Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

List of Indian Bengali films of 1970

2026-05-08T09:54:56Z

KiaGreenwald: created redirect page

#REDIRECT [[List of Indian Bengali films of the 1970s]]{{Redirect category shell|{{R from merge}}{{R from history}}}}

Sree Neelakanta Government Sanskrit College, Pattambi

2026-05-06T11:44:53Z

KiaGreenwald: added a pg...

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox college
| name = SNGS College, Pattambi
| motto =
| type = Public
| image =
| established = {{Start date and age|1899||}}
| students =
| principal =
| accreditation = NAAC A+
| affiliation = [[University of Calicut]]
| dean =
| city = [[Pattambi]]
| state = [[Kerala]]
| country = [[India]]
| postcode = 679303
| coordinates = {{coord|10.809|76.199|type:edu|display=inline,title}}
| campus = Rural
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| doctoral =
| faculty =
| language = [[English language|English]]
| website = {{URL|https://sngscollege.org}}
}}

'''Sree Neelakanta Government Sanskrit College, Pattambi''', abbreviated as '''SNGS''', is a [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC A+]] graded government college located in [[Pattambi]] of [[Palakkad district]] in [[Kerala]], India. It is recognised as a ''Centre of Excellence'' in the field of higher education by the [[Government of Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/govt-college-pioneers-blended-learning/articleshow/76392469.cms|title = Kerala: Government college pioneers 'blended learning' | Kochi News - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sngscollege.org/profile/|title = Profile|date = 25 June 2017}}</ref>

==History==
The college was founded by renowned Sanskrit scholar [[Punnasseri Nambi Neelakanta Sharma]]. The college initially started as a Sanskrit school in 1899 and was upgraded to the 'Central Sanskrit College' for training for ''Vidwan'' and ''Siromani'' titles under the [[University of Madras]] in 1911.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/A-memorable-break/article16923766.ece|title = A memorable break|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 22 December 2016|last1 = Pradeep|first1 = K.}}</ref><ref>http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/chandy-promises-big-centenary-gift-to-college/article2959670.ece Centenary celebrations</ref> Later the college accredited under [[University of Calicut]].

==Academic programmes==
SNGC offers eleven undergraduate, six postgraduate and four research programmes in arts, science and commerce through sixteen departments, affiliated to the [[University of Calicut]].

==Notable alumni==
{{alumni|section|date=October 2022}}
* [[Kuttikrishna Marar]]
* [[P. Kunhiraman Nair]]
* [[P. P. Sumod]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://sngscollege.org}}
{{Educational Institutes in Palakkad}}
[[Category:Colleges in Kerala]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Palakkad district]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated with the University of Calicut]]
[[Category:Academic institutions formerly affiliated with the University of Madras]]
[[Category:1899 establishments in India]]

2001 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly car bombing

2026-05-06T09:46:07Z

KiaGreenwald: Created initial article v1

{{Short description|Islamist terror attack in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = 2001 Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly car bombing
| image =
| caption =
| location = [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|32.735|74.863|display=title,inline}}
| date = 1 October 2001
| time =
| timezone =
| type = 4 [[bombing]]s
| fatalities = 38 (+3 attackers)
| injuries = 60
| perps =
| perp = [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]]
| weapons = Firearms (Unsure), Explosives
}}

{{Terrorist attacks in India (since 2001)}}
On Monday, 1 October 2001, three militants belonging to [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]] carried out an attack on the [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] State [[Legislative Assembly]] complex in [[Srinagar]] using a [[Tata Sumo]] loaded with explosives, ramming it into the main gate with three [[fidayeen]] suicide bombers.<ref>[https://www.rediff.com/news/2001/oct/01kash1.htm Terror unleashes on J&K State Legislative Assembly]</ref><ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20011002/main1.htm Fidayeen storm J&K House, kill 29], [[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]], 2 October 2001.</ref> 38 people, plus the three attacker terrorists, were killed.<ref>{{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207154936/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1821/18210200.htm AN AUDACIOUS STRIKE]}}, ''[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]'', 13 October 2001.</ref>

==Attack==
The attack took place at about 2 pm, one hour after close of business. One terrorist attacker drove a [[Tata Sumo]] loaded with explosives to the main entrance and exploded it. The other militants entered the building and seized control. All militants were killed in the ensuing gunbattle which lasted several hours.<ref>[https://www.rediff.com/news/2001/oct/01jk.htm Bomb blast at J&K assembly entrance, 29 killed, 40 hurt], [[Rediff.com]], 1 October 2001.</ref> No lawmakers were killed as they were meeting in temporary facilities because the legislature building had recently been damaged in a fire.<ref>[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-oct-02-mn-52360-story.html 31 Killed in Attack on Kashmir Legislature], ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', 2 October 2001.</ref> Many senior leaders had already left the building. The speaker Mr Abdul Ahad Vakil was escorted to safety by the security forces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20011002/main1.htm|title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Main News|website=tribuneindia.com|access-date=2017-06-06}}</ref>

== Jaish‑e‑Mohammed Claim ==
[[Jaish-e-Mohammed]] claimed responsibility and named a Pakistani national Wajahat Hussain as the suicide bomber.<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1574225.stm Militants attack Kashmir assembly], [[BBC]], 1 October 2001.</ref>

== India’s Response to the Suicide Attack ==
Subsequently, India's Foreign Ministry issued a strongly worded statement aimed clearly at the government of Pakistan. "India cannot accept such manifestations of hate and terror from across its borders" said the statement. "There is a limit to India's patience."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708171116/http://premium.edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/south/10/01/india.kashmir/index.html Bombing at Kashmir assembly kills at least 29], [[CNN]], 1 October 2001.</ref> [[Farooq Abdullah]], chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir, eulogized the 38 victims and called for reprisal attacks on Pakistan, where the group blamed for the attack is based. "The time has come to wage a war against Pakistan and to bomb the militant training camps there", he said. "We are running out of patience."<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/04/world/world-briefing-asia-india-kashmir-mourns-38-attack-victims.html?exprod=permalink&partner=permalink World Briefing | Asia: India: Kashmir Mourns 38 Attack Victims], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 4 October 2001.</ref>

==See also==
* [[2006 Srinagar bombings]]
* [[2013 Srinagar attack]]
* [[List of terrorist incidents in India]]
*[[List of attacks on legislatures]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Kashmir conflict}}
{{Attacks on legislatures}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly car bombing, 2001}}
[[Category:21st-century mass murders in India]]
[[Category:Terrorist incidents in Jammu and Kashmir|Legislative Assembly car bombing, 2001]]
[[Category:Suicide bombings in 2001]]
[[Category:2001 mass murders]]
[[Category:Suicide car and truck bombings in India]]
[[Category:Terrorist incidents in India in 2001]]
[[Category:2000s in Jammu and Kashmir|Legislative Assembly car bombing, 2001]]
[[Category:Mass murders in Jammu and Kashmir|Legislative Assembly car bombing, 2001]]
[[Category:Attacks on legislatures in India]]
[[Category:Islamic terrorist incidents in 2001]]
[[Category:Car and truck bombings in 2001]]
[[Category:October 2001 in India]]
[[Category:October 2001 crimes in Asia]]
[[Category:Building bombings in India]]
[[Category:2001 building bombings]]
[[Category:2001 in Indian politics]]
[[Category:Attacks on government buildings and structures in Jammu and Kashmir|Legislative Assembly car bombing, 2001]]

Dharbandora taluka

2026-05-05T14:21:39Z

KiaGreenwald: Created Basic Pg Initial Version

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Dharbandora
| native_name = {{langx|kok|Dharbandode}}
| settlement_type = [[Taluka]]
| image_map = Dharbandora.png
| map_caption = Location of Dharbandora taluka in [[Goa]]
| coordinates = {{coord|15.385259|N|74.117948|E|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Goa]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kushavati district]]

| established_title = Carved out of [[Sanguem taluk|Sanguem]]
| established_date = 4 April 2011<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thegoan.net//dharbandora-no-one-cares-for-the-new-kid-on-the-%E2%80%9Cblock%E2%80%9D/2464.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210704173404/https://www.thegoan.net//dharbandora-no-one-cares-for-the-new-kid-on-the-%E2%80%9Cblock%E2%80%9D/2464.html|archive-date = 2021-07-04|title = Dharbandora: No one cares for the new kid on the "block"}}</ref>

| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = Dharbandora
| parts_type = [[Administrative divisions of India|Major villages]]
| parts_style =
| p1 =
Aglote
 Bandoli
 Codli
 Collem
 Caranzol
 Camarconda
 Cormonem
 Dharbandora
 Moissal
 Mollem
 Piliem
 Sancordem
 Sangod
 Sigao
 Sonauli
 Surla
| leader_title = Deputy Collector
| leader_name= Ramesh P. Naik<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://southgoa.nic.in/about-district/whos-who/|title=Who's Who | South Goa District | India}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = [[Tehsildar|Mamlatdar]]
| leader_name1 = Pravinjay Pandit
| leader_title2 = [[Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha constituency]]
| leader_name2 = -
| leader_title3 = [[Vidhan Sabha|Assembly constituency]]
| leader_name3 = [[Sanvordem (Goa Assembly constituency)|Sanvordem]]
| leader_title4 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
| leader_name4 = [[Ganesh Gaonkar]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/2122/2122-50-SII-EOG-1.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=goaprintingpress.gov.in |access-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314214148/https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/2122/2122-50-SII-EOG-1.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2022 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

| area_total_km2 =
| population_total = 30,000 to 40,000
| population_as_of = 2012
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto

| population_urban = 20%
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_title1 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy rate]]
| blank_name_sec1 = Rain
| blank_info_sec1 = Average of 500 mm to 750 mm
| website = {{URL|goa.gov.in}}
| footnotes =

| demographics1_info1 = 67%
| demographics1_title2 = Sex ratio
| demographics1_info2 = 840

| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#Goa|GA]]-12
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 4034XX, 4037XX
}}

'''Dharbandora''' is a [[Tehsils of India|''taluka'']] in the [[Kushavati district]] of [[Goa]] state, India, with an estimated population of 30,000 to 40,000.<ref name="Kaisuvker">
{{cite news
|last= Kaisuvker
|first= Suraj
|date= 24 March 2011
|title= New Dharbandora taluka from April 4
|url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-03-24/goa/29182008_1_taluka-tiswadi-and-ponda-ganjem
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130429024901/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-03-24/goa/29182008_1_taluka-tiswadi-and-ponda-ganjem
|url-status= dead
|newspaper=[[The Times of India|TOI]]
|archive-date= 29 April 2013}}
</ref>

==History==
The creation of a new Dharbandora Taluka, the 12th Taluka in Goa, was announced by the [[Chief Minister of Goa]] [[Digambar Kamat]] on 25 March 2010, in his budget speech before the [[Goa Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://goabudget.gov.in/assets/documents/speech/minister/2010-11.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=goabudget.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502170015/http://goabudget.gov.in/assets/documents/speech/minister/2010-11.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A Committee chaired by the Revenue Minister of Goa [[Jose Philip D'Souza]] steered the creation of the Taluka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/dharbandora-taluka-to-have-18-villages/articleshow/7102993.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502171831/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/dharbandora-taluka-to-have-18-villages/articleshow/7102993.cms|archive-date=2021-05-02|title=Dharbandora taluka to have 18 villages {{pipe}} Goa News - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

By a 16 March 2011 notification, the [[Government of Goa]] notified the 18 villages of Aglote, Bandoli, Camarconda, Caranzol, Codli, Colem, Cormonem, Darbandora, Gangem, Molem, Moissal, Piliem, Sancordem, Sangod, Sigao, Sonauli, Surla and [[Usgao]] to incorporate the Dharbandora Taluka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1011/1011-51-SI-OG.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=goaprintingpress.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328123235/https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1011/1011-51-SI-OG.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Gangem and [[Usgao]] were carved out from [[Ponda taluka]] while all the remaining villages were earlier a part of the [[Sanguem]] Taluka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/dharbandora-taluka-to-have-18-villages/articleshow/7102993.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502171831/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/dharbandora-taluka-to-have-18-villages/articleshow/7102993.cms|archive-date=2021-05-02|title=Dharbandora taluka to have 18 villages {{pipe}} Goa News - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> However, there was resistance from the people of Gangem and [[Usgao]] villages against the decision of including both villages in the Dharbandora Taluka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/residents-want-usgao-back-in-ponda-taluka/articleshow/7906809.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502172351/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/residents-want-usgao-back-in-ponda-taluka/articleshow/7906809.cms|archive-date=2021-05-02|title=Residents want Usgao back in Ponda taluka {{pipe}} Goa News - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Vide another notification dated 20 May 2011, the villages of Gangem and [[Usgao]] were reverted to Ponda taluka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/finally-usgao-ganjem-village-panchayat-reverted-to-ponda/articleshow/8542381.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502172952/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/finally-usgao-ganjem-village-panchayat-reverted-to-ponda/articleshow/8542381.cms|archive-date=2021-05-02|title=Finally, Usgao Ganjem village panchayat reverted to Ponda {{pipe}} Goa News - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-8-SI-OG.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=goaprintingpress.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328124610/https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-8-SI-OG.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Dharbandora Taluka came into existence as a part of the [[South Goa]] district on 4 April 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thegoan.net//dharbandora-no-one-cares-for-the-new-kid-on-the-%E2%80%9Cblock%E2%80%9D/2464.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210704173404/https://www.thegoan.net//dharbandora-no-one-cares-for-the-new-kid-on-the-%E2%80%9Cblock%E2%80%9D/2464.html|archive-date = 2021-07-04|title = Dharbandora: No one cares for the new kid on the "block"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Govt issues notification for Dharbandora taluka|date=19 March 2011|newspaper=[[The Navhind Times]]|url=http://www.navhindtimes.in/goa-news/govt-issues-notification-dharbandora-taluka|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429023609/http://www.navhindtimes.in/goa-news/govt-issues-notification-dharbandora-taluka|archivedate=29 April 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=19 April 2012}}</ref> Satish R. Prabhu was the first [[Tehsildar|Mamlatdar]] of the Dharbandora Taluka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-1-SII-OG.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=goaprintingpress.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328125541/https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-1-SII-OG.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Administration==
Dharbandora is a Sub Division headed by the Deputy Collector of Dharbandora. The Dharbandora Taluka is headed by the Mamlatdar and there also exists a Joint Mamlatdar. The Taluka also has other offices such as the Block Development Office, Zonal Agricultural Office,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-21-SII-OG.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=goaprintingpress.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502174816/https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-21-SII-OG.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Regional Transport Office, Civil Registrar-cum-Sub-Registrar, etc. The [[Government of Goa]] has already notified a new Sub-Treasury Office for Dharbandora,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-8-SII-OG.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=goaprintingpress.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502180330/https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/downloads/1112/1112-8-SII-OG.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> however, the same has not yet been established.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Citizen-Herald/Darbandora-awaits-treasury-office-after-6-years-of-formation/121855 |title=Herald: Darbandora awaits treasury office after 6 years of formation |website=www.heraldgoa.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502180606/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Citizen-Herald/Darbandora-awaits-treasury-office-after-6-years-of-formation/121855 |archive-date=2 May 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

A new Government Office Building Complex<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.goavidhansabha.gov.in/uploads/papers_laid_attached/14_file_PB-Coll-South-21.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=www.goavidhansabha.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502180507/https://www.goavidhansabha.gov.in/uploads/papers_laid_attached/14_file_PB-Coll-South-21.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> has been built in Dharbandora which will house all the government offices in Dharbandora.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2020/02/15/goanews/govt-mulls-forming-third-district-of-goa/|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210502180141/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2020/02/15/goanews/govt-mulls-forming-third-district-of-goa/|archive-date = 2021-05-02|title = Govt mulls forming third district of Goa - the Navhind Times}}</ref>

== Census Data 2011 ==
There is no reliable data for the demographics and literacy rate in this new Sub-Division of Goa. The primary reason is that it came into existence after the 2011 census.

==Tourism==
[[File:Mahadev Temple of Tambdi Surla.jpg|thumb|Mahadev Temple of Tambdi Surla]]
The famous [[Dudhsagar Falls]] on the [[Mandovi River]] are in [[Mollem]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/dudhsagar-falls-see-weakest-ever-start-to-season-with-mere-110-visitors/articleshow/78863817.cms|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210502181343/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/dudhsagar-falls-see-weakest-ever-start-to-season-with-mere-110-visitors/articleshow/78863817.cms|archive-date = 2021-05-02|title = Dudhsagar falls see weakest ever start to season with mere 110 visitors {{pipe}} Goa News - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The [[Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park]] are also situated in the Dharbandora Taluka. There are many [[ecotourism]] sites in Dharbandora. The Biodiversity Park at [[Mollem]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Mollem-Biodiversity-Park-opened/170693 |title=Herald: Mollem Biodiversity Park opened |website=www.heraldgoa.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505160433/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Mollem-Biodiversity-Park-opened/170693 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the Satpal [[arboretum]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/surla-locals-want-park-to-promote-areas-butterflies/articleshow/33792595.cms|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210505160842/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/surla-locals-want-park-to-promote-areas-butterflies/articleshow/33792595.cms|archive-date = 2021-05-05|title = Surla locals want 'park' to promote area's butterflies {{pipe}} Goa News - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref> are prominent.

Dharbandora Taluka is also home to prominent temples like the [[Mahadev Temple, Tambdi Surla]] and the Barabhumi Temples.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/a-cultural-treasure-in-the-woods/articleshow/45084108.cms|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210502181350/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/a-cultural-treasure-in-the-woods/articleshow/45084108.cms|archive-date = 2021-05-02|title = A cultural treasure in the woods {{pipe}} Goa News - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The Cave at Sigao is a protected monument.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Heritage-of-Shigao/82017 |title=Herald: Heritage of Shigao |website=www.heraldgoa.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502182137/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Heritage-of-Shigao/82017 |archive-date=2 May 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://daa.goa.gov.in/list |title=Archived copy |website=daa.goa.gov.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212045726/http://daa.goa.gov.in/list |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Geographic location
|Centre = Dharbandora|North = [[Satari taluk]]|Northeast = [[Joida]] taluk|East = [[Joida]] taluk|Southeast = [[Joida]] taluk|South = [[Sanguem taluk]]|Southwest = [[Ponda taluk]]|West = [[Ponda taluk]]|Northwest = [[Ponda taluk]]}}
{{Goa topics}}

[[Category:Talukas of Goa]]
[[Category:Geography of South Goa district]]

Sabarimala Temple

2026-05-03T06:48:53Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up new location.

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox Mandir
| name = Sabarimala Sree Dharma Sastha Temple
| image = Sabarimala 2.jpg
| caption = Sabarimala Main Shrine Complex
| map_type = India Kerala#India
| map_caption = Sabarimala Temple (Kerala)
| coordinates = {{coord|9|26|04.6|N|77|04|53.0|E|display=inline,title}}
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Kerala]]
| district = [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]]
| location = [[Sabarimala]]
| elevation_m = 1260
| deity = [[Ayyappan]] as a manifestation of Sree Dharma Shasta
| festivals = [[Makaravilakku]], [[Makara Sankranti]] (14 January)
| architecture = [[Kerala Architecture]] (Traditional Kerala Vastu Shastra)
| temple_board = [[Travancore Devaswom Board]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity =
| year_completed = 11th Century (Site of greater antiquity)
| creator = As per tradition Aryan Kerala Varman (Ayyappan), Pandalam King
| website = {{URL|https://sabarimala.kerala.gov.in/}}
| functional_status = Active (Regulated Pilgrimage Schedule)}}

The '''Sabarimala Sree Dharma Sastha Temple'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Sabarimala |url=https://sabarimala.kerala.gov.in/ |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=sabarimala.kerala.gov.in}}</ref> (Malayalam: ശബരിമല ശ്രീ ധർമ്മ ശാസ്താ ക്ഷേത്രം) ({{IPA|ml|ʃabəɾimala}}) is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to Lord [[Shasta (deity)|Sree Dharma Sastha]] where the deity is worshipped as [[Ayyappan|Lord Ayyappan]], the son of the deities [[Shiva]] and [[Mohini]] (female [[avatar]] of the god [[Vishnu]]),<ref>{{cite web |date=2019-08-04 |title=Mohini – The Only Female Avatar of Lord Vishnu |url=https://vedicfeed.com/mohini-female-avatar-of-lord-vishnu/ |publisher=Vedicfeed}}</ref> and is situated atop the [[Sabarimala (place)|Sabarimala hill]] in [[Pathanamthitta district]] of [[Kerala]], India. The temple is surrounded by 18 hills in the [[Periyar National Park|Periyar Tiger Reserve]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Story Of Sabarimala: Origin, Beliefs And Controversy Over Women Entry |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/the-story-of-sabarimala-origin-beliefs-and-controversy-on-women-entry-1933477 |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> It is one of the largest annual pilgrimage sites in the world, with an estimate of over 10 to 15 million devotees visiting every year.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-01-15 |title=Why millions throng Sabarimala shrine |newspaper=DailyBhaskar |url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/NAT-TOP-why-millions-throng-sabarimala-shrine-1755207.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116063414/http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/NAT-TOP-why-millions-throng-sabarimala-shrine-1755207.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2011 |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Indo-Americans shocked at Sabarimala tragedy |newspaper=Sify |url=http://www.sify.com/news/indo-americans-shocked-at-sabarimala-tragedy-news-international-lbpqadcabij.html |url-status=dead |access-date=2016-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515015423/http://www.sify.com/news/indo-americans-shocked-at-sabarimala-tragedy-news-international-lbpqadcabij.html |archive-date=2011-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-12-27 |title=Record collection at Sabarimala |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/record-collection-at-sabarimala/article6730315.ece
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232303/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/record-collection-at-sabarimala/article6730315.ece
|archive-date=2018-10-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-09-28 |title=Women to enter Sabarimala temple today: Weird laws against women from all over the world |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/sabarimala-temple-ends-ban-on-women-kerala-1351711-2018-09-28 |publisher=India Today}}</ref>

The temple is open for worship only during the days of ''Mandala Pooja'' (approximately 15 November to 26 December),<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://chennaivision.com/sabarimala-temple-opening-dates-2018/ |title=Sabarimala Temple Opening Dates 2018 to 2019 – Chennaivision |date=2018-01-01 |work=Chennaivision |access-date=2018-01-16 |archive-date=13 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113035503/https://chennaivision.com/sabarimala-temple-opening-dates-2018/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Makaravilakku]]'' or [[Makar Sankranti|Makara Sankranti]] (14 January), Maha Thirumal Sankranti (14 April), and the first five days of each [[Malayalam calendar|Malayalam month]]. The Sabarimala Temple serves as a prime example of the amalgamation of several religious traditions within the Indian context.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CK |first=Faisal |date=2018-11-20 |title=Sabarimala epitomises confluence of various faiths in India |url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/opinion/sabarimala-epitomises-confluence-of-various-faiths-in-india |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=National Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== Origins and legends ==

According to ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', after the [[Samudra Manthana|Samudra Manthan]] episode, the Hindu god [[Shiva]] and his wife Parvati visited [[Vaikuntha]] and met the god [[Vishnu]] and his wife [[Lakshmi]]. Shiva asked Vishnu to show him his famous and beautiful [[Mohini]] avatar. Vishnu transformed into Mohini, and Shiva immediately got aroused by her. Mohini started running away, and Shiva chased her from behind, causing Parvati and Lakshmi to hang their heads out of shame. Eventually, Mohini and Shiva reached a beautiful forest, and Shiva grabbed Mohini, laid her down on the ground beneath a flowering tree and had sex with her. Their homosexual union resulted in the conception of the deity [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]]. After which, Shiva loses his spiritual powers due to the act. Shiva and Mohini then return to their respective abodes. Shasta is also known as Hariharaputra, the son of Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiva). Shasta is eventually born from Mohini's thigh because Mohini does not have a real womb.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao |first=T.A. Gopinath |title=Elements of Hindu Iconography |year=1914 |publisher=Dalcassian Publishing Company |location=Delhi |pages=Vol.Two, Part II, p.486–487}}</ref> It is believed that Ayyappa is a form of Shasta.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jayashankar |first=S |title=Temples of Kerala |year=1997 |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |location=Trivandrum |pages=159}}</ref>

The worship of Shasta forms part of the ancient history of [[South India]].<ref>''Asian Mythologies'' |Yves Bonnefoy |University of Chicago Press, 15 May 1993</ref> There are many Shasta temples in South India and across the globe.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/shrines-for-sastha-in-eight-forms/article5425348.ece |title=Shrines for Sastha, in eight forms |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref>

Five Shasta temples, namely those in [[Kulathupuzha Sastha Temple|Kulathupuzha]], [[Aryankavu Sastha Temple|Aryankavu]], [[Achankovil Sastha Temple|Achankovil]], Sabarimala, and [[Ponnambalamedu|Ponnambalmedu]], are said to be linked to [[Parashurama]], an [[avatar]] of Vishnu.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Vaidyanathan |first=K.R |title=Temple and Legends of Kerala |publisher=BHARATIYA VIDYA BHAVAN |year=1982 |pages=70–75}}</ref> In Kulathupuzha, Shasta is venerated as a child deity. In the Aryankavu temple, he is worshipped as an adolescent ''[[Brahmacharya|Brahmachari]]''. The Achankovil temple is connected to the deity's [[Gṛhastha|Grihastha]] (householder stage), where he is shown sitting on a horse and holding a sword, along with his wives, Pushkala and Poorna. The Sabarimala temple is associated with the deity's [[Vānaprastha|Vanaprastha]] stage, and in the Ponnambalmedu or Kantamala temple, the deity is shown as the greatest ''[[Yogi]]''.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sekar |first=Radhika |title=The Sabarimalai Pilgrimage ad Ayyappan Cultus |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private limited |year=1992 |isbn=81-208-1056-2 |edition=1st |location=Delhi |pages=19}}</ref>

=== Legend of Manikandan ===
Sage Suta told his followers the story of how Ayyappa was born, according to ''Bhutnathopakhyanam'', a text for Ayyappan followers. After Goddess [[Durga]] killed the demon [[Mahishasura]], his sister [[Mahishi (demoness)|Mahishi]] arrived to take revenge on the ''devas'' (gods). After Mahishi performed a severe [[tapasya]], [[Brahma]] was pleased with her and gave Mahishi a boon that made her invincible, with the condition that only a human born of Vishnu and Shiva could kill her. Knowing that Vishnu and Shiva would never bring forth a child, Mahishi became arrogant and seized the earth and heavens, brutally killing all who worshipped a god. The gods were afraid and helpless, so they sought assistance from Vishnu. The union of Shiva and Vishnu, who took the avatar of Mohini, produced a son named Manikandan (the one who has a bell tied to his neck).

