement Day in Islam|Day of Judgment]]]]
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}}

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or ''[[Qiyamah|Yawm al-Qiyāmah]]'' ({{langx|ar|يوم القيامة|link=no}}) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of [[Ulama|scholars]], describe the trials and [[Great Tribulation|tribulations]] preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah''. The Quran emphasizes [[universal resurrection|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death.<ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|loc="Resurrection"|pp=382–383}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012|loc="Avicenna"}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467}}: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Qiyama |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=Gardet, L.}}</ref>

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to ''[[Jannah]]'' (paradise) or ''[[Jahannam]]'' (hell).<ref>{{cite web |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |editor-link=John Esposito |title=Eschatology |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-access=subscription |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=18 April 2017 |archive-date=13 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913062714/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Quran in [[Surat al-Zalzalah]] describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran [[Islamic views of sin|lists several sins]] that can condemn a person to [[hell]]. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals{{sfnp|Esposito|2011|p=130}} will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>{{harvp|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p. 565</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Garden |first=Asma |last=Afsaruddin |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Paradise|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> ''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Quran as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' ({{lang|ar|يوم الدين}} "Day of Religion");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|1|4|b=y}};</ref> ''as-Sāʿah'' ({{lang|ar|الساعة}} "the Last Hour");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|6|31|b=y}};</ref> and ''[[Al-Qaria|al-Qāriʿah]]'' ({{lang|ar|القارعة}} "The Clatterer").<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|101|1|b=y}}</ref>

=== Divine predestination ===
{{Main|Predestination in Islam}}

The concept of divine predestination in Islam ({{langx|ar|القضاء والقدر}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar}}'') means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. ''Al-qadar'', meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |date=2002 |title=Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |archive-date=8 December 2011 |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Karamustafa |first=Ahmet T. |c=Fate |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gardet|first=L.|year=2012|c=al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa 'l-Ḳadar |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407}}</ref> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase [[Inshallah|"In-sha-Allah"]] ({{langx|ar|إن شاء الله}}) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |access-date=13 November 2020 |publisher=BBC |work=Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115112558/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Acts of worship ==
{{Main|Five Pillars of Islam|Ibadah}}

There are five acts of worship that are considered [[fard|duties]]–the [[Shahada]] (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, [[Zakat]] (almsgiving), [[fasting during Ramadan]], and the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (''Arkān al-Islām'').<ref name="www.britannica.com-2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|title=Pillars of Islam | Islamic Beliefs & Practices | Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|date=3 May 2023|access-date=16 December 2021|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905102524/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, Muslims also perform other optional [[Supererogation|supererogatory]] acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ZAROUG|first=ABDULLAHI HASSAN|date=1985|title=THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION, SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM [sic] IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=24|issue=2|pages=167–180|jstor=20847307|issn=0578-8072|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207140013/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Declaration of faith ===
[[File:Silver Rupee Akbar.jpg|thumb|right|Silver coin of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar]], c. 16th century, inscribed with the ''Shahadah'']]
{{Main|Shahada}}

The [[shahada]]h{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|pp=3, 39, 85, 270–272}} is an [[oath]] declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}" ({{langx|ar|أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none}}), or, "I testify that there is no [[deity]] except [[God in Islam|God]] and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." ''[[Journal of Law and Religion]]'' 3(2):381–97.</ref> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to [[convert to Islam]] are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<ref>{{harvc |last=Kasim |first=Husain |year=2004 |c=Islam |pp=195–197 |in=Salamone}}</ref><ref>Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44–66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023001/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7560/317471-003/html |date=28 December 2023 }}</ref>

=== Prayer ===
{{Main|Salah}}

{{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}}
[[File:Mosque.jpg|thumb|Muslim men [[prostration|prostrating]] in prayer, at the [[Umayyad Mosque]], [[Damascus]]]]
Prayer in Islam, called [[salah|as-salah]] or aṣ-ṣalāt ({{langx|ar|الصلاة|link=no}}), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called [[rakat]] that include [[Ruku|bowing]] and [[Sujud|prostrating]] to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in [[Qibla|the direction]] of the [[Kaaba]]. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine ''[[wudu]]'' ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ''[[ghusl]]'' full body ritual wash.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=18, 19}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hedayetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Momen|1987|p=178}}</ref>

A [[mosque]] is a [[places of worship|place of worship]] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name ''masjid''. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social centre for the [[ummah|Muslim community]]. For example, the [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Masjid an-Nabawi]] ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, [[Saudi Arabia]], used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mattson |first=Ingrid |year=2006 |title=Women, Islam, and Mosques |pages=615–629 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America |series=Volume 2, Part VII. Islam |editor1=R. S. Keller |name-list-style=and |editor2=R. R. Ruether |place=Bloomington and Indianapolis |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-34687-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615 |access-date=2 October 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Minaret]]s are towers used to call the [[adhan]], a vocal call to signal the prayer time.<ref>Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, [[John Burton-Page|J. Burton-Page]], et al. 2010. "{{Doi-inline|10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_COM_0694|Masd̲j̲id}}." ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Leiden: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |title=Mosque |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928065350/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Almsgiving ===
{{Main|Zakat}}

{{See also|Sadaqah}}
[[File:Slot at the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II 1.jpg|thumb|A slot for giving zakat at the [[Zawiya of Moulay Idris II]] in [[Fez, Morocco]]]]
[[Zakat]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{langx|ar|زكاة|translit=zakāh|label=none}}), also spelled ''Zakāt'' or ''Zakah'', is a type of [[almsgiving]] characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<ref>Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in ''Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy''.</ref> of [[Financial capital|accumulated wealth]] by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in [[bonded labour|debt]], or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of [[welfare spending|welfare]] in Muslim societies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ariff |first=Mohamed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&pg=PA55 |title=The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3016-07-1 |pages=55– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&&pg=PA55 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=109–110}}: This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.</ref> and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon| isbn = 9780415297967| title =Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present.| location = United Kingdom| year = 2003| last=Ridgeon| first=Lloyd| url = | page = 258|quote=Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.}}</ref> The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 June 2012 |title=A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world |work=[[The New Humanitarian]] |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |access-date=27 August 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114014900/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sadaqah]], as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Abdul Aziz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |title=Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-77011-8 |page=145 |display-authors=etal |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023121/https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/72 72]}} A [[waqf]] is a perpetual [[charitable trust]], which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=A. |title=Equity and Trusts |year=2003 |edition=3rd |page=32 |location=London |publisher=Cavendish Publishing |isbn=1-85941-729-9}}</ref>

=== Fasting ===
[[File:Iftar for Ramadhan.jpg|thumb|A fast-breaking feast, known as ''[[Iftar]]'', is served traditionally with [[date (fruits)|dates]].]]
{{Main|Fasting in Islam}}

{{See also|Fasting during Ramadan}}
In Islam, fasting ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{langx|ar|صوم|translit=ṣawm|label=none}}) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as [[Smoking in Islam|smoking]], and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of [[Ramadan]], it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ramadan |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |access-date=2023-08-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009215438/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |url-status=live }}</ref> The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the [[Day of Arafah]], when fasting is optional.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Tughra Books | isbn = 9781597846110| title = Fasting In Islam And The Month Of Ramadan| location = United States| year =2006 | last=Ramadanali| url = |page=51
| quote = }}</ref>

=== Pilgrimage ===
{{Main|Hajj|Umrah}}

{{See also|Holiest sites in Islam}}
[[File:A packed house - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|right|Pilgrims at the [[Great Mosque of Mecca]] during the [[Hajj]] season]]

The Islamic [[pilgrimage]], called the {{transliteration|ar|ALA|ḥajj}} ({{langx|ar|حج|link=no}}), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]]. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Naik |first=Dr Zakir |author-link=Zakir Naik |date=7 January 2025 |title=What Are the Pillars of Islam? |url=https://islampidia.org/en/what-are-the-pillars-of-islam/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251115054332/https://islampidia.org/en/what-are-the-pillars-of-islam/ |archive-date=2025-11-15 |access-date=2025-11-15 |website=Islampidia |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Five Pillars of Islam |url=https://localhost:5000/learn/educators/curriculum-resources/art-of-the-islamic-world/unit-one/the-five-pillars-of-islam |access-date=2025-11-15 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url-status=dead}}</ref> In [[Mecca]], pilgrims walk seven times around the [[Kaaba]], which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount [[Safa and Marwa]], recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, [[Hagar]], who was looking for water for her baby [[Ishmael in Islam|Ishmael]] in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>{{harvp|Goldschmidt|Davidson|2005|p=48}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Farah|1994|pp=145–147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hajj |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of [[Mount Arafat]] as well as symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4008-2548-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19 |page=20 |publisher=Princeton University Press |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023112/https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called [[Ihram clothing|ihram]], intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=Vincent J. |title=Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5LNUS0ciAAC&pg=PA29 |access-date=26 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-98733-6 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA207 207]}}</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, [[Umrah]], is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are [[Medina]], where Muhammad died, as well as [[Jerusalem]], a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of [[Al-Aqsa]], which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|title=The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades|publisher=Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University|year=1986|isbn=0918720583|editor1=Goss, V. P.|volume=21|page=208|editor2=Bornstein, C. V.|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023032/https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[[Yaroslav Trofimov|Trofimov, Yaroslav]]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. [[Knopf]]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref>

=== Other acts of worship ===
{{See also|Quran#Recitation|Dua|Dhikr}}
[[File:Men reading the Koran in Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria.jpg|thumb|Muslim men reading the Quran in the [[Umayyad Mosque]] of [[Damascus]]]]
[[File:Live recitation of Surah Yusuf, verses 1 - 22 in Hafs an Asim.webm|thumb|left|350x350px|A young man reciting the Qur'an in the [[Islam in the United States|United States]].]]
{{Listen
|filename=112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg
|title=''Al-Ikhlas''
|pos=right
|description= ''[[Al-Ikhlas|Sincerity]]'' is the Quran's [[List of surahs in the Quran|112{{sup|th}}]] [[surah|chapter]] as recited by [[Imam]] [[Mishary Rashid Alafasy]]
|format=[[Ogg]]
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Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. [[Tajwid]] refers to the set of rules for the proper [[elocution]] of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = | isbn = | title = Foundation of Tajweed| location = | year = 2013|edition=2| last=Aboo Yahyaa| url = | page = 1
| quote = }}</ref> Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/42 42–43]}} One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=70}} 70]}}

Supplication to God, called in Arabic {{Transliteration|ar|DIN|duʿāʾ}} ({{langx|ar|دعاء}} {{IPA|ar|dʊˈʕæːʔ|IPA}}) has its own etiquette such as [[Raising hands in dua|raising hands]] as if begging.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Brill| isbn = 9789004335523| title = The Quṣṣāṣ of Early Islam| location = Netherlands| year = 2016| last=Armstrong| first=Lyall| url = | page = 184| quote = }}</ref>

Remembrance of God ({{langx|ar|ذكر|translit=Dhikr'|label=none}}) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring [[Alhamdulillah|praise be due to God]] ({{langx|ar|الحمد لله|translit=al-Ḥamdu lillāh|label=none}}) during prayer or when feeling thankful, [[Tasbih]], declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying '[[Basmala|in the name of God]]' ({{lang|ar|بسملة}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|basmalah}}) before starting an act such as eating.<ref>{{Cite web|title=alhamdulillah |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227042540/https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 27, 2020|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Lexico}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Islam}}

{{For timeline|Timeline of the history of Islam}}
{{See also|List of Muslim empires and dynasties}}
{{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|900px|align-cap=center|A 2004 panoramic view of [[Al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] region, present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]. It is considered the second most sacred mosque in Islam}}

=== Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632) ===
{{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}}

{{for timeline|Timeline of early Islamic history}}
{{Further|Muhammad in Mecca|Early social changes under Islam|First Islamic state}}
[[File:Hira_Cave.jpg|thumb|[[Jabal al-Nour|Cave of Hira]]]]
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in [[Mecca]] in [[570]] [[Common Era|CE]] and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "[[Amin (name)|trusted one]]" ({{langx|ar|الامين}}) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]].{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=6}} In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the [[Cave of Hira]] in the mountain [[Jabal al-Nour]], near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have [[Muhammad's first revelation|received the first revelation]] of the [[Quran]] from the angel [[Gabriel]].<ref name="610CE" /> The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "[[Night of Power]]" (''Laylat al-Qadr'') and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or [[seal of the prophets]] sent to mankind.<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5"/><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9"/><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref>

[[File:Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg|thumb|"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the ''[[Siyer-i Nebi]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ottomans : religious painting |url=http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/ottoman33.html |access-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> Muhammad is shown with veiled face, {{Circa|1595}}.]]
During this time, [[Muhammad in Mecca|while in Mecca, Muhammad]] preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon [[Arab polytheism|polytheism]] and worship one God. Many [[Early Muslims|early converts to Islam]] were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first [[muezzin]] [[Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi]].<ref>Rabah, Bilal B. ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]].''</ref> The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was [[Early social changes under Islam|destabilizing their social order]] by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323 |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024048/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=36}}</ref>

After 12 years of the [[persecution of Muslims by the Meccans]], Muhammad and his [[Sahaba|companions]] performed the ''[[Hegira|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). He established the [[first Islamic state]] there with the Medinan converts (the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (the ''[[Muhajirun]]''). The [[Constitution of Medina]] was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.{{sfnp|Serjeant|1978|p=4}} Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the [[Battle of Uhud]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Peter Crawford |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |page=83 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |isbn=9781473828650 |date=2013-07-16 |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |url-status=live }}.</ref> before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the [[Battle of the Trench]] (March–April 627). In 628, the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.<ref>{{harvp|Peters|2003|pp=78–79, 194}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a single religious [[polity]].<ref name="610CE" />

=== Early Islamic period (632–750) ===
{{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Early Muslim conquests}}
{{See also|Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun empire-slide.gif|thumb|right|Expansion of [[Rashidun Caliphate]]]]
[[File:16-04-04-Felsendom-Tempelberg-Jerusalem-RalfR-WAT 6385.jpg|thumb|[[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]] built by caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]]; completed at the end of the [[Second Fitna]]]]
Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called [[Caliph]]s – [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]], [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and sometimes [[Hasan ibn Ali]]<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Melchert| first1 = Christopher| date = 2020| contribution = The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth| editor1-last = al-Sarhan| editor1-first = Saud| title = Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought| location = London and New York| publisher = [[I.B. Tauris]]| isbn = 978-1-83860-765-4| pages = 70–71| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63| access-date = 17 February 2022| archive-date = 28 December 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false| url-status = live}}</ref> – are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]").{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=40}} Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the [[Ridda wars]].<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=57}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hourani|2002|p=22}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Madelung|1996|p=43}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ṭabāṭabāʼī|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their {{ambiguous|date=April 2025}} lands,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}} resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] empires.<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=74}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012">{{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=J. Kuiper |first=Matthew |title=Da'wa: A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781351510721 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira M. |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 |pages=60–61 |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus}}</ref> Uthman [[election of Uthman|was elected in 644]] and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the [[First Fitna|First Civil War]], Muhammad's widow, [[Aisha]], raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the [[Battle of the Camel]]. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, [[Mu'awiya]], who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the [[Battle of Siffin]]. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the [[Kharijites]], an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the [[Battle of Nahrawan]] but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty|peace treaty]] to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.{{sfnp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=67–72}} Mu'awiya began the [[Umayyad dynasty]] with the appointment of his son [[Yazid I]] as successor, sparking the [[Second Fitna|Second Civil War]]. During the [[Battle of Karbala]], [[Husayn ibn Ali]] was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been [[Ashura|annually commemorated]] by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by [[Ibn al-Zubayr]] and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the [[Siege of Mecca (692)|siege of Mecca]]. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the [[Sunni]]-[[Shia]] schism,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=3 January 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=4 January 2016 |archive-date=11 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511081444/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |url-status=live }}</ref> with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the [[ahl al-bayt]].{{sfnp|Waines|2003|p=46}}
Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] set up the committee, [[The Seven Fuqaha of Medina]],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> and [[Malik ibn Anas]] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the ''[[Muwatta Imam Malik|Muwatta]]'', as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |publisher=King Abdulaziz Public Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023959/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |pages=207– |access-date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024105/https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=[[Moshe Sharon]] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024050/https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Kharijites]] believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as [[ISIS]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mamouri|first=Ali|date=8 January 2015|title=Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?|work=Al-monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306213145/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Murji'ah]] taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}}

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the [[Maghreb]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]] and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=45}} Since the [[jizya]] tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad Ibn Jabir|last1=Al-Biladhuri |first2=Philip|last2=Hitti|title=Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan|page=219 |publisher=AMS Press |year=1969}}</ref> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Kharijites led the [[Berber Revolt]], leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the [[Abbasid Revolution]], non-Arab converts (''[[mawali]]''), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.<ref name=":1">{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}

=== Classical era (750–1258) ===
{{Further|Hadith studies|Islamic philosophy}}
{{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Turco-Persian tradition}}

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]] and [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj]] compiled the major [[Six major Hadith collections|Sunni hadith collections]] while scholars like [[Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni|Al-Kulayni]] and [[Ibn Babawayh]] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of [[Abū Ḥanīfa]], [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], Malik ibn Anas and [[al-Shafi'i]]. In contrast, the teachings of [[Ja'far al-Sadiq]] formed the [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]]. In the 9th century, [[Al-Tabari]] completed the first commentary of the Quran, the ''[[Tafsir al-Tabari]]'', which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as [[Hasan al-Basri]] inspired a movement that would evolve into ''tasawwuf'' or [[Sufism]].<ref name=EB-Sufism />{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}}

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the [[Iblis|devil]].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}}{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as [[Muʿtazila]], who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by [[Wasil ibn Ata]].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=50}} Caliph [[Mamun al Rashid]] made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=88}} Caliph [[Al-Mu'tasim]] carried out [[Mihna|inquisition]]s, with the traditionalist [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was [[Quranic createdness|created rather than being eternal]], which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |location=London |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |page=110}}</ref> However, other [[Schools of Islamic theology|schools]] of [[Kalam|speculative theology]] – [[Maturidi|Māturīdism]] founded by [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi]] and [[Ash'ari]] founded by [[Al-Ash'ari]] – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as [[Al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later [[scholasticism]] within [[Christianity in Europe]] and [[Maimonides]]' work within Judaism, while others like [[Al-Ghazali]] argued against such [[syncretism]] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=126–127}}</ref>
[[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|thumb|The eye, according to [[Hunain ibn Ishaq]] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]]
This era is sometimes called the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]".<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=80, 92, 105}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=661–663}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{harvp|Lewis|1993|p=84}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012"/> Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including [[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world|medicine]], [[Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world|mathematics]], [[Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|astronomy]], and [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|agriculture]] as well as [[Physics in the medieval Islamic world|physics]], [[History of Islamic economics|economics]], [[List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|engineering]] and [[Ibn al-Haytham|optics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century]." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: [[Ibn Khaldun International Institute of Advanced Research|International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization]]. Archived from the [http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html original] on 2 April 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|title=Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523192533/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The greatest scientific advances from the Muslim world|website=[[TheGuardian.com]]|date=February 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=13 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213154451/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Avicenna]] was a pioneer in [[Medical research|experimental medicine]],<ref>Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref><ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> and his ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and [[Europe]] for centuries. [[Rhazes]] was the first to identify the diseases [[smallpox]] and [[measles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|title=Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) (c. 865-925)|publisher=sciencemuseum.org.uk|access-date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506072259/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|archive-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Public hospital]]s of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923024727/https://zenodo.org/record/29439/files/6.1From_Jamiah_to_University.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> [[Ibn al-Haytham]] is regarded as the father of the modern [[scientific method]] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in [[optics]].<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426041228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008 |archive-date=17 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717022851/http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In engineering, the [[Banū Mūsā]] brothers' [[Automaton|automatic]] [[flute]] player is considered to have been the first [[Program (machine)|programmable machine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |date=May 2001 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 }}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], the concept of the [[algorithm]] is named after [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]], who is considered a founder of [[algebra]], which is named after his book [[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|''al-jabr'']], while others developed the concept of a [[function (mathematics)|function]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Victor J. |last2=Barton |first2=Bill |title=Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching |journal=Educational Studies in Mathematics |date=18 September 2007 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=185–201 |doi=10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7 |s2cid=120363574 }}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref>{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}</ref> [[Guinness World Records]] recognizes the [[University of Al Karaouine]], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy/page/242 242] |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> Many non-Muslims, such as [[Christians]], [[Jews]] and [[Sabians]],<ref name="Brague 2009"/> [[Christian influences on the Islamic world|contributed to the Islamic civilization]] in various fields,<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, [http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> and the institution known as the [[House of Wisdom]] employed [[List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world|Christian]] and [[List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars|Persian scholars]] to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<ref>Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304 "Medieval Islamic Civilization". Vol. 1 Index A–K] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 December 2023 }}. 2006, p. 304.</ref><ref name="Brague 2009">{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam|first=Rémi |last=Brague|year= 2009| isbn=9780226070803| page =164|publisher=University of Chicago Press|quote=Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Almost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.}}</ref><ref>[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: [[New York University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref>

Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the [[Tulunid]]s in 868 in Egypt<ref>{{cite book|last=Holt|first=Peter Malcolm|author-link=Peter Holt (historian)|title=The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=978-0-582-36931-3|page=6|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid dynasty]] in 977 in Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources |editor-first1=Scott Cameron |editor-last1=Levi |editor-first2=Ron |editor-last2=Sela |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |page=83}}</ref> In this fragmentation came the [[Shi'a Century]], roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the [[millennialist]] [[Isma'ili]] Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the [[Fatimid dynasty]], took control of North Africa in the 10th century<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit" Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> and another Isma'ili group, the [[Qarmatians]], sacked Mecca and stole the [[Black Stone]], a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |access-date=18 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506004706/https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |url-status=live }}</ref> Yet another Isma'ili group, the [[Buyid dynasty]], conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to [[Sunni Revival|reassert Sunni Islam]] by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as [[Nezamiyeh]], which are associated with Al-Ghazali and [[Saadi Shirazi]].<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' [[Walter de Gruyter]] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref>

The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting [[Volga Bulgaria]] to Islam. The [[Delhi Sultanate]] reached deep into the [[Indian subcontinent]] and many converted to Islam,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=227–228}} in particular [[Dalit|low-caste Hindu]]s whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?|publisher=BBCnews|date=10 May 2016|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|url-status=live}}</ref> Trade brought many [[Islam in China|Muslims to China]], where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the [[Song dynasty]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122142756/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslims were recruited as a [[Semu|governing minority class]] in the [[Yuan dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipman|first=Jonathan Newman|title=Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China|location=Seattle, WA|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|page=33}}</ref>

=== Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century) ===
{{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ghazan Khan]], 7{{sup|th}} [[Ilkhanate]] ruler of the [[Mongol Empire]], converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction]]
Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=125–258}} Islam spread into new areas<ref>{{cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103220022/http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.

Under the [[Ottoman Empire]], Islam spread to [[Southeast Europe]].<ref>{{cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of [[syncretism]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=[[Temple University Press]] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> Muslim Turks incorporated elements of [[Tengrism|Turkish Shamanism beliefs]] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=20–22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} [[Islam during the Ming dynasty|Muslims in Ming Dynasty China]] who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Farmer|editor1-first=Edward L.|title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule|date=1995|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004103910|page=82|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82|access-date=19 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024330/https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> by adopting Chinese names and [[Chinese culture|culture]] while [[Nanjing]] became an important centre of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill/page/n62 37] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol destruction]] of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> The Muslim Mongol Khanates in [[Ilkhanate|Iran]] and [[Chagatai Khanate|Central Asia]] benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under [[Pax Mongolica|Mongol rule]] and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the [[Timurid Renaissance]] under the [[Timurid dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |s2cid=162411014 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813204329/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (1201–1274) proposed the [[Tusi couple|mathematical model]] that was later argued to be adopted by [[Copernicus]] unrevised in his [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model,<ref>{{cite web|date=1999|title=Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|publisher=University of St Andrews|url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir/|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006055638/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī]]'s estimate of [[pi]] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103227/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around [[gunpowder empires]], these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliphate]] was claimed by the [[Ottoman dynasty]] of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as [[Selim I]] became the [[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques|ruler of Mecca and Medina]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226173808/https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Shia [[Safavid dynasty]] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> In South Asia, [[Babur]] founded the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{citation|last=Gilbert|first=Marc Jason|title=South Asia in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-066137-3|pages=75|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915/https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}</ref>

The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A [[symbiosis]] between [[list of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rulers]] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The [[Mevlevi Order]] and the [[Bektashis]] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as [[heterodox]] and [[syncretic]] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |page=15 |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024414/https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism#v=snippet&q=ottomans%20sufism&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The often forceful [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|Safavid conversion of Iran]] to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the [[Twelver|Twelver sect]] within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|title=CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India|publisher=Iranica Online|language=English|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Nader Shah]], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1–4 |date=1994 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701825 |jstor=4310891}}</ref> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=29 March 2006 |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225103212/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah%20 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Modern era (18th–20th centuries) ===
[[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abdülmecid II]], the last Caliph from the [[Ottoman dynasty]].]]

Earlier in the 14th century, [[Ibn Taymiyya]] promoted a [[puritan]]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of [[itjihad]] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024415/https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 18th century in Arabia, [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab|Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab]], influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and [[Ibn al-Qayyim]], founded a movement called [[Wahhabi]] to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' [[Infobase Publishing]] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later [[bidah|innovations]] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /><ref name="Musa-2022">{{Cite thesis |title=The Emergence of a Scholar from a Garrison Society: A contextual analysis of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's doctrine in the light of the Qur'ān and Hadīth |url=https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |publisher=University of Wales Trinity Saint David |date=2022-08-23 |degree=masters |language=en |first=Shahajada Md |last=Musa |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502100026/https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|tombs of Muhammad and his companions]] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=[[Libya Herald]] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172759/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}} He formed an alliance with the [[House of Saud|Saud family]], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' [[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> [[Ma Wanfu]] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as [[Sailaifengye]] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M.|last=Rubin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79|page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the [[Senusiyya]] and [[Muhammad Ahmad]] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}}{{Page needed|date=June 2025}} In India, [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi]] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the [[Deobandi]] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the [[Barelwi]] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular [[Sufism]] and reforming its practices.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131 |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131– |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=23 July 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |via=Cambridge Core |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The [[Muslim world]] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the [[Reconquista]] succeeded in ending the [[Taifa|Muslim presence in Iberia]]. By the 19th century, the British [[Company rule in India|East India Company]] had formally annexed the [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to [[Imperialism|Western Imperialism]], many intellectuals sought to [[Islamic revival|reform Islam]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> [[Islamic modernism]], initially labelled by Western scholars as [[Salafi movement|''Salafiyya'']], embraced modern values and institutions such as [[Islam and democracy|democracy while being scripture oriented]]. Notable forerunners in the movement include [[Muhammad Abduh|Muhammad 'Abduh]] and [[Jamal al-Din al-Afghani]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref> [[Abul A'la Maududi]] helped influence modern [[political Islam]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=[[Economist Magazine]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032602/http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Wilfred Cantwell |title=Islam in Modern History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1957 |isbn=0-691-03030-8 |page=233 |author-link=Wilfred Cantwell Smith}}</ref> Similar to contemporary [[Civil code|codification]], sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's [[Mecelle]] code.<ref name=Oxfordref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Mecelle |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817003534/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire dissolved]] after [[World War I]], the [[Ottoman Caliphate]] [[Abolition of the Caliphate|was abolished in 1924]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> and the subsequent [[Sharifian Caliphate]] fell quickly,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title="مملكة الحجاز".. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bani Issa |first=Mohammad Saleh |date=2023-11-01 |title=Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study) |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |article-number=e20993 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993 |issn=2405-8440 |doi-access=free|pmid=37928029 |pmc=10623165 |bibcode=2023Heliy...920993B }}</ref><ref name="والخلفاء-2023">{{Cite book |last=والخلفاء |first=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |title=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء |date=2023-03-31 |publisher=Austin Macauley Publishers |isbn=978-1-3984-9251-6 |language=en |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> thus leaving Islam without a [[Caliphate|Caliph]].<ref name="والخلفاء-2023" /> [[Pan-Islam]]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as [[pan-Arabism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doran |first=Michael |title=Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-512361-6 |series=Studies in Middle Eastern history |location=New York Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Yaʿaqov M. |title=The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization |date=1994 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-827709-5 |edition=[Rev. and updated] paperback (with additions and corr.) |location=Oxford}}</ref> The [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim-majority countries]], was established in 1969 after the burning of the [[Qibli Mosque|Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=28 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628190335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.{{sfnp|Haddad|Smith|2002|p=271}} Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the [[Islam in Latin America|Muslim population in Latin America]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zabel|first=Darcy|title=Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2006|isbn=9780820481111|location=Austria|page=5}}</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011">{{Cite report |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=722}}</ref>

=== Contemporary era (20th century–present) ===
[[File:13. Session of the Islamic Summit Conference.jpg|thumb|right|Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the [[Islamic Summit Conference]] in Istanbul, Turkey|upright=1.35]]
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which performed well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in South Asia and the [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In [[Iran]], [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] monarchy with an [[Islamic state]]. Others such as [[Rashid Rida|Sayyid Rashid Rida]] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|page=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations."}}</ref> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, US|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> The group [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were [[political quietism in Islam|quietist]], others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |title=Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |url-status=live }}</ref>

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out [[1997 Turkish military memorandum|coups]] to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2011 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularism |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/international/2007/06/28/islams-authority-deficit |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |url-status=live }}</ref> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized [[Al-Azhar University]], previously an independent voice checking state power.<ref>{{cite book| title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought| last1 = Bowering | first1 = Gerhard | last2=Mirza |first2=Mahan |last3=Crone |first3=Patricia| year = 2013 | publisher = Princeton University Press | page=59| isbn = 9780691134840
}}</ref> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27256187 |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032423/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thames |first1=Knox |title=Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |work=[[Foreign Policy Magazine]] |date=6 January 2021 |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211114303/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the [[Khmer Rouge]], who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=10 October 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130924035829/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Chinese Communist Party]] in [[Xinjiang internment camps|Xinjiang]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Beydoun |first1=Khaled A. |title=For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by nationalist forces such as during the [[Bosnian genocide]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mojzes |first=Paul |title=Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4422-0663-2|page=178}}</ref> Myanmar military's [[Tatmadaw]] targeting of [[Rohingya people|Rohingya Muslims]] has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<ref>{{cite news |author=Oliver Holmes |date=19 December 2016 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity' |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106013700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |archive-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 December 2016|title=Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty|website=Al Jazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|access-date=2023-02-21|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922232529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|url-status=live}}</ref> while the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]] Fact-Finding Mission identified [[Rohingya genocide|genocide]], ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|title=Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar |date=27 August 2018|website=ohchr.org|access-date=14 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019232309/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the [[hijab]] has grown more common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503150409/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=41}} Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "[[televangelist]]" preachers, such as [[Amr Khaled]], who compete with the traditional [[ulema]] in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|title=Islamic televangelist; holy smoke|agency=[[The Economist]]|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2011/10/29/holy-smoke|access-date=5 February 2022|archive-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904164441/http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=263}} More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> notably involve [[Liberal Muslims]] who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=118–119, 179}}{{sfnp|Rippin|2001|p=288}} an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Adams, Charles J.|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|title=Voices of Resurgent Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen|url-access=registration|date=1983|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen/page/113 113–4] |chapter=Maududi and the Islamic State|quote=[Maududi believed that] when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Meisami|first=Sayeh|date=2013|title='Abdolkarim Soroush |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-12 |website=Oxford Bibliographies|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105164410/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml |archive-date=2013-11-05 }}</ref> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial [[Ruling class|ruling elites]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam|author=Abdullah Saeed|encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism|editor1=Phil Zuckerman|editor2=John R. Shook |url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|year=2017|page=188 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12|isbn=978-0-19-998845-7|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903020955/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to [[Antireligion|anti-religion]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nader Hashemi|title=Secularism|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=6 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206153300/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Muslim world|Ummah}}
{{See also|Islam by country|Muslim population growth}}
[[File:2020+ Proportion of people in world religions.svg |thumb|Global percentage of adherents by religion. Muslims comprise about 25.6% of the world's population, a slightly smaller percentage than Christians.<ref name=Pew_20250609>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Stonawski |first2=Marcin |last3=Tong |first3=Yunping |last4=Kramer |first4=Stephanie |last5=Shi |first5=Anne |last6=Fahmy |first6=Dalia |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260222070137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |archive-date=22 February 2026 |date=9 June 2025 |url-status=live |quote=Source: Pew Research Center estimates based on more than 2,700 censuses and surveys. "How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"}}</ref>]]
[[File:Islam percent population in each nation World Map Muslim data by Pew Research.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|World percentage of Muslims by country (2010)<ref name="pew2015" />{{rp|234–245}}]]
As of 2020, about 25.6% of the global population, or about 2 billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="pew2010–2020" /><ref name="pewresearch.orgReligion">{{Cite web |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |access-date=2024-03-09 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=21 December 2022 |archive-date=28 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128120036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="www.pewresearch.org-2022">{{Cite web |date=21 December 2022 |title=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205195540/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/ |archive-date=5 February 2023 |access-date=27 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|date=27 January 2011|access-date=26 October 2022|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930233955/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | title=Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world | date=9 August 2017 | access-date=19 December 2022 | archive-date=8 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108121140/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. [2015] 6 April 2017. "[https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |date=14 May 2019 }}" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<ref>David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.</ref> in 1990 it was 19.9%<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011" /> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<ref name=pew2015 />{{rp|8}} A Pew study from 2020 found that the global Muslim population was the fastest-growing religious group over the decade, mainly because Muslims tend to be younger on average and have higher birth rates—two key factors driving natural population growth.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Conrad Hackett|author2=Marcin Stonawski|author3=Yunping Tong|author4=Stephanie Kramer|author5=Anne Shi|author6=Dalia Fahmy |date=2025-06-09 |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|access-date=2025-06-10 |website=Pew Research Center |page=9|quote=Increases in the global Muslim population are largely due to Muslims having a relatively young age structure and high fertility rate, two characteristics that result in natural population growth.}}</ref>{{rp|9}} According to the 2020 population estimate, 65% of the Muslim population is concentrated in ten countries, with the largest populations residing in [[Indonesia]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nigeria]], [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]], [[Sudan]], and [[Algeria]], in descending order. Indonesia is home to over 230,000,000 Muslims, Pakistan over 220,000,000, India over 210,000,000, Bangladesh over 150,000,000, Nigeria over 110,000,000, Egypt over 100,000,000, Iran and Turkey each over 80,000,000, and Sudan and Algeria each over 40,000,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/muslim-population-change/|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020: 3. Muslim population change|date=9 June 2025|access-date=12 February 2026|website=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref>

Pew Research estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}}<ref name="Shia2">See

* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Shiʿi |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii |access-date=2019-09-30 |date=2019-10-04 |quote=In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world’s 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi. }}
* {{Cite news |date=2011-12-06 |title=Sunnis and Shia: Islam's ancient schism |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-16047709 |access-date=2025-11-30 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB |quote=Shia constitute about 10% of all Muslims, and globally their population is estimated at between 154 and 200 million. }}
* {{Cite news |title=Understanding the branches of Islam: Shia Islam |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2016)573914 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901052114/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2016)573914 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=2025-11-30 |work=[[European Parliament]] |language=en |quote=Shiite Muslims – estimated to make up 10-13% of the global Muslim population |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |date=7 October 2009 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |work=[[Pew Research Center]] |quote=The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10–13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10–15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population. }}
* {{cite web |title=Shia |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070956/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |archive-date=15 December 2012 |access-date=5 December 2011 |publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs |quote=Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide... }}</ref><ref name="Sunni2">* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761479260 |title=Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures |publisher=Marshall Cavendish Reference |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7614-7926-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761479260/page/130 130] |quote=Within the Muslim community, the percentage of Sunnis is generally thought to be between 85 percent, with the Shia accounting for 15.5 percent and with the wahabis controlling 5 percent, although some sources estimate their numbers at 20 percent. A common compromise figure ranks Sunnis at 90 percent and Shias at 10 percent. |access-date=2019-11-30 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite web |date=2009-10-07 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |access-date=2019-11-30 |work=[[Pew Research Center]] |quote=Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims.}}
* {{cite news |date=2011-12-06 |title=Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16047709 |access-date=2019-11-30 |work=BBC News |quote=The great majority of the world's more than 1.5 billion Muslims are Sunnis – estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%.}}
* {{cite book |author=Frederick Denny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3 |title=Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-019980647-8 |page=3 |quote=Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community.}}
* {{cite web |title=Sunni |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012090751/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=12 October 2014 |access-date=2019-11-30 |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85 percent of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.}}
* {{cite news |date=2007-09-24 |title=Tension between Sunnis, Shiites emerging in USA |url=http://usatoday.com/news/religion/2007-09-24-muslim-tension_N.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713014245/http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2007-09-24-muslim-tension_N.htm |archive-date=13 July 2012 |access-date=2019-11-30 |publisher=[[USA Today]] |quote=Among the world's estimated 1.4 billion Muslims, about 85% are Sunni and about 15% are Shiite.}}
* {{cite book |author=Riaz Hassan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4Ts0GkJBKgC&pg=PA20 |title=Inside Muslim Minds |publisher=Melbourne University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780522854817 |page=20 |quote=Approximately 20 per cent of the world's Muslims belong to the Shi'ah sect; around 80 per cent are Sunni Muslims.}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=3w_ngX--ji4C&q=world+muslim+80%25+sunni&pg=PA103 Who Gets To Narrate the World] "The Sunnis (approximately 80%)"
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=vD2TJNc7NE4C&pg=PA265 A world theology] N. Ross Reat "80% being the Sunni"
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q78O1mjX2tMC&q=world+muslim+80%25+sunni&pg=PA32 Islam and the Kadiyani jama'at] "The Sunni segment, accounting for at least 80% of the worlds Muslim population"
* {{cite book |author=David Robertson |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmode0000robe |title=A Dictionary of Modern Politics |publisher=Europa Publications |year=2002 |isbn=1-85743-093-X |edition=Third |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmode0000robe/page/252 252] |quote=It is notable that while a large majority, probably 80%, of the world's Muslims are Sunni... |url-access=registration}}</ref> Approximately 49 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]],{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=11}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing]] Group |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu/page/n186 172] |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1}}</ref><ref>[[Pew Forum|The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life]]. December 2012. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |date=23 March 2018 }}." DC: Pew Research Center. [https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ Article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926222120/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |date=26 September 2018 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/3/7/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021 |website=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |publisher=[[Anadolu Agency|Anadolu News Agency]] |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024349/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/3/7/islam-in-russia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-date=14 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210257/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |url-status=live }}</ref> with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia]],<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "[https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ 10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207115222/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ |date=7 February 2017 }}" (projections table). [[Pew Research Center]].</ref> [[Islam in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Islam in India|India]], and [[Islam in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |archive-date=22 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122200555/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |url-status=live }} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, [[San Diego State University]] (2005).</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|pp=15, 17}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193] |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024331/https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Arab Muslims]] form the [[List of contemporary ethnic groups|largest ethnic group among Muslims]] in the world,<ref>Margaret Kleffner Nydell [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024737/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC |date=28 December 2023 }}, Intercultural Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1931930252}}, page xxiii, 14</ref> followed by [[Bengali Muslims|Bengalis]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Eaton|editor=Barbara D. Metcalf|title=Islam in South Asia in Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pR0LzVCpfw8C|date=8 September 2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8|page=275|chapter=Forest Clearing and the Growth of Islam in Bengal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |author1=Meghna Guhathakurta |author2=Willem van Schendel |page=50 |date=30 April 2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |access-date=7 November 2016 |isbn=978-0822353188 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707092408/https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabis]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten|year=2013|page=1|publisher=Aleph Book Company|location=New Delhi, India, Urbana, [[Illinois]]|isbn=978-93-83064-41-0}}.</ref> Most estimates indicate [[Islam in China|China]] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{cite web |work=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Explore All Countries – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |archive-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213122152/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |website=Archived Content |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710075050/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Islam in Europe]] is the second-largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010 |archive-date=29 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929213440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe|date=November 29, 2017|work=[[Pew Research Center]]|first=Conrad|last=Hackett|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=5 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105202657/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Conversion to Islam|Religious conversion]] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who [[convert to Islam|become Muslims through conversion]] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."<ref>{{Cite report |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |section=Conversion |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |section-url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211126/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from [[Sub Saharan Africa]] (2.9 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title=Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching, 2010–2050, p.43|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150429153811/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape|work=Pew Research Center|date=5 April 2017|access-date=17 December 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030628/https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a 2020 Pew study, about 1% of adults raised Muslim leave the faith, while an equal proportion —about 1%— convert to Islam from other religions, resulting in low levels of religious switching both into and out of Islam.<ref name="pew2029">{{Cite web |author1=Conrad Hackett|author2=Marcin Stonawski|author3=Yunping Tong|author4=Stephanie Kramer|author5=Anne Shi|author6=Dalia Fahmy |date=2025-06-09 |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|access-date=2025-06-10 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US|page=39|quote=Muslims and Hindus have been the least likely to gain or lose adherents from religious switching. About one in every 100 adults raised Muslim (or Hindu) has left their childhood religion, and a similar number from a different religious category have switched into Islam (or Hinduism).}}</ref> [[Ex-Muslims]] are more likely to convert to another religion than to become Irreligious.<ref name="pew2010–2020" />

According to a report by [[CNN]], "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".<ref>{{cite news|title=Fast-growing Islam winning converts in Western world|publisher=[[CNN]]|url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015114027/http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Islam in Britain|In Britain]], around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |title=British Muslims Monthly Survey for June 2000, Vol. VIII, No. 6 |at=Women convert |access-date=2020-09-28 |archive-date=2008-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214160750/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''The Huffington Post'', "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being [[Women in Islam|women]] and [[African-American Muslims|African-Americans]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-24|title=Conversion To Islam One Result Of Post-9/11 Curiosity|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|access-date=2020-11-26|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111201117/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author-first=Julie|author-last=Bindel|author-link=Julie Bindel|title=Why do Western Women Convert?|url=http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|access-date=8 May 2016|work=[[Standpoint (magazine)|Standpoint]]|date=26 April 2010|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102003/http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|url-status=live}}</ref>

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of [[Christianity]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lipka |first1=Michael |last2=Hackett |first2=Conrad |date=April 6, 2017 |title=Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pew2015" />{{rp|14}} It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high [[fertility rate]] of Muslims relative to other religious groups."<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. "[https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211090450/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |date=11 December 2020 }}." [[Pew Research Center]].[https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ Article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207093700/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ |date=7 December 2020 }}.</ref>{{rp|70}}

==Main branches or denominations==
{{Main|Islamic schools and branches#Main branches or denominations}}

{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}}

=== Sunni ===
{{Main|Sunni Islam}}

[[File:Sahih Al-Bukhari in English.png|thumb|right|The nine volumes of [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]], one of the [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six Sunni hadith books]]]]
Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni |title=Sunni |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430101807/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sunni Islam |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2014 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |access-date=10 January 2010 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005013247/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Denny, Frederick. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3 ''Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide'']. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community."</ref><ref name="pew2010–2020" /><ref>{{citation |title=Glossary of Islamic Terms |url=https://mpeb.ie/for-teachers/glossary-of-islamic-terms/ |access-date=17 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Russell M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_krEEAAAQBAJ&dq=islam+based+on+the+teachings+of+muhammad&pg=PA419 |title=Science in the Ancient World: From Antiquity through the Middle Ages |date=23 September 2021 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-4408-7353-9 |page=419 |language=en}}</ref> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa al-jama'at", which means "people of the [[Sunnah|sunna]] (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ahl as-Sunnah |encyclopedia=[[Islam Ansiklopedisi]] |publisher=Turkish Diyanet Foundation |location=Istanbul |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |last=Yavuz |first=Yusuf Şevki |date=1994 |volume=10 |pages=525–530 |lang=tr |access-date=28 December 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228114411/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |url-status=live }}</ref> Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Richard Thackrah |title=Dictionary of Terrorism |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135165956 |edition=2, revised |page=252}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation |date=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004172739 |editor1-last=Nasir |editor1-first=Jamal J. |edition=revised |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=George W. Braswell |title=What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims |date=2000 |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=978-0805418293 |edition=illustrated |page=62}}</ref> though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.<ref>An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining ''sunna'', especially the ''Sunna'' of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, ''mubtadi'', from ''bid'a'', the contrary of ''sunna'' and so 'innovation'."</ref> Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference [[Al-Kutub Al-Sittah|six major hadith works]] for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: [[Hanafi]], [[Hanbali]], [[Maliki]] or [[Shafi'i]].<ref name="Lexico">{{cite web |title=sharia |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164555/https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-date=22 January 2020 |website=Lexico |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|pp=275, 306}}</ref>

[[Traditionalist theology (Islam)|Traditionalist theology]] is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a [[Textualism|textualist]] understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called [[kalam]], in religious and ethical matters.<ref>Hadi Enayat ''Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies'' [[Springer Publishing]], 30 June 2017 {{ISBN|978-3-319-52611-9}} p.48</ref> [[Maturidism]], founded by [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi]] (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that ''good'' and ''evil'' can be understood by reason alone,<ref>Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio ''Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power'' [[Springer Publishing]] 2018 {{ISBN|978-3-319-97355-5}} p. 108</ref> but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. [[Ash'arism]], founded by [[Al-Ashʿarī]] (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.{{sfnp|Esposito|1999|p=280}}

[[Salafism]] is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a [[Salafi movement]], referred by outsiders as [[Wahhabism]], in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} page 8</ref> A similar movement called [[Ahl al-Hadith]] also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The ''[[Nur movement|Nurcu]]'' Sunni movement was initiated by [[Said Nursi]] (1877–1960);<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283">Svante E. Cornell ''Azerbaijan Since Independence'' [[M.E. Sharpe]] {{ISBN| 9780765630049}} p. 283</ref> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /><ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' [[Indiana University Press]] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 170</ref>

=== Shia ===
{{Main|Shia Islam}}

[[File:Nahj al-Balagha.jpg|thumb|[[Nahj al-balagha]], collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to [[Ali|Imam Ali]].]]
Shia Islam is the second-largest Muslim denomination.<ref>{{cite web |title=Field Listing :: Religions |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-date=6 July 2010 |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sunni |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=14 June 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.}}</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} Shias maintain that Muhammad's [[Succession to Muhammad|successor]] as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the [[Ahl al-Bayt]] and those leaders, referred to as [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imam]]s, have additional spiritual authority.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|title=Shiʿi|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=28 December 2021|archive-date=20 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720054917/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan]] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author1=Tayeb El-Hibri|author2=Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> Shias are guided by the [[Ja'fari school|Ja'fari school of jurisprudence]].<ref>{{Cite book |author1=John Corrigan|author2=Frederick Denny|author3=Martin S Jaffee|author4=Carlos Eire |year=2011 |title=Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions |publisher= Cambridge University Press |id=978-0205026340 }}</ref>

According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at [[Ghadir Khumm]] during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam |author-first=Maria Massi |author-last=Dakake |year=2007 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780791470336 |author-link=Maria Massi Dakake}}</ref> Muhammad appointed his cousin [[Ali]] as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his [[Wali]] (authority).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Veccia Vaglieri|first=L.|date=2012|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|section=G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm|publisher=Brill|access-date=July 14, 2023|isbn=9789004161214|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|pp=257–258}} Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and [[Imamate in Shia doctrine|Imam]] (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the [[Muslims]] because of some [[Companions of the Prophet|other companions]] who selected [[Abu Bakr|Abū Bakr]] as [[Caliphate|caliph]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |doi-access=free |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]] |eissn=1477-4585 |issn=0002-7189 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.}}</ref> Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before [[Death of Muhammad|his death]] and consider Abū Bakr to be the first [[Rashidun|rightful]] caliph after Muhammad.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]] |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |issn=0002-7189 |eissn=1477-4585 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |title=A History Of Shi'i Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104/mode/2up |website=Internet Archive |access-date=July 22, 2024 |date=2013}}</ref> citing [[Umar]]'s appointment by Abu Bakr,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lalani |first1=Arzina R. |title=Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir |date=2000 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=1850435928}}</ref> other historical evidence,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Amir-Moezzi |author-first=Mohammad Ali |title=Ghadīr Khumm |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Third |editor1-first=Kate |editor1-last=Fleet |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor2-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Denis |editor3-last=Matringe |editor4-first=John |editor4-last=Nawas |editor5-first=Devin J. |editor5-last=Stewart |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |year=2014 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |isbn=9789004269613 |author-link=Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and the [[Qur'an]]'s stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mavani|first=Hamid|url=https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/|title=Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415624404|url-access=registration}}</ref>

Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and [[Husayn ibn Ali|Husayn]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armajani |first=Jon |title=Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon |date=2020 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-7936-2136-8 |location=Lanham (Md.) |pages=11}}</ref> [[Twelvers]], the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in [[Twelve Imams]], the last of whom went into [[Occultation (Islam)|occultation]] to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the [[Hadith of the Twelve Successors]] which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kohlberg|first=Etan|title=From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-'ashariyya|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1976|volume=39|issue=3|pages=521–534|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00050989|s2cid=155070530|access-date=July 14, 2023|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Zaydism]] rejects infallibility of Imams and were sometimes regarded a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History |editor-first1=Spencer C. |editor-last1=Tucker |editor2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |page=917 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024726/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War |first=Frederic M. |last=Wehrey |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024742/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterson |first=Daniel |title=Zaydiyya |url=|journal=Islamic Studies |year=2011 |language=en |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0153 |issn=}}</ref> The [[Ismailism|Isma'ilis]] split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|author-link=Andrew J. Newman|title=Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-7833-4|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP18|page=2|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|archive-date=1 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

For Shias, the [[Imam Ali Shrine]] in Najaf, the [[Imam Husayn Shrine]] in Karbala, and the [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] in [[Qom]] are also among the [[Holiest sites in Islam|Islamic Holy sites]].<ref name="Sardeg2">{{cite web |last=Escobar |first=Pepe |date=May 24, 2002 |title=Knocking on heaven's door |url=http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020603155002/http://atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |archive-date=June 3, 2002 |access-date=2006-11-12 |work=[[Asia Times Online]] |quote=our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom. |department=Central Asia/Russia}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = center
| image1 = Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg
| width1 = 217
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Imam Ali Shrine]] in [[Najaf]], the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.
| image2 = حرم الامام الحسين.jpg
| width2 = 200
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[Imam Hussein Shrine]] in [[Karbala]], a holy site for Shia Muslims.
| width3 = 289
| alt3 =
| footer =
| image3 = ImamReza(A).jpg
| caption3 = [[Imam Reza shrine]], the world's largest mosque, in [[Mashhad]], [[Iran]]. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.
}}

=== Muhakkima ===
{{Main|Muhakkima|Ibadi Islam|Kharijites}}

[[Ibadism]] is the third-largest branch of Islam whose roots go back to the [[Kharijites|Kharijite]] secession from the fourth Caliph, Ali.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |entry=Ibadis |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |entry-url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e913 |editor=John L. Esposito |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820035842/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e913 |archive-date=2017-08-20 |quote=Ibadis [:] subsect of Khariji Islam founded in the eighth century. Has its strongest presence in [[Oman]], but is also found in North Africa and various communities on the [[Swahili Coast]].}}</ref> It is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in [[Oman]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Brenton Betts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15 |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |date=31 July 2013 |isbn=978-1-61234-522-2 |pages=14–15 |publisher=Potomac Books |access-date=7 January 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024743/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the Kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the [[Jami Sahih]] collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.<ref>{{Cite book|first= Valerie Jon|last= Hoffman|title= The Essentials of Ibadi Islam|location= [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]]|pages=3–4|publisher= [[Syracuse University Press]]|year= 2012|isbn= 9780815650843|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC}}</ref>
[[File:Islam branches and schools..png|centre|An overview of the major sects and ''madhahib'' of Islam]]

=== Other denominations ===

* [[Alevism]] is a [[Syncretism|syncretic]] and [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical ([[Batin (Islam)|bāṭenī]]) teachings of Ali and [[Haji Bektash Veli]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bektāšīya |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |first1=Hamid |last1=Algar |date=December 15, 1989 |access-date=13 February 2019 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910201955/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |url-status=live }}</ref> Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,<ref>Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' [[Edinburgh University Press]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> with possible syncretist origins in [[Tengrism|Shamanism]] and [[Animism]], alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref>[http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf ''John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130111738/http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf |date=30 November 2016 }}, PDF-Datei, See also [http://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm ''Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613045624/https://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm |date=13 June 2021 }}, consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref>
*[[Quranism]] is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the [[Quran]] and not the [[sunnah]] or [[Hadith]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x}}</ref> with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the [[five pillars of Islam]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |title=The Qur'anists |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |journal=Religion Compass |year=2010 |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171 |access-date=8 June 2021 |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128062123/https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |url-status=live }}</ref> The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like [[Syed Ahmad Khan]], Abdullah Chakralawi and [[Ghulam Ahmed Perwez]] in India questioning the hadith tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=1999-03-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68 |language=en}}</ref> In Egypt, [[Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi]] penned the article ''Islam is the Quran alone'' in the magazine ''[[Al-Manār (magazine)|Al-Manār]]'', arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref> A prominent late 20th century Quranist was [[Rashad Khalifa]], an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a [[numerology|numerological]] [[Quran code|code in the Quran]], and founded the Quranist organization [[United Submitters International]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1989 |title=Why the name change? |url=http://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |journal=Submission Perspective |volume=57 |page=1 |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731115713/https://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Mu'tazilism]] was an early Islamic theological school known for their use of [[rationalism]], particularly towards the two primary sources of Islam, the [[Qur'an]] and the [[hadith]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abd al-Jabbār |first=Al-Qāḍī |title=Kitab al-Mughni fi abwab al-tawhid wal-adl}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=al-Asadābādī |first=ʻAbd al-Jabbār ibn Aḥmad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PilAQAACAAJ |title=Sharḥ al-uṣūl al-khamsah |date=1965 |publisher=Maktabat wahbah |language=ar}}</ref> The school was founded on five main principles: the monotheism ([[tawhid]]), [[divine justice]], the certainty of divine promises and threats, an intermediate position regarding the status of great sinners, and the obligation to enjoin good and forbid evil.<ref name=":0" /> Unlike the Sunnis, Mu'tazilite rejected the traditional view that the Qur'an was the uncreated word of God, and instead held that the [[Quranic createdness|Qur'an was a created revelation]], to affirm the absolute oneness of God.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campanini |first=Massimo |date=2012 |title=The Mu'tazila in Islamic History and Thought |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00273.x |journal=Religion Compass |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=41–50 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00273.x |issn=1749-8171|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Emphasizing the use of reason, they argued that human [[free will]] allowed individuals to choose between good and evil, making them responsible for their actions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fakhry |first=Majid |title=A history of Islamic philosophy |date= |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-13220-6 |edition= |location=New York |pages=47}}</ref> Although the Mu'tazila's influence waned due to social and political pressure from orthodox Sunnis, their rationalist legacy remains important in [[Islamic modernity|Islamic intellectualism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Richard C. |title=Defenders of reason in Islam: Muʻtazilism from medieval school to modern symbol |last2=Woodward |first2=Mark R. |last3=Atmaja |first3=Dwi S. |date=1997 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-85168-147-1 |location=Oxford, England; Rockport, MA, USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vasalou |first=Sophia |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/VASMAA-2 |title=Moral Agents and Their Deserts: The Character of Mu'tazilite Ethics |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

=== Non-denominational Muslims ===
{{Main|Non-denominational Muslim}}

Non-denominational Muslims is an [[umbrella term]] that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific [[Islamic denomination]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |work=New Europe |location=Brussels |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |url-status=dead |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ|page=29}} |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7 |page=29 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Robert |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=akWUGyN7fwEC|page=55}} |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=55 |publisher=University Press of America |quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tatari |first=Eren |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ|page=111}} |title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets |date=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27226-2 |page=111 |publisher=BRILL |quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref> Pew Research reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in [[Kazakhstan]] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.<ref name="Pew" />

== Mysticism ==
{{Main|Sufism}}

{{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}
[[File:Mevlana Konya.jpg|thumb|The Whirling Dervishes, or [[Mevlevi Order]] by the tomb of Sufi-mystic [[Rumi]]]]
[[File:Sema ceremony many.jpg|thumb|[[Sufism]] in [[Konya]], [[Turkey]]]]
Sufism (Arabic: {{langx|ar|تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none}}), is a [[mystical]]-[[ascetic]] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct [[Divine presence|personal experience of God]]. Classical Sufi scholars defined ''tasawwuf'' as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=302}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Malik|Hinnells|2006|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|1998|p=145}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Trimingham|1998|p=1}}</ref> [[Ahmad ibn Ajiba]] defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first1=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |last2=Aresmouk |first2=Mohamed Fouad |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=Michael Abdurrahman |last4=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first4=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |title=The Book of ascension to the essential truths of Sufism: a lexicon of Sufic terminology = Miʿrāj al-tashawwuf ilā ḥaqāʾiq al-taṣawwuf |date=2011 |publisher=Fons Vitae |location=Louisville, KY |isbn=978-1891785849}}</ref> It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. [[Isma'ilism]], whose teachings are rooted in [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]<ref>Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191–206.</ref> as well as by the [[Illuminationism|Illuminationist]] and [[School of Isfahan|Isfahan]] schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>[[Mehdi Aminrazavi|Aminrazavi, Mehdi]]. [2009] 2016. "[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism/ Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy]." ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', edited by [[Edward N. Zalta|E. N. Zalta]]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> [[Hasan al-Basri]], the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as [[Mansur Al-Hallaj]] and [[Rumi|Jalaluddin Rumi]], emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=30 September 2007 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>

Sufis see ''tasawwuf'' as an inseparable part of Islam.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Traditional Sufis, such as [[Bayazid Bastami]], Jalaluddin Rumi, [[Haji Bektash Veli]], [[Junaid Baghdadi]], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr |access-date=17 January 2015 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr/page/192 192]|publisher=SUNY Press }}</ref>{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Historian [[Nile Green]] argued that Islam in the medieval period was more or less Sufism.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=24,77}} Followers of the Sunni [[Islamic revival|revivalist]] movement known as [[Salafism]] have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in [[Sufi–Salafi relations]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Cook |author-first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |date=May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |url=https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128012740/http://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2023}}</ref>

Sufi congregations form orders (''[[tariqa]]'') centred around a teacher (''[[wali]]'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa | Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name=EB-Sufism>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or [[Barelvi]] movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=1998 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=17 March 2020 |access-date=1 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|loc=[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101 "Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah"]}} – via Oxford Reference.</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<ref>{{cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=[[Journal of Southeast Asian Studies]] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709|s2cid=154870820 }}</ref> as well as in African countries like [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Senegal]], [[Chad]] and [[Niger]].<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|date=9 August 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|access-date=4 September 2013|website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Babou |first=Cheikh Anta |date=2007 |title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal |journal=[[International Journal of African Historical Studies]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=184–186}}</ref>

== Law and jurisprudence ==
{{Main|Sharia|Fiqh}}

{{See also|Logic in Islamic philosophy#Islamic law and theology}}
[[File:Madhhab Map3.png|thumb|Islamic [[madh'hab|schools of law]] in the [[Muslim world]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2025|reason=Our Fiqh map does need an update, for example Bahrain is mostly orange (representing Ja'fari) while its Monarchy is Maliki and a majority of its citizens Sunni. Would be very helpful to get an update to date SVG version of the map as there are some tiny island Indian Ocean countries who are not shown on the map}}]]
[[Shariah]] is the body of Islamic [[religious law]].<ref name="Lexico" />{{sfnp|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–112, 118}} The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the [[jurisprudence|theory of law]], called [[fiqh]].<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=96}}</ref><ref name="vikor">Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140604214623/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 Sharīʿah]." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', edited by [[Emad Shahin|E. Shahin]]. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. Archived from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20140604214623/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 original] on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> Conversely, [[bid'ah]] is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = A.C. Brown|first1 = Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown|title = Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World ''(Foundations of Islam)''|date = 2009|publisher = [[Oneworld Publications]]|isbn = 978-1851686636|page = 277}}</ref> Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or ''[[Usul al-fiqh]]'', have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a ''madhhab'' ({{langx|ar|مذهب}}). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called ''[[taqlid]]''. The term ''[[Salafi movement#Views on Taqlid (adherence to legal precedent)|ghayr muqallid]]'' refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<ref>Bharathi, K. S. 1998. ''Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers''. p. 38.</ref> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ''[[ijtihad]]''.{{sfnp|Weiss|2002|pp=3, 161}}<ref name="ODI">{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Islamic Law |work=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203033813/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2017 |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Those who interpret shariah are known as [[mufti]]s and their legal opinions are called [[fatwa]]s.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" />

The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=MOmaDq8HKCgC|page=2}} |title=Women in Muslim Family Law |last2=DeLong-Bas |first2=Natana J. |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8156-2908-5 |pages=2– |author-link=John Esposito |author-link2=Natana J. DeLong-Bas}} Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> A common third source is [[qiyas]] (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ''illah'', or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095957640|publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=1 October 2024 |location=Oxford |title=illah}}</ref> For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Fairak |first1= A. |title= Analogy (Islamic)|edition=2014|page=56|year=2014|publisher=Springer |location=Boston|isbn= 978-1-4614-6085-5|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last= Fairak |first= A. |year=2014 |title= Analogy (Islamic)|journal= Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion|volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref> The [[Zahiri school]] adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is [[ijma]], while [[ikhtilaf]] refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called [[ahkam]]: mandatory (''[[fard]]''), recommended (''[[mustahabb]]''), permitted (''[[mubah]]''), abhorred (''[[makruh]]''), and prohibited (''[[haram]]'').<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" />

In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<ref name="vikor" /> The [[Ottoman Empire]]'s 19th century [[Tanzimat]] reforms led to the [[Mecelle]] civil code and represented the first attempt to [[Codification (law)|codify]] sharia.<ref name=Oxfordref/> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in [[Status (law)|personal status]] (family) laws.<ref name="vikor" /> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer">Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20081121033722/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 Law. Modern Legal Reform]." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> The [[Islamic revival]] of the late 20th century brought along calls by [[Islamist]] movements for complete implementation of sharia.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer" /> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, [[freedom of thought]], and [[women's rights]] due to concerns including on [[Religious censorship#In Islam|censorship]] and [[Islam and violence|violence]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=An-Na'im |first=Abdullahi A. |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-411-0179-2 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=John |pages=337–359 |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |publisher=BRILL |editor-last2=van der Vyver |editor-first2=Johan D. |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC|page=337|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |year=2004 |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=[[Law & Social Inquiry]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x |jstor=4092696 |s2cid=145681085}}</ref>

== Society ==
=== Religious personages ===
{{Main|Ulama}}

[[File:Карло Боссоли. Татарская школа для детей (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] Muslim students (1856)]]
Islam has no clergy in the [[sacerdotalism|sacerdotal]] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. ''[[Imam]]'' ({{langx|ar|إمام|label=none}}) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Imam|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/imam|access-date=15 January 2023|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Religious interpretation is presided over by the '''ulama'' (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in [[Islamic studies]]. A scholar of the hadith is called a ''[[muhaddith]]'', a scholar of jurisprudence is called a ''[[faqih]]'' ({{langx|ar|فقيه|label=none}}), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or ''[[fatwas]]'' is called a [[mufti]], and a ''[[qadi]]'' is an Islamic judge. [[Honorific]] titles given to scholars include [[sheikh]], [[mullah]] and ''[[Mawlawi (Islamic title)|mawlawi]]''. Some Muslims also venerate [[Saints in Islam|saints]] associated with [[Islamic view of miracles|miracles]] ({{langx|ar|كرامات|translit=karāmāt|label=none}}).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Radtke |first1=B. |last2=Lory |first2=P. |last3=Zarcone |first3=Th. |last4=DeWeese |first4=D. |last5=Gaborieau |first5=M. |last6=Denny |first6=F. M. |last7=Aubin |first7=F. |last8=Hunwick |first8=J. O. |last9=Mchugh |first9=N. |title=Walī |orig-year=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref>

=== Governance ===

{{See also|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic economics|Islamic military jurisprudence|tasamuh|Jihad}}
In [[Islamic economic jurisprudence]], hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus [[monopoly|monopolistic]] behavior is frowned upon.<ref>Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref> Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of [[Islamic banking]]. Islam prohibits ''[[riba]]'', usually translated as [[usury]], which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean [[interest]].<ref>{{harvc |c=Riba |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last1= Schacht|first1=Joseph}}</ref> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foster|first=John |date=1 December 2009|title=How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance|work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8388644.stm|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Domat|first=Chloe|date=20 October 2020|title=What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?|work=Global Finance magazine|url=https://www.gfmag.com/topics/blogs/islamic-finance-faq-what-islamic-finance-and-how-does-it-work|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as [[Bayt al-mal]], before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first [[Caliph]], [[Abu Bakr]], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a [[guaranteed minimum income]], with each citizen getting 10 to 20 [[dirhams]] annually.<ref>{{cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries/ |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=[[Vice Media|VICE]]}}</ref> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, [[child support]] was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> while the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]] assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Al-Jawzi|first1=Ibn |url=|title=The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph |publisher=IUR Press |year=2001 |isbn= |page=130 }}</ref>

[[Jihad]] means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of [[wikt:disapprobation|disapprobation]]".{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}} Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual [[self-improvement|self-perfection]]<ref name="Afsaruddin">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Afsaruddin |first=Asma |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jihad |title=Jihad |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=93}}</ref> while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2">{{harvc|last=Tyan, E. |year=2012 |c=D̲j̲ihād |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189}}</ref> When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}}<ref name="Afsaruddin" /> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2" /> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Habeck, Mary R. ''Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror''. [[Yale University Press]]. pp. 108–109, 118.</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="EI2" /> For most [[Twelver|Twelver Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamate in Twelver doctrine|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s [[occultation (Islam)|occultation]] in 868 CE.{{sfnp|Sachedina|1998|pp=105–106}}{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|p=72}}

=== Daily and family life ===
{{See also|Adab (Islam)|Islamic dietary laws|Islam and children|Marriage in Islam|Women in Islam|Polygyny in Islam}}
[[File:Salat Eid al-Fitr, Tehran (113344343).jpg|thumb|A woman wearing an [[Hijab|Islamic veil]]]]
Many daily practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and [[carrion]]. Health is viewed as a trust from God and [[khamr|intoxicants]], such as [[alcoholic drink]]s, are prohibited.<ref>{{cite book|author=Fahd Salem Bahammam|title=Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRojJ7lnb18C&pg=PP1|publisher=Modern Guide|isbn=978-1-909322-99-8|page=1}}</ref> All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.<ref>{{harvp|Curtis|2005|p=164}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Slaughter |first=Ersilia |last=Francesca |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref> Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural<ref>{{Cite news |last=De Sondy |first=Amanullah |date=28 January 2016|title=The relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled one|work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/28/muslim-men-beards-facial-hair-islam |access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> and body modifications, such as [[Religious perspectives on tattooing#Islam|permanent tattoos]], are usually forbidden as violating the creation.{{efn|Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted [[footbinding]] of girls for the same reason.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofchina00legg|quote=mohammedan.|title=The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity|first=James|last=Legge|year=1880|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/religionsofchina00legg/page/111 111]|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> }}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/tattoos-in-islam-2004393|title=Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos? |website=|access-date=7 March 2022 }}</ref> Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glassé |first1=Cyril |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=AltaMira Press |page=158 |language=en|year=2001}}</ref> ''[[Haya (Islam)|Haya]]'', often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zine |first1=Jasmin |last2=Babana-Hampton |first2=Safoi |last3=Mazid |first3=Nergis |last4=Bullock |first4=Katherine |last5=Chishti |first5=Maliha |title=American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4 |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JM4DwAAQBAJ&q=haya+islam&pg=PA59 |access-date=4 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, [[Islamic clothing|clothing in Islam]] emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the ''[[hijab]]'' for women. Similarly, [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|personal hygiene]] is encouraged with certain requirements.<ref>{{cite web |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |access-date=3 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114153249/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |archive-date=14 November 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Muslim Couple (cropped).jpg|thumb|A Muslim couple]]
In [[Marriage in Islam|Islamic marriage]], the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'').<ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=339}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref> Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications|Oneworld]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb/page/141 141]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 68]}}</ref> Muslim men are allowed to practice [[polygyny]] and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the [[Marriage in Islam|marriage contract]] that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ratno Lukito|title=Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Bridging the Unbridgeable|page=81|publisher=[[Routledge]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/fatwa/ShowFatwa.php?lang=A&Id=18444&Option=FatwaId |title=IslamWeb |publisher=IslamWeb |date=7 February 2002 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> There are also cultural variations in weddings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The [[Islamic Texts Society]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato/page/92 92–93]}}</ref> [[Polyandry]], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |access-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref>