Manikandan was abandoned on the banks of the Pampa River in southern India. The emperor Rajashekhara of the Panthalam dynasty, who was childless, found this child. In the meantime, the queen delivered a baby. The prime minister disliked Manikandan and devised a scheme to eliminate him. He asked the queen to lie about her sickness, claiming that she could only be treated by consuming tiger's milk. Twelve-year-old Manikandan ventured into the wilderness in search of tiger's milk for his adoptive mother. On his journey through the forest, he killed Mahishi. The gods were pleased at Mahishi's death. [[Indra]], [[Agni]], [[Varuna]], [[Vayu]] and [[Kubera]] appeared before Ayyappan and told him that they would help him. The gods transformed into tigers, which Manikandan used to return to the kingdom. As soon as Rajashekhara saw Manikandan accompanied by tigers, Rajashekhara found out the truth behind the prime minister and proceeded to punish him, but Manikandan stopped him from doing so, stating that he had hastened the divine mission of killing Mahishi. Rajashekhara then bowed before Manikandan, who said that he needed a temple to live in. Manikandan asked his father and the citizens to accompany him. Manikandan shot an arrow into the sky. The arrow eventually landed at the summit of the Sabarimala hill, and Manikandan asked the king to build only 18 steps from the ground to the summit and then ascended to heaven.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sekar |first=Radhika |title=The Sabarimali Pilgrimage and Ayyappan Cultus |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited |year=1992 |isbn=81-208-1056-2 |edition=1st |location=Delhi |pages=15–16}}</ref>

Rajashekhara thought that 18 steps from the ground to a tall hill was impossible. [[Parashurama]] appeared before him and told the king he would help him build the temple. The temple was eventually built, and Parashurama installed a holy stone idol of Manikandan. The idol depicts Manikandan as Ayyappan, seated in a yogic posture, his right hand displaying the [[Abhayamudra|abhaya mudra]], his left hand resting on his left thigh, his legs bound by a cloth and seated on a pedestal.

=== Legends related to other deities ===
[[File:Sabarimala temple during Periyar butterfly survey at Sabarimala, 2014 (5).jpg|thumb|Temple dedicated to Valiyakadutta Swami on the left of the Pathinettampadi and the Karuppu Swami & Karuppai Amma on the right]]

''Valiyakadutta Swami'' (elder Kadutha Swami) and ''Kochukadutta Swami'' (younger Kadutha Swami), both legendary generals in Lord Ayyappa's army. Valiyakaduttar led the Pandalam kingdom's army, while Kochukaduttar, a skilled warrior from Injiparai Kalari, became his aide. Together, they fought bravely, destroying Udaya's Injiparai fort in the Karimala battle. In the battle, Kochukadutta fought the war despite losing both legs. When Ayyappa returned to his Samadhi at Sabarimala, Kochukadutta chose to stay and serve there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=வலியகடுத்த சுவாமி மற்றும் கொச்சுகடுத்த சுவாமி {{!}} சபரிமலையின் துணிச்சலான படைவீரகள் |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/sabarimala/ |access-date=2025-12-30 |website=Sabarimala |language=ta}}</ref> His shrine is located near the Malikapurathamma shrine.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=ഓണ്‍ലൈന്‍ |first=ജന്മഭൂമി |date=2024-11-15 |title=പുണ്യദര്‍ശന പാതയില്‍ പമ്പ മുതല്‍ സന്നിധാനം വരെ |url=https://janmabhumi.in/2024/11/15/3306446/samskriti/from-pampa-to-sannidhanam-on-punyadarshan-path/ |access-date=2025-12-30 |website=Janmabhumi |language=en-US}}</ref> The Valiyakadutta shrine is located to the left of the ''Pathinettaampadi'' (Holy steps).<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Upadevadhas {{!}} Sabarimala |url=https://sabarimala.kerala.gov.in/index.php/upadevadhas |access-date=2025-12-30 |website=sabarimala.kerala.gov.in}}</ref>{{AI-retrieved source|date=December 2025}}

''Karuppu Swami'' & ''Karuppai Amma'' were forest-dwellers who assisted Lord Ayyappa in defeating ''Udayan'' and are revered for their own supernatural powers. A shrine dedicated to them is located on the right side of the ''Pathinettaampadi.''<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" />

=== Connection with Rama ===
[[File:Sabaripeedam 1.jpg|thumb|Sabaripeedam, place where Shabari got salvation from Lord Rama]]
[[Shabari]] was a tribal devotee of [[Rama]] who is mentioned in the [[Ramayana]]. Sabarimala literally translates to "the hill of Sabari."<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=2018-10-18 |title=What you might want to know about Sabarimala |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/et-explains/what-you-might-want-to-know-about-sabarimala/articleshow/66273712.cms |access-date=2023-03-20 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

As per legend, Shabari met Sage Matanga near the foot of Mount Rishyamukha. He became her guru, and she devotedly served him for years. When Matanga was on his deathbed, he foretold that Rama would come to grant her darshan. He told her to wait for the arrival of Rama. Since that time, Sabari would leave her ashram each day only to gather berries for Rama. She would pick one, taste it, and place it in her basket if it was sweet, discarding the bitter berries because she wanted Rama to have only the sweet berries. While searching for Sita, Rama visits Sabari at her ashram. Sabari fed Rama with the berries that she had collected.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Why Lord Ayyappa shrine is called Sabarimala temple |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/why-lord-ayyappa-shrine-is-called-sabarimala-temple-1390621-2018-11-17 |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=India Today |date=17 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref> The place in Sabarimala where its believed that Rama gave [[moksha]] to Sabari is called ''Sabari Peedam''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=It's pure spiritual bliss to trek from Pampa to Sabarimala |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/kerala/2022/11/29/sabarimala-pilgrimage-all-you-need-to-know-about-the-spiritual-trek-live.html |access-date=2025-12-23 |website=onmanorama.com |language=en}}</ref>

Rama saw a divine person doing penance and asked Shabari to tell him who it was. Shabari said it was Shastha (Ayyappan). [[Shasta (deity)|Shastha]] also met and greeted Rama.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />

== The temple ==
{{See also |Pathinettampadi}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width =
| background color = #FFFFFF
| header = Sabarimala Picture gallery
| image1 = Sannidhanam sabarimala.jpg
| caption1 = The main temple
| image2 = Sabaripeedam at sabarimala.jpg
| width2 =
| caption2 = Sabaripeedam
| width3 =
| border = 2px
| header_align = center
| image4 = 18 steps at sabarimala.jpg
| width4 =
| caption4 = Pathinettampadi, the 18 steps which lead to the sanctum
| width5 =
| caption5 = Thirumuttam
| image6 = Sabarimala Garbhagudi.jpg
| width6 =
| caption6 = The sanctum sanctorum
| total_width =
| alt1 =
}}

=== History ===
The Sabarimala temple does not have any ancient or medieval references. Nevertheless, there are extant late medieval references pertaining to the temple.

The [[Pandalam dynasty|Pandalam royal family]] drafted a mortgage document in 1793. It states that the royal family is pledging the revenue returns, which encompass the income generated by the Sabarimala Temple, to the [[Travancore|Tranvancore state]].<ref>Pandalam adamaanam, Malayalam year 969, in T.K. Velupillai, Travancore</ref> The earliest surviving written records referencing the Sabarimala temple date back to the 1818, when Lieutenant B. S. Ward provided a description of the temple and noted that approximately 10,000–15,000 devotees attended the five‑day annual festival in January, indicating that the shrine was already an established place of worship by that time.<ref name=":10">{{cite news |last=Shenoy Karun |first= |date=24 October 2018 |title=Sabarimala temple: Popularity began to grow only in 1930s |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/popularity-began-to-grow-in-1930s/articleshow/66340490.cms |access-date=30 December 2025 |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Memoir of the Survey of the Travancore and Cochin States |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2018/11/22/british-era-survey-report-says-sabarimala-ban-existed-even-200-years-ago.amp.html |access-date=30 December 2025 |publisher=Kerala Gazetteers Department (reprint)}}</ref> In 1863, Ward and Conner published an article that provided a description of Sabarimala and its vicinity.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Benjamin Swain Ward |author2=Peter Eyre Conner |title=Memoir of the survey of Travancore and Cochin states, Vol. 1 |year=1863 |pages=136 |language=English}}</ref>

In the year 1902, the ruler of Travancore issued a directive for the restoration of the Sabarimala temple, which had suffered damage as a result of a fire incident. Kochummen Muthalali of Polachirackal family, a Mavelikkara resident of Christian faith was awarded the reconstruction contract and carried out the reconstruction.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balslev |first=Anindita N.|author-link=Anindita Balslev |title=On World Religions: Diversity, not Dissension |publisher=Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd. |year=2014 |isbn=9788132118343 |edition=1st |pages=218 |language=English}}</ref> A later reference appears in the Travancore State Manual, compiled by [[V. Nagam Aiya]] and published in 1906, which similarly records that over 10,000 pilgrims visited Sabarimala during the annual Mandala Pooja season.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Aiya |first=V. Nagam |url=https://printing.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Travancore-State-Manual-1906.pdf |title=The Travancore State Manual, Volume II |publisher=Travancore Government Press |year=1906 |access-date=30 December 2025}}</ref> In 1929, Diwan Bahadur L. A. Krishna Iyer in his article ''On some aspects of the worship of Sasta'' mentions 40,000 pilgrims attended the temple during Makaravilakku.<ref name=":10" />

In the year 1950 the temple was rebuilt after an arson attack.<ref name="MenonReport">{{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=K Kesava |url=http://firstministry.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/pdf/bills/Reports/tmple_arsn.pdf |title=Sabarimala Temple Arson Case |date=1950 |publisher=Government Press |location=Trivandrum |access-date=8 January 2020}}</ref> No charges were brought,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |date=1980 |title=What the Statues Tell: The Politics of Choosing Symbols in Trivandrum |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=53 |issue=3 |page=494 |doi=10.2307/2757305 |jstor=2757305}}</ref> and the earlier stone image of the deity was replaced by a [[panchaloha]] (an alloy of five metals) idol, about one and a half feet tall.

Neelakanta Panicker and his younger brother, Ayyappa Panicker, who are members of the Thattavila Vishwakarma family in Chengannur, Kerala, created the Panchaloha idol to replace the original stone statue of the deity. Edavankadan T.N. Padmanabhan Achari from Mavaelikkara was appointed the supervisor in charge of the new idol by Rajpramukh Sree Chithira Tirunaal Balarama Varma.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 December 2018 |title=Adivasis stake a claim on Sabarimala |url=https://www.forwardpress.in/2018/12/adivasis-stake-a-claim-on-sabarimala/}}</ref> In the early 1950s, through [[P. T. Rajan]] efforts, the present panchaloha idol of Ayyappan was installed at Sabarimalai, and a procession was taken all over Madras state.<ref name="faces_of_murukan">{{cite book |last=Clothey |first=Fred W. |title=The Many Faces of Murukan̲: The History and Meaning of a South Indian God |author2=A. K. Ramanujan |publisher=Walter De Gruyter |year=1978 |isbn=978-90-279-7632-1 |page=201}}</ref><ref name="palanivelrajan_obituary1">{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=S. Vijay |date=21 May 2006 |title=Madurai mourns its colossal boss |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/21/stories/2006052106160400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514063306/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/21/stories/2006052106160400.htm |archive-date=14 May 2007}}</ref>

In 1969, the flagstaff (''[[Dhvaja|dhwajastambha]]'') was installed.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/my-choroonu-was-in-sabarimala-on-my-mothers-lap-tka-nair/articleshow/66003421.cms |title=My 'choroonu' was in Sabarimala on my mother's lap: TKA Nair |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref>

=== Architecture and shrines ===

The ''Sannidhanam'' (main temple) is built on a plateau about 40 feet high.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Master Plan for Sabarimala Built Fabric Analysis Module |url=https://ntca.gov.in/assets/uploads/Reports/sabarimala/Vol2_Mod4_Built_frabric_analysis_module.pdf}}</ref><ref name="sanidhanam">{{Cite web |url=http://lordayyappa.com/sabarimala/sannidhanam-sabarimala.php |title=Sannidhanam sabarimala meaning {{!}} Brief on sabarimala sannidhanam |website=lordayyappa.com |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref><ref name="mala">{{Cite web |url=http://www.sabarimala.org/sannidhanam.htm |title=Sabarimala-The pilgrimage is a symbol of love, equality, and devotion |website=www.sabarimala.org |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref> The temple consists of a [[sanctum sanctorum]] with a gold-plated roof and four golden finials at the top, two ''mandapams'', and the ''balikalpura,'' which houses the altar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-17 |title=Sabarimala Temple's Mandala-Makaravilakku season: The significance of the temple among the pilgrims |url=https://www.news9live.com/knowledge/sabarimala-temple-mandala-makaravilakku-season-the-significance-of-the-temple-among-the-pilgrims-2352719 |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=News9live |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Pathinettampadi|Pathinettaampadi]], the 18 sacred steps are the main stairway to the temple. As per the custom followed, no pilgrim without "Irumudikkettu" can ascend the 18 sacred steps. In 1985, the 18 steps were covered by [[Panchaloha]]. The temples of Ayyappan's trusted lieutenants, ''Valiyakadutta Swami'' is located at the left of Pathinettampadi and the ''Karuppu Swami & Karuppai Amma'' is located at the right of the Pathinettaampadi.<ref name=":11" />The northern gate is open for those who do not carry an "Irumudikkettu", as observed in the 1991 [[Kerala High Court]] judgement.<ref name="khc91">Kerala High Court (5 April 1991) Bench: K Paripoornan, K B Marar; Source: [https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1915943/] (accessed Sunday 1 May 2016)</ref>

Ayyappan's half-brother [[Ganesha|Kannimoola Ganapathy]]'s shrine is southwest of the sanctum. Devotees offer part of the broken coconut (Neythenga) to the fireplace (Azhi). Ganapati [[Yajna|homam]] is the main offering.<ref name="mala" /> The temple of ''[[Maalikapurathamma]]'', whose importance is almost on par with that of Ayyappan, is located a few yards from Sannidhanam. It is believed that Ayyappan had specific instructions that he wanted ''Malikappurath Amma'' on his left side. Prior to the fire damage, there was only a Peeda Prathishta (holy seat) at Malikappuram. Brahmasree Kandararu Maheswararu Thanthri installed the idol of Malikappurath Amma. The goddess holds a [[Shankha|Sankh]], [[Chakram]] and [[Mudra|Varada Abhya Mudra]]. The idol is now covered with a gold golaka. The temple was also reconstructed in the last decade, and the conical roof and ''sopanam'' are also covered with gold.<ref name="amma">{{Cite web |url=http://www.vaikhari.org/malikappurathamma.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604233409/http://www.vaikhari.org/malikappurathamma.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=4 June 2016 |title=Malikappurathamma Malikappuram Temple Sabarimala |website=www.vaikhari.org |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref>

[[File:ശബരിമല2.JPG|thumb|Nagaraja Shrine at Sabarimala]]

Pilgrims, after the Darsan of Ayyappa and Kannimoola Ganapathi, proceed for their darshan of and give offerings to Nagaraja. The shrines of Nagaraja is in front of the Manimandapam. The shrines of the hill deities is on the left, behind the Malikappurathamma temple.<ref>{{Cite web |title=കാനനവാസനെ വണങ്ങി... |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/sunday/2017/11/11/Sabarimala-pilgrim-center.html |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=ManoramaOnline}}</ref>

The ''Manimandapam'' is the place where the arrow shot by Lord Ayyappa landed, which he chose as his abode. Its walls are adorned with brass plates depicting embossed scenes and stories associated with Lord Ayyappa. The Manimandapam is open to devotees for only six days during the Makara Vilakku festival.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manimandapam {{!}} The Sacred Spot of Lord Ayyappa at Sabarimala |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/sabarimala/ |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=Sabarimala |language=en}}</ref>

==Administration==

The Sabarimala temple is currently administered by the [[Travancore Devaswom Board]] (TDB), a statutory autonomous body constituted under the Travancore‑Cochin Hindu Religious Institutions Act XV of 1950. The Board is responsible for managing temple properties, rituals, festivals, and pilgrim welfare.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Travancore Devaswom Board |url=https://travancoredevaswomboard.org/about/? |access-date=30 December 2025 |website=Travancore Devaswom Board}}</ref>{{AI-retrieved source|date=December 2025}}

Historically the members of the [[Malayarayan|Mala Araya]] tribal community, around the Sabarimala claims to have performed rituals at the Sabarimala shrine prior to the arrival of Brahmin priests. According to tribal leaders, until the 19th century the Mala Arayas conducted rites such as the ''thenabhishekam'' (bathing of the Ayyappa idol with honey) and the lighting of the ''Makara Jyothi'' before these practices were replaced by Brahmin ritual forms administered by priests from the Thazhamon Madom family.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |title=Sabarimala: Kerala's Mala Araya Adivasi tribe claims ownership of the hill shrine |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/sabarimala-belonged-us-kerala-s-mala-araya-tribe-challenge-thantri-family-91167 |work=The News Minute |date=2018-11-08 |access-date=30 December 2025}}</ref> Tribal representatives have further claimed that the Mala Araya community was displaced by the Pandalam royal family in the 1800s, and that Brahminisation of rituals followed, with the Thazhamon family taking over priestly duties after this period.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ameerudheen |first=TA |title=Twist in Sabarimala tale: Kerala's Mala Araya Adivasi tribe claims ownership of the hill shrine |url=https://scroll.in/article/900283/twist-in-sabarimala-tale-keralas-mala-araya-adivasi-tribe-claims-ownership-of-the-hill-shrine |work=Scroll.in |date=4 Nov 2018 |access-date=30 December 2025}}</ref> [[Thazhamon Madom]], during the King's rule appointed was the traditional priest of Sabarimala Temple. [[Thantri|Tantri]] is the highest priest and is the head of the temple. It's the duty of the family to decide on religious matters relating to Sabarimala shrine. Tantris are to be present in all [[Puja (Hinduism)|ceremonial Poojas]] and functions to be held at temple premises and functions associated with temple.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=18 October 2018 |title=This word means Travancore Devaswom Board, erstwhile Pandalam royal family, Thazhamon family |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/this-word-means-travancore-devaswom-board-erstwhile-pandalam-royal-family-thazhamon-family-5417041/? |access-date=30 December 2025 |work=The Indian Express}}</ref>{{AI-retrieved source|date=December 2025}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-01-09 |title=Kerala govt has no control over priest, says tanthri family |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/govt-has-no-control-over-priest-says-tanthri-family/articleshow/city/thiruvananthapuram/govt-has-no-control-over-priest-says-tanthri-family/articleshow/67443763.cms |access-date=2025-12-30 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

As of November 2025, after Kerala High Court order, Travancore Devaswom Board (TDB) allows 5000 devotees per day.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2025-11-20 |title=After Kerala HC order, Travancore Devaswom Board caps Sabarimala spot bookings at 5,000 per day |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/after-kerala-hc-order-travancore-devaswom-board-caps-sabarimala-spot-bookings-at-5000-per-day/article70302319.ece |access-date=2025-12-30 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Religious Practices==

===Harivarasanam: Devotional Lullaby Sung===

The [[Harivarasanam]] is a century-old devotional lullaby sung to Lord Ayyappa at Sabarimala when the temple closes for the night, symbolically putting the deity to sleep. Its written in Sanskritised Malayalam and is written in [[Ashtakam|astakam]] (eight stanza) metre.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news |title=Travancore Devaswom Board To Rerecord Lord Ayyappa's Lullaby |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/travancore-devaswom-board-to-rerecord-lord-ayyappas-lullaby-1777404 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20201109035204/https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/travancore-devaswom-board-to-rerecord-lord-ayyappas-lullaby-1777404 |archive-date=2020-11-09 |access-date=2025-12-31 |work=NDTV.com}}</ref>

Vadakkathillathu Eswaran Namoothiri, who held the position of ''melsanthi'', a chief priest, started the tradition of singing keerthan in the year 1950. Following the ''Athazhapooja'', he performed the recitation of ''Harivarasanam'', a Sanskrit ''Urakkupattu'' (lullaby). The recitation takes place nightly before the closing of the temple entrance. The keerthan can be found in the Sasthasthuti kadambam, a publication authored by Kambankudi Sundaram Kulathu Ayyer. The song depicts Ayappa as Hariharaputhra, a deity revered in the Vedas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=JITHEESH |first=P.M |title=Sabarimala - Social History of a temple in Kerala |publisher=LeftWord |year=2022 |isbn=978-81-940778-3-1 |pages=86–89 |language=English}}</ref>

===Neyyabhishekam: Sacred Offerings to the Deity ===

This significant ritual involves pouring sacred [[ghee]] brought by pilgrims in their ''Pallikettu'' or ''Irumudi'' (a two-compartment bag made of handwoven cotton for the offerings for Sabarimala Temple carried on their heads) on the idol of Ayyappan. It symbolically means the merging of [[Jiva|Jeevatma]] with the [[Paramatma]].

===Prasadam: Distribution of Blessed Food ===
[[File:Aravana Payasam.png |alt=Aravana Payasam|thumb |Aravana Payasam]]

The [[prasadam]] at Sabarimala temple are [[Payasam|''Aravana payasam'']] and ''[[Appam]].'' An 'Appam' is a sweet ball composed of rice, kadalippazham, and ghee, whereas 'Arvana' refers to a dense and sweet dessert.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-04-29 |title=Sabarimala prasadam to get 'makeover' with CFTRI touch |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/sabarimala-prasadam-to-get-makeover-with-cftri-touch/articleshow/63960227.cms |access-date=2023-11-09 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> The term aravana is explained as being formed by combining ‘ara’ from ''ari'' (Malayalam for rice), ‘va’ from ''vellam'' (Malayalam for water), and ‘na’ from ''neyy'' (Malayalam for ghee), which later transformed into ‘ṇa’.<ref>{{Cite web |last=TV9 |first=Malayalam |date=2025-11-17 |title=അരി, വെള്ളം, നെയ്യ് ചേർന്ന്... എങ്ങനെ അരവണ ഉണ്ടായി ? {{!}} Aravana Payasam at Sabarimala Origin: From Simple Offering to Signature Prasad |url=https://www.malayalamtv9.com/lifestyle/food/aravana-payasam-at-sabarimala-origin-from-simple-offering-to-signature-prasad-2162554.html |access-date=2025-12-31 |website=Malayalam TV9 |language=ml}}</ref>

The Chief Commissioner, [[Travancore Devaswom Board]], said that the board has appointed the [[Central Food Technological Research Institute]], [[Mysore]], as a consultant for providing technical guidance to ensure the quality of Aravana, Appam, and other prasadam preparations at Sabarimala temple.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/article3731927.ece |title= CFTRI to monitor quality of Sabarimala prasadom | date= 6 August 2012}}</ref>

===Festival===
====Makara Vilakku: The Light of Capricorn Festival ====

''Makaravilakku'' is an annual festival held on [[Makara Sankranti]] in Kerala, India at the shrine of Sabarimala. ''Makara Vilakku'' or ''Makara Sankranti'' in Sanskrit means the festival of the zodiac sign Capricorn. The festival includes the ''Thiruvabharanam'' (sacred ornaments of the deity Ayyappan) procession and a congregation at the hill shrine of Sabarimala. An estimated half a million devotees flow to Sabarimala every year to have a [[Darshan (Indian religions)|darshan]] (glimpse) of this ritual this day.

====Makarajyoti: Celestial Light related to Makar Sankranti Capricorn Festival====

[[Makara Jyothi]] is the name given to the celestial star [[Sirius]]. It appears at the moment of Makar Sankranti, after which the holy arti is performed and the lighting of the Makaravilakku at Ponnambalamedu shall begin.