[[File:عکس های مراسم ترتیل خوانی یا جزء خوانی یا قرائت قرآن در ایام ماه رمضان در حرم فاطمه معصومه در شهر قم 20.jpg|thumb|[[Muslim]] girls studying the [[Quran]] placed atop folding [[lectern]]s ([[Rehal (book rest)|''rehal'']]) during [[Ramadan]] in [[Qom]], [[Iran]]]]
After the birth of a child, the ''[[adhan]]'' is pronounced in the right ear.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=106}} On the seventh day, the ''[[aqiqah]]'' ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=120}} 120]}} The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=my7hnALd_NkC|page=120}} 120]}} Male [[circumcision]], called ''[[Khitan (circumcision)|khitan]]'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Khitān |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |access-date=27 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127165754/https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |archive-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> is often practised in the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite journal |date=January 2017 |title=Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting |journal=[[BioMed Research International]] |publisher=[[Hindawi Publishing Corporation]] |volume=2017 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1155/2017/4957348 |pmc=5282422 |pmid=28194416 |doi-access=free |author1-last=Anwer |author1-first=Abdul Wahid |author2-last=Samad |author2-first=Lubna |author3-last=Baig-Ansari |author3-first=Naila |author4-last=Iftikhar |author4-first=Sundus}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 August 2009 |title=Islam: Circumcision of boys |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112170938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=12 November 2012 |access-date=27 May 2020 |work=Religion & ethics—Islam |publisher=[[Bbc.co.uk]]}}</ref> Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=136}}

A [[Islamic view of death|dying Muslim]] is encouraged to pronounce the ''Shahada'' as their last words.<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 9783643900678| title =Changing European Death Ways| location = Austria| year = 2013| last1=Mathijssen| first1=Brenda|last2=Venhorst|first2=Claudia|last3=Venbrux|first3=Eric|last4=Quartier|first4=Thomas| url =| page = 265 |publisher=Lit }}</ref> Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In [[Islamic funeral|Islamic burial rituals]], burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called ''kafan''.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/83 83]}} A "funeral prayer" called ''[[Salat al-Janazah]]'' is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rahman|first=Rema |date=25 October 2011|title=Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?|work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15444275|access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref>

=== Arts and culture ===
{{Main|Islamic culture}}

{{See also|Islamic art|Islamic architecture|Islamic literature|Islam in association football|Cultural Muslims}}
The term "[[Islamic culture]]" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as [[festivals]] and [[Islamic clothing|dress code]]. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Melikian |first=Souren |author-link=Souren Melikian |date=4 November 2011 |title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=56}} sometimes referred to as "[[wikt:Islamicate|Islamicate]]".<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Wiley| isbn = 9781405155144| title =Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit | location = United Kingdom| year = 2021| last=Lawrence| first=Bruce| url =| page = xii| quote = }}</ref>

[[Islamic art]] encompasses the [[visual arts]] including fields as varied as [[Islamic architecture|architecture]], [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], painting, and [[Islamic ceramics|ceramics]], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |first2=Oleg |last2=Grabar |first3=Marilyn |last3=Jenkins-Madina |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 |title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-08869-8 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 3]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Suarez|first=Michael F.|title=The Oxford companion to the book|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780198606536|location=Oxford and New York|pages=331ff|chapter=38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World|oclc=50238944}}</ref> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with [[Aniconism in Islam|laws against idolatry]], this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[tessellation]], and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |page=263|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Depictions of Muhammad|depiction of Muhammad]] is a contentious issue among Muslims.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=860736| title = An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions
| author = T. W. Arnold| journal = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs
| author-link = T. W. Arnold| date = June 1919| volume = 34| issue = 195
| publisher = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.
| pages = 249–252}}</ref> In [[Islamic architecture]], varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the [[Great Mosque of Kairouan]] containing [[marble]] and [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isichei |first=Elizabeth Allo |url={{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} |title=A history of African societies to 1870 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-45599-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=175 |access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> while [[mosques in Indonesia]] often have multi-tiered roofs from local [[Java]]nese styles.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gunawan |last=Tjahjono |title=Indonesian Heritage-Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/architecture00indo/page/88 |year=1998 |publisher=Archipelago Press |location=Singapore |isbn=981-3018-30-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/architecture00indo/page/88 88–89] }}</ref>

The [[Islamic calendar]] is a [[lunar calendar]] that begins with the [[Hegira|Hijra]] of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Muslim-calendar|title=Islamic calendar|website=www.britannica.com|date=|access-date=8 August 2022}}</ref> Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in [[seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' ({{langx|ar|عيد الفطر}}) on the 1st of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' ({{lang|ar|عيد الأضحى}}) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage).<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Oxford University Press| isbn =9780195165203| title =The Islamic World: Past and Present| year = 2004| last=Esposito| first=John| pages = 75–76 |ref=none}}</ref><ref name="www.britannica.com-2023" />

[[Cultural Muslims]] are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.<ref>{{cite book|first1= Cara|last1= Aitchison|author1-link= Cara Aitchison|first2= Peter E.|last2= Hopkins|author3-link= Mei-Po Kwan|author3= Mei-Po Kwan|title= Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DRnthQxB8lYC&pg=PA147|access-date= 30 June 2013|year= 2007|publisher= Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn= 978-1-4094-8747-0|pages=147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice|first=G. Hussein|last= Rassool|year= 2015| isbn=9781317441250| page =10|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&dq=Muslims+who+are+religiously+unobservant,+secular+or+irreligious+individuals+who+still+identify+with+the+Muslim&pg=PA10|quote=The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.}}</ref>

<gallery class="left">
File:Sixty Dome Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg|14th century [[Sixty Dome Mosque]], in [[Khalifatabad]], [[Bangladesh]]
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|[[Great Mosque of Djenné]], in the [[west Africa]]n country of [[Mali]]
File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|Dome in [[Po-i-Kalyan]], [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]]
File:1 great mosque xian 2011.JPG|14th century [[Great Mosque of Xi'an]] in China
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|16th century [[Menara Kudus Mosque]] in Indonesia showing Indian influence
File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|The phrase ''[[Basmala|Bismillah]]'' in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] region
File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in [[Shiraz]], [[Iran]]
</gallery>

== Influences on other religions ==
Whether movements such as the [[Druze]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse/page/114 114] |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse/page/33 33] |quote=Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref> [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam are controversial viewpoints.<ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref> The [[Druze]] faith further split from [[Isma'ilism]] as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh]] was [[Incarnation|God incarnate]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Poonawala |first=Ismail K. |date=July–September 1999 |title=Review: ''The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning'' by Heinz Halm |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |publisher=[[American Oriental Society]] |volume=119 |issue=3 |page=542 |doi=10.2307/605981 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=605981 |lccn=12032032 |oclc=47785421}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Bryer | first = David R. W. | title = The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung) | journal = [[Der Islam]] | year = 1975 | volume = 52 | issue = 2 | pages = 239–262 | doi = 10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | s2cid = 162363556 | url = https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | issn = 1613-0928 | ref = {{harvid|Bryer|1975b}} | url-access = subscription }}</ref> [[Yazdânism]] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to [[Kurdistan]] by [[Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir]] in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foltz |first=Richard |title=Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present |date=7 November 2013 |isbn=978-1-78074-307-3 |page=219 |chapter=Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan |publisher=Oneworld Publications |chapter-url= |chapter-url-access=}}</ref> [[Bábism]] stems from Twelver Shia passed through [[Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab]] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri [[Baha'u'llah]] founded the [[Baháʼí Faith]].<ref>{{cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> [[Yarsanism]],<ref name="Z. Mir-Hosseini 1994, p.267">Z. Mir-Hosseini, "Inner Truth and Outer History: The Two Worlds of the Ahl-e Haqq of Kurdistan", ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'', Vol.26, 1994, p.267–268</ref> [[Din-i Ilahi]],{{sfnp|Roychoudhury|1941|page=306}} and [[Ali-Illahism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Layard |first=Austen Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-SQe_sNtIaMC&q=ali%2520illahism&pg=PA216 |title=Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon: With Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan and the Desert: Being the Result of a Second Expedition Undertaken for the Trustees of the British Museum |date=2010-08-31 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108016773 |page=216 |language=en}}</ref> are considered separations from Islam. [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late 15th century [[Punjab]], primarily incorporates aspects of Islam and [[Hinduism]].<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' [[University of Tennessee Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref>

== Criticism ==
{{Main|Criticism of Islam}}

{{see also|Criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of the Quran}}
[[File:John Damascus (arabic icon).gif|right|thumb|[[John of Damascus]], under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the [[Bible]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx |title=Writings by St John of Damascus |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |year=1958 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=37 |location=Washington, DC |pages=153–160 |chapter=St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>]]

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as [[Ibn Kammuna]], and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a [[Medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Christian heresy]] or a form of [[idolatry]], often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.{{sfnp|Fahlbusch et al|2001|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC|page=759}} 759]}}

Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]] defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in heaven in the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. Christian theologian [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Christian Lange |title=Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-521-50637-3 |pages=18–20}}</ref>

A study found higher Islamic religiosity correlated with higher [[Islamic extremism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamenowski |first1=Maria |last2=Manzoni |first2=Patrik |last3=Haymoz |first3=Sandrine |last4=Isenhardt |first4=Anna |last5=Jacot |first5=Cédric |last6=Baier |first6=Dirk |date=2021-06-17 |title=Religion as an influencing factor of right-wing, left-wing and Islamist extremism. Findings of a Swiss youth study |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=6 |article-number=e0252851 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0252851 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8211158 |pmid=34138885 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1652851K }}</ref>

Defamatory images of [[medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Muhammad]], derived from early 7th-century depictions of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Church]],<ref>[[Minou Reeves|Reeves, Minou]], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. [[New York University Press|NYU Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]].<ref name="Stone">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. [[Springer Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 53–54.</ref> Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of [[schism]], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="Stone" />

Other criticisms centre on the [[Human rights in Muslim-majority countries|treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries]], including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Yohanan|last1=Friedmann|year=2003|title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie/page/n31 18], 35|isbn=978-0-521-02699-4}}</ref> Furthermore, in the wake of the recent [[multiculturalism]] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of [[Muslim diaspora|Muslim immigrants]] in the West to assimilate has been [[criticism of multiculturalism|criticized]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Modood |first=Tariq |url=https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |date=6 April 2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 |edition=1st |page=[https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo/page/n43 29] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Islam|Religion
}}
* [[Glossary of Islam]]
* [[Index of Islam-related articles]]
* [[Islamic mythology]]
* [[Islamic studies]]
* [[List of scientists in medieval Islamic world]]
* [[Major religious groups]]
* [[Outline of Islam]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{notelist}}

===Quran and hadith===
{{Reflist|group=lower-roman}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
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{{Refend}}

=== Encyclopedias and dictionaries ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{harvc |last1=Gardet|first1=L.|last2=Jomier|first2=J.|year=2012|c=Islām |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |ref={{harvid|Fahlbusch et al|2001}} |editor-last=Fahlbusch |editor-first=Erwin |display-editors=etal |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC}} |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |volume=2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1913–1936 |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |editor1-last=Houtsma |editor1-first=M.T. |editor1-link=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |editor2-first=T.W. |editor2-last=Arnold |editor2-link=Thomas Walker Arnold |editor3-first=R. |editor3-last=Basset |editor4-first=R. |editor4-last=Hartmann |edition=1st |place=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.)|1913–1936}}}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |edition=2nd |place=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012}}}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|n.d.}} |date=n.d. |url=https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |series=[[Macmillan Reference Books]] |publisher=[[Thomson-Gale]] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Richard C. |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online]] |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |date=n.d. |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]] |volume=2 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2002}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]] |volume=3 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2003}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |editor-last=Salamone |editor-first=Frank |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-415-94180-8 |series=Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society |volume=6 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala |jstor=j.ctt1jd94wq |year=2004 }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=Cyril |series=Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-512558-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada |url-access=registration}} {{doi|10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001}} – via Oxford Reference.
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |place=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=}} |editor-last=Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: [[Bethany House Publishers]]. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. {{ISBN|0-87123-553-6}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |last=Ahmad |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Islam |author-link=Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=256–258 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n155 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |lccn=2008009151 |oclc=750831024 |url={{Google books|yxNgXs3TkJYC|plainurl=yes}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Akyol |first=Mustafa |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo |title=Islam Without Extremes |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Company]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-393-07086-6 |edition=1st |author-link=Mustafa Akyol}}
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* Khanbaghi, A, (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. [[I. B. Tauris]].
* Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. {{ISBN|0-915677-55-5}}.
* {{Cite book |title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-965-224-040-8 |editor-last=Kramer |editor-first=Martin |editor-link=Martin Kramer}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Dogan |title=Muslim Religious Architecture |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03813-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0 |title=Islam and the West |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-509061-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi |title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-510283-3 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mubarkpuri |first=Saifur-Rahman |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Najeebabadi |first=Akbar Shah |title=History of Islam |publisher=[[Dar-us-Salam Publications]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sayilgan |first=Salih |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/god-evil-and-suffering-in-islam/C4C89591ADAAF25F104D517C4F4634B3 |title=God, Evil, and Suffering in Islam |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2023 |isbn=9781009377294}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |title=Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1982-3 |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=22 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422154518/https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |url-status=dead}}
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* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism |series=SpringerBriefs in Political Science |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |place=Cham |year=2023 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2 |isbn=978-3-031-24853-5 |s2cid=256852082 |edition=1st |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2}}
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{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam "Islam"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/index.shtml Religion & Ethics – Islam] A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the BBC

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[[Category:Islam| ]]
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Ministry of Ayush

2026-03-16T19:06:08Z

Loz12: Content refined for better accuracy

{{Short description|Indian government ministry for alternative medicine systems}}
{{redirect|AYUSH||Ayush (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Ministry of Ayush
| type = Ministry
| seal = Government of India logo.svg
| seal_size = 100px
| seal_caption = Branch of Government of India
| logo = Logo Ministry of AYUSH.png
| logo_size = 250px
| logo_caption = Ministry of Ayush
| formed = {{start date and age|2014|11|09|df=y|p=y|br=y}}
| employees =
| budget = {{INRConvert|4408.93|c}} ([[Fiscal year|FY]]2026–27)<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 Feb 2024 |title=DEMANDS FOR GRANTS, 2024-25 MINISTRY OF AYUSH |url=https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe4.pdf |access-date=1 Feb 2024 |website=[[Union budget of India]]}}</ref>
| minister1_name = [[Prataprao Ganpatrao Jadhav]]
| minister1_pfo = Minister of State ''(Independent Charge)''
| minister2_name =
| minister2_pfo =
| chief1_name = [[Rajesh Kotecha]]
| chief1_position = [[Secretary]]
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| jurisdiction = [[Government of India]]
| website = {{URL|http://ayush.gov.in/}}
}}
{{Alternative medicine sidebar}}
The '''Ministry of Ayush''', a [[Union Government ministries of India|ministry]] of the [[Government of India]], is responsible for developing education, research and propagation of semi-scientific [[traditional medicine]] and [[alternative medicine]] in India. Ayush is an acronym devised from the names of the alternative healthcare systems covered by the ministry: [[ayurveda]], [[yoga]] and [[naturopathy]], [[Unani medicine|Unani]], [[Siddha medicine|Siddha]], [[Sowa Rigpa (Traditional Tibetan medicine)|Sowa Rigpa]], and [[homeopathy]].<ref name="Rathee2018" />

The Department of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy (ISM&H) was first established in 1995 under the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]].<ref name=":1" /> ISM&H was renamed as the Department of AYUSH. The department was made into an official ministry by the [[Narendra Modi|Modi]] government in 2014.<ref name="Rathee2018" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":14" />

The ministry has been accused of promoting pseudoscience<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Ruchi |title=Face It: The Indian Government Is Peddling Pseudoscience – The Wire Science |date=27 April 2020 |url=https://science.thewire.in/health/indian-government-pseudoscience-covid-19/ |access-date=2022-04-10 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Krishnan |first=Vidya |date=2020-08-18 |title=Where Pseudoscience Is Spreading |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/08/amitabh-bachchan-india-coronavirus/615310/ |access-date=2022-04-10 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref> and has faced significant criticism for funding systems that lack [[biological plausibility]] and are either untested or conclusively proven as ineffective. Quality of research has been poor, and drugs have been launched without rigorous pharmacological studies and meaningful [[clinical trials on ayurveda]] or other alternative healthcare systems.<ref name="Rathee2018">{{cite news |last=Rathee |first=Pranshu |date=2018-11-20 |title=What is AYUSH and the controversy around it? |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |publisher=The Printers (Mysore) |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/what-ayush-and-controversy-703993.html |url-status=live |access-date=2021-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122144706/https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/what-ayush-and-controversy-703993.html |archive-date=2020-11-22}}</ref><ref name="Narayanan2020">{{cite news|work=[[Firstpost]]|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/patanajali-covid-19-ayush-ministry-weak-response-ramdevs-coronil-stunt-endangers-people-jeopardises-ayurveda-homeopathy-8529151.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121014011/https://www.firstpost.com/india/patanajali-covid-19-ayush-ministry-weak-response-ramdevs-coronil-stunt-endangers-people-jeopardises-ayurveda-homeopathy-8529151.html|archive-date=2020-11-21|date=2020-07-01|last=Narayanan|first=Kavya|title=AYUSH Ministry is endangering people, jeopardising Ayurveda with lax response to Patanjali's Coronil and COVID-19, warn experts}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Emphasis on indigenous healthcare models ===
Successive [[Five-Year Plans of India]] (produced by the [[Planning commission of India|Planning Commission of India]] and later the [[NITI Aayog]]) allotted considerable focus to alternative, especially [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]], forms of medicine within the healthcare sector. The Government of India set up a number of committees for healthcare sector development, including Bhore (1946), Mudaliar (1961), and Srivastava (1975), that emphasized the need for improvement of traditional systems of Indian medicine.<ref name="De Gruyter Online – academic publishing 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Samal |first1=Janmejaya |last2=Dehury |first2=Ranjit Kumar |date=18 October 2018 |title=Utilization, preference, perception and characteristics of people adopting traditional and AYUSH systems of medicine in India: a systematic review |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0176916 |journal=Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine |volume=16 |issue=2 |doi=10.1515/jcim-2018-0020 |pmid=30352037 |s2cid=53024438|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The National Health Policy (1983), National Education Policy in Health Sciences (1989), and National Health Policy (2002) further elaborated on the role of the Indian System of Medicine (ISM) and Homeopathy (H) as a means to facilitate healthcare access in rural areas where many Indians lack adequate health services.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Rudra|first1=Shalini|last2=Kalra|first2=Aakshi|last3=Kumar|first3=Abhishek|last4=Joe|first4=William|date=2017-05-04|title=Utilization of alternative systems of medicine as health care services in India: Evidence on AYUSH care from NSS 2014|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12|issue=5|article-number=e0176916|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0176916|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5417584|pmid=28472197|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1276916R|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Educational courses and ISM&H ===
A diploma course in ayurveda was launched in the third (1961–1966) five-year plan.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last1=Samal |first1=Janmejaya |last2=Dehury |first2=Ranjit Kumar |date=May 2016 |title=An Evaluation on Medical Education, Research and Development of AYUSH Systems of Medicine through Five Year Plans of India |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=IE01–IE05 |doi=10.7860/JCDR/2016/18194.7793 |issn=2249-782X |pmc=4948421 |pmid=27437245}}</ref> The [[Central Council of Indian Medicine]] was established in 1971.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sharma |first=Yogima |title=Niti Aayog wants axe on homoeopathy, ayurveda bodies |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/pharmaceuticals/niti-aayog-wants-axe-on-homoeopathy-ayurveda-bodies/articleshow/57240971.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2022-05-02}}</ref> followed by Central Council of Homeopathy in 1973.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ghosh |first=Ajoy Kumar |date=April 2010 |title=A short history of the development of homeopathy in India |journal=Homeopathy: The Journal of the Faculty of Homeopathy |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=130–136 |doi=10.1016/j.homp.2009.10.001 |issn=1476-4245 |pmid=20471616|s2cid=3758540 }}</ref> The sixth (1980–1985) and seventh (1985–1990) five-year plans aimed at developing novel ISM&H drugs.<ref name=":17" /> The eighth (1992–1997) five-year plan lent considerable emphasis on the mainstreaming of Ayush.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} The Department of Indian System of Medicine and Homeopathy was launched in March 1995, under the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=About the Ministry |url=https://main.ayush.gov.in/about-the-ministry/ |website=Ministry of AYUSH}}</ref><ref name="Rathee2018" />

The ninth five-year plan (1998–2002) ensured for its integration with western medicine.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} It was the first to tackle different aspects of the Ayush system in a standalone manner which focused on overall development including investment in human resource development, preservation and cultivation of medicinal plants, establish a more complete pharmacopoeia, and outline good manufacturing processes.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} The acronym AYUSH was devised in 2003.<ref name="Rathee2018" /> The department of Indian System of Medicine and Homeopathy was renamed the department of AYUSH in November 2003.<ref name=":0" />

The [[National Rural Health Mission]] was launched in 2005 with the stated aim of integrating Ayush practitioners into national health programs, including in primary health care (Ayush medical officers at community health centers, para-professionals et al.) and to provide support for research in the field.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lakshmi|first=J. K.|date=January 2012|title=Less equal than others? Experiences of AYUSH medical officers in primary health centres in Andhra Pradesh|journal=[[Indian Journal of Medical Ethics]]|volume=9|issue=1|pages=18–21|doi=10.20529/IJME.2012.005|issn=0974-8466|pmid=22319847}}</ref> The National Rural Health Mission listed the mainstreaming of Ayush as one of its priorities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gopichandran |first1=Vijayaprasad |last2=Satish Kumar |first2=Ch |date=October 2012 |title=Mainstreaming AYUSH: an ethical analysis |journal=Indian Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=272–277 |doi=10.20529/IJME.2012.091 |issn=0974-8466 |pmid=23099604|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== After 2014 ===
Observers noted an increased focus on Ayush healthcare after the [[2014 Indian general election]]s, which brought the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) to power.<ref name=":14">{{Cite news |last=Doshi |first=Vidhi |date=29 January 2018 |title=How ghee, turmeric and aloe vera became India's new instruments of soft power |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/how-ghee-turmeric-and-aloe-vera-became-indias-newinstruments-of-soft-power/2018/01/28/5eb8d836-f4ce-11e7-9af7-a50bc3300042_story.html |access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref> On 9 November 2014 the previous government department for traditional Indian medicine was elevated by the administration of [[Narendra Modi]] into a standing ministry that includes the promotion of yoga practice and the use of Ayurvedic products.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Bhatia |first1=Rahul |last2=Lasseter |first2=Tom |date=May 23, 2017 |title=Modi's Yogi |language=en |work=Reuters |editor-last=McBride |editor-first=Janet |url=http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/india-modi-ramdev/ |access-date=2022-05-29 |editor-last2=Hirschberg |editor-first2=Peter}}</ref><ref name="Rathee2018" /><ref name=":14" /> The allotted budget for Ayush had more than doubled since 2013–14, and stood at ₹ 1428.7 crore for 2017–18.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=[[Sumaiya Shaikh]] |date=November 2018 |title=Spoonful of Sugar: Why India's push for alt-med in the public health system is ill-advised |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/Science/why-India%27s-push-for-alt-med-in-the-public-health-system-is-ill-advised |url-access=subscription |access-date=2020-01-16 |website=[[The Caravan]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Activities ==
=== Healthcare ===
The ministry runs multiple healthcare programs; primarily aimed at the rural population.

Ayush is supposed to form an integral backbone of the [[Ayushman Bharat Yojana]]<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=2018-11-04 |title=Clinical trials on Ayurvedic medicine against dengue underway: Shripad Naik |work=The Economic Times |publisher=PTI |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/pharmaceuticals/clinical-trials-on-ayurvedic-medicine-against-dengue-underway-shripad-naik/articleshow/66497106.cms |access-date=2019-01-22}}</ref> and the ministry had long worked for integrating the different systems of Ayush with modern medicine, in what has been described as 'a type of "cross-pathy"'.<ref name=":1" /> More than 50,000 children have been enrolled in 'Homeopathy for Healthy Child'.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Bhuyan |first=Anoo |date=August 9, 2017 |title=AYUSH Ministry Writes to Nobel Laureate Against His 'False Propaganda' on Homeopathy |url=https://thewire.in/government/ayush-ministry-homeopathy-false-propaganda |access-date=2019-01-23 |website=The Wire}}</ref> It observes different days to raise general awareness about Ayush and promote each of the systems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/first-naturopathy-day-celebrated-by-ayush-ministry-seeking-to-promote-drug-less-system-of-medicine/story-Ma9w7HJ3oIfPAFunRAVb8L.html|title=First Naturopathy day celebrated by Ayush ministry seeking to promote drug-less system of medicine|date=2018-11-19|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-01-31}}</ref>

The ministry had collaborated with the [[Council for Scientific and Industrial Research]] (CSIR) to set up the [[Traditional Knowledge Digital Library]] (TKDL) in 2001, on codified [[traditional knowledge]] on Indian systems of medicines such as [[ayurveda]], [[Unani]], [[Siddha medicine|Siddha]] and [[yoga]] as a means of preventing grant of "bed" patents on traditional knowledge and thus counter [[biopiracy]].<ref name="pt">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=61511|title=Know Instances of Patenting on the UES of Medicinal Plants in India|date=6 May 2010|publisher=[[Press Information Bureau|PIB]], [[Ministry of Environment and Forests (India)|Ministry of Environment and Forests]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=21 May 2010}}</ref>

=== Institutions ===
The ministry is also at the aegis of several professional research institutes and academic faculties devoted to various forms of alternative medicine:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhp.gov.in/UploadFiles/microsite/635665058281132058_1.pdf|title=Institutes under AYUSH|access-date=17 January 2020|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603062747/https://www.nhp.gov.in/UploadFiles/microsite/635665058281132058_1.pdf}}</ref>

* '''[[Institute of Teaching and Research in Ayurveda, Jamnagar]]''' - Established on 2020 in [[Jamnagar]] as an [[Institute of National Importance]] poised to take Ayurveda education to new vistas, it added.
* '''[[National Institute of Homoeopathy|National Institute of Homeopathy]]''' - Established on 10 December 1975 in Kolkata as an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=http://nih.nic.in/pages/display/121-about-us|title=About Us|website=NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HOMOEOPATHY}}</ref> Conducts [[Bachelor of Homeopathic Medicine and Surgery|degree course]] in Homeopathy (UG since 1987 and PG since 1998); affiliated to the [[West Bengal University of Health Sciences]].<ref name=":16" />
*'''[[National Institute of Siddha]]''' - Was established at [[Chennai]] for an estimated cost of ₹ 470 million; inaugurated in November 2005.<ref name="NIS_AMilestoneInHealthCare">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/09/01/stories/2005090114280700.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107022440/http://www.hindu.com/2005/09/01/stories/2005090114280700.htm|archive-date=7 November 2007|title=National Institute of Siddha a milestone in health care|last=Manikandan|first=K.|date=1 September 2005|access-date=16 October 2011|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai}}</ref> A joint venture between [[Government of India]] and [[Government of Tamil Nadu]], the proposal was approved, in principle, during the ninth five-year plan period.<ref name="AnnualReport2000_2001">{{cite conference|title=India Systems of Medicine & Homoeopathy Annual Report 2000-2001|url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan009845.pdf|access-date=16 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="NIS_AMilestoneInHealthCare" /> Affiliated to the government-owned [[Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University]] and also the national headquarters of the Central Council of Research in Siddha (CCRS). Has an attached hospital—Ayothidoss Pandithar Hospital; on an average, 2,174 patients were reported per day (2017–18) whilst there's an in-patient (IP) department with a capacity of 120 beds.<ref name="Hindu_NewOPDBuilding">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/siddha-hospital-to-get-new-opd-building/article23753817.ece|title=Siddha hospital to get new OPD building|date=3 May 2018|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=4 May 2018|location=Chennai}}</ref><ref name="Hindu_NISModifiesExpansionPlan">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/national-institute-of-siddha-modifies-expansion-plan/article4218676.ece|title=National Institute of Siddha modifies expansion plan|last=Madhavan|first=D.|date=20 December 2012|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=23 December 2012|location=Chennai}}</ref> Further expansions are in progress.<ref name="Hindu_NISModifiesExpansionPlan" />
*'''[[National Institute of Unani Medicine]]''' - Established in 1984 at [[Bangalore]], as a joint venture between Government of India and Government of Karnataka.<ref name="ayush">{{cite web|url=http://indianmedicine.nic.in/index3.asp?sslid=193&subsublinkid=64&lang=1|title=National Institute of Unani Medicine, Bangalore|publisher=AYUSH|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220163709/http://indianmedicine.nic.in/index3.asp?sslid=193&subsublinkid=64&lang=1|archive-date=2013-12-20|access-date=2013-12-20}}</ref> Initially offered research facilities but academic courses were set up from 2004. Currently offers post graduate courses (MD in Unani) in eight different specialties; affiliated to [[Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nium.in/content.php?cr|title=Courses|publisher=National Institute of Unani Medicine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127141743/http://nium.in/content.php?cr|archive-date=2013-11-27|access-date=2013-12-20}}</ref>
*'''National Research Institute for Panchakarma'''{{anchor|National Research Institute for Panchakarma}} - Set up in 1971 at [[Cheruthuruthi|Cheruthuruthy]]. Undertakes research activities as well as provides professional and academic training. The institute comes under the Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) of the Ayush.<ref name="CC1">
{{cite web |title=Institutions |url=http://ccras.nic.in/content/national-ayurveda-research-institute-panchakarma-cheruthuruthy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424033654/http://www.ccras.nic.in/content/national-ayurveda-research-institute-panchakarma-cheruthuruthy |archive-date= 24 April 2023|access-date=2022-11-28 |website=CENTRAL COUNCIL FOR RESEARCH IN AYURVEDIC SCIENCES |publisher=CCRAS }}
</ref>
*'''[[National Institute of Ayurveda]]''' - [[Deemed university]] Set up in 1976 at [[Jaipur]], by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare; a refurbished extension of the Government Ayurvedic College, Jaipur which was established by the [[Government of Rajasthan]] in 1946. Offers research as well academic facilities; affiliated with [[Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Rajasthan Ayurved University]].
*'''[[All India Institute of Ayurveda, Delhi|All India Institute of Ayurveda]]''' - Established in 2009 at Delhi; offers research as well academic facilities. Brainchild of [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]]. Runs a secondary institute ''Rashtriya Ayurved Vidyapeeth''.
*'''National Institute of Naturopathy''' -
*'''National Institute For Sowa Rigpa''' -
*'''[[Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga]]''' - The institute promotes yoga philosophy and facilitates training and advanced research. It was established in 1970 as a hospital by the now-defunct Central Council for Research in Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy, under the Vishwayatan Yogashram. The hospital was later transformed into an institute named the Central Research Institute for Yoga (CRIY) in 1976, with the aim of providing free training to individuals and organising research on yoga. In 1988, the institute was renamed to its current title.
*'''[[North Eastern Institute of Ayurveda and Homeopathy]]''' - Established in 2016 at Mawdiangdiang, [[Shillong]]. Offers a four-and-a-half-year degree course in [[Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery]] and Bachelor of Homeopathic Medicine and Surgery.
*'''North Eastern Institute of Folk Medicine''' - The NEIFM, Pasighat is an autonomous Institute under the Ministry of Ayush, Government of India. It is located at Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh.
*'''[[Central Council for Research in Homeopathy]]'''
* Central Council for Research in Yoga and Naturopathy

The ministry also monitors two semi-autonomous regulatory bodies:-

* '''[[Central Council of Indian Medicine]]''' (CCIM) - One of the professional councils under the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]] (UGC) to regulate higher education in [[Ayurveda]], [[Siddha]], [[Unani]] and [[Traditional Tibetan medicine|Sowa-Rigpa]]. It suggests the professional benchmarks and practices for medical professionals in these systems, as well. The Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) Act 1970 (48 of 1970) has been repealed and all the provisions of the [https://ncismindia.org/introduction.php National Commission for Indian System of Medicine] (NCISM) has been come into force with effect from the 11th day of June 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 August 2022 |title=National Commission for Indian System of Medicine |url=https://ncismindia.org/ }}</ref>
*'''[[National Commission for Homoeopathy]]''' - One of the professional councils under the UGC to regulate higher education in Homeopathy. Maintains central registers of homeopaths.

== Economics ==
As of March 2015, there were nearly 800,000 Ayush practitioners, over 90 per cent of whom practiced homeopathy or ayurveda.<ref name=":1" /> A 2018 study by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) estimated the market share of Ayush medicines at around US$3 billion and that India exported Ayush products of a net worth US$401.68 million in the fiscal year 2016–17.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2, 2018 |title=AYUSH ministry aims to triple market share of its medicines, services |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/ayush-ministry-aims-to-triple-market-share-of-its-medicines-services/articleshow/66476035.cms |access-date=2019-01-31 |website=The Times of India}}</ref>

The Department of Pharmaceuticals had allocated a budget of ₹1.44 billion to the ministry for 2018-2020 for manufacture of alternative medicines.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/TzXWNjTFU2jIEWLJ1CHVtM/Govt-allocates-Rs-144-crore-to-AYUSH-ministry-for-alternativ.html|title=Govt allocates ₹144 crore to AYUSH ministry for alternative medicines|last=Sharma|first=Neetu Chandra|date=2018-10-20|website=Mint|language=en|access-date=2019-01-31}}</ref> The average expenditure for drugs on Ayush and scientifically based medicine has been found to not vary widely.<ref name=":10" />

== Cabinet Ministers ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Portrait
! rowspan="2" style="width:18em" |Minister {{small|(Birth-Death) Constituency}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" style="width:8em" |Political party
! rowspan="2" style="width:6em" | Ministry
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |Prime Minister
|-
! style="width:9em"| From
! style="width:9em"| To
! style="width:6em"| Period
|-
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| rowspan="2"| [[File:Shripad Yasso Naik - Kolkata 2014-10-12 7755.JPG|70px]]
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Shripad Naik]]''' {{small|(born 1952) MP for [[North Goa Lok Sabha constituency|North Goa]]}} (Minister of State, I/C)
| 9 November 2014
| 30 May 2019
| rowspan="2"| {{ayd|2014|11|9|2021|1|19}}
| rowspan="3" | [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| [[First Modi ministry|Modi I]]
| rowspan="5" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| rowspan="5" style="width:7em" | [[Narendra Modi]]
|-
| 31 May 2019
| 7 July 2021
| rowspan="2"| [[Second Modi ministry|Modi II]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Sarbananda Sonowal with PM Modi (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Sarbananda Sonowal]]''' {{small|(born 1962) Rajya Sabha MP for [[Assam]]}}
| 7 July 2021
| 10 June 2024
| {{ayd|2021|7|7|2024|6|10}}
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
| [[File:Prataprao Jadhav (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Prataprao Ganpatrao Jadhav]]''' {{small|(born 1960) MP for [[Buldhana Lok Sabha constituency|Buldhana]]}} (Minister of State, I/C)
| 10 June 2024
| Incumbent
| {{ayd|2024|6|10}}
| [[Shiv Sena (2022–present)|Shiv Sena]]
| [[Third Modi ministry|Modi III]]
|-
|}

==Ministers of State==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Portrait
! rowspan="2" style="width:18em" |Minister {{small|(Birth-Death) Constituency}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" style="width:8em" |Political party
! rowspan="2" style="width:6em" | Ministry
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |Prime Minister
|-
! style="width:9em"| From
! style="width:9em"| To
! style="width:6em"| Period
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Mahendra Munjapara with PM Modi (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Mahendra Munjapara]]''' {{small|(born 1968) MP for [[Surendranagar Lok Sabha constituency|Surendranagar]]}}
| 7 July 2021
| 9 June 2024
| {{ayd|2021|7|7|2024|6|9}}
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| [[Second Modi ministry|Modi II]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| style="width:7em"| [[Narendra Modi]]
|-
|}

== Criticism ==

=== Pseudoscience ===
A strong consensus prevails among the scientific community that homeopathy is a pseudo-scientific,<ref name="Tuomela2">{{cite book|author=Tuomela, R|title=Rational Changes in Science |chapter=Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience |publisher=Springer|year=1987|isbn=978-94-010-8181-8|veditors=Pitt JC, Marcello P|series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science|volume=98|pages=83–101|doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4|author-link=Raimo Tuomela}}</ref><ref name="Smith20122">{{cite journal|author=Smith K|year=2012|title=Homeopathy is Unscientific and Unethical|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=9|pages=508–12|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2011.01956.x|s2cid=143067523|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1035885}}</ref><ref name="Baran20142">{{cite book|vauthors=Baran GR, Kiana MF, Samuel SP|title=Healthcare and Biomedical Technology in the 21st Century |chapter=Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How do They Differ? |publisher=Springer|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4614-8540-7|pages=19–57|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-8541-4_2|quote=within the traditional medical community it is considered to be quackery}}</ref><ref name="Ladyman2">{{cite book|title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem|author=Ladyman J|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-05196-3|veditors=Pigliucci M, Boudry M|pages=48–49|chapter=Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience|quote=Yet homeopathy is a paradigmatic example of pseudoscience. It is neither simply bad science nor science fraud, but rather profoundly departs from scientific method and theories while being described as scientific by some of its adherents (often sincerely).}}</ref> unethical<ref name="unethical">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=DM|year=2010|title=Homeopathy is where the harm is: Five unethical effects of funding unscientific 'remedies'|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|volume=36|issue=3|pages=130–31|doi=10.1136/jme.2009.034959|pmid=20211989|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Sample |first=Ian |date=21 July 2008 |title=Pharmacists urged to 'tell the truth' about homeopathic remedies |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/jul/21/pharmacists.homeophathy}}</ref> and implausible line of treatment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Homeopathy: Complementary therapy |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/homeopathy |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=Cancer Research UK}}</ref><ref name="inquiry_cfm">UK Parliamentary Committee Science and Technology Committee - [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmsctech/45/4504.htm "Evidence Check 2: Homeopathy"] February 22, 2010.</ref><ref name="GrimesFACT">{{cite journal|last1=Grimes|first1=D.R.|year=2012|title=Proposed mechanisms for homeopathy are physically impossible|journal=Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies|volume=17|issue=3|pages=149–55|doi=10.1111/j.2042-7166.2012.01162.x}}</ref><ref name="EASAC2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.easac.eu/fileadmin/PDF_s/reports_statements/EASAC_Homepathy_statement_web_final.pdf|title=Homeopathic products and practices: assessing the evidence and ensuring consistency in regulating medical claims in the EU|date=September 2017|work=European Academies' Science Advisory Council|page=1|access-date=1 October 2017|quote=... we agree with previous extensive evaluations concluding that there are no known diseases for which there is robust, reproducible evidence that homeopathy is effective beyond the placebo effect.}}</ref> Ayurveda is deemed to be [[pseudoscientific]]<ref name="psych2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LiJKseis6OYC&pg=PA20|title=Chapter 1: Psychomythology|vauthors=Semple D, Smyth R|work=Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-969388-7|edition=3rd|page=20}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA293|title=Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science|last1=Kaufman|first1=Allison B.|last2=Kaufman|first2=James C.|date=2018-01-12|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-03742-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-10-09 |orig-date=2011 |title=13-10-09 |url=https://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/13-10-09/ |access-date=2019-01-31 |website=Skeptic |language=en-US}}</ref> but is occasionally considered a [[protoscience]], or trans-science system instead.<ref name="Quack-2011">{{cite book|title=Disenchanting India: Organized Rationalism and Criticism of Religion in India|last=Quack|first=Johannes|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-981260-8|pages=3, 213}}</ref><ref name="Paranjape2009">{{cite book|title=Science, Spirituality and the Modernization of India|last=Manohar|first=P. Ram|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2009|isbn=978-1-84331-776-0|editor-last=Paranjape|editor-first=Makarand R.|pages=172–3|chapter=The blending of science and spirituality in the Ayurvedic healing tradition|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey1v6JEmvakC&pg=FA172}}</ref> Naturopathy is considered to be a form of pseudoscientific [[quackery]],<ref name="NaturoUnaniPesudo">Sources documenting the same:

* {{cite journal |last=Atwood |first=Kimball C. IV |year=2003 |title=Naturopathy: A critical appraisal |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/465994 |journal=Medscape General Medicine |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=39 |pmid=14745386}}{{registration required}}
* {{cite journal |last=Atwood IV |first=Kimball. C. |date=26 March 2004 |title=Naturopathy, pseudoscience, and medicine: Myths and fallacies vs truth |journal=Medscape General Medicine |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=33 |pmc=1140750 |pmid=15208545}}
* {{cite news |last1=Harvey |first1=Claire |date=11 July 2015 |title=Don't duck the law by sending kids to quacks |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/opinion/claire-harvey-dont-duck-the-law-by-sending-kids-to-quacks/story-fni0cwl5-1227438195104 |access-date=2 September 2015}}
* {{cite news |last1=Chivers |first1=Tom |date=10 November 2014 |title=How does naturopathy work? A bit like a flying vacuum-cleaner to Mars |work=Spectator |url=http://health.spectator.co.uk/how-does-naturopathy-work-a-bit-like-a-flying-vacuum-cleaner-to-mars/ |access-date=2 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905094710/https://health.spectator.co.uk/how-does-naturopathy-work-a-bit-like-a-flying-vacuum-cleaner-to-mars/ |archive-date=5 September 2017}}
* {{cite book |title=American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies |date=2009 |publisher=American Cancer Society |editor1-last=Russell |editor1-first=Jill |edition=Second |location=Atlanta |pages=116–119 |editor2-last=Rovere |editor2-first=Amy}}</ref> ineffective and possibly harmful,<ref name="SkepDic_natural">{{cite web|url=http://skepdic.com/natural.html|title=Natural|last=Carroll|first=Robert|date=26 November 2012|work=The Skeptic's Dictionary|access-date=2013-09-08}}</ref><ref name="NCAHF_herb">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncahf.org/pp/herbal.html|title=NCAHF Position Paper on Over the Counter Herbal Remedies (1995)|year=1995|publisher=National Council Against Health Fraud|access-date=2009-04-17}}</ref> with numerous [[Medical ethics|ethical concerns]] about the practice.<ref name="atwood2003">{{cite journal|last=Atwood|first=Kimball C. IV|year=2003|title=Naturopathy: A critical appraisal|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/465994|journal=Medscape General Medicine|volume=5|issue=4|page=39|pmid=14745386}}{{registration required}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gorski|first1=David H.|date=18 September 2014|title=Integrative oncology: really the best of both worlds?|journal=Nature Reviews Cancer|volume=14|issue=10|pages=692–700|doi=10.1038/nrc3822|pmid=25230880|s2cid=33539406|ref=Gorski Nature}}</ref><ref name="tot">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWnR1JI7G6gC&pg=PT197|title=Naturopathy|vauthors=Singh S, Ernst E|work=Trick or Treatment?: Alternative Medicine on Trial|publisher=Transworld|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4090-8180-7|pages=197–|quote=many naturopaths are against mainstream medicine and advise their patients accordingly – for instance many are not in favour of vaccination.}}</ref> Much of the research on postural yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality;<ref name="Krisanaprakornkit2010">{{cite journal|last1=Krisanaprakornkit|first1=T.|last2=Ngamjarus|first2=C.|last3=Witoonchart|first3=C.|last4=Piyavhatkul|first4=N.|year=2010|title=Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)|journal=[[Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]|volume=2010 |issue=6|article-number=CD006507|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2|pmid=20556767|pmc=6823216}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ospina|first1=M. B.|last2=Bond|first2=K.|last3=Karkhaneh|first3=M.|display-authors=etal|year=2008|title=Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality|journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine|volume=14|issue=10|pages=199–213|doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0307|pmid=19123875|s2cid=43745958}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Uebelacker|first1=L. A.|last2=Epstein-Lubow|first2=G.|last3=Gaudiano|first3=B. A.|last4=Tremont|first4=G.|last5=Battle|first5=C. L.|last6=Miller|first6=I. W.|year=2010|title=Hatha yoga for depression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Practice|volume=16|issue=1|pages=22–33|doi=10.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.96|pmid=20098228|s2cid=205423922}}</ref> there is no conclusive therapeutic effect except in back pain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wieland|first1=L. Susan|last2=Skoetz|first2=Nicole|last3=Pilkington|first3=Karen|last4=Vempati|first4=Ramaprabhu|last5=D'Adamo|first5=Christopher R|last6=Berman|first6=Brian M|date=2017-01-12|title=Yoga treatment for chronic non-specific low back pain|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2017|issue=1|article-number=CD010671|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010671.pub2|issn=1469-493X|pmc=5294833|pmid=28076926}}</ref> Unani lacks [[biological plausibility]] and is considered to be pseudoscientific quackery, as well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hall |first=Harriet |date=August 14, 2018 |title=Naturopathy Textbook |url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/naturopathy-textbook/ |access-date=2020-01-16 |website=sciencebasedmedicine.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bellamy |first=Jann |date=December 27, 2012 |title=Naturopathy Embraces the Four Humors |url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/naturopathy-embraces-the-four-humors/ |access-date=2020-01-16 |website=sciencebasedmedicine.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

There is no credible efficacy or scientific basis for any of these forms of treatment.<ref name="AYUSHPseudo">Sources that criticize the entirety of AYUSH as a pseudo-scientific venture:

* {{Cite news |last=Shrinivasan |first=Rukmini |date=2015-04-26 |title=Questions over science swirl, but AYUSH stands firm |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sunday-anchor/medicine-wars-homeopathy-allopathy-ayurveda-unani-in-india/article10792873.ece |access-date=2019-01-22 |issn=0971-751X}}
* {{Cite news |last=Krishnan |first=Vidya |title=AYUSH Ministry rails against global study on homeopathy |language=en |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/policy-and-issues/ayush-ministry-rails-against-global-study-on-homeopathy/article8561466.ece |access-date=2017-05-24}}
* {{Cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=Ruchi |date=December 12, 2018 |title=Indian academia is fighting a toxic mix of nationalism and pseudoscience |url=https://qz.com/india/1492838/how-scientists-are-fighting-fake-news-and-superstition-in-india/ |access-date=2019-01-31 |publisher=[[Undark Magazine]] |language=en |via=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz India]]}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kaufman |first1=Allison B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwFKDwAAQBAJ |title=Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science |last2=Kaufman |first2=James C. |date=2018-01-12 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-03742-6 |page=293 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Research ====
Two systematic reviews, one by ''[[The Lancet]]'' in 2005 and the other by the Australian government's [[National Health and Medical Research Council]] (NHMRC) in 2015, found no evidence that homeopathy was more effective than a placebo.<ref name=":1" /> In a comprehensive review of alternative medicine (including ayurveda and homeopathy) conducted in 2000, the [[UK House of Lords]] Committee on Science and Technology was unable to find evidence to support the value of these treatments. [[Randomized control trials]] or RCTs for ayurveda and homeopathy have been extremely limited as of 2017.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sunday-anchor/medicine-wars-homeopathy-allopathy-ayurveda-unani-in-india/article10792873.ece|title=Questions over science swirl, but AYUSH stands firm|last=Shrinivasan|first=Rukmini|date=2015-04-26|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-01-22|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Multiple systemic reviews have highlighted several methodological problems with the studies and trials conducted by Ayush and its associates in relation to developing an ayurvedic drug for diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Misra|first1=Anoop|last2=Gulati|first2=Seema|last3=Luthra|first3=Atul|year=2016|title=Alternative medicines for diabetes in India: Maximum hype, minimum science|journal=The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology|volume=4|issue=4|pages=302–303|doi=10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00515-X|pmid=27016323|doi-access=free}}</ref> A tendency to publish in dubious predatory journals and [[Replication crisis|non-reproducibility]] by independent studies has also been noted.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/big-claims-little-evidence/article22847938.ece|title=Big claims, little evidence|last=Pulla|first=Priyanka|date=2018-02-25|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-12-16|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'' reported in 2015 that India had yet to conduct a systematic review of any of the systems of medicine under the purview of Ayush.<ref name=":1" />

==== Drugs ====
The ministry (in conjunction with other national laboratories) has been subject to heavy criticism for developing, advocating and commercializing multiple sham-drugs ([[BGR-34]], IME9, Dalzbone, Ayush-64 et al.) and treatment-regimes for a variety of diseases including dengue,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-09-11 |title=Homoeopathy pills to check spread of dengue |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/homoeopathy-pills-to-check-spread-of-dengue/article24920323.ece |access-date=2019-01-22 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chandna |first=Himani |date=16 April 2018 |title=India could have the solution to cure dengue by next year: an ayurvedic pill |work=[[ThePrint]] |url=https://theprint.in/governance/india-could-have-the-solution-to-cure-dengue-by-next-year-an-ayurvedic-pill/50136/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-17 |title=Ayurvedic dengue cure: Indian scientists create first of its kind drug to treat the disease |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/health/ayurvedic-dengue-cure-indian-scientists-create-first-of-its-kind-drug-to-treat-the-disease/story-7JE1Qj4u0ptwbTLg6gOh9K.html |access-date=2019-01-22 |website=Hindustan Times |publisher=PTI |language=en}}</ref> chikungunya, swine flu,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-01-28 |title=Swine flu prevention: homeo pills effective, say officials |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/swine-flu-prevention-homeo-pills-effective-say-officials/article6828096.ece |access-date=2019-01-23 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> asthma, autism,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaikh |first=Sumaiya |date=2018-05-15 |title=Do the AYUSH based treatments for autism stand up to scientific scrutiny? |url=https://www.altnews.in/do-the-ayush-promoted-alternative-treatments-for-autism-stand-up-to-scientific-scrutiny/ |access-date=2019-01-22 |website=Alt News |language=en-GB}}</ref> diabetes, malaria,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.altnews.in/the-inefficacy-of-ayush-64-the-anti-malarial-ayurvedic-drug-developed-by-ministry-of-ayush/|title=The inefficacy of AYUSH-64, the anti-malarial Ayurvedic drug developed by Ministry of AYUSH|last=Mittal|first=Shivani|date=2019-01-29|website=Alt News|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-01-31}}</ref> AIDS,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-04-05 |title=A homeopathic experiment gives hope for treatment of AIDS |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/a-homeopathic-experiment-gives-hope-for-treatment-of-aids-115040200877_1.html |access-date=2019-01-23}}</ref> cancer,<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 8, 2017 |title=Ministry of Ayush Develops drugs for Dengue, Cancer |work=United News of India |url=http://www.uniindia.com/ministry-of-ayush-develops-drugs-for-dengue-cancer/parliament/news/954245.html |url-access=limited}}</ref> [[COVID-19]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Karthikeyan |first=Ragamalika |date=2021-05-22 |title=Why the push for AYUSH is harmful: Narendra Nayak interview |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/why-push-ayush-harmful-narendra-nayak-interview-149330 |access-date=2021-05-23 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Thapar |first=Karan |date=2021-04-30 |title=COVID in India: 35 Questions for K. VijayRaghavan, V.K. Paul and Balram Bhargava |url=https://science.thewire.in/the-sciences/covid-in-india-35-questions-for-k-vijayraghavan-balram-bhargava-and-v-k-paul/ |access-date=2021-05-23 |website=The Wire |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Pulla |first1=Priyanka |last2=October 15, 2020 |date=2020-10-15 |title='A fraud on the nation': critics blast Indian government's promotion of traditional medicine for COVID-19 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/fraud-nation-critics-blast-indian-government-s-promotion-traditional-medicine-covid-19 |access-date=2021-05-23 |website=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |language=en}}</ref> and others despite an absence of rigorous pharmacological studies and meaningful clinical trials.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Patwardhan|first1=Bhushan|year=2016|title=Ayurvedic drugs in case: Claims, evidence, regulations and ethics|journal=Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine|volume=7|issue=3|pages=135–137|doi=10.1016/j.jaim.2016.08.005|pmid=27640330|pmc=5052386}}</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Rukmini |first=S. |date=2017-08-09 |title=7 Scientific Pieces Of 'Propaganda Against Homeopathy' That The Government Might Need To Consider |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/08/09/7-scientific-pieces-of-propaganda-against-homeopathy-that-the_a_23071517/ |access-date=2019-01-23 |website=HuffPost India |language=en}}</ref>

A 2018 systematic review of traditional and AYUSH medicine noted the existing regulations to be inadequate for ensuring the safety, quality, efficacy and standardized rational use of these forms of treatment. Researchers also noted a lack of monitoring for adverse effects from the usage of these drugs and of contraindication trials.<ref name="De Gruyter Online – academic publishing 2018" />

The ministry recommended the herb [[Tinospora cordifolia|giloy]] as an "immune booster against" COVID-19<ref>{{cite news|title=Mumbai: Study says liver damage likely due to autoimmune response to giloy|work=Mumbai News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-study-says-liver-damage-likely-due-to-autoimmune-response-to-giloy/articleshow/84104472.cms|date=4 July 2021|author=Malathy Iyer}}</ref> and issued multiple press releases during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] claiming the herb was safe. Later, multiple cases of [[liver damage]] were found in those with a history of giloy consumption.<ref name="DH Ray">{{cite news |last=Ray |first=Kalyan |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/ayurvedic-drug-backed-by-ayush-ministry-causes-liver-damage-says-study-1088604.html |title=Ayurvedic drug backed by AYUSH Ministry causes liver damage, says study |date=6 March 2022 |work=Deccan Herald |publisher=The Printers, Mysore}}</ref>
The ministry backed its statement by pointing out that neither the content of the herb usage nor the authenticity of the plant, which could be identified with similar-looking plants, was analyzed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1733260 |title=Relating Giloy to Liver Damage is completely Misleading, Says Ministry of Ayush |date=2021-07-07 |website=Ayush}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Liver injury seen in patients using excessive herbal immune boosters like giloy in Covid time |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/coronavirus-outbreak/story/liver-injury-excess-giloy-herbal-home-remedy-treatment-covid-1824248-2021-07-05 |last=Mordani |first=Sneha |date=2021-07-06}}</ref>

==== Miscellaneous ====
''[[The Washington Post]]'' noted the efforts behind the revival of Ayurveda as a part of the ruling party's rhetoric of restoring India's past glory.<ref name=":14" /> It also noted that the Ayurveda industry was largely non-standardized and that its critics associated the aggressive integration of Ayurveda into healthcare services with the Hindu nationalist ideology of the ruling party.<ref name=":14" /> There have been allegations coming out of [[Freedom of information|right-to-information]] requests that it is the Ayush ministries official policy to not hire Muslims as trainers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-03-12|title=Ayush minister rejects RTI response of no-Muslim hire policy|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/we-don-t-recruit-muslims-modi-government-s-ayush-ministry/story-n31ky0RXYRcXk7s7eRYSVK.html|access-date=2020-06-20|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

Some researchers have argued that the provision of Ayush services is an example of "forced pluralism" which often leads to disbursal of incompetent healthcare services by unqualified practitioners.<ref name="De Gruyter Online – academic publishing 2018" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=Helen E.|year=2009|title=Medical pluralism in India: patient choice or no other options? {{!}} Indian Journal of Medical Ethics|journal=[[Indian Journal of Medical Ethics]]|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=138–41|doi=10.20529/ijme.2009.045|pmid=19653589|s2cid=6339140|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ayushman Bharat has been noted to increase privatization of state healthcare facilities and compel rural populace into preferentially choosing alternative medicine, raising concerns about ethics.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://caravanmagazine.in/perspective/all-not-well-modi-flagship-health-scheme|title=All is not well with Modi's flagship health scheme|last=Singh|first=Jyotsna|date=1 March 2019|website=[[The Caravan]]|language=en|access-date=2019-12-07|archive-date=7 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207155558/https://caravanmagazine.in/perspective/all-not-well-modi-flagship-health-scheme}}</ref> The proposal of integrating Ayush with western medicine has been criticized.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.altnews.in/dangerous-ayush-practitioners-prescribe-modern-medicine/|title=Why is it dangerous for AYUSH practitioners to prescribe modern medicine?|last=Shaikh|first=Dr Sumaiya|date=2018-01-13|website=Alt News|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-01-22}}</ref> The [[Indian Medical Association]] (IMA) has expressed strong opposition to [[integrated medicine]],<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-06 |title=Ayush doctors support NMC bill, hold rally |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ayush-doctors-support-nmc-bill-hold-rally-75976 |access-date=2019-01-22 |website=The News Minute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Isalkar |first=Umesh |date=January 2, 2018 |title=Bridge course for Ayush practitioners draws ire |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/bridge-course-for-ayush-practitioners-draws-ire/articleshow/62329736.cms |access-date=2019-01-22 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name=":14" /> often by using the term "mixopathy".<ref name="Sirur_2/2022">{{Cite web |last=Sirur |first=Simrin |date=2022-02-19 |title=Don't call practitioners of Indian medicine 'quacks', have rights under law, says Commission |url=https://theprint.in/health/dont-call-practitioners-of-indian-medicine-quacks-have-rights-under-law-says-commission/838476/ |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=[[ThePrint]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Taskin |first=Bismee |date=2020-12-08 |title='No point mixing all in one' — IMA to fight govt move to allow Ayurveda doctors to do surgery |url=https://theprint.in/health/no-point-mixing-all-in-one-ima-to-fight-govt-move-to-allow-ayurveda-doctors-to-do-surgery/562449/ |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=[[ThePrint]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2020 and 2021, the IMA held nationwide protests to demonstrate against federal changes issued by the Ministry of Ayush that permit ayurvedic practitioners to perform minor surgical procedures.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jamkhandikar |first=Shilpa |date=2020-12-11 |title=One million Indian doctors on strike to protest surgeries by traditional practitioners |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-strike-idUSKBN28L17D |access-date=2022-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Prachi |date=August 12, 2020 |title=The Contest Between AYUSH and Allopathy Shouldn't Forget Public Health |url=https://science.thewire.in/health/ministry-of-ayush-mixopathy-ayurveda-allopathy-indian-medical-association-doctors-shortage-rural-areas-public-health/ |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=The Wire |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=Dinesh C. |date=2021-02-13 |title=Indian Medical Association launches hunger strike |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(21)00363-9/abstract |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=397 |issue=10274 |page=567 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00363-9 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=33581811 |s2cid=231885079|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The ministry had attracted widespread criticism after publishing a pamphlet titled ''Mother and Child Care through Yoga and Naturopathy'' which asked pregnant women to abstain from eating meat and eggs, shun desire and lust, hang beautiful photos in the bedroom and to nurture spiritual and 'pure' thoughts among other advice.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Rathee |first=Pranshu |date=2018-11-20 |title=What is AYUSH and the controversy around it? |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/what-ayush-and-controversy-703993.html |access-date=2019-01-22 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Pandey |first=Geeta |date=2017-06-21 |title=Reality Check: Should pregnant women shun meat and lust? |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40341898 |access-date=2019-01-22}}</ref> In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, the ministry recommended ''[[arsenicum album|Arsenicum album 30]]'' as a preventive drug; the claim was without any scientific basis or evidence, and was widely criticized.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.altnews.in/no-homeopathic-drug-arsenicum-album-30-cannot-prevent-coronavirus-infection-as-claimed-by-ayush-ministry/|title=No, homeopathic drug 'Arsenicum album 30' cannot prevent Coronavirus infection, as claimed by AYUSH ministry|last=Shaikh|first=Dr Sumaiya|date=2020-01-31|website=Alt News|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-02-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/coronavirus-highly-irresponsible-on-the-part-of-ayush-ministry-to-prescribe-unani-medicines/article30692601.ece|title=Coronavirus {{!}} Highly irresponsible on the part of AYUSH Ministry to prescribe Unani medicines|last=Prasad|first=R.|date=2020-01-30|work=The Hindu|access-date=2020-02-05|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-how-to-read-the-ayush-ministry-advisory-on-coronavirus-infection-6241438/|title=Explained: How to read the AYUSH ministry advisory on coronavirus infection|date=2020-01-30|website=The Indian Express|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-05}}</ref>

=== Response ===
The ministry rejected the [[National Health and Medical Research Council|NHMRC]]'s 2016 study on homeopathy which was regarded as the most rigorous and reliable investigation into homeopathy to date.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/policy-and-issues/ayush-ministry-rails-against-global-study-on-homeopathy/article8561466.ece|title=AYUSH Ministry rails against global study on homeopathy|last=Krishnan|first=Vidya|date=2016-05-05|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-01-23|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ernst |first=Edzard |date=2017-05-28 |title=Homeopathy: the NHMRC report revisited |url=https://edzardernst.com/2017/05/homeopathy-the-nhmrc-report-revisited/ |access-date=2019-01-23 |website=edzardernst.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2017, the ministry set up a committee at the [[Central Council for Research in Homeopathy]] (CCRH) to counter claimed ''western propaganda'' against homeopathy; the committee was ill-received.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/latest/846578/centre-sets-up-committee-to-deal-with-false-propaganda-against-homeopathy|title=Centre sets up committee to deal with false propaganda against homoeopathy|author=Scroll Staff|website=Scroll.in|date=8 August 2017 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-23}}</ref><ref name=":9" />

== Reception ==
A NSSO survey in 2014 found that only 6.9% of the population favored Ayush (3.5% ISM and 3.0% homeopathy) over conventional mainstream medicine and that the urban population was slightly more conducive to seeking Ayush forms of treatment than their rural counterparts; another survey in 2016 reiterated the same findings, approximately.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/90-of-Indians-prefer-allopathy-over-AYUSH/articleshow/47981441.cms|title=90% of Indians prefer allopathy over AYUSH - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=8 July 2015 |access-date=2019-01-22}}</ref><ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/health-and-fitness/people-want-modern-medicine-not-miracle-cures/story-TqBXj2AZAnk8Nbj41z5V5I.html|title=People want modern medicine, not miracle cures|date=2016-05-22|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2020-01-15}}</ref> A 2014 study did not report any significant difference between the usage of Ayush services by rural and urban populace, after adjusting for socioeconomic and demographic variables.<ref name=":10" /> Low-income households exhibited the highest tendency for Ayush followed by high-income households and on an overall, Ayush lines of treatment were majorly used to treat chronic diseases.<ref name=":10" /> The treatments were more used among females in rural India but no gender-differential was observed in the urban populations.<ref name=":10" /> Chhattisgarh (15.4%), Kerala (13.7%), and West Bengal (11.6%) displayed the highest Ayush utilization levels.<ref name=":10" />

A 2018 review article noted that the states exhibited differential preference for particular Ayush systems. Ayurveda and Siddha respectively show greater popularities in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Unani was well received in Hyderabad region and among Muslims whilst homeopathy was highly popular in Bengal and Odisha. It further noted that the preference among the general population for usage of Ayush revolved around a perceived "distrust or frustration with modern medicine, cost effectiveness, accessibility, non-availability of other options and less side effects of Ayush medicines".<ref name="De Gruyter Online – academic publishing 2018" />

== See also ==

* [[Department of Ayush (Kerala)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://ayush.gov.in/ Ministry of Ayush, Official website]

{{Pseudoscience}}{{Union ministries of India}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Government ministries of India|A]]
[[Category:Ministry of Ayush]]
[[Category:2014 establishments in Delhi]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine organizations]]

History of Pulicat

2026-03-13T21:46:18Z

Loz12: Created some post w/ sources

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
[[File:Negapatnam van Choromandel.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Dutch trading ships on the Coromandel Coast [[Wiktionary:circa|Circa]] 1680]]
The '''History of Pulicat''' revolves around the early role of [[Pulicat]] as a [[Port|seaport]] in one of the few [[Harbor#Natural harbors|natural harbour]]s on the [[Coromandel Coast]] of [[South India]]. Pulicat is in [[Tamil Nadu]] at the mouth of [[Pulicat lake]]. Worth a visit to AARDE Pulicat Museum located in Kottai Kuppam road at Pazhaverkadu will give the detailed account on the history of Pulicat.

==Summary==
Described as a grand port, starting with early 300 [[BCE]] history till the 15th century, Pulicat figured prominently as [[Tamil people#Classical period|Tamil]], [[History of Andhra Pradesh#Ikshvakus|Telugu]] and [[Tamil Nadu#Delhi Sultanate|Muslim]] rulers fought to garner benefits from rich port revenues.
Thereafter, some [[Islamic economics in the world#Classical Muslim commerce|Arab]]s and [[Portuguese Empire#Height of Empire .281494-1580.29|Portuguese]], followed by the [[Dutch India|Dutch]] and the [[British Raj|British]] dominated the port till 1825.
In the early 16th century, it had a multi-cultural population exceeding 50,000 and was the most important Indian port on the [[Bay of Bengal]].
Later, it was a fishing village and a health resort under British rule.<ref name=Caste7275>Pandian pp.72–75</ref>

In the 17th century, Dutch agents in Pulicat operated a large [[Slavery in India#Under early European colonial powers|Slave trade]] along the Coromandel Coast. Between 1621 and 1665 alone, over 38,000 slaves were shipped from central Coromandel ports, including Pulicat, [[Madras]], [[Nagapatnam]] and Devanampatnam.