=== Pilgrimage ===
[[File:pathanamthitta-to-sabarimala.jpg |thumb |right |200px |A sign-board that indicates the direction to Sabarimala. The multilingual board is written in [[Hindi]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and English (in that order, from top to bottom).]]
[[File:Sabarimala pilgrims.jpg |right|thumb |Crowd management of pilgrims.]]
{{see also|Yatra|Parikrama}}

====Traditional 41 days pilgrimage====
{{Main article|Sabarimala Trek}}

The duration of the pilgrimage to the Sabarimala temple is predetermined. Furthermore, the pilgrims are required to undergo various stages of the pilgrimage in an orderly manner.<ref>{{Cite book |last=P.M |first=Jitheesh |title=Sabarimala - Social History Of a Temple in Kerala |publisher=LeftWord |year=2022 |isbn=978-81-940778-3-1 |edition=1st |location=New Delhi |pages=127 |language=English}}</ref>

The pilgrimage to Sabarimala starts on the first day of Vrischika month of the [[Malayalam calendar]] (with [[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]] zodiac) and ends on the 11th day of Dhanu month (during [[Sagittarius (astrology)|Sagittarius]]). This duration of the 41-day pilgrimage is known as ''mandala'' (season) and falls in the months of December and January of the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=nedunal |date=2017-02-14 |title=Sabarimala Opening Dates 2020 |url=https://nedunal.com/sabarimala-temple-opening-dates/ |access-date=2020-01-02 |website=nedunal |archive-date=2 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102054151/https://nedunal.com/sabarimala-temple-opening-dates/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The devotees are expected to follow a ''[[Vratha]]m'' (a 41-day austerity period) prior to the pilgrimage.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |url=http://www.haindavakeralam.com/HKPage.aspx?PageID=12948&SKIN=D |title=Hainda vakeralam |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-date=2 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002214507/http://www.haindavakeralam.com/HKPage.aspx?PageID=12948&SKIN=D |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url=https://dheivegam.com/sabarimala-temple-opening-dates/ | title=Sabarimala Temple Opening Dates 2018 to 2019 | date=16 March 2020 | publisher=Dheivegam}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/sabarimala-temple-here-is-why-devotees-of-lord-ayyappa-are-protesting-in-delhi-1368109-2018-10-15 |title=Sabarimala temple: Here is why devotees of Lord Ayyappa are protesting in Delhi |date=15 October 2018 |first=Ram Kinkar |last=Singh |website=India Today |access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref> This begins with wearing a special ''Mala'' (necklace) commonly of [[Rudraksha]] or [[Tulasi]] beads, although other types of chains are also available. During the 41 days of the pious devotion, the devotees take a vow of [[lacto vegetarianism|lacto-vegetarian]] diet (In India, vegetarianism is synonymous with lacto-vegetarianism), [[celibacy]], [[teetotalism]], not using any [[profanity]], controlling anger, and allow the hair and nails to grow without trimming.<ref name=":1" /> They must try to help others, and see everything around them as Ayyappa. They are expected to bathe twice a day and visit the local temples regularly and only wear plain black or blue coloured traditional attire.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Rituals {{!}} Sabarimala |url=https://www.sabarimala.kerala.gov.in/rituals |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=www.sabarimala.kerala.gov.in}}</ref>

Millions of devotees still take the [[Sabarimala Trek|traditional mountainous forest path]] (approximately 61 km) from Erumely, 12.8 km from [[Vandiperiyar]] and 8 km from Chalakayam, believed to be taken by Ayyappa himself. The Erumely route starts from Erumely to Aludha river, then crosses the Aludha mountain to reach Karivilam thodu. Now comes the sacred Karimala crossing, from there to Cheriyanavattom, Valliyanavattom and finally [[Pamba River]]. Then they have to climb Neelimala and enter the Ganesha-Bettam, Shreerama-Betta Padam. Then comes the [[Aranmula kottaram]], which is one of the stops of holy journey ''Thiruvabharana Ghoshayatra'' (the grand procession of the divine jewelry).<ref name=":9" />

Many of these Hindu pilgrims also visit a [[mosque]] in [[Erumely]] dedicated to [[Vavar]], a Muslim saint who according to tradition was a devotee of Ayyappan.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mosque of Vavar in Sabrimala |date=2020-02-21 |title=Mosque of vavar |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/before-arriving-at-sabarimala-temple-in-kerala-devotees-visit-a-mosque/articleshow/50334905.cms |newspaper=Economic Times}}</ref>

====Shorter pilgrimage====

These days people use vehicles to reach the Pamba River by an alternate route. From Pamba, all the pilgrims begin trekking the steep mountain path of Neeli Mala till Sabari Mala. This route is now properly paved, with emergency shops and medical aid by the side, and supporting aid is provided to the pilgrims while climbing the steep slope, which used to be a mere trail through dense jungle. Elderly pilgrims are carried by men on bamboo chairs to the top, for a payment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=For Sabarimala's dolly bearers, the demanding work is also a godsend |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2022/dec/16/for-sabarimalas-dolly-bearers-the-demanding-work-is-also-a-godsend-2528568.html |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=The New Indian Express |date=15 December 2022 }}</ref> [[File:Pilgrims trekking on the path through forests leading to Sabarimala temple.jpg|thumb|Pilgrims trekking on the path through forests leading to Sabarimala temple]]

==Transport==
[[File:Doli service in Sabarimala.jpg |thumb|Doli service in Sabarimala]]
[[Kerala State Road Transport Corporation|KSRTC]] Busses are available to various places across Kerala including Chengannur, Thiruvalla & Kottayam Railway stations.

===Air===

The nearest airports are [[Thiruvananthapuram International Airport]] ({{convert |170 |km}} south) and [[Cochin International Airport]] ({{convert |160 |km}} northwest). The state government has also approved the construction of the greenfield [[Sabarimala Greenfield Airport]] ({{convert |50 |km}} west) close to the Sabarimala shrine.<ref>{{Cite news |author=((Zee Media Bureau))|date=31 December 2022 |title=Kerala to have new airport near Sabarimala temple, govt approves land acquisition |work=Zeenews.India.Com |url=https://zeenews.india.com/aviation/kerala-to-have-new-airport-near-sabarimala-temple-govt-approves-land-acquisition-2556143.html |access-date=31 December 2022}}</ref>

===Railway===

The nearest railway station is [[Chengannur railway station|Chengannur]] known as the Gateway of Sabarimala. {{rws|Chengannur}} ({{convert|85|km}} west), {{rws|Tiruvalla}}({{convert|87|km}} west){{rws|Kottayam}} ({{convert|96|km}} northwest) are some of the closest accessible railway stations from Sabarimala.

If the train is via [[Kollam–Sengottai Chord Line|Shengottai - Kollam route]], [[Punalur railway station|Punalur]] ({{convert|101|km}} will be the nearest station.

===Road and bus===

Special buses are arranged from different parts of the state to provide transportation to Kerala in anticipation of the yearly Mandala and Makaravilakku poojas performed at the temple dedicated to Lord Ayyappa Swamy.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-11-17 |title=Buses to Sabarimala from TN |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/buses-to-sabarimala-from-tn/articleshow/95568641.cms |access-date=2023-11-21 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-14 |title=All arrangements in place for Sabarimala pilgrimage |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/all-arrangements-in-place-for-sabarimala-pilgrimage/article67532686.ece |access-date=2023-11-21 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

===Ropeway===
{{anchor | anchor }}
{{see also|Parvatmala}}

Sabarimala Ropeway, proposed project conceived in 2011, received impetus for construction when [[National Board for Wildlife]] (NBWL) of India granted the forests and environmental approval in August 2025.<ref name=sabr1>[https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2025/Aug/27/sabarimala-ropeway-project-nears-final-clearance-4 Sabarimala ropeway project nears final clearance], New Indian Express, 27 Aug 2025.</ref>

==Issues and conservation ==

===Gold theft ===
{{main|2025 Sabarimala gold row}}

'''Sabarimala gold theft controversy''' involves the misappropriation and theft of approximately 4.5–12 kg of gold (valued at around ₹100 crore) used in the gold plating of the Dwarapalaka idols and other temple artifacts at the Sabarimala Temple, as revealed through audits and court scrutiny of the [[Travancore Devaswom Board|Travancore Devaswom Board's]] (TDB) handling of devotee offerings and restoration works. The issue traces back to repeated removals of gold-plated copper panels in 2019 and 2025 for repairs at workshops in Hyderabad and Chennai, where discrepancies in weight and gold content emerged, including faded plating just months after restoration and the re-engagement of a questionable sponsor, Unnikrishnan Potti (also known as Potty), despite prior concerns; on 28 September 2025, two pedestals belonging to temple were recovered from Potti's sister's residence in Thiruvananthapuram amid claims he intended to repurpose the gold for a wedding. Triggered by a Kerala High Court petition, the TDB filed a police complaint in early October, describing initial findings as "minor pilferage" rather than organized theft, while the '''Sabarimala Karma Samithi''' (SKS) lodged a separate FIR alleging criminal breach of trust and looting. The opposition [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF) and [[BJP]] accused the ruling [[Left Democratic Front]] (LDF) government of corruption, cover-ups, and negligence—demanding [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] involvement and resignations—leading to Assembly disruptions and statewide agitations, whereas the LDF dismissed the claims as politically motivated electioneering ahead of Lok Sabha polls. As of 9 October 2025, the [[Kerala High Court]] has ordered the formation of a confidential ''[[Special Investigation Team (India)|Special Investigation Team]]'' (SIT) on 6 October, led by former [[Superintendent of police (India)|SP]] S. Sasidharan and overseen by [[Additional director general of police|ADGP]] H. Venkatesh, to probe the matter comprehensively, including gold usage from 1998 onward; the SIT, directed to submit a report within six weeks, has begun interrogations (including Potti's statement on 5 October), with no arrests reported yet, though the court has confirmed evidence of theft and mandated the immediate return of artifacts to the temple. The controversy has intensified Kerala's polarized politics, blending temple governance with electoral strategy and underscoring long-standing tensions over Sabarimala's administration,<ref>[https://theprint.in/politics/poll-season-on-horizon-sabarimala-gold-theft-stirs-the-pot-in-kerala-udf-takes-on-ruling-ldf/2759431/ Poll season on horizon, Sabarimala gold ‘theft’ stirs the pot in Kerala. UDF takes on ruling LDF], The Print, 8 Oct 2025.</ref> the former Thiruvithamkoor Devaswom Board Presidents Mr. N.Vasu and Mr. A Padmakumar arrested due to the involvements in this case.

The Kerala Special Investigation Team (SIT) has taken into custody Kandararu Rajeevaru, the former ''Tantri'' (chief priest) of the Sabarimala Temple, over the alleged disappearance of gold from the ''Sreekovil'' door frames. The move came after the Kollam vigilance court granted approval, with the arrest formally recorded while Rajeevaru remains in judicial custody in a related case.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news |title=How gold worth Rs 4.5 cr vanished from one of India's richest temples |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/toi-plus/crime/how-gold-worth-rs-4-5-cr-vanished-from-one-of-indias-richest-temples/articleshow/126529164.cms |access-date=2026-01-16 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

Investigators claim that gold-coated door frames and ''Dwarapalaka'' idols sent for plating in 2019 were not returned in their entirety, triggering allegations of misappropriation and possible theft.<ref name="auto"/>

=== Celibate main deity and entry of women devotees ===
{{see also|Entry of women to Sabarimala|Ready To Wait campaign}}

Temple management places religious restrictions against the entry of women aged 10 to 50. This is based on the tradition of the temple to respect the celibate nature of the deity.

== Sabarimala Temple ==
According to the ''Memoir of the Survey of the [[Travancore]] and Cochin States'', which was published in two volumes by the Madras government in the 19th century, women of menstruating age were denied entry into the Sabarimala temple two centuries ago. Though the authors, lieutenants of the [[Madras]] Infantry, completed the survey by the end of the year 1820 after nearly five years of research, it was published in two volumes only in 1893 and 1901. According to the report, girls and women capable of pregnancy are prohibited from approaching the temple, while elderly women and pre-pubescent girls are permitted to do so. This is due to the deity's (Ayyappan) aversion to any sexual activity in the vicinity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2018/11/22/british-era-survey-report-says-sabarimala-ban-existed-200-years-ago.html|title=British era survey report says Sabarimala ban existed 200 years ago|website=The Week}}</ref>

Up until 1991, women visited the temple, though in small numbers. Female pilgrims below the age of 50 would visit the temple to conduct ([[Annaprashana|Chorroonu]]), the first rice-feeding ceremony of their infants in the temple's premises.<ref name="Tarabout">{{cite book |author1=Gilles Tarabout |editor1-last=Berti |editor1-first=Daniella |editor2-last=Good |editor2-first=Anthony |editor3-last=Tarabout |editor3-first=Gilles |title=Of Doubt and Proof. Legal and Ritual Practices of Judgmen |date=2015 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-1-4724-3451-7 |pages=70–71 |chapter-url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01246885/document |access-date=29 October 2018 |chapter=Religious Uncertainty, Astrology and the Courts in South India}}</ref>

In 1991, Justices K. Paripoornan and K. Balanarayana Marar of the Kerala High Court, in their ruling against the Travancore Devaswom Board, restricted the entry of women between the ages of 10 and 50 from offering worship at the temple, stating that such a restriction was in accordance with the usage prevalent from time immemorial.<ref name="khc91" /> In addition, the judges directed the [[Government of Kerala]] to use the police force to ensure that restriction was complied with.<ref name="khc91"/> The high court also stated that "since there is no restriction between one section and another section or between one class and another class among the Hindus in the matter of entry to a temple (Sabarimala), whereas the prohibition is only in respect of women of a particular age group and not women as a class."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=S. Mahendran vs The Secretary, Travancore ... on 5 April, 1991 |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1915943/ |website=indiankanoon.org}}</ref>

On 28 September 2018, the [[Supreme Court of India]], in a 4–1 majority decision (4 men and 1 women judicial panel), overturned the ban on the entry of women.<ref name="SC-2018-Sep-28">{{cite web |last1=The Registrar |first1=SCI |title=Writ petition (civil) no. 373 of 2006 |url=https://www.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2006/18956/18956_2006_Judgement_28-Sep-2018.pdf |website=Supreme Court of India |access-date=15 December 2018 |archive-date=19 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019154645/https://www.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2006/18956/18956_2006_Judgement_28-Sep-2018.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="NDTV.com">{{Cite news |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/keralas-sabarimala-temple-must-allow-women-of-all-ages-says-supreme-court-ending-restriction-1923556 |title=Women Of All Ages Can Enter Sabarimala Temple, Says Top Court, Ending Ban |work=NDTV.com |access-date=2018-09-28}}</ref> The Chief Justice, [[Dipak Misra]], stated that the selective ban on women was not an "essential part" of Hinduism but instead a form of "religious [[patriarchy]]".<ref name="SC-2018-Sep-28" /> Justice [[Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud]] stated that the ban "stigamatises" and "stereotypes" women while "placing the burden of men's [[celibacy]]" on them.<ref name="SC-2018-Sep-28" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sabarimala-temple-entry-live-updates/article25066336.ece|title=SC allows entry of women of all ages to worship at Sabarimala, other places of their choice|website=The Hindu|date=28 September 2018|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> The lone female judge, [[Indu Malhotra]] noted in her dissenting judgement that "what constitutes an essential religious practice is for the religious community to decide" and not a matter that should be decided by the courts. She added that "notions of rationality cannot be invoked in matters of religion by courts."<ref name="SC-2018-Sep-28" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/sabarimala-verdict-justice-indu-malhotra-dissents-cant-invoke-rationality-in-religion-5378873/ |title=Sabarimala verdict: Justice Indu Malhotra dissents — Can't invoke rationality in religion |date=2018-09-29 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/sabarimala-verdict-5-key-reasons-why-justice-indu-malhotra-differed-with-majority-view/articleshow/65997997.cms |title=Sabarimala verdict: 5 key reasons why Justice Indu Malhotra differed with majority view - Times of India |work=The Times of India |access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref> After the Supreme Court's decision, there were numerous protests and gatherings in the southern part of Kerala. In response to this ruling, devotees have filed about 65 review petitions. The Supreme Court of India accepted review petitions against its own orders. The Supreme Court has decided to review the petition and hold a public hearing because of the important facts and circumstances of the case.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2019-11-13 |title=Supreme Court verdict tomorrow on plea challenging Sabarimala ruling |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/supreme-court-will-tomorrow-decide-review-petitions-on-entry-of-women-into-sabarimala-temple-rafale-deal/story-trKUAzgAC0kFGkCpG3qucJ.html |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

This led to protests at [[Nilakkal]] and Pamba base camps on 17 October 2018, when the temple was opened for the first time after the Supreme Court verdict. Protesters assaulted women journalists, stole their camera equipment, and damaged a vehicle. The police were also attacked. A number of women were among the protesters, checking cars for women of menstruating age and helping with the road blocks.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/tension-mounts-in-kerala-as-sabarimala-set-to-open-today/story-YRZuiWacJvlZc8Agn1gfJK.html |title=Sabarimala row: Devotees attack journalists, stop women from approaching temple |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-45885996 |title=Sabarimala: Mobs attack women near India Hindu temple |work=BBC |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref> There were also reports of police damaging protesters' motor bikes.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/watch-kerala-cops-vandalise-parked-vehicles-near-sabarimala-1933642 |title=Watch: Kerala Cops Vandalise Parked Vehicles Near Sabarimala |work=NDTV.com |access-date=2018-11-15}}</ref> Devotees in a large scale all over Kerala and in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Karnataka, also joined the protests.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/021018/peaceful-protests-against-supreme-court-judgment.html |title='Peaceful' protests against Supreme Court judgment |date=2018-10-02 |website=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=2019-06-21}}</ref> As part of these protests, on 26 December 2018, devotees lit the 'Ayyappa Jyothi' across the state of Kerala and in Karnataka covering a distance of about 765 km from 6 pm to 6:30 p.m. Thousands joined in the event.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/counter-women-s-wall-ayyappa-jyothi-volunteers-line-lamps-across-kerala-94029 |title=To counter Women's Wall, Ayyappa Jyothi volunteers line up with lamps across Kerala |website=www.thenewsminute.com |date=26 December 2018 |access-date=2019-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2018/12/26/ayyappa-jyothi-sabarimala-karma-samithi-kerala.html |title=Massive participation of women in 765-km Ayyappa Jyothi |website=OnManorama |access-date=2019-06-21}}</ref> The protestors were physically attacked in Kannur and the state government filed cases against 1400 unidentified participants.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/cases-filed-against-1400-people-who-took-part-ayyappa-jyothi-event-kerala-94219 |title=Cases filed against 1400 people who took part in Ayyappa Jyothi event in Kerala |website=www.thenewsminute.com |date=30 December 2018 |access-date=2019-06-21}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

People from other religious groups supported the cause of devotees. Prominent [[Jainacharya Yugbhushan Surishwarji|Jain Acharya Yugbhushan Suri Maharaj]], also known as Pandit Maharaj, has said that sanctity was a religious issue and that it was connected to fundamental religious rights.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/women-should-not-enter-sabarimala-jain-acharya-pandit-maharaj-1370232-2018-10-18 |title=Women should not enter Sabarimala: Jain acharya Pandit Maharaj |author=Pankaj P. Khelkar |date=18 October 2018 |magazine=India Today |access-date=2019-03-04 }}</ref> Commenting on the Sabarimala temple row, Pandit Maharaj told IndiaToday, "Whether it is Sabarimala or Jharkhand's Shikharji, the agitations are for sanctity," adding, "Religion talks about inner belief and sanctity. This should be respected. I am not against the judiciary or the Supreme Court, but they should not overlook the belief of the people." Also, [[Art of Living Foundation|Art of Living]] founder [[Ravi Shankar (spiritual leader)|Ravi Shankar]] showed support for the rules that have been traditionally followed at the sanctum sanctorum of the Ayyappa Temple in Sabarimala.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/tradition-must-be-followed-sri-sri-ravi-shankar-on-sabarimala-row-1382273-2018-11-04 |title=Tradition must be followed: Sri Sri Ravi Shankar on Sabarimala row |newspaper=India Today |access-date=2019-03-04 |agency=Ist}}</ref>

Two women of menstruating age attempted to enter the temple on 19 October 2018 but were blocked by protesters about 100 m away. After the [[Thantri]] threatened to close the sanctum sanctorum if the women attempted to ascend the 18 sacred steps, they turned back.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sabarimala-women-entry-issue-protests-continue/article25258611.ece |title=Sabarimala protests: Women descend the hill without darshan following protests |work=The Hindu |access-date=19 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Two Indian women become first to enter temple after centuries-old ban overturned |last1=Berlinger |first1=Joshua |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/01/asia/india-kerala-chain-intl/index.html |date=2 January 2019 |work=CNN |last2=Pokharel |first2=Sugam |last3=Suri |first3=Manveena}}</ref>

On 2 January 2019 at 3:45 AM, for the first time after the Supreme Court verdict, two women in their early 40s were escorted by police into the Sabarimala temple, allegedly through a back gate meant for staff. The Chief Minister of Kerala, [[Pinarayi Vijayan]], confirmed their entry. Thereafter, priests closed the temple for one hour to [[Ritual purification#Hinduism|ritually purify]] it as the 41-days pilgrimage, known as Mandala kalam or the 41-day austerity period/Vratham, had not been adhered to and the women entered the temple premises violating these traditions.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/two-women-below-50-claim-they-entered-keralas-sabarimala-temple/articleshow/67343779.cms |title=Two women below 50 claim they entered Kerala's Sabarimala temple - Times of India ► |website=The Times of India |date=2 January 2019 |access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/two-women-below-50-enter-keralas-sabarimala-temple-police-sources-1971204 |title=2 Women Below 50 Enter Sabarimala, Temple Reopens After "Purification" |website=NDTV.com |access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.oneindia.com/india/sabarimala-temple-entry-case-jayamala-s-bold-claim-that-stoked-controversy-in-2006-2784013.html |title=Sabarimala Temple entry case: Jayamala's bold claim that stoked controversy in 2006 |last=P |first=Chennabasaveshwar |date=28 September 2018 |work=OneIndia |access-date=24 June 2019}}</ref><ref name="indiatoday1995">{{cite web |last1=M.G |first1=Radhakrishnan |title=Ban on women of prohibited age group visiting Sabarimala shrine comes under scrutiny |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/religion/story/19950115-ban-on-women-of-prohibited-age-group-visiting-sabarimala-shrine-comes-under-scrutiny-806703-1995-01-15 |website=India Today |date=15 January 1995 |access-date=20 October 2018}}</ref>

After the hearing ended in February 2019, the Court, led by the newly appointed Chief Justice, Mr. Ranjan Gagoi, issued an order to send the case to a larger bench of seven judges so that the decision made on 28 September 2018, could be looked at again.<ref name=":8" />

===Environmental efforts===
[[File:NoPlastic@Sabarimala.JPG |thumb|An information signage near Nadappanthal, Sabarimala, inviting all to join hands in making Sabarimala free from plastic and other wastes.]]

The waste disposed by the devotees to Sabarimala is threatening the wildlife of the region<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/ReadMore/22360/sabarimala-news/E |title=ശബരിമലയില്‍ ചത്ത മ്ലാവിന്റെ വയറ്റില്‍ കിലോക്കണക്കിന് പ്ലാസ്റ്റിക്ക് |website=mathrubhuminews.in |access-date=2016-12-02 |archive-date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314131309/http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/ReadMore/22360/sabarimala-news/E |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/going-green-keralas-sabarimala-temple-rules-against-the-use-of-plastics-2585534.html |title=Going green? Kerala's Sabarimala temple rules against the use of plastics – Firstpost |date=2016-01-15 |newspaper=Firstpost |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/160107/nation-current-affairs/article/kerala-high-court-seeks-probe-deer-death |title=Kerala High Court seeks probe into deer death |date=2016-01-07 |newspaper=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref> and the evergreen forests.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/plumage/sabarimala-and-periyar-eternal-yet-threatened/ |title=Sabarimala and Periyar eternal yet threatened |date=2014-06-22 |newspaper=Times Of India Blogs |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref> Efforts are on to make Sabarimala free from pollution and waste. High Court of Kerala has directed that 'Irumudikkettu' should not contain plastic materials.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/-irumudikkettu-should-not-contain-plastic-materials-hc-english-news-1.737230 |title='Irumudikkettu' should not contain plastic materials: HC |newspaper=Mathrubhumi |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref> Projects like "Punyam Poonkavanam" has been initiated under the aegis of governmental departments.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://english.mathrubhumi.com/features/specials/-punyam-poonkavanam-to-cleanse-sabarimala-english-news-1.673800 |title='Punyam Poonkavanam' to cleanse Sabarimala |last=Vijayan |first=P |newspaper=Mathrubhumi |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref> [[Mata Amritanandamayi Math]] has been regularly contributing to keep Sabarimala and its precincts clean.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.ndtv.com/south/sabarimala-clean-up-35-000-bags-of-garbage-collected-505984 |title=Sabarimala clean-up: 35,000 bags of garbage collected |newspaper=NDTV.com |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/200-foreigners-take-part-in-cleaning-drive-at-sabarimala/article2609299.ece |title=200 foreigners take part in cleaning drive at Sabarimala |last=Kuttoor |first=Radhakrishnan |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref> While cleaning Pamba river Sabarimala Sanndidhaanam clean is their primary objective,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pampa-to-be-included-in-punyam-poonkavanam/article6610924.ece |title=Pampa to be included in Punyam Poonkavanam |author=((Special Correspondent))|newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref> the broader vision is to spread the message of greenness and cleanliness beyond Sabarimala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uniindia.com/ayyappa-seva-samajam-conducts-cleaning-operation-in-sabarimala/other/news/351754.html|title=Ayyappa Seva Samajam conducts cleaning operation in Sabarimala|accessdate=17 April 2023}}</ref>

Some of the salient aspects of "''Punyam Poonkavanam''" project includes:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.punyampoonkavanam.org/vm.php |title=Welcome to Official Site of Punyam Poonkavanam |website=www.punyampoonkavanam.org |access-date=2016-12-02}}</ref>
# Not using soap and oil while bathing in the holy Pamba River. No throwing any material, including clothes in the [[holy river]].
# To prepare ''irumudikkettu'' without using any plastic and using only [[biodegradation|bio-degradable]] materials.
# To devote at least one hour in cleanliness activities at Sabarimala Sannidhaanam, River Pamba and surroundings as part of the pilgrimage.

== See also ==

* Sabarimala Temple complex
** [[Maalikapurathamma]], Hindu goddess enshrined in a small temple at Sabarimala Ayyappan temple complex
** [[Sabarimala Trek]], pilgrimage track
** [[Vavar]], a Muslim devotee of Sabarimala with shrine in Sabarimala temple complex

* [[Hinduism]]
** [[Hindu pilgrimage sites]]
** [[List of Hindu temples]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category |Sabarimala}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* [http://www.sabarimala.kerala.gov.in/ Official Website Of Sabarimala ]

{{Hindu temples in Kerala}}
{{Portal bar |India |Hinduism |Religion}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sabarimala| ]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Pathanamthitta district]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]]
[[Category:Hindu holy cities]]
[[Category:Pamba River]]
[[Category:Vegetarian towns in India]]
[[Category:Ayyappan temples]]
[[Category:Vegetarianism and religion]]
[[Category:Vegetarian communities]]

Prawin Pudi

2026-05-01T22:50:13Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up page.

{{short description|Indian film editor (born 1984)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Prawin Pudi
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{b-da|1 March 1982}}
| birth_place = [[Huzurnagar]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India (now in [[Telangana]], India)
| occupation = Film editor
| years_active = 2010{{ndash}}present
}}

'''Prawin Pudi''' (born 1 March 1982) is an Indian film editor who primarily works in [[Telugu cinema]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Editor Prawin Pudi Interview | website=TeluguCinemas.in | url=http://www.telugucinemas.in/2015/03/editor-praveen-pudi-interview.html | access-date=2021-01-14}}</ref><ref name="Deccan">{{cite web | last=Kavirayani | first=Suresh | title=The rise of Prawin Pudi | website=Deccan Chronicle | date=2015-03-03 | url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150303/entertainment-tollywood/article/rise-prawin-pudi | access-date=2021-01-14 | archive-date=3 March 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303015733/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/150303/entertainment-tollywood/article/rise-prawin-pudi | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Career==
Prawin Pudi joined the Telugu film industry as an assistant to editor [[Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao]] in 2000, before apprenticing under [[A. Sreekar Prasad]] and [[Marthand K. Venkatesh]]. He worked on Telugu films in the early 2000s as an assistant editor, before moving on to work as a free lancer for corporate films, documentaries, and television advertisements, before shifting to Pawan Kalyan Creative Works as an associate editor.<ref>{{cite web | last=Chowdhary | first=Y. Sunita | title=A vision to emotion | website=The Hindu | date=2015-03-31 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/a-vision-to-emotion/article7053689.ece | access-date=2021-01-14 | archive-date=30 July 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730200256/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/a-vision-to-emotion/article7053689.ece | url-status=live }}</ref> After making his debut as an independent editor with ''[[Aakasa Ramanna]]'' (2010), his breakthrough came after working with [[Trivikram Srinivas]] in the action comedy ''[[Julayi]]'' (2012).<ref name="Deccan"/> Since then, Prawin has regularly collaborated with the filmmaker in ''[[Attarintiki Daredi]]'' (2013) and ''[[S/O Satyamurthy]]'' (2015). He has also worked closely with [[Vikram Kumar]], working with him in the successful ''[[Manam (film)|Manam]]'' (2014) and the Tamil film, ''[[24 (2015 film)|24]]'' (2016).<ref>{{cite web | title=Actor Suriya completes his first schedule of 24 directed by Vikram Kumar | website=Behindwoods | date=2015-05-09 | url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-15/actor-suriya-completes-his-first-schedule-of-24-directed-by-vikram-kumar.html | access-date=2021-01-14 | archive-date=4 March 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064249/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-15/actor-suriya-completes-his-first-schedule-of-24-directed-by-vikram-kumar.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

He was also associated in the making of ''[[I Am That Change]]'', a short film produced by [[Allu Arjun]] to mark the 68th [[Independence Day of India]].