The history of Pulicat is traced to eight periods of Indian kings and foreign [[Colonial India|colonialists]] between the 3rd century BCE and the present [[History of the Republic of India|post independence period]].
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Period
! Kingdoms/Rulers
|-
| 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE
| [[Ancient Tamil country#Ancient Tamil kingdoms|Ancient Tamil kingdom]]s
|-
| 3rd to 10th century
| The [[Pallava]] Period & first Arab settlement in the 9th century
|-
| 10th to 12th century
| The [[Chola]] Period
|-
| 13th to 17th century
| [[Vijayanagara Empire]] & Arab migrants
|-
| 1502 to 1606
| Vijayanagara Empire & [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] outpost
|-
| 1606 to 1825
| [[Dutch East India Company]] Trading center & Vijayanagara Empire
|-
| 1825 to 1947
| [[British Raj]] outpost
|-
| Post independence Period
| [[History of the Republic of India|Republic of India]], fishing village
|-
|}

==Early history (300 BCE – 1279 CE)==
[[File:TabulaPeutingerianaIndo-Scythia.jpg|thumb|300px|c. 250 CE map of South India following cartography of [[Ptolemy]] shows ''Tabrobane'' ([[Sri Lanka]]), at the bottom, ''Muziris'' ([[Musiri]] town), ''R. dunes'' ([[Kaveri]] river) below ''R. Palerif'' ([[Palar]] river) and the ''R. Ganges'' ([[Ganges]] river).
<ref>{{cite book |last=Milleri|first=Conradi|title=Tabula Peutingeriana|publisher=BIBLIOTHECA AUGUSTANA ca. 250|date=1887–1888|url=http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost03/Tabula/tab_pe14.html}}</ref>]]

===Ancient Tamil Kingdoms===
From the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century XE, Pulicat was a northern outpost of the [[Ancient Tamil country#Ancient Tamil kingdoms|Ancient Tamil kingdom]]s of the [[Early Cholas]], the [[Early Pandyan Kingdom]] and the [[Chera Dynasty#Sangam Cheras|Sangam Cheras]].
<ref name = "Natarajan72">Natarajan p. 72</ref> In the 1st century, the anonymous mariner who wrote [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] listed ''Podouke'' (Pulicat) as one of the three ports on the east coast of India.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nambiar |first=O.K. |title="AN ILLUSTRATED MARITIME HISTORY OF INDIAN OCEAN" HIGHLIGHTING THE MARITIME HISTORY OF THE EASTERN SEA BOARD |chapter=the Cholas |year=2006 |url=http://www.pfr2006.nic.in/MaritimeHistory3.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619060909/http://www.pfr2006.nic.in/MaritimeHistory3.htm |archive-date=19 June 2009 }}</ref>
In the 2nd century, [[Ptolomey]]'s list of ports on this coast included Podouke emporion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Francis|first=Peter|title=Asia's Maritime Bead Trade: 300 B.C. to the Present p. 33|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|year=2002|page=305|isbn= 978-0-8248-2332-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzZBdGQN_TIC&q=Podouke&pg=PA33}}</ref>

===Pallava and Chola periods===
In the 3rd century, Pulicat came under the power of the [[Pallava]] kings to the north.<ref name = "Natarajan72"/> In the 7th century, during the Pallava period, Pulicat was named ''Mamalla Pattinam'' indicating it was an important coastal city worthy enough to carry the coronation title of a King.<ref>Azariah pp.34–35</ref> In the 11th century, during the [[Medieval Cholas#Golden Era|Golden Era]] of the [[Medieval Cholas]] an important [[Shiva]] Temple was built by [[Rajendra Chola]] on the Arani River, {{convert|4|km|mi}} southwest of the lake at Tirupalaivanam near Pulicat.<ref name="CRENIEO2">Azariah p.10</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Sewell|first=Robert|title=Lists of the Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras |publisher=E. Keys, at the Government Press|location=Madras|orig-date=1882 |date=22 January 2008 |series= Item notes: v. 1|page = [https://archive.org/details/listsantiquaria00sewegoog/page/n188 173]|url=https://archive.org/details/listsantiquaria00sewegoog|quote= Tirupalaivanam.}} Original from Harvard University.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Krishnan|first=Shamala |url=https://shamalakrishnan.blogspot.com/2008/03/temples-of-north-chennai.html|title=Thirupalaivanam: Siva temple built by Rajendra Chola|year= 2008|access-date=2008-11-29}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>Wikimapia: [http://wikimapia.org/1103887/Thirupalaivanam-Sivan-Koil Thirupalaivanam-Sivan-Koil]</ref>

===Arab migrants===
In the 9th century, Pulicat contained settlements of Arab maritime traders.<ref name = Caste7275/> In the 13th century, [[Islamic calendar|A.H.]] 668 (1269 CE),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rabiah.com/convert/convert.php3|title=Gregorian-Hijri Dates Converter|last=Muhanna|first=Waleed|author2=Tawfig Alrabiah|date=1992-12-08|publisher=rabiah.com|access-date=2008-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209053825/http://www.rabiah.com/convert/convert.php3|archive-date=2008-12-09}}</ref> [[Arabic]] [[Suni]]-[[Shafi]] Khadems from [[Medina]] migrated to the shores of this lake after they were banished from [[Mecca]] for refusing to pay tributes to a new [[Caliph]]. They adopted the [[Tamil language]] and became leading traders in the area.<ref name=Caste130>Pandian p.130</ref> From 1225 to 1275, Arab ships transporting tin from [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]] to [[Die, Drôme|Die]], [[Oman]] or [[Dhufar]] regularly stopped at Pulicat.<ref>{{cite book|last=Blanchard|first=Ian|title=Mining, Metallurgy and Minting in the Middle Ages|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|year=2001|isbn= 978-3-515-07967-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vE30pXxiLFUC&q=pulicat+%22twelfth+century%22&pg=PA901|page = 901}}</ref> In the 12th and 13th century, as a result of their trade links with [[Arabian Peninsula]] and [[Indian Ocean]] ports, Pulicat and other Coromandal port towns came to be identified as centers of formal [[Islam]] in South India.
A significant number of their [[Tamil Muslims|Tamil speaking community]] were classed as "permanent professing Muslims".<ref name="saint">Bayly p. 78</ref> In the early 16th century, a Muslim named ''Cajole'' was the Port Captain of Pulicat.<ref name=Zupanov>Županov p. 100</ref> Streets with dilapidated masonry houses, once occupied by these [[Arabian]] Muslims, are still found in the area. Some remaining resident families claim records in Arabic testifying their migration to this area.<ref name = hindu/><ref name="plans">{{cite web|url=http://www.pulicatlake.net/plans.htm|title=Alternative Development Paradigm|author=CRENIEO|year=2005|work=Proposed preplanning activities|publisher=CRENIEO|access-date=2008-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120182109/http://www.pulicatlake.net/plans.htm |archive-date=2008-11-20}}</ref>

==Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)==
In 1336, at the beginning of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], during the reign of the early [[Sangama Dynasty]] kings [[Harihara Raya I]] and [[Bukka Raya I]], the area now called Pulicat was known as ''Pralaya Kaveri''.<ref name = vijay>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TDOZ6A4HRz0C&q=Vijayanagara+Empire a Forgotten Empire by Robert Sewell, Fernão Nunes, Domingos Paes Ppp 1,2] pp.7,25</ref> In 1422, at the beginning of the reign of [[Deva Raya II]] this port city was renamed ''Anandarayan Pattinam'' after the new governor Anandaraya. This name was retained till 1521, when it was changed to ''Palaverkadu'' during the reign of [[Krishnadevaraya]].<ref name="CRENIEO3">Azariah pp.35–41, 48</ref>

[[File:Vijayanagara.jpg|thumb|Krishnadevaraya ruled Pulicat 1509–1529]]
In the 15th and early 16th century, Pulicat rose to importance due to stabilization of the Vijayanagar empire and firm links, including a road, to the great imperial capital of Vijayanagara.<ref>''Subrahmanyam'' p.94</ref> In this period, Pulicat was the most important port in southeast India.<ref>{{cite book|last=Asher |first= Catherine Ella Blanshard |author2=Cynthia Talbot|title=India before Europe|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=2006|page=313|chapter=Southern India 1350 – 1550|isbn= 978-0-521-80904-7|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&q=pulicat+textiles&pg=RA1-PA80}}</ref><ref name="Portuguese">{{cite book|last=Bethencourt|first=Francisco |author2=Diogo Ramada Curto|title=Portuguese Oceanic Expansion|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|page=556|isbn= 978-0-521-84644-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxaCsSfdPXMC&q=Portuguese+Oceanic+Expansion,+1400-1800}}</ref> It was a well-developed trading center thought to have a population exceeding 50,000. The Coromandal coast was a major producer of textiles and yarns for export to [[Melaka]] and [[Burma]], and ''Anandarayan Pattinam'' was the port from which they were shipped.<ref name="Sanjay">Subrahmanyan p. 23</ref> During this period, in Pulicat there was also a great industry for cutting and polishing precious stones as diamonds, sapphires and rubies procured from the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], [[Ceylon]] and [[Pegu]] (Burma).<ref>{{cite book|last=Rahman|first=M. M.|title=Encyclopaedia of Historiography|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|year=2006|isbn= 978-81-261-2305-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZCv3d2XUeUC| page = 96}}</ref>

In 1505, Pulicat was stated to be the most active and richest port on the Coromandel Coast.From here there was a barter trade which included exchange of local colored cotton goods for precious rubies from Burma and elephants from [[Ceylon]].The Pulicat Governor, appointed by the Raja of Vijayanagar, collected duties on these transactions.<ref name=Lach>Lach pp. ?</ref> In 1532, it was recorded that [[property tax]] was levied in Pulicat on a graded scale and [[sales tax]] was levied on rice and paddy, oil and [[ghee]], [[jaggery]], pepper, turmeric, [[Areca nut|betal nut]], [[gallnut]], sugar, [[cumin]], [[fenugreek]], dry ginger and textiles. [[Import tax]]es on commodities and [[Tariff|export tax]]es on cloth and corn were also levied.<ref>Azariah pp. 40,41,49</ref>

After the 1556, [[Battle of Talikota]] resulted in a decline of the Vijayanagar Empire, [[Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah Wali]], the third ruler of the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Kingdom of Golkonda]] took control of ''Palaverkadu''. In 1570, the new king [[Tirumala Deva Raya]] divided the kingdom and allowed [[Sriranga Deva Raya]] to rule the area. ''Palaverkadu'' was renamed as ''Prelaya Kaveri''.<ref>Azariah p.13</ref>

[[File:Raja Mahal, Chandragiri.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Chandragiri Fort from where Venkatapati Deva Raya reigned and his wife Oboyoma ruled Pulicat]]
In 1586, Oboyoma, the favorite queen of [[Venkatapati Deva Raya]], the Vijayanagaar emperor, now operating from the new capital at [[Chandragiri]], was bequeathed Pulicat to rule.
She gave aid to Portuguese [[Jesuit]]s to build a residence at Pulicat.

After the death of Venkatapati Deva Raya in 1614 and a succession struggle, his son [[Rama Deva Raya|Ramadeva]] became king in 1617 and named his father in-law Ethiraja as master of Pulicat.<ref name= Caste7275/> At the time of his death, the King had no less than three large chests full of diamonds in his possession.<ref>Sewell et al. p.399</ref> In 1616, the [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty|Madurai Nayak]] ruler [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty#Muttu Virappa .281609.E2.80.941623.29|Muttu Virappa]] paid a tribute of 600,000 [[Pagoda (coin)|Pagodas]] to Venkatapati Deva Raya at Chandragiri.<ref>Sewell et al. p.385</ref>

==European trading outpost (1502–1825)==

===Portuguese trading outpost===
In 1502, the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] traders established a trading outpost here during the rule of Krishnadeva Raya and soon dominated the port until 1560.<ref>''Bethencourt'' p.211</ref>
These private merchants were out of reach of the official authority in [[Goa]] and some were viewed as renegades, bandits and pirates.<ref>''Županov'' p.101</ref> In 1515, they built a church dedicated to Nossa Senhora dos Prazeres (''Our Lady of Joys'') which was renamed to ''Our Lady of Glory''. It is the oldest church in the present Madras-Mylapore [[Diocese]] and is still used, but in poor condition.<ref name = plans/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2004/10/29/stories/2004102903361000.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041126001151/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2004/10/29/stories/2004102903361000.htm|archive-date=26 November 2004|title=Ancient church on the shore|last= SANJEEVA RAJ|first=P. J.|date=29 October 2004|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2008-11-30}}</ref>

In 1520, there were 200 – 300 Portuguese inhabitants in Palaverkadu.<ref>''Županov'' pp. 91, 94</ref>
By 1545, there were 600 – 700 families and from 1565 their population was in decline.
<ref name="Marco">{{cite web|url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/population.html |title=Population of the Portuguese Settlements in India |last=Ramerini |first=Marco |date=2006-02-12 |work=Dutch Portuguese Colonial History |publisher=colonialvoyage.com |access-date=2008-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224134830/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/population.html |archive-date=2008-12-24 }}</ref> By 1600, Pulicat had only two or three thousand residents.<ref>{{cite book|last= Prakash|first=Om|title=European Commercial Expansion in Early Modern Asia|publisher=Variorum|year=1997|isbn= 978-0-86078-508-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkWGAAAAIAAJ&q=dutch+ship+pulicat|page = 57}}</ref>

===Dutch trading center===
[[File:Pulicat, Aerial view of Pellacata-1682.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of ''Pellacata'' Circa. 1656<ref name="CRENIEO4 ">Azariah pp. 63–68</ref>]]

In 1606, a Dutch ship stopped on the shores of the ''Karimanal'' Village, north of the mouth of the lake requesting water.<ref name=Caste131>Pandian p.131</ref> Local Muslims offered food and help to the Dutch. They struck a trade partnership to procure and supply local merchandise to the Dutch for trade in the [[East Indies]].<ref name = hindu>{{cite news|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2003/10/19/stories/2003101900280700.htm|title=... and a placid Pulicat experience|last=SANJEEVA RAJ|first=P.J.|date=19 October 2003|work=The Hindu|access-date=2008-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826092210/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mag/2003/10/19/stories/2003101900280700.htm|archive-date=26 August 2010|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Queen Eraivi, a wife of King [[Venkata II]], ruled ''Prelaya Kaveri'' and during her reign in 1608 the Dutch East India Company (''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or (VOC), was given [[Venkata II#Arrival of Dutch|permission]] to build a fort and do trading.<ref name="CRENIEO2"/>
They built a fort named ''[[Fort Geldria|Geldria]]'' at Pulicat as a defense from local kings and the Portuguese, from where they soon monopolized the lucrative textiles trade with the East Indies and other countries in the region.<ref name="Pandianpp">Pandian pp.?</ref> Under pressure from the Dutch, an English trading post established in 1619 was disbanded in 1622.<ref name=Caste73>Pandian p.73</ref> The Dutch establishment here met with early stiff resistance from the Portuguese, including several attacks on the harbor. In 1611, Venkatatapati turned against the Portuguese and the Jesuits were ordered to leave Chandragiri and the Dutch were permitted to build a fort at Pulicat.

In 1614, subsequent to the death of Venkatapati and taking advantage of a predicament in naming his successor, the Portuguese attacked the Dutch at Pulicat.<ref>Lach pp. 1008–1011</ref> In 1623, the Portuguese attacked the harbor and burned two ships.<ref name="trading">Mukund p. 57</ref> In 1633, the Portuguese again attacked the Dutch at Pulicat with a promise of land support from the Vijayanagar ruler which never materialized. After the Portuguese had withdrawn their fleet, the Vijayanagara King (Sri Ranga) residing at Ratnagiri then attacked the Dutch at Pulicat but was paid a handsome tribute by the Dutch. Thereafter, the Dutch were not troubled.<ref>Sewell et al. pp.232,233</ref>

[[File:Een aantal Oostindiëvaarders voor de kust Rijksmuseum SK-A-3108.jpeg|thumb|Dutch East-India trading ship 1600]]

[[File:AMH-5576-NA Map of the fort at Paliacatte.jpg|thumb|Map of the fort at Paliacatte<ref>Nationaal Archief, Den Haag, Verzameling Buitenlandse Kaarten Leupe, nummer toegang 4.VEL, inventarisnummer 1092: http://www.gahetna.nl/collectie/archief/inventaris/index/eadid/4.VEL/inventarisnr/1092/level/file</ref>]]

During the Dutch occupation Pulicat was known by the name ''Pallaicatta''<ref name=CRENIEO3/>
From 1616 to 1690, Pulicat was the official headquarters of [[Dutch Coromandel]].
It then shifted to [[Nagapatnam|Negapatnam]] but with ceding of Negapatnam to the British in 1784, the headquarters shifted back to Pulicat.<ref name="mint">{{cite web|url=http://lakdiva.org/coins/dutch_india/pulicat_cud.html|title=Paliakate – VOC Kas Copper Dumps, 1646 – 1794 – Dutch India]|author=Kavan Ratnatunga|author-link=Kavan Ratnatunga|year=2006|work=Dutch India coins – Pulicat|publisher=lakdiva.org|access-date=2008-12-02|archive-date=8 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208062745/http://lakdiva.org/coins/dutch_india/pulicat_cud.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The VOC was established to protect Dutch trade in the East Indies and fight their enemies from Europe who wished to enter east India trade.
They held power for 200 years as the largest trading company. The trading involved spices including [[nutmeg]], [[cloves]], [[cinnamon]], [[Black pepper|pepper]], and [[tea]], [[silk]] and [[Porcelain#Chinese porcelain|Chinese porcelain]].<ref name=VOC>{{cite web|url=http://www.indohistory.com/the_dutch_open_a_factory_at_pulicat.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126052755/http://www.indohistory.com/the_dutch_open_a_factory_at_pulicat.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=26 January 2013|title=Dutch East India Company – VOC|last=Adsoks|work=History of India|publisher=indohistory.com|access-date=2008-12-02}}</ref>
[[File:Coromandel Coast 1753.jpg|thumb|200px|Coromandel coast showing '''Paliacate''' and the Buckingham Canal in 1753]]
Manufacture of cloth for export was the sole occupation of several indigenous groups in Pulicat and the hinterlands of Tamil, Telugu and Kannada territories, and it is likely that over 1,000 handlooms operated in Pulicat alone.<ref name= Caste7275/> In the 1620s, the Dutch East India Company established a gunpowder factory in Pulicat. Its output was so substantial that for several decades it was able to keep many of the major Dutch trading centers in the East Indies and homeward-bound fleets well supplied.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/26/regions/26SA5.html|title=The VOC's Gunpowder Factory|last=DIJK|first=Wil O.|date=November 2001|work=IIAS Newsletter #26|publisher=[[International Institute for Asian Studies]] (IIAS)|access-date=2008-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019023618/http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/26/regions/26SA5.html|archive-date=2007-10-19}}</ref> In 1615, the first VOC mint in India was established in Fort Gelria where, initially, "Kas" copper coins with VOC monogram and a [[Sanskrit]] legend were minted.<ref name ="mint"/> The Pulicat mint operated till 1674, when a new mint was established at Negapatanam. These coins were widely used in [[Ceylon]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Shimada|first=Ryūto |title=The Intra-Asian Trade in Japanese Copper by the Dutch East India Company During the Eighteenth Century|publisher=Brill|year=2006|page = 144|isbn= 978-90-04-15092-8}}</ref>

Dutch's dominance in the coasts of India during the 16th century was partly attributed to the Hindu ruler, [[Zamorin]]. Zamorin welcomed the Portuguese and in turn prospered from the trade from the entry point ports he commanded.<ref name = VOC/>

Among the many trading voyages that departed from Pulicat, in 1658 the Dutch trading ship ''Avondster'' (captured as the ''Blessing'' from the British in 1653 and renamed) transported money and valuable cargo from Pulicat to Bengal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cf.hum.uva.nl/galle/avondster/story.html|title=The Avonster: the Ship and Her Wrecking|last=Maritime Archaeology Unit|year=2005|work=Story: The Ships History|publisher=Maritime Lanka|access-date=2008-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081112015314/http://cf.hum.uva.nl/galle/avondster/story.html|archive-date=2008-11-12}}</ref>
[[File:European settlements in India 1501-1739.png|thumb|300px|Dutch settlements shown at [[Masulipatnam]], Pulicat, [[Negapatnam]] and [[Cochin]]]]
By the early 17th century, Pallaicatta's population has been estimated to have declined to just over 10,000.<ref>''Subrahmanyam'' pp.23–24</ref> In 1746, the monsoon failed, resulting in a devastating famine. In the larger towns of Pulicat and [[Santhome]] alone the death toll was put at 15,000 and only one third of the textile weavers, painters and washers survived. Cloth prices increased 15% and little was available even at that price. An even more significant cause of the Dutch decline was conquest of the area by the [[Golconda]] forces commanded by [[Mir Jumla II|Mir Jumla]].<ref>''Mukund'' pp.68–67</ref> Except for two short breaks, Dutch rule of Pulicat lasted for 214 years between 1606 and 1825 till the King of [[Arcot]] acceded [[Chingleput]] District (which included Pulicat village) to the British in 1825.<ref name=Caste75/>

Pulicat today bears silent testimony to the Dutch, with the Dutch Fort dating back to 1609 in ruins, a Dutch Church and Cemetery with 22 protected tombs dating from 1631 to 1655 and another Dutch Cemetery with 76 tombs and mausoleums protected by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI).
<ref name = plans/><ref name="CRENIEO5 ">Azariah ch. 5 pp. ?</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_tamilnadu.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080701035301/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_tamilnadu.asp |archive-date=1 July 2008 |website=Archaeological Survey of India |year=2008 |title=Alphabetical List of Monuments – Tamil Nadu |at=SI No. 197 |access-date=2008-11-30 |url-status=live }}</ref> Netherlands (Dutch) architects and scholars now intend to support efforts to restore this early Dutch settlements.

===Chronology of Dutch rule in India (1608–1825)===
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Description
! Period ([[Common Era|CE]])
|-
| [[Dutch India]] settlement at [[Masulipatnam]]
| 1605
|-
| [[Pulicat]] a Dutch possession
| 1610–1784
|-
| [[Tuticorin]] a Dutch possession
| 1658–1795
|-
| [[Negapatnam]] a Dutch possession
| 1658–1781
|-
| Dutch [[Coromandel Coast]] settlements occupied by [[British Raj]]
| 1780–1784
|-
| British occupation of Dutch [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]] settlements
| 1795–1817
|-
| Dutch [[Coromandel coast]] settlements restored to [[Netherlands]] Malabar annexed to [[British India]]
| 1818
|-
| Dutch Coromandel ceded to British Raj
| 1825 <ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India.htm#DutchIndia Dutch India]</ref>
|}

==Slave trade==
For most of the 16th and 17th centuries Europeans on the Coromandal coast were extensively involved in the trading, brokering and shipment of slaves from India to Ceylon and the West Indies. The Dutch were "the nexus of an enormous slave trade"<ref>Vink [[Pilcrow|¶]] 1</ref> and between 1621 and 1665 alone, used 131 ships to transport 38,441 Indian slaves obtained mostly from Pulicat brokers. In Pulicat, the price of a slave ranged from 27 to 40 [[Netherlands Indian gulden|guilders]] in "expensive years" to as little as 4 guilders in "cheap years".<ref name=Dijk>{{cite book|last= Dijk|first= Dr. Wil O.|title= The Dutch Trade in Asian slaves: Arakan and the Bay of Bengal, 1621–1665 An end to the history of silence?|publisher= [[International Institute for Asian Studies]] (IIAS)|location= The Hague, Netherlands|date= Winter 2008|series= NEWSLETTER|volume= #46|url= http://www.iias.nl/nl/46/IIAS_NL46_16.pdf|page= 16|access-date= 2008-12-07|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090225030207/http://www.iias.nl/nl/46/IIAS_NL46_16.pdf|archive-date= 2009-02-25}}</ref>

Normally 150 – 400 slaves were shipped each year from central Coromandel ports, including Pulicat, [[Madras]], [[Nagapatnam]] and Devanampatnam. This trade increased greatly during several [[Famine in India|famine]] periods.
Between 1659 and 1661, eight to ten thousand slaves were shipped from central Coromandel ports including Pulicat.<ref>Vink ¶¶15–17</ref> Domestic slavery was officially recognized by the English at Madras<ref name="Trade">Natarajan pp. 247–8</ref> and run mainly by the Dutch at Pulicat.<ref name=Chains>{{cite book|last=Patnaik|first=Utsa|author2=Manjari Dingwaney |title=Chains of Servitude: Bondage and Slavery in India|publisher=University of Nevada Press|year=1985|page= 99|isbn= 978-0-86131-491-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obAQahXsdJIC&q=pulicat+slave&pg=PA99}}</ref>

Slave labour was a defining element of the high production levels and luxury standards of Dutch colonial settlements throughout the Indian Ocean. Slaves empowered the elite groups, and formed 25% – 66% of the total population of the major settlements, including Pulicat.<ref>Vink ¶¶ 24,25</ref>

==British rule (1825–1947)==
Though the Pulicot area was ceded to the English in 1760 as a ''Jagir'' (estate), and the town was finally captured by the English in 1795, Dutch control of Pulicat lasted till 1825 when it was annexed to [[Chingleput#History|Chingulput district]], which had been taken from the [[French colonial empire#First French colonial empire|French]] by the English in 1753.<ref name=Caste75>Pandian p.75</ref> Thereafter it served as a fishing village and a British health resort.<ref name="Pandianpp" />

In 1889, Pulicat had a population of about 5,000.<ref name="History">{{cite book|last=Hunter|first=William Wilson |author2=Paul Ernest Roberts|title=A History of British India|publisher=Longmans, Green, and co.|year=1900|edition=Original from the University of California|volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGVCAAAAIAAJ&q=pulicat&pg=PA70| page = 70}}</ref> The importance of Pulicat receded with the declining sea power of the Dutch and the increasing role of the [[Madras Presidency]] and the British port in [[Madras]], {{convert|25|km|mi|abbr=on|1}} to the south. It got relegated to a village level, with land access becoming difficult due to dense forest growth.
Even the Lighthouse, which was rebuilt in 1895, served only to warn passing ships of the dangerous Pulicat [[shoals]].<ref name=Caste7582>Pandian pp.75,82</ref>

==Religious traditions==
Pulicat was an atypical multi-religious community with a history of three prosperous religious traditions.<ref name=Caste725>Pandian pp.72,75</ref>

[[Hinduism]] flourished in Pulicat from early 300 BCE, when it was dominated by the Hindu ancient Tamil kingdoms. By 1825, there were several [[Hindu temple]]s dedicated to the worship of [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Murugan]], [[Mariamman|Amman]] (mother goddess) and the ''Gramma Theyvathai'' (family goddesses). Unlike the [[Brahmin]] temples, the Amman temples were open to members of every [[Jāti]].<ref name=Caste75/>

The [[Muslim]] religious community began here in the 9th century with the arrival and settling of [[Arab]] maritime traders. After the Dutch fortification of Pulicat, two large [[mosque]]s and some small places of worship and scripture reading were built by the Moslem traders in Pulicat proper.
The mosques built earlier were then used by Moslem boat builders.<ref name=Caste76>Pandian p.76</ref> The traders, descendants of the Khadems from Medina who were previously socially undifferentiated from the boat builders, became a distinct group of "nobility" called [[Labbay]].<ref name=Caste130/>

[[Christianity]] prospered here from the 16th century initiated by Portuguese traders and continued by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] they built. There was also a Roman Catholic church in the Christian hamlet of Pattanava, with a [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|Roman Catholic priest]] appointed by the Madras [[Diocese|Bishopric]].<ref name=Caste757>Pandian pp.75,77</ref>

The arrival of the [[monotheistic]] religions of Islam and Christianity, combined with the breakdown of the earlier Hindu ruled kingdoms and imposition of colonial rule, evolved new forms of rank and communal affiliation among the areas' religious communities. South India was not always a strictly "orthodox" Hindu Society. To the contrary, Christianity, Islam and Brahmanical Hinduism were forces which all came to impinge on the warrior cultures of South India.<ref>Bayly pp. 3, 15</ref>

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Azariah, Dr. Jayapaul. ''Paliacatte to Pulicat 1400 to 2007'', CRENIEO (2007)
**Ch. 1, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011538/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF1.pdf Pulicat Lake – Geographical Location and Bio-Geomorphology]
**Ch. 2, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011706/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF2.pdf Early Asian kingdoms, Historical Perspective]
**Ch. 3, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011712/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF3.pdf Pulicat Place Names Through History]
**Ch. 4, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011545/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF4.pdf History of Dutch Fort in Maps, The Fort and Its Settlements – Pallaicatta]
**Ch. 5, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011532/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF5.pdf Dutch Trade Relations]
**Ch. 6, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011610/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF6.pdf Economics of Trade Relations]
**Ch. 7, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011526/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF7.pdf Community at Pulicat]
**Ch. 8, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011721/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF8.pdf Church History]
**Ch. 9, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011656/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF9.pdf The Birth of a Lake]
**Ch. 10, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011629/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF10.pdf Fish and Fisheries]
**Ch. 11, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011617/http://www.crenieo.org/books/PDF11.pdf Present Day Pulicat Indicating Infrastructural Facilities]
* {{cite book|last=Bayly|first=Susan |title= Saints, Goddesses and Kings|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn= 978-0-521-89103-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=siLzp_4Dwb4C&q=Madras+District+Gazetteers+and+Pulicat+history&pg=PA80}}
* {{cite book|last=Bowrey|first=Thomas |author2=Richard Carnac Temple|title= A Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of Bengal, 1669 to 1679|publisher=Hakluyt Society|year=1905|edition=Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized 14 October 2005|series=Item notes: ser.2 no.12|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageographicalac00bowrgoog/page/n462 387]|url=https://archive.org/details/ageographicalac00bowrgoog|quote=countries round the bay of bengal.}}
* {{cite book|last=Lach|first=Donald Frederick |author2=Edwin J. Van Kley|title= Asia in the making of Europe|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1993|volume= III |isbn= 978-0-226-46754-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITsziXHYO1sC&q=Pulicat+in+Vijayanagar+history&pg=PA411}}
*{{cite book|last=Mukund|first=Kanakalatha |title=The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=1999|isbn=978-81-250-1661-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tjXdDYChdGsC&q=pulicat+portuguese&pg=PA57}}
* {{cite book|last=Natarajan M. A|first=B.|title=The Madras Tercentenary Commemoration Volume|editor=Madras Tercentenary Celebration Committee |publisher= Asian Educational Services|location=Tamil Nadu|year=1994|chapter=Slave Trade in Madras|isbn= 978-81-206-0537-4|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwMk4FIcpuUC&q=pulicat+slave&pg=RA1-PA248}}
* {{cite book|last=Pandian|first=Jacob|title=Caste, Nationalism and Ethnicity: An Interpretation of Tamil Cultural History and Social Order|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1987|isbn= 978-0-86132-136-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=73msCkfD5V8C}}
*{{cite book|last=Subrahmanyam|first= Sanjay |title=The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-89226-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jgSMPKVh7f8C&q=The+Political+Economy+of+Commerce:+Southern+India+1500-1650}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=en&id=27&q=pulicat#tab1|title=Location Pulicat|last=Stapel|first=Dr. F. W.|year=2007|work=Atlas of Mutual heritage|publisher=HGIS Culture Programme for international cultural relations, of the Foreign Affairs Ministry and the Ministry for Education, Culture and Sciences.|access-date=2008-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724145427/http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/detail.aspx?page=dpost&lang=en&id=27&q=pulicat#tab1|archive-date=2011-07-24}}
*{{cite journal|last=Vink|first=Marcus|date=June 2003|title=The World's Oldest Trade": Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century|journal=Journal of World History|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|volume=14|issue=2|pages=131–177|doi=10.1353/jwh.2003.0026|s2cid=145450338|url=https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-worlds-oldest-trade-dutch-slavery-and-slave-trade-in-the-indian-ocean-in-the-seventeenth-century-3/|access-date=2019-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729150938/https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-worlds-oldest-trade-dutch-slavery-and-slave-trade-in-the-indian-ocean-in-the-seventeenth-century-3/|archive-date=2019-07-29|url-access=subscription}}
*{{cite book|last=Županov|first=Ines G. |title=Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th Centuries)|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn= 978-0-472-11490-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nix4M4dy7nQC&q=Pulicat++%22natural+harbor%22&pg=PA100|year=2005}}

{{Portuguese overseas empire}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Pulicat}}
[[Category:Dutch India]]
[[Category:History of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:1825 establishments in the British Empire]]
[[Category:Tiruvallur district]]

Tachina asiatica

2026-03-13T09:43:51Z

Loz12: Done - done

{{Short description|Species of fly}}
{{Speciesbox
|image =
|genus = Tachina
|species = asiatica
|authority = (Tothill, 1918)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arctos.database.museum/name/Tachina%20asiatica|title=Binomial authority|publisher=Arctos|accessdate=21 November 2012}}</ref>
}}

'''''Tachina asiatica''''' is a species of [[fly]] in the genus ''[[Tachina]]'' of the family [[Tachinidae]] that is endemic to [[India]]. It is found in such Indian provinces as [[Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalspecies.org/ntaxa/430207|title=Tachina asiatica|publisher=Global Species|accessdate=21 November 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q7673748}}

[[Category:Insects described in 1918]]
[[Category:Flies of Asia]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of India]]
[[Category:Tachina|asiatica]]

{{Tachina-stub}}

Shah Alam II

2026-03-04T06:57:24Z

Loz12:

{{Short description|Mughal emperor (r. 1760–1788, 1788–1806)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Shah Alam II شاه عالم دوم
| title = [[Padishah]] [[Imperial and royal titles of the Mughal emperors|Al-Sultan Al-Azam]]
| image = Shahalam2.png
| caption = Shah Alam after his blinding, by Khairallah {{circa|1793}}
| succession = [[Mughal Emperor]]
| reign-type = First reign
| reign = 10 October 1760 – {{nowrap|31 July 1788}}
| predecessor = [[Shah Jahan III]]
| successor = [[Jahan Shah (Mughal Emperor)|Jahan Shah]]
| reign-type1 = Second reign
| reign1 = 16 October 1788 – {{nowrap|19 November 1806}}
| predecessor1 = [[Jahan Shah (Mughal Emperor)|Jahan Shah]]
| successor1 = [[Akbar II]]
| issue-type = Issue
| dynasty = [[Timurid dynasty]]
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| battles = [[Third Battle of Panipat]] [[Bengal War]] [[Battle of Delhi (1764)]] [[Battle of Buxar]] [[Capture of Delhi (1771)|Battle of Delhi (1771)]] [[Battle of Purana Qila]] [[Battle of Delhi (1783)]] [[Capture of Delhi (1788)]] [[Siege of Delhi (1804)]]
}}
| birth_name = Mirza Ali Gauhar
| birth_date = {{birth date|1728|6|25|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Old Delhi|Shahjahanabad]], [[Delhi Subah]], [[Mughal Empire]] (present-day [[Old Delhi]], Delhi, India)
| death_date = {{death date and age|1806|11|19|1728|6|25|df=y}}
| death_place = Shahjahanabad, Delhi Subah, [[Maratha Empire]]
| issue = {{unbulletedlist|[[Akbar II]]|[[Mirza Jawan Bakht (born 1749)|Mirza Jahandar Shah]]<ref name="Assembly1936">{{cite book | author = India. Legislature. Legislative Assembly | date = 1936 | title = The Legislative Assembly Debates: (Official Report), Volume 1 | publisher = Government of India Press | pages =108}}</ref><ref name="AlamSubrahmanyam2012">{{cite book | author1 = Muzaffar Alam | author2 = Sanjay Subrahmanyam | date = 2012 | title = Writing the Mughal World: Studies on Culture and Politics | publisher = Columbia University Press | pages = 462 | isbn = 978-0-231-15811-4}}</ref>|Mirza Jahan Shah, Farkhunda Akhtar<ref name="Gupta1944">{{cite book | author = Hari Ram Gupta | date = 1944 | title = A History of the Sikhs, from Nadir Shah's Invasion to the Rise of Ranjit Singh, 1739-1799: Cis-Sutlej Sikhs, 1769-1799 | edition = 2 | publisher = Minerva Book Shop | pages =79}}</ref>|Mirza Sulaiman Shikoh<ref name="Assembly1936"/> |Mirza Sikandar Shikoh<ref name="Assembly1936"/>|Mirza Izzat Baksh<ref name="BurkeQuraishi1995">{{cite book | author1 = S. M. Burke | author2 = Salim al-Din Quraishi | date = 1995 | title = Bahadur Shah: The Last Moghul Emperor of India | publisher = Sang-e-Meel | pages = 36}}</ref>|Mirza Jamshed Bakht<ref name="Chenoy1998">{{cite book | author = Shama Mitra Chenoy | date = 1998 | title = Shahjahanabad, a City of Delhi, 1638-1857 | publisher = Munshi RamManoharlal Publishers | pages = 82| isbn = 9788121508025}}</ref>|Begum Jan Begum<ref name="University of Dacca1943">{{cite book | date = 1943 | title = The Dacca University Studies, Volumes 6-7 | publisher = University of Dacca | pages = 30}}</ref>|Aziz-un-Nissa Begum<ref name="University of Dacca1943"/>|Rufa-ul-Nissa Begum<ref name="Department of Modern Indian History1982">{{cite book | date = 1982 | title = Journal of Indian History, Volume 60 | publisher = Department of Modern Indian History | pages = 62}}</ref>|Aliat-un-Nissa Begum<ref name="The Association1999"/>|Saadat-un-Nissa Begum<ref name="The Association1999"/>|Akbarabadi Begum<ref name="The Association1999"/>|Dil Afroz Banu Begum<ref name="The Association1999"/>}}
| full name = 'Abdu'llah Jalal ud-din Abu'l Muzaffar Hamid ud-din Muhammad 'Mirza Ali Gauhar Shah-i-'Alam II (عبدالله جلال الدین ابوالمظفر هم الدین محمد میرزا علی گوهر شاه علم دوم)
| father = [[Alamgir II]]
| mother = Zinat Mahal
| signature = Official seal of Mughal emperor Shah ‘Alam II, dated to 1173 A.H. (ca.1759 C.E.).jpg
| signature_type = Seal
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]] {{small|([[Hanafi]])}}
| spouses = {{unbulletedlist|Taj Mahal<ref name="Umar1998">{{cite book | author = Muhammad Umar | date = 1998 | title = Muslim Society in Northern India During the Eighteenth Century | publisher = Available with the author | pages = 411| isbn = 9788121508308}}</ref>|Jamil-un-Nissa Begum<ref name="The Association1999">{{cite book | date = 1999 | title = The Genealogist, Volumes 13-14 | publisher = The Association | pages = 70, 81, 82}}</ref><ref name="Gupta1947">{{cite book | editor = Pratul Chandra Gupta | author1 = Antoine Louis Henri de Polier | author2 = Polier (colonel de, Antoine-Louis-Henri) | date = 1947 | title = Shah Alam II and His Court: A Narrative of the Transactions at the Court of Delhy from the Year 1771 to the Present Time | publisher = S.C. Sarkar and sons | pages = 71}}</ref>|Mubarak Mahal<ref name="Sarkar1971">{{cite book | author = Sir Jadunath Sarkar | date = 1971 | title = 1754-1771 (Panipat). 3d ed. 1966, 1971 printing | publisher = Orient Longman | pages = 381}}</ref>|Murad Bakht Begum<ref name="Guha1962">{{cite book | author = J. P. Guha | date = 1962 | title = Delhi; a Handbook for Travellers | publisher = R. & K Publishing House | pages = 34}}</ref>|Qudsia Begum<ref name="Department of Modern Indian History1982"/>|Azizan, Malika-i-Alam<ref name="Umar2001">{{cite book | author = Muhammad Umar | date = 2001 | title = Urban Culture in Northern India During the Eighteenth Century | publisher = Munshiram Manoharlal | pages = 185}}</ref>|Shahabadi Mahal<ref name="خدا بخش اورينٹل پبلک لائبريرى،1999">{{cite book | date = 1999 | title = تاريخ هند عهد وسظى، غير مطبوعه مآخز: جنوبى ايشيائ علاقائ سمينار منعقده ٢٢-٢٦ مارچ ٨٨٩١ كے مقالات | publisher = خدا بخش اورينٹل پبلک لائبريرى، | pages = 91}}</ref>|Nawab Mahal<ref name="خدا بخش اورينٹل پبلک لائبريرى،1999"/>|Nazakat Mahal<ref name="Verma1997">{{cite book | author = Bhagwati Sharan Verma | date = 1997 | title = Art, Archaeology And, Culture of Eastern India: Dr. B.S. Verma Felicitation Volume | publisher = Bihar Puravid Parishad | pages = 264}}</ref>|}}
| house = [[Mughal dynasty]]
| burial_place = [[Moti Masjid (Mehrauli)|Moti Masjid]], [[Mehrauli]], [[Delhi]], India
}}

{{Mughal}}

'''Shah Alam II''' ({{langx|fa|شاه عالم دوم|rtl=yes}}, {{IPA|fa|ʃɑːh ʔɑː.ˈlam}}; 25 June 1728 – 19 November 1806), also known by his birth name '''Ali Gohar''', or '''Ali Gauhar''', was the seventeenth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] and the son of [[Alamgir II]].<ref>Dalrymple, W. (2019),''The Anarchy'' p89, London: Bloomsbury</ref>

The reign of Shah Alam saw a number of invasions, the first and foremost by [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]] in 1761, which led to the [[Third Battle of Panipat|third battle of Panipat]] between the [[Maratha Empire]] and the Afghans under Abdali. The invading forces of Abdali then drove out the Marathas led by [[Sadashivrao Bhau]], deposed [[Shah Jahan III]], the puppet Mughal emperor of [[Imad-ul-Mulk]], and installed Shah Alam II as the rightful emperor (1760{{Snd}}1772).<ref>{{Google books |id=d1wUgKKzawoC |page=140 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html | chapter = XIX. A Century of Political Decline: 1707–1803 | title = Muslim Civilization in India | publisher = New York: Columbia University Press | year = 1964 | author = S. M. Ikram | editor = Ainslie T. Embree | editor-link = Ainslie T. Embree | access-date = 5 November 2011 | archive-date = 6 March 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002641/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html | url-status = live }}</ref>

Despite his rightful claims to the throne, Shah Alam II was unable to return to Delhi until 1772, under the protection of the [[Maratha]] general [[Mahadaji Shinde]]. He fought against the [[East India Company]] at the [[Battle of Buxar]] (1764), and was forced to grant British the rights to collect taxes in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. During his reign the Mughal authority saw a brief revival in northern India under the capable general [[Mirza Najaf Khan]], but after his death in 1782, the Mughal power collapsed for one last time. In 1788, when Shah Alam was a prisoner of [[Ghulam Kadir|Ghulam Qadir]], he was blinded. His power was so depleted during his later reign that it led to a saying in the [[Persian language]], ''Sultanat-e-Shah Alam, Az Dilli ta Palam'', meaning, 'The empire of Shah Alam is from Delhi to Palam', [[Palam, Delhi|Palam]] being a suburb of Delhi.<ref>{{Google books|id=vJ4HFt5S8CcC|page=4|title=Delhi, Past and Present}}</ref><ref>{{Google books|id=NbUB_ACAR5QC|page=512|title=History of Islam}}</ref> In 1803 the British captured Delhi after their victory in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], with Shah Alam becoming their pensioner.

Shah Alam II authored his own ''[[Diwan (poetry)|Diwan]]'' of poems and was known by the pen-name ''Aftab''. His poems were guided, compiled and collected by Mirza Fakhir Makin.<ref>{{Google books |id=qjJmzdJFOHwC |page=40 |title=Dictionary of Indo-Persian Literature }}</ref> He also composed the ''Ajaib-ul-Qasas'', which is considered one of the earliest and most prominent books of prose in [[Urdu]].

==Early life==
Ali Gohar was born to [[Shahzada (title)|Shahzada]] (Prince) [[Alamgir II|Aziz-ud-Din]], son of the deposed Mughal Emperor [[Jahandar Shah]], on 25 June 1728. Alongside his father, he grew up in semi-captivity in the Salatin quarters of the [[Red Fort]]. However, unlike the majority of Mughal princes growing up in similar circumstances, he is not recorded to have become a decadent prince by the time his father became emperor, and therefore was naturally given high appointments in the course of his father's reign.

Upon his father's accession, he became the [[Wali al-Ahd]] ([[Crown Prince]]) of the empire, and became his father's principal agent, though almost all power lay in the Wazir [[Imad-ul-Mulk]]'s hand. His quarrels with that amir, and fear for his own life, caused him to flee from Delhi in 1758.

=== Escape from Delhi ===
Prince Ali Gauhar, afterwards Emperor Shah Alam II, had been the heir apparent of his father [[Alamgir II]]. Prince Ali Gauhar's father had been appointed Mughal Emperor by Vizier Imad-ul-Mulk and Maratha [[Peshwa]]'s cousin [[Sadashivrao Bhau]].<ref>{{Google books |id=4j_VLlGqVSoC |page=767 |title=Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material, Volume 3 }}</ref>

Prince Ali Gauhar organized a militia and made a daring escape from Delhi. He appeared in the Eastern Subah in 1759, hoping to strengthen his position by attempting to regain control over [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], [[Bihar]] and [[Odisha]].

Very soon however, [[Najib-ud-Daula]] forced the usurper Imad-ul-Mulk to flee from the capital by gathering a large [[Mughal Army]] outside Delhi. He used the army to depose the recreant [[Shah Jahan III]]. Najib-ud-Daula and Muslim nobles then planned to defeat the Marathas by maintaining correspondence with the powerful [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]. After Durrani decisively defeated the Marathas, he nominated Ali Gauhar as the emperor under the name Shah Alam II.<ref name="Sharma1999">{{cite book|author=S.R. Sharma|title=Mughal empire in India: a systematic study including source material |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=4j_VLlGqVSoC |page=769 }} |access-date=30 March 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-819-2|pages=769–}}</ref>

=== Bengal War ===
In 1760, after Shah Alam's militia gained control over pockets in Bengal, Bihar and parts of Odisha, Prince Ali Gauhar and his Mughal Army of 30,000 intended to overthrow [[Mir Jafar]] and Imad-ul-Mulk as they tried to capture or kill him by advancing towards [[Awadh]] and [[Patna]] in 1759. But the conflict soon involved the intervention of the assertive [[East India Company]].

The Mughals clearly intended to recapture their breakaway Eastern Subah led by Prince Ali Gauhar, who was accompanied by a [[Militia]] consisting of persons like Muhammad Quli Khan, Kadim Husein, Kamgar Khan, Hidayat Ali, Mir Afzal and Ghulam Husain Tabatabai. Their forces were reinforced by the forces of [[Shuja-ud-Daula]], Najib-ud-Daula and [[Ahmad Khan Bangash]]. The Mughals were also joined by [[Jean Law de Lauriston|Jean Law]] and 200 Frenchmen and waged a campaign against the British during the [[Seven Years' War]].<ref name="O`malley">{{cite book|author=L.S.S. O`malley|title=Bihar and Orissa District Gazetteers Patna|year=1924|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=a-QaOP5nK-MC |page=32 }} |access-date=30 March 2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7268-121-0|pages=32–}}</ref>

Prince Ali Gauhar successfully advanced as far as Patna, which he later besieged with a combined army of over 40,000 in order to capture or kill Ramnarian, a sworn enemy of the Mughals. Mir Jafar was in terror at the near demise of his cohort and sent his own son Miran to relieve Ramnarian and retake Patna. Mir Jafar also implored the aid of [[Robert Clive]], but it was Major [[John Caillaud]], who dispersed Prince Ali Gauhar's army in 1761 after four major battles including Battle of Patna, Battle of Sirpur, Battle of Birpur and Battle of Siwan.

After negotiations assuring peace Shah Alam II was escorted by the British to meet [[Mir Qasim]] the new [[Nawab of Bengal]], who was nominated after the sudden death of Miran. Mir Qasim soon had the Mughal Emperor's investiture as [[Subedar]] of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, and agreed to pay an annual revenue of 2.4 million ''dam''. Shah Alam II then retreated to [[Allahabad]] and was protected by the Shuja-ud-Daula, the [[Nawab of Awadh]] from 1761 until 1764. Meanwhile, Mir Qasim's relations with the East India company began to worsen. He initiated reforms that withdrew the tax exemptions enjoyed by the East India Company, he also ousted Ramnarian and created [[firelock]] manufacturing factories at Patna with the sole purpose of improving the newly reformed Mughal Army.

Angered by these developments, the East India Company sought to oust Mir Qasim. Court intrigues encouraged by the East India Company forced Mir Qasim to leave Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. Mir Qasim on his part encouraged Shuja-ud-Daula the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam II to engage the British.

<gallery>
File:Ghází al-Dín Xán ʿImád al-Mulk.jpg|[[Imad-ul-Mulk]] was the regent imposed by the [[Maratha Confederacy]] in 1757, who assassinated [[Alamgir II]] and prominent members of the imperial family, within the Maratha controlled city of [[Delhi]]; Shah Alam II managed to escape to safety with the [[Nawab of Awadh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Alamgir-II|title=ʿĀlamgīr II - Mughal emperor|access-date=27 July 2018|archive-date=28 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728041617/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alamgir-II|url-status=live}}</ref>
File:Mir Jafar and his son Miran delivering the Treaty of 1757 to William Watts.jpg|[[Mir Jafar]], his son Miran and Ramnarian refused to submit to Shah Alam II, who initiated the [[Bengal War]] causing the eventual intervention of the [[East India Company]].
</gallery>

== Emperor from Allahabad ==
[[File:Pir Gazi and his tiger in Sundarbans.jpg|thumb|[[Mughal painting|Mughal]] era illustration of [[Pir Gazi|Pir Ghazi]] of [[Bengal]], during the 18th century. ]]

Shah Alam II was acknowledged as the emperor by the [[Durrani Empire]]. His rule extended to the [[24 Parganas]] of the [[Sundarbans]],<ref name=igi4-9>{{Citation|title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=IV: The Indian Empire, Administrative| publisher=His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press |year=1908 |page=9 |ref={{sfnref|Imperial Gazetteer of India|1908}} }}</ref> [[Mir Qasim]], Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad (and Bihar),<ref name="igi4-9" />''[[Raja]] of [[Varanasi|Banares]]'',<ref name="igi4-10">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India|1908|p=10}}</ref> [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], [[Ghazipur|Nawab of Ghazipur]], [[Hyder Ali]]'s Mysore,<ref name="igi4-10" /> [[Kadapa|Nawab of Kadapa]] and [[Kurnool|Nawab of Kurnool]], [[Nawab of the Carnatic]] of [[Arcot]] and [[Nellore]],<ref name=igi4-11>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India|1908|p=11}}</ref> [[List of monarchs of Kashmir|Raja of Kashmir]], [[Nawab of Junagarh]], [[Rohilkhand]] of Lower Doab, [[Rohilkhand]] of Upper Doab, and [[Bahawalpur|Nawab of Bhawalpur]].

===Battle of Buxar===
{{main|Battle of Buxar}}

The Battle of Buxar was fought on 22 October 1764 between the combined armies of [[Mir Qasim]], the Nawab of Bengal; [[Shuja-ud-Daula]] the Nawab of Awadh; the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the forces under the command of the [[East India Company]] led by [[Hector Munro, 8th of Novar|Hector Munro]].<ref>''A Dictionary of Modern Indian History (1707–1947)'', Parshotam Mehra, {{ISBN|0-19-561552-2}}, 1985 ed., Oxford University Press</ref> The battle was fought at [[Buxar]], a town located on the bank of the [[Ganges|Ganges river]] then within the territory of Bengal, and was a decisive victory for the East India Company.

<gallery>
File:अवध के नवाब शुजाउद्दौला.jpg|[[Shuja-ud-Daula]] served as the leading [[Nawab]] [[Vizier]] of the [[Mughal Empire]], during the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] and the [[Battle of Buxar]]
File:The Navab's arrival before Clive's position.jpg|[[Nawab of Bengal]], [[Mir Qasim]] defected to Shah Alam II.
</gallery>

===Treaty of Allahabad===
{{See main|Treaty of Allahabad}}

Soon after the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam II, a sovereign who had just been defeated by the British, sought their protection by signing the [[Treaty of Allahabad]] in the year 1765. Shah Alam II was forced to grant the ''Diwani'' (right to collect revenue) of [[Bengal]] (which included [[Bihar]] and [[Odisha]]) to the East India Company in return for an annual tribute of 2.6 million rupees to be paid by the company from the collected revenue. Tax exemption status was also restored to the company. The company further secured the districts of Kora and Allahabad which allowed the East India Company to collect tax from more than 20 million people. The East India Company thus became the Imperial tax collector in the former Mughal province of Bengal. The Company appointed a deputy, Nawab Muhammad Reza Khan to collect revenue on their behalf.

<gallery>
File:Shah 'Alam conveying the grant of the Diwani to Lord Clive.jpg|Shah Alam II granting [[Robert Clive]] the "[[Dewan|Diwani]] rights of [[Bengal]], [[Behar]] and [[Odisha]]" in return for the annexed territories of the [[Nawab of Awadh]] after the [[Battle of Buxar]], on 12 August 1765 at the [[Benares]].
File:Mather-brown-lord-cornwallis-receiving-the-sons-of-tipu-as-hostages-1792.jpg|[[Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah|Wallajah]] was a very influential subject of the "Great Mogul" he was friendly attitude towards the [[British East India Company]], he was well known and his influence widespread throughout the country. (Here he is seen as witness that two of [[Tipu Sultan]] sons being taken hostage to [[Vellore]], during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]).
</gallery>

===Absence from Delhi===

Shah Alam II's absence from Delhi was due to the terms of the treaty he had signed with the British. But his son and heir apparent Prince [[Mirza Jawan Bakht (born 1749)|Mirza Jawan Bakht]] and Najib-ul-Daula, represented the emperor for the next 12 years in Delhi.

==Return to Delhi==

Shah Alam II resided in the fort of Allahabad for six years. [[Warren Hastings]], the head of East India Company got appointed as the first Governor of Bengal in 1774. This was the period of "Dual rule" where East India Company enacted laws to maximise collection of revenue and the Mughal Emperor appointed Nawab looked after other affairs of the province. East India Company later discontinued the tribute of 2.6 million Rupees and later also handed over the districts of [[Allahabad]] and [[Kora Jahanabad|Kora]] to the Nawab of Awadh. These measures amounted to a repudiation of the company's vassalage to the emperor as Diwan (tax collector). In 1793 East India Company was strong enough and abolished Nizamat (local rule) completely and annexed Bengal. Weakened Shah Alam II agreed to the consultation of the East India Company, who advised him never to trust the [[Maratha]]s.

In the year 1771 the Marathas under [[Mahadaji Shinde]] returned to northern India and even captured Delhi. Shah Alam II, was escorted by Mahadaji Shinde and left Allahabad in May 1771 and in January 1772 reached Delhi. Along with the Marathas they undertook to win the crown lands of Rohilkhand and defeated [[Zabita Khan]], capturing the [[Pathargarh Fort|fort of Pathargarh]] with its treasure. The emperor returned to the throne in Delhi in 1772, under the protection of Mahadaji Shinde.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&q=1771+scindia&pg=PA8 |title=The Great Maratha Mahadaji Shinde - N. G. Rathod - Google Books |isbn=9788185431529 |access-date=2017-02-09|last1=Rathod |first1=N. G. |year=1994 |publisher=Sarup & Sons }}</ref> The emperor became a client of the Maratha whose [[Peshwa]] demanded tribute, which the Moguls are known to have paid so as to avoid any further conflict with the Confederacy.{{Citation needed|date=December 2025}} Later conflict arose between Shah Alam and Mahadaji over the spoils captured from defeating Rohillas. Mahadaji besieged Delhi and bombarded the fort itself. However he was forced to abandon siege and go back to [[Pune]] after receiving the news of the death of Peshwa, leaving Shah Alam in complete control of the city.<ref name=":1" />

<gallery>
File:Shahalam2court.jpg|The Royal Chamber in the Public Audience Hall in the Middle of Yazdah Darreh, with the Ruler, ''Alam Bahador Badshah'', and the Great Commanders, a page from the Lady Coote Album.
File:An imperial order, farman, from the time of Shah 'Alam II, dated 1776.jpg|A [[Firman]] issued by the [[Mughal Emperor]] Shah Alam II, dated 1776.
File:Silver Rupee coins of the Bengal Presidency, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, photographed by Yogabrata Chakraborty.jpg|Silver Rupee coins of the [[Bengal Presidency]], struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II; From top left: Rupee of George Saunders' issue of 1819 (Calcutta), Broad rimmed Rupee of Farrukhabad, Narrow rimmed Rupee of Farrukhabad, Rupee of Murshidabad from the 1780s, Rupee of Muhammadabad Benaras with the inverted mace symbol and rare fish mint mark.
</gallery>

===Reformation of the Mughal Army===

One of his first acts was to strengthen and raise a new Mughal Army, under the command of [[Mirza Najaf Khan]]. This new army consisted of infantrymen who successfully utilised both [[Flintlock]]s and [[Talwar]]s in combat formations,<ref>{{cite book|author=Kaushik Roy|title=War, Culture, Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849|date=30 March 2011|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=zp0FbTniNaYC |page=29 }} |access-date=30 March 2012|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-79087-4|pages=29–}}</ref> they used elephants for transportation and were less dependent on artillery and cavalry. Mirza Najaf Khan is also known to have introduced the more-effective [[Firelock]] muskets through his collaboration with Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kaushik Roy|title=War, Culture, Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849|date=30 March 2011|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=zp0FbTniNaYC |page=30 }} |access-date=30 March 2012|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-79087-4|pages=30–}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:The royal procession of Shah Alam II with his army processing from right to left along the banks of a river..jpg|The newly reestablished [[Mughal Army]] during the reign of Shah Alam II.
File:A Mughal Infantryman.jpg|A [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Sepoy]].
File:A large Mughal encampment.jpg|Large [[Mughal Army]] encampments during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
</gallery>

=== Foreign relations ===
[[File:Shah Alam II, Mughal Emperor of India, reviewing the East India Company's troops, 1781.jpg|thumb|1894 illustration of Shah Alam II reviewing the British East India Company's troops in 1781]]

Shah Alam II, was well supported by [[Jean Law de Lauriston]] and 200 [[French people|Frenchmen]] during his campaign to regain the Eastern Subahs (during the [[Seven Years' War]]). The brainchild of the campaign was Ghulam Husain Tabatabai, who had gained much administrative and military experience from both the French and the [[Netherlands|Dutch]].

After Shah Alam II's defeat in the Battle of Buxar, the [[France|French]] once again reached out to emperor under [[Pierre André de Suffren]] in the year 1781, who initiated a plan to capture [[Bombay]] and [[Surat]] from the [[Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]], with the co-operation of Mirza Najaf Khan, this action would eventually lead to [[Asaf Jah II]] to join Shah Alam II and the French and assist Hyder Ali to capture [[Madras]] from the East India Company.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.ae/search?q=suffren+letter+shah+alam&oq=suffren+letter+shah+alam&aqs=chrome..69i57.5079j0j7&sourceid=chrome&es_sm=93&ie=UTF-8#tbm=bks&q=de+Suffren+and+shah+alam|title=suffren letter shah alam - Google Search|website=www.google.ae|access-date=27 July 2018|archive-date=2 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002175025/https://www.google.ae/search?q=suffren+letter+shah+alam&oq=suffren+letter+shah+alam&aqs=chrome..69i57.5079j0j7&sourceid=chrome&es_sm=93&ie=UTF-8#tbm=bks&q=de+Suffren+and+shah+alam|url-status=live}}</ref> The internal conflicts within the Mughal imperial court would not allow the emperor to make such a bold move against the British.

<gallery>
File:Admiral Suffrein gravure anglaise.jpeg|[[Pierre André de Suffren]] ally of [[Hyder Ali]] and also Shah Alam II.
File:Hyder Ali.jpg|[[Hyder Ali]] was bestowed the title ''Shams ul-Mulk'' and ''Amir ud-Daula'' by Shah Alam II, his pro-[[France|French]] policies were a continuation of the [[Mughal Empire]]'s policies during the [[Seven Years' War]].
</gallery>

==Political turmoil==

===Jats===

[[Jats]] rose in retaliation of religious intolerance pursued by [[Aurangzeb]].<ref name=AH1/> The Jat kingdom of [[Bharatpur State|Bharatpur]] waged many wars against Mughal Delhi and in the 17th and 18th century carried out numerous campaigns in Mughal territories including Agra.<ref name="Unit1973">{{cite book | title=The Gazetteer of India: History and culture | year=1973 | publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, India | oclc = 186583361 | page = 348 }}</ref> Mughals were defeated by the Marathas in 1757; and Mughal possessions and territories were annexed by the Jats led by Suraj Mal.

During one massive assault, Jats laid siege to Agra in 1761, after 20 days on 12 June 1761 the Mughal forces at [[Agra]] surrendered to the Jats.<ref name=AH1/> Jats plundered the city and carried the bounty, including the two great [[silver]] doors to the entrance of the [[Taj Mahal]]. which were carried off and melted down by [[Suraj Mal]] in 1764.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991006091033/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 October 1999|title=Manas: Culture, Architecture of India, Taj Mahal|website=www.sscnet.ucla.edu|access-date=27 July 2018}}</ref>

Suraj Mal's son [[Jawahar Singh]], further extended the Jat power in [[Northern India]] and captured the territory in [[Doab]], [[Ballabgarh]] and Agra.<ref>{{Google books |id=CctFMm9HSH8C |page=9 |title=The Province of Agra: Its History and Administration }}</ref> Jats kept the Agra fort and other territories closer to Delhi under their control from 1761 till 1774 CE.<ref name=AH1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=CctFMmHSH8C&dq=jat+rule+over+agra&pg=PA9 The province of Agra, Author: Dharma Bhanu Srivastava, page 8-10]</ref>

===Sikhs===

Sikhs had been in perpetual war against Mughal intolerance, specially after beheading of the Sikh Guru {{Em dash}} [[Guru Teg Bahadur]] by the Mughals. Simmering Sikhs rose once again in the year 1764 and overran the [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughal]] [[Faujdar]] of Sirhind, [[Zain Khan Sirhindi]], who fell in battle and ever since the Sikhs perpetually raided and took the bounties from the lands as far as Delhi practically every year.

The Marathas [[Capture of Delhi (1771)|took Delhi]] in 1771 before Shah Alam II arrived. [[Mirza Najaf Khan]] had restored a sense of order to the Mughal finances and administration and particularly reformed the [[Mughal Army]]. In 1777 Mirza Najaf Khan decisively defeated [[Zabita Khan]]'s forces and repelled the Sikhs after halting their raids.

In 1778, after a Sikh incursion into Delhi, Shah Alam ordered their defeat, the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Grand Vizier]], Majad-ud-Daula marched with 20,000 Mughal troops against the Sikh army into hostile territories, this action led to the defeat of the [[Mughal Army]] at Battle of Muzzaffargarh and later at Battle of Ghanaur, due to the mounted casualties Shah Alam II reappointed Mirza Najaf Khan, who soon died of natural circumstances leaving the Mughal Empire weaker than ever.

In the year 1779, Mirza Najaf Khan carefully advanced his forces who successfully routed the treasonous Zabita Khan and his Sikh allies who lost more than 5,000 men in a single battle and never returned to threaten the Mughal Empire during the commander Mirza Najaf Khan's lifetime. Najaf Khan as prime minister, granted sovereign rights to the Sikhs as agreement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gupta|first=Hari Ram|title=History of the Sikhs: Vol. III: Sikh Domination of the Mughal Empire|year=2010|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788121502139}}</ref>

In the year 1783, [[Begum Samru|Farzana Zeb un-Nissa]] had saved Delhi from a possible invasion by a force of 30,000 Sikh troops, under [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]], [[Jassa Singh Ramgarhia]], and [[Baghel Singh]],

The Mughal Empire disintegrated to such an extent that Shah Alam II was only left with Delhi city to rule. In 1783, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Baghel Singh laid siege to the city. After entering Red fort, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia sat on the Mughal throne on behest of Baghel Singh and a title of Badshah Singh was given to him. [[Begum Samru]] requested Baghel Singh to show mercy on Shah Alam II. Baghel Singh accepted and stated his demands such as 30,000 of his troops to stay in Delhi and the Mughal Empire would pay for their maintenance. Other demands were the construction of at least 5 Gurdwaras and annual tax payment of 13.5%. The demands were agreed upon by Shah Alam II with a written agreement. Since Sikhs refused to accept authority of the Mughal court due to politics, Mahadji Shinde was given the regency with an agreement that Sikhs will not plunder the crown lands and they will be paid 1/3 of the Delhi revenue annually instead.<ref name="Jawandha 2010 207">{{cite book|last=Jawandha|first=Nahar|title=Glimpses of Sikhism|year=2010|publisher=Sanbun Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9789380213255|page=207}}</ref>

==Downfall==
[[File:Silver rupee coin of Shah Alam II.jpg|thumb|left|A silver [[Rupee]] struck in the name of Shah Alam]]

After the defeats at [[Muzaffargarh]] and later at Ghanaur, Majad-ud-Daula was arrested by the orders of Shah Alam II, who then recalled Mirza Najaf Khan. This led to the former [[Grand Vizier]]'s arrest for causing miscalculations and collaborating with the enemies of the emperor. The traitor was imprisoned and a sum of two million ''dam'' in stolen revenue recovered from him. It was Shah Alam II's poor judgement and vacillation that led to his own downfall. Mirza Najaf Khan had given the Mughal Empire breathing space by having a powerful, well managed army in its own right. In 1779 the newly reformed Mughal Army decisively defeated Zabita Khan, the rebels lost 5,000 men including their leader and therefore did not return during the lifetime of Mirza Najaf Khan {{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}. Upon the general's death, Shah Alam's bad judgement prevailed. The dead man's nephew, Mirza Shafi whose valour had been proven during various occasions, was not appointed commander in chief. Shah Alam II instead appointed worthless individuals whose loyalty and record were questionable at best {{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}. They were soon quarrelling over petty matters. Even the corrupt and treasonous former Grand Vizier, Majad-ud-Daula was restored to his former office, he later colluded with the Sikhs and reduced the size of the Mughal Army from over 20,000 to only 5,000 thus bringing the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II at the mercy of his enemies.<ref name="Islam2008">{{cite book|author=Misbah Islam|title=Decline of Muslim States and Societies|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=cBVpaCu7XA8C |page=392 }} |access-date=30 March 2012|date=30 June 2008|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=978-1-4363-1012-3|pages=392–}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}

{{quote box|width=25%|quote=''The respect toward the house of [[Timur]] is so strong that even though the whole subcontinent has been withdrawn from its authority, that no ordinary prince ever intends to take the title of sovereign...and Shah Alam II is still seated on the Mughal throne, and everything is still done in his name.''|source='''[[Benoît de Boigne]]''', (1790).
}}
[[File:Shah Alam II (1759-1806), the blind mughal Emperor, seated on a golden throne..jpg|thumb|left|200px|Shah Alam II blinded by Ghulam Qadir]]

===Prisoner of Ghulam Qadir===
{{main|Capture of Delhi (1788)}}

Nawab Majad-ud-Daula was followed by a known enemy of the Mughals, the grandson of Najib Khan, Ghulam Qadir, with his Sikh allies forced Shah Alam II to appoint him as the Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire. Ghulam Qadir ravaged the palaces in search of the Mughal treasure believed to be worth Rs. 250 million. Unable to locate such a sum and angered by the Mughal Emperor's attempts to eliminate him and his Sikh allies, Ghulam Qadir himself blinded Shah Alam II with an Afghani knife on 10 August 1788.<ref name="Islam2008"/> Ghulam Qadir behaved with brutality to the emperor and his family. Three servants and two water-carriers who tried to help the bleeding emperor were beheaded and according to one account, Ghulam Qadir would pull the beard of the elderly Mughal Emperor. After ten weeks, during which Ghulam Qadir stripped the princesses of the royal family naked and forced them to dance naked before him (after which they jumped into Yamuna river to drown) and the honour of the royal family and prestige of the Mughal Empire reached its lowest ebb, Mahadaji Shinde intervened and killed Ghulam Qadir, taking possession of Delhi on 2 October 1788. He restored Shah Alam II to the throne and acted as his protector.<ref>{{Google books |id=kyBuAAAAMAAJ |page=159 |title=Marathas and the Marathas Country: The Marathas }}</ref> Mahadaji Shinde sent the ears and eyes of Ghulam Qadir to Shah Alam.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Dalrymple|first=William|title=The Anarchy|publisher=Bloomsbury publishing|year=2019|isbn=978-1-5266-1850-4|location=United Kingdom}}</ref>

===Client of Mahadji Shinde===
Thankful for his intervention, he honoured Mahadji Shinde with the titles of ''Vakil-ul-Mutlaq'' (Regent of the Empire) and ''Amir-ul-Amara'' (Head of the Umara). He made a deal with the Peshwa granting tribute to Pune in return for the protection provided Mahadji Shinde of the Maratha Confederacy.

After killing Ghulam Qadir and restoring Shah Alam II to the throne, a Maratha garrison permanently occupied Delhi in 1788 and ruled in north India for the next two decades until they were usurped by the East India Company following the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] in 1803.<ref name="books.google.co.in">{{cite book |last=Capper |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28 |title=Delhi, the Capital of India |date=27 July 1997 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120612822 |access-date=27 July 2018 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

==Second reign==
[[File:Recent photograph of the tombs of the Mughal Emperors Shah Alam II and Akbar Shah II.jpg|thumb|200px|The tomb of Shah Alam II, in [[Mehrauli]], [[Delhi]].]]

The French threat in Europe and its possible repercussions in India caused the British to strive to regain the custody of Shah Alam II. The British feared that the French military officers might overthrow Maratha power and use the authority of the Mughal emperor to further French ambition in India.

Shah Alam II also corresponded with [[Hyder Ali]] and later with his son [[Tipu Sultan]] during their conflicts with the East India Company during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] and was very well informed about the expansionist agenda of the British.

After the [[Battle of Delhi (1803)]], during the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], on 14 September 1803 British troops entered Delhi ending the Maratha rule on the Mughals, bringing Shah Alam, then a blind old man, seated under a tattered canopy, under British protection. The Mughal Emperor no longer had the military power to enforce his will, but he commanded respect as a dignified member of the House of [[Timur]] in the length and breadth of the country.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} The [[Nawab]]s and [[Subedar]]s still sought formal sanction of the Mughal Emperor on their accession and valued the titles he bestowed upon them. They struck coins and read the ''[[khutba]]'' (Friday sermons) in his name. The Marathas in 1804 under [[Yashwantrao Holkar]] tried to snatch Delhi from the British in [[Siege of Delhi (1804)]], but failed.

==Death==

Shah Alam II died of natural causes on 19 November 1806. His grave lies in a marble enclosure adjoined to the [[Moti Masjid (Mehrauli)|Moti Masjid]], next to the [[dargah]] of the 13th century Sufi saint [[Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki]], in [[Mehrauli]], [[Delhi]]. Also in the enclosure are the tombs of [[Bahadur Shah I]] (also known as [[Shah Alam I]]), and [[Akbar Shah II]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Dadlani |first=Chanchal B. |title=From stone to paper: architecture as history in the late Mughal Empire |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-23317-9 |location=New Haven [CT] |pages=63 |oclc=1024165136}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
* In the 1994 [[Hindi]] TV series ''[[The Great Maratha]]'', Shah Alam's character was portrayed by [[Rishabh Shukla]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:IGI1908India1765a.jpg|Map of India in 1765, before the fall of [[Nawab]]s and [[Princely state]]s ''nominally allied to the emperor'' (mainly in Green).
File:Joppen1907India1795a.jpg|Map of India in 1795, 11 years before the death of Shah Alam II
File:Shah Alam II.png|Blind [[Mughal Emperor]] Shah Alam II sits at throne of [[Delhi]]
File:Silver Rupee of the princely state of Chhatarpur, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.jpg|Silver Rupee of the [[Chhatarpur State]], struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.
File:Silver Rupee of the Orchha State, minted during the reign of Vikramajit Mahendra, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.jpg|Silver Rupee of the [[Orchha State]], minted during the reign of king Vikramajit Mahendra, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.
File:Two silver rupee coins from the Bengal Presidency, during the reign of Shah Alam II in Company Raj, minted in Old Calcutta Mint, photographed from a personal collection in West Bengal, India, by Yogabrata Chakraborty on August 19, 2023.jpg|Silver rupee coins from the [[Bengal Presidency]], struck in the name of Shah Alam II, [[India Government Mint, Kolkata|Calcutta Mint]].
Silver Rupee of the Rohilkhand Kingdom, minted in Qasba Panipat, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, with having "saya-e-fazle elah" couplet, Swastika and Parasol marks.jpg|Silver Rupee from the [[Kingdom of Rohilkhand]], minted in Qasba Panipat, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, with having "saya-e-fazle elah" couplet, Swastika and Parasol marks.
File:Silver Rupee of the Bengal Presidency, struck in Muhammadabad Benaras, in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.jpg|Silver Rupee of the Bengal Presidency, struck in Muhammadabad Benaras, in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.
File:Silver Rupee of Krishna Raja Wodeyar, Mysore State, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, Zarb Mahisur Mint, AD 1805.jpg|Silver Rupee of Krishna Raja Wodeyar, [[Kingdom of Mysore]], struck in the name of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, Zarb Mahisur Mint, AD 1805.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Commons category|Shah Alam II}}
{{Wikiquote}}
*[[Mirza Najaf Khan]]
*[[Shuja-ud-Daula]]
*[[Hyder Ali]]
*[[Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book |title=The History of the reign of Shah-Aulum (Shah Alam), the present emperor of Hindostaun. |author=William Francklin|author-link=William Francklin|publisher=Cooper & Graham, London |year=1798|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofreignof00fran#page/n3/mode/2up |ref=Fa }}
*[http://www.storyofpakistan.com/person.asp?perid=P071 Shah Alam II (1728–1806)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829184701/http://www.storyofpakistan.com/person.asp?perid=P071 |date=29 August 2009 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061221044926/http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/asian/TheFalloftheMoghulEmpireofHindustan/chap9.html The Fall of the Moghul Empire of Hindustan – World Wide School]
*[https://san.beck.org/2-10-Marathas1707-1800.html Marathas and the English Company 1707–1800]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=Shah Alam Nama |publisher=Bibliotheca Indica |year=1912 |url=http://www.dli.ernet.in/cgi-bin/metainfo.cgi?&title1=Shah-Alam%20Nama&author1=Harinath%20De,%20ed.&subject1=GEOGRAPHY.%20BIOGRAPHY.%20HISTORY&year=1912%20&language1=persian&pages=206&barcode=4990010220865&author2=NULL&identifier1=NULL&publisher1=Asiatic%20Society%20Of%20Bengal,%20Kolkata&contributor1=NULL&vendor1=NONE&scanningcentre1=cdack&slocation1=NONE&sourcelib1=THE%20ASIATIC%20SOCIETY,%20KOLKATA&scannerno1=0&digitalrepublisher1=Digital%20Library%20Of%20India&digitalpublicationdate1=2006-05-18&numberedpages1=0&unnumberedpages1=0&rights1=In%20Public%20Domain&copyrightowner1=NULL&copyrightexpirydate1=0000-00-00&format1=Tagged%20Image%20File%20Format%20&url=/data3/upload/0075/096 |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215437/http://www.dli.ernet.in/cgi-bin/metainfo.cgi?&title1=Shah-Alam%20Nama&author1=Harinath%20De%2C%20ed.&subject1=GEOGRAPHY.%20BIOGRAPHY.%20HISTORY&year=1912%20&language1=persian&pages=206&barcode=4990010220865&author2=NULL&identifier1=NULL&publisher1=Asiatic%20Society%20Of%20Bengal%2C%20Kolkata&contributor1=NULL&vendor1=NONE&scanningcentre1=cdack&slocation1=NONE&sourcelib1=THE%20ASIATIC%20SOCIETY%2C%20KOLKATA&scannerno1=0&digitalrepublisher1=Digital%20Library%20Of%20India&digitalpublicationdate1=2006-05-18&numberedpages1=0&unnumberedpages1=0&rights1=In%20Public%20Domain&copyrightowner1=NULL&copyrightexpirydate1=0000-00-00&format1=Tagged%20Image%20File%20Format%20&url=%2Fdata3%2Fupload%2F0075%2F096 |url-status=dead }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Timurid dynasty]]||1728||1806}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Shah Jahan III]]}}
{{s-ttl|rows = 2|title=[[Mughal Emperor]]|years=1759–1806}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Mahmud Shah Bahadur]] in 1788}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Mahmud Shah Bahadur]] in 1788}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Akbar Shah II]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Mughal Empire}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shah Alam Ii}}
[[Category:Emperors of the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:1728 births]]
[[Category:1806 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:People from Delhi]]
[[Category:18th-century Mughal Empire people]]
[[Category:Urdu-language writers from the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Indian poets]]
[[Category:Blind royalty and nobility]]
[[Category:Indian blind people]]

Swarna Trisha

2026-03-03T23:47:44Z

Loz12: Added - done

{{Short description|1989 Indian Hindi film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Swarna Trisha
| image = Swarna Trisha (1989) film poster.jpeg
| caption = Poster
| director = Mangal Chakraborty
| producer = Vishwanath Ghosh
| writer =
| starring = [[Mithun Chakraborty]] [[Yogeeta Bali]] [[Pradeep Kumar (actor)|Pradeep Kumar]] [[Prem Chopra]]
| music = [[Salil Chowdhury]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1989|05|26}}
| runtime = 135 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Hindi]]
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Swarna Trisha''''' ({{translation|Final Revenge}}) is a 1989 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language crime action thriller film directed by Mangal Chakraborty. It stars [[Mithun Chakraborty]] in lead role, along with [[Yogeeta Bali]], [[Pradeep Kumar (actor)|Pradeep Kumar]], [[Prem Chopra]] in supporting roles. Aakhri Badla is also dubbed in Hindi as ''Aakhri Badla'', released in 1990.

==Summary==
Kama Kazi is an international smuggling gang. When the Interpol is about to raid the gang, they moves all their wealth in the form of gold and silver diamonds by ship, but the ship sinks into a cyclone. An Indian company is subcontracted to salvage the sunken ship, and the Indian Intelligence sends its ace agent Himadri Choudhari, and his sidekick Mantu Ghosh along with a Japanese karate master Kitahara.

==Cast==
* [[Mithun Chakraborty]] as Himadri Chaudhary
* [[Yogeeta Bali]] as Leena Saigal
* [[Pradeep Kumar (actor)|Pradeep Kumar]] as Preetam Saigal
* [[Prem Chopra]]
* [[Abhi Bhattacharya]] as Kama Kazi / Dr. Sen

==Soundtrack==
Lyrics: [[Yogesh (lyricist)|Yogesh]]

#"Mann Kare Yaad Woh Din" – [[Kishore Kumar]]
#"O Mere Saathi Re" – [[Kishore Kumar]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
#"Jaane Kaisa Jaadoo Yeh Chal Gaya" – [[Asha Bhosle]]
#"Furusato wa doko desuka" – Teresa Teng

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0482672|Aakhri Badla}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110415053556/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/cast/5386/index.html "Akhri Badla : Complete Cast and Crew details"]
* [https://archive.today/20130126021942/http://ibosnetwork.com/asp/filmbodetails.asp?id=Aakhri+Badla] -
* https://web.archive.org/web/20120402122055/http://www.theindiabazaar.com/images/P/aakhribadla_mvcd_246x250.jpg

[[Category:1989 films]]
[[Category:Japan in non-Japanese culture]]
[[Category:1989 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1989 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Salil Chowdhury]]
[[Category:1989 action films]]

{{1980s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Neelathamara (1979 film)

2026-03-03T20:59:25Z

Loz12: Article

{{short description|1979 film by Yusufali Kechery}}
{{For|2009 remake|Neelathamara (2009 film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Neelathamara
| image =
| director = [[Yusuf Ali Kechery]]
| producer = Abbas
| writer = [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]]
| starring = {{ubl|[[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]]|[[Ravikumar (actor)|Ravikumar]]|Sathar|[[Bahadoor]]|[[Kuthiravattom Pappu]]|[[Adoor Bhavani]]|[[Kozhikode Santha Devi]]|[[Bhavani (actress)|Bhavani]]}}
| music = [[Devarajan]]
| editing =
| cinematography =
| studio = Charisma Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1979|5|4|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget = {{INR}} 5 lakhs<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/Mollywoods-small-budget-films-that-did-big-wonders-at-the-box-office/photostory/53020290.cms|title=Mollywood's small-budget films that did big wonders at the box office|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=2 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="production">[http://www.epathram.com/cinema/2009_12_01_archive.shtml "പഴയ നീലത്താമര വിരിയിച്ച ആളെവിടെയാണ്?"]</ref>
| gross =
}}
'''''Neelathamara''''' ({{translation|''Blue Lotus''}}) is a 1979 [[Malayalam language]] [[romance film]] directed by [[Yusuf Ali Kechery]] and written by [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]]. Produced at a shoe string budget of {{INR}} 5 lakhs,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/Mollywoods-small-budget-films-that-did-big-wonders-at-the-box-office/photostory/53020290.cms|title=Mollywood's small-budget films that did big wonders at the box office|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=2 July 2016}}</ref> the film stars [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]] and [[Ravikumar (actor)|Ravikumar]] in the lead roles. The film deals with the romance between a housemaid and the employer. It was remade with several changes in 2009 by [[Lal Jose]] with the [[Neelathamara (2009 film)|same title]].

==Plot==
The widow Malooty Amma lives peacefully in her house. Her son Haridasan is studying in town. Achuthan Nair is a steward to her house. Malootty Amma is quiet aged and she is unable to manage the household works by her own. She asks Nair to find a housemaid for her. She has a little caste bias, but the difficulty of getting a maid these days force her to accept anybody who is out of her caste. One day a poor girl, Kunjumalu, and her grandmother come to 'Kizhakkampattu' Malootty Amma's house. On their way they hear a beautiful humming which is later revealed as a musician's near the temple. When they reach 'Kizahkkampattu' her grandma reveals to Malootty Amma that they are a different caste or family named 'Veluthedathu'.

The girl soon gets acquainted with the duties of the house and she gains the appeal of Malootty Amma. Kunjimalu, the maid befriends a girl named Ammini and they maintain a good friendship. Ammini has some mysterious problems which are not explained overtly. Anyway, she talks elaborately about her sister's husband and their children at home. One day Haridasan returns home. He soon gets attracted with the housemaid Kunjimalu. One day he asks her to come to his room in night. She has an inner torment whether to follow the words of her employer (Haridas). But after she puts money in the holy steps of the temple and pray to show her a sign whether to follow his words by blooming the Blue Lotus of the pond, she decides to go to her room. And the two have a romantic and physical relationship.

Kunjimalu prays to show the sign of Blue Lotus when she hears he is going to attend an interview. In all of these pleasant occasions a beautiful humming of the musician is heard, but he never appears. Haridas then gets a job in town. In a letter sent by Haridas after some days he coolly asks about the wellbeing of the family members and informs about his stay there. This letter is later read by Kunjimalu who is in bereavement after Haridas left. She is disappointed to find not a single word is written about her. But she consoles herself with the belief that Haridas will not be able to enquire about her since she is just a maid. Later plans for Haridas' marriage go on. They find an alignment with Haridas' cousin Ratnam.

Kunjimalu is quiet worried and is sad but she goes on with her chores. After this she learns that the musician lost his sound from a man who sits under the banyan tree near the temple. Haridas later visits his cousin Ratnam's house and stays a night there. That night, just like that is with Kunjimalu he tries to make Ratnam come to his room. But she rejects the idea telling that it will not be good for them to have physical relationship before the marriage. Their marriage takes place and Kunjimalu understands Haridasan was cheating her. On the first night Kunjimalu tells Ratnam things to take care in their (Haridasan and Ratnam's) room including the creaking sound in one of the steps to his room. Ratnam becomes suspicious about Kunjimalu's concern for him. She then finds some letters and notes written by Haridas and one of his photos in Kunjimalu's belongings.

She asks Kunjimalu to come with them to their rented house in town. Haridas who has a difficulty of meeting Kunjimalu after the marriage rejects his wife's idea. She then questions her husband and she is now sure that her husband Haridas had relationship of all means with Kunjimalu. But surprisingly Ratnam is sympathetic toward Kunjimalu. Next day Malootty Amma asks Kunjimalu to leave her house. After that day they find she is not at house. They are a little worried now. News arrives that a body has been found near the temple pond. Everyone worries that it will be Kunjimalu's. Ratnam blames Haridas for what might have happened. Haridas goes to the spot and finds that it was not Kunjimalu's body but her friend Ammini's.

He comes home. Next day they plan to leave house and Ratnam bid farewell Kunjimalu. In the end Kunjimalu is taken back home by her cousin who was going to marry her and who knows much of the story between Haridas and his cousin. On their way back, near the river they meet two people who ask them the way to 'Padinjattu' for sending the younger girl as a servant there. At this question Kunjimalu and her cousin look at each other. The word "End" appears on the screen, and later, "But there is no End".

==Production==
* The film was produced by Abbas under the banner of Charisma Films.<ref name="production"/>
* The budget of the film was just {{INR}} 5 lakhs.<ref name="production"/>
* The film was shot at [[Koodalloor]], [[Anakkara (Palakkad)|Anakkara]] and [[Thrithala]].<ref name="production"/>
* Principal production was completed in a single schedule in 18 days.<ref name="production"/>
* [[Jayabharathi]] was initially approached for the heroine role.<ref name="production"/>

==Cast==
*[[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]] as Kunjimalu (New Film - Archana Jose Kavi)
*[[Ravikumar (actor)|Ravikumar]] as Haridas (New Film - Kailash)
*[[Bhavani (actress)|Bhavani]] as Ratnam (New Film - Samvrutha Sunil)
*[[Sathaar]] as Appu (New Film - Suresh Nair)
*[[Jayaragini]] as Amminikutty (New Film - Rima Kallingal)
*[[Kozhikode Santha Devi]] as Maluamma (New Film - Sreedevi Unni)
*[[Bahadoor]] as Achuthan Nair (New Film - Joy Mathai)
*[[Adoor Bhavani]] as Sharathe Amma
*[[Kuthiravattom Pappu]] as Sankarankutty Menon

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0325892|Neelathamara}}

[[Category:1979 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1979 Indian films]]
[[Category:1979 romance films]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by M. T. Vasudevan Nair]]
[[Category:Indian romance films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Ottapalam]]
[[Category:Films shot in Palakkad]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thrissur]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chalakudy]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kottayam]]

[[Category:Films directed by Yusufali Kechery]]

North-Eastern Hill University

2026-02-25T06:07:19Z

Loz12: typo fix

{{short description|Central university in Shillong, Meghalaya, India}}
{{redirect|NEHU|the nehu fish|Encrasicholina purpurea}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox university
| name = North-Eastern Hill University
| native_name =
| image_name = North-Eastern Hill University Logo.png
| image_size= 190px
| motto = Rise Up and Build
| established = {{Start date and age|1973}}
| chancellor = [[L. Narasimha Reddy|Justice L. Narasimha Reddy]] (Retd.)
| vice_chancellor = [[Prabha Shankar Shukla]]<ref>{{Cite news|date=July 23, 2021|title=President Ram Nath Kovind approves appointments of vice chancellors of 12 central universities: Ministry of education|work=[[The Times of India]] 13:29 IST|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-ram-nath-kovind-approves-appointments-of-vice-chancellors-of-12-central-universities-ministry-of-education/articleshow/84671693.cms|access-date=July 23, 2021}}</ref>
|rector = [[Governor of Meghalaya]]
|head_label = [[Visitor]]
|head = [[President of India]]
| city = [[Shillong]]
| state = [[Meghalaya]]
| postalcode = 793022
| country = [[India]]
| faculty = 300<ref name=nirf_stud>{{cite web |title=NIRF 2021 |url=https://nehu.ac.in/public/uploads/NIRF_Ranking_2021.pdf |publisher=North-Eastern Hill University}}</ref>
| students = 4,741<ref name=nirf_stud/>
| undergrad = 1,075<ref name=nirf_stud/>
| postgrad = 2,729<ref name=nirf_stud/>
| doctoral = 937<ref name=nirf_stud/>
| type = [[Public university|Public]] [[Central University (India)|central university]]
| campus = Suburban
| academic_affiliations = [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]; [[AICTE]]; [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research|ICAR]]; [[ICSSR]]; [[Bar Council of India|BCI]]
| nickname = NEHU
| website = {{URL|http://www.nehu.ac.in}}
| coor = {{Coord|25|36|36|N|91|54|5|E|region:IN-ML_type:edu|display=inline, title}}
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-wikidata = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 11
}}
'''North-Eastern Hill University''' ('''NEHU''') is a [[Central University, India|Central University]] established on 19 July 1973 by an Act of the [[Indian Parliament]]. The university is in the suburb of [[Shillong]], the state capital of [[Meghalaya]], [[India]]. The university has two campuses, in [[Shillong]] and [[Tura, Meghalaya|Tura]]. Both campuses are in [[Meghalaya]] state. The first pro-vice chancellor was Early Rising Singha<ref>{{cite book |editor=Suba TB |title=North-Eastern Hill University: Thirty-eight Annual Report 2011-2012 |url=http://dspace.nehu.ac.in/bitstream/1/10604/1/Annual%20Report%202011-12%20English%20Version.pdf |year=2012 |page=v-vi |publisher=NEHU |access-date=30 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212201529/http://dspace.nehu.ac.in/bitstream/1/10604/1/Annual%20Report%202011-12%20English%20Version.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

It is the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]]'s ''University with Potential for Excellence'' (conferred in 2006). It was established as a regional university for the states of [[northeast India]], including [[Meghalaya]], [[Nagaland]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]] and [[Mizoram]], and had given birth to [[Nagaland University]] in 1994 and [[Mizoram University]] in 2001.<ref name=nehu>{{cite book|author=NEHU |title= Prospectus |url= http://www.nehu.ac.in/Admission/Prospectus.pdf|year=2013 |pages=1–6 |publisher=North Eastern Hill University }}</ref>

==Campus==

NEHU has two academic campuses, one at Mawkynroh-Umshing, Shillong, and another at Chasingre, Tura. Shillong is the headquarters of academic and administrative functions. The main campus is 1225 acres in area. It accommodates [[National Council of Science Museums]] (NCSM), [[Indira Gandhi National Open University]] (IGNOU) Shillong Regional Centre , [[Indian Council of Social Science Research]] (ICSSR), [[Sports Authority of India]] (SAI) and [[The English and Foreign Languages University]] (EFLU).<ref>{{cite web |author= Press Information Bureau |url= http://dst.gov.in/whats_new/press-release09/host-university-nehu.htm |title= The Host University of Indian Science Congress: NEHU |work= dst.gov.in |date= 6 January 2006 |publisher= Department of Science and Technology |access-date= 30 July 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130202212532/http://dst.gov.in/whats_new/press-release09/host-university-nehu.htm |archive-date= 2 February 2013 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

==Organisation and administration ==
List of Vice-Chancellors
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Notability
!Affiliation
|-
|[[Barrister Pakem]]
|
|
|-
|[[Mrinal Miri]]
|
|
|-
|[[Prabha Shankar Shukla]]
|
|
|}

===Governance===
The head of the administration is the [[vice-chancellor]] (VC), who is appointed by the [[visitor]] of the university, the [[President of India]], for a five-year tenure. The [[Governor of Meghalaya]] is the [[chief rector]]. Under the VC are two pro-vice-chancellors, one for each of the two campuses, Tura and Shillong, and a [[Registrar (education)|Registrar]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Officials|url=http://nehu.ac.in/Administration|website=nehu.ac.in|publisher=North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong|access-date=12 April 2018|language=en}}</ref> {{asof|2021|12|post=,}} the VC is Prabha Shankar Shukla.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Vice-Chancellor|url=http://nehu.ac.in/The-Vice-Chancellor|website=nehu.ac.in|publisher=North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong|access-date=12 April 2018|language=en}}</ref>

Initially, the academic departments and the administration of NEHU at Shillong functioned from three prime sites in the Shillong city; one from the former [[Sriram Chandra Bhanj Deo|Maharaja]] of [[Mayurbhanj State|Mayurbhanj]], the other from the Rani of Bijni and the third one from the Government of Meghalaya, popularly known as Horse-Shoe Building. The university now runs its central administration from its main campus in [[Mawkynroh-Umshing]].<ref name=nehu/>

===Schools===
The university has the following schools, departments and centres of studies:<ref>{{cite web|title=Schools of study|url=http://nehu.ac.in/school|website=nehu.ac.in|access-date=12 April 2018}}</ref>
* School of Economics, Management etc.
**Agri-Business Management and Food Technology (Tura)
**Commerce Department
**Economics Department
**Journalism and Mass Communication
**Library & Information Science department
**Management Department (Tura)
**Tourism and Hotel Management Department
* School of Education
**Adult and Continuing Education Department
**Centre for Distance Education
**Centre for Science Education
**Education Department
**Education Department, Tura Campus
* School of Human & Environmental Sciences
**Anthropology Department
**Environmental Studies Department
**Geography Department
**Horticulture Department
**Rural Development and Agricultural Production
* School of Humanities
**English Department
**English Department (Tura Campus)
**Garo Department (Tura Campus)
**Hindi Department
**Khasi Department
**Linguistics Department
**Philosophy Department
* School of Life Sciences
**Biochemistry Department
**Biotechnology & Bioinformatics Department
**Botany Department
**Zoology Department
* School of Physical Sciences
**Chemistry Department
**Mathematics Department
**Physics Department
**Statistics Department
* School of Social Sciences
**Cultural & Creative Studies Department
**History & Archaeology Department, Tura Campus
**History Department
**Law Department
**Political Science Department
**Sociology Department
* School of Technology(SOT)
**Architecture Department
**Basic Sciences & Social Sciences Department
**Biomedical Engineering Department
**Computer Applications Department
**Electronics and Communication
**Energy Engineering Department
**Information Technology Department
**Nanotechnology Department

=== Jurisdictions and affiliated colleges===
The jurisdiction of the university extended originally to the states of Meghalaya and Nagaland and the erstwhile [[Union Territories]] of Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About NEHU |url=https://nehu.ac.in/About-NEHU#:~:text=The%20jurisdiction%20of%20the%20University,of%20NEHU%20ceased%20over%20Nagaland. |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=nehu.ac.in |language=en}}</ref> With the establishment of the Nagaland University on 6 September 1994, the jurisdiction of NEHU ceased over Nagaland. Likewise with the establishment of the Mizoram University the jurisdiction of NEHU over Mizoram also ceased from June 2001. Arunachal Pradesh has its own university.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About NEHU |url=https://nehu.ac.in/About-NEHU |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=nehu.ac.in |language=en}}</ref> The North Eastern Regional Institute Of Science and Technology was initially affiliated to the North Eastern Hill University (NEHU), Shillong.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About NERIST |url=https://nerist.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Alumni-Brochure.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjG3pmQiKeNAxURlK8BHfC3JF4QFnoECEwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2FA3TDm4sYT959eSsEHqLx |website=nirest.ac.in | language=en}}</ref>

==Academics==
=== Library ===
The Central Library started in 1973 with a collection of 600 books. Its membership demographic includes university and college teachers, postgraduate and undergraduate honors students and members of the non-teaching staff. The permanent library at Shillong campus was funded by the Indian [[Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region]] (MDoNER) and inaugurated in 2006. It now has a collection of over 230,000 books, 38,000 bound periodicals and it subscribes to 316 foreign and 366 Indian journals.<ref>{{cite web|author =NEHU Library |url= http://www.nehu.ac.in/library/index.html|title=Library | work=nehu.ac.in | access-date=30 July 2013}}</ref>
Readers can also have access to Thesis works compiled by PhD recipients over the years. The library is technologically endowed for ease and comfort of the students. A highly qualified library staff is available to assist students with any help they need.The library has a collection of rare works by leading Indian scholars some of which are not available anywhere, but certain libraries in the country.

===Rankings===
{{Infobox India university ranking
|NIRF_O_2024=151-200|NIRF_U_2024=101-150}}

The [[National Institutional Ranking Framework]] (NIRF) ranked North-Eastern Hill University 151-200 overall in India<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIRF 2024 Overall ranking |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/Rankings/2024/OverallRanking200.html}}</ref> and 101-150 among universities<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIRF 2024 University rank |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/Rankings/2024/UniversityRanking150.html}}</ref> in 2024.

==Notable alumni==


=== Academicians ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Notability
!Affiliation
|-
|[[Sukhendu Debbarma]]
|[[Historian]] & [[Professor]] of History at [[Tripura University]]
|
|-
|Dr. Lalchungnunga
|Former [[Principal (academia)|Principal]] of [[Serampore College]]
|
|-
|[[Prasenjit Biswas]]
|[[Professor]] of [[Philosophy]] & Philosopher
|
|-
|[[Brahma Dev Sharma]]
|[[Vice chancellor]]
|
|}

=== Judiciary ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Notability
!Affiliation
|-
|Justice Budi Habung
|Judge of [[Gauhati High Court]]
|
|-
|Justice Kakheto Sema
|Judge of [[Gauhati High Court]]
|
|-
|Justice Nelson Sailo
|Judge of [[Gauhati High Court]]
|
|-
|Justice Lanusungkum Jamir
|Acting Chief Justice of [[Gauhati High Court]]
|
|-
|Justice Biswadeep Bhattacharjee<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-08-02 |title=Biswadeep Bhattacharjee takes oath as new judge of Meghalaya HC |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shillong/biswadeep-bhattacharjee-takes-oath-as-new-judge-of-meghalaya-hc/articleshow/102334513.cms |access-date=2025-05-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|Judge of [[Meghalaya High Court]]
|
|}

=== Politicians ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Notability
!Affiliation
|-
|[[Alphons Kannanthanam]]
|Former [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]], [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]] & [[Ministry of Tourism (India)|Minister of Tourism]] in [[First Modi ministry]].
|Department of [[Economics]]
|-
| colspan="3" | '''Politicians from the state of Tripura'''
|-
|[[Pradyot Bikram Manikya Deb Barma]]
|Titular [[Kings of Tripura|King of Tripura]],[[Tipra Motha Party|Leader of Tipra Motha Party]] & Member of [[Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council]]
|Department of [[History]]
|-
|[[Mevar Kumar Jamatia]]
|Former [[Cabinet Minister]] of [[Tripura]] in [[Biplab Kumar Deb ministry]].
|Department of [[Sociology]]
|-
| colspan="3" | '''Politicians from the state of Meghalaya'''
|-
|[[Alexander Laloo Hek]]
|[[Cabinet Minister]]
|
|-
|[[Sniawbhalang Dhar]]
|[[Deputy chief minister|Deputy chief Minister]] of [[Meghalaya]] in [[Second Conrad Sangma ministry]]
|
|-
|[[Prestone Tynsong]]
|[[Deputy Chief Minister (India)|Deputy Chief Minister]] of [[Meghalaya]] in [[First Conrad Sangma ministry]] & [[Second Conrad Sangma ministry]]
|Department of [[Commerce]]
|-
|[[Ampareen Lyngdoh]]
|[[Cabinet Minister]] of [[Meghalaya]] in [[Second Conrad Sangma ministry]]
|Department of [[Mass media]] &[[Journalism]]
|-
|[[Rakkam A Sangma]]
|[[Cabinet Minister]] of [[Meghalaya]] in [[Second Conrad Sangma ministry]]
|Department of [[Physics]]
|-
|[[Brightstarwell Marbaniang]]
|Member of [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]] from [[Mawlai Assembly constituency]]
|Department of Adult & Continuing Education
|-
| colspan="3" |'''Politicians from the state of Nagaland'''
|-
|[[Tokheho Yepthomi]]
|[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Nagaland Lok Sabha constituency]]
|
|-
|[[Küzholuzo Nienü]]
|[[Member of Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]].
|
|-
|[[Kevipodi Sophie]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|Department of [[Political science|Political Science]]
|-
|[[K. G. Kenye]]
|[[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]] from [[Nagaland]] & [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
|[[Z. Nyusietho Nyuthe]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|Department of [[Sociology]]
|-
|[[Imkong L. Imchen]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|Department of [[Anthropology]]
|-
|[[A. Pangjung Jamir]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
|[[K. Tokugha Sukhalu]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
|[[G. Ikuto Zhimomi]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
|[[Y. Mhonbemo Hümtsoe]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|Department of [[History]]
|-
|[[Benei M. Lamthiu]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
|[[P. Longon]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
|[[Naiba Konyak]]
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
| colspan="3" | '''Politicians from the state of Mizoram'''
|-
|[[K. Sapdanga]]
|Incumbent Home Minister of Mizoram in [[Lalduhoma ministry]]
|
|-
|[[Baryl Vanneihsangi]]
|[[Incumbent]] [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] of [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]].
|Department of [[History]]
|-
|[[Lalbiakzama]]
|Former [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] of [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]].
|Department of [[Commerce]]
|-
|[[Robert Romawia Royte]]
|Former [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]] of [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]].
|Department of [[Political science|Political Science]]
|-
|[[Lalchhandama Ralte]]
|Incumbent [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Mizoram Legislative Assembly|Leader of the opposition in the Mizoram Legislative Assembly]] & former Cabinet Minister in [[Third Zoramthanga ministry]]
|Department of [[Political science|Political Science]]
|-
|[[P. C. Vanlalruata]]
|Incumbent Cabinet Minister of [[Mizoram]] in [[Lalduhoma ministry]]
|Department of [[Economics]]
|-
|[[Vanlalhlana]]
|Incumbent Cabinet Minister of [[Mizoram]] in [[Lalduhoma ministry]]
|Department of [[Anthropology]]
|-
|[[Rasik Mohan Chakma]]
|Member of [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]] & former Chief Executive Member of [[Chakma Autonomous District Council]]
|
|-
|[[C. Lalsawivunga]]
|Incumbent Cabinet Minister of [[Mizoram]] in [[Lalduhoma ministry]]
|
|-
|[[Lalnghinglova Hmar]]
|Incumbent Minister of State of [[Mizoram]] in [[Lalduhoma ministry]]
|Department of [[History]]
|-
|[[K. Hrahmo]]
|Member of [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]] & former Executive Member of [[Maraland|Maraland District Autonomous Council]]
|
|-
|[[W. Chhuanawma]]
|Member of [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]]
|
|-
|[[Lalchhuanthanga]]
|Member of [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]]
|
|}
*

== Faculty ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Affiliation
!Notability
!Awards
!References
|-
|[[André Beteille|Prof. André Beteille]]
|[[File:The well-known Sociologist Dr. Andre Beteille receives the Padma Bhushan award from the President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam in New Delhi on March 28, 2005.jpg|thumb]][[Professor]] of [[Sociology]]
|[[Vice Chancellor]] of NEHU, [[Chancellor]] of [[Ashoka University]].He also taught at [[Delhi School of Economics]], [[London School of Economics]], [[University of Chicago]], [[University of Cambridge]] & [[University of Oxford]].
|[[File:Padma Bhushan India IIe Klasse.jpg|thumb|[[Padma Bhushan]]]]
|
|-
|[[Barrister Pakem|Prof. Barrister Pakem]]
|[[Professor]] of [[Political science|Political Science]]
|Longest Serving [[Vice Chancellor]] of NEHU, Member of [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]] & [[Cabinet Minister]] of [[Meghalaya]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press Releases: Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Meghalaya |url=https://www.megipr.gov.in/pr.asp?dt=12/18/2010 |access-date=2024-09-17 |website=www.megipr.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NEHU recalls contributions of its longest-serving VC Prof B Pakem {{!}} The Shillong Times |url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2024/09/18/nehu-recalls-contributions-of-its-longest-serving-vc-prof-b-pakem/ |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=theshillongtimes.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[David R. Syiemlieh|Prof. David R. Syiemlieh]]
|[[File:The Chairman, UPSC, Prof. David R. Syiemlieh administering the oath of office and secrecy to Ms. Sujata Mehta, as Member, Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), in New Delhi on February 21, 2017.jpg|thumb|[[Professor]] of [[History]]]]
|[[Vice Chancellor]] of [[Rajiv Gandhi University]] & Chairperson of [[Union Public Service Commission]].
|[[File:Padma Shri India IIIe Klasse.jpg|thumb|[[Padma Shri]]]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-01-02 |title=David R Syiemlieh appointed new UPSC chairman |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/david-r-syiemlieh-appointed-new-upsc-chairman/articleshow/56298888.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-09-17 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>
|-
|[[Mrinal Miri|Prof. Mrinal Miri]]
|[[Professor]] of [[Philosophy]]
|[[Vice Chancellor]] of & [[List of nominated members of the Rajya Sabha|Nominated Member of Parliament to Rajya Sabha]]
|[[File:Padma Bhushan India IIe Klasse.jpg|thumb|[[Padma Bhushan Awards (2000-09)|Padma Bhushan]]]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Former NEHU V-C nominated to Rajya Sabha {{!}} The Shillong Times |url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2012/06/30/former-nehu-v-c-nominated-to-rajya-sabha/ |access-date=2024-09-17 |website=theshillongtimes.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[Tanka Bahadur Subba|Prof. Tanka Bahadur Subba]]
|[[Professor]] of [[Anthropology]]
|[[Vice Chancellor]] of [[Sikkim University]]
|
|
|-
|[[Laltluangliana Khiangte|Prof. Laltluangliana Khiangte]]
|[[File:The President, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam presenting Padma Shri to Prof. Laltluangliana Khiangte, reputed scholar, at investiture ceremony in New Delhi on March 29, 2006.jpg|thumb|[[Professor]] of [[Mizo language|Mizo]]]]
|[[Principal (education)|Principal]] of [[Serampore College]]
|[[File:Padma Shri India IIIe Klasse.jpg|thumb|[[Padma Shri]]]]
|
|-
|[[Mihir Kanti Chaudhuri|Prof.Mihir Kanti Chaudhuri]]
|[[File:Mihir Kanti Chaudhuri presenting a memento to the Secretary, Ministry of Development of North-East Region, Shri Naveen Verma, during the annual industry-academia interface event, the 17th edition of ‘Sampark-2017’.jpg|thumb|[[Professor]] of [[Chemistry]]]]
|[[Vice Chancellor]] of [[Tezpur University]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-12-13 |title=Ex-VC of Tezpur Univ no more |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/ex-vc-of-tezpur-univ-no-more/articleshow/116297721.cms |access-date=2024-12-14 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ricky AJ Syngkon|Prof. Ricky AJ Syngkon]]
|[[Professor]] of [[Commerce]]
|[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Shillong Lok Sabha constituency]]
|
|
|-
|[[Maya S]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=NEHU |url=https://nehu.ac.in/faculty/display/407/S.%20Maya |access-date=2025-01-08 |website=nehu.ac.in |language=en}}</ref>
|Associate Professor, Philosophy
|Indian author and academic
|
|
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{official website|http://www.nehu.ac.in}}

{{IndianCentralUniv}}
{{Universities in smaller states and territories of India}}
{{Universities in Meghalaya}}
{{Educational Institutes in Meghalaya}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:North-Eastern Hill University| ]]
[[Category:Universities in Meghalaya]]
[[Category:Central universities in India]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 1973|NEHU]]
[[Category:1973 establishments in Meghalaya]]
[[Category:Education in Shillong]]

2014–15 Bengaluru FC season

2026-02-17T14:33:56Z

Loz12: creating post

{{Short description|2nd season in existence of Bengaluru FC}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox football club season
| club = [[Bengaluru FC]]
| logo =
| season = 2014–15
| manager = [[Ashley Westwood (footballer born 1976)|Ashley Westwood]]
| chairman = [[Parth Jindal]]
| stadium = [[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
| league = [[I-League]]
| league result = [[2014–15 I-League|2nd]]
| cup1 = [[Federation Cup (India)|Federation Cup]]
| cup1 result = '''[[2014–15 Indian Federation Cup|Winners]]'''
| cup2 = [[Durand Cup]]
| cup2 result = [[2014 Durand Cup|Semi-finals]]
| cup3 = [[AFC Champions League]]
| cup3 result = [[2015 AFC Champions League|Qualifying play-off]]
| cup4 = [[AFC Cup]]
| cup4 result = [[2015 AFC Cup#Round of 16|Round of 16]]
| league topscorer = [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] (6 goals)
| season topscorer = [[Sunil Chhetri]] (14 goals)
| highest attendance = 21,786 vs [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]] (31 May 2015)<ref name="bfc mmb attendance">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/it-was-a-cliffhanger/article7269362.ece|title=It was a cliffhanger|author=Shreedutta Chidananda|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=1 June 2015}}</ref>
| lowest attendance = 3,148 vs [[Persipura Jayapura]] (12 May 2015)<ref name="BFC persipura report">{{cite web|url=http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9066&stageid=353&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary|title=Bengaluru FC vs Persipura Jayapura|date=12 May 2015|work=[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]]}}</ref>
| average attendance =
| pattern_la1 = _whiteborder
| pattern_b1 =_bengaluru1415h
| pattern_ra1 = _whiteborder
| pattern_sh1 =
| pattern_so1 =
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| pattern_la2 = _bluelowerthin
| pattern_b2 =_bengaluru1415a
| pattern_ra2 = _bluelowerthin
| pattern_sh2 =
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| body3=FF5F00
| rightarm3=FF5F00
| shorts3=000000
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| prevseason = [[2013–14 Bengaluru FC season|2013–14]]
| nextseason = [[2015–16 Bengaluru FC season|2015–16]]
}}

The '''2014–15 season''' was [[Bengaluru FC]]'s second season in the [[I-League]] since its establishment in 2013. This season was the first season that Bengaluru FC competed in [[Asian Football Confederation|Asian competition]].

Bengaluru began the season as the defending champions, but could not defend the title as they could manage only a draw in the last game against the winners [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]], but the club had the longest unbeaten run (13 games).

In continental cups, they lost in the first round of the [[2015 AFC Champions League qualifying play-off]] and then participated in group stage of the [[AFC Cup]], where they reached Round of 16.

In domestic cups, Bengaluru FC started the season with the [[2014 Durand Cup]] where they lost in semi-finals to [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]] on penalties. Bengaluru FC also participated in [[2014–15 Indian Federation Cup|Federation Cup]]. They finished the tournament as champions after defeating [[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]] in the [[2015 Indian Federation Cup Final|final]] 2–1.

22 different players represented the club in five different competitions and there were 13 different goal scorers. [[Sunil Chhetri]] was Bengaluru's top scorer with 14 goals in 36 appearances.

==Background==
{{see also|2013–14 Bengaluru FC season}}

Bengaluru FC was unveiled on 21 July 2013 and played their first season in 2013–14. After playing their first ever game against [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]] on 22 September 2013, Bengaluru FC won the [[2013–14 I-League]] when they defeated [[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]] 4–2 on 21 April 2014 and created the history by being the first team to win [[I-League]] in its debut year.

In July 2014, Bengaluru signed a deal with [[Puma SE|Puma]] as their official kit sponsors from the 2014–15 season.<ref>{{cite news |title= Puma is the official kit sponsor of Bengaluru FC |url= http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2014/07/17/4965355/puma-to-become-official-kit-sponsor-of-bengaluru-fc |publisher= goal.com |date= 17 July 2014 |accessdate= 23 July 2014 |archive-date= 24 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924144420/http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2014/07/17/4965355/puma-to-become-official-kit-sponsor-of-bengaluru-fc |url-status= dead }}</ref> This season Bengaluru also moved from [[Bangalore Football Stadium]] to [[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]] due to rebuilding of the old stadium for [[2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/Move-on-Stadium-May-Hit-Football-Future/2014/03/05/article2091576.ece1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104419/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/Move-on-Stadium-May-Hit-Football-Future/2014/03/05/article2091576.ece1|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 March 2016|title=Move on Stadium May Hit Football Future|date=5 March 2014|author=S S Shreekumar}}</ref> As the winner of [[2013–14 I-League]], Bengaluru competed at [[Asian Football Confederation|Asian competitions]], for the first time.

===Transfers===
Bengaluru FC began signing players for the 2014–15 season as early as April when they signed [[Tata Football Academy]] graduate [[Udanta Singh]].<ref name="BFCThree">{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=143|title=BFC makes three new signings|date=15 July 2014|work=[[Bengaluru FC]]|access-date=5 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704175125/http://bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=143|archive-date=4 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bengaluru FC also released veteran mid-fielder [[Johnny Menyongar]] at the end of [[2013–14 Bengaluru FC season|previous season]].<ref name="Menyongar released">{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2014/04/30/4786103/bfc-release-menyongar-contract-extension-for-rooney|title=BFC release Menyongar; Contract extension for Rooney|date=30 April 2014}}</ref> Bengaluru FC signed [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]] as their marquee player.<ref name="Josh Walker">{{cite web|title=Gateshead Play Down Perez Links|url=http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/sport/gateshead-play-down-perez-links-7377627|accessdate=7 July 2014|work=Chronicle Live|date=6 July 2014 }}</ref> On 15 July 2014, Bengaluru announced they signed two more players, [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] and [[Lalchhuan Mawia]].<ref name="BFCThree"/> Over the summer, Bengaluru also signed [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]] goalkeeper [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]].<ref name="Ralte">{{cite web|url=http://www.chrispd.de/wordpress/2014/10/29/bengaluru-fc-mohammedan-sporting-durand-cup-opener/|title=BENGALURU FC UP AGAINST MOHAMMEDAN SPORTING IN DURAND CUP OPENER|date=29 October 2014}}</ref>

====In====
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; text-align:left"
!No.
!scope=col|Position
!scope=col|Player
!scope=col|Signed from
!scope=col|Date
!scope=col|Ref
|-
| 10
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]]
|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Gateshead F.C.|Gateshead]]
|7 July 2014
|<ref name="Josh Walker"/>
|-
| 14
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rangdajied United F.C.|Rangdajied United]]
|15 July 2014
|<ref name="BFCThree"/>
|-
| 21
|{{sort|?|FW}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Udanta Singh]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Tata Football Academy]]
|19 April 2014
|<ref name="BFCThree"/>
|-
| 23
|{{sort|?|DF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Lalchhuan Mawia]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]
|15 July 2014
|<ref name="BFCThree"/>
|-
| 28
|{{sort|?|GK}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="Ralte"/>
|-
| 32
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shilton D'Silva]]
|Free Agent
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="BFC Squad">{{cite web|title=Squad|url=http://bengalurufc.com/goalkeepers.php|website=Bengaluru FC|accessdate=30 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230222638/http://bengalurufc.com/goalkeepers.php|archive-date=30 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|}

====Out====
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; text-align:left"
!No.
!scope=col|Position
!scope=col|Player
!scope=col|Team
!scope=col|Date
!scope=col|Ref
|-
|10
|{{sort|?|AM}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|LBR}} [[Johnny Menyongar]]
|Released
|30 April 2014
|<ref name="Menyongar released"/>
|-
|14
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sampath Kuttymani]]
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="Mumbai">{{cite web|title=Mumbai FC sign Amoes and Reisangmei Vashum|url=http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/mumbai-fc-sign-amoes-reisangmei-vashum|work=Sportskeeda|accessdate=5 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
|22
|{{sort|?|GK}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Bruno Colaço]]
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]]
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="Bruno Colaco Dempo">{{cite web|last1=Jitendran|first1=Nikhil|title=Churchill outsmarted by Dempo in goalfest|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/136/india/2014/09/24/5128301/churchill-outsmarted-by-dempo-in-goalfest|website=Goal.com|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref>
|-
|23
|{{sort|?|DF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Lalrozama Fanai]]
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Aizawl F.C.|Aizawl]]
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="BFC Squad"/>
|-
|25
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} Niroshan Mani
| {{flagicon|IND}} Students Union
|Summer 2014
|<ref>{{cite news|last1=Babu Cyriac|first1=Biju|title=Football's soldiers pump in money to run Students Union FC|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/Footballs-soldiers-pump-in-money-to-run-Students-Union-FC/articleshow/45575035.cms|website=The Times of India|date=19 December 2014 |accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref>
|-
|26
|{{sort|?|DF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} Thomas Lalengkima
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Aizawl F.C.|Aizawl]]
|Summer 2014
|<ref>{{cite web|title=I-League 2nd Division-ah Aizawl FC chungnung zel|url=http://inkhel.com/post/i-league-2nd-division-ah-aizawl-fc-chungnung-zel|website=Inkhel|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref>
|-
|27
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Amoes]]
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="Mumbai"/>
|-
|28
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} Don Bosco Andrew
|Released
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="BFC Squad"/>
|-
|
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} Randhan Meitei
|Released
|Summer 2014
|<ref name="BFC Squad"/>
|}

====Loan out====

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; text-align:left"
!No.
!scope=col|Position
!scope=col|Player
!scope=col|On Loan to
!scope=col|Date
!scope=col|Ref
|-
| 32
|{{sort|?|MF}}
!scope=row|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shilton D'Silva]]
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]
|March 2015
|<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumbai FC|url=https://twitter.com/MumbaiFC/status/594498952076001283|accessdate=3 May 2015}}</ref>
|}

==Pre-season and friendlies==

Bengaluru FC played two friendlies against [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]] and [[Pune F.C.|Pune]] in August 2014 at [[Duler Stadium]], [[Goa]]. Bengaluru won the first game against Salgaocar through a solo goal from [[Curtis Osano]] in the first half.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2014/08/07/5011539/salgaocars-striking-department-still-a-worry-for-derrick|title=Salgaocar's striking department still a worry for Derrick Pereira|date=7 August 2014|work=Goal.com|author=Anselm Noronha}}</ref> The second friendly against [[Pune F.C.|Pune]] ended in 1–1 draw after [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] scored a goal in the first half.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://punefc.com/preseason-2014-friendly-1-pune-fc-1-1-bengaluru-fc/|title=Preseason 2014, Friendly #1 – Pune FC 1-1 Bengaluru FC|date=9 August 2014|work=[[Pune F.C.]]}}</ref> Bengaluru then toured [[China]] and [[Hong Kong]] for further pre-season friendlies. In the first game of the tour, Bengaluru registered 0–1 win against [[Guangdong Sunray Cave F.C.|Guangdong Sunray Cave]], courtesy of an 87th-minute goal from [[Malemngamba Meetei]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2014/10/02/5149855/bengaluru-fc-victorious-over-chinese-opponents-in-pre-season|title=Bengaluru FC victorious over Chinese opponents in pre-season friendly|date=2 October 2014|author=Atanu Mitra}}</ref> In the second game against [[Eastern AA]], Bengaluru failed to score a goal and lost 0–2. In the final game of the tour, Bengaluru played [[Guangzhou R&F F.C.|Guangzhou R&F]] and faced another defeat 0–3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/136/india/2014/10/09/5169981/bengaluru-fc-go-down-3-0-to-guangzhou-rf |title=Bengaluru FC go down 3-0 to Guangzhou R&F|date=9 October 2014|work=Goal.com}}</ref>

Bengaluru FC also participated in the local tournament, Puttaiah Memorial Cup, which they won by defeating ASC 8–1 in the final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/448879/bengaluru-fc-drub-asc-clinch.html|title=Bengaluru FC drub ASC to clinch Puttaiah Memorial|date=21 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=168|title=Bengaluru FC win Puttaiah Memorial Cup|date=20 December 2014|publisher=bengalurufc.com|access-date=31 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231112937/http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=168|archive-date=31 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{Football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date=5 August 2014
|time=
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=1–0
|report=
|team2=[[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|goals1=[[Curtis Osano|Osano]] {{goal|14}}
|goals2=
|location=[[Mapusa]]
|stadium=[[Duler Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=W
|motm =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date=9 August 2014
|time=
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=1–1
|report=[http://punefc.com/preseason-2014-friendly-1-pune-fc-1-1-bengaluru-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Pune F.C.|Pune]]
|goals1=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|44}}
|goals2=[[Syed Shoaib Ahmed|Ahmed]] {{goal|}}
|location=[[Mapusa]]
|stadium=[[Duler Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=D
|motm =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date=1 October 2014
|time=
|team1=[[Guangdong Sunray Cave F.C.|Guangdong Sunray Cave]]
|score=0–1
|report=[http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2014/10/02/5149855/bengaluru-fc-victorious-over-chinese-opponents-in-pre-season Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=
|goals2=[[Malemngamba Meetei|M. Meetei]] {{goal|87}}
|location=[[Guangzhou]]
|stadium=[[Huangpu Sports Center]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=W
|motm =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date=6 October 2014
|time=
|team1=[[Eastern AA]]
|score=2–0
|report=[http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/136/india/2014/10/07/5163302/i-league-champions-bengaluru-fc-taste-defeat-in-china Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Reinaldo de Morais Peres|Reinaldo]] {{goal|1}} [[Giovane Alves da Silva|Giovane]] {{goal|15}}
|goals2=
|location=[[Guangzhou]]
|stadium=[[Tianhe Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=L
|motm =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date=9 October 2014
|time=
|team1=[[Guangzhou R&F F.C.|Guangzhou R&F]]
|score=3–0
|report=[http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/136/india/2014/10/09/5169981/bengaluru-fc-go-down-3-0-to-guangzhou-rf Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=Zhang Shao {{goal|4}} [[Zhang Yuan (footballer, born 1989)|Zhang Yuan]] {{goal|29}} [[Zhang Chenlong]] {{goal|}}
|goals2=
|location=[[Guangzhou]]
|stadium=[[Tianhe Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=L
|motm =
}}

==Competitions==

===Overall===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:850px;"
|-
! style="text-align:center; width:200px;" | Competition
! style="text-align:center; width:100px;" | Started round
! style="text-align:center; width:100px;" | Final position
! style="text-align:center; width:170px;" | First match
! style="text-align:center; width:170px;" | Last match
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[2014 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]]
| Quarter-finals
| Semi-finals
| 30 October 2014
| 6 November 2014
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[2014–15 Indian Federation Cup|Federation Cup]]
| Group stage
| style="background:#FFD700;"|Winners
| 28 December 2014
| 11 January 2015
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[2014–15 I-League|I-League]]
| —
| 2nd
| 17 January 2015
| 31 May 2015
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[2015 AFC Champions League|AFC Champions League]]
| Qualifying
| Qualifying
| colspan=2| 4 February 2015
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[2015 AFC Cup|AFC Cup]]
| Group stage
| Round of 16
| 24 February 2015
| 26 May 2015
|}
Last Updated: 31 May 2015 
Source : [[#Competitions|Competitions]]


===Overview===
{{Fb overview
|c=5
|c1=[[2014 Durand Cup|Durand Cup]] |w1=1 |d1=2 |l1=0 |f1=4 |a1=3
|c2=[[2014–15 Indian Federation Cup|Federation Cup]] |w2=5 |d2=1 |l2=0 |f2=11 |a2=4
|c3=[[2014–15 I-League|I-League]] |w3=10 |d3=7 |l3=3 |f3=35 |a3=19
|c4=[[2015 AFC Champions League|AFC Champions League]] |w4=0 |d4=0 |l4=1 |f4=1 |a4=2
|c5=[[2015 AFC Cup|AFC Cup]] |w5 =4 |d5=0 |l5 =3 |f5=8 |a5=10
|u=31 May 2015
}}

===I-League===
{{Main|2014–15 I-League}}

====Summary====

=====January=====
Bengaluru began the defense of the [[I-League]] title on 17 January 2015 against [[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]]. Bengaluru had the chance to take the lead when they were awarded a penalty in 44th minute but [[Sunil Chhetri]] could not convert to chance. The match eventually ended in a goal-less draw.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/football/dempo-holds-bengaluru-fc-goalless/article6797455.ece|title=Dempo holds Bengaluru FC goalless|date=18 January 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The next match for Bengaluru FC was worse as they went down to [[Pune F.C.|Pune]] 1–3 in their next home game. Pune took an early 0–2 lead through [[Darko Nikac]] and [[Luciano Sabrosa]]. Pune furthered their advantage in the 82nd minute when [[Thongkhosiem Haokip]] connected well with [[Yumnam Raju]]'s cross for the ball to bounce beyond the goal-line after rattling the crossbar. In the closing minutes, Bengaluru pulled one back when [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] scored a goal with the assist from [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=161|title=Bengaluru FC go down to resilient Pune FC|date=24 January 2015|work=bengalurufc.com|access-date=27 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128114132/http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=161|archive-date=28 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In their next game against [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]], Bengaluru could not find the back of the net, in spite of dominating in the first half and creating multiple chances. In the second half, [[Abhinas Ruidas]] scored a goal for East Bengal against the run of play while Bengaluru continued to miss chances and thus game ended 1–0 in favour of East Bengal and Bengaluru's winless streak was extended to three games.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/east-bengal-vs-bengaluru/1980979|title=East Bengal 1-0 Bengaluru FC: Wasteful visitors gift three points to Colaco's side|date=28 January 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref> However, Bengaluru finally secured the first win of the season in the away game against newly promoted, and then table toppers, [[Royal Wahingdoh F.C.|Royal Wahingdoh]] with a dominant 4–0 win. [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]] scored a brace, while [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] and [[C.K. Vineeth]] scored a goal each.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/royal-wahingdoh-vs-bengaluru/1980984/report|title=Royal Wahingdoh FC 0-4 Bengaluru FC: The Blues notch up their first win in style|date=31 January 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref>

=====February=====
In February, Bengaluru played against newly inducted team from Pune, [[Bharat FC]]. The only goal of the match was scored by [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] in 78th minute as Bengaluru won their second game of the season, 1–0.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-bharat-fc/1980991|title=Bengaluru FC 1-0 Bharat FC: Blues notch up first home win of the season|author=Sahil Srivastava|date=8 February 2015}}</ref> During their next match against [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]], Bengaluru took an early lead when [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] converted the cross from [[Shankar Sampingiraj]] with a header. Towards the end of first half Bengaluru were down to 10 men when [[Curtis Osano]] was sent-off for a dangerous challenge on [[Cornell Glenn]], but Bengaluru continued to attack and doubled the lead through [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]]'s header from a [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]'s cross. That victory meant that Bengaluru won their third consecutive game and rose to second in the I-League table.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-shillong-lajong/1980994/report|title=Bengaluru FC 2-0 Shillong Lajong FC: Ten man Bengaluru see off north east side|date=14 February 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref> On 20 February, in the away game against [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]], the team started well when [[Sunil Chhetri]] scored his first goal of season in the league in 8th minute, but Bengaluru unfolded quickly and conceded 4 goals which included a brace from [[Sony Norde]], owing to blunders from the Bengaluru goalkeeper and poor defense overall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/mohun-bagan-vs-bengaluru/1980999/report|title=Mohun Bagan 4-1 Bengaluru FC: Norde's brace gives three valuable points for the home side|date=20 February 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref> Bengaluru bounced back to win the next game 3–1 against [[Sporting Clube de Goa]] with a brace from [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]] and a goal from [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]], both scoring their first goals in the league.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/sporting-goa-vs-bengaluru/1981004/report|title=Sporting Clube de Goa 1-3 Bengaluru FC: Westwood's side compound misery for Goan outfit|date=28 February 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref>

=====March=====
Bengaluru began March with an away game against [[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]. After persistent attack from both sides, Bengaluru scored first when [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] curled a shot into the far corner. Mumbai equalized quickly in the second half via [[Josimar (footballer, born 1961)|Josimar]]. Bengaluru created chances late in the game, but man of the match, Mumbai goalkeeper [[Nidhin Lal]], saved all the attempts and both teams eventually shared a point.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/mumbai-vs-bengaluru/1981010/report|title=Mumbai FC 1-1 Bengaluru FC: Jamil's unbeaten record at Cooperage intact|date=3 March 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref> After the mid-season break, Bengaluru played the away game against [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]. The game also marked the return of top players of Bengaluru, who were away for the national duty. Bengaluru enjoyed a lion share of possession, but could not convert any chances in the first half and the game remained goalless. [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] finally broke the deadlock with a pass from [[Rino Anto]]. Salgaocar had the chance to equalize when they were awarded penalty, but man of the match [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]], correctly guessed the direction and saved the penalty to secure 3 points for Bengaluru.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/salgaocar-vs-bengaluru/1981025/report|title=Salgaocar FC 0-1 Bengaluru FC: Robin's late winner helps champions to top place|date=21 March 2015|work=Goal.com|author=Anselm Noronha}}</ref> Bengaluru ended the March on a high note with a convincing 4–1 victory at home against [[Sporting Clube de Goa]]. Bengaluru took the lead in the first half when [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]]'s header converted a pass from [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] in a goal. [[Rino Anto]], [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]], and [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]] scored a goal each in the second half. Sporting Goa's multiple attacks, especially from [[Odafe Onyeka Okolie]], were thwarted by man of the match [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-sporting-goa/1981033|title=Bengaluru FC 4-1 Sporting Clube de Goa: Blues bank on Ralte show to down Flaming Oranje|date=31 March 2015|work=Goal.com|author1=Harsh Shah|author2=Sahil Srivastava}}</ref>

=====April=====
In April, Bengaluru played the home game against [[Royal Wahingdoh F.C.|Royal Wahingdoh]]. The game saw flurry of goals with [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]], [[Shankar Sampingiraj]], [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]] countering three goals by the visiting team and the game ended at 3–3.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-royal-wahingdoh/1981038|title=Bengaluru FC 3-3 Royal Wahingdoh FC: Royal battle at Bengaluru sees honours shared|date=3 April 2015|work=Goal.com|author1=Nikhil Jitendran|author2=Sahil Srivastava}}</ref> Before the next game against [[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]], Bengaluru were trailing by 3 points to the table topper [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]], in spite of having played 2 more games, so it was a crucial match for Bengaluru to stay in the title hunt, but the game turned out to be 4th consecutive draw between the two sides. In spite of continuous attack by Bengaluru, the first half remained goalless. In the second half, against the run of the play, [[Rahul Bheke]] scored the goal for visitors to take the lead in 67th minute. Bengaluru intensified the attack and [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] equalized in the closing minutes before he was sent-off.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-mumbai/1981043/report|title=Bengaluru FC 1-1 Mumbai FC: The Blues continue to stumble in their title chase|date=7 April 2015|work=Goal.com|author=Sahil Srivastava}}</ref> The next game for Bengaluru was another top of the table clash with [[Pune F.C.]] Bengaluru quickly got ahead when [[Shankar Sampingiraj]] scored the fastest goal of the season and the second fastest [[I-League]] goal of all time, in 15 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gcsstars.com/2015/04/shankars-record-15-second-goal-ensure.html|title=Shankar's record 15-second goal ensure Bengaluru's first win in Pune|work=GCSStars.com|date=21 April 2015|author=Subhajyoti Banerjee}}</ref> Bengaluru doubled the lead just before half-time when [[C.K. Vineeth]] scored a goal from [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]]'s pass and Bengaluru scored their first ever win against Pune team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/pune-vs-bengaluru/1981053/report|title=Pune FC 0-2 Bengaluru FC: Westwood's side end their voodoo against Red Lizards|date=21 April 2015|work=Goal.com|author=Nikhil Jitendran}}</ref> In three days, Bengaluru faced another Pune based team [[Bharat FC]]. Facing the depleted time, Bengaluru easily won the game 2–0 with goals from [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] and [[C.K. Vineeth]] in each half respectively, with both the assists coming from [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bharat-fc-vs-bengaluru/1981060/report|title=Bharat FC 0-2 Bengaluru FC: The Blues go level on points with the Mariners on top|date=24 April 2015|work=Goal.com|author=Nikhil Jitendran}}</ref>

=====May=====
[[File:Bengaluru FC vs Mohun Bagan.jpg|thumb|Bengaluru FC vs Mohun Bagan]]
May started with home fixture against [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]. Bengaluru had never registered a win against East Bengal in previous five encounters across various tournaments. Though East Bengal started on attacking note, It was Bengaluru who came out on top as [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]], [[Sunil Chhetri]] and [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] scored a goal each and man of the match [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]] maintained a clean-sheet in the game and Bengaluru secured its first win against East Bengal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-east-bengal/1981067/report|title=Bengaluru FC 3-0 East Bengal: Westwood ends his jinx against the Red and Gold brigade|date=3 May 2015|work=Goal.com|author=Sahil Srivastava}}</ref> Bengaluru then travelled to Shillong, where a win against [[Shillong Lajong]] could put them on the top of the table. After taking the lead towards the end of the first half through [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]]'s goal, Bengaluru could not hold on to the lead and conceded a penalty in 65th minute and the game ended in 1–1 draw.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/shillong-lajong-vs-bengaluru/1981068/report|title=Shillong Lajong 1-1 Bengaluru FC: The Blues fail to go top of the table|date=8 May 2015|author=Kaustav Bera}}</ref> After facing defeat against [[Persipura Jayapura]] in the AFC cup, Bengaluru returned to form against [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]] when they registered 3–1 win. After leading in the first half by 26th-minute goal from [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]], Bengaluru faced equalizer from [[Darryl Duffy]], but [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] quickly restored the lead. Man of the match [[Curtis Osano]] scored his first goal ever for the team in 80th minute and got on the scoresheet for the victory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-salgaocar/1981015/report|title=Bengaluru FC 3-1 Salgaocar FC: Lyngdoh inspires Blues to go top of the table|author=Sahil Srivastava|work=Goal.com|date=17 May 2015}}</ref> In the last away game of the season, Bengaluru played against [[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]]. Bengaluru took the lead through [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]'s goal, but could not hold on to the lead as [[Uttam Rai]] scored one back and the match ended at 1–1 with Bengaluru trailing the table toppers, [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]] by 2 points.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dempo SC 1-1 Bengaluru FC: Both sides live to fight on the final day|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/dempo-vs-bengaluru/1981072/report|date=23 May 2015|work=Goal.com|author1=Brendon Netto|author2=Anselm Noronha}}</ref> In the final home game against [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]], Bengaluru needed an outright win to defend the title. Bengaluru looked on course to defend the title when [[John Johnson (footballer)|John Johnson]] scored his first goal of the season with a header, from [[Rino Anto]]'s cross, but Mohun Bagan defender [[Bello Razaq]] scored the equalizer in 87th minute. Bengaluru's subsequent attack could not find the winner and they conceded the title to Mohun Bagan, though Bengaluru ended the season with the longest unbeaten run of 13 games, equalizing the record set by [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]] in [[2010–11 I-League|2010–11]] season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-mohun-bagan/1981076/report|title=Bengaluru FC 1-1 Mohun Bagan: Mariners are the I-League champions|date=31 May 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1064/i-league/2015/06/01/12275942/ten-interesting-stats-from-the-bengaluru-fc-mohun-bagan|title=Ten interesting stats from the Bengaluru FC - Mohun Bagan showdown|author=Atanu Mitra|work=Goal.com|date=1 June 2015}}</ref>

In spite of being a runner-up, Ashley Westwood maintained that Mohun Bagan hadn't done enough to deserve the league and Bengaluru FC was the best side in the league:
{{blockquote|We were the most consistent side and still think we were the best side. Full credit to Bagan but I feel they did not have enough competition because they won only two away games and anywhere else in the world you can’t win the league having won only two away games. But on paper they are the champions. The positive was that we went 13 league games without losing. We were so close to winning the league, reached the knockout stage of the AFC Cup and won the Federation Cup. We showed great depth and strength.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/136/india/2015/06/01/12282142/westwood-cant-win-the-league-with-just-two-away-victories|title=Westwood: Can't win the league with just two away victories|date=1 June 2015|author=Sahil Srivastava|work=Goal.com}}</ref>}}