==Filmography==

===As editor===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Title
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" |2010
| ''[[Aakasa Ramanna]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Gaayam 2]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2011
| ''[[Katha Screenplay Darsakatvam Appalaraju]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Pilla Zamindar]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2012
| ''[[Ayyare]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Disco (2012 film)|Disco]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Julayi]]''
|
|-
| ''Double Trouble''
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2013
| ''[[Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Sukumarudu]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Attarintiki Daredi]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Kaalicharan]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="7" |2014
| ''[[Manam (film)|Manam]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Nuvvala Nenila]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Oka Laila Kosam]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Boochamma Boochodu]]'' ||
|-
| ''Vundiley Manchikalam Mundhu Mundhuna''
|
|-
| ''[[Saheba Subramanyam]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Chinnadana Nee Kosam]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="9" |2015
| ''Nuvvu Nenu Okkatavudam''
|
|-
| ''[[Bham Bolenath]]''
|
|-
| ''[[S/O Satyamurthy]]''
|
|-
| ''Vinavayya Ramayya''
|
|-
| ''Tippu''
|
|-
| ''[[Mirchi Lanti Kurradu]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Courier Boy Kalyan]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Size Zero (film)|Size Zero]]''
| rowspan="2" | Shot in Telugu and Tamil
|-
|''[[Inji Iduppazhagi]]''
|-
| rowspan="4" |2016
| ''[[Soggade Chinni Nayana]]''
|
|-
| ''[[24 (2016 film)|24]]''
| [[Tamil film]]
|-
| ''Siddhartha''
|
|-
| ''[[Majnu (2016 film)|Majnu]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="7" |2017
| ''[[Nenu Local]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Dwaraka (film)|Dwaraka]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Chitrangada (film)|Chitrangada]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Ninnu Kori]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Shamantakamani]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Middle Class Abbayi]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Hello (2017 film)|Hello]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |2018
| ''[[Kumari 21F (2018 film)|Kumari 21F]]''
| [[Kannada film]]
|-
| ''[[Pantham]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Lover (2018 film)|Lover]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Devadas (2018 film)|Devadas]]''
|
|-
| ''Parichayam''
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2019
| ''[[Majili]]''
|
|-
| ''[[RDX Love]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Hulchul (2019 film)|Hulchul]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Venky Mama]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020
| ''[[Orey Bujjiga]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Nishabdham]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="7" |2021
| ''[[Power Play (2021 film)|Power Play]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Vakeel Saab]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Dear Megha]]''
|
|-
| ''Asmee''
|
|-
| ''[[Tuck Jagadish]]''
|
|-
| ''Itlu Amma''
|
|-
| ''[[Oka Chinna Family Story]]''
| [[ZEE5]] series
|-
| rowspan="12" |2022
| ''[[Hero (2022 Indian film)|Hero]]''
|
|-
| ''Seethayanam''
|
|-
|''[[Katha Kanchiki Manam Intiki]]''
|
|-
| ''[[10th Class Diaries]]''
|
|-
| ''Commitment''
|
|-
| ''[[Kotha Kothaga]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Nenu Meeku Baaga Kavalsinavaadini]]''
|
|-
| ''Leharaayi''
|
|-
| ''[[Dhamaka (2022 film)|Dhamaka]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Top Gear (2022 film)|Top Gear]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Lucky Lakshman]]''
|
|-
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Ming treasure voyages

2026-04-29T23:34:21Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{Short description|Maritime voyages between 1405 and 1433}}
{{Redirect|Zheng He Xia Xiyang|the TV series about the voyages|Zheng He Xia Xiyang (TV series)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}{{Use American English|date=May 2013}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|title = Ming treasure voyages
|pic =ZhengHeShips.gif
|piccap = Several of [[Zheng He]]'s ships as depicted in the ''[[Wubei Zhi]]'', dated to the early 17th century
|picsize = 260px
|s = 郑和下西洋
|t = 鄭和下西洋
|p = Zhèng Hé Xià Xīyáng
|l = [Voyages of] Zheng He down the Western Ocean
|poj = Tēⁿ Hô Hā Se-iûⁿ
}}

The '''Ming treasure voyages''' were maritime [[Exploration|expeditions]] undertaken by [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]]'s [[Chinese treasure fleet|treasure fleet]] between 1405 and 1433. The [[Yongle Emperor]] ordered the construction of the fleet in 1403. The grand project resulted in seven far-reaching ocean voyages to the coastal territories and islands of the [[South China Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]]. Admiral [[Zheng He]] was commissioned to command the fleet for the expeditions. Six of the voyages occurred during the Yongle Emperor's reign ({{reign|1402|1424}}) and the seventh voyage occurred during the [[Xuande Emperor]]'s reign ({{reign|1425|1435}}). The first three voyages reached up to [[Calicut]] on India's [[Malabar Coast]], while the fourth voyage went as far as [[Ormus|Hormuz]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. In the last three voyages, the fleet traveled up to the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and [[East Africa]].

The Chinese expeditionary fleet was heavily militarized and carried great amounts of treasures, which served to project Chinese power and wealth to the known world. They brought back many foreign ambassadors whose kings and rulers were willing to declare themselves [[List of tributary states of China|tributaries of China]]. During the course of the voyages, they [[Battle of Palembang (1407)|destroyed Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet]] at [[Palembang]], [[Ming–Kotte War|captured the Sinhalese Kotte kingdom]] of King Alakeshvara, and defeated the forces of the [[Semudera]] pretender Sekandar in northern [[Sumatra]]. The Chinese maritime exploits brought many countries into China's [[Tributary system of China|tributary system]] and sphere of influence through both military and political supremacy, thus incorporating the states into the greater Chinese world order under Ming [[suzerainty]]. Moreover, the Chinese restructured and established control over an expansive [[Maritime Silk Road|maritime network]] in which the region became [[regional integration|integrated]] and its countries became interconnected on an economic and political level.

The Ming treasure voyages were commanded and overseen by the [[Eunuchs in China|eunuch establishment]] whose political influence was heavily dependent on imperial favor. Within Ming China's imperial state system, the civil officials were the primary political opponents of the eunuchs and the opposing faction against the expeditions. Near the end of the maritime voyages, the civil government gained the upper hand within the state bureaucracy, while the eunuchs gradually fell out of favor after the death of the Yongle Emperor and lost the authority to conduct these large-scale endeavors. Furthermore, local authorities and elites had economic interests antagonistic to the central state control of commerce, since the state-sponsored maritime enterprise had been key to counterbalancing localized private trade.

Over the course of these maritime voyages, Ming China became the pre-eminent [[Naval history of China|naval power]] by projecting its sea power further to the south and west. There is still much debate regarding issues such as the actual purpose of the voyages, the size of the ships, the magnitude of the fleet, the routes taken, the nautical charts employed, the countries visited, and the cargo carried.<ref>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=330}}.</ref>

==Background==
===Creation of the fleet===
[[File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Chengzu.jpg|thumb|Painting of the [[Yongle Emperor]], dated to the Ming dynasty ([[National Palace Museum]])]]
On 17 July 1402, in [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]], Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, ascended the throne as the [[Yongle Emperor]].<ref>{{Harvp|Tsai|2001|loc=77}}.</ref> He inherited a powerful navy from his father, the [[Hongwu Emperor]], and further developed it as an instrument for an expansive overseas policy.<ref name=r97a-65-6>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=65–66}}.</ref><ref name=l58-49-0>{{Harvp|Lo|1958|loc=149–150}}.</ref> The {{Transliteration|zh|[[Taizong Shilu]]}} contains 24 short entries for the imperial orders for shipbuilding, with figures pointing to at least 2,868 ships, from 1403 to 1419.<ref name=d7-116-7>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=116–117}}.</ref> Over the course of 1403, [[Fujian]], [[Jiangxi]], [[Zhejiang]], and [[Huguang]]'s provincial governments as well as [[Nanjing]], [[Suzhou]], and other cities' military garrisons were ordered to begin constructing ships.<ref name=drey07-4950>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=49–50}}.</ref>

Under the reign of the Yongle Emperor, Ming China underwent [[Ming dynasty military conquests|militaristic expansionism]] with ventures such as the treasure voyages.<ref name=mil70-1>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=1}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=256}}.</ref> In 1403, he issued an imperial order to start the immense construction project of the [[Chinese treasure fleet|treasure fleet]].<ref name=lev96-734>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=73–74}}.</ref> The fleet was known as the {{Transliteration|zh|Xiafan Guanjun}} ({{Lang-zh|c=下番官軍|l=foreign expeditionary armada|labels=no}}), its original designation, in Chinese sources.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=99 & 167}}.</ref> It came to comprise many trading ships, warships, and support vessels.<ref name=lev96-734/> The Longjiang shipyard was the construction site for many of the fleet's ships,<ref name=dr7-501>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=50–51}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=27}}.</ref> including all of the [[Chinese treasure ship|treasure ships]].<ref name=dr7-501/><ref name=br98-616/> It was located on the [[Qinhuai River]] near Nanjing, where it flows into the [[Yangtze River]].<ref name=dr7-501/><ref>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=75}}.</ref> Many trees were cut along the [[Min River (Fujian)|Min River]] and upper reaches of the Yangtze River to supply the necessary resources for the fleet's construction.<ref name=drey07-4950/> Existing ships were also converted to serve in the fleet for the voyages, but this can only be said with certainty for 249 ships ordered in 1407.<ref>{{Harvp|Church|2005|loc=17–19}}.</ref>

The fleet's high-ranking officers, such as Admiral [[Zheng He]], were from the [[Eunuchs in China|eunuch]] establishment.<ref name=dr7-102>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=102}}.</ref> Zheng served as the Grand Director in the Directorate of Palace Servants, a eunuch-dominated department, before his command of the expeditions.<ref name=drey07-50>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=50}}.</ref> The emperor placed great trust in Zheng and appointed him to command the fleet.<ref name=drey07-4950/><ref name=lev96-87>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=87}}.</ref> He even gave him blank scrolls stamped with his seal to issue imperial orders at sea.<ref name=lev96-87/> The other principal officers, such as [[Wang Jinghong]], Hou Xian, Li Xing, Zhu Liang, [[Zhou Man]], [[Hong Bao]], Yang Zhen, Zhang Da, and Wu Zhong, were court eunuchs employed in the civil service.<ref name=ts1-208>{{Harvp|Tsai|2001|loc=208}}.</ref> The rest of the crew was predominantly from the [[Military of the Ming dynasty|Ming military]]<ref name=dr7-102/> and mostly recruited from Fujian.<ref name=ch98-232/><ref name=du38-391>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=391}}.</ref>

===Regions===
During the onset of the Ming treasure voyages, the Chinese treasure fleet embarked from the Longjiang shipyard and sailed down the [[Yangtze River]] to [[Liujiagang]], where Zheng He organized his fleet and made sacrifices to the goddess [[Mazu|Tianfei]].<ref name=mi70-9>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=9}}.</ref> Over the course of the following four to eight weeks, the fleet gradually proceeded to Taiping anchorage in [[Changle]],<ref name=mi70-9/> where they waited for the favorable [[Monsoon#Northeast monsoon|northeast winter monsoon]]{{NoteTag|Circa December and January ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=30}}; {{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=9}})}} before leaving the Fujian coast.<ref name=mi70-9/><ref name=du38-358>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=358}}.</ref><ref name=dr7-30>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=30}}.</ref> The monsoon winds generally affected how the fleet sailed through the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.<ref name=dr7-27/><ref name=hx78/> They reached the sea through the Wuhumen ('five tiger passage') of the Min River in Fujian.<ref name=du38-358/> The port of [[Qui Nhon]] in [[Champa]] was always the first foreign destination that the fleet visited.<ref name=drey7-52/>

The voyages sent the fleet to the Western Ocean (西洋), which was the maritime region encompassing today's [[South China Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]] during the Ming dynasty.<ref>{{Harvp|Deng|Li|2011|loc=207}}.</ref> More specifically, contemporary sources such as the ''[[Yingya Shenglan]]'' place the dividing line between the Eastern Ocean and Western Ocean at [[Brunei]].<ref>{{Harvp|Zheng|2014|loc=209−212}}.</ref>

During the first three voyages from 1405 to 1411, the fleet followed the same basic maritime route: from Fujian to the first call in Champa, across the South China Sea to [[Java]] and [[Sumatra]], up the [[Strait of Malacca]] to northern Sumatra for assembly of the fleet, across the Indian Ocean to [[Ceylon]], then along the [[Malabar Coast]] to [[Kozhikode|Calicut]].<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=30–31 & 49–50}}.</ref> At the time, the fleet sailed no further than Calicut.<ref name=dre7-73/><ref name=chu8-2355/> During the fourth voyage, the route was extended to [[Strait of Hormuz|Hormuz]].<ref name=dr7-30-2>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=30–32}}.</ref><ref name=chu8-2355/> During the fifth, sixth, and seventh voyages, the fleet traveled further to destinations in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and [[East Africa]].<ref name=dr7-30-2/><ref name=chu8-2355/> For the sixth voyage, the fleet sailed up to Calicut, where several detached squadrons proceeded to further destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.<ref name=dr7-30-2/> For the seventh voyage, the fleet followed the route up to Hormuz, while detached squadrons traveled to other places at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.<ref name=dr7-30-2/>

==Course==
{{see also|Timeline of the Ming treasure voyages}}

===First voyage===
[[File:Admiral Zhenghe.jpg|thumb|Wax statue of Admiral [[Zheng He]] ([[Quanzhou Maritime Museum]])]]
In the third lunar month (30 March to 28 April) of 1405, a preliminary order was issued to Admiral [[Zheng He]] and others to lead 27,000 troops to the Western Ocean.<ref>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=356–358}}.</ref> An imperial edict, dated 11 July 1405, was issued containing the order for the expedition.<ref name=mi70-10/><ref name=duy8b-356>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=356}}.</ref><ref name=chu8-2354>{{Harvp|Church|2008|loc=2354}}.</ref> It was addressed to Zheng He, [[Wang Jinghong]], and others.<ref name=mi70-10>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=10}}.</ref>

The [[Yongle Emperor]] held a banquet for the crew on the evening before the treasure fleet's maiden voyage.<ref name=lev96-89/> Gifts were presented to the officers and the common crew according to their rank.<ref name=lev96-89/> Sacrifices and prayers were offered to [[Tianfei]], the patron goddess of sailors and seafarers, in the hopes of ensuring a successful journey and safe passage during the voyage.<ref name=lev96-89>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=89}}.</ref> In the autumn of 1405, the fleet had assembled at [[Nanjing]] and was ready to depart from the city.<ref>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=87–88}}.</ref> According to the ''[[Taizong Shilu]]'s'' entry for 11 July 1405 about the dispatch of the fleet, Zheng and "others" left on the first expedition "bearing imperial letters to the countries of the Western Ocean and with gifts to their kings of gold [[brocade]], patterned [[silk]]s, and colored silk gauze, according to their status".<ref name="drey07-51">{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=51}}.</ref> The fleet made a stop at [[Liujiagang]].<ref name=dr7-512>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=51–52}}.</ref><ref name=ch98-233/> There, the fleet was organized in squadrons while the fleet's crew honored Tianfei with prayers and sacrifices.<ref name="dr7-512"/> Then, the fleet sailed down the coast to Taiping anchorage in [[Changle District|Changle]] near the [[Min River (Fujian)|Min River]], where it awaited the northeast [[monsoon]].<ref name=drey7-52/> The crew offered more prayers and sacrifices to Tianfei during their wait.<ref name=drey7-52/> Afterwards, the fleet departed via the Wuhumen.<ref name=du38-358/><ref name=drey7-52>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=52}}.</ref>

The fleet sailed to [[Champa]],<ref name=drey7-52/><ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=358–360}}.</ref> [[Java]],<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0/><ref name=drey7-53>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=53}}.</ref> [[Malacca]],<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0/> [[Aru Islands Regency|Aru]],<ref name=du38-358-0/><ref name=drey7-53/> [[Semudera]],<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0/><ref name=drey7-53/> [[Lambri]],<ref name=du38-358-0/><ref name=drey7-53/> [[Ceylon]],<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0/><ref name=drey7-53/> [[Quilon]],<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0/> and [[Calicut]].<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0/><ref name=lev96-88>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=88}}.</ref> From Lambri, the fleet sailed straight through the Indian Ocean instead of following the [[Bay of Bengal]] coastline to Ceylon.<ref name=drey7-53/> Three days after their departure from Lambri, a ship split off and went to the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]].<ref name=drey7-53/> Six days after the separation, the fleet saw the mountains of Ceylon and arrived at Ceylon's western coast two days later.<ref name=drey7-53/> They left this region as they were met with hostility from the local ruler, [[Alakeshvara]].<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=53–54 & 67}}.</ref> Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Zheng made port at Quilon—although there is no account confirming this—because the King of Quilon traveled with the fleet to China in 1407.<ref name=drey7-54/> Mills (1970) states that the fleet may have stayed four months at Calicut from December to April 1407.<ref name=d7-123/> Around [[Kanyakumari|Cape Comorin]] on the southern tip of the [[Indian subcontinent]], the fleet changed direction and began its return journey to China.<ref name=drey7-54>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=54}}.</ref> During the return, the fleet stopped at Malacca again.<ref name=drey7-55>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=55}}.</ref>

During the return trip in 1407, Zheng and his associates [[Battle of Palembang (1407)|engaged Chen Zuyi and his pirate fleet in battle]] at [[Palembang]].<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=du38-358-0/><ref name=drey7-55/><ref name=ray87-pi/> [[Chen Zuyi|Chen]] had seized Palembang<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=drey7-55/> and dominated the maritime route along the Malaccan Strait.<ref name=ch98-233/> The battle concluded with the defeat of Chen's pirate fleet by the Chinese treasure fleet.<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=ray87-pi>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=69 & 74–75}}.</ref> Chen and his lieutenants were executed on 2 October 1407 when the Chinese fleet returned to Nanjing.<ref name=drey7-59>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=59}}.</ref> The Ming court appointed [[Shi Jinqing]] as the Pacification Superintendent of Palembang, establishing an ally at Palembang and securing access to its port.<ref name=se16-63>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=613}}.</ref>

The fleet returned to Nanjing on 2 October 1407.<ref name=duy8b-356/><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=55–56}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-10-1>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=10–11}}.</ref> After accompanying the fleet during the return journey, the foreign envoys (from Calicut, Quilon, Semudera, Aru, Malacca, and other unspecified nations) visited the Ming court to pay homage and present tribute with their local products.<ref name=mi70-10/><ref name=drey7-59/><ref name=du38-360>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=360}}.</ref> The Yongle Emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites, whose duties included the protocol concerning foreign ambassadors, to prepare gifts for the foreign kings who had sent envoys to the court.<ref name=drey7-59/>

===Second voyage===
[[File:Traced and restored map illustration from "Tian Fei Jing" first volume of Zheng He's voyages to the West.jpg|thumb|Zheng He's treasure ships as depicted in the ''Tianfei Jing'' (天妃經), dated to 1420 ([[C. Y. Tung Maritime Museum]])]]
[[File:《鄭和歸來》。藝術家弗拉基米爾·科索夫 2018.jpg|thumb|The Chinese treasure fleet as painted by Vladimir Kosov, dated 2018]]

The imperial order for the second voyage was issued in October 1407.{{NoteTag|In the ''Taizong Shilu'', the imperial order is dated to 17 October 1408 ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=62}}; {{Harvnb|Duyvendak|1939|loc=361}}). In the ''Mingshi'', this date is 7 October 1408 ({{Harvnb|Duyvendak|1939|loc=361}}). However, the imperial order is dated to 1407 in Zheng He's inscriptions and Ma Huan's book ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=62}}). After correction of the year in the former two works, the order date would be 23 October 1407 derived from the ''Taizong Shilu'' ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=62}}; {{Harvnb|Duyvendak|1939|loc=364}}) or 13 October 1407 derived from the ''Mingshi'' ({{Harvnb|Duyvendak|1939|loc=364}}).}}<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=mi70-11/> The edict was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian ({{Lang|zh|侯顯}}).<ref name=mi70-11/> Lang Ying's {{Transliteration|zh|Qixiuleigao}} ({{Lang|zh|七修類稿}}) records that Zheng, Wang, and Hou were dispatched in 1407.<ref name=duy38-362>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=362}}.</ref> The {{Transliteration|zh|Taizong Shilu}} records that Zheng and others went as envoys to the countries of Calicut, Malacca, Semudera, Aru, {{Transliteration|zh|Jiayile}}, Java, [[Siam]], Champa, [[Cochin]], {{Transliteration|zh|Abobadan}}, Quilon, Lambri, and {{Transliteration|zh|Ganbali}}.{{NoteTag|name=Ganbali|The ''Mingshi'' states that ''Ganbali'' was a little country in the Western Ocean. It has traditionally been identified as Coimbatore, but Cambay in Gujarat or Cape Comorin may also be possible. ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=46 & 93–94}})}}<ref name=drey7-63/>

On 30 October 1407, a grand director was dispatched with a squadron to Champa before Zheng followed with the main body of the treasure fleet.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=59 & 62}}.</ref> The fleet departed in the fifth year of the Yongle reign (late 1407 or possibly early 1408).<ref name="duy8b-356" /> The fleet traveled from Nanjing to Liujiagang to Changle.<ref name="drey7-64" /> Then it sailed to Champa; Siam; Java; Malacca; Semudera, Aru, and Lambri on [[Sumatra]]; {{Transliteration|zh|Jiayile, Abobadan, Ganbali}}, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut in [[India]].<ref name="drey7-64" /> Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Siam and Java were visited by the fleet or by detached squadrons before regrouping at Malacca.<ref name="drey7-64" /> During this voyage, the fleet did not land on Ceylon.<ref name="drey7-64">{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=64}}.</ref> The fleet was tasked to carry out the formal investiture of Mana Vikraan as [[List of Kozhikode Samoodiris|the King of Calicut]].<ref name="lev96-88" /><ref name="mi70-11" /><ref name="du38-3589">{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=358–359}}.</ref> A tablet was placed in Calicut to commemorate the relationship between China and India.<ref name="lev96-88" /><ref name="mi70-11" />

In this voyage, the Chinese forcibly settled the enmity between Ming China and Java.<ref name=drey7-63/> In a [[Paregreg war|civil war on Java between 1401 and 1406]], the King of West Java killed 170 members of a Chinese embassy who had come ashore in his rival's territory at East Java.{{NoteTag|{{harvtxt|Chan|1998|loc=271–272}} gives a different account, stating that, during the second voyage between 1408 and 1409, the King of West Java killed 170 members of Zheng He's personnel who had come ashore on his rival's territory at East Java, so Zheng was forced to intervene militarily.}}<ref name=drey7-63/> The entry dated to 23 October 1407 in the ''[[Ming Shilu]]'' states that the Western King of Java had sent an envoy to the Ming court to admit his guilt for mistakenly killing 170 Ming troops who had gone ashore to trade.<ref name=se16-613-4/> It further states that the Ming court responded by demanding 60,000 ''[[Tael|liang]]'' of gold for compensation and atonement, warning that they would dispatch an army to punish the Javanese ruler for his crime if he failed to comply and stating that the [[Ming–Hồ War|situation in Annam]] (referring to Ming China's successful invasion of Vietnam) could serve as an example.<ref name=drey7-63/><ref name=se16-613-4>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=613–614}}.</ref> The Chinese accepted the payment and apology, and restored diplomatic relations.<ref name=ch98-271-2/> Yan Congjian's {{Transliteration|zh|Shuyu Zhouzilu}} notes that the emperor later forgave 50,000 {{Transliteration|zh|liang}} of gold that was still owed from this as long as the western ruler was remorseful for his crime.<ref name=ta45/> Tan (2005) remarks that Zheng had submitted the case of the killings to the emperor for a decision, rather than undertake a military invasion in revenge, as the killings were not willful.<ref name=ta45>{{harvp|Tan|2005|loc=45}}.</ref> The Chinese would use further voyages to keep surveillance over Java.<ref name=ch98-271-2>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=271–272}}.</ref>

During the journey, as recorded by [[Fei Xin]], the fleet visited the [[Similan Islands|Pulau Sembilan]] in the [[Strait of Malacca]] in the seventh year of the Yongle reign (1409).<ref name=duy38-362/><ref name=drey7-64/> Dreyer (2007) concludes that the stop was made during the return journey of the second voyage as the fleet did not leave the Chinese coast for the third voyage until early 1410.<ref name=drey7-64/> Fei wrote that "In the seventh year of Yongle, Zheng He and his associates sent government troops onto the island to cut incense. They obtained six logs, each eight or nine {{Transliteration|zh|chi}}{{NoteTag|name=zhangchi|A ''zhang'' was ten ''chi'' and a ''chi'' was 10.5–12 inches ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=65}}).}} in diameter and six or seven {{Transliteration|zh|zhang}}{{NoteTag|name=zhangchi}} in length, whose aroma was pure and far-ranging. The pattern [of the wood] was black, with fine lines. The people of the island opened their eyes wide and stuck out their tongues in astonishment, and were told that 'We are the soldiers of the Heavenly Court, and our awe-inspiring power is like that of the gods.'"<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=64–65}}.</ref> The fleet returned to Nanjing in the summer of 1409.<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=drey7-64/>