====Matches====
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 1
|date=17 January 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=0–0
|report=[http://i-league.org/bengaluru-fc-fail-to-get-past-dempo-sc/ Report]
|team2=[[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]]
|goals1=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|16}} [[John Johnson (footballer)|Johnson]] {{yel|45+2}}
|goals2=[[Debabrata Roy|Roy]] {{yel|9}} [[Calum Angus|Angus]] {{yel|44}} [[Alwyn George|George]] {{yel|64}} [[Lenny Rodrigues|Rodrigues]] {{yel|71}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=11,424 <ref name="bfc dempo attendance">{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/bengalurufc/status/556465679298080768|title=Bengaluru vs Dempo attendance|date=17 January 2015|work=[[Bengaluru FC]]}}</ref>
|referee=Ranjit Bakshi
|result=D
|motm = [[Laxmikant Kattimani]] (Dempo)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 2
|date=24 January 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=1–3
|report=[http://i-league.org/pune-fc-easily-get-past-bengaluru-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Pune F.C.|Pune]]
|goals1=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|72}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|89}}
|goals2=[[Darko Nikac|Nikac]] {{goal|9}} [[Luciano Sabrosa|Luciano]] {{goal|25}} [[Thongkhosiem Haokip|T. Haokip]] {{goal|82}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=9,124<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/bengalurufootballclub/posts/590470044387786|title=Bengaluru vs Pune attendance|website=[[Facebook]] |date=24 January 2015}}</ref>
|referee=R. Saha
|result=L
|motm = [[Amrinder Singh (footballer)|Amrinder Singh]] (Pune)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 3
|date=28 January 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|score=1–0
|report=[http://i-league.org/east-bengal-get-past-bengaluru-fc-at-home/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Deepak Mondal|Monda]] {{yel|33}} [[Abhinas Ruidas|Ruidas]] {{goal|53}}
|goals2=[[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{yel|90+6}}
|location=[[Kolkata]]
|stadium=[[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=[[C.R. Srikrishna]]
|result=L
|motm = [[Abhinas Ruidas]] (East Bengal)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 4
|date=31 January 2015
|time= 16:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Royal Wahingdoh F.C.|Royal Wahingdoh]]
|score=0–4
|report=[http://i-league.org/bengaluru-fc-open-their-winning-account/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1= Lalchawnkima {{yel|13}}
|goals2=[[C.K. Vineeth]] {{goal|34}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|60}} {{yel|77}} [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{yel|24}} {{goal|67||78}} [[Curtis Osano|Osano]] {{yel|87}}
|location=[[Shillong]]
|stadium=[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Shillong)|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=W
|motm = [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 5
|date=8 February 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=1–0
|report=[http://i-league.org/eugenes-thunderous-goal-helps-bfc-win/ Report]
|team2=[[Bharat FC]]
|goals1=[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|78}} [[Lalthuammawia Ralte|Ralte]] {{yel|89}}
|goals2=[[Dharmaraj Ravanan|Ravanan]] {{yel|30}} [[Kris Bright|Bright]] {{yel|67}} [[Gunashekar Vignesh|Vignesh]] {{yel|90}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=8,954<ref name="bfc bharat attendance">{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/bengalurufc/status/564438809320767490|title=Bengaluru vs Bharat attendnace|publisher=Twitter|date=8 February 2015}}</ref>
|referee=[[T. Nagvenkar]]
|result=W
|motm = [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 6
|date=14 February 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=2–0
|report=[http://i-league.org/bengaluru-fc-win-three-on-the-trot/ Report]
|team2=[[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]
|goals1=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|17}} [[Curtis Osano]] {{sent off|0|41}} [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{goal|60}}
|goals2=[[Aiborlang Khongjee|Khongjee]] {{yel|81}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=7,068<ref name="Bengaluru v Shillong">{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/bengalurufc/status/566612883732062208|title=Bengaluru vs Shillong Lajong attendance|date=15 February 2015}}</ref>
|referee=[[Pranjal Banerjee]]
|result=W
|motm = [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 7
|date=20 February 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]]
|score=4–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/match/?ytmatchslug:54a18390-a744-457e-b395-68b30a00bc97 Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Sony Norde|Norde]] {{goal|31||76}} [[Kingshuk Debnath|Debnath]] {{yel|45+1}} [[Katsumi Yusa|Yusa]] {{goal|87}} [[Balwant Singh (footballer)|B. Singh]] {{goal|90+4}}
|goals2=[[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|8}} {{yel|42}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|22}} [[Keegan Pereira (footballer)|Pereira]] {{yel|34}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{yel|44}} [[Shankar Sampingiraj|Sampingiraj]] {{yel|66}}
|location=[[Kolkata]]
|stadium=[[Salt Lake Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=[[Ajit Meetei]]
|result=L
|motm = [[Sony Norde]] (Mohun Bagan)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 8
|date=28 February 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Sporting Club de Goa|Sporting Goa]]
|score=1–3
|report=[http://i-league.org/bengaluru-fc-get-past-sporting-goa/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Sumit Passi|Passi]] {{yel|15}} [[Singam Singh|Singh]] {{yel|27}} [[Jovel Martins|Martins]] {{yel|45}} [[Anthony Wolfe|Wolfe]] {{goal|66}}
|goals2=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|10}} [[Rino Anto|Anto]] {{yel|14}} [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Rooney]] {{goal|29||45+1}} [[John Johnson (footballer)|Johnson]] {{yel|62}} [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho|Beingaichho]] {{goal|85}}
|location=[[Margao]]
|stadium=[[Fatorda Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=M. Santosh Kumar
|result=W
|motm = [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 9
|date=3 March 2015
|time= 16:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]
|score=1–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/bengaluru-fc-held-by-mumbai-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Allan Dias (Indian footballer)|Dias]] {{yel|20}} [[Josimar (footballer, born 1961)|Josimar]] {{yel|34}} {{goal|49}}
|goals2=[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|31}} [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{yel|55}}
|location=[[Mumbai]]
|stadium=[[Cooperage Ground]]
|attendance=3,900
|referee=Ajit Dutta
|result=D
|motm = [[Nidhin Lal]] (Mumbai)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 10
|date=21 March 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|score=0–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/robin-singh-gives-bengaluru-fc-vital-three-points/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Zakeer Mundampara|Mundampara]] {{yel|17}} [[Gilbert Oliveira|Oliveira]] {{yel|56}} [[Gurjinder Kumar|Kumar]] {{sent off|2|76|86}} [[Thangjam Singh|T. Singh]] {{yel|89}}
|goals2= [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|78}}
|location=[[Margao]]
|stadium=[[Fatorda Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=[[Rowan Arumughan]]
|result=W
|motm = [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]] (Bengaluru)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 11
|date=31 March 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=4–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/confident-bengaluru-fc-get-past-sporting-goa/ Report]
|team2=[[Sporting Club de Goa|Sporting Goa]]
|goals1=[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{yel|26}} [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Walker]] {{goal|33}} [[Rino Anto|Anto]] {{goal|51}} [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{goal|60}} [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho|Beingaichho]] {{goal|80}}
|goals2=[[Alber Gonsalves|Gonsalves]] {{yel|48}} [[Victorino Fernandes|Victorino]] {{goal|83}} [[Chinta Chandrashekar Rao|rao]] {{yel|84}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=4,248
|referee=[[Ranjit Bakshi]]
|result=W
|motm = [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]] (Bengaluru)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 12
|date=3 April 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=3–3
|report=[http://i-league.org/wahingdoh-hold-bengaluru-in-six-goal-thriller/ Report]
|team2=[[Royal Wahingdoh F.C.|Royal Wahingdoh]]
|goals1=[[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{yel|33}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|39}} [[Shankar Sampingiraj|Sampingiraj]] {{goal|58}} [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Walker]] {{goal|70}}
|goals2=[[Kim Seng-yong|Seng-yong]] {{goal|15}} [[Densill Theobald|Theobald]] {{yel|37}} [[Godwin Franco|G. Franco]] {{goal|44}} [[Prem Kumar Singh|P. Singh]]{{yel|72}} [[Reagan Singh|R. Singh]] {{goal|74}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=5,438<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/fni/status/584009802914910209|title=5438 is the attendance for #BFCvRWFC|publisher=[[Twitter]]|date=3 April 2015}}</ref>
|referee=[[Pratap Singh (referee)|Pratap Singh]]
|result=D
|motm = [[Reagan Singh]] (Royal Wahingdoh)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 13
|date=7 April 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=1–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/match-report-bengaluru-fc-vs-mumbai-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]
|goals1=[[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Rooney]] {{yel|47}} [[John Johnson (footballer)|Johnson]] {{yel|50}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|88}} {{sent off|0|90+4}}
|goals2=[[Chika Wali|Wali]] {{yel|11}} Pereira {{yel|40}} [[Josimar (footballer, born 1961)|Josimar]] {{yel|62}} [[Rahul Bheke|Bheke]] {{goal|67}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=4,628<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/bengalurufc/status/585460433181659136|title=We have 4,628 people here in the Kanteerava Stadium today. 0-1. #BFCvMFC|publisher=[[Twitter]]|date=7 April 2015}}</ref>
|referee=[[Ranjit Bakshi]]
|result=D
|motm = [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 14
|date=21 April 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Pune F.C.|Pune]]
|score=0–2
|report=[http://i-league.org/match-report-pune-fc-vs-bengaluru-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=Luaha {{yel|82}}
|goals2=[[Shankar Sampingiraj|Sampingiraj]] {{goal|1}} [[C.K. Vineeth|Vineeth]] {{goal|43}}
|location=[[Pune]]
|stadium=[[Shree Shiv Chhatrapati Sports Complex]]
|attendance=
|referee=[[Vishnu Chauhan]]
|result=W
|motm = [[Shankar Sampingiraj]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 15
|date=24 April 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bharat FC]]
|score=0–2
|report=[http://i-league.org/champions-bengaluru-fc-prevails-over-plucky-bharat-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=
|goals2=[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|29}} [[Rino Anto|Anto]] {{yel|40}} [[C.K. Vineeth|Vineeth]] {{goal|56}}
|location=[[Pune]]
|stadium=[[Shree Shiv Chhatrapati Sports Complex]]
|attendance=
|referee=[[Pranjal Banerjee]]
|result=W
|motm = [[Romuald Boco]] (Bharat FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 16
|date=3 May 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=3–0
|report=[http://i-league.org/ashley-astute-westwood-outsmarts-eelco-schattorie-at-kanteerava/ Report]
|team2=[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|goals1=[[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Rooney]] {{goal|31}} [[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|60}} [[Rino Anto|Anto]] {{yel|86}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|88}}
|goals2=[[Harmanjot Khabra|Khabra]] {{yel|82}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=8,164<ref>{{cite web|title=The attendance for today's game is a whopping 8,164! Cracking atmosphere here at the Kanteerava. 2-0. #BFCvKEB|url=https://twitter.com/bengalurufc/status/594881237191274498|work=[[Bengaluru FC]]|date=3 May 2015}}</ref>
|referee=[[Rowan Arumughan]]
|result=W
|motm = [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 17
|date=8 May 2015
|time= 16:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]
|score=1–1
|report=
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1= [[Uilliams Bomfim Souza|Uilliams]] {{yel|39}} {{goal|65|pen.}} [[Son Min-chol|Min-chol]] {{yel|44}} [[Kunzang Bhutia|Bhutia]] {{yel|83}} [[Milan Singh|M. Singh]] {{yel|90+2}}
|goals2=[[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Rooney]] {{goal|45}} [[C.K. Vineeth|Vineeth]] {{yel|56}} [[Shankar Sampingiraj|Sampingiraj]] {{yel|90+2}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|90+2}}
|location=[[Shillong]]
|stadium=[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Shillong|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=Santhosh Kumar
|result=D
|motm = [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 18
|date=17 May 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=3–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/prolific-bengaluru-fc-prevails-over-iffy-salgaocar-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|goals1=[[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{goal|26}} [[John Johnson (footballer)|Johnson]] {{yel|29}} [[Lalchhuan Mawia|Lalchhuanmawia]] {{yel|31}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|73}} [[Curtis Osano|Osano]] {{goal|80}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|90+2}}
|goals2=[[Darryl Duffy|Duffy]] {{goal|71}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=4,800
|referee=Ajit Meetei
|result=W
|motm = [[Curtis Osano]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 19
|date=23 May 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]]
|score=1–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/dempo-sc-dish-out-heroics-earn-salient-point-against-bengaluru-fc/ Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Uttam Rai|Rai]] {{goal|77}}
|goals2=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|65}}
|location=[[Margao]]
|stadium=[[Fatorda Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=OP Thakur
|result=D
|motm = [[Uttam Rai]] (Dempo)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round = Match 20
|date=31 May 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=1–1
|report=[http://i-league.org/bellos-header-seals-the-hero-i-league-trophy-after-13-years/ Report]
|team2=[[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]]
|goals1=[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{yel|32}} [[John Johnson (footballer)|Johnson]] {{goal|41}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|65}} [[Lalchhuan Mawia|Fanai]] {{yel|78}}
|goals2=[[Balwant Singh (footballer)|B. Singh]] {{yel|19}} [[Bello Razaq|Razaq]] {{goal|87}}
|location=[[Bengaluru]]
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|attendance=21,786<ref name="bfc mmb attendance"/>
|referee=[[Santosh Kumar (referee)|Santosh Kumar]]
|result=D
|motm = [[Bello Razaq]] (Mohun Bagan)
}}

{{legend2|#CCFFCC|Win|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFFFCC|Draw|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFCCCC|Loss|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#CCCCCC|Void|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#CCCCCC|Postponed|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

====Table====
{{:2014–15 I-League|showteam=BFC}}

====Results by round====
{{#invoke:sports rbr table|table|legendpos=b|header=Round

|label1= Ground
| res1=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]] /[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]] /[[Salt Lake Stadium|A]]/[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Shillong)|A]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]/[[Salt Lake Stadium|A]]/[[Fatorda Stadium|A]]/[[Cooperage Ground|A]]/[[Fatorda Stadium|A]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]/[[Shree Shiv Chhatrapati Sports Complex|A]]/[[Shree Shiv Chhatrapati Sports Complex|A]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]/[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Shillong|A]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]/[[Fatorda Stadium|A]]/[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium|H]]
|label2= Result
| res2=D/L/L/W/W/W/L/W/D/W/W/D/D/W/W/W/D/W/D/D

|text_H=Home|text_A=Away
|color_W=green2|text_W=Win
|color_D=yellow2|text_D=Draw
|color_L=red2|text_L=Loss

|updated=31 May 2015
|source=[https://int.soccerway.com/teams/india/bengaluru/25367/ I-League]
|date=December 2014
}}

===AFC Champions League===
{{main|2015 AFC Champions League}}

In April 2014, it was announced that India will get a playoff spot in the [[2015 AFC Champions League]]. Bengaluru being [[I-League]] champions qualified for the tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/223401-bengaluru-fc-set-sight-on-afc-champions-league-qualification|title=Bengaluru FC set sight on AFC Champions League qualification|date=24 April 2014|access-date=15 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716222744/http://sports.ndtv.com/football/news/223401-bengaluru-fc-set-sight-on-afc-champions-league-qualification|archive-date=16 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 11 December 2014, during the [[AFC Champions League]] draw, it was announced that Bengaluru would first play in the first round of the [[2015 AFC Champions League qualifying play-off#East Asia Zone|East Asia zone qualifiers]] against [[2014 Malaysia Super League]] winner [[Johor Darul Ta'zim F.C.|Johor Darul Ta'zim]] at the [[Tan Sri Dato Haji Hassan Yunos Stadium|Larkin Stadium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/447108/bengaluru-fc-handed-difficult-johor.html|title=Bengaluru FC handed difficult Johor trip in ACL|date=12 December 2014}}</ref>

After goalless first half, Johor Darul Ta'zim immediately scored in the second with a goal from [[Hariss Harun]]. Bengaluru were unlucky as they hit the post a couple of times, but couldn't score a goal, but continued the attack. Finally in the closing minutes, [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] scored a goal directly from the corner and the match went into extra-time. Johor Darul Ta'zim again took the lead when [[Suppiah Chanturu]] placed the ball past Bengaluru keeper, [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]. Bengaluru continued to attack, but couldn't find an equalizer and thus were eliminated from the AFC Champions League early.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/afc-champions-league-bengaluru-fc-go-down-2-1-to-johor-darul-tazim|title=AFC Champions League 2015: Bengaluru FC lose 2-1 to Johor Darul Ta'zim in play-off tie|author=Ned Walters|date=5 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=166 |title=Valiant Bengaluru go down 2-1 to Johor Darul Ta'zim |date=5 February 2015 |publisher=bengalurufc.com |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211110021/http://www.bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=166 |archivedate=11 February 2015}}</ref> As a result, Bengaluru then contested in [[2015 AFC Cup]] in group E.

{{Football box collapsible
|date=4 February 2015
|round=[[2015 AFC Champions League qualifying play-off#Johor Darul Ta'zim v Bengaluru FC|Qualifying Playoff]]
|time=20:45 [[UTC+08:00|UTC+8]]
|team1=[[Johor Darul Ta'zim F.C.|Johor Darul Ta'zim]] {{flagicon|MAS}}
|score=2–1
|aet=yes
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=8883&stageid=351&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
|goals1=[[Mohd Amirul Hadi Zainal|Zaina]] {{yel|17}} [[Hariss Harun|Harun]] {{goal|47}} [[Suppiah Chanturu|Chanturu]] {{goal|97}}
|goals2=[[John Johnson (footballer)|Johnson]] {{yel|67}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|90}} [[Curtis Osano|Osano]] {{yel|90+5}} [[Siam Hanghal|Hanghal]] {{yel|95}}
|stadium=[[Tan Sri Dato Haji Hassan Yunos Stadium|Larkin Stadium]]
|location = [[Johor Bahru]], [[Malaysia]]
|result=L
|attendance=17,455
|mvp = [[Hariss Harun]] (Johor Darul Ta'zim)
|referee=[[Yudai Yamamoto]] ([[Japan Football Association|Japan]])
}}

===AFC Cup===
{{main|2015 AFC Cup}}

After losing the qualification play-off for the [[2015 AFC Champions League|AFC Champions League]], Bengaluru were placed into the [[2015 AFC Cup]] [[2015 AFC Cup group stage|group stage]]. They were placed in Group E with [[Indonesia Super League]] runners-up [[Persipura Jayapura]], [[S.League]] champions [[Warriors FC|Warriors]], and [[Dhivehi League]] side [[Maziya S&RC]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/sports/east-bengal-bengaluru-fc-drawn-tough-groups-afc-cup-1845575.html|title=East Bengal, Bengaluru FC drawn in tough groups in AFC Cup|date=11 December 2014}}</ref>

====Group stage====

{{main|2015 AFC Cup group stage#Group E}}

Bengaluru started their first ever [[AFC Cup]] campaign against [[Maldives|Maldivian]] side [[Maziya S&RC]] on 28 February 2015. After a goalless first half, [[Sunil Chhetri]] gave Bengaluru FC the lead in the 67th minute. When Bengaluru seemed be heading for the victory towards the end of the match, Maziya were awarded a penalty in 88th minute, which they converted. However, Bengaluru scored a last gasp winner in stoppage time when [[Shankar Sampingiraj]] headed the ball into the net from [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]'s cross.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/3629/afc-cup/2015/02/24/9220942/bengaluru-fc-2-1-maziya-src-shankars-stoppage-time-winner|title=Bengaluru FC 2-1 Maziya S&RC: Shankar's stoppage time winner helps Blues to first AFC Cup win|date=28 February 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref> In their second game against [[Persipura Jayapura]], Bengaluru started without their top players, [[Sunil Chhetri]], [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]], [[Shankar Sampingiraj]], [[Keegan Pereira (footballer)|Keegan Pereira]], [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] and [[Siam Hanghal]], due to a schedule conflict with [[2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)|World Cup qualification]]. Persipura took a decisive lead of 2–0 in the first half against a lackluster Bengaluru FC side. Persipura extended their lead in the second half, though in the closing minutes [[C.K. Vineeth]] pulled one back for Bengaluru as they lost 3–1.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/persipura-vs-bengaluru/2008228/report|title=Persipura Jayapura 3-1 Bengaluru FC: Pugliara stars for the Black Pearl|date=10 March 2015|work=Goal.com}}</ref> Still missing their top players, Bengaluru played the next game at home against [[Warriors FC]]. Bengaluru got a penalty in the first half, when [[C.K. Vineeth]] was brought down inside the box. English mid-fielder [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]] stepped up to take the penalty and scored his first ever goal for the team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-warriors/2008230/report|title=Bengaluru FC 1-0 Warriors FC: Joshua Walker's penalty clinches all three points for the Blues|date=17 March 2015|work=Goal.com|author=Harsh Shah}}</ref>

Bengaluru began the reverse leg with an away game against [[Warriors FC]] at [[Singapore]]. While the first half saw missed chances, [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] scored the decisive goal in 76th minute and the visitors secured 1–0 win.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/warriors-vs-bengaluru/2008275|title=Warriors FC 0-1 Bengaluru FC: Robin strike eliminates the Singaporean outfit|date=14 April 2015|author=Brendon Netto|work=Goal.com}}</ref> Bengaluru, needing only one point to advance to the next stage, visited [[Maziya S&RC]] for the fifth game. After trailing in 62nd minute, Bengaluru quickly equalized in 71st minute via a penalty, taken by [[Sunil Chhetri]]. Chhetri went on to score a brace and secure 1–2 win for Bengaluru and confirming a place in pre-quarters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/maziya-vs-bengaluru/2008276/report|title=Maziya S & RC 1-2 Bengaluru FC: Chhetri leads the Indian club into the last 16 of the AFC Cup|date=28 April 2015|work=Goal.com|author=Anselm Noronha}}</ref> In the final game of the group stage, Bengaluru faced [[Persipura Jayapura]] at home. Bengaluru took the lead in 24th minute with a goal from [[Udanta Singh]], but Persipura quickly equalized 6 minutes later. Persipura continued to enjoy the possession in the second half and scored two goals in the last quarter and won the game 1–3. The loss ended Bengaluru's unbeaten streak of 12 matches, across all tournaments, which incidentally began after the loss against Persipura in the reverse leg on 10 March 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/bengaluru-vs-persipura/2008279/report|title=Bengaluru FC 1-3 Persipura Jayapura: The Blues to play South China in the next stage|date=12 May 2015|author=Kaustav Bera|work=Goal.com}}</ref>
{{:2015 AFC Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group E|show_matches=yes|showteam=BGL}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round=[[2015 AFC Cup group stage#Bengaluru FC v Maziya|1]]
|date=24 February 2015
|time=19:30 [[UTC+05:30|UTC+5:30]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]] {{flagicon|IND}}
|score=2–1
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9056&stageid=353&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|MDV}} [[Maziya S&RC|Maziya]]
|goals1=[[Lalchhuan Mawia|Mawia]] {{yel|55}} [[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|68}} [[Shankar Sampingiraj|Sampingiraj]] {{goal|90+3}}
|goals2=[[Mohamed Umair|Umair]] {{yel|57}} {{goal|89|pen.}}
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|location=[[Bangalore]], [[India]]
|attendance=6,614
|referee=Aziz Asimov ([[Uzbekistan Football Federation|Uzbekistan]])
|mvp = [[Sunil Chhetri]] (Bengaluru)
|result= W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round=[[2015 AFC Cup group stage#Persipura Jayapura v Bengaluru FC|2]]
|date=10 March 2015
|time=15:30 [[UTC+09:00|UTC+9]]
|team1=[[Persipura Jayapura]] {{flagicon|IDN}}
|score=3–1
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9059&stageid=353&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Ian Kabes|Ian]] {{goal|4}} [[Robertino Pugliara|Pugliara]] {{goal|23||50}}
|goals2=[[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{yel|66}} [[C.K. Vineeth]] {{goal|90}}
|stadium=[[Mandala Stadium]]
|location=[[Jayapura]], [[Indonesia]]
|attendance=16,263
|referee=[[Wang Di (referee)|Wang Di]] ([[Chinese Football Association|China]])
|result = L
|mvp = [[Ian Kabes]] (Persipura Jayapura)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round=[[2015 AFC Cup group stage#Bengaluru FC v Warriors|3]]
|date=17 March 2015
|time=19:30 [[UTC+05:30|UTC+5:30]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]] {{flagicon|IND}}
|score=1–0
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9061&stageid=353&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|SIN}} [[Warriors FC|Warriors]]
|goals1=[[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Walker]] {{goal|36|pen.}} [[Curtis Osano|Osano]] {{yel|41}} [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho|Beingaichho]] {{yel|90+1}}
|goals2=[[Nicolás Vélez|Vélez]] {{yel|74}}
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|location=[[Bengaluru]], [[India]]
|attendance=5,264
|referee=[[Ho Wai Sing]] ([[Hong Kong Football Association|Hong Kong]])
|result=W
|mvp = [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]] (Bengaluru)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round=[[2015 AFC Cup group stage#Warriors v Bengaluru FC|4]]
|date=14 April 2015
|time=19:30 [[UTC+08:00|UTC+8]]
|team1=[[Warriors FC|Warriors]] {{flagicon|SIN}}
|score=0–1
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9063&stageid=353&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=
|goals2=[[Lalchhuan Mawia|Mawia]] {{yel|24}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|76}}
|stadium=[[Jalan Besar Stadium]]
|location=[[Singapore]]
|attendance=988
|referee=Lee Min-hu ([[Korea Football Association|South Korea]])
|result=W
|mvp=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]] (Bengaluru)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round=[[2015 AFC Cup group stage#Maziya v Bengaluru FC|5]]
|date=28 April 2015
|time=16:00 [[UTC+05:00|UTC+5]]
|team1=[[Maziya S&RC|Maziya]] {{flagicon|MDV}}
|score=1–2
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9064&stageid=353&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Pablo Rodríguez (Spanish footballer, born 1985)|Rodríguez]] {{goal|62}} [[Amdhan Ali|Ali]] {{yel|86}} [[Faruhad Ismail|Ismail]] {{yel|90+3}}
|goals2=[[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Walker]] {{yel|47}} [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|T. Singh]] {{yel|54}} [[Shankar Sampingiraj|Sampingiraj]] {{yel|58}} [[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|71|pen.|78}} [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Rooney]] {{yel|85}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{yel|90+3}}
|location=[[Malé]], [[Maldives]]
|stadium=[[National Football Stadium (Maldives)|National Football Stadium]]
|attendance=962
|referee=Salah Abbas Alabbasi ([[Bahrain Football Association|Bahrain]])
|result=W
|mvp=[[Sunil Chhetri]] (Bengaluru FC)
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|round=[[2015 AFC Cup group stage#Bengaluru FC v Persipura Jayapura|6]]
|date=12 May 2015
|time=19:00 [[UTC+05:30|UTC+5:30]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]] {{flagicon|IND}}
|score=1–3
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9066&stageid=353&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|IDN}} [[Persipura Jayapura]]
|goals1=[[Udanta Singh|Udanta]] {{goal|24}}
|goals2=[[Nelson Alom|Alom]] {{yel|10}} [[Robertino Pugliara|Robertino]] {{goal|29}} [[Imanuel Wanggai|I. Wanggai]] {{goal|72}} [[Boaz Solossa|B. Solossa]] {{goal|77}}
|stadium=[[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
|location=[[Bengaluru]], [[India]]
|attendance=3,148
|referee=Mohd Nafeez Abdul Wahab ([[Football Association of Malaysia|Malaysia]])
|result=L
|mvp=[[Imanuel Wanggai]] (Persipura Jayapura)
}}

====Knockout stage====

{{main|2015 AFC Cup knock-out stage}}

After finishing as the runner-up in group E, Bengaluru played against Group G winner, [[South China AA|South China]] in a single-legged tie in round of 16 at [[Mong Kok Stadium]], [[Hong Kong]]. Bengaluru faced an early setback in 26th minute when the referee awarded penalty to South China for Curtis Osano's seemingly legitimate challenge against [[Daniel McBreen]]. McBreen converted the penalty to take 1–0 lead for his side. South China doubled their lead in 58th minute when McBreen completed his brace with a cross from [[Che Runqiu]]. Thus Bengaluru's first ever AFC cup campaign ended at Round of 16.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/south-china-vs-bengaluru/2033697/report|title=South China 2-0 Bengaluru FC: The Blues go down in the AFC Cup Round of 16|date=26 May 2015|author=Kaustav Bera|work=Goal.com}}</ref>

{{Football box collapsible
|round=[[2015 AFC Cup knock-out stage#South China v Bengaluru FC|Round of 16]]
|date=26 May 2015
|time=20:00 [[UTC+08:00|UTC+8]]
|team1=[[South China AA|South China]] {{flagicon|HKG}}
|score=2–0
|report=[http://www.the-afc.com/afcasfeeds?fixtureid=9462&stageid=367&tMode=H&view=ajax&show=matchsummary Report]
|team2={{flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Daniel McBreen|McBreen]] {{goal|28|pen.|58}} [[Leung Chun Pong|Pong]] {{yel|77}} [[Cristian Mora|Mora]] {{yel|79}}
|goals2=[[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Rooney]] {{yel|25}}
|stadium=[[Mong Kok Stadium]]
|location=[[Hong Kong]]
|attendance=3,381
|referee=Abdulrahman Al-Jassim ([[Qatar Football Association|Qatar]])
|result=L
|mvp=[[Daniel McBreen]] (South China)
}}

===Federation cup===
{{main|2014–15 Indian Federation Cup}}

Bengaluru participated in [[Federation Cup (India)|Federation Cup]] for the second time in their history and were placed in Group B, along with [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]], [[Pune F.C.|Pune]], [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]] and [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]].

In the opening game of group stage, against Salgaocar, Bengaluru took the lead when [[Sunil Chhetri]] converted the penalty in 25th minute, but Salgaocar quickly equalized in 33rd minute. Chhetri again took the lead for Bengaluru when he converted a pass from [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]] to a goal, but the Goan outfit again equalized in the 41st minute through a goal from [[Douhou Pierre]]. Just before the end of the first half, [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]] scored the winner in 45th minute.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=148|title=Bengaluru FC get Fed Cup off to a flying start|date=28 December 2014|publisher=bengalurufc.com|access-date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228185216/http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=148|archive-date=28 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the second match against Mohun Bagan, both the teams had chances, but none of them could convert and the game ended in a 0–0 draw.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=149|title=Bengaluru, Bagan play out 0-0 draw|date=30 December 2014|publisher=bengalurufc.com|access-date=31 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231054318/http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=149|archive-date=31 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Against Shillong Lajong, after a goal-less first half, [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]], subbed-in at the half time and scored a 50th-minute winner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=151|title=Singh's strike sinks Shillong|date=2 January 2015|publisher=bengalurufc.com|access-date=2 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102174651/http://bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=151|archive-date=2 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the last group stage game against Pune, Chhetri scored a brace in the closing minutes of the first half. Pune pulled one back in the second half as [[Thongkhosiem Haokip]] scored in 87th minute, but ultimately Bengaluru won the encounter 1–2 and entered the semi-finals unbeaten and as the group winner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/1773/federation-cup/2015/01/05/7675832/bengaluru-fc-2-1-pune-fc-a-chhetri-double-seals-a-semi-final|title=Bengaluru FC 2-1 Pune FC: A Chhetri double seals a semi-final spot for the Blues|date=5 January 2014|publisher=goal.com}}</ref>

On 9 January 2015, Bengaluru FC played their semi-final match against Goan club [[Sporting Clube de Goa|Sporting Goa]]. Sean Rooney gave Bengaluru FC the lead in the 28th minute with [[India national football team|India]] captain Sunil Chhetri joining him on the scoresheet ten minutes later with another wonderful strike from a narrow angle. Late into the second half, [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] scored a late goal to make it 3–0 to Bengaluru and thus advance them to the final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=154|title=Bengaluru FC charge to Federation Cup Final|publisher=bengalurufc.com|date=9 January 2015|access-date=12 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113190330/http://www.bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=154|archive-date=13 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 11 January 2015, Bengaluru FC played [[2015 Indian Federation Cup Final|the final]] against Goan side [[Dempo S.C.|Dempo]]. Bengaluru won the final 2–1 with goals scored by Sunil Chhetri and Robin Singh while the Dempo goal came from a penalty strike by [[Tolgay Özbey]]. This was the first time Bengaluru FC won the tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=155 |title=Bengaluru FC are Federation Cup champions |publisher=bengalurufc.com |date=11 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113155203/http://www.bengalurufc.com/teamnews.php?id=155 |archivedate=13 January 2015}}</ref> With 6 goals, Sunil Chhetri was the joint top-scorer of tournament. As the winner, Bengaluru FC are also guaranteed a play-off round spot in [[2016 AFC Cup]].

====Group stage====
;Group B
{{:2014–15 Indian Federation Cup Group Stage|transcludesection=Group B|showteam=BFC}}

{{Football box collapsible
|date=28 December 2014
|time=
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=3–2
|report=[https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6109 Report]
|team2=[[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|goals1=[[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|25|pen.|40}} [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Rooney]] {{goal|45}}
|goals2=[[Gurjinder Kumar|Gurjinder]] {{goal|33}} [[Douhou Pierre|Douhou]] {{goal|41}}
|location=[[Goa]]
|stadium=[[Tilak Maidan Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|date=30 December 2014
|time=
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=0–0
|report=[https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6117 Report]
|team2=[[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]]
|goals1=
|goals2=
|location=[[Goa]]
|stadium=[[Tilak Maidan Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=D
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|date=2 January 2015
|time= 16:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=1–0
|report=[https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6127 Report]
|team2=[[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]
|goals1=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|50}}
|goals2=
|location=[[Goa]]
|stadium=[[Tilak Maidan Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=
|result=W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|date=5 January 2015
|time= 16:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Pune F.C.|Pune]]
|score=1–2
|report=[https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6132 Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Thongkhosiem Haokip|T. Haokip]] {{goal|87}}
|goals2=[[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|43||45+3|pen.}}
|stadium=[[Tilak Maidan Stadium]]
|location=[[Goa]]
|attendance=
|result=W
|referee=[[C.R. Srikrishna]]
}}

====Semi-finals====
{{Football box collapsible
|date=9 January 2015
|time= 19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score= 3–0
|report=[https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6146 Report]
|team2=[[Sporting Clube de Goa|Sporting Goa]]
|goals1=[[Sean Rooney (soccer)|Rooney]] {{goal|28}} [[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|37}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|87}}
|goals2=
|location=[[Margao]]
|stadium=[[Fatorda Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=MB Santosh Kumar
|result=W
}}

====Final====
{{Football box collapsible
|date=11 January 2015
|time= 16:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Dempo]]
|score= 1–2
|report=[https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6151 Report]
|team2=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|goals1=[[Tolgay Ozbey|Ozbey]] {{goal|45+3}}
|goals2=[[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|10|pen.}} [[Robin Singh (footballer)|R. Singh]] {{goal|68}}
|location=[[Margao]]
|stadium=[[Fatorda Stadium]]
|attendance=
|referee=Pratap Singh
|result=W
}}

===Durand cup===
{{main|2014 Durand Cup}}

Bengaluru FC participated in the [[Durand Cup]] for the first time in their history and were placed in Group C, along with [[Mohammedan S.C. (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]] and [[SESA Football Academy]].

In the first game against [[Mohammedan S.C. (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]], Bengaluru FC led 2–0 at halftime with goals scored by skipper [[Sunil Chhetri]] in the 6th minute and [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] in the 38th minute. [[Alfred Jaryan]] scored one goal for Mohammedan in 68th minute, but Bengaluru FC held on to the lead and won their first match in the tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=158|title=Bengaluru FC beat Mohammedan to begin Durand challenge with a win|date=30 October 2014|work=Bengaluru FC|access-date=5 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704105016/http://bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=158|archive-date=4 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the dramatic second game against [[SESA Football Academy]], Bengaluru FC took lead in 66th minute when Sunil Chhetri was awarded a penalty, but Angelo Colaco and Melwyn Fernandes scored two goals in 79th minute and 92nd minute to get SESA a 1–2 lead. In the closing minutes though, Melwyn Fernandes was sent-off for pulling down [[John Johnson (footballer)|John Johnson]] and Bengaluru FC were awarded another penalty. Sunil Chhetri scored the penalty and Bengaluru FC were through to semi-finals having scored one more goal than SESA, points and goal difference being same for both the teams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=159|title=Late drama as Bengaluru FC make semifinals|work=[[Bengaluru FC]]|date=3 November 2014|access-date=5 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704165121/http://bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=159|archive-date=4 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the semi-finals, Bengaluru faced Group A winner [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]. Both sides failed to score in the regular time and extra-time. In the penalty shoot-out, Sunil Chhetri missed the second penalty and Bengaluru's Durand Cup campaign ended after losing 5–4 in the penalty shoot-out.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=160 |title=Bengaluru suffer shootout heartbreak in Durand semis |date=6 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704165200/http://bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=160 |archivedate=4 July 2015 }}</ref> Salgaocar went on to win the trophy.

====Quarter-finals====

;Group C
{{:2014 Durand Cup Quarter-Finals|transcludesection=Group C|showteam=BFC}}
{{football box collapsible
|date=30 October 2014
|time=9:00 IST
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
|score=2–1
|report=[http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=158 Report]
|team2=[[Mohammedan S.C. (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|goals1=[[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|6}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{goal|38}}
|goals2=[[Alfred Jaryan|Jaryan]] {{goal|68}}
|location=[[Raia, Goa|Raia]]
|stadium=Raia Sports Complex
|attendance=
|referee= Dhanraj More
|result=W
}}
{{football box collapsible
|date=3 November 2014
|time=15:45 IST
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
|score=2–2
|report=[http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=159 Report]
|team2=[[SESA F.A.|SESA]]
|goals1=[[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]] {{goal|66|pen.|90+4|pen.}}
|goals2=Colaco {{goal|79}} Melwyn Fernandes {{goal|90+2}}
|location=[[Raia, Goa|Raia]]
|stadium=Raia Sports Complex
|attendance=
|referee= Fasil Salahudeen
|result=D
}}

====Semi-finals====
{{football box collapsible
| date = 6 November 2014
| time =
| team1 = [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
| score = 0–0
| report =[https://web.archive.org/web/20150704165200/http://bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=160 Report]
| team2 = [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| location = [[Raia, Goa|Raia]]
| stadium = Raia Sports Complex
| attendance =
| referee = Maria Joseph
| result = D
| penaltyscore = 5–4
| penalties1 = {{plainlist|
* {{pengoal}} [[Gilbert Oliveira|G. Oliveira]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Rocus Lamare|Lamare]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Nicolau Colaco|Colaco]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Zakeer Mundampara|Mundampara]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Darryl Duffy|Duffy]]
}}
| penalties2 = {{plainlist|
* {{pengoal}} [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Walker]]
* {{penmiss}} [[Sunil Chhetri|Chhetri]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Udanta Singh|Udanta]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]]
* {{pengoal}} [[John Johnson (footballer)|Johnson]]
}}
}}

===Puttaiah Memorial Cup===
Bengaluru FC also participated in the local tournament, Puttaiah Memorial Cup, which they won by defeating ASC 8–1 in the final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/448879/bengaluru-fc-drub-asc-clinch.html|title=Bengaluru FC drub ASC to clinch Puttaiah Memorial|date=21 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=168|title=Bengaluru FC win Puttaiah Memorial Cup|date=20 December 2014|publisher=bengalurufc.com|access-date=31 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231112937/http://www.bengalurufc.com/detailclubnews.php?id=168|archive-date=31 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Quarter Final====
{{football box collapsible
|id = pmc_r16
|round = Quarter Final
|date = {{Start date|2014|12|12|df=y}}
|time = 15:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = [[Rail Wheel Factory|RWF]]
|goals1 =
|score = 0–1
|report = https://www.gcsstars.com/2014/12/puttaiah-memorial-trophy-super-division.html
|team2 = Bengaluru FC
|goals2 =
|stadium = [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
|location = [[Bengaluru]]
|attendance =
|referee =
|motm =
|result = W
}}

====Semi Final====
{{football box collapsible
|id = pmc_sf
|round = Semi Final
|date = {{Start date|2014|12|17|df=y}}
|time = 15:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Bengaluru FC
|goals1 =
|score = 6-1
|report = https://www.gcsstars.com/2014/12/puttaiah-memorial-trophy-super-division.html
|team2 = [[South United FC|South United]]
|goals2 =
|stadium = [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
|location = [[Bengaluru]]
|attendance =
|referee =
|motm =
|result = W
}}

====Final====
{{football box collapsible
|id = pmc_sf
|round = Final
|date = {{Start date|2014|12|20|df=y}}
|time = 15:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = Bengaluru FC
|goals1 =
|score = 8-1
|report = https://www.deccanherald.com/sports/bengaluru-fc-drub-asc-clinch-2231733
|team2 = ASC FC
|goals2 =
|stadium = [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
|location = [[Bengaluru]]
|attendance =
|referee =
|motm =
|result = W
}}

==Accolades==
[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]] was awarded ''Best midfielder of I-League'' for 2014–15 in [[All India Football Federation]] awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/136/india/2015/05/31/12268982/jackichand-singh-selected-as-the-best-player-of-i-league|title=Jackichand Singh selected as the Best Player of I-League 2014-15|author=Kaustav Bera|work=Goal.com|date=31 May 2015}}</ref>

==Player information==

===Squad information===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; width:80%;"
|-
! style="background:#00f; color:white; text-align:center;"| No.
! style="background:#00f; color:white; text-align:center;"| Name
! style="background:#00f; color:white; text-align:center;"| Nationality
! style="background:#00f; color:white; text-align:center;"| Position
! style="background:#00f; color:white; text-align:center;"| Date of birth
! style="background:#00f; color:white; text-align:center;"| Previous club
|-
! colspan=8 style="background:blue; color:white; text-align:center;"| Goalkeepers
|-
| 1
| [[Pawan Kumar (footballer, born 1990)|Pawan Kumar]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1990|7|1}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|-
| 25
| [[Soram Anganba]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1992|12|24}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Pailan Arrows]]
|-
| 28
| [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1991|6|7}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]
|-
| 30
| Ricardo Cardozo
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1993|1|14}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Tata Football Academy]]
|-
! colspan=8 style="background:blue; color:white; text-align:center;"| Defenders
|-
| 2
| [[Nanjangud Shivananju Manju]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1987|5|9}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[United Sikkim F.C.|United Sikkim]]
|-
| 3
| [[Vishal Kumar]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Defender (association football)|RB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1992|7|30}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Pailan Arrows]]
|-
| 4
| [[Curtis Osano]]
| {{flagicon|ENG}}
| [[Midfielder|CB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1987|3|8}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|ENG}} [[AFC Wimbledon]]
|-
| 5
| [[Gurtej Singh]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|CB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1990|5|2}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Churchill Brothers S.C.|Churchill Brothers]]
|-
| 6
| [[John Johnson (footballer)|John Johnson]]
| {{flagicon|ENG}}
| [[Centre back|CB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1988|9|16}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Northampton Town F.C.|Northampton Town]]
|-
| 13
| [[Rino Anto]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Defender (association football)|RB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1988|1|3}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohun Bagan A.C.|Mohun Bagan]]
|-
| 20
| [[Keegan Pereira (footballer)|Keegan Pereira]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Defender (association football)|LB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1987|11|7}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|-
| 23
| [[Lalchhuan Mawia]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Defender (association football)|LB]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1989|4|14}}
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Shillong Lajong F.C.|Shillong Lajong]]
|-
| 24
| Manpreet Singh
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Defender (association football)|DF]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1989|2|8}}
|align=left|
|-
! colspan=8 style="background:blue; color:white; text-align:center;"| Midfielders
|-
| 8
| [[Malemngamba Meetei]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|CAM]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1992|1|5}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|-
| 10
| [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]]
| {{flagicon|ENG}}
| [[Midfielder|CDM]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1989|2|21}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Gateshead F.C.|Gateshead]]
|-
| 12
| [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1990|10|5}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai Tigers F.C.|Mumbai Tigers]]
|-
| 14
| [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1986|9|10}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rangdajied United F.C.|Rangdajied United]]
|-
| 15
| [[Darren Caldeira]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1987|9|19}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]
|-
| 16
| [[Shankar Sampingiraj]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|CDM]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1994|12|14}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Pailan Arrows]]
|-
| 18
| [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|RW]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1992|12|1}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|-
| 19
| [[Siam Hanghal]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1993|5|26}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Pailan Arrows]]
|-
| 31
| [[C.K. Vineeth]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|RW]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1988|2|28}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[United S.C.|United SC]]
|-
| 32
| [[Shilton D'Silva]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Midfielder|MF]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1992|9|15}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Pailan Arrows]]
|-
! colspan=8 style="background:blue; color:white; text-align:center;"| Attackers
|-
| 7
| [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]]
| {{flagicon|AUS}}
| [[Forward (association football)|ST]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1989|3|1}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Blacktown City FC]]
|-
| 9
| [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Forward (association football)|ST]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1990|5|9}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
|-
| 11
| [[Sunil Chhetri]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Forward (association football)|ST]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1984|8|3}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|POR}} [[Sporting Clube de Portugal B|Sporting Portugal B]]
|-
| 17
| [[Karan Sawhney]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Forward (association football)|ST]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1992|5|23}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Salgaocar F.C.|Salgaocar]]
|-
| 21
| [[Udanta Singh]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Forward (association football)|ST]]
| {{birth date and age2 |2015|5|31 |df=yes|1996|6|14}}
|align=left| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Tata Football Academy]]
|}

===Management===
[[File:Westwood, Ashley.jpg|thumb|250px|right|upright|Ashley Westwood, the head coach Bengaluru FC for the 2014–15 season.]]
:''As of December 2014.''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Position
! Name
|-
| Head coach
| {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Ashley Westwood (footballer born 1976)|Ashley Westwood]]
|-
| Assistant coach
| {{flagicon|SCO}} [[Pradhyum Reddy]]
|-
| Goalkeeping coach
| {{flagicon|TUR}} Ali Uzunhasanoglu
|-
| Performance coach
| {{flagicon|ENG}} Malcolm Purchase
|-
| Head of Youth Development
| {{flagicon|IND}} Richard Hood
|-
| Head physiotherapist
| {{flagicon|ENG}} Stephen Corner
|}
{{clear}}

==Player statistics==

===Appearances and goals===
{{Efs start|[[2014–15 I-League|I-League]]|[[2014–15 Indian Federation Cup|Federation Cup]]|[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]]}}
{{Efs player|no=1|name=[[Pawan Kumar (footballer, born 1990)|Pawan Kumar]]|pos=GK|nat=IND|0+0|0|0+0|0|0+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=2|name=[[Nanjangud Shivananju Manju]]|pos=DF|nat=IND|1+1|0|0+0|0|1+1|0}}
{{Efs player|no=3|name=[[Vishal Kumar]]|pos=DF|nat=IND|0+2|0|0+0|0|1+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=4|name=[[Curtis Osano]]|pos=DF|nat=KEN|19+0|1|6+0|0|8+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=5|name=[[Gurtej Singh]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|1+1|0|0+0|0|2+2|0}}
{{Efs player|no=6|name=[[John Johnson (footballer)|John Johnson]]|pos=DF|nat=ENG|19+0|1|6+0|0|6+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=7|name=[[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]]|pos=FW|nat=AUS|17+0|4|6+0|2|4+2|0}}
{{Efs player|no=8|name=[[Malemngamba Meetei]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|0+2|0|0+0|0|1+1|0}}
{{Efs player|no=9|name=[[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]|pos=FW|nat=IND|10+8|6|1+5|2|5+1|1}}
{{Efs player|no=10|name=[[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]]|pos=MF|nat=ENG|17+0|2|6+0|0|7+0|1}}
{{Efs player|no=11|name=[[Sunil Chhetri]]|pos=FW|nat=IND|16+4|2|6+0|6|4+2|3}}
{{Efs player|no=12|name=[[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|13+3|5|4+0|0|4+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=13|name=[[Rino Anto]]|pos=DF|nat=IND|17+1|1|6+0|0|7+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=14|name=[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|20+0|6|5+0|1|4+2|1}}
{{Efs player|no=15|name=[[Darren Caldeira]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|0+0|0|1+1|0|1+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=16|name=[[Shankar Sampingiraj]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|11+2|2|0+1|0|4+1|1}}
{{Efs player|no=17|name=[[Karan Sawhney]]|pos=FW|nat=IND|0+0|0|0+0|0|0+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=18|name=[[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|8+5|2|4+2|0|7+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=19|name=[[Siam Hanghal]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|0+2|0|2+1|0|3+4|0}}
{{Efs player|no=20|name=[[Keegan Pereira (footballer)|Keegan Pereira]]|pos=DF|nat=IND|8+0|0|5+0|0|3+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=21|name=[[Udanta Singh]]|pos=FW|nat=IND|2+8|0|0+0|0|2+1|1}}
{{Efs player|no=23|name=[[Lalchhuan Mawia]]|pos=DF|nat=IND|13+3|0|1+4|0|5+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=25|name=Niroshan Mani|pos=MF|nat=IND|0+0|0|0+0|0|0+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=28|name=[[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]|pos=GK|nat=IND|20+0|0|6+0|0|8+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=29|name=[[Soram Anganba]]|pos=GK|nat=IND|0+0|0|0+0|0|0+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=30|name=Ricardo Cardozo|pos=GK|nat=IND|0+0|0|0+0|0|0+0|0}}
{{Efs player|no=31|name=[[C.K. Vineeth]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|8+10|3|1+2|0|1+4|1}}
{{Efs player|no=32|name=[[Shilton D'Silva]]|pos=MF|nat=IND|0+0|0|0+0|0|0+0|0}}
{{Efs end|s=[https://int.soccerway.com/teams/india/bengaluru/25367/squad/ soccerway]}}

Updated: 31 May 2015

===Top scorers===

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%; text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|Rank|Rank}}'''
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|No.|Squad Number}}'''
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|Pos|Position}}'''
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Tooltip| Nat | Nationality}}'''
!width=150|Player
!width=80|I-League
!width=80|AFC
!width=80|Federation Cup
!width=80|Durand Cup
!width=80|'''Total'''
|-
|rowspan=1|'''1'''
| 11
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Sunil Chhetri]]
| 2
| 3
| 6
| 3
| '''14'''
|-
|rowspan=2|'''2'''
| 9
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]
| 6
| 1
| 2
| 0
| '''9'''
|-
| 14
| [[Midfielder|MF]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]
| 6
| 1
| 1
| 1
|'''9'''
|-
| rowspan=1|'''4'''
| 7
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| {{flagicon|AUS}}
| align=left| [[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]]
| 4
| 0
| 2
| 0
|'''6'''
|-
| rowspan=1|'''5'''
| 12
| [[Midfielder|MF]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]]
| 5
| 0
| 0
| 0
| '''5'''
|-
| rowspan=1|'''6'''
| 31
| [[Midfielder|MF]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[C.K. Vineeth]]
| 3
| 1
| 0
| 0
|'''4'''
|-
| rowspan=2|'''7'''
| 10
| [[Midfielder|MF]]
| {{flagicon|ENG}}
| align=left| [[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]]
| 2
| 1
| 0
| 0
| '''3'''
|-
| 16
| [[Midfielder|MF]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Shankar Sampingiraj]]
| 2
| 1
| 0
| 0
| '''3'''
|-
|rowspan=1|'''9'''
| 18
| [[Midfielder|MF]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]]
| 2
| 0
| 0
| 0
| '''2'''
|-
| rowspan=4|'''10'''
| 4
| [[Defender (association football)|DF]]
| {{flagicon|KEN}}
| align=left| [[Curtis Osano]]
| 1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| '''1'''
|-
| 6
| [[Defender (association football)|DF]]
| {{flagicon|ENG}}
| align=left| [[John Johnson (footballer)|John Johnson]]
| 1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| '''1'''
|-
| 13
| [[Defender (association football)|DF]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Rino Anto]]
| 1
| 0
| 0
| 0
| '''1'''
|-
| 21
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Udanta Singh]]
| 0
| 1
| 0
| 0
| '''1'''
|-
|colspan=5|'''TOTALS'''
| '''35'''
| '''9'''
| '''11'''
| '''4'''
| '''59'''
|}

Source: [https://int.soccerway.com/teams/india/bengaluru/25367/squad/ soccerway] 
Updated: 31 May 2015

===Clean sheets===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%; text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|Rank|Rank}}'''
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|No.|Squad Number}}'''
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|Pos|Position}}'''
!rowspan=1 !width=15|'''{{Tooltip| Nat | Nationality}}'''
!width=150|Player
!width=80|I-League
!width=80|AFC
!width=80|Federation Cup
!width=80|Durand Cup
!width=80|'''Total'''
|-
|'''1'''
|28
|[[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
| align=left| [[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]
|8
|2
|2
|1
|'''13'''
|}

Source: [https://int.soccerway.com/teams/india/bengaluru/25367/squad/ soccerway] 
Updated: 31 May 2015

===Disciplinary record===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan=2 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|Rank|Rank}}'''
!rowspan=2 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|No.|Squad Number}}'''
!rowspan=2 !width=15|'''{{Abbr|Pos|Position}}'''
!rowspan=2 !width=15|'''{{Tooltip| Nat | Nationality}}'''
!rowspan=2 !width=120|'''Player'''
!colspan=2|'''[[2014–15 I-League|I-League]]'''
!colspan=2|'''[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]]'''
!colspan=2|'''Total'''
|-
!width=34; background:#fe9;"|{{yel}}
!width=34; background:#ff8888;"|{{sent off}}
!width=34; background:#fe9;"|{{yel}}
!width=34; background:#ff8888;"|{{sent off}}
!width=34; background:#fe9;"|{{yel}}
!width=34; background:#ff8888;"|{{sent off}}
|-
|'''1'''
|9
|[[Forward (association football)|FW]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]
|7
|1
|1
|0
|'''8'''
|'''1'''
|-
|rowspan=2|'''2'''
|6
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{flagicon|ENG}}
|align=left|[[John Johnson (footballer)|John Johnson]]
|4
|0
|1
|0
|'''5'''
|'''0'''
|-
|12
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Thoi Singh Khangebam|Thoi Singh]]
|3
|0
|2
|0
|'''5'''
|'''0'''
|-
|rowspan=2|'''4'''
|14
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]
|4
|0
|0
|0
|'''4'''
|'''0'''
|-
|23
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Lalchhuan Mawia]]
|2
|0
|2
|0
|'''4'''
|'''0'''
|-
|rowspan=4|'''6'''
|4
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{flagicon|KEN}}
|align=left|[[Curtis Osano]]
|1
|1
|1
|0
|'''2'''
|'''1'''
|-
|7
|[[Forward (association football)|FW]]
|{{flagicon|AUS}}
|align=left|[[Sean Rooney (footballer)|Sean Rooney]]
|1
|0
|2
|0
|'''3'''
|'''0'''
|-
|13
|[[Defender (association football)|DF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Rino Anto]]
|3
|0
|0
|0
|'''3'''
|'''0'''
|-
|16
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Shankar Sampingiraj]]
|2
|0
|1
|0
|'''3'''
|'''0'''
|-
|rowspan=1|'''10'''
|11
|[[Forward (association football)|FW]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Sunil Chhetri]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|'''2'''
|'''0'''
|-
|rowspan=5|'''11'''
|10
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{flagicon|ENG}}
|align=left|[[Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)|Josh Walker]]
|0
|0
|1
|0
|'''1'''
|'''0'''
|-
|18
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Beikhokhei Beingaichho]]
|0
|0
|1
|0
|'''1'''
|'''0'''
|-
|19
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Siam Hanghal]]
|0
|0
|1
|0
|'''1'''
|'''0'''
|-
|28
|[[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Lalthuammawia Ralte]]
|1
|0
|0
|0
|'''1'''
|'''0'''
|-
|31
|[[Midfielder|MF]]
|{{flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[C.K. Vineeth]]
|1
|0
|0
|0
|'''1'''
|'''0'''
|-
|colspan=5|'''TOTALS'''
|'''31'''
|'''2'''
|'''13'''
|'''0'''
|'''44'''
|'''2'''
|}

Source: [https://int.soccerway.com/teams/india/bengaluru/25367/squad/ soccerway] 
Updated: 31 May 2015

==International caps==
Players called for senior international duty during the 2014–15 season while under contract with [[Bengaluru FC]].
;
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
!width=5%|Nationality
!width=5%|Position
!width=10%|Player
!width=15%|Competition
!width=7%|Date
!width=25%|Contribution
!width=10%|Opponent
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| FW
|align=center| [[Sunil Chhetri]]
|align=center| Friendly
|align=center| 6 October 2014
| Started, played the full match, scored in 32nd minute.<ref name=INDvPLE>{{cite web|title=India go down to Palestine|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=5970|work=All India Football Federation|accessdate=31 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126135552/https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=5970|archive-date=26 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|| v {{fb|PLE}}
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| FW
|align=center| [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]
|align=center| Friendly
|align=center| 6 October 2014
| Started, played the full match.<ref name=INDvPLE/>
|| v {{fb|PLE}}
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| FW
|align=center| [[Sunil Chhetri]]
|align=center| [[2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)]]
|align=center| 12 March 2015
| Started, played the full match, scored in 53rd and 71st minutes.<ref name=INDvNEP>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/india-vs-nepal/2012936/report|title=India 2-0 Nepal: Chhetri leads Blue Tigers to victory over neighbours|work=Goal.com|date=12 March 2015}}</ref>
|| v {{fb|NEP}}
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| FW
|align=center| [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]
|align=center| [[2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)]]
|align=center| 12 March 2015
| Started, played for 92 minutes.<ref name=INDvNEP />
|| v {{fb|NEP}}
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| MF
|align=center| [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]
|align=center| [[2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)]]
|align=center| 12 March 2015
| Started, played the full match<ref name=INDvNEP />
|| v {{fb|NEP}}
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| FW
|align=center| [[Sunil Chhetri]]
|align=center| [[2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)]]
|align=center| 17 March 2015
| Started, played the full match<ref name="NEPvIND fifa">{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/matches/round=275167/match=300311253/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317011330/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/matches/round=275167/match=300311253/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 March 2015|title=2018 FIFA World Cup Russia - Nepal vs India|date=17 March 2015|work=[[FIFA.com]]|accessdate=17 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="NEPvIND Goal">{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/match/nepal-vs-india/2012942/report|title=Nepal 0-0 India: The Blue Tigers advance in the 2018 World Cup qualifiers|work=Goal.com|date=12 March 2015}}</ref>
|| v {{fb|NEP}}
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| FW
|align=center| [[Robin Singh (footballer)|Robin Singh]]
|align=center| [[2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)]]
|align=center| 17 March 2015
| Started, played the full match<ref name="NEPvIND fifa"/><ref name="NEPvIND Goal"/>
|| v {{fb|NEP}}
|-
|align=center| {{flagicon|IND}} India
|align=center| MF
|align=center| [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh]]
|align=center| [[2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (AFC)]]
|align=center| 17 March 2015
| Started, played 87 minutes<ref name="NEPvIND fifa"/><ref name="NEPvIND Goal"/>
|| v {{fb|NEP}}
|}

==See also==
* [[2014–15 in Indian football]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Bengaluru FC}}
{{2014–15 in Indian football}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2014-15 Bengaluru FC Season}}
[[Category:2014–15 I-League by team|Bengaluru FC]]
[[Category:Bengaluru FC seasons]]
[[Category:2010s in Bengaluru]]

Parayakad, Alappuzha

2026-02-15T14:46:13Z

Loz12: New new entry.

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
'''Parayakad, Alappuzha''' is a village in [[Kuthiathode]] [[gram panchayat]], India. {{refn|group=nb|politically organised local administrative units.<ref name="ref-827283959">{{cite web|url=http://www.panchayat.gov.in/|title=MoPR-Home - NPP|website=Panchayat.gov.in|accessdate=11 Jan 2014}}</ref>}} in Cherthala Taluk in [[Alappuzha]] district in the [[India]]n state of [[Kerala]]. There is another place known as [[Parayakad]] or Parayad in Ernakulum District. This is a small area / block (muri{{refn|group=nb|Means piece, fragment, slice, in Malayalam.<ref name="ref-979757546">{{cite web|url=http://malayalamenglishdictionary.com/ |title=Online Malayalam English Dictionary - Malayalam English Translation |website=Malayalam English dictionary |date= |accessdate=2016-02-27}}</ref>}}) in Chittattukara Village in North Paravoor. Parayakad Village{{refn|group=nb|Census villages are more numerous and heterogenous than political units (gram panchayats).<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark-Decis |first=Isabelle |title=A Companion to the Anthropology of India|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781444390582 |page =1980}}</ref>}} in [[Alleppey]] district is listed in the Central Government Indian Village Directory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Director|first=census operations|year=1981 |title=Census of India Volume 3|publisher=Controller of Publications|location=Kerala, India|pages=126, 196, 214}}</ref>
Kuthiathode comes under the Pattanakad Block in [[Aroor]] Assembly constituency.

==History==
The name Parayakad comes from the Parayakattil [[Kalari]] which existed in this area.<ref>{{cite book |last=P.L.|first=Sebastian | year=1998 |title=The Parayakattil Story |publisher=Mukhachitra Publications|page=3 }}</ref> A martial arts specialist known as Kunjan Parayakattil, originally from North Kerala and a fugitive from the ire of his local ruler, settled and started a Kalari, teaching the ancient Indian martial art of [[Kalaripayattu]] in this area.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Fali E. |first= Doctor|title= Kalaripayattu- Ancient Art of India | journal= Black Belt|volume= 11 | issue=7| year = 1973| page =23}}</ref> People came from the local area and traveled long distances to acquire training to develop advanced skills. The kalari also used to treat injuries and general ailments, but specializing in muscle and bone tissue.<ref>{{cite book |last=D.H.|first=Luijendijk|year=2008 |title=Kalaripayattu|publisher=Stichting Oprat, Elst|location=The Netherlands|page=86}}</ref> In time the area came to be known as Parayakad. The Parayakattil Kalari is no longer in existence. Nalukulanagara, Tirumalabhagom and Thuravoor North are the local areas adjacent to Parayakad.

==Demographics==
Parayakad has a local post office and the [[Postal Index Number|postal code]] is 688540.<ref name="ref-579965623">{{cite web|url=http://pin-code.in/pincode-of/Parayakad |title=Pincode of Parayakad |website=Pin-code.in |date= |accessdate=2016-02-27}}</ref> There is a Government Lower Primary School in Parayakad.<ref name="ref182088537">{{cite web|url=https://www.itschool.gov.in/prematricpdf/PDF/Cherthala.pdf |title=Cherthala |website=Itschool.gov.in |accessdate=2016-02-27}}</ref> The population consists mainly of Hindus and a minority of Christians and Muslims. The presiding deity at Nalukulangara Temple is Bhagavathy.<ref name="ref-856370087">{{cite web|url=http://www.keralatemples.us/alapuzha.htm |accessdate=11 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111201956/http://www.keralatemples.us/alapuzha.htm |archivedate=11 January 2014 |title=Kerala temples:Alappuzha }}</ref> St.Sebastians Catholic Church in Parayakad comes under Alappuzha diocese.<ref>[http://www.dioceseofalleppey.org/Pdf/Telephone%20Directory.pdf ]{{dead link|date=February 2016}}</ref>

==Geography==
The village is connected to the nearest towns by [[NH-47]], [[Thuravoor, Cherthala|Thuravoor]]-[[Ezhupunna]] road and the [[Pallithode]]-[[Chellanam]]-[[Kochi]] beach road. The [[Alapuzha]]-[[Ernakulam]] Railway has a station nearby at Thuravoor. The Kuthiathode canal nearby was once the major waterway for transporting goods to the local market from [[Cochin]] via the [[Vembanad]] lake. The Kuthiathode canal connects the Vembanad lake with the Tazhappu backwaters. A small backwater lake at Tazhappu connects Kuthiathode with Valiathode. During [[Onam]] boat racing is held in Tazhappu [[Kerala backwaters|backwaters]].

==Contents==
===Temples and churches===
*Nalukulangara Bhagavathi Temple
*St. Sebastian's Church, Naluklangara
*Ponpuram Muslim Jamath Mosque

===Government offices===
*Parayakad Post Office

===Banks===
*Parayakad Service Co-operative Bank

===Schools===
*Govt. L.P. School

===Geographical co-ordinates===
*Latitude 9.73066
*Longitude 76.33355

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Places in Alappuzha district]]

Shvetashvatara Upanishad

2026-02-10T17:45:30Z

Loz12: cleanup

{{Short description|One of the ancient Sanskrit scriptures of Hinduism}}
{{italics}}
{{Upanishads}}
{{Infobox Upanishad
| image = Shvetashvatara Upanishad verse 1.1, Sanskrit, Devanagari script.jpg
| caption = ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' verse 1.1 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script)
| name = Shvetashvatara
| Devanagari = श्वेताश्वतर
| Sanskrit_transliteration = Śvetāśvatara
| composition_time = 1st millennium BCE
| type = [[Mukhya|Mukhya Upanishad]]
| Veda = [[Yajurveda]]
| commentary = [[Adi Shankara]], [[Madhvacharya]]
}}
The '''''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''''' ({{langx|sa|श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद्}}, {{IAST3|Śvetāśvataropaniṣad}}) is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the [[Yajurveda]]. It is listed as number 14 in the [[Muktika]] canon of 108 [[Upanishads]].<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 556-557</ref> The Upanishad contains 113 mantras or verses in six chapters.<ref name=humefull>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n415/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, [[Oxford University Press]], pages 394–411 with footnotes</ref>

The Upanishad is one of the 33 Upanishads from Taittiriyas, and associated with the ''Shvetashvatara'' tradition within ''Karakas sakha'' of the Yajurveda.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/><ref name=maxmullerinto/> It is a part of the "black" "krishna" Yajurveda, with the term "black" implying "the un-arranged, motley collection" of content in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda where [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] and [[Isha Upanishad]] are embedded.<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 217-219</ref>

The chronology of Shvetashvatara Upanishad is contested, but it is generally accepted to be a late-period Upanishadic composition.<ref name=maxmullerinto/><ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231144858}}, Chapter 1</ref> The text includes a closing credit to sage ''Shvetashvatara'', who is considered the author of the Upanishad. However, scholars believe that while sections of the text shows an individual stamp by its style, verses and other sections were interpolated and expanded over time; the Upanishad as it exists now is the work of more than one author.<ref name=pauldeussenintro>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 301-304</ref>

The Shvetashvatara Upanishad opens with metaphysical questions about the primal cause of all existence, its origin, its end, and what role, if any, time, nature, necessity, chance, and the spirit had as the primal cause.<ref name=pauldeussen11/> It then develops its answer, concluding that "the Universal Selfs exists in every individual, it expresses itself in every creature, everything in the world is a projection of it, and that there is Oneness, a unity of Selfs in one and only Self".<ref name=maxmullerinto/> The text is notable for its discussion of the concept of personal god – [[Ishvara]], and suggesting it to be a path to one's own Highest Self.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/><ref name=maxmullerinto/> The text is also notable for its multiple mentions of both [[Rudra]] and [[Shiva]], along with other Vedic deities, and of crystallization of Shiva as a central theme.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/>

The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is commented by many of its ancient and medieval scholars.<ref name=maxmullerinto>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/n33/mode/2up The Shvetashvatara Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages xxxii - xlii</ref> It is a foundational text of the philosophy of [[Shaivism]],<ref>Chakravarti, p. 9.</ref> as well as the [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]] schools of Hinduism.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/> Some 19th century scholars initially suggested that Shvetashvatara Upanishad is sectarian or possibly influenced by Christianity, hypotheses that were disputed, later discarded by scholars.<ref name=maxmullerinto/>

==Etymology==
[[File:Cremello5.jpg|thumb|124x124px|Shvetashvatara means "carried on a white horse"]]
The name "Shvetashvatara" has the compound Sanskrit root ''Shvetashva'' (श्वेताश्व, Shvet + ashva), which literally means "white horse" and "drawn by white steeds".<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=zvetAzva&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 zvetAzva] Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref> ''Shvetashvatara'' is a [[bahuvrihi]] compound of (''{{IAST|Śvetaśva + tara}}''), where ''tara'' means "crossing", "carrying beyond".<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=tara&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 tara] Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref> The word ''Shvetashvatara'' translates to "the one carrying beyond on white horse" or simply "white mule that carries".<ref name=pauldeussenintro/><ref name=maxmullerinto/>

The text is sometimes spelled as Svetasvatara Upanishad. It is also known as Shvetashvataropanishad or Svetasvataropanishad, and as Shvetashvataranam Mantropanishad.<ref name=maxmullerinto/>

In ancient and medieval literature, the text is frequently referred to in the plural, that is as ''Svetasvataropanishadah''. In the ''Vachaspatyam''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tarkavachaspati |first=Taranatha |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.19787 |title=Vachaspatya pt.2 |date=1873 |language=Shona}}</ref>,quoting a shloka from [[Muktikā|Muktikopanishad]], this Upanishad is referred to as simply ''Shvetashva,'' in order to fit poetic metres.<ref name="maxmullerinto" />

==Chronology==

The chronology of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, like other Upanishads, is uncertain and contested.<ref name="stephenphillips"/> The chronology is difficult to resolve because all opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.<ref name=stephenphillips/><ref name=olivelleintro>[[Patrick Olivelle]] (1996), The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text & Translation, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195124354}}, Introduction Chapter</ref>

Ranade<ref>RD Ranade, [https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926#page/n47/mode/2up A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy], Chapter 1, pages 13-18</ref> places Shvetashvatara Upanishad's chronological composition in the fourth group of ancient Upanishads, after Katha and Mundaka Upanishads. Deussen states that Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to and incorporates phrases from the Katha Upanishad, and chronologically followed it.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/>

According to [[Patrick Olivelle]], it was composed after the Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Kena and Katha, probably in the last few centuries BCE,{{sfnp|Olivelle|1996|p=xxxvii}} showing [[Hindu synthesis|non-Vedic influences]].{{sfnp|Olivelle|1996|p=xxxvii}}<ref name=chakravarti/>

Flood as well as Gorski state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad was probably composed in the 5th to 4th century BCE,<ref>Flood (1996), page 153 places it in the 5th or 4th century BCE; E. F. Gorski, ''Theology of Religions'' (2008), p. 97 places it "probably in the late 4th century BCE".</ref> contemporary with the Buddha. Paul Muller-Ortega dates the text between 6th to 5th century BCE.<ref>Paul E. Muller-Ortega (1988), The Triadic Heart of Siva, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887067877}}, page 27</ref> Phillips chronologically lists Shvetashvatara Upanishad after Mandukya Upanishad, but before and about the time the Maitri Upanishad, the first Buddhist Pali and Jaina canonical texts were composed.<ref name=stephenphillips/>

Winternitz,<ref>M Winternitz (2010), History of Indian Literature, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120802643}}</ref> suggests that Shvetashvatara Upanishad was probably a pre-Buddhistic composition along with Katha, Isha, Mundaka and Prasna Upanishad, but after the first phase of ancient Upanishads that were composed in prose such as Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki and Kena. Winternitz states that Isha was likely composed before post-Buddhist Upanishads such as Maitri and Mandukya.

Some sections of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad are found, almost in its entirety, in chronologically more ancient Sanskrit texts,<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 309</ref> as attempts to support it's doctrines "with Vedic-proof texts."{{sfnp|Olivelle|1996|p=252}} For example, verses 2.1 through 2.3 are also found in chapter 4.1.1 of Taittiriya [[Samhita]] as well as in chapter 6.3.1 of [[Shatapatha Brahmana]], while verses 2.4 and 2.5 are also found as hymns in chapters 5.81 and 10.13 of [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]] respectively.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/238/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 238-240</ref> Similarly, many verses in chapters 3 through 6 are also found, in nearly identical form in the Samhitas of Rig Veda, Atharva Veda and Yajur Veda.<ref name=humefull/>

==Structure==
The text has six ''Adhyaya'' (chapters), each with varying number of verses.<ref name=humefull/> The first chapter includes 16 verses, the second has 17, the third chapter contains 21 verses, the fourth is composed of 22, the fifth has 14, while the sixth chapter has 23 verses. The last three verses of the sixth chapter are considered as epilogue. Thus, the Upanishad has 110 main verses and 3 epilogue verses.<ref name=pauldeussenfull>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 305-326</ref>

The epilogue verse 6.21 is a homage to sage Shvetashvatara for proclaiming Brahman-knowledge to [[Sannyasa|ascetics]].<ref name=humefull/> This closing credit is structurally notable because of its rarity in ancient Indian texts, as well as for its implication that the four-stage [[Ashrama (stage)|Ashrama]] system of Hinduism, with ascetic ''Sannyasa'', was an established tradition by the time verse 6.21 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad was composed.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/266/mode/2up The Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 266-267</ref>

===Poetic style===
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad has a poetic style and structure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.san.beck.org/Upan7-Shveta.html#4 |title=Shvetashvatara Upanishad |publisher=San.beck.org |access-date=2013-10-14}}</ref> However, unlike other ancient poetic Upanishads, the meter structure of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad varies significantly, is arbitrary and inconsistent within many verses in later chapters, some such as verse 2.17 lack a definite poetic meter entirely,<ref name="Paul Deussen page 311">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 311</ref> suggesting that the text congealed from the work of several authors over a period of time, or was interpolated and expanded over time.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/> The first chapter is the consistent one, with characteristics that makes it likely to be the work of one author, probably sage Shvetashvatara.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/>

==Contents==
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad opens with the metaphysical questions about [[Unmoved mover#First cause|first causes]].<ref name=humefull/> Scholars have differed somewhat in their translations, with Max Muller translating the questions thus,

{{Quote|
<poem>
The Brahma-students say: Is Brahman the cause? Whence are we born?
Whereby do we live, and whither do we go?
O ye who know Brahman, tell us at whose command we abide, whether in pain or in pleasure.

Should time, or nature, or necessity, or chance,
or the elements be considered as the cause, or he who is called the [[Purusha]]?
It cannot be their union either, because that is not self-dependent,<ref>Max Muller clarifies the meaning to be, "union presupposes uniter", see footnote 2, page 232</ref> and the self also is powerless,
because there is, independent of him, a cause of good and evil.
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.1-1.2, Translated by [[Max Muller]]<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/230/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 231-232</ref>}}

Paul Deussen translates the opening metaphysical questions of the Upanishad thus,

{{Quote|
<poem>
The teachers of Brahman say: What is the primal cause? What is Brahman?
Wherefrom have we been born? By what do we subsist? and on what are we founded?
By whom regulated, do we have our being, ye wise men? in the changing conditions of joy and sorrow?

Are Time, Nature, Necessity, Chance, Basic matter, the Spirit, the primal cause?
Can the union of these be thought of as the primal cause?
It is not that, however, because the Self exists.
Still the Self also is not powerful enough to create joy and sorrow!
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.1-1.2, Translated by [[Paul Deussen]]<ref name=pauldeussen11>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 305 with footnote 2</ref>}}

===The primal cause is within each individual, a power innate – First Adhyāya===
The Upanishad asserts, in verse 1.3, there are individuals who by meditation and yoga have realized their innate power of Self, powers that were veiled by their own [[Guṇa|gunas]] (innate personality, psychological attributes).<ref>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n415/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 394</ref> Therefore, it is this "power of the Divine Self" (''Deva Atman Shakti'', देवात्मशक्तिं) within each individual that presides over all the primal causes, including time and self.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/232/mode/2up The Shvetashvatara Upanishad], Oxford University Press, page 232 verse 3 with footnotes</ref>

===God, non-God, the Eternal is within self – First Adhyāya===
Verses 1.4 through 1.12 of the Upanishad use Samkhya-style enumeration to state the subject of meditation, for those who seek the knowledge of Self. These verses use a poetic simile for a human being, with the unawakened individual Self described as a resting swan.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 307 verse 1.6 with footnote 2</ref>

The verse 1.5, for example, states, "we meditate on the river whose water consists of five streams, which is wild and winding with its five springs, whose waves are the five vital breaths, whose fountainhead is the mind, of course of the five kinds of perceptions.<ref name=hume17/> It has five whirlpools, its rapids are the five pains, it has fifty<ref>Hume translates this as five instead of fifty, see Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n415/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 395 with footnotes</ref> kinds of sufferings, and five branches." [[Adi Shankara]] and other scholars have explained, using more ancient Indian texts, what each of these numbers correspond to. For example, the five streams are five receptive organs of a human body,<ref>eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin; see Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/234/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 234 footnote 1</ref> the five waves are the five active organs of a human body,<ref>hands, legs, excretory organs, sexual organs and speech organs; see Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/234/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 234 footnote 1</ref> and five rapids are the major health-related life stages.<ref>developing in the womb, being born, growing old, growing seriously ill, and dying; see Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/234/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 234 footnote 1</ref>

The subject of meditation, states Shvetashvatara Upanishad, is the knower and the non-knower, the God and non-God, both of which are eternal.<ref name=pauldeussen18>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 307 verse 1.8-1.9</ref> The text distinguishes the highest Self from the individual Self,<ref name=hume17>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n415/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 395-396 with footnotes</ref> calling the former Isha and Ishvara, and asserting it is this Highest Brahman which is Eternal and where there is the triad - the ''bhoktri'' (subject), the ''bhogya'' (object), and the ''preritri'' (mover).<ref name=maxmuller17>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/234/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 235-236 with footnotes</ref> With meditation, when a being fully realizes and possesses this triad within self, he knows Brahman.<ref name=pauldeussen18/><ref name=maxmuller17/> In verse 1.10, the text states the world is composed of the ''Pradhana'' which is perishable, and ''Hara''<ref>synonym for Rudra, Shiva, and means "one who removes ignorance", the verse explains Hara as manifestation of the Brahman, Highest Self; see Max Muller, page 235 footnote 10</ref> the God that is the imperishable.<ref name=hume17/> By meditating on ''Hara'' and thus becoming one with God ''Hara'', is the path to [[moksha]] (liberation). From meditating on it, states verse 1.11, man journeys unto the third state of existence, first that of blissful universal lordship, then further on to "perfect freedom, the divine alone-ness, the ''kevalatvam'' where the individual self is one with the divine self."<ref name=hume17/><ref name=maxmuller17/>

===Self knowledge, self discipline and Atman as the final goal of Upanishad – First Adhyāya===
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.13 to 1.16, states that to know God, look within, know your Atman (Self).<ref name=hume17/> It suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent churning of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge and ethics is, asserts the Upanishad, the goal of Upanishad.<ref name=pauldeussen116/>

{{Quote|
<poem>
तिलेषु तैलं दधिनीव सर्पिरापः स्तस्वरणीषु चाग्निः <nowiki>।
एवमात्माऽत्मनि गृह्यतेऽसौ सत्येनैनं तपसा योऽनुपश्यति ॥ १५ ॥
सर्वव्यापिनमात्मानं क्षीरे सर्पिरिवार्पितम् ।
आत्मविद्यातपोमूलं तद्ब्रह्मोपनिषत्परं तद्ब्रह्मॊपनिषत्परमिति ॥ १६ ॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.15-1.16] Wikisource</ref>

As oil in sesame seeds, as butter in milk, as water in ''Srota'',<ref>dry riverbeds which if dug reveal water</ref> as fire in fuel-sticks,
he finds in his own self that One (Atman), he, who sees him through [[Satya]] (truthfulness) and [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|Tapas]] (austerity). (15)
He sees the all prevading Atman, as butter lying dormant in milk,
rooted in self-knowledge and self-discipline – which is the final goal of the Upanishad, the final goal of Upanishad. (16)
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.15-1.16<ref name=pauldeussen116>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 308</ref><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/236/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 237</ref>}}

===Yoga as means for self knowledge, self discipline – Second Adhyāya===
[[File:Meditate Tapasya Dhyana.jpg|thumb|240px|Yoga meditation under shady trees and silent surroundings is recommended in Shvetashvatara Upanishad.]]
The second ''Adhyaya'' of Shvetashvatara Upanishad is a motley collection of themes. It begins with prayer hymns to God Savitr, as the rising sun, the spiritual illuminator and the deity of inspiration and self-discipline.<ref name=hume21>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n417/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 397-398 with footnotes</ref><ref name=maxmuller21>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/238/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 238-241</ref> Thereafter, the Upanishad discusses [[Yoga]] as a means for self-knowledge.

The verses 2.8 and 2.9 describes yoga as state of body and mind, wherein the body is in threefold<ref>head, neck and chest/spinal cord</ref> erect posture, and mind along with all senses are withdrawn into an introspective point within (the heart).<ref name=hume21/><ref name=maxmuller21/> In this state of yoga, the individual then breathes gently slowly through the nose, states the Upanishad, with any physical motions subdued or the body is still, the mind calm and undistracted.<ref name=maxmuller21/><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 310-311</ref> Such is the state where the self-reflective meditation starts. The text recommends a place to perform such yoga exercise as follows,

{{Quote|
<poem>
In a clean level spot, free from pebbles, fire and gravel,
Delightful by its sounds, its water and bowers,<ref>shady, leafy place in a garden, retreat or woods</ref>
Favorable to thought, not offensive to the eye,
In a hidden retreat protected from the wind,
One should practise Yoga.
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 2.10<ref name=hume21/><ref name=maxmuller21/>}}

The Upanishad, in verse 2.13, describes the first benefits of Yoga to be agility, better health, clear face, sweetness of voice, sweet odor, regular body functions, steadiness,<ref>some manuscripts have a slightly different spelling, and the alternative meaning therein is "absence of greediness"</ref> and feeling of lightness in one's personality.<ref name=hume21/><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 310</ref> Yoga then leads to the knowledge of the essence of the Self, the nature of the Self.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/242/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 242-243</ref>

===Atman as personal God (Isha or Rudra) – Third Adhyāya===
Verses 3.1 through 3.6 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad describe the "Atman, Self" as the personal God, as the one and only Lord, that resides within, the origin of all gods, calling it the ''Isha'' or ''Rudra''.<ref name="Paul Deussen page 311"/><ref name=maxmuller31/> This innermost Self, is stated as under the sway of [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] or empirical ''Prakrti''.<ref name=maxmuller31>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/244/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 244-245 with footnotes</ref> This theme of ''Eka Deva'' (one God) – eternal, all prevading and forging the world with his heat – in Svetasvatara Upanishad, is common in more ancient Sanskrit texts such as Rig Veda's hymns 10.72.2 and 10.81.3,<ref>For example, compare: '''Rig Veda''': विश्वतश्चक्षुरुत विश्वतोमुखो विश्वतोबाहुरुत विश्वतस्पात् । सं बाहुभ्यां धमति सं पतत्रैर्द्यावाभूमी '''जनयन्देव एकः''' ॥१०.८१.३॥ [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.८१ Rig Veda 10.81] Wikisource '''Shvetashvatara Upanishad''':विश्वतश्चक्षुरुत विश्वतोमुखो विश्वतोबाहुरुत विश्वतस्पात् । सम्बाहुभ्यां धमति सम्पतत्रैर्द्यावाभूमी '''जनयन्देव एकः''' ॥तृतीयोऽध्यायः, ३॥ [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् Shvetashvatara Upanishad] Wikisource</ref> Taittiriya Samhita 4.6.2.4, Taittiriya Aranyaka 10.1.3, White Yajur Veda's Vajasaneyi Samhita 17.19,<ref>Ralph Griffith, [https://archive.org/stream/WhiteYajurVeda/WhiteYajurVedaEnglishTranslationGriffith1899#page/n167/mode/2up verse 19], The texts of the White Yajur Veda, page 151</ref> Atharva Veda 13.2.26 and others.<ref name=maxmuller31/><ref name=hume31>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n421/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 400-402 with footnotes</ref>

Similarly, the verses 3.5 and 3.6 are also found in the more ancient Vajasaneyi Samhita as verses 16.2 and 16.3, in Taittiriya Samhita 4.5.1.1, as well as in chapter 8.5 of the chronologically much later Nilarudra Upanishad.<ref name=hume31/><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 312 with footnotes 2 and 3; for Vajasaneyi Samhita, see [https://archive.org/stream/WhiteYajurVeda/WhiteYajurVedaEnglishTranslationGriffith1899#page/n155/mode/2up Ralph Griffith translation of Yaj. Sam. Book Sixteenth]</ref> These verses symbolically ask ''Rudra'' to be graceful and "not hurt any man or any beast".<ref name=maxmuller31/><ref name=hume31/>

The verses 3.7 through 3.21 of the Upanishad describes Brahman as the highest, the subtlest and the greatest, concealed in all beings, one that encompasses all of the universe, formless, without sorrow, changeless, all prevading, kind (''Shiva''), one who applies the power of knowledge, the Purusha, one with the whole world as it is, one with the whole world as it has been, one with the whole world as it will be.<ref name=hume31/><ref name=pauldeussen37>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 312-314</ref> It is the Atman, the Self of all.<ref name=pauldeussen37/><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/244/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 245-248 with footnotes</ref>

===Brahman as the individual and the highest Self – Fourth Adhyāya===
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 4.1 through 4.8 states that everything is Brahman, in everything is ''Deva'' (God), it is the individual Self and the highest Self.<ref name=pauldeussen41>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 315-318</ref> As in other chapters of the Upanishad, several of these verses are also found in more ancient texts; for example, verse 4.3 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad is identical to hymn 10.8.27 of Atharva Veda. The verses are notable for their grammar, where through numerous poetic phrases, the gender of the highest Self (God), is meticulously and metrically stated as neuter gender, as against the occasional masculine gender that is found in some ancient texts.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/250/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 250 with footnote 1</ref>

The Upanishad states that Brahman is in all Vedic deities, in all women, in all men, in all boys, in all girls, in every old man tottering on a stick, in every bee and bird, in all seasons and all seas.<ref name=hume41>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n423/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 402-406 with footnotes</ref> Out of the highest Self, comes the hymns, the Vedic teachings, the past and the future, asserts the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.<ref name=pauldeussen41/>

The fourth chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad contains the famous metaphorical verse 4.5, that was oft-cited and debated by the scholars of dualistic [[Samkhya]], monist [[Vedanta]] and theistic [[Vedanta]] schools of Hinduism in ancient and medieval era, for example in Vedanta Sutra's section 1.4.8.<ref name=george>[http://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe34/sbe34003.htm The Vedanta Sutras, commentary by Sankaracharya] George Thibaut (Translator), see Pada IV, Adhik. II</ref><ref name=maxmuller45>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/250/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 250 with footnote 2</ref> The metaphor-filled verse is as follows,

{{Quote|
<poem>
There is one unborn being (feminine), red, white and black,
but producing many creatures like herself,
There is one unborn being (masculine) who loves her and stays with her,
there is another unborn being (masculine) who leaves her after loving her.
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 4.5<ref name=hume41/><ref name=maxmuller45/>}}

The metaphor of three colors has been interpreted as the three [[Guṇa|Gunas]],<ref>qualities, psychological, personality attributes</ref> with red symbolizing harmonious purity (Sattva), white as confused passion (Rajas), and black as destructive darkness (Tamas).<ref name=maxmuller45/> An alternative interpretation of the three colors is based on an equivalent phrase in chapter 6.2 of Chandogya Upanishad, where the three colors are interpreted to be "fire, water and food".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 315 with footnote 4</ref> The unborn being with feminine gender is symbolically the ''Prakrti'' (nature, matter), while the two masculine beings are Cosmic Self and the Individual Self, the former experiencing delight and staying with ''Prakrti'' always, the latter leaves after experiencing the delight of ''Prakrti''.<ref name=hume41/> All three are stated in the verse to be "unborn", implying that all three are eternal. The Samkhya school of Hinduism cites this verse for Vedic support of their dualistic doctrine.<ref name=maxmuller45/> The Vedanta school, in contrast, cites the same verse but points to the context of the chapter which has already declared that everything, including the feminine (Prakrti) and masculine (Purusha), the individual Self and the cosmic Self, is nothing but Oneness and of a single Brahman.<ref name=george/>

The verses 4.9 and 4.10 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad state the [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā doctrine]] found in many schools of Hinduism. The text asserts that the ''Prakrti'' (empirical nature) is ''Māyā'', that the individual Self is caught up by this ''Māyā'' (magic, art, creative power),<ref>Older translations such as by Deussen translate ''Maya'' as "magic", as "art" by Max Muller; a more recent translation by Dominic Goodall translates ''Maya'' as "creative power", as does N.V. Isaeva; see Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520207783}}, page 195; Natalia Isaeva (1995), From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791424490}}, page 26</ref> and that the cosmic Self is the ''Māyin'' (magician).<ref name=hume41/> These verses are notable because these verses are one of the oldest known explicit statement of the Māyā doctrine.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 316 preface to verses 9-10</ref> The verse 4.10 is also significant because it uses the term ''Maheswaram'' (Sanskrit: महेश्वरम्), literally the highest Lord (later epithet for Shiva), for the one who is "Māyā-maker".<ref name=hume41/><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 317</ref> There is scholarly disagreement on what the term ''Māyā'' means in Upanishads, particularly verse 4.10 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad; Dominic Goodall, for example, states that the term generally meant "supernatural power", not "illusion, magic", in the Upanishads, and ''Māyā'' contextually means "primal matter" in verse 4.10 of Shvetashvatara.<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520207783}}, page xliv with note 12</ref>

===Rudra and Shiva – Fourth Adhyāya===
{{Saivism}}
The Upanishad includes a variegated addition of verses 4.11 through 4.22, wherein it repeats – with slight modifications – a flood of ancient Vedic Samhita [[benediction]]s and older Upanishadic hymns.<ref name=pauldeussen302/> In these verses, the Brahman, discussed so far in earlier chapters of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, is celebrated as ''Isha'', ''Ishana'' (personal god) and ''Rudra''.<ref name=pauldeussen302/> The verses of the fourth chapter use an adjective repeatedly, namely ''Shiva'' (literally, kind, benign, blessed) as a designation for ''Rudra'' (a fierce, destructive, slaying Vedic deity).<ref name=chakravarti>M Chakravarti (1995), The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages, Motilal Banarsidas, {{ISBN|978-8120800533}}, pages 20-23 and Chapter 1</ref> This adjective developed into a noun, and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad witnesses the assimilation of the non-Aryan deity ''Shiva'', a central God in later scriptures of Hinduism, into the Vrdic fold.<ref name=chakravarti/> The abridged verses are,

{{Quote|
<poem>
(...) । विश्वस्यैकं परिवेष्टितारं ज्ञात्वा '''शिवं''' शान्तिमत्यन्तमेति ॥ १४ ॥
घृतात्परं मण्डमिवातिसूक्ष्मं ज्ञात्वा '''शिवं''' सर्वभूतेषु गूढम् । (...) ॥ १६ ॥

(...), the one embracer of the universe, by knowing Him as "kind, benign" ('''śivam'''), one attains peace forever. (14)
By knowing as "kind, benign" ('''śivam''') Him, who is hidden in all things, like subtle cream inside fine butter, (...)
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 4.14, 4.16<ref name=hume41/><ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520207783}}, pages 195-197</ref>}}

The benedictions in the fourth chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad praise Rudra, as He who is the origin of gods and one from which gods arise, the one who is lord of all, the one on whom the world is founded, the one who envelops all of universe within Him, the one who creates everything, the one who is inside every living creature, the one with primal knowledge, the one who is eternal and immortal.<ref name=pauldeussen411>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 317-319</ref> These benedictions are found, in essentially similar form but different context in more ancient Vedic texts, for example in Rig Veda 1.114.8, 3.62.10 and 10.121.3, Vajasaneyi Samhita 16.16 and 32.2, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.3.32, and elsewhere.<ref name=hume41/><ref name=pauldeussen411/>

The verses of the fourth ''Adhyaya'' of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, with explicit references to Rudra and Shiva, and the text in general, became important to [[Shaiva Siddhanta]],<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520207783}}, page xix</ref><ref>Hilko W Schomerus (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815698}}, pages 150-153</ref> and to [[Shaivism]].<ref name=bhandarkar>R G Bhandarkar (2001), Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-8121509992}}, pages 106-111</ref> Scholars<ref name=pauldeussen302/><ref name=chakravarti/> state that while ''Rudra'' is an oft mentioned Vedic deity, the adjective ''Shiva'' for him in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad was new, and simply meant "kind, graceful, blessed, blissful". The word "Shiva" is mentioned as an adjective seven times in the Upanishad, in verses 3.5, 4.14, 4.16, 4.18, 5.14, 6.11, 6.18.<ref name=pauldeussen302/> This is among the earliest mentions of ''Shiva'' in ancient Sanskrit literature, and possibly evidence that the name was crystallizing as the proper name of the highest God in Vedic times.<ref name=pauldeussen302>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 302</ref><ref name=bhandarkar/> The Shvetashvatara Upanishad has served the same historic role for Shaivism, as the Bhagavad Gita has served for [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (2007), Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide, {{ISBN|978-1851685387}}, Chapter 7</ref>

===Brahman is everywhere, knowledge liberates – Fifth Adhyāya===
The fifth chapter of the Upanishad shifts back to using the word Brahman, instead of Rudra, and presents a threefold Brahman-Atman, all part of infinite highest Brahman, and contained in Oneness.<ref name=maxmuller51>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/254/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 255-259 with footnotes</ref> The first theme is of "default state of ignorance" in human beings, the second is "realized state of knowledge", and third is of elevated eternal omnipresent Brahman that embraces both.<ref name=pauldeussen51>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 319-322 with footnotes</ref> The text states that ignorance is perishable and temporary, while knowledge is immortal and permanent.<ref name=pauldeussen51/><ref name=goodall51>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520207783}}, pages 197-198</ref> Knowledge is deliverance, knowledge liberates, asserts the Upanishad.<ref name=pauldeussen51/><ref name=goodall51/><ref name=hume51>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n427/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 406-408 with footnotes</ref>

The fifth chapter is notable for the mention of word ''Kapila'' in verse 5.2. The interpretation of this verse has long been disputed as either referring to sage Kapila – the founder of atheistic/non-theistic [[Samkhya]] school of Hinduism, or simply referring to the color "red".<ref name=maxmullerinto/><ref name=pauldeussen51/>

The fifth chapter is also notable for verse 5.10, regarding the genderlessness of the Brahman-Atman (Self), that is present in every being.<ref name=maxmuller51/><ref>Hilko W Schomerus (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815698}}, pages 151</ref> This view expressed in Shvetashvatara Upanishad is also found in Aitareya and Taittiriya Āraṇyakas.<ref>BD Dhawan (1988), Mysticism and Symbolism in Aitareya and Taittiriya Āraṇyakas, {{ISBN|978-8121200943}}, pages 73-74</ref>

{{Quote|
<poem>
नैव स्त्री न पुमानेष न चैवायं नपुंसकः <nowiki>।
यद्यच्छरीरमादत्ते तेने तेने स युज्यते ॥ १० ॥</nowiki>

It is not woman, it is not man, nor is it neuter;
whatever body it takes, with that it is joined.
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 5.10<ref name=maxmuller51/><ref name=hume51/>}}

===One Deva (God), the self within all beings – Sixth Adhyāya===
The sixth chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad opens by acknowledging the existence of two competing theories: of Nature as the primal cause, and Time as the primal cause. Verse 6.1 declares these two theories as "completely wrong".<ref name=pauldeussen61>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 322-326 with footnotes</ref> It is ''Deva'' (God, Brahman) that is the primal cause, asserts the text, and then proceeds to describe what God is and what is God's nature.<ref name=pauldeussen61/><ref name=maxmuller61>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/260/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, pages 260-267 with footnotes</ref><ref name=hume61>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n429/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 408-411 with footnotes</ref> He is the knower, the creator of time, the quality of everything, the ''Sarva-vidyah'' (सर्वविद्यः, all knowledge), states Shvetashvatara Upanishad. This God, asserts the text, is one, and is in each human being and in all living creatures.<ref name=pauldeussen61/> This God is the Self (Atman) veiled inside man, the inmost self inside all living beings, and that the primal cause is within oneself.<ref name=maxmuller61/><ref>A Gough, [https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofupan00gouguoft#page/230/mode/2up The philosophy of the Upanishads and ancient Indian metaphysics], Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Trubner Oriental Series, page 231</ref><ref name=goodall201>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520207783}}, pages 201-202</ref> The Upanishad, states it as follows (abridged),

[[File:Sunset Beauty (7270106236).jpg|thumb|Swan (Haṁsa, हंस) is the frequently used symbolic term for the Highest Self in Vedic literature, and is used in verses 6.15-6.16 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad to discuss ''Moksha''.<ref name=maxmuller61/>]]
{{Quote|
<poem>
Let us know that highest great lord of lords, the highest deity of deities, the master of masters,
his high power is revealed as manifold, as inherent, acting as force and knowledge.
There is no master of his in the world, no ruler of his, not even a sign of him,
He is the cause, the lord of the lords of the organs, and there is of him neither parent nor lord.
He is the one God, hidden in all beings, all-pervading, the self within all beings,
watching over all works, dwelling in all beings, the witness, the perceiver, the only one, free from qualities.
The wise who perceive Him dwelling within their self, to them belongs eternal happiness and serenity, not to others,
He who knows this God as primal cause, through Sāṁkhya (reason, reflection)<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html saMkhyA] Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon</ref> and Yoga (self-discipline), achieves Mukti (freedom, [[moksha]]).
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.7-6.13<ref name=pauldeussen61/><ref name=maxmuller61/>}}

===End of misery and sorrow, the joyful Deva, seeking His refuge for freedom – Sixth Adhyāya===
The Upanishad, in verses 6.14 through 6.20 discusses ''Deva'' (God), interchangeably with Brahman-Atman, and its importance in achieving [[moksha]] (liberation, freedom). The text asserts that ''Deva'' is the light of everything, and He is the "one swan" of the universe.<ref name=hume61/> It is He who is self-made, the supreme spirit, the quality in everything, the consciousness of conscious, the master of primeval matter and of the spirit (individual Self), the cause of transmigration of the Self, and it is his knowledge that leads to deliverance and release from all sorrow, misery, bondage and fear.<ref name=maxmuller61/><ref name=goodall201/> It is impossible to end sorrow, confusion and consequences of evil, without knowing this joyful, blissful ''Deva'', asserts the sixth chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.<ref name=pauldeussen61/><ref name=hume61/> It is to this ''Deva'' (divine Self)<ref>A Gough, [https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofupan00gouguoft#page/232/mode/2up The philosophy of the Upanishads and ancient Indian metaphysics], Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Trubner Oriental Series, page 232</ref> that, states the text, "I go, being desirous of liberation, for refuge and shelter".<ref name=hume61/> Shvetashvatara Upanishad does not extensively discuss the concept of bhakti (devotion), however, in verse 6.23, it does touch upon the importance of bhakti:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |title=The strides of Vishnu: Hindu culture in historical perspective |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University press |isbn=978-0-19-531405-2 |location=Oxford |pages=100}}</ref>

{{Quote|text=Only in a man who has the deepest love for God, and who shows the same love towards his teacher as towards God, do these points declared by the Noble One [mahatma] shine forth|author=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23}}

==Reception==
Ancient and medieval Indian scholars left many ''Bhasya'' (review, commentary) on Shvetashvatara Upanishad. These include those attributed to [[Adi Shankara]], Vijnanatma, Shankarananda, and Narayana Tirtha.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/Anandashram_Samskrita_Granthavali_Anandashram_Sanskrit_Series Svetasvatara Upanishad with Shankara and Three Bhasyas (Sanskrit)] VG Apte (1927), Granth 17, Archived by Ananda Ashrama India, pages 1-65</ref> However, given the nature of open scholarship in Indian traditions, it is unclear if some of these commentaries are exclusive works of a single author, or are they partially or completely the work of another later scholar.<ref name=paulhacker/> For example, the style, the inconsistencies, the citation method, the [[Colophon (publishing)|colophons]] in the commentary on Shvetashvatara Upanishad as it survives in modern form, and attributed to Shankara, makes it doubtful that it was written in the surviving form by Shankara. Rather, most scholars<ref name=paulhacker>Paul Hacker (1995), Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta, Editor: Wilhelm Halbfass, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791425817}}, pages 50-51 and chapter 3</ref><ref>GC Pande (2011), Life and Thought of Śaṅkarācārya, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120811041}}, page 107</ref> consider it likely that the Shvetashvatara commentary attributed to Shankara was remodeled and interpolated by one or more later authors.

Chakravarti calls the Shvetashvatara Upanishad as the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of [[Shaivism]].<ref>For {{IAST|Śvetāśvatara}} Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see: Chakravarti, p. 9</ref> Flood states that it elevated [[Rudra]] to the status of ''[[Īśa]]'' ("Lord"), a god with cosmological functions such as those later attributed to [[Shiva]].<ref>"... a theology which elevates Rudra to the status of supreme being, the Lord (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Īśa}}) who is transcendent yet also has cosmological functions, as does Śiva in later traditions." Flood (1996), p. 153.</ref>

===Epilogue's loving devotion to God debate===
The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.23, uses the word [[Bhakti]] as follows,

{{Quote|
<poem>
यस्य देवे परा '''भक्तिः''' यथा देवे तथा गुरौ <nowiki>।
तस्यैते कथिता ह्यर्थाः प्रकाशन्ते महात्मनः ॥ २३ ॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23] Wikisource</ref>

He who has highest '''''Bhakti''''' (love, devotion)<ref name=paulcarus>Paul Carus, {{Google books|96sLAAAAIAAJ|The Monist|PA514}}, pages 514-515</ref> of ''Deva'' (God),
just like his ''Deva'', so for his ''Guru'' (teacher),
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 326</ref><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/266/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 267</ref>}}

This verse is notable for the use of the word ''Bhakti'', and has been widely cited as among the earliest mentions of "the love of God".<ref name=paulcarus/><ref>WN Brown (1970), Man in the Universe: Some Continuities in Indian Thought, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520017498}}, pages 38-39</ref> Scholars<ref name=pauldeussenintro/><ref name=maxmullerinto/> have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "God" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the modern era Bhakti traditions found in India. Max Muller states that the word ''Bhakti'' appears only in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later addition and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later ''Sandilya Sutras''.<ref name=maxmullerbhakti>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/n33/mode/2up The Shvetashvatara Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages xxxiv and xxxvii</ref> Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 is also notable for its use of the word ''Deva Prasada'' (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that ''Deva'' in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Self".<ref name=paulcarus/>

===Samkhya versus Vedanta interpretations debate===
Scholars have long debated whether the Shvetashvatara Upanishad follows or opposed the theories of the [[Samkhya]] school of Hinduism.<ref name=maxmullersamkhya/> The Upanishad, as it develops its arguments, deploys many techniques of counting and enumeration found in Samkhya school, but such enumeration is not exclusive to Samkhya school and is also found in the Samhitas of the Vedas.<ref name=maxmullersamkhya/><ref>A Gough, [https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofupan00gouguoft#page/212/mode/2up The philosophy of the Upanishads and ancient Indian metaphysics], Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Trubner Oriental Series, page 212</ref>

{{Quote|
No doubt there are expressions in this [Shvetashvatara] Upanishad which remind us of technical terms used at a later time in the Samkhya system of philosophy, but of Samkhya doctrines, which I had myself formerly suspected in this Upanishad, I can on closer study find very little.
|Max Muller<ref name=maxmullersamkhya>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/n33/mode/2up The Shvetashvatara Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages xxxiv - xxxv</ref>}}

Paul Deussen makes a similar conclusion as Max Muller, and states in his review of verse 1.3 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad,
{{Quote|
The individual Self does not comprise Purusha and Prakrti (''shakti'') which is independent of him together with its [[Guṇa|gunas]] (''sattvam, rajas, tamas'') but it is the God's own power (''deva-atman-shakti'') which, veiled under its own qualities (''svagunah''), appears as the Self. – The opposition to the Samkhya doctrines cannot be expressed in more pungent words.
|Paul Deussen<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 305 footnote 3</ref>}}

EH Johnston presents another perspective on Samkhya theories and dualistic themes in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.<ref>EH Johnston (1930), Some Samkhya and Yoga conceptions in the SVetasvatara-Upanisad, JRAS, Vol. 30, pages 855-878</ref>

===Monotheistic, pantheistic or monist text debate===
Scholars have also expressed varying views whether Shvetashvatara Upanishad is a monotheistic, pantheistic or monistic text.<ref name=pauldeussenintro/><ref name=maxmullerinto/><ref>A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309-314; {{doi|10.1017/S0041977X00146531}}</ref> Doris Srinivasan<ref name=srinivasan>D Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, {{ISBN|978-9004107588}}, pages 96-97 and Chapter 9</ref> states that the Upanishad is a treatise on theism, but it creatively embeds a variety of divine images, an inclusive language that allows "three Vedic definitions for personal deity". The Upanishad includes verses wherein God can be identified with the Supreme (Brahman-Atman, Self) in Vedanta monistic theosophy, verses that support dualistic view of Samkhya doctrines, as well as the synthetic novelty of triple Brahman where a triune exists as the divine Self (Deva, theistic God), individual Self and nature (Prakrti, matter).<ref name=srinivasan/><ref>Lee Siegel, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398646 Commentary: Theism in Indian Thought], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 28, No. 4 (Oct., 1978), pages 419-423</ref><ref>R Tsuchida (1985), Some Remarks on the Text of the Svetasvatara-Upanisad, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (印度學佛教學研究), Vol. 34, No. 1, pages 460-468, '''Quote:''' "The Svetasvatara-Upanisad occupies a highly unique position among Vedic Upanisads as a testimony of the meditative and monistic Rudra-cult combined with Samkhya-Yoga doctrines."</ref> Hiriyanna interprets the text to be introducing "personal theism" in the form of Shiva, with a shift to monotheism but in henotheistic context where the individual is encouraged to discover his own definition and sense of God.<ref>M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120813304}}, pages 32-36</ref> Robert Hume interprets the Shvetashvatara Upanishad to be discussing a pantheistic God.<ref>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n419/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 399, 403</ref>

==See also==
*[[Vedas]]
*[[Upanishads]]
*[[Ishvara]]
*[[Bhagavan]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Chakravati |first=Mahadev |title=The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages |year=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0053-2 }} (Second Revised Edition; Reprint, Delhi, 2002).
* {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 978-0521438780}}
* {{Citation | last =Olivelle | first =Patrick | year =1998 | title =The Early Upanishads | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikisourcelang|sa|श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद्| Shvetashvatara Upanishad (Sanskrit)}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n415/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad] Robert Hume (Translator), Oxford University Press
*[https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/230/mode/2up Svetasvatara Upanishad] Max Muller (Translator), Oxford University Press
*[https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofupan00gouguoft#page/210/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad] Archibald Gough (Translator), Trubner Oriental Series
*[http://www.bharatadesam.com/spiritual/upanishads/svetasvatara_upanishad.php Shvetashvatara Upanishad] Nikhilananda (Translator)
*[http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/shveta.pdf Shvetashvatara Upanishad] Another archive in Sanskrit
*[https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk1952/34/1/34_1_468/_pdf Some remarks on Shvetashvatara Upanishad] Ryutaro Tsuchida (1986), Tokyo University, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies
*German translation of Svetasvatara Upanishad: Die Śvetāśvatara-Upaniṣad, eine kritische Ausgabe, mit einer Uebersetzung und einer Uebersicht über ihre Lehren von Richard Hauschild, AKM Bd. 17, No. 3, Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus, {{oclc|459808660}}
* {{in lang|en}} {{librivox book | title=Svetasvatara Upanishad}}

{{Shaivism|state=collapsed}}
{{Hindudharma}}

{{Mukhya Upanishads}}

[[Category:Upanishads]]
[[Category:Shaiva texts]]

Shailesh Bhabhor

2026-02-07T23:56:52Z

Loz12: Done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}

'''Shailesh Bhabhor''' (born 1980)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Bhabhor Shaileshbhai Sumanbhai(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- LIMKHEDA (ST)(DAHOD) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/Gujarat2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=6093 |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Gujarat]]. He is a member of the [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]] from Limkheda Assembly constituency, which is reserved for Scheduled Tribe community, in [[Dahod district]]. He won the [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Live |first=A. B. P. |date=2022-12-08 |title=Limkheda Election 2022 Final Results LIVE: BJP Candidate BHABHOR SHAILESHBHAI SUMANBHAI wins from Limkheda , Details Inside |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/limkheda-election-result-2022-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-result-winner-loser-tally-bjp-congress-aap-gujarat-assembly-election-result-news-1568283 |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gujarat Election Result 2022: Constituency Wise Winning Candidates List |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/gujarat-election-results-2022-constituency-wise-winning-candidates-list |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-08 |title=Gujarat Assembly Election Results 2022: Full list of winners |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/gujarat-assembly-elections-2022-winning-candidates-constituency-8312674/ |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Bhabhor is from [[Limkheda]], Dahod district, Gujarat. He is the son of Sumanbhai Bhabhor. He completed his MA in 2004 at [[Sardar Patel University]], Vallabh Vidyanagar. Earlier, he did BA in 2001 at Nalini Arvind and T.V. Patel Arts College, Vidyanagar, which is also affiliated with Sardar Patel University.<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Bhabhor won from [[Limkheda Assembly constituency]] representing the Bharatiya Janata Party in the 2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election. He polled 69,417 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Nareshbhai Baria of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]], by a margin of 3,663 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-08 |title=Gujarat election results 2022: 15 candidates win by less than 5000 votes - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/gujarat-election-results-2022-15-candidates-win-by-less-than-5000-votes-15370611.htm |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 December 2022 |title=General election to Vidhan Sabha trends and results, December 2022 |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenDec2022/ConstituencywiseS06131.htm?ac=131 |access-date=28 January 2025 |website=Election Commission of India}}</ref> He first became an MLA, also on the BJP ticket, winning the [[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]] defeating Maheshbhai Ratansing Tadvi of the [[Indian National Congress]] by a margin of 19,314 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Limkheda Election Result 2022 LIVE Updates: Bhabhor Shaileshbhai Sumanbhai Of BJP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/elections/limkheda-election-result-2022-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-6560023.html |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Limkheda Assembly Seat, Gujarat Election 2022 – Get Limkheda constituency news updates and complete details {{!}} Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/gujarat-assembly-election/limkheda-131 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202221640/https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/gujarat-assembly-election/limkheda-131 |archive-date=2023-02-02 |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en-us}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhabhor, Shailesh}}
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Gujarat MLAs 2017–2022]]
[[Category:Gujarat MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:People from Dahod district]]

Jayant Kumar Malaiya

2026-02-06T07:36:36Z

Loz12: basic cleanup intro per sources and fixed typos

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Multiple issues|{{BLP sources|date=July 2019}}
{{Independent sources|date=July 2019}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Jayant Kumar Malaiya
| image = Jayant Malaiya.jpg
| caption =Jayant Malaiya in 2015.
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1947|2|20|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]], [[Central Provinces and Berar]], [[British India]]<ref name=Profile/>
| residence = [[Sagar, Madhya Pradesh|Sagar]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Minister of Finance & Commercial Taxes]], [[Government of Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh Government]]
| term_start = December 2013
| term_end = December 2018
| succeeded= *Brajendra Singh Rathore
*[[Tarun Bhanot]]
| office2 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly]] from [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| constituency2 = [[Damoh (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Damoh]]
| term_start2 = 1990
| term_end2 = 2018
| successor2 = Rahul Singh
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| spouse = Sudha Malaiya
| children = 2
| website =
| footnotes = [https://web.archive.org/web/20190725153924/http://jayantmalaiya.in/about.html Source]
| date =
| year =
| source =
| office3 =
| successor3 =
| parents =
| country = [[India]]
| nationality = Indian
| profession = [[Politician]]
| education = [[LLB]]<ref name=Profile/>
| native_name = damoh
| Office3 =
}}

'''Jayant Kumar Malaiya''' (born 20 February 1947) is an Indian politician and a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. He was a member of [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from [[Damoh (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Damoh]] constituency since 1990, but lost in 2018 [[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|Madhya Pradesh Assembly election]] and got reelected again in 2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election.<ref name=Profile/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.finance.mp.gov.in/index.htm|title=Government of Madhya Pradesh, Finance Department...|website=www.finance.mp.gov.in|access-date=28 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2018/madhya-pradesh/damoh-election-result-s12a055/|title=Damoh Assembly constituency (Madhya Pradesh): Full details, live and past results|website=News18|access-date=27 August 2019}}</ref>

== Political career ==
Malaiya was elected from Damoh Legislative Assembly for the first time in the sub-election for the seventh assembly in 1984. He was re-elected to the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth Assemblies in 1990, 1993, 1998 and 2003 respectively. Malaiya was elected for the sixth time from the same constituency in the 2008 election. He was elected as a member of Damoh for the fourteenth Assembly in 2013 and 2023 for the sixteenth Assembly.

==Service to MP as a Minister==

Malaiya was Minister of State for Housing and Environment (Independent Charge) during the Ninth Legislative Assembly. He was a special invitee to the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) District Damoh twice, the President of the State BJP Work Committee.
He chaired the Loklokha Committee in Eleventh Legislative Assembly of the state. Malaiya joined the Cabinet of then Chief Minister [[Uma Bharti]] on 28 June 2004 and was the Minister of Urban Administration and Development. He was sworn in as a minister in the Cabinet of Chief Minister Babulal Gaur on 27 August 2004. Malaiya was re-elected as a minister in the Cabinet of then Chief Minister Shivraj Singh Chauhan on 4 December 2005.

Jayant Malaiya served as the Minister in the Cabinet of Chief Minister Shivraj Singh Chauhan on 20 December 2008. He took oath as Cabinet minister on 21 December 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jayantmalaiya.in/about.html|title=जीवन – श्री जयंत कुमार मलैया |website=jayantmalaiya.in|access-date=25 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725153924/http://jayantmalaiya.in/about.html|archive-date=25 July 2019}}</ref><ref name=Profile>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mpinfo.org/MPinfoStatic/English/council/cabinetmin/jayant_malaiya.asp|title=Department Of Public Relations, Madhya Pradesh|website=www.mpinfo.org|access-date=27 August 2019|archive-date=27 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827175605/https://www.mpinfo.org/MPinfoStatic/English/council/cabinetmin/jayant_malaiya.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> He served as the Finance Minister until Dec 2018.

==See also==
* [[Shivraj Singh Chouhan Third ministry (2013–)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malaiya, Jayant}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Sagar, Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2023–2028]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Kaalratri (TV series)

2026-02-05T18:10:16Z

Loz12: Created new entry needs work

{{Short description|Indian Bengali web series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Kaalratri poster.jpg
| caption = Release poster
| alt_name =
| genre = [[Crime thriller]]
| creator =
| developer =
| based_on = "Ebong Kalratri" by Manoj Sen
| writer = Ayan Chakraborti
| screenplay = Ayan Chakraborti
| director = Ayan Chakraborti
| creative_director =
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Soumitrisha Kundu]]
* [[Rupanjana Mitra]]
* [[Indrasish Roy]]
* [[Rajdeep Gupta]]
}}
| judges =
| voices =
| narrator =
| theme_music_composer = Subhadeep Guha
| open_theme =
| end_theme =
| composer = Subhadeep Guha
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 13
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer =
| editor = Sanglap Bhowmik
| location =
| cinematography = Ramyadip Saha
| camera = [[Single-camera]]
| runtime = 20-30 minutes
| company = Shree Venkatesh Films
| first_aired = {{Start date|2024|||df=y}}
| last_aired = present
| related =
}}

'''''Kaalratri''''' ({{Translation|'''''The Night of Death'''''}}) is an Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[crime thriller]] [[web series]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Samadder |first1=Tulika |title=কালরাত্রিতে দাদার বউয়ের সঙ্গে ঘনিষ্ঠ সৌমিতৃষার বর, তারপর হল খুন, উত্তেজনা টানটান |date=23 November 2024 |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trailer-of-soumitrisha-kundu-starer-kalratri-for-hoichoi-is-out-now-31732363654397.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250116120015/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trailer-of-soumitrisha-kundu-starer-kalratri-for-hoichoi-is-out-now-31732363654397.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2025 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=16 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref> Directed and written by Ayan Chakraborti, and produced by [[Shree Venkatesh Films]], the series is a part of Hoichoi's new "Hoichoi TV+" format of storytelling.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Niyogi |first1=Agnivo |title=Bhuswargo Bhoyonkawr to Puro Puri Eken: Hoichoi unveils upcoming content slate |date=15 October 2024 |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/bhuswargo-bhoyonkawr-to-puro-puri-eken-hoichoi-unveils-upcoming-content-slate/cid/2055641 |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref> The story revolves around a new bride Debi, whose husband is murdered the day after their wedding, plunging her into a maze of secrets and scandal within her new family.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Niyogi |first1=Agnivo |title=Kaalratri first-look teaser: Bride-to-be Soumitrisha anticipates a bad omen during wedding festivities |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/kaalratri-first-look-teaser-bride-to-be-soumitrisha-anticipates-a-bad-omen-during-wedding-festivities/cid/2064390 |access-date=16 July 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=19 November 2024}}</ref>

Subhadeep Guha has composed the music of the series. The editing was done by Sanglap Bhowmik whereas Ramyadip Saha handled the cinematography.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Shamayita |title=Soumitrisha Kundu to debut on OTT |work=[[HT Media|OTTplay]] |date=9 September 2024 |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/soumitrisha-kundu-to-debut-on-ott-and-here-is-what-we-know-exclusive/8a6808a2ae277 |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=বিয়ের দিনেই চরম অঘটন! কীভাবে সামলাবেন সৌমিতৃষা? |date=19 November 2024 |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/bn/!entertainment/soumitrisha-kundus-web-debut-on-hoichoi-first-look-reveals-from-murder-mystery-series-kaalratri-west-bengal-news-wbs24111902500 |access-date=16 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref> The series stars [[Soumitrisha Kundu]] in the lead role, marking her OTT debut.<ref>{{cite news |title=Soumitrisha makes her web debut with the Hoichoi series Kaalratri |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/soumitrisha-makes-her-web-debut-with-the-hoichoi-series-kaalratri/1136233 |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=17 September 2024}}</ref> [[Indrasish Roy]], [[Rupanjana Mitra]] and [[Rajdeep Gupta]] play other pivotal supporting roles.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kundu |first1=Kasturi |title=Kaalratri Trailer Launch : বেনারসী-মুকুটে নববধূর সাজ, কালরাত্রির ট্রেলার লঞ্চে সৌমিতৃষা যেন সাক্ষাৎ 'দেবী' |url=https://bengali.indianexpress.com/entertainment/television/soumitrisha-kundoo-dressed-up-as-bride-for-her-dubet-series-kaalratri-trailer-launch-7604697 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=16 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref> Two seasons of the sries are streaming on the Bengali OTT platform Hoichoi.<ref>{{cite news |title=ওয়েব সিরিজ়ে আত্মপ্রকাশ সৌমিতৃষার, 'কালরাত্রি'তে অভিনেত্রীর সঙ্গে আর কে কে রয়েছেন? |date=13 September 2024 |work=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/bengali-actress-soumitrisha-kundu-debuting-in-ott-platform-with-kaalratri-directed-by-ayan-chakraborti-dgtl/cid/1545306 |access-date=16 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
The series begins with the wedding of Debi to Rudra Roy Barman, a young man from a wealthy family. However, on her wedding day, Debi's mysterious friend Maya delivers a chilling prophecy: Rudra will die the very next day. True to Maya's prediction, Rudra is found murdered in the family mansion on the first night after their marriage, turning Debi's happiest day into a nightmare.

The tragedy sets in motion a chain of events that exposes the dark side of the Roy Barman family. [[Deputy superintendent of police|DSP]] Satyaki Sanyal takes charge of the murder investigation. As he delves deeper, a web of secrets, betrayals and scandals within the family begins to unravel, making every family member a suspect. Debi finds herself caught in a whirlwind of grief and suspicion, navigating a maze of deceit and danger as she tries to uncover the truth behind her husband's death.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |title=Hoichoi unveils intrigue-filled drama Kaalratri By Piya Roy |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/hoichoi-unveils-intrigue-filled-drama-C2-A0kaalratri/1234523 |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=30 November 2024}}</ref>

== Cast ==
Source:<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |title=Hoichoi unveils intrigue-filled drama Kaalratri |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/hoichoi-unveils-intrigue-filled-drama-C2-A0kaalratri/1234523 |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=30 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhattacharyya |first1=Torsha |title=এবার ওয়েব সিরিজে ডেবিউ সৌমিতৃষার, 'কালরাত্রি'-তে থাকছেন আর কে কে? |date=13 September 2024 |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/soumitrisha-kundoo-debut-in-web-series-rupanjana-indrasish-rajdeep-sairity-casted-in-kaal-ratri-1094889 |access-date=16 July 2025 |work=[[ABP Ananda]] |language=bn}}</ref>
* [[Soumitrisha Kundu]] as Debi
* [[Indrasish Roy]] as Rudra, Debi's husband and eldest son of the Roy Barman family
* Anujoy Chattopadhyay as [[Deputy superintendent of police|DSP]] Satyaki Sanyal
* Koushani Mukherjee Zanjeen as Debi's friend Maya
* [[Debesh Chattopadhyay]] as Debi's father-in-law Samaresh Roy Barman
* [[Rupanjana Mitra]] as Debi's mother-in-law Indrani Roy Barman
* Dipanwita Sarkar as Tani
* [[Rajdeep Gupta]] as Ajitesh, middle son of the Roy Barman family
* Sairity Banerjee as Rai, Ajitesh's wife
* Sounak Roy as Barun, youngest son of the Roy Barman family
* Sampurna Mondal
* Diya Chakraborty

== Production ==
=== Development ===
On 15 October 2024, Hoichoi announced "Kaalratri" along with nine other series, as a part of their slate of upcoming projects.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Popular Bengali OTT platform announces 10 new shows for its next season |date=15 October 2024 |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2024/Oct/15/popular-bengali-ott-platform-announces-10-new-shows-for-its-next-season |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rana |first1=Sayani |title=আবার 'ফেলুদা'! সঙ্গে 'ডাইনি' মিমি, নতুন 'একেনবাবু' সিরিজ! বাংলা ওয়েবে কী কী চমক |date=15 October 2024 |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-chiranjeet-pori-modi-anirban-bhattacharyya-tota-roy-chowdhury-swastika-mukherjee-new-web-series-hoichoi-31728978018552.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241101230321/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-chiranjeet-pori-modi-anirban-bhattacharyya-tota-roy-chowdhury-swastika-mukherjee-new-web-series-hoichoi-31728978018552.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 November 2024 |work= [[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=16 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref> In an interview, Kundu revealed that she was in search of a role, besides her regular television soap operas, which would have a intriguing content as well as it would be liked by her core audience.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Popular actress Soumitrisha talks about her web debut |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2024/Dec/13/popular-actress-soumitrisha-talks-about-her-web-debut |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=13 December 2024}}</ref> She felt "Kaalratri" was the kind of project that she wanted and hence, accepted it soon after being narrated for the first time.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kundu |first1=Moubani |title=I prefer being choosy: Soumitrisha |date=1 December 2024 |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/entertainment/i-prefer-being-choosy-soumitrisha-588914 |work=Millenium Post |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Actor Soumitrisha set to make web debut with murder mystery series 'Kaalratri' |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2024/Sep/13/actor-soumitrisha-set-to-make-web-debut-with-murder-mystery-series-kaalratri |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=13 September 2024}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
The filming started on 11 September 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=Soumitrisha Kundoo in Web Series: টেলিভিশন- বড় পর্দার পর এবার ওয়েব সিরিজে সৌমিতৃষা! রহস্যে মোড়া 'কালরাত্রি'-তে কী কী ঘটবে? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/ott/story/soumitrisha-kundoo-news-mithai-actress-debuts-in-web-series-hoichoi-bangla-murder-mystery-kaalratri-by-ayan-chakraborti-soumitrisha-kundu-news-soc-1091939-2024-09-13 |work=[[Aaj Tak]] |access-date=16 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='Mithai' fame Soumitrisha Kundu decked in bridal attire; 'Kaalratri' first look out |work=The Times of India |date=16 September 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/mithai-fame-soumitrisha-kundu-decked-in-bridal-attire-kaalratri-first-look-out/articleshow/113400348.cms |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref> Diya Chakraborty joined the cast on 24 September 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title='Karunamoyee Rani Rashmoni' fame Diya Chakraborty joins the cast of 'Kaalratri' |work=The Times of India |date=24 September 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/karunamoyee-rani-rashmoni-fame-diya-chakraborty-joins-the-cast-of-kaalratri/articleshow/113637073.cms |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref> The filming was wrapped up on 4 October 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title='Mithai' fame Soumitrisha Kundu wraps up shooting for 'Kaalratri' ahead of Durga Puja |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/mithai-fame-soumitrisha-kundu-wraps-up-shooting-for-kaalratri-ahead-of-durga-puja/articleshow/114041114.cms |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=8 October 2024}}</ref>

=== Marketing ===
==== Season 1 ====
The first look picture of Soumitrishna Kundu in a [[Bengali Hindu wedding#Image gallery |red saree adorned bride]] was released on 13 September 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Shamayita |title=Kaalratri: Check out the FIRST LOOK of Soumitrisha's debut web series |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/kaalratri-check-out-the-first-look-of-soumitrishas-debut-web-series/356510b2e874 |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[HT Media|OTTplay]] |date=13 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Soumitrisha to make her web debut with 'Kaalratri' |date=13 September 2024 |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/entertainment/soumitrisha-to-make-her-web-debut-with-kaalratri-579521 |work=Millenium Post |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref> The first look pictures of the other major characters played by Indrasish Ray, Rajdeep Gupta, Rupanjana Mitra, Sairity Banerjee and Anujoy Chattopadhyay were also released subsequently.<ref>{{cite news |title='An actor prepares'; Rupanjana Mitra's first look for 'Kaalratri' is out |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/an-actor-prepares-rupanjana-mitras-first-look-for-kaalratri-is-out/articleshow/113464808.cms |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=18 September 2024}}</ref>

The first look character video of Soumitrishna Kundu, introducing her character as Debi was released on 18 November 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Makers drop first-look of upcoming Bengali web series 'Kaalratri' |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2024/Nov/19/makers-drop-first-look-of-upcoming-bengali-web-series-kaalratri |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=19 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=First look of Soumitrisha Kundu's web debut Kaalratri unveiled |date=19 November 2024 |url=https://www.indiablooms.com/phoenix/public/showbiz/first-look-of-soumitrisha-kundus-web-debut-kaalratri-unveiled/details |work=India Blooms |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref> The trailer was released on 23 November 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Ruman |title=The trailer of Kaalratri is out |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/the-trailer-of-kaalratri-is-out/articleshow/115651279.cms |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=25 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hoichoi launches trailer of Soumitrisha's debut web series Kaalratri |url=https://www.indiablooms.com/showbiz/hoichoi-launches-trailer-of-soumitrishas-debut-web-series-kaalratri/details |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=India Blooms |date=24 November 2024}}</ref>

==== Season 2 ====
The second season was announced on 28 February 2025 at the "Golper Parbon 1432".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Shatakshi |title=Golper Parbon 1432: The Night Bengali Cinema Roared Into The Future |url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/digital/news-digital/golper-parbon-1432-the-night-bengali-cinema-roared-into-the-future/2025/03/01 |access-date=30 January 2026 |date=1 March 2025}}</ref> On 19 December 2025, the first poster was released which also revealed its streaming date.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarkar |first1=Arpita |title=Kaalratri Season 2 OTT release date: When and where to watch Soumitrisha Kundoo's Bengali crime-thriller series |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/kaalratri-2-ott-release-date-when-and-where-to-watch-soumitrisha-kundoos-bengali-crime-thriller-series/c3fd432e46566 |access-date=30 January 2026 |work=OTTplay |date=20 December 2025}}</ref> The trailer for the second season was released on 2 January 2026.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kaalratri 2 trailer unveiled |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/kaalratri-2-trailer-unveiled/articleshow/126319711.cms |access-date=30 January 2026 |work=Times of India |date=3 January 2026}}</ref>

== Release ==
The series was initially scheduled to release in November 2024. Owing to some post production works, it was delayed and streamed on 6 December 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=A fated marriage wrapped in thrill, murder, and mystery! Soumitrisha Kundu's 'Kaalratri' to premiere in November |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/a-fated-marriage-wrapped-in-thrill-murder-and-mystery-soumitrisha-kundus-kaalratri-to-premiere-in-november/articleshow/114545680.cms |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=24 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Anurupa |title=Soumitrisha Kundu: 'নিজেকে বাঁচানোর মত যে...', কোন প্রশিক্ষণ রপ্ত করতে পারেননি যে একথা বললেন সৌমিতৃষা? |date=11 December 2024 |url=https://bengali.indianexpress.com/entertainment/soumitrisha-kundu-on-kaalratri-series-into-pond-actress-shared-some-moments-8429473 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=16 July 2025 |language=bn}}</ref>

The second season was streamed on Hoichoi on 9 January 2026.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Dharitri |title=Here are the list of Bengali web shows to watch out for in the early months of 2026 |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2026/Jan/05/here-are-the-list-of-bengali-web-shows-to-watch-out-for-in-the-early-months-of-2026 |access-date=30 January 2026 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=5 January 2026}}</ref>

== Episodes ==
{{Series overview
| color1 = #000000
| link1 = Kaalratri (TV series)#Season 1 (2024)
| episodes1 = 6
| released1 = {{Start date|2024|12|06|df=yes}}
| color2 = #383554
| link2 = Kaalratri (TV series)#Season 2 (2026)
| episodes2 = 7
| released2 = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
}}

=== Season 1 ===
{{Episode table |background=#b30b0a |overall=5 |title=22 |director=20 |writer=20 |airdate=18 |episodes={{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Bodhuboron
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|12|06}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Khopar Kaanta
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|12|06}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Debir Bishorjon
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|12|06}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|Title = Satyasandhani
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|12|06}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|Title = Bhule Jaowa Otit
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|12|06}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|Title = Sabyasachi
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|12|06}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
}}

=== Season 2 ===
{{Episode table |background=#b30b0a |overall=5 |title=22 |director=20 |writer=20 |airdate=18 |episodes={{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Pashar Daan
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Trishuler Ulki
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Paanmoshlar Gondho
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|Title = Rawkter Daag
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|Title = Debi'r Swikarokti
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|Title = Abhisaap!
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 7
|Title = Ulot-Puran
|DirectedBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|WrittenBy = Ayan Chakraborti
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|09|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
}}

== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
==== Season 1 ====
Shamayita Chakraborty of ''[[HT Media|OTTplay]]'' rated the series 2.5/5 stars and wrote "The problem with the show is that it is formulaic. It follows the ‘tested’ pattern that many other Hoichoi shows have followed and does not really offer anything new. It is gripping, yet it takes us nowhere. It has a flow but no resolution. It ensures a second season but without any excitement attached to it."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Shamayita |title=Kaalratri review: Soumitrisha's OTT debut has Hoichoi written all over it |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/kaalratri-review-soumitrishas-ott-debut-has-hoichoi-written-all-over-it/d5792ffde8356 |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=[[HT Media|OTTplay]] |date=8 December 2024}}{{rating|2.5|5}}</ref>

Archi Sengupta of ''Leisure Byte'' rated the series 1.5/5 stars and wrote "Kaalratri tries too hard to get the point across and spells out every little thing in its story, resulting in the series being quite charmless and, frankly, vulgar. The mystery also loses its way because of the fluff that the series adds constantly to entertain its audience, resulting in a below-average watch for most viewers."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sengupta |first1=Archi |title=Kaalratri Review: Silly, Unimpressive |date=6 December 2024 |url=https://www.leisurebyte.com/kaalratri-review/ |access-date=16 July 2025}}{{rating|1.5|5}}</ref>

==== Season 2 ====
Archi Sengupta of ''Leisure Byte'' rated the series 1.5/5 stars and wrote "Dramatic, over-the-top and completely senseless, this season leans into Debi’s confusion regarding her past and leaves us in a confused loop until she remembers everything. Till then, we are left to watch the same dialogues being told over and over again as everyone sleeps with one another." She criticized Debi's wide eye expression in every other scene, unnecessary degrading dialogues which "exist for no reason", a large number of characters that doesn't contribute anything to the story, the scattered plotline, poor pacing, over-the-top acting, mentioning obvious things and the constant repeating of each other's dialogues.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sengupta |first1=Archi |title=Kaalratri Season 2 Ending Explained and Review: Who is the Real Killer? What is Debi’s Shocking Forgotten Past? |url=https://www.leisurebyte.com/kaalratri-season-2-ending-explained/ |access-date=30 January 2026 |work=Leisure Byte |date=9 January 2026}}{{rating|1.5|5}}</ref>

Parama Dasgupta of ''[[Aajkal]]'' reviewed the series and noted "To be honest, there are already many stories about elite ancestral households. Can't we think of a different kind of thriller plot this time?" She praised Soumitrisha's acting as Debi, Rupanjana's personality, Anujoy, Swarity and Koushani in their respective roles, the director and the screenplay but bemoaned the same formulaic dark characterisation of the actors in elite households.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Parama |title=চার দেওয়ালের আড়ালে সত্যির খোঁজ! সবুরে মেওয়া ফলাতে পারল কি ‘কালরাত্রি ২’? |url=https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/review-of-hoichoi-web-series-kaalratri-2-starring-187802 |access-date=30 January 2026 |work=[[Aajkal]] |date=15 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260130024658/https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/review-of-hoichoi-web-series-kaalratri-2-starring-187802#goog_rewarded |archive-date=30 January 2026 |language=bn}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt34678229}}
*[https://www.hoichoi.tv/shows/kaalratri Kaalratri] on Hoichoi
*[https://www.primevideo.com/detail/Kaalratri/0MV0P0Y5UL5VW266VZQA82S5C2 Kaalratri] on [[Amazon Prime Video]]

[[Category:Bengali-language web series]]
[[Category:Indian drama web series]]
[[Category:Indian crime television series]]
[[Category:Hoichoi original programming]]
[[Category:Crime web series]]
[[Category:Crime thriller web series]]
[[Category:2020s Indian television series]]

Purnaiah

2026-01-28T09:01:12Z

Loz12: Updated formatting and sections

{{Short description|Prime Minister of Mysore}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix = ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]] [[Mian (title)|Mian]]''
| relations =
| birth_date = {{birth date text|1746}}
| birth_place = [[Coimbatore]], [[Kingdom of Mysore]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|27 March 1812|1746|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Srirangapatna]], [[Kingdom of Mysore]]
| nationality =
| spouse =
| party =
| children =
| predecessor2 =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Administrator
| profession =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website =
| successor2 = [[Bargir Bakshi Balaji Rao]]
| monarch2 = [[Krishnaraja Wodeyar III]]
| name = Krishnacharya Purniya
| term_end1 = 4 May 1799
| honorific-suffix =
| image = Purniya,_Chief_Minister_of_Mysore.tif
| caption = A painting of Purniya, Dewan of Mysore, by [[Thomas Hickey (painter)|Thomas Hickey]]
| order =
| office1 = 1st [[Dewan of Mysore]]
| election =
| term_start1 = 10 December 1782
| vicepresident =
| president2 =
| monarch1 = [[Tipu Sultan]]
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| order2 =
| office2 =
| term_start2 = 30 June 1799
| term_end2 = 23 December 1811
| footnotes =
| branch = {{flagicon image|Flag of Kingdom of Mysore.svg
}} [[Kingdom of Mysore]]
| serviceyears = 1782–1811
| rank = [[Dewan of Mysore|Dewan]]
| unit = {{flagicon image|Flag of Kingdom of Mysore.svg
}} [[Mysorean rockets|Rocket Utility]]
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]]
* [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]]
** [[Battle of Seringapatam#Siege|Siege of Seringapatam]]
** [[Battle of Sultanpet Tope]]
{{tree list/end}}
}}

'''Krishnacharya''' '''Purnaiah''' (1746 – 27 March 1812), popularly known as '''Dewan''' '''Purnaiah''', was an Indian administrator, statesman, and military strategist who served as the first [[dewan of Mysore]] from 1782 to 1811. He was instrumental in the restoration of the rule of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] to the [[Wadiyar dynasty]]. After the death of [[Tipu Sultan|Tipu]], he continued to advice [[Lakshmi Ammani Devi|Lakshmi Devi]], the queen regent to the newly installed monarch [[Krishnaraja Wodeyar III]].

Purnaiah was known for his [[Account (bookkeeping)|accounting]] skills, prodigious memory, and proficiency in several languages. He was also a wartime [[military commander]] while serving under Tipu. After Tipu's defeat, he served as the dewan to Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. Wodeyar was educated and mentored by Purnaiah in the latter's early years .<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Dewan Purnaiah |url=https://gazetteer.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/Chapter%2002.pdf}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Krishnacharya Purniah was born in 1746.<ref>{{cite book|title=Western colonial policy: a study on its impact on Indian society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDY-AAAAMAAJ|page=257|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies|year=1981}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Karnataka, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day|author1=H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy|author2=R. Ramakrishnan|year=1977|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g09uAAAAMAAJ|page=311|quote=Purnaiah, a Marathi speaking Madhwa Brahmin, was appointed as Dewan Regent, while Lieutenant Colonel (afterwards Sir Barry) Close was appointed Resident at the Mysore court immediately after....|publisher= S Chand}}</ref> He was fluent in [[Kannada]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]],<ref>{{cite book |author1=H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g09uAAAAMAAJ |title=A History of Karnataka, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day |author2=R. Ramakrishnan |publisher=S. Chand |year=1977 |page=311 |quote=Since the prince was young, Purnaiah, a Marathi speaking Madhwa Brahmin, was appointed as Dewan Regent, while Lieutenant Colonel ( afterwards Sir Barry ) Close was appointed Resident at the Mysore court immediately after....}}</ref> [[Sanskrit]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]. He understood [[English language|English]] but could not read or write the language.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

At the age of eleven, Purnaiah lost his father and had to seek employment to support his family. He started writing accounts at a trader's shop. This grocer had close contact with a rich merchant, Annadana Shetty, who supplied large quantities of groceries to [[Hyder Ali]]'s palace and army.

== Dewan of Mysore ==
Purniah earned the confidence of Hyder Ali thanks to his aptitude in accounting and excellent handwriting. Endowed with prodigious memory, proficiency in multiple languages, and sheer hard work, Purniah became the head of the accounting department, and minister, and a confidant and close advisor of the ruler. Hyder Ali also granted Purnaiah a jagir in Maralahalli, Mysore. From then on, many of the ruler’s decisions, including political matters, were shaped by Purnaiah’s counsel.<ref name=":0"/>

=== Premiership under Tipu ===
[[File:Yellandur1.jpg|thumb|Residence built by Purniah in Yelandur, now a museum.|257x257px]]
When Hyder Ali died near [[Chittoor]] in 1782, his son Tipu was encamping in the [[Malabar coast]]. Purniah kept Ali's death a top secret and sent the word only to Tipu by the speediest way possible. Meanwhile, Ali's body was kept embalmed, and business went on as usual. Purniah thus played a key role in keeping the news of Ali's death confidential owing to adversaries who could have seized this advantage and tried to usurp power. Purniah thus paved the way for the succession of Tipu. He soon became a member of Tipu's inner cabinet, eventually being labelled ''Dewan'' for the first time.<ref name=":0" />

=== Premiership under the Wodeyars ===
[[File:Lord Harris Residence 01, Seringapatam.jpg|thumb|255x255px|Lord Harris Residence, later residence of Puraniah after retirement. [[Seringapatam]]]]
[[File:Lord Harris Residence 02, Seringapatam.jpg|thumb|251x251px|Inscription at the Lord Harris Residence, Seringapatam]]
After a [[Anglo-Mysore Wars|series of wars with the British East India Company]], Tipu was defeated in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War|fourth one]] and was killed in 1799. Soon, with lobbying efforts from Maharani [[Lakshmi Ammani Devi|Lakshmi Devi]], Purniah met with [[George Harris, 1st Baron Harris|George Harris]], the commander-in-chief of the [[Madras Army]], for the handing-over of the kingdom's government to the deposed [[Wadiyar dynasty|Wadiyars]]. A [[subsidiary alliance]] was struck, and the maharani became the Queen Regent of Mysore for the infant prince Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. Purniah became the regent's adviser and educated and trained the young prince. On 27 December 1807, in recognition of his services, the queen regent awarded Purnaiah the [[jagir|feudal estate]] of [[Yelandur]].<ref name="KA Govt"/>

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III attained the age of 16 in early 1810, reaching the recognised age of discretion. Consequently, the British Resident of Mysore [[Arthur Henry Cole|Arthur Cole]] invested the kingship in the prince in 1811. Purnaiah continued to advise the new maharaja for a brief period before retiring that year. The presiding Resident [[John Malcolm]] honoured him on his retirement by presenting him a horse, an elephant, and a rich killat. He was also honoured with handsome grants and a large pension for his services.<ref name="KA Govt"/>

== Military career ==
Purniah participated in every military campaign led by Tipu. In the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] of 1792, he commanded a rocket unit comprising 131 men.<ref>[http://www.nal.res.in/pdf/pdfrocket.pdf], Page 5 of Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D.</ref> During the [[Battle of Seringapatam]], Tipu had entrusted his eldest son and heir-apparent to Purniah's care. In the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]], Purniah commanded the forces of Mysore against [[East India Company]] in a few battles including the [[Battle of Sultanpet Tope]].

After Tipu's defeat at the hands of [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]], Purniah and Wellesley became closely associated when the latter was stationed in [[Mysore]]. Robert Frykenberg suggests that Wellesley learned how to maximise the utility of [[cavalry]] from Purniah.<ref>{{Citation |last=Frykenberg |first=Robert |date=2006 |title=American Historical Review |page=1155}}</ref>

== Administration ==
[[File:PurniahPostoffice7.jpg|thumb|The home of Purnaiah's descendants in Bangalore<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/date-with-history-the-107-year-old-home-in-bengaluru-that-is-a-tribute-to-mysores-first-dewan/articleshow/56499881.cms Heritage building]</ref>|328x328px]]After Tipu's death in 1799, he suppressed the revolting [[Palegar|local chieftain]]s who had become despots.

Under Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, Purnaiah started releasing cash allowances to [[matha]]s, [[temple]]s, and [[dargah]]s, which had stopped under the [[Company rule in India|Company rule]] after Tippu's death. He opened a judicial department to hear peoples' grievances. His public works have left a great legacy. About a nine-mile canal and several tanks were dug to supply drinking water to the city of Mysore. In honour of [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Richard Wellesley]], the [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General of Bengal]], a stone bridge was constructed across the river [[Kaveri]] connecting [[Srirangapatna|Srirangapattana]] with [[Kirangur]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20110809200913/http://www.hampi.in/srirangapatna-photos-10.shtml], Wellesley Bridge Pictures.</ref> His work to improve agriculture was also acknowledged.<ref name="EDK">{{cite book|author=K. Puttaswamaiah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj8eAAAAIAAJ|title=Economic Development of Karnatka|publisher=Oxford & IBH|year=1980|page=76}}</ref>

A large number of [[choultry|public shelters]] open to locals and travellers were erected in the name of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, which were known as "Dewan Purniah".

Revenue administration was streamlined: the kingdom had a volatile border with incessant skirmishes, a legacy of the previous regime. Methodical land surveys were conducted; borders were notified; and the posts of shekdars, amaldars, and [[tehsildar]]s (tax officers) were created, positions that are still in force throughout modern [[South Asia]].

== Family ==
[[File:25 cash, saradulah (Mythical lion).png|thumb|251x251px|The obverse depicts "Sardula," a mythological tiger, facing right with its right paw and tail raised, accompanied by Kannada inscriptions at the top.]]
Purnaiah's family were devout followers of the [[Uttaradi Math]]a and the [[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita philosophy]] of [[Madhvacharya]]. Religion and spirituality were very important to Purnaiah. He was a contemporary and disciple of [[Satyadharma Tirtha]] of the Uttaradi Matha.{{Sfn|Rajaram|2019|p=300}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=653}}

Purnaiah's great-great grandson was [[P. N. Krishnamurti|Sir P. N. Krishnamurti]], a lawyer and the 16th dewan of Mysore.