The confusion of whether Zheng undertook the second voyage stems from the fact that a Chinese envoy was dispatched before he had departed with the main body of the fleet.<ref name=drey7-59/> The imperial edict for the third voyage was issued during the second voyage while the fleet was still in the Indian Ocean, so Zheng was either absent when the court issued the imperial order or he had not accompanied the fleet during the second voyage.<ref name=drey7-66/> On 21 January 1409, a grand ceremony was held in the honor of the goddess Tianfei, where she received a new title.<ref name=dre7-71/> Duyvendak (1938) thinks that Zheng could not have been on the second voyage, because the ceremony's importance required Zheng's attendance.<ref>Duyvendak (1938). Cited in {{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=71}}.</ref> Mills (1970), citing Duyvendak (1938), also states that he did not accompany the fleet for this voyage.<ref name=mi70-11>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=11}}.</ref> However, Dreyer (2007) states that it is strongly suggested that Zheng had been on the second voyage, as Fei's account about the 1409 visit to Pulau Sembilan explicitly mentions him.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=64–65 & 72}}.</ref>

===Third voyage===
{{Quote box
|quote = Straight-away, their dens and hideouts we ravaged, And made captive that entire country, Bringing back to our august capital, Their women, children, families and retainers, leaving not one, Cleaning out in a single sweep those noxious pests, as if winnowing chaff from grain... These insignificant worms, deserving to die ten thousand times over, trembling in fear... Did not even merit the punishment of Heaven. Thus the august emperor spared their lives, And they humbly kowtowed, making crude sounds and Praising the sage-like virtue of the imperial Ming ruler.
|source = — Yang Rong (1515) about the [[Ming–Kotte War|conflict in Ceylon]]<ref>Yang, Rong (1515). ''Yang Wenmin Gong Ji'' [''The Collected Works of Yang Rong'']. Jianan, Yang shi chong kan ben. Chapter 1. Translation in {{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=115}}.</ref>
|align = left
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The imperial order for the third voyage was issued in the first month of the seventh year of the Yongle reign (16 January to 14 February 1409).<ref name=drey7-65>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=65}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=363 & 373}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-11-2/> It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian.<ref name=drey7-65/><ref name=mi70-11-2>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=11–12}}.</ref>

Zheng embarked on the voyage in 1409.<ref name=duy38-361-2/> The Chinese treasure fleet departed from Liujiagang in the ninth month (9 October to 6 November 1409) and arrived at Changle the following month (7 November to 6 December 1409).<ref name=drey7-66>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=66}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-11-2/><ref name=duy38-361-2>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=361–362}}.</ref> They left Changle in the twelfth month (5 January to 3 February 1410).<ref name=drey7-66/><ref name=duy38-361-2/> They proceeded via the Wuhumen.<ref name=mi70-11-2/> The fleet made stops at Champa, Java, Malacca, Semudera, Ceylon, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut.<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=drey7-66/><ref name=duv38-373>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=373}}.</ref> They traveled to Champa within 10 days.<ref name=drey7-66/><ref name=mi70-11-2/> Wang and Hou made short detours at Siam, Malacca, Semudera, and Ceylon.<ref name=ch98-233/> The fleet landed at [[Galle]], Ceylon, in 1410.<ref name=drey7-66/>

During the homeward journey in 1411, the Chinese treasure fleet [[Ming–Kotte War|confronted King Alakeshvara of Ceylon]].{{NoteTag|{{Harvtxt|Dreyer|2007|loc=66 & 72–73}} thinks the incident happened during the outward journey in 1410, but notes that most authorities think it happened during the homeward journey in 1411. {{Harvtxt|Dreyer|2007|loc=72–73}} also notes that Chinese sources make no mention when the confrontation exactly happened during the course of the third voyage.}}<ref name=duv38-373/><ref name=ch98-233-5>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=233–235}}.</ref> Alakeshvara posed a threat to the countries and local waters of Ceylon and southern India.<ref name=d7-70-3>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=70–73}}.</ref> When the Chinese arrived at Ceylon, they were overbearing and contemptuous of the Sinhalese, whom they considered rude, disrespectful, and hostile.<ref name=d7-67-8/> They also resented the Sinhalese for attacking and committing piracy against neighboring countries that had diplomatic relations with Ming China.<ref name=d7-67-8/> Zheng and 2,000 troops traveled overland into [[Kotte]], because Alakeshvara had lured them into his territory.<ref name=d7-67-8>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=67–68}}.</ref> The king separated Zheng and his men from the Chinese fleet anchored at Colombo,<ref name=drey7678703/> while he planned a surprise attack on the fleet.<ref name=ch98-233/><ref name=d7-70-3/> In response, Zheng and his troops invaded Kotte and captured its capital.<ref name=d7-70-3/> The Sinhalese army, recorded to have over 50,000 troops, hastily returned and surrounded the capital, but were repeatedly defeated in battle by the invading Chinese troops.<ref name=drey7678703/> They took captive Alakeshvara, his family, and principal officials.<ref name=mi70-11-2/><ref name=drey7678703>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=67–68 & 70–73}}.</ref>

Zheng returned to Nanjing on 6 July 1411.<ref name=mi70-11-2/><ref>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=361 & 373}}.</ref> He presented the Sinhalese captives to the Yongle Emperor,<ref name=mi70-11-2/> who decided to free and return them to their country.<ref name=mi70-11-2/><ref name=ch98-233-5/><ref name=d7-70-3/> The Chinese dethroned Alakeshvara in favor of their ally [[Parakramabahu VI of Kotte|Parakramabahu VI]] as the king with Zheng and his fleet supporting him.<ref>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=74–75}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Holt|1991|loc=109–110}}.</ref> From then on, the fleet did not experience hostilities during visits to Ceylon.<ref name=d7-70-3/>

===Fourth voyage===
[[File:Map of Ming Chinese empire 1415.jpg|thumb|[[Ming China]] in 1415 as depicted in [[Albert Herrmann]]'s ''Historical and Commercial Atlas of China'', published in 1935]]
On 18 December 1412, the Yongle Emperor issued the order for the fourth voyage.<ref name=duv38-373/><ref name=dre7-75>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=75}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-12-3>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=12–13}}.</ref> Zheng He and others were commanded to lead it.<ref name=dre7-75/><ref name=mi70-12-3/>

The emperor attended an archery contest for the [[Duanwu Festival|Midsummer Festival]] of 1413 (5th day, 5th month, 11th year) that all the Chinese officials and foreign envoys were invited to.<ref name=du38-375/> Duyvendak (1939) states that these envoys were so numerous that they most-likely comprised many of those whom Zheng escorted back to their countries during the fourth voyage rather than just close neighbors.<ref name=du38-375>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=375}}.</ref> This expedition led the Chinese treasure fleet into Muslim countries, so it must have been important for the Chinese to seek out reliable interpreters.<ref name=du38-375-6/> The interpreter [[Ma Huan]] joined the voyages for the first time.<ref name=du38-375-6/> A 1523 inscription at a mosque in [[Xi'an]] records that, on the 4th month of the 11th year, Zheng was there to seek reliable interpreters and found Hasan (哈三).<ref name=du38-375-6>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=375–376}}.</ref> Hasan was proficient in Arabic and went on this voyage.<ref>{{Harvp|Ming|2005|loc=41}}.</ref>

The fleet left Nanjing in 1413, probably in the autumn.<ref name=mi70-12-3/><ref name=drey07-76/><ref name=du38-374&6>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=374 & 376}}.</ref> It set sail from Fujian in the 12th month of the 11th year in the Yongle reign (23 December 1413 to 21 January 1414).<ref name=drey07-76/><ref name=du38-374&6/> Calicut was the westernmost destination during the previous voyages, but the fleet sailed beyond it this time.<ref name=dr7-77/> The {{Transliteration|zh|Taizong Shilu}} records Malacca, Java, Champa, Semudera, Aru, Cochin, Calicut, Lambri, [[Pahang]], [[Kelantan]], {{Transliteration|zh|Jiayile}}, [[Ormus|Hormuz]], {{Transliteration|zh|Bila}}, Maldives, and {{Transliteration|zh|Sunla}} as stops for this voyage.<ref name=duv38-373/>

The fleet sailed to Champa,<ref name=drey07-76/><ref name=ch98-235/> Kelantan,<ref name=ch98-235/> Pahang,<ref name=ch98-235/> Malacca,<ref name=drey07-76/><ref name=ch98-235/> Palembang,<ref name=ch98-235/><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=76–77}}.</ref> Java,<ref name=dr7-77/><ref name=ch98-235/> Lambri,<ref name=dr7-77/><ref name=ch98-235/> Lide,<ref name=dr7-77/> Aru,<ref name=dr7-77/> Semudera,<ref name=dr7-77>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=77}}.</ref><ref name=ch98-235/> Ceylon,<ref name=dr7-77/><ref name=ch98-235/> {{Transliteration|zh|Jiayile}} (opposite Ceylon),<ref name=dr7-77/> Cochin;<ref name=dr7-77/><ref name=ch98-235/> and Calicut.<ref name=dr7-77/><ref name=ch98-235/> They proceeded to {{Transliteration|zh|Liushan}} ([[Maldive Islands|Maldive]] and [[Laccadive Islands]]),<ref name=ch98-235/><ref name=dr7-77-8/> {{Transliteration|zh|Bila}} ([[Bitra|Bitra Atoll]]),<ref name=dr7-77-8/> {{Transliteration|zh|Sunla}} ([[Chetlat Island|Chetlat Atoll]]),<ref name=dr7-77-8/> and Hormuz.<ref name=ch98-235/><ref name=dr7-77-8>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=77–78}}.</ref> At Java, the fleet delivered gifts and favors from the Yongle Emperor.<ref name=dr7-77/> In return, a Javanese envoy arrived in China on 29 April 1415 and presented tribute in the form of "western horses" and local products while expressing gratitude.<ref name=dr7-77/>

In 1415, the fleet made a stop at northern Sumatra during the journey homeward.<ref name=dr7-79-81>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=79–81}}.</ref> In this region, Sekandar had usurped the Semudera throne from Zain al-'Abidin,<ref name=mi70-12-3/> but the Chinese had formally recognized the latter as the King of Semudera.<ref name=dr7-79-81/> In contrast, Sekandar, an autonomous ruler, was not recognized by the Chinese.<ref name=dr7-79-81/> Zheng was ordered to launch a punitive attack against the usurper and restore Zain al-'Abidin as the rightful king.<ref name=mi70-12-3/> Sekandar and his forces, comprising reportedly "tens of thousands" of soldiers,<ref name=se-614-5/> attacked the Ming forces and were defeated by them.<ref name=dr7-79-81/><ref name=se-614-5/> The Ming forces pursued Sekandar's forces to Lambri where they captured Sekandar, his wife, and his child.<ref name=mi70-12-3/> King Zain al-'Abidin later dispatched a tribute mission to express his gratefulness.<ref name=dr7-79-81/> This conflict reaffirmed Chinese power over the foreign states and the maritime route by protecting the local political authority that sheltered the trade.<ref name=dr7-79-81/> Sekandar was presented to the Yongle Emperor at the palace gate and later executed.<ref name=mi70-12-3/> It is not known when this execution happened, but Ma states that Sekandar was publicly executed in the capital after the fleet returned.<ref name=dr7-81/> Fei Xin describes Sekandar as a false king who robbed, stole, and usurped the throne of Semudera, Ma Huan portrays him as someone who attempted to overthrow the ruler, and the ''Ming Shilu'' records that Sekandar was the younger brother of the former king and plotted to kill the ruler.<ref name=se-614-5>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=614–615}}.</ref>

On 12 August 1415, the fleet returned to Nanjing from this voyage.<ref name=duv38-373/><ref name=mi70-12-3/><ref name=dr7-81>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=81}}.</ref> The Yongle Emperor was absent since 16 March 1413 for his [[Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols|second military campaign against the Mongols]] and had not returned when the fleet arrived.<ref name=drey07-76/> After the fleet's return, envoys bearing tribute from 18 countries were sent to the Ming court.<ref name=ch98-235/>

===Fifth voyage===
[[File:20230208 Gold ingot.jpg|thumb|A gold ingot excavated from the tomb of Prince Zhuang of Liang, a son of the [[Hongxi Emperor]], with an inscription stating that the ingot was made from gold purchased at the Western Ocean in the 17th year of the [[Yongle Emperor|Yongle]] reign (1419), indicating that the gold was purchased in the fifth voyage ([[Hubei Provincial Museum]])]]
On 14 November 1416, the Yongle Emperor returned to Nanjing.<ref name=dre7-82/> On 19 November, a grand ceremony was held where he bestowed gifts to princes, civil officials, military officers, and the ambassadors of 18 countries.{{NoteTag|The ''Taizong Shilu'' lists 19 names of countries for its 19 November and 28 December entries ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=82–83}}). However, the 19 names comprise 18 countries, because Lambri was listed twice, namely as ''Nanwuli'' and ''Nanpoli'' ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=82–83}}; {{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=13}}). The 18 countries were Champa, Pahang, Java, Palembang, Malacca, Semudera, Lambri, Ceylon, the Maldive Islands, Cochin, Calicut, ''Shaliwanni'' (possibly Cannanore), Hormuz, {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}, Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, and Malindi ({{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=13}}).}}<ref name=dre7-82>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=82}}.</ref> On 28 December, the ambassadors visited the Ming court to take their leave and were bestowed robes before departure.<ref name=dre7-82/> That day, the emperor ordered the undertaking of the fifth voyage,<ref name=drey07-76/><ref name=mi70-13>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=13}}.</ref><ref name=du28-378>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=378}}.</ref> the aim of which was to return the ambassadors and to reward their kings.<ref name=mi70-13/><ref name=du28-378/>

Zheng He and others received orders to escort the ambassadors back home.<ref name=dre7-82/> They carried imperial letters and gifts for several kings.<ref name=dre7-82/> The King of Cochin received special treatment because he had sent tribute since 1411 and later also sent ambassadors to request the patent of investiture and a seal.<ref name=dre7-82/> The Yongle Emperor granted him both requests, conferred to him a long inscription (allegedly composed by the emperor himself), and gave the title "State Protecting Mountain" to a hill in Cochin.<ref name=dre7-82/>

Zheng may have left the Chinese coast in the autumn of 1417.<ref name=mi70-13/><ref name=dr7-83>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=83}}.</ref> He first made port at Quanzhou to load up the treasure fleet's cargo holds with [[porcelain]] and other goods.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=83–84}}.</ref> Archaeological finds of contemporary Chinese porcelain have been excavated at the East African places visited by the fleet.<ref name=dr7-84/> A Ming tablet at Quanzhou commemorates Zheng burning incense for divine protection for the voyage on 31 May 1417.<ref name=dr7-84>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=84}}.</ref><ref name=du38-381>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=381}}.</ref> The fleet visited Champa, Pahang, Java, Palembang, Malacca, Semudera, Lambri, Ceylon, Cochin, Calicut, {{Transliteration|zh|Shaliwanni}} (possibly [[Cannanore]]), {{Transliteration|zh|Liushan}} (Maladive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz, {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}, [[Aden]], [[Mogadishu]], [[Barawa|Brava]], {{Transliteration|zh|Zhubu}}, and [[Malindi]].<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=82–83 & 87–89}}.</ref> For Arabia and East Africa, the most likely route was Hormuz, {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}, Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, {{Transliteration|zh|Zhubu}}, and then Malindi.<ref name=d7-83-7-9>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=83 & 87–89}}.</ref> The {{Lang|ar|Tarih al-Yaman fi d-daulati r-Rasuliya}} reports that Chinese ships reached the Aden coast in January 1419 and did not leave the [[Rasulid]] capital at [[Ta'izz]] before 19 March.<ref name=jost19-85>{{Harvp|Jost|2019|loc=85}}.</ref>

On 8 August 1419, the fleet had returned to China.<ref name=mi70-13/><ref name=dr7-84/><ref name=du28-382>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=382}}.</ref> The Yongle Emperor was in Beijing, but he ordered the Ministry of Rites to give monetary rewards to the fleet's personnel.<ref name="dre7-91"/> The accompanying ambassadors were received at the Ming court in the eighth lunar month (21 August to 19 September) of 1419.<ref name=mi70-13/><ref name=du28-382/> Their tribute included lions, leopards, dromedary camels, ostriches, zebras, rhinoceroses, antelopes, giraffes, and other exotic animals.<ref name=ch98-235/> The arrival of the various animals brought by foreign ambassadors caused sensation at the Ming court.<ref name=du28-382/>

Early in the fall of 1420, after the emperor announced the move of the capital to Beijing, he made arrangements for all foreign envoys to journey to the new capital for a celebration in early 1421.<ref>{{Harvp|Tsai|2001|loc=202}}.</ref>

===Sixth voyage===
The {{Transliteration|zh|Taizong Shilu}}'s 3 March 1421 entry notes that the envoys of sixteen countries (Hormuz and other countries) were given gifts of paper money, coin money, ceremonial robes, and linings before the Chinese treasure fleet escorted them back to their countries.<ref name=dre7-91>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=91}}.</ref> The imperial order for the sixth voyage was dated 3 March 1421.<ref name=mi70-14>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=14}}.</ref><ref name=du28-385>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=385}}.</ref> Zheng He was dispatched with imperial letters, silk brocade, silk floss, silk gauze, and other gifts for the rulers of these countries.<ref name=dre7-91/>

[[Gong Zhen]]'s {{Transliteration|zh|Xiyang Fanguo Zhi}} records a 10 November 1421 imperial edict instructing Zheng He, Kong He ({{Lang|zh|孔和}}), Zhu Buhua ({{Lang|zh|朱卜花}}), and Tang Guanbao ({{Lang|zh|唐觀保}}) to arrange the provisions for [[Hong Bao]] and others' escort of foreign envoys to their countries.<ref name=du28-385/><ref name=mi70-57>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=57}}.</ref> The envoys of the 16 different states were escorted to their homelands by the fleet.<ref name=dr7-93/> It is likely that the first few destinations were Malacca and the three Sumatran states of Lambri, Aru, and Semudera.<ref name=dr7-93/> The fleet was divided into several detached squadrons at Semudera.<ref name=mi70-14/><ref name=dr7-93/><ref name=ch4-29>{{Harvp|Church|2004|loc=29}}.</ref> All the squadrons proceeded to Ceylon, whereafter they separated for {{Transliteration|zh|Jiayile}}, Cochin, {{Transliteration|zh|Ganbali}},{{NoteTag|name=Ganbali}} or Calicut in southern India.<ref name=dr7-93/> The squadrons traveled from there to their respective destinations at {{Transliteration|zh|Liushan}} (Maldive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz at the Persian Gulf, the three Arabian states of [[Dhofar]], {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}, and Aden, and the two African states of Mogadishu and Brava.<ref name=dr7-93/> The eunuch Zhou (probably [[Zhou Man]]) led a detached squadron to Aden.<ref name=mi70-14/><ref name=ch4-29/><ref name=dre7-94/> Ma Huan mentions Zhou Man and Li Xing in connection to the visit of Aden.<ref name=d7-146>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=146}}.</ref> Their squadron may have also visited {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}} and Dhofar.<ref name=dre7-94/> According to the {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi}}, Zheng personally visited {{Transliteration|zh|Ganbali}} as an envoy in 1421.<ref name=dr7-93/> Of the twelve visited nations west of Sumatra, this was the only one explicitly reported to have been visited by Zheng himself.<ref name=dr7-93/> Even though Quilon was not visited, the squadron for Mogadishu probably separated near Quilon as a navigation point while the main body of the fleet continued to Calicut.<ref name=dre7-94/> A large squadron proceeded further from Calicut to Hormuz.<ref name=dre7-94/> They may have traveled via the Laccadives.<ref name=dre7-94>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=94}}.</ref>

Upon return, several squadrons regrouped at Calicut and all the squadrons regrouped further at Semudera.<ref name=dre7-94/> Siam was likely visited during the return journey.<ref name=dr7-93/> The fleet returned on 3 September 1422.<ref name=du28-385/><ref name=dr7-92-4>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=92 & 94}}.</ref> They brought with them envoys from Siam, Semudera, Aden, and other countries, who bore tribute in local products.<ref name=dr7-92-4/> The foreign envoys, who traveled with the fleet to China, proceeded overland or via the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] before reaching the imperial court at Beijing in 1423.<ref name="dr7-144"/>

On 31 January 1423, as reported in the {{Lang|ar|Tarih al-Yaman fi d-daulati r-Rasuliya}}, the Sultan of the [[Rasulid dynasty|Rasulid]] issued an order to receive a Chinese delegation in the capital [[Ta'izz]] in February and goods were exchanged.<ref name=jost19-85/> This indicates that several Chinese ships did not return with the Chinese treasure fleet to China.<ref name=jost19-85/>

===Nanjing garrison===
[[File:Nanking Erlach.jpg|thumb|[[Great Bao'en Temple]] as depicted in [[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]]'s ''A Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture'', published in 1721]]

On 14 May 1421, the [[Yongle Emperor]] ordered the temporary suspension of the treasure voyages.{{NoteTag|On 9 May 1421, lightning struck the Yongle Emperor's palace in Beijing, causing the Fengtian, Huagai, and Jinshen Halls to be destroyed in a fire ({{Harvnb|Ray|1987b|loc=161–162}}). For his decision to discontinue the Indian Ocean expeditions, the emperor was influenced by views that this disaster was a bad omen and a sign against the voyages ({{Harvnb|Sen|2016|loc=612}}).}}<ref name=dr7-138>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=91 & 138}}.</ref> At the expense of the voyages, imperial attention and funding was diverted to the emperor's [[Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols|military campaigns against the Mongols]].<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=138}}.</ref> Between 1422 and 1431, the Chinese treasure fleet remained in [[Nanjing]] to serve in the city's garrison.<ref name=dr7-99>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=99}}.</ref>

In 1424, [[Zheng He]] departed on a diplomatic mission to [[Palembang]].{{NoteTag|The ''Taizong Shilu'' 27 February 1424 entry reports that Zheng He was sent to Palembang. The ''Xuanzong Shilu'' 17 September 1425 entry reports that Zhang Funama was sent to Palembang. The later ''Mingshi'' compilers seem to have combined these two accounts into one journey. ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=96}})}}<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=95 & 136}}.</ref><ref name=ray87-162>{{Harvp|Ray|1987b|loc=162}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Zhu Gaozhi ascended the throne as the [[Hongxi Emperor]] on 7 September 1424 following the death of his father, the Yongle Emperor, on 12 August 1424.<ref name=dr7-1367>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=136–137}}.</ref><ref name=du38-388/> Zheng returned from Palembang after this death.<ref name=ray87-162/><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=95 & 136–137}}.</ref><ref name=du38-387/>

The Hongxi Emperor was against the undertaking of the voyages.<ref name=dre7-91/><ref>{{Harvp|Church|2004|loc=35}}.</ref> On 7 September 1424, the day of his accession to the throne, he terminated the undertaking of further voyages.<ref name=dr7-137>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=137}}.</ref> He kept the treasure fleet, which retained its original designation {{Transliteration|zh|Xiafan Guanjun}}, to garrison Nanjing.<ref name=dr7-167>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=167}}.</ref> On 24 February 1425, he appointed Zheng as the defender of Nanjing and ordered him to continue his command over the fleet for the city's defense.<ref name=dr7-13940>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=139–140}}.</ref> The [[Hongxi Emperor]] died on 29 May 1425 and was succeeded by his eldest son Zhu Zhanji as the [[Xuande Emperor]].<ref name=dr139>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=139}}.</ref> The Xuande Emperor left his father's arrangements in place, so the fleet remained as a part of the institutions in Nanjing.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=140–141}}.</ref>

On 25 March 1428, the Xuande Emperor ordered Zheng and others to supervise the rebuilding and repair of the [[Great Bao'en Temple]] in Nanjing.<ref name=dr142>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=142}}.</ref> The construction of the temple was completed in 1431.<ref name=dr142/> It is possible that the funds to build it were diverted from the treasure voyages.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=143}}.</ref>

===Seventh voyage===
{{Quote box
|quote = We have traversed more than one hundred thousand ''li'' of immense water spaces, and have beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising sky-high. We have set eyes on barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapours, while our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds, day and night continued their course with starry speed, breasting the savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare.
|source = — Zheng He and his associates<ref name=nee59-558>Changle inscription (15th century). Translation by Duyvendak (1939; 1949) in {{Harvp|Needham|1959|loc=558}}.</ref>
|align = left
|width = 350px
|border = 1px
|fontsize = 88%
|bgcolor = #F9F9F9
|qalign = left
|quoted =
|salign = right
}}
[[File:Xuanzong of Ming.jpg|thumb|Painting of the [[Xuande Emperor]], dated to the Ming dynasty ([[National Palace Museum]])]]

Gong Zhen records that an imperial order was issued on 25 May 1430 for the arrangement of necessary provisions for the dispatch of Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, Li Xing, Zhu Liang, Yang Zhen, Hong Bao, and others on official business to the countries of the Western Ocean.<ref name=mi70-57/> It was addressed to Yang Qing ({{Lang|zh|楊慶}}), Luo Zhi ({{Lang|zh|羅智}}), Tang Guanbo ({{Lang|zh|唐觀保}}), and Yuan Cheng ({{Lang|zh|袁誠}}).<ref name=mi70-57/> On 29 June 1430, the Xuande Emperor issued his orders for the seventh voyage.<ref name=mi70-14/><ref name=dr7-144>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=144}}.</ref><ref name=du38-390>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=390}}.</ref> It was addressed to Zheng and others.<ref name=mi70-14/> The {{Transliteration|zh|Xuanzong Shilu}} reports that Zheng, Wang, and others were sent to distant foreign lands to bring them into deference and submission.<ref name=dr7-144/> The emperor wished to reinvigorate the tributary relations that were promoted during the Yongle reign.<ref name=ch8-302/>