== Death ==
After his retirement in 1811, Purnaiah settled at his residence (formerly known as Lord Harris's House and the Doctor's Bungalow, located near [[Scott’s Bungalow, Seringapatam|Scott’s Bungalow]] and [[Garrison Cemetery, Seringapatam|Garrison Cemetery]]) in [[Srirangapatna]]. A tablet on the wall of this house records the connection of Harris and Puraniah to this house. A year later, he died in the residence on 27 March 1812.<ref name="KA Govt">{{Cite web|author=|url=https://gazetteer.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/Chapter%2004.pdf|title=Karnataka State Gazetteer|publisher=Karnataka Government|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923034037/https://gazetteer.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/Chapter%2004.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2023}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
[[File:25 cash, reverse image of the coin.png|thumb|251x251px|The reverse is notable for featuring inscriptions in both Kannada and Persian, as well as the coin's denomination in English using Roman numerals (XV Cash).]]
In 2013, a [[museum]] to map Purnaiah's achievements was opened at his former residence in [[Yelandur]] by the [[Karnataka State Department of Archaeology|Department of Archaeology, Museums and Heritage]].<ref name="TOI">{{cite news |last= |first= |date=23 October 2013|title=Museum in memory of Mysore Dewan Purnaiah|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/museum-in-memory-of-mysore-dewan-purnaiah/articleshow/24611548.cms|newspaper=Times of India|access-date=25 December 2024}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
=== Films and television ===

*In 1988, [[Vijay Kashyap]] portrayed Purnaiah in the television serial ''[[Bharat Ek Khoj]]''
*In 1990, [[Anant Mahadevan]] portrayed Purnaiah in the television series ''[[The Sword of Tipu Sultan]]''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{commons category|Purnaiah}}
*{{cite book|title=The Vanished Raj A Memoir of Princely India|last=Rajaram|first=N S|publisher=Prism Books Private Limited|year=2019|isbn=978-9388478113}}
* {{cite book|title = A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, Vol 1. 3rd Edition|first = B. N. Krishnamurti| last = Sharma| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (2008 Reprint) |isbn = 978-8120815759| year= 2000 }}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Diwans of Mysore]]
[[Category:1746 births]]
[[Category:1812 deaths]]
[[Category:Srirangapatna]]

2022 Mumbai building collapse

2026-01-22T16:20:23Z

Loz12: creating new info

{{Infobox event
|date = 27 June 2022
|location = [[Kurla]], [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
|type = building collapse
|reported deaths = 19
|reported injuries = several
}}
{{Short description|Disaster in India}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
On 27 June 2022, a building partially collapsed in Kurla, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. The four-storey, 50-year-old building, which had been in poor condition for years, collapsed at around 11:30pm. At least 19 people were killed and many others injured.<ref name="T">{{Cite news |date=2022-06-28 |title=Mumbai: Kurla building collapse death count rises to 19 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-kurla-building-collapse-claims-10-lives/articleshow/92519577.cms |access-date=2024-02-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Background ==
Structural collapses in India killed 8,756 people between 2018–2022, at the rate of about five people a day. The collapses of residential buildings account for most of the deaths. Delhi had the highest amount of structural collapse related deaths (133) from 2018−2022 out of the union territories, and Uttar Pradesh (1,696) and Maharashtra (1,491) had the most in that period out of the states.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Nivedita |date=29 June 2024 |title=Structural Collapses Killed 5 People a Day on Average in 2018-2022 |url=https://www.news18.com/india/structural-collapses-killed-5-people-a-day-on-average-in-2018-2022-numberspeak-8948363.html |access-date=30 January 2025 |website=News18}}</ref>

The housing structure was constructed in 1975 on collector land and originally housed over 40 people. It was first served a notice for repairs in 2013, and then in 2016 the [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation]] (BMC) disconnected the water and electricity to the structure and asked them to vacate. This request was refused by residents who hired a structural auditor to submit a report that the damage was repairable, and after the report it was removed from the 'dilapidated building' list and added to the 'under repairs' list.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pinto |first=Richa |last2=Ali |first2=S. Ahmed |date=29 June 2022 |title=Mumbai: 19 dead, 23 hurt as 47-year-old 4-storey Kurla building collapses |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-19-dead-23-hurt-as-47-year-old-4-storey-kurla-building-collapses/articleshow/92530489.cms |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Collapse ==
On the night of 27 June, the four-story building, which was one of the four wings of the [[Naiknagar|Naik Nager]] [[Housing cooperative|cooperative housing]] systems collapsed. All four parts of the building had been deemed dilapidated by the BMC. A resident acknowledged that all residents knew the building was dilapidated and had been previously asked by the chairmen of the BMC to vacate the premises by 30 June, causing many to be in the process of looking for new housing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-06-29 |title=Mumbai building collapse: Owners who rented out flats booked for culpable homicide not amounting to murder |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/mumbai-building-collapse-owners-booked-culpable-homicide-not-amounting-to-murder-7998616/ |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

== Legal ==
The owners of the building Rajni Rathod, Kishor Chavan, Balkrishna Rathod and others were arrested under charges of culpable homicide not amounting to murder and attempt to commit culpable homicide shortly after the collapse of the building. A contractor, named as Dilip Vishwas who housed labourers in the building was also arrested.<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
* [[2013 Mumbai building collapse]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Disasters in India in 2022}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mumbai building collapse, 2022}}
[[Category:2022 disasters in India]]
[[Category:2020s in Mumbai|2022 building collapse]]
[[Category:Building and structure collapses in 2022]]
[[Category:Building and structure collapses in India]]
[[Category:Disasters in Mumbai|2022 building collapse]]
[[Category:History of Mumbai (1947–present)|2022 building collapse]]
[[Category:June 2022 in India]]

{{disaster-stub}}
{{India-hist-stub}}

Sur Singh

2026-01-21T20:35:18Z

Loz12: cleanup details to improve readability and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Raja of Marwar from 1595 to 1619}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Sawai Raja Soor Singh
| title = [[Sawai (title)|Sawai]] [[Raja]] of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]]
| more =
| type =
| image = Portrait of Suraj Singh Rathor.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| succession = Raja of [[Marwar]]
| reign = 11 July 1595 – {{Nowrap|7 September 1619}}
| reign-type = Tenure
| coronation = 23 July 1595, Sringar Chowki, [[Mehrangarh Fort]], [[Jodhpur]], [[Marwar]]
| cor-type =
| predecessor = [[Udai Singh of Marwar|Raja Udai Singh Rathore]]
| successor = [[Gaj Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Gaj Singh Rathore]]
| succession1 =
| spouse =
| spouse-type =
| consort =
| spouses = {{ubl|
*Sisodiniji Manorath Deiji of [[Mewar]]
*Bhatiyaniji Sujan Deiji of [[Pugal]]
*Kachwahiji Saubhag Deiji of [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]]
*Ahadiji Jasoda Deiji of [[Dungarpur]]
*Chudasamanji Suhag Deiji of [[Junagadh]]
*Parmarji Chaturang Deiji of [[Malpura]]
*Jadejiji Laad Deiji of [[Jamnagar]]
*Sodhiji (Parmarji) Uchrang Deiji of [[Amarkot]]
*Devadiji Heera Deiji of [[Sirohi]]
*Solankiniji Navrang Deiji of [[Virpur]]
*Bhatiyaniji Parvati Deiji of [[Jaisalmer]]
*Parmarji Ganga Deiji of [[Malpura]]
*Kachwahiji Amar Deiji of [[Amarsar]]
*Kachwahiji Shringar Deiji of [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]]
}}
| issue = {{ubl|
*Jaswant Singh (died infant)
*Pratap Singh (died infant)
*[[Gaj Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Gaj Singh Rathore]]
*Sabal Singh
*Viram Dev (died young)
*Vijay Singh (died young)
*Manbhawat Deiji m.to [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Prince]] [[Parvez]]
*Kalyan Deiji (died young)
*Aas Deiji m.to [[Mirza]] [[Raja]] [[Bhau Singh]] of [[Amber]]
*Mrig Deiji m.to [[Mirza]] [[Raja]] [[Jai Singh I]] of [[Amber]]
*Indra Deiji (died young)
}}
| issue-link =
| issue-pipe =
| full name = Sawai Raja Soor Singh Rathore
| house = [[Rathore dynasty|House of Rathore]]
| father = [[Udai Singh of Marwar|Raja Udai Singh Rathore]]
| mother = Kachwahiji Rajawatji Manrang Deiji d.of Raja [[Askaran]] of [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]] later [[Gwalior]]
| birth_name = Suraj Mal
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1571|4|24|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Delhi]], [[Subah of Delhi]], [[Mughal Empire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1619|09|07|1571|04|24|df=y}}
| death_place = Mahaikat, [[Deccan]], [[Mughal Empire]]
| occupation = Mughal General, Commander
| signature =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
}}

'''Sawai Raja Soor Singh''' (Suraj Mal; 24 April 1571 – 7 September 1619) also known as '''Suraj Singh''' was the [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore Rajput]] ruler of the [[Marwar|Kingdom of Marwar]] from 11 July 1595 until his death in 1619. His uterine sister Manwati Deiji also known as [[Bilqis Makani]] was the chief consort of [[Jahangir|Mughal Emperor Jahangir]] and mother of his successor [[Shah Jahan|Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan]] making him along with [[Kishan Singh of Kishangarh|Kishan Singh]] founder of [[Kishangarh]] maternal uncles of Shah Jahan.

== Early life ==
Suraj Mal was the son of [[Udai Singh of Marwar|Raja Udai Singh]], the ruler of [[Marwar]]. His mother was Rajavat Kachwahi Manrang Deviji, the principal wife of his father,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhargava|first=Visheshwar Sarup|title=Marwar and the Mughal Emperors (1526–1748)|pages=58}}</ref> and the daughter of [[Askaran|Raja Askaran]] of [[Narwar]], who was also briefly Raja of [[Amer, India|Amber]] before being ousted in favour of his uncle, [[Bharmal]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sarkar|first=J. N.|title=A History of Jaipur|pages=33}}</ref>

He was the elder full brother of [[Mani Bai]], through whom he was the maternal uncle of [[Shah Jahan|Prince Khurram]]; and of [[Kishan Singh of Kishangarh|Kishan Singh]], the founder of the [[Kishangarh State|Kingdom of Kishangarh]].

== Reign ==
Sur Singh succeeded his father upon his death, and he was given tilak by Akbar on 23 July 1595. Akbar bestowed upon him 16 parganas and a mansab of 2000 Zat and Sawar.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhargava|first=Visheshwar Sarup|title=Marwar And The Mughal Emperors (1526-1748)|year=1966|pages=62–63}}</ref>

He was sent to look into the affairs of [[Gujarat]] in the absence of Prince [[Murad Mirza (son of Akbar)|Murad]] who had left for Deccan. In 1597, a revolt broke out in Gujarat, and he was appointed to take the expedition against Bahadur, son of Muzaffar Gujrati. However Bahadur fled away the field without facing the besieging army.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Bhargava|first=Visheshwar Sarup|title=Marwar And The Mughal Emperors (1526-1748)|year=1966|pages=63}}</ref> In 1599, he was sent to assist [[Daniyal Mirza]] in the conquest of the [[Deccan]] for Emperor [[Akbar]].<ref name=":1" /> In 1604 on the request of Daniyal Mirza, he was allowed to return to Jodhpur and was granted Jaitaran and western half of Merta pargana.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Bhagava|first=Visheshwar Sarup|title=Marwar And The Mughal Emperors (1526-1748)|year=1966|pages=65}}</ref> He received the hereditary title of Sawai Raja in recognition of his many services.

Under the reign of [[Jahangir]], in 1607 he was sent to put down the rebellion in Gujarat.<ref name=":2" /> On 1608, he attended the court of Jahangir and presented a poet who wrote verse in the Hindi language.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Jahangirnama; Volume I|pages=140}}</ref> Later that year, he was granted 3000 Zat and 2000 Sawar.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Jahangirnama Volume I|pages=153}}</ref> In 1613, he was granted the pargana of [[Phalodi]] and was deputed by the Emperor along with Prince [[Shah Jahan|Khurram]] to undertake the expedition of [[Mewar]]. The local knowledge by the Raja fully utilised by Khurram against the Rana of Mewar and various outpost were established on his suggestion.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhagava|first=Visheshwar Sarup|title=Marwar And The Mughal Emperors (1526-1748)|year=1966|pages=66}}</ref> In 1615, he was promoted to rank of 5000 Zat and 3300 Sawar and was posted to Deccan to subdue the various rebelling vassals. At his departure, a robe of honour along with a horse was bestowed upon him.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhargava|first=Visheshwar Sarup|title=Marwar and The Mughal Emperors (1526-1748)|year=1966|pages=67}}</ref>

== Death ==

He died on active service at Mahaikat, Deccan on 7 September 1619.

On his death, the Emperor Jahangir had remarked:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Jahangirnama, Volume II|pages=99}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=''Rāja Sūraj Singh, through the advantage of his being brought up by the late king (Akbar), and this suppliant at the throne of God, reached high rank and great dignities. His territory surpassed that of his father or grandfather.''|author=Jahangir, Mughal Emperor|title=}}

According to Khyats, at the time of his death, Sur Singh's sway extended over [[Jodhpur]], [[Siwana]], [[Jaitaran]], [[Jalore|Jalor]], [[Sasalmari|Satalmar]], [[Sojat]], [[Merta City|Merta]], [[Phalodi]], [[Sanchore|Sanchor]], [[Terwa Dahigawan|Terwada]], Merwada, villages of Gorwada, [[Ratlam]] and Bhatnagar in [[Malwa]], [[Chirgaon|Chorgaon]] in Deccan and [[Radhanpur]] in [[Gujarat]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bhargava|first=Visheshwar Sarup|title=Marwar And The Mughal Emperors (1526-1748)|year=1966|pages=68–69}}</ref>

He was succeeded by his son [[Gaj Singh of Marwar|Gaj Singh]].

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Sur Singh'''
|2= 2. [[Udai Singh of Marwar|Udai Singh]], Raja of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]]
|3=3. Manrang Devi
|4= 4. [[Maldev Rathore|Maldeo]], Rao of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]]
|5= 5. Swarup Devi
|6= 6. [[Askaran]], Raja of [[Narwar]]
|7=
|8= 8. [[Ganga Rathore of Marwar|Ganga]], Rao of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]]
|9= 9. Padma Bai of [[Sirohi]]<ref>Shyam Singh Ratnawat, Krishna Gopal Sharma, ''History and culture of Rajasthan: from earliest times upto 1956 A.D.'' (1999), p.162</ref>
|10= 10. Jaito Sajavat Of Khairawa<ref>''The Merto Rathors Of Merta, Rajasthan; Volume II'' (1966), p.29</ref>
|11=
|12= 12. [[Bhim Singh of Amber|Bhim Singh]], Raja of [[Amer, India|Amber]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |title=A History of Jaipur: C. 1503-1938 |publisher=Orient Longman Limited |year=1984 |page=28 |isbn=81-250-0333-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC&pg=PA28 }}</ref>
|13=
|14=
|15= }}

==See also==
*[[Rulers of Marwar]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sur Singh}}
[[Category:1571 births]]
[[Category:1619 deaths]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Marwar]]

Sumeet Samos

2025-12-16T00:53:14Z

Loz12: refine formatting and fixed typos for accuracy

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Sumeet Samos
| honorific_suffix =
| image =
| image_upright =
| image_size =
| landscape =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| alias = Turuk, Da-Lit boy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inuth.com/india/they-called-him-a-dalit-rapper-now-he-is-owning-the-tag-2/|title=They Called Him A 'Dalit Rapper', Now He Is Owning The Tag|website=www.inuth.com|date=15 August 2018 |access-date=2018-12-16}}</ref>
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1993|10|19}}
| birth_place = Tentulipadar, [[Koraput district]], [[Odisha]]
| origin =
| genre = [[Hip hop music]]
| occupation = [[Rapping|rapper]], student activist, columnist, photographer<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.catchnews.com/culture-news/a-space-where-there-was-none-delhi-bahujan-collective-hosts-art-festival-103136.html|title=A space where there was none: Delhi Bahujan collective hosts art festival|website=CatchNews.com|language=en|access-date=2018-12-16}}</ref>
| instrument =
| years_active = 2016––present
| label = Qweed Media
| website = {{URL|https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCBg0FZaCtFj1BLfD5rR8aPA/}}
}}

'''Sumeet Samos''' is an Indian anti-caste scholar and [[Rapping|rapper]] from [[Odisha]], India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/article/3021171/untouchable-caste-dalits-india-stand-their-rights-through|title='A world without sorrow': Dalit musicians in India fight bias|date=2019-08-05|website=South China Morning Post|language=en|access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref> He writes and sings in English, [[Hindi]] and [[Odia language|Odia]]. His first hip-hop single "Ladai Seekh Le" (Learn to Resist) was released in 2018.

Samos addresses [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|SC/ST]] students,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.edexlive.com/people/2018/aug/03/dalit-rapper-sumeet-samos-on-casteism-at-jnu-you-just-cant-escape-it--%E2%80%8B-3567.html|title=Dalit rapper Sumeet Samos on casteism at JNU: You just can't escape it|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=2018-08-12}}</ref> [[Forward caste|Savarna oppression]], [[B. R. Ambedkar|Ambedkar]]-[[Jyotirao Phule|Phule]] ideology,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://feminisminindia.com/2018/08/07/ladai-seekhle-sumeet-samos/|title=Ladai Seekh Le! Ambedkarite Sumeet Samos Is Transforming Indian Hip-Hop|date=7 August 2018|work=Feminism In India|access-date=2018-08-12|language=en-US}}</ref> [[manual scavenging]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/watch-powerful-rap-about-inhuman-practice-manual-scavenging-60798|title=Watch: This powerful rap about the inhuman practice of manual scavenging|date=22 April 2017|work=The News Minute|access-date=2018-08-12}}</ref> [[Caste system in India|caste discrimination]] and [[Caste-related violence in India|atrocities against Dalits]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/04/30/watch-jnu-students-dalit-rap-takes-on-casteism_a_22062014/|title=Watch: JNU Student's Dalit Rap Takes On Casteism|date=30 April 2017|work=HuffPost India|access-date=2018-08-12|language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Xalxo |first1=Jessica |title=Sumeet Samos Deconstructs the Politics of Caste in India on 'Jaati' - |url=https://rollingstoneindia.com/sumeet-samos-deconstructs-the-politics-of-caste-in-india-on-jaati/ |access-date=24 July 2020 |agency=Rolling Stone |date=22 July 2020}}</ref> in his songs.

==Life==
Sumeet Samos was born into a [[Dalit]] family of Tentulipadar village of [[Koraput district]], Odisha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://odishasuntimes.com/odisha-boys-journey-from-jeevan-jyoti-to-jnu/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005132256/https://odishasuntimes.com/odisha-boys-journey-from-jeevan-jyoti-to-jnu/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=5 October 2018|title=Odisha boy's journey from Jeevan Jyoti to JNU {{!}} OdishaSunTimes.com|last=Bureau|first=Odisha Sun Times|website=odishasuntimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-12}}</ref> He completed his schooling from [[Bhubaneswar]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/watch/a-defiant-rap/article24287823.ece|title=A defiant rap|work=@businessline|access-date=2018-08-12|language=en}}</ref> He has a Masters in Latin American Literature (Spanish) from [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]], where he joined the [[Birsa Ambedkar Phule Students' Association]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/a-dalit-rapper-uses-his-verses-as-a-weapon-to-take-on-an-unequal-society-118081100767_1.html|title=A dalit rapper uses his verses as a weapon to take on an unequal society|last=Banerjea|first=Aparna|date=11 August 2018|work=Business Standard India|access-date=2018-08-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/jnu-s-dalit-rapper-seeks-to-make-a-difference-1496074597.html |title=JNU's Dalit rapper seeks to make a difference |last=Ashraf |first=Asad |work=The Statesman |date=May 29, 2017 |access-date=January 12, 2021}}</ref> In 2021, he enrolled for the MSc Programme in Modern Asian Studies from the [[University of Oxford]]., and based on his experiences of caste in academics there he wrote an informative piece for Round Table India<ref>{{Cite web |last=Samos |first=Sumeet |date=October 5, 2022 |title=What an year at University of Oxford taught me about South Asians |url=https://www.roundtableindia.co.in/what-an-year-at-university-of-oxford-taught-me-about-south-asians/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=Round Table India: For An Informed Ambedkar Age}}</ref> He also published his memoirs, ''Affairs of Caste: A Young Diary'' in July 2022. The book is a Panther's Paw publication.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shailendra |first=Soumya |title=Anti-caste rapper Sumeet Samos's memoir explores an alternate politics of solidarity |url=https://scroll.in/article/1028378/anti-caste-rapper-sumeet-samoss-memoir-explores-an-alternate-politics-of-solidarity |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Scroll.in |date=17 July 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Samos started rapping in 2016 and his inspiration is the rapper [[Tupac Shakur]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.odishabytes.com/odisha-rappers-take-caste-discrimination/|title=Watch: Odisha Rapper's Take On Caste Discrimination - ODISHA BYTES|last=Mishra|first=Sweta|date=31 July 2018|work=ODISHA BYTES|access-date=2018-08-12|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Tracks==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Track
!Artist
!Director
|-
|2018
|Ladai Seekh Le<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/hip-hop-album-takes-caste-685900.html|title=A hip-hop album takes on caste discrimination|date=2018-08-06|website=Deccan Herald|language=en|access-date=2018-12-16}}</ref>
|Sumeet Samos
|Sanjay Singh Karki
|-
|2018
| Desia Pila<ref>{{Citation|last=sumit samos|title=Desia Pila II Sumeet Samos|date=16 November 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdyr9ibvp6E|access-date=2018-12-16}}</ref>
| Sumeet Samos
| Debojit Bora and Hans Abhishek
|-
|2018
| All You know is Five words<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.focusmagazine.in/rapper-sumeet-samos-raps-against-caste-oppression-in-india/|title=Rapper Sumeet Samos Raps Against Caste Oppression In India|date=2019-01-16|website=FOCUS magazine|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-07}}</ref>
| Sumeet Samos
| Sumeet Samos
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCBg0FZaCtFj1BLfD5rR8aPA/videos/}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Samos, Sumeet}}
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Singers from Odisha]]
[[Category:Musicians from Odisha]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:Dalit activists]]
[[Category:Dalit writers]]

Ernest Muir (doctor)

2025-12-13T00:18:20Z

Loz12: done - done

{{Short description|Scottish medical missionary (1880–1974)}}
{{Use Scottish English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}

'''Ernest Muir''' {{smaller| [[F.R.C.S.|FRCS]], [[C.I.E.|CIE]], [[Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]]}} (17 June 1880 – 1 November 1974) was a Scottish [[medical missionary]] and educator in [[Raj India|British-controlled India]] and [[Colonial Nigeria|Nigeria]] most noted for his work with [[Hansen's disease]] (leprosy).

==Life==
Ernest Muir was born in [[Banffshire]], Scotland on 17 June 1880.{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}} He studied at [[Watson's College]] and the [[University of Edinburgh Medical School|University Medical School]] in [[Edinburgh]].{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}} In 1903, he began work as a [[medical missionary]] for the [[Edinburgh Medical Missionary Association]] in [[Tiberias]]. Tiberias was then part of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Acre Sanjak]],{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}} and later part of [[Israel]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Tiberias summary |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Tiberias |website=Britannica |access-date=27 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Muir returned to Scotland to complete the clinical aspects of his [[medical doctorate]] and then left for [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] in [[Raj India|British-controlled India]] in 1908, where he worked on [[tropical disease]]s, completing his degree with a thesis on [[visceral leishmaniasis]] ("kala-azar") in 1910.{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}} He completed the requirements for joining the [[Fellowship of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons]] while on leave in Scotland in 1914.{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}}

[[File:Leper, M.P., India, 1960 (16356142654).jpg | thumb | right | Man with Hansen's disease (leprosy), India]]
In 1920, [[Leonard Rogers]] invited him to come to [[Calcutta]] (now Kolkata) to study [[Hansen's disease]] at its [[Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine|School of Tropical Medicine]],{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}} beginning with an annual [[Grant (money)|grant]] of [[rupee|Rs]]{{nbsp}}20,000.{{sfnp|SMHF|2022}} Muir advocated for the use of the traditional<ref name="Norton">{{cite journal |last1=Norton |first1=Scott A. |title=Useful plants of dermatology. I. Hydnocarpus and chaulmoogra |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology |date=October 1994 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=683–686 |doi=10.1016/s0190-9622(08)81744-6 |pmid=8089304 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-S0190962208817446/first-page-pdf |access-date=27 June 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Ayurvedic]] treatment{{sfnp|Parascandola|2003|p=48}} of hydnocarpus oil from the [[chaulmoogra tree]]{{sfnp|Macpherson|2021}}<ref name="Discussion"/> and [[counterirritant]]s{{sfnp|Time|1936}} to treat Hansen's disease.<ref name="Discussion">{{cite journal |title=Discussion on the Treatment of Leprosy |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine |date=April 1927 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=987–1025|quote=With regard to the special drugs used, we have found, after much testing of various vaccines and other remedies which have been recommended, that chaulmoogra and hydnocarpus oils and their derivatives stand in the first place. (Muir, p. 998) |doi=10.1177/003591572702000662 |pmid=19985796 |pmc=2100877 |s2cid=37879698 |language=en |issn=0035-9157|doi-access=free }}</ref> He wrote numerous papers and books on its prevalence, study, and treatment.{{sfnp|SMHF|2022}} He worked closely with [[Isabel Kerr]],<ref name="Anderson">{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Gerald H. |title=Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions |date=1999 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-4680-8 |page=359 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ8BFk9K0ToC&pg=PA359 |access-date=27 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref> who set up "the outstanding centre in South India for the treatment of leprosy" at [[Dichpalle|Dichpali]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Obituary |journal=The British Medical Journal |date=31 December 1932 |volume=2 |issue=3756 |pages=1217–1218 |pmid=20777274 |pmc=2522178 }}</ref> He trained colonial doctors including [[Robert Greenhill Cochrane]], who went to India in 1924.{{sfnp|Greenwood|2008|p=196}}

Muir was closely involved with the [[British Empire Leprosy Relief Association]] (now [[LEPRA]]) after its founding in 1924, serving as its [[secretary (title)|secretary]].{{sfnp|SMHF|2022}}
He began travelling to speak on Hansen's disease in 1925, visiting [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|Mainland China]], [[Imperial Japan|Japan]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]].{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}}

Muir served as professor of tropical diseases at the [[Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine]] (CSTM) from 1933{{ndash}}1935.{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=458}}
Muir finally left India in 1936{{sfnp|Randall|2018|p=48}} and the same year was sponsored by the [[Leonard Wood Memorial]] to tour the [[United States]], speaking before the [[American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene|American Society of Tropical Medicine]] in [[Baltimore]] and visiting the [[Carville Leprosarium]] in [[Louisiana]] and the leprology researchers at [[George Washington University|George Washington]], [[Harvard University|Harvard]], [[University of Rochester|Rochester]], [[Vanderbilt University|Vanderbilt]], and [[Western Reserve University|Western Reserve]] universities.{{sfnp|Time|1936}} In 1938, he served as secretary at the congress of the International Leprosy Association in [[Cairo]].{{sfnp|Randall|2018|p=48}}

In 1939,{{sfnp|SMHF|2022}} he worked at the Uzuakoli [[Methodist College Uzuakoli|college]] and [[leper colony]] in [[Colonial Nigeria|Nigeria]] in what is today [[Abia State]]. He also served for a time as superintendent of the [[Chacachacare Leprosarium]] on [[British Trinidad|Trinidad]] in the [[Caribbean Islands|Caribbean]].{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=458}}
In 1948 Muir served as secretary of the ILA congress in [[Havana]].{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=458}}

Muir died on 1 November 1974{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=457}} at his home in London.

==Awards and honors==
Muir received an honorary [[legum doctor|LL.D.]] from [[University of Hong Kong|Hong Kong University]]{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=458}} in 1925.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ernest MUIR – Biography – The Honorary Graduates – HKU Honorary Graduates |url=https://www4.hku.hk/hongrads/graduates/ernest-muir |website=Hong Kong University |access-date=26 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Muir received a [[Kaisar-i-Hind Medal|Kaisar-i-Hind medal]]{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=458}} for Public Service in India as of 3 June 1921<ref>{{cite news |title=CENTRAL CHANCERY OF THE ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD |page=4535 |url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/32346/supplement/4535/data.pdf |access-date=26 June 2022 |work=SUPPLEMENT TO THE LONDON GAZETTE |date=4 June 1921}}</ref> and a bar to the medal at the [[1932 Birthday Honours|1932 Birthday Honors]].<ref>{{cite journal |journal=BMJ |date=11 June 1932 |volume=1 |issue=3727 |pages=1097–1098 |doi=10.1136/bmj.1.3727.1097 |url=https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.3727.1097 |access-date=26 June 2022 |language=en |issn=0959-8138|title=London and Counties Medical Protection Society |pmid=20776899 |pmc=2520532 |s2cid=219998895 }}</ref>

He was named a [[Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire|companion]] of the [[Order of the Indian Empire]] at the [[1937 Coronation Honours|1937 Coronation Honors]].<ref>{{cite news |title=CENTRAL CHANCERY OF THE ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD|pages=3082–3083 |url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/34396/supplement/3083/data.pdf |access-date=26 June 2022 |work=SUPPLEMENT to THE LONDON GAZETTE |date=11 May 1937}}</ref>

Muir was named a [[Companion of the Order of St Michael & St George|companion]] of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]] at the [[1948 New Year Honours|1948 New Year Honors]].{{sfnp|Browne|1974|p=458}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Medical New Year Honours |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/1/4540/66 |access-date=26 June 2022 |work=British Medical Journal |date=10 January 1948 |volume=1 |issue=4540 |pages=65–66 |language=en |doi=10.1136/bmj.1.4540.66}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Isabel Kerr]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist|3}}

===Bibliography===
* {{citation |last= |first= |contribution=Dr Ernest Muir |contribution-url=https://leprosyhistory.org/database/person6 |title=History of Leprosy: Database |publisher=Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation |location=Tokyo |date=2022 |ref=CITEREFSMHF2022 }}.
* {{citation |last= |first= |contribution-url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,757159,00.html |contribution=Medicine: Muir on Leprosy |date=14 December 1936 |title=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |location=New York City |publisher=Time Inc. |ref=CITEREFTime1936 }}.
* {{citation |last=Browne |first=Stanley George |url=http://ila.ilsl.br/pdfs/v42n4a14.pdf |title=Ernest Muir, C.M.G., C.I.E., M.D. (Edin.), F.R.C.S., LL.D. 1880{{ndash}}1974 |date=1974 |pages=457–458 |work=International Journal of Leprosy |publisher=International Leprosy Association |location=[[Bauru]] |volume=42 |issue=4 |pmid=4617724 }}.
* {{citation |last=Browne |first=Stanley George |title=E. Muir |journal=British Medical Journal |date=16 November 1974 |page=413 |volume=4 |issue=5941 |pmid=4609559 |location=London |publisher=British Medical Association |pmc=1612434 |ref={{harvp|NAN}} }}.
* {{citation |last=Greenwood |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YxdREAAAQBAJ |title=Antimicrobial Drugs |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-156007-1 }}.
* {{citation |last=Macpherson |first=Hamish |contribution-url=https://www.thenational.scot/news/19000081.scots-doctor-pioneered-treatment-leprosy-india/ |contribution=Dr Isabel Kerr |date=11 January 2021 |title=The National |location=High Wycombe |publisher=Newsquest Media Group }}.
* {{citation |last=Parascandola |first=John |title=Chaulmoogra Oil and the Treatment of Leprosy |journal=Pharmacy in History |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=[[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] |url=https://lhncbc.nlm.nih.gov/LHC-publications/PDF/pub2003048.pdf |volume=45 |issue=2 |date=2003 |pages=47–57 |pmid=12894769 }}.
* {{citation |last=Randall |first=Ian M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBhSDwAAQBAJ |title=A Christian Peace Experiment: The Bruderhof Community in Britain, 1933{{ndash}}1942 |location=[[Eugene, Oregon|Eugene]] |publisher=Cascade Books |date=2018 |isbn=9781532639982 }}.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muir, Ernest}}
[[Category:1880 births]]
[[Category:1974 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Banffshire]]
[[Category:Scottish missionaries]]
[[Category:British leprologists]]
[[Category:Scottish educators]]
[[Category:20th-century Scottish medical doctors]]
[[Category:British medical missionaries]]

Central Asians in ancient Indian literature

2025-11-14T16:26:13Z

Loz12: started initial details from scratch

Central Asia and Ancient India have long traditions of social-cultural, religious, political and economic contact since remote [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]].<ref>Alberuni's India, 2001, p 19-21, Edward C. Sachau – History; Dates of the Buddha, 1987, p 126, Shriram Sathe; Foundations of Indian Culture, 1984, p 20 sqq, Dr Govind Chandra Pande – History; India & Russia: Linguistic & Cultural Affinity, 1982, Weer Rajendra Rishi; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, Dr Moti Chandra – India; Linguistic & Cultural Affinity, 1982, Weer Rajendra Rishi; Racial Affinities of Early North Indian Tribes 1973, Myths of the Dog-Man, 1991, David Gordon White – Social Science; Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya – Ethnic Groups.</ref> The two regions have common and contiguous borders, climatic continuity, similar geographical features and geo-cultural affinity. For millennia, there has been a flow of people, material and ideas between the two.

[[File:Central Asia Physical.jpg|thumb|[[Physical map]] of Central Asia from the Caspian Sea to the west, to Inner Mongolia in the east.|249x249px]]

== Migrations ==
[[File:Map of the Kushan Empire.png|thumb|248x248px|The 2nd century [[Kushan Empire]].]]
In classical Indian tradition clans of the [[Shakas]], [[Yona|Yavanas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Pahlavas]], Paradas and others are also attested to have been coming as invaders and that they were all finally absorbed into the community of [[Kshatriya]]s.<ref>History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, pp 286-87, 313-14.</ref>

Chinese author [[Ma Duanlin|Ma-twan-lin]] writes that, "The nomenclature of the early Sakas in India shows an admixture of Scythian, Parthian and Iranian elements. In India the Scythians soon adapted themselves to their new environs and began to adopt Indian names and religious beliefs."<ref>Social and Cultural History of Ancient India, Manilal Bose, p.26</ref>

== Central Asian people in ancient Indian literature ==

=== ''Atharvaveda'' ===
''[[Atharvaveda]]'' refers to [[Gandhara|Gandhari]], Mujavat and [[Bahlikas|Bahlika]] from north-west (Central Asia). Gandharis were from [[Gandhara]], the Bahlikas are [[Bactria]]ns, ''Mujavat'' (land of Soma) refer to Hindukush–[[Pamirs]] (the Kamboja region) and possibly the [[Muztagh Ata]] mountain.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Witzel|first1=Michael|title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism|date=2012|publisher=Brill|chapter=Vedic Gods (Indra, Agni, Rudra, Varuṇa, etc.)}}</ref>

The post-Vedic ''Atharvaveda-Parisista'' (Ed Bolling & Negelein) makes first direct reference to the Kambojas (verse 57.2.5). It also juxtaposes the Kambojas, [[Bactria|Bahlikas]] and [[Gandhara]]s.<ref>AV-Par, 57.2.5; cf Persica-9, 1980, p 106, Dr Michael Witzel.</ref>

=== Sama Veda ===
The ''[[Vamsa Brahmana]]'' of the [[Sama Veda]] refers to ''Madrakara Shaungayani'' as the teacher of [[Aupamanyava Kamboja]]. Sage Shangayani Madrakara, as his name itself shows, and as the scholars have rightly pointed out, belonged to the [[Madra]] people.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Professor [[Jean Przyluski]] has shown that Bahlika (Balkh) was an Iranian settlement of the Madras who were known as ''Bahlika-Uttaramadras'' i.e. the northern Madras, living in Bahlika or [[Bactria]] country. These ''Bahlika Uttara Madras'' are the [[Uttara Madras]] of the [[Aitareya Brahamana]].{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

This connection between the Uttara Madras and the Kambojas is said to be natural because they were close neighbours in the north-west.<ref>Vedic Index, 138</ref>

=== ''Manusmriti'' ===
''[[Manusmriti]]'' asserts that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Paradas, Pahlavas, etc., had been Kshatriyas of good birth but were gradually degraded to the barbaric status due to their not following the [[Brahmana]]s and the [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] code of conduct.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

The Silk road route through which erstwhile Hindu Vedic societies became partially Buddhists as well as the Hindu names and history of these kingdoms lend credence to this idea. Furthermore, almost invariably, the royal clans of Central Asia and Northwestern India claimed descent from historical Hindu royalties and royal lines such as [[Suryavansha|Suryavanshi]] and [[Chandravanshi]]. Many of these kings and nobilities often claimed direct descent from Lord Rama and Pandavas to strengthen their claim to throne.<ref>Cultural Heritage of India, I, p 612.</ref>

=== Puranas ===
The Haihaya Yadavas are the first known invaders in the recorded history of the sub-continent. Described in the [[Puranas]] as allying with four other groups, the invaders were eventually defeated and assimilated into the local [[community]] under different castes from Kshatriyas to [[Shudra]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/07/07/stories/2002070700310400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030609235857/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/07/07/stories/2002070700310400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-06-09|website=[[The Hindu]]|date=2002-07-07|title=Harappa and Vedic Civilisation}}</ref> [[Alberuni]] refers to this description, saying that the "five hordes" belonged to his own people, i.e. Central Asia.<ref>Alberuni's India, Trans. [[Sachau]], p 20-21.</ref>

The Puranic ''Bhuvanakosha'' attests that [[Bahlikas|Bahlika]] or [[Bactria]] was the northernmost Puranic [[Janapadas|Janapada]] of ancient India and was located in Udichya or Uttarapatha division of Indian sub-continent.<ref>[[Kirfel]]'s list of the Uttarapatha countries of Bhuvanakosa.</ref> The Uttarapatha or northern division of Jambudvipa comprised an area of Central Asia from the [[Ural Mountains|Urals]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Yenisei]] and from [[Turkestan|Turkistan]] and [[Tien Shan]] ranges to the [[Arctic]] (Dr S. M. Ali).{{full citation needed|date=October 2016}}

=== Kavyamimamsa of Rajashekhara ===
The 10th century CE ''Kavyamimamsa'' of Pandit [[Rajashekhara (Sanskrit poet)|Rajashekhara]] knew about the existence of several Central Asian tribes. He furnishes an exhaustive list of the extant tribes of his times and places the Shakas, Tusharas, Vokanas, [[Hunas]], Kambojas, [[Bahlikas|Vahlika]], [[Pahlavas|Vahlava]], Tangana, Limpaka, [[Turkic peoples|Turushka]] and others together, styling them all as the tribes from [[Uttarapatha]] or north division.<ref>Kavyamimamsa Ed. Gaekwad's Oriental Series, I (1916) Chapter 17; Introd., xxvi. Rajashekhara is dated c 880 AD – 920 AD.</ref>
[[File:Uma-Maheshvara, Shiva with spouse Uma riding the bull Nandi, Penjikent Temple II, 690-722 CE, Tajikistan National Museum of Antiquities (60).jpg|thumb|''[[Uma–Maheshvara|Uma-Maheshvara]]'': [[ithyphallic]] [[Shiva]] with spouse [[Uma (goddess)|Uma]] riding the bull [[Nandi (mythology)|Nandi]], Penjikent Temple II, 690-722 CE, [[National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan]] |center|264x264px]]
== See also ==
* [[Buddhism in Central Asia]]
* [[Indo-Scythians]]
* [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]]
* [[Uttarakuru]]
* [[Kuru kingdom]]

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Books and periodicals ==
* ''Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country'', 1981, Dr Kamboj
* ''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury
* ''India and Central Asia'', 1955, Dr P. C., Bagchi.

{{Ancient India and Central Asia}}

[[Category:Human migration]]
[[Category:Ancient Central Asia|India]]
[[Category:Historiography of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Historiography of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of ancient India]]

Indira Devi (politician)

2025-10-29T17:15:32Z

Loz12: enhanced section as per guidelines and corrected details

#REDIRECT [[Indira Devi Bawari]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Jugal Kishore Birla

2025-10-23T06:39:47Z

Loz12: cleanup content per standard format

{{Short description|Indian industrialist (1883–1967)}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
'''Jugal Kishore Birla''' (23 May 1883– 24 June 1967) was a scion of the [[Birla family]] and the eldest son of [[Baldeo Das Birla]]. He was a noted industrialist, philanthropist and vocal supporter of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=a>{{cite book |author1=Margaret Herdeck |author2=Gita Piramal |date=1985 |title=India's Industrialists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcbBEHHI-90C&pg=PA62 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |page=62 |isbn=978-0-89410-415-2}}</ref>

==Life==
He started his business career at an early age, joining his father in [[Calcutta]] and soon came to be known as reputed trader and speculator in [[Opium trade|opium]], silver, spice and other trades from which the Birlas later diversified into trading of jute and other items like cotton during and after the First World War, by which time his younger brother [[Ghanshyam Das Birla]] had also joined the business. The family firm, which was until 1918 run as Baldeodas Jugalkishore, was made into a limited company known as [[Birla Brothers Limited]].<ref name=a/><ref name=gd>{{cite web |url=http://www.slideshare.net/agrawalpeeyush19/g-d-birla |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102183834/http://www.slideshare.net/agrawalpeeyush19/g-d-birla |archive-date= 2 November 2011 |url-status=dead |title=G d birla |website=SlideShare |accessdate=14 August 2015 }}</ref>

At one point, Ghanshyam Das Birla suffered heavy losses and decided to sell the mill to the [[Andrew Yule and Company Ltd.|Andrew Yule group]]. Jugal Kishore stood by him and told him not to worry about money but to run the mill as efficiently as he could, which led to a revival of [[Birla Corporation|Birla Jute]],<ref name=gd/> now the flagship company of [[M.P Birla Group]].

Although Birla started his business life in Calcutta, he later moved to [[Delhi]] and lived in [[Birla House]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://prabhupadaletters.com/?g=163828 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130131231508/http://prabhupadaletters.com/?g=163828 |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 January 2013 |title=Srila Prabhupada's Original pre-1978 Books Online |publisher=Prabhupada Books |accessdate=19 September 2014 }}</ref> until his death. [[Lakshmi Niwas Birla]], the eldest son of G D Birla, was adopted by him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kudaisya |first=Medha M. |title=The Life and Times of G.D. Birla |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564572-9 |pages=xvi,194,414 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTNuAAAAMAAJ&q=Lakshmi+Niwas+Birla |access-date=11 September 2022 |via=Google Bookss}}</ref>

==Philanthropist==
Having no children, Birla devoted much time and money to charity, building numerous temples, the Kolkata Medical College, Marwadi Balika Vidyalaya in Kolkata for girls and numerous other such institutions. A devout Hindu, he was also the moving force behind the building of many of the early [[Birla Mandir]]s across India, including the first in Delhi, and those in Kolkata and Bhopal. Supporting ''gaushalas'' (cow shelters) and ''pinjrapols'' (animal and bird feeding mangers) was another cause dear to his heart. He also donated money to various Hindu causes and organisations, including [[Hindu Mahasabha]] and [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vhp.org/organization/org-second-meeting-of-the-parishad |title=Second Meeting of the Parishad |publisher=Vishva Hindu Parishad |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=11 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011230633/http://vhp.org/organization/org-second-meeting-of-the-parishad |url-status=dead }} - {{cite book |author=Joya Chatterji |date=2002 |title=Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDNAQcoVqoMC&pg=PA236 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=236 |isbn=978-0-521-52328-8 |via=Google Books }} - {{cite book |author=M. G. Chitkara |date=2004 |title=Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh: National Upsurge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifuxzl9NM5sC&pg=PA257 |publisher=APH Publishing |page=257 |isbn=978-81-7648-465-7 |via=Google Books }} - {{cite book |author=Dhananjay Keer |date=1995 |title=Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-2d6jzRmBQC&pg=PA277 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |page=277 |isbn=978-81-7154-237-6 |via=Google Books }}</ref> at the same time supporting the finances of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], the [[Indian National Congress]] and India's freedom movement,<ref>{{cite book |author=Joseph S. Alter |date=1992 |title=The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMu1xKEWBt4C&pg=PA88 |publisher=University of California Press |page=88 |isbn=978-0-520-91217-5 |via=Google Books}}</ref> which were looked after together by Ghanshaymdas Birla and others.<ref name=x>{{cite book |author=Anand Mohun Sinha |date=2011 |title=Unspoken History of India of Six-Thousand Years |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cip-3w1SGWAC&pg=PA208 |publisher=AuthorHouse |page=208 |isbn=978-1-4520-9769-5 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=K. Satchidananda Murty |author2=Ashok Vohra |date=1990 |title=Radhakrishnan: His Life and Ideas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imPXMrFj_-wC&pg=PA100 |publisher=SUNY Press |page=100 |isbn=978-0-7914-0344-0}}</ref>

In 1920, with his brother Ghanshaym Das, he donated funds to start a girls' school under their private trust called Marwari Balika Vidyalaya, which has now grown into the noted [[Shri Shikshayatan School]] and [[Shri Shikshayatan College]].<ref name=sy>{{cite web |url=http://www.shrishikshayatanschool.com/aboutus-60_About%20School.htm |title=About School |publisher=Shri Shikshayatan School |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=30 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140930203035/http://www.shrishikshayatanschool.com/aboutus-60_About%20School.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

He was a devoted follower of Gandhi and took a personal interest as well as donating funds for relief and charity works.<ref>{{cite book |author=Debi P. Mishra |date=1998 |title=People's Revolt in Orissa: A Study of Talcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8GXSR0SiF8C&pg=PA138 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |page=138 |isbn=978-81-7156-739-3 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

He spent much of his personal wealth in building Hindu temples known as [[Birla Temple]]s and ''[[Dharamshala (type of building)|dharamshala]]s'' across the major metropolitan towns of India and the promotion of schools, universities and hospitals,<ref name=x/><ref name=t>{{cite web |url=http://www.radhekrishn.com/mathura-temple/birla-gita.php |title=Birla Temple Mathura also known as Gita Temple was founded by Jugal Kishore Birla in 1946 |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327011902/http://www.radhekrishn.com/mathura-temple/birla-gita.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=vk>{{cite web |url=http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/The-Story-of-the-Vivekananda-Rock-Memorial-5.aspx |title=The Story of the Vivekananda Rock Memorial |accessdate=19 September 2014}}</ref> and adopting many villages in times of famine and natural disasters.<ref>{{cite book |title=History of Sirsa Town |year=1991 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0Z457ZOR44C&pg=PA138 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distri |page=138 |via=Google Books }} - {{cite web |url=http://www.kurukshetra.nic.in/tour/Religious/tirath/Kurukshetra/birlamandir/index.htm |title=Birla Temple at Kurukshetra established in 1952 by Jugal Kishore Birla |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=24 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524100232/http://www.kurukshetra.nic.in/tour/Religious/tirath/Kurukshetra/birlamandir/index.htm |url-status=dead }} - {{cite web |url=http://maharajji.com/Delhi-Yamuna/north-delhi-hanuman-temple.html |title=North Delhi Hanuman Temple founded by Jugal Kishore Birla in 1965 |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=20 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820054442/http://maharajji.com/Delhi-Yamuna/north-delhi-hanuman-temple.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=mr>{{cite book |author=S. B. Bhattacherje |date=2009 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&pg=SL1-PA178 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |page=A178 |isbn=978-81-207-4074-7 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

In his old age, he took the leading role to fulfill the unfinished dream of [[Madan Mohan Malaviya]] of building [[Kesava Deo Temple|Krishna Janmabhoomi Kesava Deo Temple]]. He donated a major sum and formed a private trust in 1951 to which the rights of land were later transferred, and temple works were inaugurated in 1965, for which he is remembered by Hindus.<ref name=kj>{{cite web |title=Shri Krishna Janmasthan |url=http://shrikrishnajanmasthan.net/history.html |publisher=Shri Krishna Janmasthan Trust |accessdate=24 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904230906/http://shrikrishnajanmasthan.net/history.html |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=dead }} - {{cite web|url=http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/154112-Tourism-A-journey-Mathura-Braj-Mandal-Radha-Krishna.aspx|title=Tourism: A journey to Mathura- the Braj Mandal of Radha and Krishna|date=30 July 2012|publisher=IndiaStudyChannel.com|accessdate=19 September 2014|archive-date=11 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911075424/http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/154112-Tourism-A-journey-Mathura-Braj-Mandal-Radha-Krishna.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> He also donated initial funds for the building of [[Vivekananda Rock Memorial]] and arranged for further funds for the project from his brothers, the construction of which, however, began several years after his death.<ref name=vk/>

Birla died in 1967<ref name=a/> and left his wealth to religious trusts and philanthropy and for his adopted son L N Birla.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main9.asp?filename=Ne122504Splitsville.asp |title=Splitsville: the business of family feuds |author=Naresh Minocha |work=Tehelka |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122070718/http://archive.tehelka.com/story_main9.asp?filename=Ne122504Splitsville.asp |archivedate=22 November 2015|accessdate=3 December 2023}}</ref>

===Some noted philanthropic works===
* Founded the trust in 1951, which built the famous [[Kesava Deo Temple|Krishna Janmabhoomi Kesava Deo Temple]] at [[Mathura]].<ref name=kj/>
* North Delhi Hanuman Temple founded in 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://maharajji.com/Ashrams-Temples/ |title=Ashrams & Temples |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=6 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806062814/http://maharajji.com/Ashrams-Temples/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Laxminarayan Temple|Shri Laxmi Narayan Temple]], Delhi founded in 1939.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hdfcbank.com/personal/donate-online/religious-offering-inner/1323254400 |title=Religious offerings |publisher=HDFC Bank |accessdate=19 September 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703142515/http://www.hdfcbank.com/personal/donate-online/religious-offering-inner/1323254400 |archivedate=3 July 2014 }}</ref>
* Birla Temple, Varanasi
* Birla Temple (Gita Temple), [[Mathura]] founded in 1946<ref name=t/>
* [[Shri Shikshayatan School]] which later grew into [[Shri Shikshayatan College]] of [[Kolkata]] was founded in 1920.<ref name=sy/>
* Marwari Relief Society, Kolkata founded in 1913.<ref name=mr/>
* Birla Hostel at [[Benaras Hindu University]] founded in 1920.<ref name="bhu">{{cite web |url=http://bhu.ac.in/arts/hostel.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205100219/http://www.bhu.ac.in/arts/hostel.htm |archive-date=5 February 2011 |url-status=dead |title=Contact |publisher=Benaras Hindu University|accessdate=14 August 2015 }}</ref>
* Birla Temple, [[Kurukshetra]] founded in 1950.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/12/07/stories/2003120700490700.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040507042109/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/12/07/stories/2003120700490700.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 May 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=In a time warp |date=2003-12-07 |accessdate=19 September 2014}}</ref>
* Dev Mandir, [[Bangkok]] - donated funds for marble slabs of the temple, which was inaugurated in 1969.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://devmandirbangkok.com/inside.php |title=Thep Montien – Inside Dev Mandir |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=25 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325143619/http://www.devmandirbangkok.com/inside.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Nipponzan Myohoji Temple, [[Mumbai]] – purchased land for building of this [[Buddhist]] temple.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiavideo.org/maharashtra/travel/nipponzan-myohoji-buddhist-temple-3265.php |title=Nipponzan Myohoji temple, Mumbai, Bombay, Maharashtra, India, Video |work=IndiaVideo |accessdate=19 September 2014}}</ref>
* Lord Krishan Temple, [[Mathura]] built in 1946 in memory of his parents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiaforyou.in/spirituality/mathura.php |title=Lord Krishna Temple, Mathura – History |accessdate=19 September 2014 |archive-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821140420/http://indiaforyou.in/spirituality/mathura.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Paramjyotir Mandir, Barobagh, Himachal Pradesh – donated huge amount of money on request of his friend Stokes, who founded the temple.<ref>{{cite book |author=Asha Sharma |date=2008 |title=An American in Gandhi's India: The Biography of Satyanand Stokes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVzxpUOzV_0C&pg=PA287 |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=287 |isbn=978-0-253-21990-9 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
* Donated funds and arranged further monies from Birla group for building of the [[Vivekananda Rock Memorial]]<ref name=vk/>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Birla, Jugal Kishore}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian philanthropists]]
[[Category:Rajasthani people]]
[[Category:Birla family|Jugal Kishore]]
[[Category:1883 births]]
[[Category:1967 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Founders of Indian schools and colleges]]
[[Category:Gandhians]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Delhi]]
[[Category:People from Jhunjhunu district]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople in the textile industry]]

Andaman and Nicobar Football Association

2025-10-13T16:02:42Z

Loz12:

{{Short description|State governing body of Football in Andaman and Nicobar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox sport governing body
|name = Andaman and Nicobar Football Association
|abbrev = ANFA
|logo = Andaman and Nicobar Football Association.svg
|sport = [[Association football|Football]]
|size = 300px
|caption =
|jurisdiction = {{flagicon image|Andaman and Nicobar Administration Banner.png}} [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
|founded =
|aff = [[All India Football Federation]] (AIFF)
|headquarters = [[Sri Vijaya Puram]]
|membership =
|president = Tahir Ali
|secretary = Sanjay Meshack
|url =
}}

The '''Andaman and Nicobar Football Association''' (ANFA) is the state governing body of [[Association football|football]] in the [[Indian union territory]] of [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. It is affiliated with the [[All India Football Federation]], the national governing body.<ref>{{cite web |title= Andaman & Nicobar Football Association |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/association/521 |website=All India Football Federation |access-date=22 February 2022 }}</ref> It sends state teams for [[Santosh Trophy]] and [[Rajmata Jijabai Trophy]].

==State teams==
{{col-begin}}

===Men===
*[[Andaman and Nicobar football team]]
*[[Andaman and Nicobar under-20 football team]]
*[[Andaman and Nicobar under-16 football team]]
*[[Andaman and Nicobar under-14 football team]]
*[[Andaman and Nicobar Beach Soccer team]]
{{col-2}}

===Women===
*[[Andaman and Nicobar women's football team]]
*[[Andaman and Nicobar women's under-16 football team]]
*[[Andaman and Nicobar women's under-14 football team]]
{{col-2}}{{col-end}}

==Affiliated district associations==
All 3 districts of [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] are affiliated with the '''Andaman and Nicobar Football Association'''.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! No. !! Association !! District
!President
|-
| 1 || NA || [[Nicobar district|Nicobar]]
|
|-
| 2 || NA || [[North and Middle Andaman district|North and Middle Andaman]]
|
|-
| 3 || NA || [[South Andaman district|South Andaman]]
|
|}

==See also==
*[[List of Indian state football associations]]
*[[Football in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Football in India}}
{{Indian state football associations}}

[[Category:Football in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
[[Category:Football governing bodies in India|Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]

Peethala Sujatha

2025-10-04T04:02:55Z

Loz12: New new info

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Peethala Sujatha
| image =
| caption =
| office = [[Department of Women and Child Welfare (Andhra Pradesh)|Minister of Women and Child Welfare]]; [[Department of Disabled and Senior Citizen Welfare (Andhra Pradesh)|Disabled and Senior Citizen Welfare]] [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]]
| 1blankname = Governor
| 1namedata = [[E. S. L. Narasimhan]]
| 2blankname = Chief Minister
| 2namedata = [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]]
| term_start = 8 June 2014
| term_end = 1 April 2017
| predecessor = [[Vakiti Sunitha Laxma Reddy]]
| successor = [[Paritala Sunitha]]
| office1 = [[Department of Mines and Geology (Andhra Pradesh)|Minister of Mines and Geology]] [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]]
| 1blankname1 = Governor
| 1namedata1 = [[E. S. L. Narasimhan]]
| 2blankname1 = Chief Minister
| 2namedata1 = [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]]
| term_start1 = 8 June 2014
| term_end1 = 1 April 2017
| predecessor1 = [[Galla Aruna Kumari]]
| successor1 = [[R. V. Sujay Krishna Ranga Rao]]
| office2 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of Legislative Assembly]], [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start2 = 2014
| term_end2 = 2019
| successor2 = [[Vunnamatla Eliza]]
| predecessor2 = Maddala Rajesh Kumar
| constituency2 = [[Chintalapudi Assembly constituency|Chintalapudi]]
| term_start3 = 2004
| term_end3 = 2009
| successor3 = [[Pithani Satyanarayana]]
| predecessor3 = Johar Mocharla
| constituency3 = [[Achanta Assembly constituency|Achanta]]
| party = [[Telugu Desam Party]]
}}
'''Peethala Sujatha''' is an Indian politician from the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. She belongs to the [[Telugu Desam Party]]. She is the former minister of the women and child welfare; disabled and senior citizen welfare departments in the [[Third N. Chandrababu Naidu ministry]]. She was elected as a member of the Legislative Assembly from [[Achanta Assembly constituency]] in 2004 and from [[Chintalapudi Assembly constituency]] in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-06-08 |title=19 ministers take oath along with Chandrababu Naidu |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/19-ministers-take-oath-along-with-chandrababu-naidu/ |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Subrahmanyam |first=Deekshitula |date=2024-01-19 |title=Achanta may become a battleground for ex ministers |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/achanta-may-become-a-battleground-for-ex-ministers-852293 |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=The Hans |date=2017-04-03 |title=Peethala shown the door for graft charges, lacklustre performance |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2017-04-03/Peethala-shown-the-door-for-graft-charges-lacklustre-performance/290643 |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sujatha, Peethala}}
[[Category:Telugu Desam Party politicians]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:Women members of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{AndhraPradesh-TDP-politician-stub}}

List of awards and nominations received by Shilpa Shetty

2025-09-26T19:56:32Z

Loz12: clean up

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox awards list
| name = [[Shilpa Shetty]]
| image = Shilpa Shetty snapped on the sets of Indian Idol (2).jpg
| image_size = 215px
| alt =
| caption = Shetty in 2017
| wins = 11
| nominations = 30
| ApsaraW = 0
| ApsaraN = 1
| BollywoodMovieW = 1
| BollywoodMovieN = 4
| IIFAW = 1
| IIFAN = 3
| award1 = [[BIG Star Entertainment Awards]]
| award1W = 2
| award1N = 2
| award2 = [[Indian Television Academy Awards]]
| award2W = 1
| award2N = 1
| award3 = [[Indian Telly Awards]]
| award3W = 1
| award3N = 1
| FilmfareW = 0
| FilmfareN = 4
| ScreenW = 0
| ScreenN = 2
| ZeeCineW = 1
| ZeeCineN = 2
}}

[[Shilpa Shetty]] (born 8 June 1975) is an Indian actress and producer who works in [[Hindi]] films, in addition to few [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Kannada]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] films. She made her acting debut in ''[[Baazigar]]'', for which she received a nomination for the [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut|Filmfare Award for Lux New Face of the Year]]. As an actress, Shetty has won 11 awards out of 30 nominations, including one [[Bollywood Movie Awards|Bollywood Movie Award]], one [[IIFA Awards|IIFA Award]] and one [[Zee Cine Awards|Zee Cine Award]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/shilpa-shetty-says-maybe-i-wasn-t-a-good-actor-never-got-an-award-even-after-dhadkan-or-phir-milenge/story-v3f4CJWs7aeX69exZocLuN.html|title=Shilpa Shetty says, 'Maybe I wasn't a good actor, never got an award even after Dhadkan or Phir Milenge'|date=2019-03-15|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-06-26}}</ref>

Shetty received several honors for her humanitarian causes including the [[IIFA Special Award for Global Impact]]. In 2007, she was awarded the [[Honorary Doctorate]] by the [[University of Leeds]]. In 2009, [[International Indian Film Academy Awards|IIFA]]-[[FICCI|FICCI Frames]] Awards awarded her with the "Most Powerful Entertainers of the Decade" with 9 other recipients.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/shilpa-shetty-on-facing-rejections-in-bollywood-and-secret-of-her-longevity/1517702/|title=Shilpa Shetty on facing rejections in Bollywood and secret of her longevity|date=2019-03-15|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-26}}</ref>

==Film and television awards==
===BIG Star Entertainment Awards===
The [[BIG Star Entertainment Awards]] was an annual award show presented by [[Reliance Broadcast Network]] Limited in association with [[STAR India]] to honour personalities from the field of entertainment. Shetty has won two awards.