[[File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg|thumb|Route of the seventh voyage]]
The {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}} provides information about the dates and itinerary for this voyage.{{NoteTag|name=xiaxiyang-7th}} On 19 January 1431, the Chinese treasure fleet embarked from Longwan ('dragon bay') in Nanjing.<ref name=dr7-151>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=151}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-15>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=15}}.</ref> On 23 January, they came to {{Transliteration|zh|Xushan}} (an unidentified island in the [[Yangtze]]) where they went hunting.<ref name=dr7-151/><ref name=mi70-15/> On 2 February, they passed through the Fuzi Passage (present-day Baimaosha Channel).<ref name=dr7-151/><ref name=mi70-15/> They arrived at Liujiagang on 3 February.<ref name=dr7-151/><ref name=mi70-15/> They arrived at Changle on 8 April.<ref name=dr7-151/><ref name=mi70-15/> They went to Fu Tou Shan (possibly near [[Fuzhou]]) on 16 December.<ref name=mi70-15/> On 12 January 1432, they passed through the Wuhumen (in the entrance to the Min River).<ref name=dr7-151/><ref name=mi70-15/> They arrived at [[Vijaya (Champa)|Vijaya]] (near present-day [[Qui Nhon]]) in Champa on 27 January and departed from there on 12 February.<ref name=mi70-15/><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=151–152}}.</ref> They arrived at [[Surabaya]] in Java on 7 March and departed from there on 13 July.<ref name=mi70-15/><ref name=dr7-152>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=152}}.</ref> The fleet arrived at Palembang on 24 July and departed from there on 27 July.<ref name=dr7-152/><ref name=mi70-17>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=17}}.</ref> They arrived at Malacca on 3 August and departed from there on 2 September.<ref name=mi70-17/><ref name=dr7-153>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=153}}.</ref> They arrived at Semudera on 12 September and departed from there on 2 November.<ref name=mi70-17/><ref name=dr7-153/> They arrived at [[Beruwala]] in Ceylon on 28 November and departed from there on 2 December.<ref name=mi70-17/><ref name=dr7-153/><ref name=dr7-154/> They arrived at Calicut on 10 December and departed from there on 14 December.<ref name=mi70-17/><ref name=dr7-154/> They arrived at Hormuz on 17 January 1433 and departed from there on 9 March.<ref name=mi70-17/><ref name="dr7-155">{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=155}}.</ref>

Hormuz was farthest west of the eight destinations recorded for the seventh voyage in the {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}}.<ref name=dr7-155/> The {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi}} and other sources describe the voyage with the fleet visiting at least seventeen countries (including those already mentioned in the {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}}).<ref name=dr7-155/><ref name=mi70-18>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=18}}.</ref> The additional destinations reported in the {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi}} are {{Transliteration|zh|Ganbali}},{{NoteTag|name=Ganbali}} [[Bengal]], Laccadive and Maldive island chains, Dhofar, {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}, Aden, [[Mecca]], Mogadishu, and Brava.<ref name=dr7-156>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=156}}.</ref> Gong recorded a total of 20 visited countries.<ref name=mi70-18/> Fei Xin mentions that the fleet stopped at the Andaman and Nicobar island chains during the voyage.<ref name=dr7-156/><ref name=mi70-18-9>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=18–19}}.</ref> He writes that, on 14 November 1432, the fleet arrived at {{Transliteration|zh|Cuilanxu}} (probably the [[Great Nicobar Island]]) where it anchored for three days due to the unfavorable winds and waves.<ref name=dr7-154>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=154}}.</ref> He further writes that the native men and women came in log boats to trade coconuts.<ref name=dr7-154/> The neighboring Aru, Nagur, Lide, and Lambri were certainly visited by a few ships, according to Dreyer (2007), on the way to Semudera in northern Sumatra.<ref name=dr7-156/>

Zheng is mentioned in the {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi}} in connection to the visits of {{Transliteration|zh|Ganbali}},<ref name=dr7-155/><ref name=mi70-19>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=19}}.</ref> {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}},<ref name=dr7-155/><ref name=mi70-19/> Djorfar,<ref name=dr7-155/> Mogadishu,<ref name=dr7-155/><ref name=mi70-19/> and Brava.<ref name=dr7-155/><ref name=mi70-19/> Dreyer (2007) states that the account is unclear on whether he went to those places in person, but the wording could indicate that he did as it states that he proclaimed imperial instructions to the kings of these countries.<ref name=dr7-155/> He remarks that it is also possible that Zheng did not, because the fleet only made short stops at Calicut (4 days outward and 9 days homeward), which would not have provided enough time to travel overland to {{Transliteration|zh|Ganbali}}, unless the location did not refer to [[Coimbatore]] but elsewhere in southern India.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=155–156}}.</ref> The overland journey may have been undertaken by someone other than Zheng.<ref name=dr7-156/>

Hong commanded a squadron for the journey to Bengal.<ref name=dr7-156/> [[Ma Huan]] was among the personnel in this squadron.<ref name=dr7-156-7>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=156–158}}.</ref> It is not known when they exactly detached from the fleet for Bengal.{{NoteTag|Pelliot (1933, cited in {{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=19}}) argues that Hong Bao's squadron did not travel with the main fleet to Java. Another authority (Cited in {{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=156–157}}) argues for a detachment after Vijaya. Although, {{Harvtxt|Dreyer|2007|loc=157}} argues that there is no reason to believe a detachment had happened before Semudera.}} They sailed directly from Semudera to Bengal.<ref name=dr7-157>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=157}}.</ref> In Bengal, they traveled in order to [[Chittagong]], [[Sonargaon]], and the capital [[Gauḍa (city)|Gaur]].<ref name=mi70-35>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=35}}.</ref> Afterwards, they sailed directly from Bengal to Calicut.<ref name=dr7-157/><ref name=mi70-35/> The fleet had departed from Calicut for Hormuz by the time Hong's squadron arrived in Calicut.<ref name=dr7-157/> Ma writes that Hong sent seven men to accompany a ship{{NoteTag|Ma Huan's account is ambiguous on whether the Chinese traveled on a foreign ship or on their own Chinese ships in company of a foreign ship to Mecca. The Chinese likely traveled with their own ships: (1) the Arabic texts ''Kitab as-Suluk li-ma rifat duwal al-muluk'' by al-Maqrizi and the ''Inba' al Gumr bi nba' al-umr'' by al-Asqallani use terminology specific to Chinese ships, (2) a letter by a captain to the authorities in Jeddah and Mecca for permission to make port was received as Chinese, and (3) the massive Chinese treasure ships, not Indian or Arab ships, were able to transport large animals for a very long span of time. ({{Harvnb|Jost|2019|loc=86–88}})}} from Calicut bound for Mecca after he observed that Calicut was sending men there.<ref name=dr7-158-9/><ref name=ming19-110-1/> He adds that it took a year for them to go and return and that they had purchased various commodities and valuables such as giraffes, lions, and ostriches.<ref name=dr7-158-9>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=158–159}}.</ref><ref name=ming19-110-1/> Hong's tomb, located in Nanjing, contains an inscription that substantiates the visit to Mecca by the squadron commanded by Hong.<ref name=ming19-110-1>{{Harvp|Ming|2019|loc=110–111}}.</ref> It is likely that Ma was one of the people who visited Mecca.{{NoteTag|The following facts attest to Ma Huan's visit to Mecca: (1) Ma wrote a very detailed record about Mecca in his ''Yingya Shenglan'' ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=158–159}}; {{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=36}}), (2) the imperial clerk Gu Po wrote in the book's afterword that Ma Huan and Guo Chongli had visited Mecca ({{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=35–36 & 41–42}}), (3) Ma wrote in the book's foreword that he spoke about personal observations that were reflected in the book ({{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=35 & 41}}), and (4) Ma desired to go there as he was a Muslim himself ({{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=36}}).}}<ref name="mi70-21"/><ref name=d7-33/> Dreyer (2007) suggests that Hong may also have been involved with other destinations such as Dhofar, {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}, Aden, Mogadishu, and Brava.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=156 & 159}}.</ref>

Dreyer (2007) states that the following countries may also have been visited by a few of the ships when the fleet passed by them: Siam; the northern Sumatran states of Aru, Nagur, Lide, and Lambri (when sailing to Semudera); and Quilon and Cochin (when sailing to Calicut).<ref name=dr7-156/> Mills (1970) concludes that Zheng's associates and not Zheng himself had visited Siam, Aru, Nagur, Lide, Lambri, Nicobar Islands, Bengal, Quilon, Cochi, Coimbatore, Maldive Islands, Dhufar, {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}, Aden, Mecca, Mogadishu, and Brava.<ref name=mi70-18-9/> Pelliot (1933) suggests that the squadrons detached from the fleet at Hormuz to travel to Aden, the East African ports, and perhaps {{Transliteration|zh|Lasa}}.<ref>Pelliot (1933). Cited in {{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=21}}.</ref>

[[File:Ming Bronze Bell.jpg|thumb|Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and others had this bronze bell made for blessings in the seventh voyage ([[National Museum of China]])]]
The {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}} also provided the dates and itinerary, as described hereafter, for the return route of the seventh voyage.{{NoteTag|name=xiaxiyang-7th|See {{Harvtxt|Dreyer|2007|loc=150–163}} and {{Harvtxt|Mills|1970|loc=14–18}}.}} The Chinese treasure fleet departed from Hormuz on 9 March 1433, arrived at Calicut on 31 March, and departed from Calicut on 9 April to sail across the ocean.<ref name=dr7-160>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=160}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-17-8/> They arrived at Semudera on 25 April and left there on 1 May.<ref name=dr7-160/><ref name=mi70-17-8/> On 9 May, they arrived at Malacca.<ref name=dr7-160/><ref name=mi70-17-8/> They arrived at the Kunlun Ocean{{NoteTag|The Kunlun Ocean is the waters around Poulo Condore and the Con Son Islands ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=160}}; {{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=17}}).}} on 28 May.{{NoteTag|The ''Xia Xiyang'' records: "fifth month, tenth day [28 May 1433]: returning, [the fleet] arrived at the Kunlun Ocean." Dreyer (2007) deems it more likely that the date of 28 May refers to the departure from Malacca. He suggests the possibility that the arrival date at the Kunlun Ocean could have been dropped out in the text, as the word "returning" possibly indicated a departure from a location (similar to the account for Hormuz). He adds that, if the text is accepted as it is, the fleet would have departed from Malacca within a few days and would have traveled at a very slow pace of 16 days along the Champa coast. ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=160–161}})}}<ref name=mi70-17-8/> They arrived at Vijaya (present-day Qiu Nhon) on 13 June and left there on 17 June.<ref name=mi70-17-8/><ref name=dr7-161>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=161}}.</ref> The {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}} records several geographical sightings{{NoteTag|The ''Xia Xiyang'' records Culao Re's mountains on 19 June, Nan'ao Island's mountains on 25 June, Dongding Island's (Chapel Island) mountains in the evening of 26 June, Qitou Yang (Fodu Channel) on 30 June, ''Wan Tieh'' [possibly Damao Island's mountains] on 1 July, and the mountains of Daji Island (Gutzlaff Island) and Xiaoji Island (Hen and Chicks) on 6 July ({{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=17–18}}).}} at this point.<ref name="dr7-161" /> The fleet arrived at Taicang on 7 July.<ref name=mi70-17-8/><ref name=dr7-161/> The {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}} notes that it did not record the later stages, that is, the journey between Taicang and the capital.<ref name=mi70-17-8/> On 22 July 1433, they arrived in the capital Beijing.<ref name=mi70-17-8>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=17–18}}.</ref><ref name=dr7-1623>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=162–163}}.</ref> On 27 July, the Xuande Emperor bestowed ceremonial robes and paper money to the fleet's personnel.<ref name=mi70-17-8/><ref name=dr7-1623/>

According to Dreyer (2007), the fleet's detached squadrons were probably already assembled at Calicut for the homeward journey, as the main fleet did not remain long there.<ref name=dr7-160/> He states that they did not stop at Ceylon or southern India, because they were sailing under favorable conditions and were [[Running (sailing)|running]] before the southwest monsoon.<ref name=dr7-160/> Ma records that the various detached ships reassembled in Malacca to wait for favorable winds before continuing their return.<ref name=mi70-21>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=21}}.</ref>

The fleet returned with envoys from 11 countries, including from Mecca.<ref name=mi70-4>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=4}}.</ref> On 14 September 1433, as recorded in the ''Xuanzong Shilu'', the following envoys came to court to present tribute: King Zain al-Abidin of Semudera sent his younger brother ''Halizhi Han'' and others, King ''Bilima'' of Calicut sent his ambassador ''Gebumanduluya'' and others, King ''Keyili'' of Cochin sent his ambassador ''Jiabubilima'' and others, King Parakramabahu VI of Ceylon sent his ambassador ''Mennidenai'' and others, King Ali of Dhofar sent his ambassador Hajji Hussein and others, King Al-Malik az-Zahir Yahya b. Isma'il of Aden sent his ambassador ''Puba'' and others, King Devaraja of Coimbatore sent his ambassador ''Duansilijian'' and others, King Sa'if-ud-Din of Hormuz sent the foreigner ''Malazu'', the King of "Old Kayal" (''Jiayile'') sent his ambassador Abd-ur-Rahman and others, and the King of Mecca sent the headman (''toumu'') ''Shaxian'' and others.<ref name=dr7-1623/>

==Aftermath==
===Situation near the end===
[[File:Zhenghemu03.jpg|thumb|[[Zheng He]]'s empty tomb in [[Nanjing]]]]

During the course of the treasure voyages, Ming China had become the pre-eminent [[Naval history of China|naval power]] of the early 15th century.<ref name=lee10-95>{{Harvp|Lee|2010|loc=95}}.</ref> The [[Yongle Emperor]] had extended imperial control over foreign lands during the span of the voyages.<ref name=fin8-336/> However, in 1433, the voyages ceased and Ming China turned away from the seas.<ref name=fin8-338>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=338}}.</ref> Admiral [[Zheng He]] himself died in 1433<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=165}}.</ref> or 1435.<ref name="mi70-6"/>

The trade still flourished long after the voyages had ceased.<ref name=fair49-141>{{Harvp|Fairbank|1942|loc=141}}.</ref> Chinese ships continued to control the Eastern Asian maritime trade.<ref name=mi70-4/><ref name=lee10-96/><ref name=lo-prtr>{{Harvp|Lo|1958|loc=156–157}}.</ref> They also kept on trading with India and East Africa.<ref name=lee10-96>{{Harvp|Lee|2010|loc=96}}.</ref> However, the imperial [[Tributary system of China|tributary system]] over the foreign regions and state monopoly over the foreign trade gradually eroded,<ref name=lev6-174-5>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=174–175}}.</ref> while private trade supplanted the centralized tributary trade.<ref name="lo-prtr" /> The voyages were a means to establish direct links between the Ming court and foreign tribute states, which effectively bypassed both private trade channels and local civil officials who often undermined the [[Haijin|prohibitions on overseas exchange]].<ref name=fin8-336/> The end of the voyages led to the shift of foreign commerce to the domain of local authorities, which further weakened the authority of the central government.<ref name=lev6-174-5/>

The nobility and military were an important part of the ruling elite during the [[Hongwu Emperor|Hongwu]] and Yongle reigns, but the political power gradually shifted to the civil government.<ref name=dr7-169/> As a consequence, the [[Eunuchs in China|eunuch]] faction was unable to gather enough support to initiate projects opposed by civil officials.<ref name=dr7-169/> These bureaucrats remained wary of any attempt by the eunuchs to restart the voyages.<ref name=dr7-169>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=169}}.</ref> The withdrawal of Ming China's treasure fleet left a power vacuum across the Indian Ocean.<ref name=finl92-230>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=230}}.</ref>

===Causes of cessation===
It is not exactly known why the Ming treasure voyages completely ended in 1433.<ref name=fair49-140/> Duyvendak (1939) suggests that the heavy costs partly contributed to the ending of the expeditions,<ref>Duyvendak (1939). Cited in {{Harvp|Fairbank|1942|loc=140}}.</ref> but Ray (1987), Finlay (1992), and Dreyer (2007) note that the costs had not overburdened the Ming treasury.<ref name=ray87-165-7/><ref name=finl92-229>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=229}}.</ref><ref name=dr7-122>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=122}}.</ref> Ray (1987) adds that the voyages were a profitable enterprise and rejects the notion that the voyages were terminated because they were wasteful, costly, or uneconomic.<ref name=ray87-165-7>{{Harvp|Ray|1987b|loc=165–167}}.</ref> Siu (2023) remarks that pressure on the government and the economy by increasing expenditure should not be attributed to the voyages, since the voyages created positive revenue for the state.<ref>{{Harvp|Siu|2023|loc=7}}.</ref>

Even though civil officials had ill feelings toward eunuchs for their overbearing nature and interference in state affairs, much of the hostility that came to characterize the relationship between the officials and eunuchs manifested long after the voyages ended, when eunuchs wielded their power to enrich themselves through extortion and to persecute their critics.<ref name=lo-eun-off/><ref name=r87b-165/> According to Lo (1958) and Ray (1987), the hostility between these factions cannot explain the cessation of the voyages.<ref name=lo-eun-off>{{Harvp|Lo|1958|loc=152–153}}.</ref><ref name=r87b-165>{{Harvp|Ray|1987b|loc=165}}.</ref> Lo (1958) also notes that Zheng He was on friendly terms with many high officials and was respected by them,<ref name=lo-eun-off/> while Ray (1987) mentions that eunuchs such as Zheng He and Hou Xian were held in high esteem by the court.<ref name=r87b-165/>

In the conventional narrative, [[Confucianism|Confucian]] [[conservatism]] was supposedly responsible for bringing about the termination of the voyages and the general distaste for them thereafter.<ref name=kutc20>{{Harvp|Kutcher|2020|loc=}}.</ref> Kutcher (2020) challenges this view, as he argues that late Ming and early Qing texts reveal that critique on the voyages had to do with the excesses of eunuch power due to the corruption of the boundaries between the inner and outer court, rather than a set of ideological objections.<ref name=kutc20/> Herein, the voyages were regarded as a critical moment in the empowerment of eunuchs, who should not have been given duties outside the court.<ref name=kutc20/> Finlay (2008) remarks that although Confucian officials played a role in the cessation of the voyages, they were probably more motivated by institutional self-interest than by ideological bias, because the voyages were controlled by their bureaucratic rivals, the eunuchs.<ref>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=338}}.</ref>

Ray (1987) states that the cessation of the voyages happened as traders and bureaucrats, for reasons of economic self-interest and through their connections in Beijing, gradually collapsed the framework supporting both the state-controlled maritime enterprise and the strict regulation of the private commerce with prohibitive policies.<ref>{{Harvp|Ray|1987b|loc=176–178}}.</ref> Similarly, Lo (1958) states that rich and influential individuals used their connections in Beijing to undermine efforts to restore the trade to official channels and possibly revive the voyages, because they wanted to safeguard their interests and were antagonistic to the government's monopoly of foreign trade.<ref name=lo-prtr/>

Sui (2023) argues that the cessation of the voyages was a consequence of the [[Fiscal policy|fiscal]] competition between emperors and civil officials.<ref name=siu23-361920>{{Harvp|Siu|2023|loc=3–6 & 19–20}}.</ref> The Yongle Emperor extracted funds from the national treasuries to finance his construction projects and military operations, which included the treasure voyages, while he monopolized on the trade income to ensure freedom to realize his ambitious plans.<ref name=siu23-361920/> In doing so, the emperor enhanced his authority in fiscal matters and encroached on the fiscal power of the civil government.<ref name=siu23-361920/> The civil officials were charged by the emperor to raise funds for the voyages, but they had no influence in the trade income as the emperor had designated the eunuchs to manage the trade and its revenues.<ref name=siu23-361920/> Herein, the voyages became a focal point of criticism by officials.<ref name=siu23-712/> Even though the financial allocation for the voyages was a relatively small portion of the government's overall budget, the voyages signified a step toward a new division of fiscal authority between the emperor and the civil officials, one which excluded the officials from the budget process.<ref>{{Harvp|Siu|2023|loc=6–7}}.</ref>

In 1435, when the [[Xuande Emperor]] died, the civil officials started to gain power as the new emperor, the [[Zhengtong Emperor]], was only eight years old when he ascended the throne and could be influenced.<ref name=siu23-712>{{Harvp|Siu|2023|loc=7–12}}.</ref> They seized this opportunity to permanently dismantle the voyages through a number of measures.<ref name=siu23-712/> Firstly, the civil officials diminished the power of the imperial navy.<ref name=siu23-712/> Plans for further voyages were cancelled, relevant offices such as the ''Haichuan Shoubei'' (海船守備; 'commandant of seagoing vessels') were dissolved, seagoing vessels were demolished or modified to ships unsuitable for sea travel, sea routes for the tax grain transport to Beijing were halted, and mariners were transferred to river transport work.<ref name=siu23-712/> Secondly, the civil officials ensured that the court would not produce goods for export.<ref name=siu23-712/> They terminated the mass production of export products and the purchase of the materials needed for it.<ref name=siu23-712/> All the eunuchs and officials, who had been sent to supervise the manufacturing or to make purchases, were recalled.<ref name=siu23-712/> Thirdly, the civil officials discouraged overseas visits through the implementation of complex and stringent regulations.<ref name=siu23-712/> From 1435, the bureaucrats urged the foreign delegations to leave China.<ref name=siu23-712/> The court sent them to Malacca and asked them to change ships there, which was a departure from the usual arrangement of another voyage to send all the visiting delegations back to their countries.<ref name=siu23-712/> The offer of transport services for visiting missions was stopped from then on.<ref name=siu23-712/> The size of a delegation was restricted and the frequency of tributary visits from the same delegation was reduced.<ref name=siu23-712/> The Maritime Trade Supervisorate, which was the office responsible for the reception of overseas visitors, was reduced in size.<ref name=siu23-712/> Lastly, the civil officials took measures to confine the fiscal power of the eunuchs.<ref name=siu23-712/> They took over the imperial treasuries from the eunuchs, deprived direct access to governmental revenue from the eunuchs, and requested in the name of the emperor{{NoteTag|For instance, in 1436, civil officials requested that Wang Jinghong convey three million catties of pepper and sappanwood to Beijing and hand it over to the government. They drew up instructions in the name of the Zhengtong Emperor, who was nine years old. Officials could only legally access the inventories of overseas products, which were under the strict control of the eunuchs, with the emperor's permission. This was because, constitutionally, the emperor had absolute power in diplomatic affairs, which included goods imported by diplomatic missions. ({{Harvnb|Siu|2023|loc=5}})}} that the eunuchs hand over the inventories of overseas products to the government.<ref name=siu23-712/>

==Impact==
===Goals and consequences===
[[File:Tribute Giraffe with Attendant.jpg|thumb|''Tribute Giraffe with Attendant'', depicting a giraffe presented by Bengal to the Ming court ([[Philadelphia Museum of Art]])]]
The Ming treasure voyages were diplomatic, militaristic, and commercial in nature.<ref name=chu8-2354/><ref>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=330–331}}.</ref> They were conducted to establish imperial control over the maritime trade,<ref name=mil70-1/><ref name="lee10-95"/> to bring the maritime trade into the [[Tributary system of China|tributary system]],<ref name=fai42-143>{{Harvp|Fairbank|1942|loc=143}}.</ref> and to compel foreign countries to comply with the tributary system.<ref name=lee10-95/><ref name=fai42-143/><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=176}}.</ref> The diplomatic aspect comprised the announcement of the [[Yongle Emperor]]'s accession to the throne, the establishment of hegemony over the foreign countries, and safe passage to foreign envoys who came bearing tribute.<ref>{{Harvp|Brook|1998|loc=615}}.</ref> The emperor may have sought to legitimize his reign by compelling foreign countries to recognize their tributary status, as he came to rule the Chinese empire by [[Jingnan campaign|usurping the Ming throne]].<ref name=wang98-320-1/><ref name=dr7-168/><ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=612}}.</ref>

The Chinese did not seek territorial control, as they were primarily motivated by the political and economic control across space entailing domination over a vast network with its ports and shipping lanes.<ref name=sen16-631-3>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=631–633}}.</ref> Finlay (2008) underscores the goal of controlling maritime commerce in which the voyages are regarded as an attempt to reconcile China's need for maritime commerce with the government's [[Haijin|suppression of the private aspects of maritime commerce]], representing "a deployment of state power to bring into line the reality of seaborne commerce with an expansive conception of Chinese hegemony."<ref name=fin8-336/> Neither the pursuit for exclusive access to nor the forceful integration of other countries' wealth was a feature of the expeditions.<ref name=sch19/><ref name=sc21-1358/> [[Economy of the Ming dynasty|China's economy]] did not necessitate or was dependent on the systematic exploitation of foreign countries and their resources for its own capital accumulation.<ref name=sc21-1358>{{harvp|Schottenhammer|2021|loc=135–138}}.</ref> The trading centers along the maritime routes were kept open to other foreigners and remained unoccupied in a joint effort to further promote international trade.<ref name=ta49>{{harvp|Tan|2005|loc=49}}.</ref>

The voyages changed the organization of the [[Maritime Silk Road|maritime network]], utilizing and creating nodes and conduits in its wake, which restructured international and cross-cultural relationships and exchanges.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3/> It was especially impactful as no other [[polity]] had exerted naval dominance over all sectors of the Indian Ocean prior to these voyages.<ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=609}}.</ref> Chen (2019) states that the establishment of institutionalized tributary relations for mutual benefit, where foreign polities voluntarily cooperated in accordance to their own interests, was the fundamental way for the Chinese to attain their objectives.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=14–15}}.</ref> This institutionalization was marked by, for example, the establishment of official depots (官廠 ''guanchang'') as overseas bases, which included local officials and merchants in its management and activities.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=29–32}}.</ref> Large-scale trade happened here between the Chinese and local polities including ordinary people, which helped the development of these polities into important hubs for maritime travel and trade.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=37}}.</ref> Ming China promoted alternative nodes as a strategy to establish control over the maritime network.<ref name=se16-615/> For instance, Chinese involvement was a crucial factor for ports such as [[Malacca]] (in Southeast Asia), [[Cochin]] (on the Malabar Coast), and [[Malindi]] (on the Swahili Coast) to grow as key contenders to other important and established ports.{{NoteTag|Major ports in their respective regions included Palembang on the Malaccan Strait, Calicut on the Malabar coast, and Mombasa on the Swahili Coast (See {{Harvnb|Sen|2016}}).}}<ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=620–621}}.</ref> The maritime network including its centers and institutions, promoted during the voyages, persisted and laid a foundation for later maritime travel and trade in the region.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=36–42}}.</ref> Through the voyages, Ming China intervened with the local affairs of foreign states and asserted itself in foreign lands.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3/> The Chinese installed or supported friendly local regimes, captured or executed rivals of local authorities, and threatened hostile local rulers into compliance.<ref name=sen16-612-15/> The appearance of the Chinese treasure fleet generated and intensified competition among contending polities and rivals, who sought an alliance with the Ming.<ref name=sen16-612-15>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=612–615}}.</ref>

The tributary relations promoted during the voyages manifested a trend toward cross-regional interconnections and early [[globalization]] in Asia and Africa.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=41–42}}.</ref> The voyages brought about the Western Ocean's [[regional integration]] and the increase in [[Mobilities|international circulation]] of people, ideas, and goods.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3/> It provided a platform for [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] discourses, which took place in locations such as the ships of the Chinese treasure fleet, the Chinese capitals Nanjing and Beijing, and the banquet receptions organized by the Ming court for foreign representatives.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3/> People from different countries congregated, interacted, and traveled together as the fleet sailed from and to China.<ref name=sen16-609-11-631-3>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=609–611 & 631–633}}.</ref> For the first time in its history, as Sen (2016) emphasizes, the maritime region from China to Africa was under the dominance of a single imperial power, which allowed for the creation of a cosmopolitan space.<ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=611}}.</ref>

Another purpose of the Chinese expeditions was the maintenance of political and ideological control across the region.<ref name=sch19/> In this regard, other countries needed to acknowledge that China was the hegemonic power in the region, not cause trouble with neighboring people, and accept the tributary system out of their own self-interest.<ref name=sch19>{{Harvp|Schottenhammer|2019|loc=7–10}}.</ref> Foreign rulers were compelled to acknowledge the inherent moral and cultural superiority of China, an obligation expressed by paying homage and presenting tribute before the Ming court.<ref name=finl92-2356/> The Chinese intended to civilize the many foreign peoples by bringing them into formal submission within Ming China's greater world order.<ref name=finl92-2356>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=235–236}}.</ref> The cultural aspect of the voyages appears in the Liujiagang inscription, stating that "those among the foreigners who were resisting the transforming influence (genghua) of [[Chinese culture]] and were disrespectful, we captured alive, and brigands who indulged in violence and plunder, we ex-terminated. Consequently the sea-route was purified and tranquillised and the natives were enabled quietly to pursue their avocations."<ref>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=70}}.</ref>

Diplomatic relationships were based on a mutually beneficial maritime commerce and a visible presence of a Chinese militaristic naval force in foreign waters.<ref name=wang98-320-1>{{Harvp|Wang|1998|loc=320–321}}.</ref> Firstly, the Chinese naval superiority was a crucial factor in this interaction, namely because it was inadvisable to risk punitive action from the Chinese fleet.<ref name=sen16-631-3/> The fleet was, as Mills (1970) characterizes, "an instrument of aggression and political dominance."<ref name=mil70-1/> It brought forth the manifestation of China's power and wealth to awe foreign lands under Chinese hegemony.<ref name=drey07-61>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=61}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=1 & 3}}.</ref> This was actualized by showing the Ming flag and establishing a military presence along the maritime trade routes.<ref name=dr7-79>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=79}}.</ref> Secondly, the worthwhile and profitable nature of the Chinese maritime enterprise for foreign countries served as a persuading factor to comply.<ref name=wang98-320-1/> Even though the Chinese fleet demonstrated military might through their large warships and military forces, the Chinese often sent smaller squadrons comprising a few ships to foreign polities to pursue tributary relations through primarily trade opportunities instead.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=19}}.</ref>

A theory, considered very unlikely, suggests the voyages were initiated to search for the dethroned [[Jianwen Emperor]].<ref name=ch98-232>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=232}}.</ref><ref name=chu8-2354/><ref name=drey07-60-1>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=60–61}}.</ref> This search is mentioned as a reason for the voyages in a later work, the {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi}}.<ref name=chu8-2354/><ref>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=68}}.</ref> The stated intent of the Yongle Emperor to find the deposed Jianwen Emperor, according to Wang (1998), may have served no more than a public justification for the voyages in the face of prohibitive policies for military actions overseas from the Hongwu reign.<ref name=wang98-320-1/> Another unlikely theory is that the voyages were a response to the [[Timurid Empire|Timurid state]] under the reign of [[Timur|Tamerlane]], another power across Asia and an enemy of Ming China.<ref name=drey07-60-1/> Ming China was left unchallenged by the Timurid after Tamerlane's death in 1405, because the new Timurid ruler [[Shahrukh Mirza|Shahrukh]] (r. 1405–1447) normalized diplomatic relations with China and was preoccupied with holding his state together.<ref name=drey07-60-1/> Both theories are not accepted as they lack evidential support in contemporary historical sources.<ref name=drey07-60-1/>

===Policy and administration===
[[File:Xia Yuanji.jpg|thumb|The civil official [[Xia Yuanji]] as depicted in the ''[[Sancai Tuhui]]'', published in 1609]]

In the Ming court, the civil officials were the faction who opposed the treasure voyages.<ref name=finl92-229/><ref name=dr7-168/><ref name=du38-398-9/> They condemned the expeditions as extravagant and wasteful,<ref name=du38-398-9/><ref name=ch4-34-35/> but the Yongle Emperor was unconcerned about the costs of the voyages and was determined to undertake them.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=62 & 122}}.</ref> In contrast, the [[Eunuchs in China|eunuch establishment]] stood at the head of the treasure fleet and the expeditions.<ref name=fin8-338/><ref name=fair49-140/><ref name=dr7-168>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=168}}.</ref><ref name=du38-398-9/> Traditionally, civil officials were the political opponents to the eunuch faction<ref name=fin8-338/><ref name=dr7-168/><ref name=du38-398-9/> and to the military who crewed the fleet.<ref name=dr7-168/> This political and institutional disadvantage within the state system contributed to the inherent opposition of these bureaucrats against the voyages.<ref name=dr7-168/><ref name=du38-398-9>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=398–399}}.</ref><ref name=finl92-231>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=231}}.</ref> Moreover, civil officials criticized the state expenses brought by the fleet's construction, but the emperor was set on realizing its formation.<ref name=drey07-4950/> Construction projects were in fact usually the domain of the eunuchs.<ref name=drey07-50/> Eunuchs were assigned to supervise the fleet's construction, while the military was assigned to carry it out.<ref name=drey07-4950/> On cultural grounds, the civil officials were hostile to the voyages, because the trade and acquisition of strange foreign goods conflicted with their [[Confucianism|Confucian ideologies]].<ref name=du38-398-9/><ref name=ch4-34-35>{{Harvp|Church|2004|loc=34–35}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=35 & 168}}.</ref><ref name="Finlay 2008 loc=341">{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=341}}.</ref> The undertaking of these expeditions only remained possible as long as the eunuchs maintained imperial favor.<ref name=fair49-140/><ref name=d7-35>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=35}}.</ref>

The [[Hongwu Emperor]] initiated the [[haijin]], a private maritime trade proscription, in 1371.<ref>{{Harvp|Schottenhammer|2021|loc=131}}.</ref> He was wary of the political and social consequences that maritime commerce could bring,<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=40}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=340–341}}.</ref> so he sought to restrain it by outlawing private maritime trade.<ref name=drey7-62>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=62}}.</ref><ref name=fi8-335/> This policy continued well into the Yongle reign.<ref name=drey7-62/><ref name=fi8-335>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=335}}.</ref><ref name=ch19-2930>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=29–30}}.</ref> In addition, the Yongle Emperor aimed at consolidating imperial control over maritime commerce, stopping the coastal criminality and disorder, providing employment for mariners and entrepreneurs, exporting Chinese products to foreign markets, importing desired goods for Chinese consumers, extending the tributary system, and displaying imperial majesty to the seas.<ref>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=336 & 339}}.</ref> He limitedly reformed the tributary system and encouraged the opening up of state-run foreign trade, which resulted in the restoration of maritime supervisorates in [[Guangzhou]], [[Quanzhou]], and [[Ningbo]], the expansion of tributary relations through measures such as tax exemptions for private trade activities by foreign envoys, and the treasure voyages led by Zheng He.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=24 & 29–30}}.</ref> The voyages functioned as trade commissions in the government's attempts to regulate maritime commerce by establishing an imperial monopoly over it and incorporating it into the tributary system.<ref name=fin8-336>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=336}}.</ref> Dreyer (2007) states that there seems to have been an idea about a foreign policy comprising an extended foreign trade supported by a heavy military naval presence and a cultivation of shared interests with local allies.<ref name=drey07-61/>

The Yongle Emperor's interest in the voyages was the highest during the period spanning the first three voyages, but he became more occupied with his [[Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols|military campaigns against the Mongols]] after establishing the capital at [[Beijing]].<ref name=drey07-49>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=49}}.</ref> By the fourth voyage, he showed interest in the expansion of trade and diplomatic activity to West Asia.<ref name=r87a-78-9/> Therefore, the Chinese sought and employed Persian or Arabic language interpreters, such as [[Ma Huan]] (馬歡) and Guo Chongli (郭崇礼), to accompany the fleet.<ref name=r87a-78-9>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=78–79}}.</ref> After the capital was transferred from [[Nanjing]] to Beijing, the south and the seas were given less and less attention from emperors and officials alike.<ref name=drey07-76>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=76}}.</ref> The [[Hongxi Emperor]] wished to revert his father's relocation of the capital, but he died before he could do so.<ref name=dr7-13940/><ref>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=282–283}}.</ref> The [[Xuande Emperor]], who succeeded him, remained in Beijing.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=141}}.</ref> Dreyer (2007) remarks that the prospects for the voyages would have been better if the capital was relocated back to Nanjing, because the court would have been near the locations where the voyages started and the Longjiang shipyards where most of the ships were built.<ref name=dr7-169/>

The Hongxi Emperor ordered the cessation of the voyages on 7 September 1424, the day of his accession to the throne.<ref name=du38-388>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=388}}.</ref> He was personally against the maritime entreprise.<ref name=dre7-91/> He had good relations with senior civil officials, as he had worked well with them when he served as regent while his father was away on his military campaigns against the Mongols or for the transformation of Beijing.<ref name=dr137/> He would often take the side of the officials when they mounted their opposition against his father's initiatives.<ref name=dr137>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=137}}.</ref> In particular, Minister of Finance [[Xia Yuanji]] (夏原吉) was a vocal opponent against the voyages.<ref name=du38-388/><ref name=d7-xy>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=122 & 137 & 168}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=275}}.</ref> In contrast, the Xuande Emperor went against the general court opinion when he ordered the seventh voyage.<ref name=ch8-302>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=302}}.</ref> He relied on eunuchs during his reign.<ref name=dr139/>

===Personnel and organization===
[[File:Zheng He's Treasure Ship 1.jpg|thumb|Model of a treasure ship ([[Hong Kong Science Museum]])]]
The [[Chinese treasure fleet]] comprised an array of ships, each of which fulfilled specialized functions.<ref name=chu8-2355>{{Harvp|Church|2008|loc=2355}}.</ref><ref>{{harvp|Tan|2005|loc=43}}.</ref> The [[Chinese treasure ship|treasure ships]] were the largest vessels in the fleet and functioned, in the words of Finlay (2008), as "an emporium offering a wealth of products".<ref name=fin8-337>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=337}}.</ref> They were each crewed by about 500 men according to Mills (1970)<ref name=mil70-2/> or at least 600 men according to Finlay (1992).<ref name=finl92-227>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=227}}.</ref> Ma Huan mentions that their traders used small ships (小船 ''xiaochuan'') to go ashore, presumably, according to Church (2005), while the larger ships remained anchored in the harbor.<ref>{{Harvp|Church|2005|loc=12}}.</ref> Gong Zhen mentions ships specifically designated to carry water.<ref>{{Harvp|Church|2005|loc=13}}.</ref>

There were seven Grand Directors ({{Transliteration|zh|taijian}}) and ten Junior Directors ({{Transliteration|zh|shaojian}}).<ref name=d7-127/> The Grand Directors, such as [[Zheng He]], served as ambassadors and commanders of the fleet, while the Junior Directors were their highest ranked assistants.<ref name=d7-127/> In total, there were 70 eunuchs, including the aforementioned, at the head of the fleet.<ref name="d7-127" /> This was followed by two brigadiers ({{Transliteration|zh|du zhihuishi}}), 93 captains ({{Transliteration|zh|zhihuishi}}), 104 lieutenants ({{Transliteration|zh|qianhu}}), and 103 sub-lieutenants ({{Transliteration|zh|bohu}}).{{NoteTag|There are no exact translations for these military ranks. In this case, the article's text follows {{Harvtxt|Mills|1970}}.}}<ref name=d7-127>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=127}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-31>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=31}}.</ref> There were guard judges ({{Transliteration|zh|wei zhenfu}}) and battalion judges ({{Transliteration|zh|suo zhenfu}}), who adjudicated military offenses and were expected to replace lieutenants (''qianhu'') or sub-lieutenants (''bohu'') when necessary.<ref name=d7-127/> Furthermore, there were 180 medical personnel, a bureau director from the Ministry of Finance,{{NoteTag|The bureau director from the Ministry of Finance was probably the principal purser for the fleet ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=128}}).}} two secretaries, two protocol officers from the Court of State Ceremonial,{{NoteTag|The protocol officers from the Court of State Ceremonial were in charge of the reception of foreign envoys to the Chinese capital ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=128}}).}} an astrological officer, and four astrologers.<ref name=mi70-31/><ref name=d7-128>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=128}}.</ref> The remaining personnel, the rank and file, included petty officers ({{Transliteration|zh|qixiao}} or {{Transliteration|zh|quanxiao}}), brave corps ({{Transliteration|zh|yongshi}}), power corps ({{Transliteration|zh|lishi}}),{{NoteTag|The power corps likely operated heavy (war) equipment ({{Harvnb|Mills|1970|loc=32}}).}} military soldiers (referred as {{Transliteration|zh|guanjun}}, 'official soldiers', or {{Transliteration|zh|qijun}}, 'flag soldiers'), supernumeraries ({{Transliteration|zh|yuding}}), boatsman ({{Transliteration|zh|minshao}}), buyers ({{Transliteration|zh|maiban}}), and clerks ({{Transliteration|zh|shushou}}).<ref name=d7-128/><ref name=mi70-32>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=32}}.</ref> Religious leaders from different faiths such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Islam]] also served in the fleet.<ref name=ts1-208/>

The Liujiagang inscription records Zheng He (鄭和) and [[Wang Jinghong]] (王景弘) as the principal envoys as well as Zhu Liang (朱良), [[Zhou Man]] (周滿), [[Hong Bao]] (洪保), Yang Zhen (楊真), and Zhang Da (張達) as deputy envoys.<ref name=d7-stelelist/> The Changle inscription repeats this, but adds Li Xing (李興) and Wu Zhong (吳忠) as deputy envoys.<ref name=d7-stelelist/> All envoys are recorded to have carried the rank of Grand Director in both inscriptions, except Zhang Da who was reported with the rank of Senior Assistant Director in the Liujiagang inscription and the rank of Grand Director in the Changle inscription.<ref name=d7-stelelist>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=145–146 & 191–199}}.</ref> Additionally, the Changle inscription mentions Zhu Zhen (朱真) and Wang Heng (王衡) as the brigadiers.<ref name=du38-391/><ref name=d7-stelelist/> These people and unnamed "others" are mentioned on the respective inscriptions as those who have composed it.<ref name=d7-stelelist/> The Changle inscription also mentions that the [[Taoism|Daoist]] priest Yang Yichu (楊一初) begged to erect its respective [[stele]].<ref name=d7-stelelist/>

Zhu Yunming's {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}} records the following personnel: officers and petty officers ({{Transliteration|zh|guanxiao}}), soldiers ({{Transliteration|zh|qijun}}), mess leaders ({{Transliteration|zh|huozhang}}), helmsman ({{Transliteration|zh|tuogong}}), anchormen ({{Transliteration|zh|bandingshou}}), interpreters ({{Transliteration|zh|tongshi}}), business managers ({{Transliteration|zh|banshi}}), accountants ({{Transliteration|zh|susuanshi}}), doctors ({{Transliteration|zh|yishi}}), anchor mechanics ({{Transliteration|zh|tiemiao}}), caulkers ({{Transliteration|zh|munian}}), sailmakers ({{Transliteration|zh|dacai}}), [[Sailors in Ming China|sailors]] ({{Transliteration|zh|shuishou}}), and boatmen ({{Transliteration|zh|minshaoren}}).<ref name="d7-128" /><ref name="mi70-32" />

For the first Ming treasure voyage, the fleet had a personnel of 27,800<ref name=drey07-51/> or 27,870<ref name=mi70-10/><ref name=ch98-233>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=233}}.</ref> men. The fleet comprised 317 ships,<ref name=lev96-87/><ref name=mi70-10/><ref name=ch98-233/> which included 62 treasure ships.<ref name=mi70-10/><ref name=drey07-51/> However, 63 treasure ships is also a possibility.<ref name=d7-123/>

The historical record gives the following figures: The ''Mingshi'' records 62 treasure ships and a crew of 27,800 for the first voyage.<ref name=d7-123/> Tan Qian's ''Guoque'' records 63 treasure ships and a crew of 27,870 for the first voyage.<ref name=d7-123/> The ''Zuiweilu'' records a personnel of 37,000, but this is probably a copyist error.<ref name=d7-123>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=123}}.</ref> The ''Taizong Shilu'' records two imperial orders for ship construction to Nanjing's capital guards: an order for 200 ships (海運船 ''haiyunchuan'') on 4 September 1403 and an order for 50 ships (海船 ''haichuan'') on 1 March 1404.<ref name=dr7-117-123>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=117–123}}.</ref> The text did not record the purpose for the construction of these 250 ships.<ref name=d7-124>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=124}}.</ref> Yan Congjian's ''Shuyu Zhouzilu'' conflated this to one imperial order for the construction of 250 ships specifically for the voyages to the Western Ocean.<ref name=d7-123/> The ''Taizong Shilu'' also records a 2 March 1404 imperial order for Fujian to construct 5 ships (''haichuan'') to be used in the voyages to the Western Ocean.<ref name=d7-123/> Therefore, the scholarly figure of 317 ships for the first voyage is derived from the 255 ships and 62 treasure ships in the record.{{NoteTag|{{Harvtxt|Dreyer|2007|loc=123}} thinks that the fleet had a total of 255 ships, including the treasure ships, but he also mentions that the figure for 317 ships is credible and accepted in most accounts.}}<ref name=d7-123/>

For the second voyage, it is thought that the fleet comprised 249 ships.<ref name=mi70-11/><ref name=drey7-62/> On 5 October 1407, as the {{Transliteration|zh|Taizong Shilu}} records, Wang Hao was ordered to supervise the conversion of 249 ships in preparation for embassies to the countries at the Western Ocean.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=118 & 124}}.</ref> This was close to the date when the second voyage was ordered, thus the fleet likely comprised these 249 ships for the second voyage.<ref name=d7-124/> The number of treasure ships<ref name=drey7-63/> or personnel<ref name=mi70-11/><ref name=drey7-63>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=63}}.</ref> is not known.

For the third voyage, Fei Xin's {{Transliteration|zh|Xingcha Shenglan}} records that the fleet had 48 {{Transliteration|zh|haibo}} ({{Lang-zh|c=海舶|labels=no}}) and a crew of over 27,000.<ref name=d7-125>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=125}}.</ref> Dreyer (2007) states that Fei was probably referring to the treasure ships as {{Transliteration|zh|haibo}}.<ref name=drey07-67>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=67}}.</ref> Yan's {{Transliteration|zh|Shuyu Zhouzilu}} and [[Lu Rong]]'s {{Transliteration|zh|Shuyuan Zaji}} use the term "treasure ship" instead when they mention the 48 ships for this voyage.<ref name=d7-125/> Coincidentally, the {{Transliteration|zh|Taizong Shilu}} records the imperial order issued on 14 February 1408 for the construction of 48 treasure ships to the Ministry of Works at Nanjing; these were possibly the 48 treasure ships for the third voyage.<ref name=d7-125/> Dreyer (2007) states that the fleet likely had an undisclosed array of support ships in addition to the 48 treasure ships.<ref name=d7-125/>

Ma's {{Transliteration|zh|Yingya Shenglan}} records 63 treasure ships for the fourth voyage.<ref name=d7-126/> Dreyer (2007) says that these were probably accompanied by support ships.<ref name=d7-126>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=126}}.</ref> The fleet was crewed by 28,560<ref name=mi70-12-3/><ref name=drey07-76/> or 27,670 men.<ref name=ch98-235>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=235}}.</ref> Fei records a personnel of 27,670 for this voyage, but another source records 28,560.<ref name=d7-126/>

There is no record for the number of ships or personnel for the fifth voyage.<ref name=mi70-13/><ref name=d7-126/>

On 2 October 1419, an order was issued for the construction of 41 treasure ships from an undisclosed shipbuilder.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=118 & 126}}.</ref> Most scholars conclude that these were likely used for the sixth voyage,<ref name=d7-126/> but many other treasure ships had already been constructed or were in construction by that time.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=93 & 126}}.</ref> There is no specific figure for the ships or personnel of the sixth voyage.<ref name=d7-126/> The fleet probably made use of several dozen of the treasure ships each accompanied by half a dozen support vessels.<ref name=dr7-93>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=93}}.</ref>

For the seventh voyage, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions speak of over a hundred large ships (巨舶 ''jubo'').<ref name=d7-126/> Dreyer (2007) suggests that these ships probably included most of the remaining treasure ships, which were likely accompanied by support ships.<ref name=d7-126/> The {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}} records the names of several ships—{{Transliteration|zh|Qinghe}} ({{Lang-zh|c=清和|l=pure harmony|labels=no}}), {{Transliteration|zh|Huikang}} ({{Lang-zh|c=惠康|l=kind repose|labels=no}}), {{Transliteration|zh|Changning}} ({{Lang-zh|c=長寧|l=lasting tranquility|labels=no}}), {{Transliteration|zh|Anji}} ({{Lang-zh|c=安濟|l=peaceful crossing|labels=no}}), and {{Transliteration|zh|Qingyuan}} ({{Lang-zh|c=清遠|l=pure distance|labels=no}})—and notes that there were also ships designated by a series number.<ref name=mi70-18/> The fleet had 27,550 men as personnel for the voyage.<ref name=mi70-15/><ref name=d7-126/>

===Military affairs===
Before the Ming treasure voyages, there was turmoil around the seas near the Chinese coast and distant Southeast Asian maritime regions, characterized by piracy, banditry, slave trade, and other illicit activities.<ref name=lev96-889/> The Chinese treasure fleet had a large number of warships to protect their precious cargo and to secure the maritime routes.<ref name=lev96-889>{{Harvp|Levathes|1996|loc=88–89}}.</ref> They established a substantial Chinese military presence around the [[South China Sea]] and trading cities in southern India.<ref name=drey7-64/> The early stages of the voyages were especially characterized by highly militaristic objectives, as the Chinese stabilized the sea passages from hostile entities as well as strengthened their own position and maintained their status in the region.<ref>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=71–72}}.</ref> Even though Zheng He sailed through the oceans with a military force larger and stronger than any local power, there is no written evidence in historical sources that there was any attempt that they forcibly tried to control the maritime trade in the regions of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.<ref name=drey7-65/> Dreyer (2007) adds that the large Chinese fleet would still have been a "terrifying apparition" when it came within visible reach along the coastlines of foreign nations, bringing any state into submission by the sole sight of it alone.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=29}}.</ref> From the fourth voyage onwards, the fleet ventured further than their usual end-destination of Calicut to lands beyond where there would be less direct hostilities.<ref name=dre7-73>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=73}}.</ref>

The fleet engaged and defeated [[Battle of Palembang (1407)|Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet in Palembang]], [[Ming–Kotte War|Alakeshvara's forces in Ceylon]], and Sekandar's forces in Semudera, bringing security and stability of the maritime routes via Chinese control.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=31 & 79}}.</ref> These actors were viewed as hostile threats in their regions and the battles served as a reminder of the tremendous power of Ming China to the countries along the maritime routes.<ref name=dr7-79/> The [[Strait of Malacca]], specifically, constituted a strategically important link into the Indian Ocean, so control over this region was essential for the Chinese to establish themselves as the supreme power in maritime Asia and to develop trade relations with polities throughout the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Harvp|Schottenhammer|2021|loc=163}}.</ref> Here, the fleet fought battles against pirates at [[Palembang]], Aru (in northern [[Semudera]]), and Kapas (near present-day [[Klang (city)|Klang]]) to consolidate the region.<ref>{{Harvp|Schottenhammer|2021|loc=146 & 150–152}}.</ref>

In [[Malacca]], the Chinese actively sought to develop a commercial hub and a base of operation for the voyages into the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=se16-615/> Malacca had been a relatively insignificant region, not even qualifying as a polity prior to the voyages according to both Ma Huan and Fei Xin, and was a vassal region of [[Siam]].<ref name=se16-615>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=615}}.</ref> In 1405, the Ming court dispatched Zheng with a stone tablet enfeoffing the Western Mountain of Malacca and an imperial order elevating the status of the port to a country.<ref name=se16-615/> The Chinese also established a government depot ({{Lang|zh|官廠}}) as a fortified cantonment for their soldiers.<ref name=se16-615/> It served as a storage facility as the fleet traveled and assembled from other destinations within the maritime region.<ref name=ta49/> Ma reports that Siam did not dare to invade Malacca thereafter.<ref name=se16-615/> The rulers of Malacca, such as King [[Parameswara (king)|Paramesvara]] in 1411, would pay tribute to the Chinese emperor in person.<ref name=se16-615/> In 1431, when a Malaccan representative complained that Siam was obstructing tribute missions to the Ming court, the Xuande Emperor dispatched Zheng carrying a threatening message for the Siamese king saying "You, king should respect my orders, develop good relations with your neighbours, examine and instruct your subordinates and not act recklessly or aggressively."<ref name=se16-615/>

On the Malabar coast, [[Calicut]] and [[Cochin]] were in an intense rivalry, so the Ming decided to intervene by granting special status to Cochin and its ruler {{Transliteration|zh|Keyili}} ({{Lang|zh|可亦里}}).<ref name=sen16-616-7/> For the fifth voyage, Zheng was instructed to confer a seal upon {{Transliteration|zh|Keyili}} of Cochin and [[enfeoff]] a mountain in his kingdom as the {{Transliteration|zh|Zhenguo Zhi Shan}} ({{Lang-zh|c=鎮國之山|l=Mountain Which Protects the Country|labels=no}}).<ref name=sen16-616-7/> He delivered a stone tablet, inscribed with a proclamation composed by the Yongle Emperor, to Cochin.<ref name=sen16-616-7/> As long as Cochin remained under the protection of Ming China, the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] could not invade Cochin and a military conflict was averted.<ref name=sen16-616-7/> Consequently, the cessation of the voyages was followed by the invasion of Cochin by the Zamorin of Calicut.<ref name=sen16-616-7>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=616–617}}.</ref>

===Diplomacy and commerce===
{{main|Diplomacy and commerce during the Ming treasure voyages}}
[[File:Room 95-6753.JPG|thumb|[[Porcelain]] wares, similar to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks, were often presented as trade goods during the expeditions ([[British Museum]])]]