{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Category
! Work
! Result
! Ref.
|-
|2013
|rowspan="2"|Most Entertaining Jury (TV) - Non Fiction
|''[[Nach Baliye|Nach Baliye 6]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Star India & Reliance Broadcast Network launch Big Star Entertainment Awards |work=Business of Cinema |date=16 December 2010 |url=http://www.businessofcinema.com/news.php?newsid=17466 |access-date=2010-12-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324233310/http://www.businessofcinema.com/news.php?newsid=17466 |archive-date=2012-03-24 }}</ref>
|-
|2016
|''[[Super Dancer|Super Dancer - Chapter 1]]''
|{{won}}
|
|}

===Bollywood Movie Awards===
The [[Bollywood Movie Awards]] was an annual film award ceremony held in [[Long Island]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States]] between 1999 and 2007 celebrating films and actors from the [[Bollywood]] film industry. Shetty won 1 award out of 4 nominations. She was the first-ever winner of the [[Bollywood Movie Award - Best Supporting Actress]] and received a nomination for the [[Bollywood Movie Award - Best Actress]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|1999
| rowspan="2" |[[Bollywood Movie Award - Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|''[[Pardesi Babu]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref name="bollywoodawards">{{cite web|title=Winners of Bollywood Movie Awards: 1999 |url=http://www.bollywoodawards.com/winba9.php |publisher=[[Bollywood Movie Awards]] |accessdate=2012-04-22 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102124901/http://www.bollywoodawards.com/winba9.php |archivedate=2013-11-02 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2003
| rowspan="2" |[[Rishtey (2002 film)|''Rishtey'']]
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiosargam.com/features/events/bollynom2003.htm|title=Bollywood Awards 2003!: Nominees Chosen By Fans|last=Haq|first=Robeel|date=2 April 2003|publisher=Radio Sargam|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030402210807/http://www.radiosargam.com/features/events/bollynom2003.htm|archive-date=2 April 2003|access-date=11 July 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
||[[Bollywood Movie Award – Most Sensational Actress|Most Sensational Actress]]
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiosargam.com/features/events/bollynom2003.htm|title=Bollywood Awards 2003!: Nominees Chosen By Fans|last=Haq|first=Robeel|date=2 April 2003|publisher=Radio Sargam|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030402210807/http://www.radiosargam.com/features/events/bollynom2003.htm|archive-date=2 April 2003|access-date=11 July 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|2005
|[[Bollywood Movie Award - Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|''[[Phir Milenge (2004 film)|Phir Milenge]]''
|{{nom}}
|
|}

===Filmfare Awards===
The [[Filmfare Awards]] are presented annually by [[The Times Group]] to honor both artistic and technical excellence of professionals in the Hindi language film industry of India. Shetty received four nominations, one in the [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut|Lux New Face of the Year]] category, two in the [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] category and one in the [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] category.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[39th Filmfare Awards|1994]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut|Best Female Debut]]
|rowspan="2" |''[[Baazigar]]''
|{{nom}}
|rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite news|title=Nominees of the 39th Filmfare Awards |url=http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/articleshow/368610.cms |accessdate=22 April 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times Group]] |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120629145801/http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/articleshow/368610.cms |archivedate=29 June 2012 }}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[48th Filmfare Awards|2003]]
|''[[Rishtey (2002 film)|Rishtey]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Nominees of the 48th Filmfare Awards|url=http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/33453439.cms|accessdate=22 April 2012|newspaper=[[The Times Group]]|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120716185857/http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/33453439.cms|archivedate=16 July 2012}}</ref>
|-
|[[50th Filmfare Awards|2005]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|''[[Phir Milenge (2004 film)|Phir Milenge]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Nominees of the 50th Filmfare Awards |url=http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1021384,curpg-2.cms |accessdate=22 April 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times Group]] |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120709222922/http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1021384,curpg-2.cms |archivedate=9 July 2012 }}</ref>
|}

===Filmfare Awards South===
[[Filmfare Awards South]] is the [[South India]]n segment of the annual [[Filmfare Awards]], presented by the [[Filmfare]] magazine of [[The Times Group]] to honour both artistic and technical excellence of professionals in the [[Telugu cinema]], [[Tamil cinema]], [[Kannada cinema]] and [[Malayalam cinema]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|[[44th Filmfare Awards South|1996]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu|Best Actress – Telugu]]
|''[[Sahasa Veerudu Sagara Kanya]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmfare.com/site/october97/south3e.htm |title=Best Actress |publisher=Filmfare |date=5 July 1998 |access-date=15 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980705062035/http://www.filmfare.com/site/october97/south3e.htm |archive-date=5 July 1998 }}</ref>
|-
|[[53rd Filmfare Awards South|2006]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Kannada|Best Actress – Kannada]]
|''[[Auto Shankar (film)|Auto Shankar]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinegoer.com/archives/september2006/filmfarewinners.htm |title=53rd Annual South Filmfare Awards Winners |access-date=2 May 2007 |date=9 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429030243/http://www.cinegoer.com/archives/september2006/filmfarewinners.htm |archive-date=29 April 2007 }}</ref>
|}

===IIFA Awards===
The [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]] are presented annually by the International Indian Film Academy to honour both artistic and technical excellence of professionals in Bollywood, the [[Hindi language]] film industry. Shetty has been nominated twice for the [[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress Award]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|[[2nd IIFA Awards|2001]]
|rowspan="2"|[[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|''[[Dhadkan (2000 film)|Dhadkan]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iifa.com/iifa-years/iifa-years-2001/ |title=IIFA Through the Years – IIFA 2001: South Africa |website=International Indian Film Academy Awards |access-date=3 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925131700/http://www.iifa.com/iifa-years/iifa-years-2001/ |archive-date=25 September 2015 }}</ref>
|-
|[[6th IIFA Awards|2005]]
|''[[Phir Milenge (2004 film)|Phir Milenge]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iifa.com/web07/showcase/2006.htm|title=Showcase: IIFA 2006 – Dubai|publisher=IIFA|access-date=4 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307171140/http://www.iifa.com/web07/showcase/2006.htm|archive-date=7 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[8th IIFA Awards|2007]]
|[[IIFA Special Award for Global Impact]]
| {{N/A}}
|{{Won}}
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Nominees for IIFA Awards 2007 |url=http://www.indiafm.com/features/2007/04/04/2478/index.html |website=Bollywood Hungama |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106101301/http://www.indiafm.com/features/2007/04/04/2478/index.html |archive-date=6 January 2008 |date=4 April 2007}}</ref>
|}

===Indian Television Academy Awards===
The [[Indian Television Academy Awards]], is an annual award ceremony organised by the Indian Television Academy to honour excellence in Hindi-language television.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|2008
|[[Indian Television Academy Awards|The GR8!Achiever Laurel]]
|''[[Celebrity Big Brother 5 (UK)|Celebrity Big Brother 5]]'' & ''[[Bigg Boss (season 2)|Bigg Boss 2]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiantelevisionacademy.com/site/academy.php |title=Official Indian Television Academy Awards Website |access-date=2011-07-14 |archive-date=2011-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630064308/http://www.indiantelevisionacademy.com/site/academy.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|}

===Indian Telly Awards===
The [[Indian Telly Awards]] is an annual award for excellence both on-screen and behind-the-scenes of [[Hindi]]-language television. Conceptualised and created by [[Anil Wanvari]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|2014
|[[Indian Telly Awards|Best Judge Panel on a TV Show]]
|''[[Nach Baliye|Nach Baliye 6]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-nach-baliye-6-needs-more-sizzle/20131111.htm | title=Review: Nach Baliye 6 needs more sizzle! | work=Rediff.com | date=11 November 2013 | access-date=12 November 2013 | author=Sharma, Paloma | archive-date=11 November 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111141053/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-nach-baliye-6-needs-more-sizzle/20131111.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

===People's Choice Awards India===
The [[People's Choice Awards India]] was an annual awards ceremony presented to the Bollywood film industry. Shetty has received two nomination.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|2005
|Favourite Movie Actress
|''[[Phir Milenge (2004 film)|Phir Milenge]]''
|{{nom}}
|rowspan="2"|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-28 |title=People's Choice Awards format licensed to India |work=Variety |url=http://variety.com/2012/tv/news/people-s-choice-awards-format-licensed-to-india-1118060955/ |access-date=2022-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628072736/http://variety.com/2012/tv/news/people-s-choice-awards-format-licensed-to-india-1118060955/ |archive-date=2017-06-28 }}</ref>
|-
|2006
|Favourite Movie Supporting Actress
|''[[Dus]]''
|{{nom}}
|}

===Producers Guild Film Awards===

The [[Producers Guild Film Awards]] are presented by the Apsara Producers Guild to honour and recognise the excellence of their peers to recognize excellence in film and television.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Category
! Work
! Result
! Ref.
|-
|2008
| [[Apsara Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role|Best Actress in a Leading Role]]
| ''[[Life in a... Metro]]''
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news|title=Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards 2008 nominees|url=http://starguildawards.org/3rd_apsara_awards_nominees.html |work=Producers Guild Film Awards |accessdate=28 December 2009}}</ref>
|}

===Sansui Viewer's Choice Awards===
The [[Sansui Viewers' Choice Movie Awards]] was an annual awards ceremony presented to the Bollywood film industry.<ref name="Sansui Awards Boycot">{{cite web |work=Telegraph India |title=Sansui Viewer's Choice Awards |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050429/asp/etc/story_4659397.asp|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140126110509/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050429/asp/etc/story_4659397.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 January 2014}}</ref> Shetty has received one nomination.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|2003
|Best Comic Actor
|''[[Rishtey (2002 film)|Rishtey]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref name="Sansui Awards Boycot" />
|}

===Screen Awards===
The [[Screen Awards|Star Screen Awards]] is the only award ceremony in India to be involved with the Executive Director and the Governor of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]]. They are presented annually to honor professional excellence in the Hindi language film industry of India. Shetty has received two nominations, one in the [[Screen Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] category and one in the [[Screen Award for Best Comedian|Best Comedian]] category.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|2003
|[[Screen Award for Best Comedian|Best Comedian]]
|''[[Rishtey (2002 film)|Rishtey]]''
|{{nom}}
|
|-
|2005
|[[Screen Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|''[[Phir Milenge (2004 film)|Phir Milenge]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Screen Awards 2005 Winners |url=http://www.awardsandshows.com/features/star-screen-awards-2005-132.html |accessdate=25 January 2012 |archive-date=21 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321054640/http://www.awardsandshows.com/features/star-screen-awards-2005-132.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

===Zee Cine Awards===
The [[Zee Cine Awards]] is an award ceremony for the Hindi film industry, now held abroad each year. Shetty has received a nomination in the [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female|Best Actor - Female]] category and won the [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role - Female|Best Actor in a Supporting Role - Female]] award once.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Category
!Work
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|2005
|[[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female|Best Actor - Female]]
|''[[Phir Milenge (2004 film)|Phir Milenge]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.zeecineawards.com/timeline/2005/winners/ |title=The 8th Zee Cine Awards 2005 Viewers Choice Awards Nominees & Winners |work=Zee Cine Awards |access-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517013239/https://www.zeecineawards.com/timeline/2005/winners/ |archive-date=17 May 2020 |agency=Zee Entertainment Enterprises}}</ref>
|-
|2008
|[[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role - Female|Best Actor in a Supporting Role - Female]]
|''[[Life in a...Metro]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.zeecineawards.com/timeline/2008/winners/ |title=The 11th Zee Cine Awards 2008 Viewers Choice Awards Nominees & Winners |work=Zee Cine Awards |access-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517031621/https://www.zeecineawards.com/timeline/2008/winners/ |archive-date=17 May 2020 |agency=Zee Entertainment Enterprises}}</ref>
|}

==Other awards==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Work
! Result
! Ref.
|-
|2012
|[[Jaipur International Film Festival]]
|Best Actress
|''[[The Desire (2010 film)|The Desire]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?sectionName=RSSFeed-Cinema&id=7a283f27-2312-4193-9d72-43cf83ef6f62&Headline=Shilpa+Shetty+to+star+in+India-China+flick+EMThe+Desire%2fEM|title=Shilpa Shetty to star in an India-China flick named The Desire|newspaper=Hindustan Times|accessdate=2009-09-25}}</ref>
|-
|2013
|[[NDTV Indian of the Year]]
|Fit and Wellness Icon
|{{N/A}}
|{{won}}
|
|-
|2021
|[[Lokmat Stylish Awards]]
|Most Stylish Fashion Icon
|{{N/A}}
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lifestyleonthego.com/2021/12/complete-list-of-winners-lokmat-most-stylish-awards-2021/ |title=Complete List of Winners : Lokmat Most Stylish Awards 2021 |website=Lifestyleonthego |date=3 December 2021 |access-date= 3 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2"|2022
|[[Iconic Gold Awards]]
|Fitness Icon of the Year
|{{N/A}}
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iconicgoldawards.com/award-ceremony/2022-2/|title=Iconic Gold Awards 2022 Complete Winners List|website=Iconic Gold Awards|accessdate=24 November 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[Pinkvilla Style Icons Awards]]
|Super Stylish Showbiz Icon
|{{N/A}}
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-17 |title=Pinkvilla Style Icons Awards Winners List: Find out who won what at the starry night |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/pinkvilla-style-icons-awards-winner-list-find-out-who-won-what-at-the-starry-night-1145089 |access-date=2022-10-14 |website=Pinkvilla |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==Honours and recognitions==
* 2005: Indian "Diva of the Year" by [[Sahara One]] Television viewers.<ref>{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012162922/http://nowrunning.com/news/slideshow.asp?newsID=2560 |date=12 October 2007 |accessdate=12 December 2007 |title=Shilpa Shetty is the Diva of the Year}} ''Nowrunning.com''</ref>
* 2007: Silver Star Award for her outstanding contribution to humanitarian causes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Shilpa Shetty receives Silver Star Award|url=http://www.headlinesindia.com/entertainment/index.jsp?news_code=45703|date=17 June 2007|accessdate=23 January 2008|work=Headlines India|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112060234/http://www.headlinesindia.com/entertainment/index.jsp?news_code=45703|archivedate=12 January 2008}}</ref>
* 2007: Rajiv Gandhi Award for her contribution to Indian cinema.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rajiv Gandhi awards presented to achievers|url=http://sify.com/cities/mumbai/fullstory.php?id=14509427|date=13 August 2007|accessdate=23 January 2008|website=[[Sify]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112044136/http://sify.com/cities/mumbai/fullstory.php?id=14509427|archive-date=12 January 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 2007: [[Honorary Doctorate]] by [[University of Leeds]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodmantra.com/news/shilpa-shetty-conferred-with-doctorate-from-leeds-university-in-uk/1645/|title=Now she is Dr. Shilpa Shetty}}</ref>
* 2009: Shetty was among the 10 recipients of the [[International Indian Film Academy Awards|IIFA]]-[[FICCI|FICCI Frames]] Awards for the "Most Powerful Entertainers of the Decade".<ref>{{cite news|title=Big B, SRK bag most powerful entertainer awards at FICCI-Frames|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/big-b-srk-bag-most-powerful-entertainer-awards-at-ficci-frames/article1-380635.aspx|date=18 February 2009|accessdate=11 August 2015|author=IANS|work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* 2019: [[Champions of Change (award)|Champions of Change Award]] for her work on the [[Swachh Bharat Mission]] cleanliness campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shilpa Shetty gets 'Champions of Change' award for Swachh Bharat Abhiyan |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/entertainment/bollywood/shilpa-shetty-gets-champions-of-change-award-for-swachh-bharat-abhiyan20200120230301/ |accessdate=25 February 2020 |work=ANI News}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Lists of awards received by Indian actor|Shetty, Shilpa]]

M. Tamilkudimagan

2025-08-28T18:20:30Z

Loz12: fixed issues

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = M. Tamilkudimagan
|office = 7th [[List of Speakers of the Tamil Nadu Legislature|Speaker]] of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
|1blankname = Chief Minister
|1namedata = [[M. Karunanidhi]]
|term_start = 1989
|term_end = 1991
|predecessor = [[P. H. Pandian]]
|successor = [[R. Muthiah]]
}}
'''M. Tamilkudimagan''' was an Indian politician and Member of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]. He served as Speaker of the Assembly from 1989 to 1991.<ref name="india_speakerslist">{{cite web|title=Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly: Details of terms of successive Legislative Assemblies constituted under the Constitution of India |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/list/assemblies-overview.htm |publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303204611/http://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/list/assemblies-overview.htm |archivedate=March 3, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="tamilnadu_speakerslist">{{cite web|title=Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly: Details of terms of successive Legislative Assemblies constituted under the Constitution of India|publisher=Government of India|url=http://legislativebodiesinindia.nic.in/STATISTICAL/tamilnadu.htm|access-date=3 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409221838/http://legislativebodiesinindia.nic.in/STATISTICAL/tamilnadu.htm|archive-date=9 April 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> His original name was '''Sathiah'''.

He was the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] Minister for [[Tamil Language]] and Culture in the 1996 Cabinet (1996-2001).<ref name="tamilnadu_cabinet">{{cite web|title=Tamil Nadu Cabinet 1996 |publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Review-11th_assembly.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027171745/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/Review-11th_assembly.pdf |archivedate=October 27, 2012 }}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tamilkudimagan, M.}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Speakers of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 1996–2001]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]

{{TamilNadu-politician-stub}}

List of freshwater fish of Telangana

2025-08-10T18:19:30Z

Loz12: Made

{{Short description|none}}
This article lists the freshwater fish found in the state of [[Telangana]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prasad |first=Kante Krishna |last2=Srinivasulu |first2=Chelmala |date=2021-04-28 |title=A checklist of fishes of Telangana State, India |url=http://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/6714 |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=18324–18343 |doi=10.11609/jott.6714.13.5.18324-18343 |issn=0974-7907|doi-access=free }}</ref> A total of 143 species of fish have been sighted in the state, mostly documented from surveys or from citizen surveying apps like [[iNaturalist]]. This article uses British English throughout.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Freshwater Fish of Telangana |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/projects/freshwater-fish-of-telangana |access-date=2025-07-13 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Day |first=Francis |date=1876-09-01 |title=On some of the Fishes of the Deccan |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1876.tb00232.x |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=12 |issue=64 |pages=565–578 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1876.tb00232.x |issn=0024-4082|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Ophichthidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Rice-paddy eel]]
|''Pisodonophis boro''
|LC
|Known from Udayasamudram
|}

== Anguillidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Indian mottled eel]]
|''Anguilla bengalensis''
|NT
|
|}
[[File:Knifefish (Chitala chitala).png|thumb|[[Chitala chitala|Knifefish]]]]

== Notopteridae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Bronze featherback]]
|''Notopterus synurus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Chitala chitala|Knifefish]]
|''Chitala chitala''
|NT
|Known from Talai
|}
[[File:Lepidocephalichthys guntea 29981138.jpg|thumb|[[Guntea loach]]]]

== Cobitidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Guntea loach]]
|''Lepidocephalichthys guntea''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Common spiny loach]]
|''Lepidocephalichthys thermalis''
|LC
|
|}

== Clupeidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Ganges river sprat]]
|''Corica soborna''
|LC
|Known from Komaram
|-
|[[Ilish]]
|''Tenualosa ilisha''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Indoreonectes telanganaensis.jpg|thumb|[[Indoreonectes telanganaensis|Telangana loach]]]]

== Nemacheilidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Indoreonectes telanganaensis|Telangana loach]]
|''Indoreonectes telanganaensis''
|NE
|Endemic to the state, known from Maisamma Loddi in [[Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary]]
|-
|[[Mottled loach]]
|''Paracanthocobitis botia''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Paracanthocobitis mooreh|Murangi]]
|''Paracanthocobitis mooreh''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Schistura denisoni|Denison's loach]]
|''Schistura denisoni''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Common carp in a pond.jpg|thumb|[[Common carp]]]]
[[File:Garra Gotyla+cryptocoryne.jpg|thumb|[[Sucker head]]]]
[[File:Catla catla.JPG|thumb|[[Catla]]]]
[[File:কলিয়াজৰা.jpg|thumb|[[Orangefin labeo]]]]
[[File:Pethia gelius hi res.jpg|thumb|[[Golden barb]]]]

== Cyprinidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Bangana nukta|Nukta]]
|''Bangana nukta''
|EN
|Known from [[Srisailam Dam]]
|-
|[[Carnatic carp]]
|''Hypselobarbus carnaticus''
|LC
|Known from Jamkhandi to Lingalagattu and up to [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam]]
|-
|[[Mrigal carp]]
|''Cirrhinus mrigala''
|VU
|
|-
|[[Cirrhinus cirrhosus|White carp]]
|''Cirrhinus cirrhosus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Reba carp]]
|''Cirrhinus reba''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Common carp]]
|''Cyprinus carpio''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Blackspot barb]]
|''Dawkinsia filamentosa''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Sucker head]]
|''Garra gotyla''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Garra mullya|Sucker fish]]
|''Garra mullya''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Nilgiri garra]]
|''Garra stenorhynchus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Gymnostomus ariza|Reba]]
|''Gymnostomus ariza''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Deccan white carp]]
|''Gymnostomus fulungee''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Curmuca barb]]
|''Hypselobarbus curmuca''
|EN
|Known from [[Nizam Sagar Dam]]
|-
|[[Jerdon's carp]]
|''Hypselobarbus jerdoni''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Kolus]]
|''Hypselobarbus kolus''
|VU
|
|-
|[[Humpback mahseer]]
|''Hypselobarbus mussullah''
|EN
|
|-
|[[Labeo bata|Bata]]
|''Labeo bata''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Labeo boga|Boga labeo]]
|''Labeo boga''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Boggut labeo]]
|''Labeo boggut''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Orangefin labeo]]
|''Labeo calbasu''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Catla]]
|''Labeo catla''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Fringed-lipped peninsula carp]]
|''Labeo fimbriatus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Kuria labeo]]
|''Labeo gonius''
|LC
|Known from Godavari River flowing through [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district|Bhadradri Kothagudem]]
|-
|[[Labeo kawrus|Deccan labeo]]
|''Labeo kawrus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Labeo pangusia|Pangusia labeo]]
|''Labeo pangusia''
|NT
|
|-
|[[Labeo porcellus|Bombay labeo]]
|''Labeo porcellus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Labeo potail|Cauvery labeo]]
|''Labeo potail''
|EN
|
|-
|[[Rohu]]
|''Labeo rohita''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Osteobrama peninsularis|Peninsular osteobrama]]
|''Osteobrama peninsularis''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Osteobrama neilli|Nilgiri osteobrama]]
|''Osteobrama neilli''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Osteobrama vigorsii|Godavari osteobrama]]
|''Osteobrama vigorsii''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Konti barb]]
|''Osteochilichthys thomassi''
|LC
|Known from Krishna River between Rekulampally to [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam|Nagarjunasagar Dam]]
|-
|[[Rosy barb]]
|''Pethia conchonius''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Golden barb]]
|''Pethia gelius''
|LC
|Known from Godavari River, [[Peddapalli district]] and [[Nizam Sagar Dam|Nizam Sagar Reservoir]]
|-
|[[Ticto barb]]
|''Pethia ticto''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Scarlet-banded barb]]
|''Puntius amphibius''
|DD
|
|-
|[[Redside barb]]
|''Puntius bimaculatus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Swamp barb]]
|''Puntius chola''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Long-snouted barb]]
|''Puntius dorsalis''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Puntius melanostigma|Wynaad barb]]
|''Puntius melanostigma''
|NE
|Known from Krishna River and [[Bejjur mandal|Bejjur]]
|-
|[[Pool barb]]
|''Puntius sophore''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Greenstripe barb]]
|''Puntius vittatus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Rohtee]]
|''Rohtee ogilbii''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Olive barb]]
|''Systomus sarana''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Tariqilabeo latius|Stone roller]]
|''Tariqilabeo latius''
|LC
|Known from Krishna River between Rekulampally to [[Srisailam Dam]] and Hyderabad environs
|-
|[[Thynnichthys sandkhol|Sandkhol carp]]
|''Thynnichthys sandkhol''
|EN
|
|-
|[[Tor khudree|Deccan mahseer]]
|''Tor khudree''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Cabdio morar.jpg|thumb|[[Cabdio morar|Morari]]]]
[[File:Zebrafisch.jpg|thumb|[[Zebrafish]]]]
[[File:Devario aequipinnatus (cropped).JPG|thumb|[[Giant danio]]]]
[[File:Indian glass Danio by AravindManoj.jpg|thumb|[[Indian glass barb]]]]

== Danionidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Mola carplet]]
|''Amblypharyngodon mola''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Barilius barila|Barred baril]]
|''Barilius barila''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Cabdio morar|Morari]]
|''Cabdio morar''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Silver hatchet chela]]
|''Chela cachius''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Zebrafish]]
|''Danio rerio''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Giant danio]]
|''Devario aequipinnatus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Bengal danio]]
|''Devario devario''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Indian flying barb]]
|''Esomus danrica''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Esomus thermoicos|Flying barb]]
|''Esomus thermoicos''
|LC
|Known from [[Janampet Barrage|Janampeta]] and [[Koil Sagar|Koil Sagar Reservoir]] in [[Mahabubnagar district|Mahbubnagar District]]
|-
|[[Indian glass barb]]
|''Laubuka laubuca''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Barna baril]]
|''Opsarius barna''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Opsarius bendelisis|Hamilton's baril]]
|''Opsarius bendelisis''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Slender rasbora]]
|''Rasbora daniconius''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Gangetic scissortail rasbora]]
|''Rasbora rasbora''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Silver razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma acinaces''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Large razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma bacaila''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Salmostoma balookee|Blotch razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma balookee''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Boopis razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma boopis''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Hora razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma horai''
|VU
|
|-
|[[Novacula razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma novacula''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Finescale razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma phulo''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Mahanadi razorbelly minnow]]
|''Salmostoma untrahi''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Hal - Ctenopharyngodon idella - 1.jpg|thumb|[[Grass carp]]]]

== Xenocyprididae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Grass carp]]
|''Ctenopharyngodon idella''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Silver carp]]
|''Hypophthalmichthys molitrix''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Bighead carp]]
|''Hypophthalmichthys nobilis''
|NE
|
|}

== Characidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Piaractus brachypomus|Red-bellied pacu]]
|''Piaractus brachypomus''
|NE
|
|}
[[File:2004-02-02 Pterygoplichthys pardalis on blue gravel.jpg|thumb|[[Amazon sailfin catfish]]]]

== Loricariidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Amazon sailfin catfish]]
|''Pterygoplichthys pardalis''
|NE
|
|}

== Ailiidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Eutropiichthys goongwaree|Goongwaree vacha]]
|''Eutropiichthys goongwaree''
|DD
|
|-
|[[Proeutropiichthys taakree|Indian taakree]]
|''Proeutropiichthys taakree''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Silonia childreni|Schlibid catfish]]
|''Silonia childreni''
|EN
|
|}

== Horabagridae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Pachypterus khavalchor|Khavalchor catfish]]
|''Pachypterus khavalchor''
|NE
|Known from Krishna River between Jamkhandi to Lingalagattu
|}
[[File:Sperata aor.jpg|thumb|[[Sperata aor|Long-whiskered catfish]]]]

== Bagridae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Hemibagrus maydelli|Krishan mystus]]
|''Hemibagrus maydelli''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Day's mystus]]
|''Mystus bleekeri''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Mystus cavasius|Gangetic mystus]]
|''Mystus cavasius''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Mystus gulio|Long whiskers catfish]]
|''Mystus gulio''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Tengara catfish]]
|''Mystus tengara''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Mystus vittatus|Striped dwarf catfish]]
|''Mystus vittatus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Rita gogra|Gogra rita]]
|''Rita gogra''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Rita kuturnee|Deccan rita]]
|''Rita kuturnee''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Rita bakalu|Bakalu rita]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lal |first=Kuldeep K. |last2=Dwivedi |first2=Arvind K. |last3=Singh |first3=Rajeev K. |last4=Mohindra |first4=Vindhya |last5=Chandra |first5=Suresh |last6=Gupta |first6=Braj Kishor |last7=Dhawan |first7=Smita |last8=Jena |first8=Joykrushna |date=2017-04-01 |title=A new Bagrid catfish species, Rita bakalu (Siluriformes: Bagridae), from the Godavari River basin, India |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-016-3019-9 |journal=Hydrobiologia |language=en |volume=790 |issue=1 |pages=67–81 |doi=10.1007/s10750-016-3019-9 |issn=1573-5117|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
|''Rita bakalu''
|NE
|Endemic to the state, known from type locality - Talai near [[Bejjur mandal|Bejjur]]
|-
|[[Sperata aor|Long-whiskered catfish]]
|''Sperata aor''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Sperata seenghala|Giant river catfish]]
|''Sperata seenghala''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Sisoridae Bagarius bagarius 1.jpg|thumb|[[Goonch]]]]

== Sisoridae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Bagarius bagarius|Goonch]]
|''Bagarius bagarius''
|NT
|
|-
|[[Gagata itchkeea|Deccan nangra]]
|''Gagata itchkeea''
|VU
|
|-
|[[Mountain catfish]]
|''Glyptothorax lonah''
|LC
|
|}

== Pangassidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Pangasius pangasius|Pangas catfish]]
|''Pangasius pangasius''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Iridescent shark]]
|''Pangasianodon hypophthalmus''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Pangasius silasi|Silas' catfish]]
|''Pangasius silasi''
|NE
|Known from [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam|Nagarjunasagar Reservoir]]
|}
[[File:Wallago attu (1).jpg|thumb|[[Wallago attu|Wallago]]]]

== Siluridae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Ompok bimaculatus|Butter catfish]]
|''Ompok bimaculatus''
|NT
|
|-
|[[Ompok pabda|Pabdah catfish]]
|''Ompok pabda''
|NT
|
|-
|[[Ompok pabo|Pabo catfish]]
|''Ompok pabo''
|NT
|
|-
|[[Wallago attu|Wallago]]
|''Wallago attu''
|VU
|
|}

== Clariidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Magur]]
|''Clarias magur''
|EN
|
|-
|[[African catfish]]
|''Clarias gariepinus''
|NE
|
|}

== Heteropneustidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Heteropneustes fossilis|Singing catfish]]
|''Heteropneustes fossilis''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Glossogobius giuris.jpg|thumb|[[Tank goby]]]]

== Gobiidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Tank goby]]
|''Glossogobius giuris''
|LC
|
|}

== Mastacembelidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Macrognathus aral|Lesser spiny eel]]
|''Macrognathus aral''
|LC
|Known from Phulang River
|-
|[[Macrognathus pancalus|Barred spiny eel]]
|''Macrognathus pancalus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Zig-zag eel]]
|''Mastacembelus armatus''
|LC
|
|}

== Anabantidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Anabas testudineus|Climbing perch]]
|''Anabas testudineus''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Osphronemus Gourami (better).png|thumb|[[Giant gourami]]]]

== Osphronemidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Giant gourami]]
|''Osphronemus goramy''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Dwarf gourami]]
|''Trichogaster lalius''
|LC
|Known from [[Pocharam lake|Pocharam Lake]] and Molachintalpally
|-
|[[Trichogaster fasciata|Banded gourami]]
|''Trichogaster fasciata''
|LC
|
|}

== Channidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Channa gachua|Dwarf snakehead]]
|''Channa gachua''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Channa marulius|Great snakehead]]
|''Channa marulius''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Channa punctata|Spotted snakehead]]
|''Channa punctata''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Striped snakehead]]
|''Channa striata''
|LC
|
|}

== Nandidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Nandus nandus|Gangetic leaffish]]
|''Nandus nandus''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Badis badis.jpg|thumb|[[Badis badis|Badis]]]]

== Badidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Badis badis|Badis]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prasad |first=Kante Krishna |last2=Srinivasulu |first2=Chelmala |date=2019-07-26 |title=New record of Blue Perch Badis badis (Anabantiformes: Badidae) from Godavari River basin of Telangana State, India |url=https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/4820 |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=14212–14215 |doi=10.11609/jott.4820.11.9.14212-14215 |issn=0974-7907|doi-access=free }}</ref>
|''Badis badis''
|LC
|Known only from [[Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary|Manjeera Reservoir]] and Wardha River
|}

== Cichlidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Green chromide]]
|''Etroplus suratensis''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Mozambique tilapia]]
|''Oreochromis mossambicus''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Nile tilapia]]
|''Oreochromis niloticus''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Orange chromide]]
|''Pseudetroplus maculatus''
|LC
|
|}

== Aplocheilidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Striped panchax]]
|''Aplocheilus lineatus''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Blue panchax]]
|''Aplocheilus panchax''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:Guppy Poecilia reticulata.jpg|thumb|[[Guppy]]]]

== Poeciliidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Mosquitofish]]
|''Gambusia affinis''
|NE
|
|-
|[[Guppy]]
|''Poecilia reticulata''
|NE
|
|}

== Belonidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Xenentodon cancila|Freshwater garfish]]
|''Xenentodon cancila''
|LC
|
|}

== Hemiramphidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Congaturi halfbeak]]
|''Hyporhamphus limbatus''
|LC
|
|}

== Adrianichthyidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Oryzias dancena|Rice fish]]
|''Oryzias dancena''
|LC
|
|}
[[File:False four-eyed fish (Rhinomugil corsula).jpg|thumb|[[Corsula (fish)|Corsula]]]]

== Mugilidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Corsula (fish)|Corsula]]
|''Rhinomugil corsula''
|LC
|
|}

== Ambassidae ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Common name
!Binomial name
!IUCN status
!Notes
|-
|[[Elongate glassy perchlet]]
|''Chanda nama''
|LC
|
|-
|[[Parambassis lala|Highfin glassy perchlet]]
|''Parambassis lala''
|NT
|
|-
|[[Parambassis ranga|Indian glassy fish]]
|''Parambassis ranga''
|LC
|
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Lists of fishes]]
[[Category:Lists of fauna of India]]

Ramhari Das

2025-08-02T01:27:03Z

Loz12: updated details

{{short description|Odissi Singer and Guru}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Ramhari Das
| genre = [[Odissi music]]
| native_name = ରାମହରି ଦାସ
| honorific_prefix = Professor
| module2=Awards: [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] 2008
| associated_acts =
| label =
| years_active =
| instruments =
| occupations = [[Odissi music]] Guru, singer, professor, scholar, musicologist, composer
| death_place =
| image = Guru Ramhari Das at Rajarani Music Festival 2021.jpg
| death_date =
| birth_place = Kanpur, [[Balasore]], [[Odisha]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date |df=yes|1953|2|1}}
| website =
| birth_name = Ramhari Das
| caption = Guru Ramhari Das performing at Rajarani Music Festival 2021
| alt =
| landscape = 
| image_size = 300
| native_name_lang = or
}}
''Pandit'' '''Ramhari Das''' ({{Langx|or|ରାମହରି ଦାସ|translit=Rāmahari Dāsa}}, {{IPA|or|raːmɔhɔri d̪aːsɔ|lang|LL-Q33810 (ori)-Prateek Pattanaik-ରାମହରି ଦାସ.wav}}; born 1953) is a leading singer, composer, musicologist and Guru of [[Odissi music]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |title=Shrestha Bharat Sanskriti Samagam : A festival of Music, Dance, Drama, Folk, Tribal Arts, Puppetry & Allied Traditions |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi; Odia Language, Literature & Culture Department, Government of Odisha; Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi, Odisha |year=2018 |location=Bhubaneswar, Odisha |pages=10}}</ref> Known for his renditions, compositions, lecture-demonstrations and writings,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Vidyarthi|first=Nita|date=2013-10-17|title=Raising his voice|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/raising-his-voice/article5244087.ece|access-date=2020-11-28|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Das has served as a professor and led the Odissi vocal department in prominent musical institutions of Odisha, including the [[Utkal Sangeet Mahavidyalaya]] and the [[Utkal University of Culture]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Ramhari Das|url=https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/sna/citation_popup.php?id=1810&at=2|access-date=28 November 2020|website=Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> He is the founder of ''[[Ramhari Das Odissi Gurukula]]'' at Biragobindapur, [[Puri district|Puri]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=About Guru Ramhari Das|url=http://www.odissigurukul.org/about-gurugi.html|access-date=28 November 2020|website=Ramhari Das Odissi Gurukula}}</ref> For his contributions to [[Odissi music]], Das received the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi award]] in 2008.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite news|date=2009-01-12|title=Award for 3 Orissa artistes|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/Award-for-3-Orissa-artistes/article16350048.ece|access-date=2020-11-28|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Life ==
Born in 1953 in Balasore, Das started his initial training in Odissi music from his uncle Radhakrushna Das and Guru Prafulla Kumar Sur.<ref name=":0" /> He continued under Gurus including [[Markandeya Mahapatra]], [[Balakrushna Das]], [[Bhikari Charan Bal]] and [[Gopal Chandra Panda]] as a student in the Utkal Sangeet Mahavidyalaya.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":2" /> He later served as a lecturer in the same institution and then as the head of the Odissi music department from 1985 to 2010.<ref name=":1" /> He is a leading singer and composer of Odissi music. Besides solo recitals and vocal accompaniment in dance, he has won acclaim for composing a large number of songs for Odissi dance and dance-dramas. Outside of these, he has sung for Odia films and television serials.<ref name=":7" />

Among his published writings are the books ''Odissi Sangitara Parampara O Prayoga, Sangita Sangya,'' ''Alankara Ratnabali'' and ''Kala Sikhya'' (published by the Board of Secondary Education, Odisha).<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Das|first=Ramhari|title=Odissi Sangeetara Parampara O Prayoga|publisher=Kaishikee Prakashani|year=2004|location=Bhubaneswar, Odisha|language=or|script-title=or:ଓଡ଼ିଶୀ ସଙ୍ଗୀତର ପରମ୍ପରା ଓ ପ୍ରୟୋଗ}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Das|first=Ramhari|title=Sangeet Sangya|year=2015|edition=4th|location=Badahata, Biragobindapur, Sakhigopal, Puri|language=or|script-title=or:ସଙ୍ଗୀତ ସଂଜ୍ଞା|orig-year=1st ed. 1989}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Das|first=Ramhari|title=Alankara Ratnabali|publisher=Kaishikee Prakashani|year=1984|location=Bhubaneswar, Odisha|language=or|script-title=or:ଅଳଙ୍କାର ରତ୍ନାବଳୀ}}</ref> Das has several research papers & articles to his credit and has presented in various seminars & conferences across the nation.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=10 July 2018|title=Shreshtha Bharat Sanskriti Samagam|url=https://indiaculture.nic.in/sites/default/files/events/SHRESHTHABHARATSANSKRITISAMAGAMbySangeetNatakAkademi_10.07.2018.pdf|access-date=28 November 2020|website=[[Sangeet Natak Akademi]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Chakra|first=Shyamhari |title='Classical tag to Odishi music long overdue'|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/classical-tag-to-odishi-music-long-overdue.html|access-date=2023-05-06|work=The Pioneer|date=11 July 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Art forms merge on single platform|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/odisha/art-forms-merge-on-single-platform/cid/1419155|access-date=2020-11-28|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref> He has also received a Senior Research Fellowship from the Government of India for his research on Odissi music.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012–13|title=List of selected candidates for award of Senior & Junior Fellowships for 2012-13|url=https://indiaculture.gov.in/sites/default/files/events/web.pdf|access-date=28 November 2020|website=India Culture, Government of India}}</ref> He has been connected in various capacities with cultural institutions in Odisha, including the Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi, the Utkal University of Culture, where he served as the head of the Odissi vocal department and the Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra Odissi Research Centre, where he served as the chief executive.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|author=Minati Singha|date=2 Aug 2013|title=Odissi music must get classical tag: Ramahari Das {{!}} Bhubaneswar News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/Odissi-music-must-get-classical-tag-Ramahari-Das/articleshow/21539294.cms|access-date=2020-11-28|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> He is one of the chief architects of ''Sangita Sudhakara Balakrushna Dash foundation'' that organises an annual three-day festival of Odissi music.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An evening in memory of Odissi music legend|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2010/jun/18/an-evening-in-memory-of-odissi-music-legend-124632.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207094855/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2010/jun/18/an-evening-in-memory-of-odissi-music-legend-124632.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 December 2020|access-date=2020-11-28|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

Guru Ramhari Das' ''[https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLjBoYM7VRm8u7rGihWV1L6Moy2TiGg8HA Odissi Sangita Pathasala]'' is a series of graded lessons on Odissi music available for free on YouTube, in which Das himself teaches the history of Odissi music, core musical concepts, ''shastra''s (treatises) with an individual treatment of ''raga''s and songs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Das|first=Ramhari|title=Pathshala - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLjBoYM7VRm8u7rGihWV1L6Moy2TiGg8HA|access-date=2020-11-28|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

== Institution ==
[[File:Prof. Ramhari Das giving Lecture on Odissi Music.jpg|thumb|316x316px|Das presenting a paper in a conference organised by [[Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi]]]]

Das is acclaimed for his efforts to develop musical awareness and education in Odisha. He has conducted Odissi music recitals in several educational institutions through [[SPIC MACAY]].<ref name=":0" />

He has established the ''[[Ramhari Das Odissi Gurukula]]'' in the village of Biragobindapura in the Puri district.<ref name=":2" /> The Gurukula is a training-cum-research institute that imparts education in Odissi music & dance and organises workshops & seminars.<ref name=":0" /> Students are trained in Odissi classical vocal, [[Mardala|Odissi Mardala]] and Odissi Bina (Veena) by Guru Ramhari Das, Guru [[Dhaneswar Swain]] & Guru [[Ramarao Patra]] respectively. It is the only institution in the state that imparts training in Odissi Bina (Veena).<ref>{{Cite web|title=72-year-old Veena player of Odisha reviving the glory of the instrument|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/good-news/2019/aug/31/72-year-old-veena-player-of-odisha-reviving-the-glory-of-the-instrument-2027118.html|access-date=2020-11-28|website=The New Indian Express|date=31 August 2019 }}</ref> An annual festival called ''Gurukula Utsav'' is conducted to showcase diverse facets of Odissi music through curated performances.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-31|title=Gurukul Utsav – a befitting birthday bash for Guru Ramahari Das|url=https://thesamikhsya.com/entertainment/gurukul-utsav-a-befitting-birthday-bash-for-guru-ramahari-das|access-date=2020-11-28|website=The Samikhsya|language=en-US}}</ref>
[[File:Guru Ramhari Das.jpg|thumb|Ramhari Das giving a lecture-demonstration on Odissi music]]

== Awards and honours ==
Das has received various titles and awards including the central and Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi awards.<ref name=":7" />
* [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] (2008)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" />
*[[Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi]] Award (2008)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2011|title=Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademy Award Winners (1970-2012)|url=http://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissaannualreference/ORA-2011/pdf/104-108.pdf|journal=Odisha Reference Annual - 2011|publisher=Government of Odisha|pages=104–108|archive-date=8 December 2020|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208221126/http://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissaannualreference/ORA-2011/pdf/104-108.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*Orissa Dance Academy, Bhubaneswar<ref name=":1" />
*Utkal Sahitya Kala Parishad, Cuttack<ref name=":1" />
*[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Samman]], awarded by the President of India<ref name=":0" />
*Guru Singhari Samman from [[Guru Gopal Panda Odissi Academy]], Bhubaneswar<ref>{{Cite web|last=Das|first=Ramhari|date=2019|title=Guru Gopal Panda Odissi Academy|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AgXgDwQb7rQ|website=YouTube}}</ref>
*Jadumani Das Saraswata Pratibha Samman (2017)
*Guru Sahadev Padhi Memorial Award (2019)

== Published works ==

* ''Odissi Sangitara Parampara O Prayoga (2004)''<ref name=":3" />
* ''Sangita Sangya (1989‌)''<ref name=":4" />
* ''Alankara Ratnabali (1984)''<ref name=":5" />

== See also ==
{{Odissi Classical Music sidebar}}
* [[Odissi music]]
* [[Mardala]]
* [[Gita Govinda]]
* ''[[Gitaprakasa]]''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ramhari Das}}

* [http://www.odissigurukul.org/ Website of Ramhari Das Odissi Gurukula]
* [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCfuijMzIASFdv3b2zBM7ylg YouTube channel of Ramhari Das Odissi Gurukula]
*[https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLjBoYM7VRm8u7rGihWV1L6Moy2TiGg8HA ''Odissi Sangita Pathasala'', graded lessons on Odissi music by Guru Ramhari Das]
* [https://www.facebook.com/odissigurukula/ Facebook page of Ramhari Das Odissi Gurukula]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nsvuH0_OQuY Introduction to Odissi music by Guru Ramhari Das]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnuKht8uJvM Interview of Guru Ramhari Das]

{{Odissi music}}
{{Odia culture}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Das, Ramhari}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Odissi music]]
[[Category:People from Balasore district]]
[[Category:1953 births]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Odisha Sangeet Natak Akademi award]]
[[Category:Disciples of Balakrushna Dash]]

Chachi Mug

2025-06-22T07:42:12Z

Loz12: new - done

{{short description|Mountain in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Chachi Mug
| other_name =
| photo = Chachi Mug.jpg
| photo_caption = North aspect
| elevation_m = 5768
| elevation_ref =<ref name=peakvisor>{{cite web|url=https://peakvisor.com/peak/chachi-mug.html|title=Chachi Mug|website=peakvisor.com|access-date=June 20, 2025}}</ref>
| prominence_m = 805
| prominence_ref=<ref name=peakvisor/>
| isolation_km = 5.47
| isolation_ref =<ref name=peakvisor/>
| parent_peak = Goplang Goh<ref name=peakvisor/>
| range = [[Himalayas]]
| location =
| country = [[India]]
| region_type = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| region = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| district = [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul and Spiti]]
| map = India
| map_caption = Location of Chachi Mug in India
| label_position = bottom
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 8
| mapframe-caption = Interactive map of Chachi Mug
| coordinates = {{Coord|32.533492|N|77.134073|E|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref =<ref name=peakvisor/>
| first_ascent =
| rock =
}}

'''Chachi Mug''' is a mountain in [[India]].

==Description==
Chachi Mug is a {{Convert|5768|m|ft|abbr=off|adj=on}} summit in the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=peakvisor/> The mountain is situated in the state of [[Himachal Pradesh]], {{convert|150.|km|mi}} north of the capital city of [[Shimla]]. Precipitation runoff from this mountain's south slope drains into the Chandra River and the north slope drains into the Bhaga River, and these two rivers converge {{convert|12|km|mi}} west of the peak to form the [[Chenab River]]. [[Topographic relief]] is significant as the summit rises 2,770 metres (9,088 ft) above the Chandra valley in {{convert|6|km|mi|spell=in}} and 2,620 metres (8,596 ft) above the Bhaga valley in {{convert|5|km|mi|spell=in}}. The summit elevation is also reported as 5,765 metres,<ref>''Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Seasonal Snow Cover, 28–30 April 1983, New Delhi, Volume 1'', 1985, Manglik Prakashan, p. 349.</ref> and 5,730 metres.<ref>Open Topo Map, Retrieved June 20, 2025.</ref>

==Climate==
Based on the [[Köppen climate classification]], Chachi Mug is located in a [[tundra climate]] zone with cold, snowy winters, and cool summers.<ref name=Peel>{{cite journal | author = Peel, M. C. |author2=Finlayson, B. L. |author3=McMahon, T. A. | year = 2007 | title = Updated world map of the Köppen−Geiger climate classification | journal = Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. | volume = 11 |issue=5 |page=1633 |doi=10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P | issn = 1027-5606}}</ref> Weather systems are forced upwards by the Himalaya mountains ([[orographic lift]]), causing heavy precipitation in the form of rainfall and snowfall. July through September is the monsoon season. The months of April, May and June offer the most favorable weather for viewing or climbing this mountain.<ref>[https://travelerbibles.com/best-time-to-visit-himalayas-india/ ''Best Time to Visit Himalayas India – Peak Adventure Season''], Lindsey Tramuta, May 7, 2025, travelerbibles.com, Retrieved June 20, 2025.</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Snow Peak Gemur Lahaul Oct22 A7C 03500.jpg|North face
File:Youngzin Gemur Khar Lahaul Jun24 A7CR 00176.jpg|from Gemur
File:Khangsar Mountains View Lahaul Jul16 D32 13399.jpg
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Geology of the Himalayas]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* Weather: [https://peakvisor.com/peak/chachi-mug.html Chachi Mug]

{{Geographic Location 2
| Center = Chachi Mug
| North = Gemur
| Northeast = Goplang Goh
| East = Gephan Lake
| Southeast = Gepang Goh
| South = Chandra River
| Southwest = [[National Highway 505 (India)|National Highway 505]]
| West = [[Kyelang]]
| Northwest = Bhaga River
}}
{{Portal bar|Mountains|Geography|Geology}}

[[Category:Five-thousanders of the Himalayas]]
[[Category:Mountains of India]]
[[Category:Mountains of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Geography of Lahaul and Spiti district]]

Blocking (martial arts)

2025-06-19T16:37:59Z

Loz12: updated page

{{short description|Martial arts move}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{unreferenced|date=November 2012}}
{{essay|date=November 2012}}
}}

{{infobox Chinese
|title = Blocking
|pic = High kick block.jpg
|picsize =
|piccap = A fighter raises his hands to block the opponent's [[roundhouse kick]].
}}In [[martial arts]], '''blocking''' is the act of stopping or deflecting an opponent's attack for the purpose of preventing injurious contact with the body. A block usually consists of placing a limb across the line of the attack.

== Examples in specific arts ==
Styles and types of blocking, as well as terminology, vary widely among the various martial arts. In Japanese martial arts such as [[Karate]], these techniques are referred to as ''uke waza''. Examples include [[Age Uke|''age uke'']] (rising block) and ''shuto uke'' (knife hand guarding block). In Korean martial arts such as [[taekwondo]], these techniques are referred to as {{Transliteration|ko|[[makgi]]}}(막기), with some examples being {{Transliteration|ko|chukyeo makgi}} (rising block) and {{Transliteration|ko|onkal daebi makgi}} (knifehand guarding block). Some martial arts, such as [[Capoeira]], reject blocking techniques completely as they consider them too inefficient. In Capoeira, they use evasion instead of blocking.

==Types of blocks==
[[File:USMC-18944.jpg|thumb|Palm block]]

=== Inside blocks ===
An inside block deflects a [[Strike (attack)|strike]] away from the defender and away from the attacker. For example, against a straight punch to the face, an inside forearm block would aim to meet the inside of the forearm of the attacker, pushing the punch outward, leaving the opponents facing each other which also helps in counterattack.

=== Outside blocks ===
An outside block deflects a [[Strike (attack)|strike]] away from the defender and across the attacker. For example, against a straight punch to the face, an outside forearm block would aim to meet the outside forearm of the attacker, pushing the punch outward, leaving the defender slightly to the side of the strike causing it to miss. Typically, because of the angles involved, inward blocks are used against attacks aimed at the torso.

=== High blocks ===
[[Image:EVD-kumite-042.jpg|thumb|A high block against a face punch]]
A high block deflects a downward strike such as a hammer fist, a stick or a face punch from a taller opponent. The chamber starts low with the hand in a relaxed fist across the abdomen with the palm facing inward and in high block, face punch should be blocked in diagonal shape

=== Low blocks ===
[[Image:EVD-kata-230.jpg|thumb|A low block against a low [[crescent kick]]]]
A low block deflects an inward strike directed at the stomach or ribs such as a [[roundhouse kick]].

=== Parries ===
{{further|Parry (fencing)}}
Parries are executed against the attacker by quickly pushing their arm or leg away to the right or left side( as it is considered as a block) and counterattacking when the procedure is done.

===Other types of blocks and alternatives===
More complex blocks include the circular block, X block, high X block, twin forearm guarding block, hooking block, and pole block.

Offensive techniques can also be used to block. For example, a [[kick]] or palm [[strike (attack)|strike]] can be used to neutralize an incoming blow. It is also common to use the knee to block leg attacks from an opponent.

Blocks are considered by some to be the most direct and least subtle of defensive techniques. Other ways of avoiding attack include evasion, trapping, slipping and deflection of the oncoming attack; this approach is often referred to as the application of 'soft' techniques (see [[hard and soft (martial arts)]]).

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161030152611/http://www.uk-martialartist.co.uk/articles/animatedkarateblocks.php Animated examples of Karate blocks]
*[http://exershare.com/video/Blocking__Doding_Techniques_1.aspx Examples of blocking and dodging]

{{karate schools}}
{{martial arts}}

[[Category:Blocking (martial arts)]]
[[Category:Boxing terminology]]
[[Category:Kickboxing terminology]]

Khejuri I

2025-06-07T18:36:06Z

Loz12: slightly expand information for clarity and fixed typos

{{About|the community development block in West Bengal, India|1. its another namesake community development block|Khejuri II|2. its namesake village|Khejuri|3. its namesake assembly constituency|Khejuri (Vidhan Sabha constituency)}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Khejuri I
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Community development block
| image_skyline = Khejuri view.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Typical view of Khejuri rural area
|image_map = File:Khejuri-I in Purba Medinipur (West Bengal).svg
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|21.8522581|N|87.7852249|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Purba Medinipur district|Purba Medinipur]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Community development block in India|Community development block]]
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 130.51
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 5
| population_total = 132,992
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 721430 (Haria) 721432 (Kalagachia)
| area_code = 03224
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#WB.E2.80.94West Bengal|WB]]-29, [[List of RTO districts in India#WB.E2.80.94West Bengal|WB]]-30, [[List of RTO districts in India#WB.E2.80.94West Bengal|WB]]-31, [[List of RTO districts in India#WB.E2.80.94West Bengal|WB]]-32, [[List of RTO districts in India#WB.E2.80.94West Bengal|WB]]-33
| blank1_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank1_info_sec1 = 88.90%
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Kanthi (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kanthi]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Khejuri (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Khejuri]]
| website = {{URL|purbamedinipur.gov.in/}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-WB]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Khejuri I''' is a [[Community development block in India|community development block]] that forms an administrative division in [[Contai subdivision]] of [[Purba Medinipur district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Geography==
Purba Medinipur district is part of the lower [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] and [[Eastern coastal plains]]. Topographically, the district can be divided into two parts – (a) almost entirely flat plains on the west, east and north, (b) the coastal plains on the south. The vast expanse of land is formed of [[alluvium]] and is composed of younger and coastal alluvial. The elevation of the district is within 10 metres above mean sea level. The district has a long coastline of 65.5 km along its southern and south eastern boundary. Five coastal CD Blocks, namely, Khejuri II, Contai II (Deshapran), Contai I, Ramnagar I and II, are occasionally affected by cyclones and tornadoes. Tidal floods are quite regular in these five CD Blocks. Normally floods occur in 21 of the 25 CD Blocks in the district. The major rivers are Haldi, Rupnarayan, Rasulpur, Bagui and Keleghai, flowing in north to south or south-east direction. River water is an important source of irrigation. The district has a low 899 hectare forest cover, which is 0.02% of its geographical area.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.dcmsme.gov.in/dips/PURBA%20MIDNAPORE-wb.pdf | title = Brief Industrial Profile of Purba Midnapur District | publisher = Ministry of Micro Small and Medium Industries, Government of India | access-date = 29 June 2016 | archive-date = 12 October 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161012093502/http://www.dcmsme.gov.in/dips/PURBA%20MIDNAPORE-wb.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262525164 |title = Mapping Dynamics of land utilization and its changing Patterns of Purba Medinipure District - W.B | access-date = 29 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Purba%20Medinipur.pdf| title = District Human Development Report: Purba Medinipur| work = Chapter I Introduction| publisher = Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, 2011| access-date = 29 June 2016| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160923122628/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Purba%20Medinipur.pdf| archive-date = 23 September 2016| url-status = dead}}</ref>

Kamarda, a constituent panchayat of Khejuri I block, is located at {{coord|21.8522581|N|87.7852249|E|format=dms|}}.

Khejuri I CD Block is bounded by [[Bhagabanpur II]] and [[Nandigram II]] CD Blocks in the north, [[Nandigram I]] and [[Khejuri II]] CD Blocks in the east, [[Contai II]] and [[Contai III]] CD Blocks in the south and [[Bhagabanpur II]] CD Block in the west.

It is located 45 km from [[Tamluk]], the district headquarters.

Khejuri I CD Block has an area of 130.51 km2. It has 1 [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|panchayat samity]], 6 [[gram panchayat]]s, 93 gram sansads (village councils), 42 [[mouza]]s and 42 inhabited villages. [[Janka, Contai#Police station|Khejuri]] police station serves this block.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Purba Medinipur | work = Tables 2.1, 2.2 | publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 29 March 2019 | archive-date = 21 January 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | url-status = dead }}</ref> Headquarters of this CD Block is at [[Kamarda]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1919_PART_A_DCHB_PURBA%20MEDINIPUR.pdf |title = District Census Handbook: Purba Medinipur | work= Map of Purba Medinipur with CD Block HQs and Police Stations |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 9 November 2016 }}</ref>

[[Gram panchayat]]s of Khejuri I block/ panchayat samiti are: Birbandar, Heria, Kalagechia, Kamarda, Lakshi and Tikashi.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbprd.gov.in/HtmlPage/PANCHAYATS.aspx |title = Directory of District, Subdivision, Panchayat Samiti/ Block and Gram Panchayats in West Bengal |work = Purba Medinipur - Revised in March 2008 | publisher= Panchayats and Rural Development Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 22 June 2016}}</ref>

==Demographics==

===Population===
As per [[2011 Census of India]] Khejuri I CD Block had a total population of 132,992, all of which were rural. There were 68,494 (52%) males and 64,498 (48%) females. Population below 6 years was 15,925. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Castes]] numbered 17,744 (13.34%) and [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribes]] numbered 169 (0.13%).<ref name=census2011>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = C.D. Block Wise Primary Census Abstract Data(PCA) | work= 2011 census: West Bengal – District-wise CD Blocks|publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | access-date = 1 July 2016}}</ref>

As per 2001 census, Khejuri I block had a total population of 114,645, out of which 58,891 were males and 55,754 were females. Khejuri I block registered a population growth of 14.94 per cent during the 1991-2001 decade. Decadal growth for the combined Midnapore district was 14.87 per cent.<ref name=census>{{cite web | url =http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_15.htm | title = Provisional population totals, West Bengal, Table 4, (erstwhile) Medinipur District | access-date = 7 June 2016 | work = Census of India 2001 | publisher = Census Commission of India|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110928205819/http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_15.htm|archive-date=September 28, 2011}}</ref> Decadal growth in West Bengal was 17.84 per cent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |title=Provisional Population Totals, West Bengal. Table 4 |access-date= 17 July 2016 |work=Census of India 2001 |publisher=Census Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041813/http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>

Large villages (with 4,000+ population) in Khejuri I CD Block (2011 census figures in brackets): Patna (5,772), Kulta (4,576), Chingur Dania (6,016), Jahanabad (7,174), Kamarda (11,658), Krishna Nagar (6,328), Mohati (4,761), Herya Atmarampur (4,102), Lakhi (13,109) and Tikashi (10,505).<ref name=census2011/>

Other villages in Khejuri I CD Block (2011 census figures in brackets): Kala Gachhia (2,277).<ref name=census2011/>

===Literacy===
As per 2011 census the total number of literates in Khejuri I CD Block was 104,075 (88.90% of the population over 6 years) out of which 56,122 (54%) were males and 47,953 (46%) were females.<ref name=census2011/>

As per the 2011 census, literacy in Purba Medinipur district was 87.02%.<ref name=census3-2011>{{cite web| url = http://www.census2011.co.in/census/district/19-purba-medinipur.html |title = Purba Medinipur (East Midnapore) District: Census 2011 data | work= 2016 Digital Trends |publisher= Census Population 2015 Data | access-date = 27 June 2016}}</ref> Purba Medinipur had the highest literacy amongst all the districts of West Bengal in 2011.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/districtlist/west+bengal.html |title = Districts of West Bengal | work= High Literacy |publisher= Census Population 2015 Data | access-date = 27 June 2016}}</ref>

See also – [[List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate]]

{{Literacy in CD Blocks of Purba Medinipur district|collapsible=y}}

===Language and religion===

{{bar box
|title=Religion in Khejuri I CD block (2011)<ref name="religion"/>
|titlebar=#FCD116
|left1=
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hinduism]]|darkorange|91.11}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in West Bengal|Islam]]|green|8.73}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.16}}
}}

In 2011 census Hindus numbered 121,175 and formed 91.11% of the population in Khejuri I CD Block. Muslims numbered 11,614 and formed 8.73% of the population. Others numbered 203 and formed 0.16% of the population.<ref name="religion">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11396/download/14509/DDW19C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> In 2001, Hindus made up 92.29% and Muslims 7.68% of the population respectively.<ref name=censusreligion2001>{{cite web| url = https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/21481/download/24613/PC01_C01_19.xls|title = Table C01 Population by Religious Community: West Bengal |publisher = [[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |date=2001}}</ref>

[[Bengali language|Bengali]] is the predominant language, spoken by 99.92% of the population.<ref name="languages">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10226/download/13338/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1900.XLSX |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Rural poverty==
The District Human Development Report for Purba Medinipur has provided a CD Block-wise data table for [[Human Poverty Index|Modified Human Poverty Index]] of the district. Khejuri I CD Block registered 25.55 on the MHPI scale. The CD Block-wise mean MHPI was estimated at 24.78. Eleven out of twentyfive CD Blocks were found to be severely deprived in respect of grand CD Block average value of MHPI (CD Blocks with lower amount of poverty are better): All the CD Blocks of Haldia and Contai subdivisions appeared backward, except Ramnagar I & II, of all the blocks of Egra subdivision only Bhagabanpur I appeared backward and in Tamluk subdivision none appeared backward.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Purba%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Purba Medinipur | work = May 2011. Pages: 2214-215 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 28 March 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160923122628/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Purba%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 23 September 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Economy==

===Livelihood===
In Khejuri I CD Block in 2011, total workers formed 38.30% of the total population and amongst the class of total workers, cultivators formed 12.59%, agricultural labourers 46.69%, household industry workers 4.31% and other workers 36.41.%.<ref name=handbook2014>{{cite web | url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Purba Medinipur | work = Tables 2.7, 2.1, 8.2, 16.1, 17.2, 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 20.1, 21.2, 4.4, 3.1, 3.3 – arranged as per use | publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 29 March 2019 | archive-date = 21 January 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | url-status = dead }}</ref>

===Infrastructure===
There are 42 inhabited villages in Khejuri I CD block. All 42 villages (100%) have power supply. All 42 villages (100%) have drinking water supply. 16 villages (38.1%) have post offices. 41 villages (97.62%) have telephones (including landlines, public call offices and mobile phones). 10 villages (23.81%) have a pucca (paved) approach road and 15 villages (35.71%) have transport communication (includes bus service, rail facility and navigable waterways). 20 villages (47.62%) have [[Primary Agricultural Credit Society|agricultural credit societies]]. 8 villages (19.05%) have banks.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1919_PART_A_DCHB_PURBA%20MEDINIPUR.pdf |title = District Census Handbook Purba Medinipur, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work = Page 93 Table 36: Distribution of villages according to availability of different amenities, 2011 | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 30 March 2019}}</ref>

In 2007-08, around 40% of rural households in the district had electricity.<ref name=humandev2>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Purba%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Purba Medinipur | work = May 2011. Pages: 26, 30-33, 37, 61-63, 89-94 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 28 March 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160923122628/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Purba%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 23 September 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

In 2013-14, there were 73 fertiliser depots, 10 seed stores and 21 [[Public distribution system|fair price shops]] in the CD Block.<ref name=handbook2014/>

===Agriculture===
{{Pie chart
|caption= '''Persons engaged in agriculture in Khejuri I CD Block'''
|value1= 18.52
|label1 = Bargadars
|value2 = 24.99
|label2 = Patta holders
|value3 = 1.61
|label3 = Small farmers
|value4 = 24.69
|label4 = Marginal farmers
|value5 = 30.19
|label5= Agricultural labourers}}

According to the District [[Human Development Report]] of Purba Medinipur: The agricultural sector is the lifeline of a predominantly rural economy. It is largely dependent on the Low Capacity Deep Tubewells (around 50%) or High Capacity Deep Tubewells (around 27%) for irrigation, as the district does not have a good network of canals, compared to some of the neighbouring districts. In many cases the canals are drainage canals which get the backflow of river water at times of high tide or the rainy season. The average size of land holding in Purba Medinipur, in 2005-06, was 0.73 hectares against 1.01 hectares in West Bengal.<ref name=humandev2/>

In 2013-14, the total area irrigated in Khejuri I CD Block was 3,962 hectares, out of which 175 hectares were irrigated by canal water, 2,940 hectares by tank water (there were 14,885 tanks in Khejuri I CD Block), 745 hectares by deep tube well, 52 hectares by shallow tube well and 50 hectares by other means.<ref name=handbook2014/>

Although the Bargadari Act of 1950 recognised the rights of [[bargadar]]s to a higher share of crops from the land that they tilled, it was not implemented fully. Large tracts, beyond the prescribed limit of land ceiling, remained with the rich landlords. From 1977 onwards major land reforms took place in West Bengal. Land in excess of land ceiling was acquired and distributed amongst the peasants.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/24%20pgsSouth/s24prg_main.htm | title = District Human Development Report: South 24 Parganas | work = (1) Chapter 1.2, South 24 Parganas in Historical Perspective, pages 7-9 (2) Chapter 3.4, Land reforms, pages 32-33 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, 2009 | access-date = 29 March 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161005044029/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/24%20pgsSouth/s24prg_main.htm | archive-date = 5 October 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Following [[Land reform in India|land reforms]] land ownership pattern has undergone transformation. In 2013-14, persons engaged in agriculture in Khejuri I CD Block could be classified as follows: [[bargadar]]s 18.52%, patta (document) holders 24.99%, small farmers (possessing land between 1 and 2 hectares) 1.61%, marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 24.69% and agricultural labourers 30.19%.<ref name=handbook2014/>

In 2013-14, Khejuri I CD Block produced 14,253 tonnes of [[Rice#Ecotypes and cultivars|Aman paddy]], the main winter crop, from 8,756 hectares, 3,061 tonnes of Boro paddy, the spring crop, from 1,088 hectares, 325 tonne of jute from 24 hectares and 5,599tonnes of potatoes from 238 hectares. It also produced pilses and oilseeds.<ref name=handbook2014/>

[[Betel]]vine is a major source of livelihood in Purba Medinipur district, particularly in Tamluk and Contai subdivisions. Betelvine production in 2008-09 was the highest amongst all the districts and was around a third of the total state production. In 2008-09, Purba Mednipur produced 2,789 tonnes of [[Cashew|cashew nuts]] from 3,340 hectares of land.<ref name=humandev2/>

{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; font-size: 85%; background:#ffffcc; color:black; width:20em; max-width: 25%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
! style="background-color:#cccccc;" | Concentration of Handicraft Activities in CD Blocks
|-
| style="text-align: left;" |
* '''Horn Craft''' - Kolaghat
* '''Pata Chitra''' - Chandipur, Nandakumar
* '''Sea Shell''' – Ramnagar I & II
* '''Mat & Mat Diversified Products''' – Ramnagar I, Egra I & II, Patashpur I
* '''Brass & Bell Metal''' – Ramnagar I, Mahisadal, Patashpur II, Egra I
* '''Diversified Jute Products''' – Ramnagar II, Nandakumar, Kolaghat, Shahid Matangini
* '''Cane & Bamboo Products''' - Chandipur, Nandakumar, Kolaghat, Shahid Matangini
* '''Sola Craft''' - Tamluk, Kolaghat
* '''Pottery/Terracotta''' - Panskura, Tamluk, Sahid Matangini, Nandakumar
* '''Wood Craft''' - Tamluk
* '''Zari work'''- Sutahta, Mahisadal, Haldia, Nandakumar
Source: District Human Development Report, Purba Medinipur, Page 97
|}

===Pisciculture===
Purba Medinipur's net district domestic product derives one fifth of its earnings from fisheries, the highest amongst all the districts of West Bengal.<ref name=humandev2/> The nett area available for effective pisciculture in Khejuri I CD Block in 2013-14 was 720.15 hectares. 3,615 persons were engaged in the profession and approximate annual production was 27,438 quintals.<ref name=handbook2014/>

===Banking===
In 2013-14, Khejuri I CD Block had offices of 4 commercial banks and 2 [[Regional Rural Bank|gramin banks]].<ref name=handbook2014/>

===Backward Regions Grant Fund===
Medinipur East district is listed as a backward region and receives financial support from the [[Backward Regions Grant Fund]]. The fund, created by the Government of India, is designed to redress regional imbalances in development. As of 2012, 272 districts across the country were listed under this scheme. The list includes 11 districts of West Bengal.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.panchayat.gov.in/documents/10198/0/BRGFFINALGUIDELINES.pdf | title = Backward Regions Grant Funds: Programme Guidelines | publisher = Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India | access-date = 22 September 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171030225317/http://www.panchayat.gov.in/documents/10198/0/BRGFFINALGUIDELINES.pdf | archive-date = 30 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=84879 | title= Backward Regions Grant Fund| work= Press Release, 14 June 2012 |publisher= Press Information Bureau, Government of India | access-date = 22 September 2019}}</ref>

==Transport==
{{Howrah–Kharagpur line |collapse=y}}

Khejuri I CD Block has 4 ferry services, 8 originating/ terminating bus routes. The nearest railway station is 15 km from the CD Block headquarters.<ref name=handbook2014/>

Henria is a station on the [[Howrah-Kharagpur line|Tamluk-Digha line]], constructed in 2003-04.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://indiarailinfo.com/train/timetable/santragachi-digha-emu-68689/7751/1725/1728 | title = 68689 Santragachi-Digha EMU | work= Time Table | publisher = indiarailinfo |access-date = 30 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ser.indianrailways.gov.in/uploads/files/1427346652869-BNR%20history.pdf | title = Year of construction of important BG lines | work = History | publisher = South Eastern Railway | access-date = 1 July 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150513014650/http://www.ser.indianrailways.gov.in/uploads/files/1427346652869-BNR%20history.pdf | archive-date = 13 May 2015 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

[[State Highway 4 (West Bengal)|SH 4]] connecting Jhalda (in Purulia district) and Digha (in Purba Medinipur district) passes through the western end of this block.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.wbtrafficpolice.com/state-highways.php |title = List of State Highways in West Bengal | publisher= West Bengal Traffic Police | access-date = 10 November 2016}}</ref>

==Education==
In 2013-14, Khejuri I CD Block had 107 primary schools with 5,182 students, 3 middle schools with 1,464 students, 16 high schools with 9,368 students and 8 higher secondary schools with 6,932 students. Khejuri I CD Block had 1 general college with 1,594 students, 2 technical/ professional institutes with 200 students, 249 institutions for special and non-formal education with 10,053 students.<ref name=handbook2014/>

As per the 2011 census, in Khejuri I CD block, amongst the 42 inhabited villages, all villages had schools, 33 villages had two or more primary schools, 24 villages had at least 1 primary and 1 middle school and 19 villages had at least 1 middle and 1 secondary school.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1919_PART_A_DCHB_PURBA%20MEDINIPUR.pdf| title = District Census Handbook, Purba Mednipur, 2011, Series 20, Part XII A | work = Page 1091-92, Appendix I A: Villages by number of Primary Schools and Appendix I B: Villages by Primary, Middle and Secondary Schools | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. | access-date = 30 March 2019}}</ref>

==Healthcare==
In 2014, Khejuri I CD Block had 1 block primary health centre and 1 [[Primary Health Centre (India)|primary health centre]] with total 40 beds and 6 doctors (excluding private bodies). It had 20 family welfare sub centres. 3,093 patients were treated indoor and 76,421 patients were treated outdoor in the hospitals, health centres and subcentres of the CD Block.<ref name=handbook2014/>

Kamarda Block Primary Health Centre at [[Kamarda|Kamarda Bazar]] (with 30 beds) is the main medical facility in Khejuri I CD block. It is the Office of Block Medical officer of Health( BMOH) for Khejuri-1 block.There is a [[Primary Health Centre (India)|primary health centre]] at Heria (with 10 beds).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/ | title = Health & Family Welfare Department | work = Health Statistics | publisher = Government of West Bengal | access-date = 27 March 2019 | archive-date = 28 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211028134305/https://qphs.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-99a499ee367f0c1530476c81086270c8 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}
{{Purba Medinipur topics}}

[[Category:Community development blocks in Purba Medinipur district]]

Appayanaickenpatti

2025-05-23T05:16:44Z

Loz12: updated details

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}

'''Appayanaickenpatti''' is a village panchayat located in [[Virudhunagar taluk]] in [[Virudhunagar district]] of the [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2011 |title=Primary Census Abstract Data Tables – India: Final Population Totals |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711042331/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=27 April 2025 |website=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{coord|9.29154678|77.679533|display=title}}

[[Category:Villages in Virudhunagar district]]

{{Virudhunagar-geo-stub}}

Kalampala

2025-02-27T18:42:11Z

Loz12: Content refined for better accuracy

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Issues|
{{Notability|date=February 2025}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2025}}
}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kalampala
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|9|23|0|N|76|44|0|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 689674
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +91-473-
| registration_plate = KL- 62
| blank1_name_sec1 =
| blank1_info_sec1 = Ranni
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Pathanamthitta
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Kalampala''' is a village in [[Ranni, Kerala|Ranni]] Taluk and [[Mallapally]] Taluk in the state of [[Kerala|Kerala, India]]. It is {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Ranni Town and {{convert|22|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the [[Pathanamthitta district]] headquarters.

There is a church: St Thomas Marthoma Church.<ref name="k107">{{cite web | title=Parish – Page 48 – Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church | website=Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church – Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church | url=http://marthoma.in/parish/page/48/ | access-date=2025-02-27}}</ref>

The local school is MTLPS Kalampala.<ref name="z634">{{cite web | title=KERALA PRIVATE PRIMARY HEADMASTERS ASSOCIATION | website=KPPHA | url=https://kppha.in/page?id=our-members | access-date=2025-02-27}}</ref><ref name="d582">{{cite web | title=Kottanad District Pathanamthitta (Kerala) | website=Schools in India | url=https://schools.org.in/pathanamthitta/32120701714/mtlps-kalampala.html | access-date=2025-02-27}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Pathanamthitta district}}

[[Category:Villages in Pathanamthitta district]]

{{Pathanamthitta-geo-stub}}

Vairavanpatti

2025-02-27T15:37:41Z

Loz12: Stub - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vairavanpatti
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline = Vairavar Temple.png
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Vairavar Temple
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position = Right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|10.31|N|78.44|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India

| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]

| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sivaganga district|Sivaganga]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 824
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =TN63 [[List of RTO districts in India#TN.E2.80.94Tamil Nadu|TN]]-
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = Karaikudi
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Vairavanpatti''' is a village located on the way from [[Madurai]] and [[Karaikudi]] in [[Sivaganga]] district of Tamil Nadu, India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dinamalar.com/news/tamil-nadu-district-news-sivagangai/tourist-pongal-festival/3527383|title=வைரவன்பட்டியில் சுற்றுலா பொங்கல் விழா|date=15 August 2024|language=ta|work=[[Dinamalar]]}}</ref> This village derives its name from the temple dedicated to Lord Kala Bhairav who is known in [[Tamil language]] as Vairavan. It is 2 km from the [[Pillayarpatti]] village which is another famous pilgrimage center. It is one of the 9 temples held in high esteem by the [[Nagarathar]] Chettiar community of Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=327|title=Vairavan swamy Temple : Vairavan swamy Temple Details | Vairavan swamy- Vairavanpatti | Tamilnadu Temple | வைரவன் சுவாமி|website=temple.dinamalar.com}}</ref> The presiding deity here is Lord Valaroli Nathar and his consort Vadivudai Ammai. Bhairavar here is prominent, hence the name Vairavan-patti in Tamil.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/tags/vairavanpatti|title=Read all Latest Updates on and about Vairavanpatti|language=ta|website=[[Maalai Malar]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pillaiyarpattitemple.com/nagarathar_kovil.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621102237/http://www.pillaiyarpattitemple.com/nagarathar_kovil.html|archive-date=2019-06-21|title=NAGARATHAR TEMPLES}}</ref>

It is reachable from [[Karaikudi]] old bus stand. All the local buses connecting Tirupattur and Ponnamaravati are stopping in Vairavanpatti.

The village is in the R. Palakurichi panchayat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/neither-here-nor-there-panchayat-chooses-nota/article5850951.ece|title='Neither here nor there' panchayat chooses NOTA|date=30 March 2014|work=The Hindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330155131/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/neither-here-nor-there-panchayat-chooses-nota/article5850951.ece|archive-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Chettinad}}

[[Category:Villages in Sivaganga district]]

{{Sivagangai-geo-stub}}

2022 India Open (badminton)

2025-01-19T12:07:16Z

Loz12: started a info first draft

#REDIRECT [[2022 India Open]]

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Transgender rights in Tamil Nadu

2024-12-29T06:14:43Z

Loz12: started the info w/ infobox

#REDIRECT [[LGBTQ rights in Tamil Nadu]]

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