The commodities that the Chinese treasure fleet carried included three major categories: gifts to be bestowed on rulers, items for exchange of goods or payment of goods with fixed prices at low rates (e.g., gold, silver, copper coins, and paper money), and items which China held a monopoly over (e.g., musks, ceramics, and silks).<ref name=r87a-com/> It was said that there were sometimes so many Chinese goods unloaded into an Indian port that it could take months to price everything.<ref name=br98-616>{{Harvp|Brook|1998|loc=616}}.</ref><ref name=ra87-158/> In turn, Zheng He returned to China with many kinds of tribute goods, such as [[silver]], spices, [[sandalwood]], precious stones, [[ivory]], [[ebony]], [[camphor]], [[tin]], deer hides, [[coral]], [[kingfisher]] feathers, tortoise shells, [[Gum (botany)|gums]] and [[resin]], rhinoceros horn, sapanwood and [[safflower]] (for dyes and drugs), Indian cotton cloth, and [[ambergris]] (for perfume).<ref name=fin8-337/> The ships even brought back exotic animals, such as ostriches, elephants, and giraffes.<ref name=fin8-337/> The imports from the Ming treasure voyages provided large quantities of economic goods that fueled [[Industry of China|China's own industries]].<ref name=ra87-158>{{Harvp|Ray|1987b|loc=158}}.</ref> For example, there was so much [[cobalt blue|cobalt oxide]] from Persia that the [[porcelain]] industry at [[Jingdezhen]] had a plentiful supply for decades after the voyages.<ref name=fin8-337/> The fleet also returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity in Chinese society.<ref name=fin8-337/><ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=623}}.</ref> Meanwhile, large-scale exports during the voyages prompted the development of Chinese industries and opened up their overseas markets.<ref>{{Harvp|Chen|2019|loc=21}}.</ref>

The voyages resulted in a flourishing [[Economy of the Ming dynasty|Ming economy]]<ref>T'ien (1981). Cited in {{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=337}}.</ref> and stimulated the lucrative maritime commerce.<ref>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=3–4}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=621}}.</ref> The expeditions developed into a maritime trade enterprise where the Chinese began trading and supplying the commodities that were non-Chinese in origin.<ref name=r87a-com/> This highlighted the commercial character of the voyages in which the Chinese expanded upon the already large profits from their trade.<ref name=r87a-com>{{Harvp|Ray|1987a|loc=81–85}}.</ref> The impact of the expeditions on commerce was on multiple levels: it established imperial control over local private commercial networks, expanded tributary relations and thereby brought commerce under state supervision, established court-supervised transactions at foreign ports and thereby generate substantial revenue for both parties, and increased production and circulation of commodities across the region.<ref name=se16-624-6>{{Harvp|Sen|2016|loc=624–626}}.</ref> The voyages induced a sudden supply shock in the Eurasian market, where the Chinese maritime exploits in Asia led to disruptions of imports to Europe with sudden price spikes in the early 15th century.<ref>{{Harvp|O'Rourke|Williamson|2009|loc=661–663}}.</ref>

[[Official communications of the Chinese Empire|Imperial proclamations]] were issued to foreign kings, meaning that they could either submit and be bestowed with rewards or refuse and be pacified under the threat of an overwhelming military force.<ref name=d7-33>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=33}}.</ref><ref name=mil70-1-2>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=1–2}}.</ref> Foreign kings had to reaffirm their recognition of the Chinese emperor's superior status by presenting tribute.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=343}}.</ref> Those rulers who submitted received political protection and material rewards.<ref name=mil70-2>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=2}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Lo|1958|loc=151}}.</ref> Many countries were enrolled as tributaries.<ref name=fair49-140>{{Harvp|Fairbank|1942|loc=140}}.</ref> The fleet conducted the transport of the many foreign envoys to China and back, but some envoys traveled independently.<ref>{{Harvp|Church|2004|loc=8}}.</ref>

===Geography and society===
[[File:Cakra Donya.JPG|thumbnail|Cakra Donya bell, a gift from [[Zheng He]] to [[Samudera Pasai Sultanate|Semudera]] ([[Aceh Museum]])]]

The Chinese treasure fleet sailed the equatorial and subtropical waters of the [[South China Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]], where they were dependent on the circumstances of the annual cycle of [[Monsoon#Asia|monsoon]] winds.<ref name=dr7-27>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=27}}.</ref><ref name=hx78/> Therefore, the fleet's navigators precisely organized the treasure voyages under careful considerations of the periodical patterns of the tropical and subtropical monsoon.<ref name=hx78>{{Harvp|Deng|Li|2011|loc=207–208}}.</ref> For the southward route from Changle in China to [[Surabaya]] in Java, the fleet followed the northeast wind, crossed the [[Equator]] (where the northeast wind changes into the northwest wind due to the [[Coriolis force]]), and then followed the northwest wind.<ref name=hx-12-7>{{Harvp|Deng|Li|2011|loc=212–217}}.</ref> At Java, the fleet waited for the arrival of the tropical southeast wind in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and used it to sail toward Sumatra.<ref name=hx-12-7/> At Sumatra, the fleet was halted due to the change of the southeast wind into a strong southwest wind at a northern latitude close to the equator and waited until next winter for the northeast wind.<ref name=hx-12-7/> For the northwestward route toward Calicut and Hormuz, the Chinese took advantage of the northeastern wind.<ref name=hx-12-7/> The return journey was set during the late summer and early autumn because favorable monsoon winds were present at that time.<ref>{{Harvp|Church|2004|loc=12}}.</ref> The fleet left Hormuz before the southwestern monsoon arrived over the Indian Ocean.<ref name=hx-12-7/> They made use of the northern wind for the southward journey from Hormuz to Calicut.<ref name=hx-12-7/> For the eastward journey from Sumatra, the fleet used the newly arrived southwestern monsoon over the eastern parts of the Indian Ocean.<ref name=hx-12-7/> After the fleet passed through the [[Strait of Malacca]], the fleet caught up with the southwest wind over the South China Sea to sail back to China.<ref name=hx-12-7/> As maritime conditions were limited by the monsoon winds, squadrons were detached from the main fleet to diverge to specific destinations.<ref name=hx-12-7/> The first point of divergence was Sumatra, from where a squadron would travel to Bengal.<ref name=hx-12-7/> The second point of divergence was Calicut, from where ships sailed to Hormuz as well as other destinations at the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and [[East Africa]].<ref name=hx-12-7/> Malacca was the rendezvous point where the squadrons would reassemble for the final leg of the return journey.<ref name=hx-12-7/>

During all the voyages, the fleet departed from [[Sumatra]] to sail westward across the Indian Ocean.<ref name=drey07-69>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=69}}.</ref> Northern Sumatra was an important region for the fleet's anchorage and assembly before they proceeded through the Indian Ocean to Ceylon and southern India.<ref name=dr7-77/> Its location was more important than its wealth or products to the fleet.<ref name=dr7-153/> Ma Huan wrote that [[Semudera]], located in northern Sumatra, was the main route to the Western Ocean<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=44}}.</ref> and characterized it as the most important port of assembly for the Western Ocean.<ref name="dr7-77" /> The journey from Sumatra to Ceylon took about two to four weeks without seeing land.<ref name=dr7-30/> The first part of Ceylon that became visible after departure from Sumatra was [[Namunukula|Namanakuli]] (or Parrot's Beak Mountain), the easternmost mountain (6680 ft in elevation and 45 miles away from the coast).<ref name=drey07-69/> Two or three days after its sighting, the fleet adjusted their course to sail south of [[Dondra Head]] at Ceylon.<ref name=drey07-69/> After a considerable long time at sea since leaving Sumatra, the fleet arrived at a port in Ceylon, usually at [[Beruwala]] and sometimes at [[Galle]].<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=69–70}}.</ref> The Chinese preferred Beruwala over Galle, but they have made port at both locations.<ref name=dre7-71/> Ma characterized Beruwala as "the wharf of the country of Ceylon."<ref name=dre7-71>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=71}}.</ref>

[[Calicut]] was a main destination throughout the voyages and also served as a place of transit to destinations further west during the later voyages.<ref>{{Harvp|Ming|2019|loc=104–113}}.</ref> Ming China had cordial relations with Calicut, which was valuable as they tried to extend the tributary system to the states around the Indian Ocean.<ref name=drey07-61/> Ma described Calicut as the "great country of the Western Ocean" and had a positive response to the Calicut authorities' regulation of trade and attention to weights and measurements.<ref name=drey7-54/><ref name="dr7-77" /> Fei Xin described Calicut as the "great harbor" of the Western Ocean countries.<ref name=dr7-155/>

===Navigation===
[[File:Wu bei zhi LOC 2004633695-1.jpg|thumb|Section of the [[Mao Kun map]] as collected in the ''[[Wubei Zhi]]'' ([[Library of Congress]])]]
During the Ming treasure voyages, the Chinese treasure fleet acquired and collected a large amount of navigational data.<ref name=br98-616-7/> These were specifically recorded by the astrological officer and his four astrologers.<ref name=mi70-239-0>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=239–240}}.</ref> The navigational data were processed into different types of charts by a cartographic office,<ref name=br98-616-7>{{Harvp|Brook|1998|loc=616–617}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-239-0/> comprising an astrological officer, four astrologers, and their clerks.<ref name=mi70-239-0/> It provided the expeditionary commanders with the necessary navigational charts for their voyages.<ref name=br98-616-7/> Many copies of the expeditionary charts were housed in the [[Ministry of War (imperial China)|Ministry of War]].<ref name=br98-616-7/> Additional navigational data were probably also supplied by local [[maritime pilot]]s, Arab records, Indian records, and other Chinese records.<ref name=mi70-239-0/>

The fleet's navigators and pilots were known as ''huozhang'' (火長) or, in the case they were foreigners, as ''fanhuozhang'' (番火長).<ref name=liu7785>{{Harvp|Liu|2019|loc=77–85}}.</ref> They used instruments such as compasses.<ref name=liu7785/> The ''fanhuozhang'' and the ''huozhang'' as well as others were recorded in the ''Ming Shilu'', in connection to awards given to the crew for participation in the battles at Palembang and Ceylon as well as a hostile encounter between returning ships led by the eunuch Zhang Qian (張謙) and Japanese pirates, who were inflicted a heavy defeat, near Jinxiang in Zhejiang.<ref name=liu7785/>

The [[Mao Kun map]] depicts the routes taken by the fleet during the voyages.<ref>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=239}}.</ref><ref name=mi-coast/> It is collected in the ''[[Wubei Zhi]]'', compiled by Mao Yuanyi.<ref name=chu8-2355-6/> [[List of places depicted in the Mao Kun map|It portrays various geographic locations]] from Nanjing to Hormuz as well as the East African coast, with routes illustrated by dotted lines.<ref name=chu8-2355-6/> Mills (1954) dates the map to about 1422, as he concludes that it compiles the navigational data from the expedition that took place between 1421 and 1422.<ref name=mi-coast>{{Harvp|Mills|1954|loc=153–155}}.</ref> The directions are expressed by [[compass]] points and distances in [[watch system|watches]], with references to navigational techniques (such as [[depth sounding]] to avoid shallow waters) and astronomy (particularly along the north–south route of Africa where the latitude is determined by the height of constellations relative to the horizon).<ref name=chu8-2355-6/> The Mao Kun map is appended by four stellar diagrams that were used to determine the position of the ship in relation to the stars and constellations on specific sections of the maritime route.<ref name=chu8-2355-6>{{Harvp|Church|2008|loc=2355–2356}}.</ref>

===Faith and ceremony===
{{Quote box
|quote = The power of the goddess, having indeed been manifested in previous times, has been abundantly revealed in the present generation. In the midst of the rushing waters it happened that, when there was a hurricane, suddenly a divine lantern was seen shining at the masthead, and as soon as that miraculous light appeared the danger was appeased, so that even in the peril of capsizing one felt reassured and that there was no cause for fear.
|source = — Zheng He and his associates about witnessing [[Tianfei]]'s divine lantern, which represented the natural phenomena Saint Elmo's fire<ref name=nee59-558/>
|align = left
|width = 350px
|border = 1px
|fontsize = 88%
|bgcolor = #F9F9F9
|qalign = left
|quoted =
|salign = right
}}
[[File:Gall Trilingual Inscription.jpg|thumb|The [[Galle Trilingual Inscription]] features praise and offerings dedicated by the Chinese toward the three dominant religions in Ceylon ([[Colombo National Museum]])]]
The faith of the Chinese treasure fleet's crew was centered around [[Mazu (goddess)|Tianfei]], the "Heavenly Princess" who was the goddess of sailors and seafarers.<ref name=dr7-148>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=148}}.</ref> The Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions honored and commemorated this goddess.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=51–52 & 148}}.</ref> They make reference to the crew witnessing [[Saint Elmo's fire]] during dangerous storms and interpreting it as a sign of divine protection by Tianfei.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=148 & 191–199}}.</ref> Zheng He and his associates established the inscriptions at the temples of Tianfei at Liujiagang on 14 March 1431 and Changle between 5 December 1431 and 3 January 1432.<ref>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=342–343}}.</ref> The inscriptions suggest that Zheng's life was mostly defined by the treasure voyages and that his devotion to Tianfei was the dominant strand in his faith.<ref name=dr7-150/> They are considered the epitaphs of the voyages.<ref name=dr7-135>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=135}}.</ref>

In Galle, Ceylon, Zheng set up a [[Galle Trilingual Inscription|trilingual inscription]] dated 15 February 1409.{{NoteTag|The date of 15 February 1409 possibly refers to when the trilingual inscription was erected in Galle, indicating that it was put up during the homeward journey of the second voyage ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=66}}). If not, the inscription could have been prepared in China and erected between 1410 when the fleet arrived at Galle to 1411 during the third voyage ({{Harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=72}}). {{Harvtxt|Duyvendak|1939|loc=369}} states that the inscription must have been prepared in China on 15 February 1409 and erected during the third expedition (1409–1411), because he thinks that the 15 February 1409 date is connected to the dates for the conference of honors to two deities, Tianfei (天妃) on 21 January 1409 and Nanhaishen (南海神) on 15 February 1409.}}<ref name=drey7-66/><ref name=ne71-galle>{{Harvp|Needham|1971|loc=522–533}}.</ref> The inscription is in three languages, in which the Chinese section praised the [[Buddha]], the Tamil section praised the local god Tenavarai Nayanar (an incarnation of [[Vishnu]]), and the Persian section praised [[Allah]].<ref name=ne71-galle/> Each section contains a similar list of offerings, such as 1,000 pieces of gold, 5,000 pieces of silver, 100 rolls of silk, 2,500 catties of perfumed oil, and a variety of bronze ornaments.<ref name=dre7-71/><ref>{{Harvp|Needham|1971|loc=523}}.</ref> As shown by this inscription, the Chinese paid their respect to the three dominant religions in Ceylon.<ref name=dr7-148/><ref name=ne71-galle/><ref name=ming5-41>{{Harvp|Ming|2005|loc=41}}.</ref>

On 20 September 1414, Bengali envoys presented a giraffe as tribute in the name of King [[Saifuddin Hamza Shah|Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah]] of Bengal (r. 1410–1412) to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China.<ref>{{Harvp|Church|2004|loc=1–4 & 20–21}}.</ref> The giraffe was identified as the [[qilin]], but the emperor did not want his officials to send laudatory [[Memorial to the throne|memorials]] on behalf of its auspicious appearance during his reign and, as suggested by Church (2004), probably did not think it was a qilin.<ref>{{Harvp|Church|2004|loc=21–25}}.</ref>

[[Confucianism]] influenced how the Chinese interacted with the world during the voyages.<ref name=chang21/> Chang (2021) posits that the Chinese did not aim to convert others to Confucianism, which was different from the Europeans who sought to [[Christianization|spread Christianity]], due to its monistic, polytheistic, [[Human nature#Confucianism|sanguine]], and circular outlooks of the world that led to a more restrained or detached approach.<ref name=chang21>{{Harvp|Chang|2021|loc=159–176}}.</ref>

===Historiography===
[[File:天妃灵应之记碑 01.jpg|thumb|The stele bearing the Changle inscription composed by Zheng He and his associates]]
[[File:Yingya Shenglan (Jilu Huiban), first page.jpg|thumb|First page of [[Ma Huan]]'s ''[[Yingya Shenglan]]'', published in 1451, as collected in the ''Jilu Huibian'', published in 1617 ([[Harvard Library]])]]
There are several extant contemporary accounts, such as [[Ma Huan]]'s ''[[Yingya Shenglan]]'' [瀛涯勝覽], [[Fei Xin]]'s ''[[Xingcha Shenglan]]'' [星槎勝覽], and [[Gong Zhen]]'s ''[[Xiyang Fanguo Zhi]]'' [西洋番國志].<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=6 & 219}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Chan|1998|loc=792}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Zheng|2014|loc=209–210}}.</ref><ref name=ming19-95>{{Harvp|Ming|2019|loc=95}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Tsai|2001|loc=202}}.</ref> These three works are important first-hand accounts, as their authors personally took part in the expeditions.<ref name=ming19-95/> Ma served as an interpreter on the fourth, sixth, and seventh treasure voyage.<ref name=mi70-35/><ref name=d7-6-7>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=6–7}}.</ref> He collaborated with Guo Chongli, who participated in three of the voyages, on his work.<ref name=mi70-55>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=55}}.</ref> Fei served as a soldier on the third, fifth, and seventh voyage.<ref name=d7-6-7/><ref>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=59}}.</ref> Gong served as [[Zheng He]]'s private secretary on the seventh voyage.<ref name=d7-6-7/><ref>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=56}}.</ref> These three sources provide observations on the political, economic, social, cultural, and religious conditions of the lands visited throughout the voyages.<ref name=chu8-2356/> Furthermore, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions, which were engraved on stone, are valuable records composed by Zheng and his associates.<ref>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=341–355}}.</ref> The stele bearing the Liujiagang inscription was lost, but the text was reproduced in Qian Gu's ''Wudu Wencui Xuji'' [吴都文粹续集] (Ming dynasty).<ref>{{Harvp|Ming|2005|loc=39}}.</ref>

The ''[[Ming Shilu]]'' [明實錄] provides a lot of the information relating to the voyages,<ref name=d7-217-8/><ref name=chu8-2356/> particularly the exchange of ambassadors.<ref name=chu8-2356/> The work is divided into individual sections about the reigns of Ming emperors.<ref name=d7-217-8/> Zheng lived through the reigns of five Ming emperors,<ref name=d7-217-8/> but he directly served three emperors.<ref name=mi70-6>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=6}}.</ref> He is mentioned in the {{Transliteration|zh|Taizong Shilu}} of the Yongle reign, the {{Transliteration|zh|Renzong Shilu}} of the Hongxi reign, and the {{Transliteration|zh|Xuanzong Shilu}} of the Xuande reign.<ref name=d7-217-8>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=217–218}}.</ref> The {{Transliteration|zh|Taizong Shilu}} combined the second and third voyages into one expedition.<ref name=mi70-8-9/><ref name=dr7-95>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=95}}.</ref> This was reproduced by the {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi}}.<ref name="dr7-95" /><ref>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=355}}.</ref> The conflation of these two voyages into one voyage caused Zheng's Palembang journey from 1424 to 1425{{NoteTag|{{Harvtxt|Duyvendak|1939|loc=387}} and {{Harvtxt|Mills|1970|loc=8–9}} made the conclusion that the recorded Palembang journey never happened. However, {{Harvtxt|Dreyer|2007|loc=96}} states that it cannot be proven whether it did or did not happen.}} to be wrongly construed as the sixth voyage to fulfill the count of seven voyages.<ref name=du38-387>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=387}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-8-9/><ref name=dr7-95/> However, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions make a clear distinction between the second and third voyage, as they correctly date the second voyage from 1407 to 1409 and the third voyage from 1409 to 1411.<ref name=mi70-8-9>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=8–9}}.</ref><ref name=duy38-361>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=361}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=95 & 191–199}}.</ref>

A number of later works contain accounts about the voyages. These include the ''[[Mingshi]]'' [明史] (1739),<ref name=mi70-54/> Huang Xingzeng's {{Transliteration|zh|Xiyang Chaogong Dianlu}} [西洋朝貢典錄] (1520),<ref name=mi70-54>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=54}}.</ref> Zheng Xiao's {{Transliteration|zh|Wuxuebian}} [吾學編] (ca. 1522),<ref name=mi70-54/> [[Lu Rong]]'s {{Transliteration|zh|Shuyuan Zaji}} [菽園雜記; 'Bean Garden Miscellany'] (1475),<ref name=d7-219-0/> [[Yan Congjian]]'s {{Transliteration|zh|Shuyu Zhouzilu}} [殊域周咨錄; 'Record of Despatches Concerning the Different Countries'] (1520),<ref name=d7-219-0/> and [[Gu Qiyuan]]'s {{Transliteration|zh|Kezuo Zhuiyu}} [客座贅語; 'Boring Talks for My Guests'] (ca. 1628).<ref name=d7-219-0/> Zhu Yunming's {{Transliteration|zh|Qianwen Ji}} ['A Record of Things Once Heard'] (ca. 1526) contains his {{Transliteration|zh|Xia Xiyang}} [{{Lang|zh|下西洋}}; 'Down the Western Ocean'], which provides a detailed itinerary of the seventh voyage.<ref name=dr7-150>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=150}}.</ref><ref name=mi70-xi>{{Harvp|Mills|1970|loc=14–15}}.</ref> [[Mao Yuanyi]]'s ''[[Wubei Zhi]]'' [武備志] (1628) preserves the [[Mao Kun map]] [{{Lang|zh|茅坤圖}}], which is largely based on material from the voyages.<ref name=d7-219-0>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=219–220}}.</ref> Li Zhaoxiang's ''Longjiang Chuanchang Zhi'' [龍江船廠志; 'Record of the Dragon River Shipyard'] (preface 1553) states that the plans for the treasure ships had disappeared from the shipyard.<ref name=d7-220>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=220}}.</ref>

Luo Maodeng's {{Transliteration|zh|Sanbao Taijian Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi}} [{{Lang|zh|三寶太監西洋記通俗演義}}] (1597) is a novel about the exploits of Zheng and his fleet.<ref name=d7-6-7/><ref name=finl92-232>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=232}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvp|Ming|2005|loc=35–37}}.</ref> In the preface, Luo states that Chinese maritime power was essential to maintain world order.<ref>{{Harvp|Finlay|2008|loc=334}}.</ref> In Luo's work, Zheng sailed the oceans in search of a sacred imperial seal to restore harmony in the Middle Kingdom.<ref name=finl92-232/> Finlay (1992) remarks that the story gives the suggestion that, as Zheng never actually finds this seal, the world order cannot be restored by any other means than military force.<ref>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=236}}.</ref> Luo's novel contains a description of different classes of ships with their sizes: the 36 nine-masted treasure ships ({{Transliteration|zh|baochuan}}) were 44.4 by 18 {{Transliteration|zh|zhang}}, the 700 eight-masted horse ships ({{Transliteration|zh|machuan}}) were 37 by 15 {{Transliteration|zh|zhang}}, the 240 seven-masted grain ships or supply ships ({{Transliteration|zh|liangchuan}}) were 28 by 12 {{Transliteration|zh|zhang}}, the 300 six-masted billet ships or troop transports ({{Transliteration|zh|zuochuan}}) were 24 by 9.4 {{Transliteration|zh|zhang}}, and the 180 five-masted combat ships or warships proper ({{Transliteration|zh|zhanchuan}}) were 18 by 6.8 {{Transliteration|zh|zhang}}.<ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=102 & 104}}.</ref> Dreyer (2007) argues that this work holds no evidential value as a historical source, but notes that Duyvendak (1953) thinks that it may be based on some truth.<ref name=d7-220/>

The {{Transliteration|zh|Kezuo Zhuiyu}} and the {{Transliteration|zh|Shuyu Zhouzilu}} describe the following circumstances of what happened to the official archives about the expeditions.<ref name=d38-395-6>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=395–396}}.</ref> During the reign of the [[Chenghua Emperor]] (r. 1465–1487), an order was issued to retrieve the documents concerning the expeditions to the Western Ocean from the Ministry of War archives.<ref name=d38-395-6/><ref name=dr7-173-5/> However, the official Liu Daxia had hidden and burned the documents.<ref name=d38-395-6/><ref name=dr7-173-5>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=173–175}}.</ref> He dismissed the accounts as "deceitful exaggerations of bizarre things far removed from the testimony of people's ears and eyes."<ref name=d38-395-6/><ref name=dr7-173-5/><ref name=chu8-2356>{{Harvp|Church|2008|loc=2356}}.</ref>

The {{Transliteration|zh|Shuyu Zhouzilu}} adds the following to the story.<ref name=d38-395-6/> The Minister of War Xiang Zhong (in office 1474–1477) sent a clerk to retrieve the documents, but the clerk could not find them after several days of searching.<ref name=d38-395-6/><ref name=dr7-173-5/> Liu eventually confessed and justified his actions to Xiang by stating that "the expeditions of Sanbao to the Western Ocean wasted tens of myriads of money and grain, and moreover the people who met their deaths [on these expeditions] may be counted by the myriads. Although he returned with wonderful things, what benefit was it to the state? This was merely an action of bad government of which ministers should severely disapprove. Even if the old archives were still preserved they should be destroyed in order to suppress [a repetition of these things] at the root."<ref name=d38-395-6/><ref name=dr7-173-5/> Xiang Zhong was recorded to have been impressed by this explanation.<ref name=d38-395-6/><ref name=dr7-173-5/>

The {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi}}, the {{Transliteration|zh|Xuanzong Shilu}}, and the {{Transliteration|zh|Mingshi Jishi Benmo}} [{{Lang|zh|明史紀事本末}}] attribute the reason for the suppression and destruction of the archived records to prevent the eunuch [[Wang Zhi (eunuch)|Wang Zhi]] from consulting it for his invasion of Vietnam.<ref>''Mingshi'' (Cited in {{harvnb|Duyvendak|1939|loc=397}}); ''Mingshi'', ''Xuanzong Shilu'', and ''Mingshi Jishi Benmo'' (Cited in {{harvnb|Dreyer|2007|loc=173–175}}).</ref> Dreyer (2007) notes that Liu could not have had access to the records and doubts his alleged involvement.<ref name=dr7-173-5/> Duyvendak (1939) states that the Ministry of War officials were not influential enough to stop the retrieval of the documents and speculates that Liu may have destroyed them with the Minister of War's approval.<ref>{{Harvp|Duyvendak|1939|loc=397–398}}.</ref> Schottenhammer (2021) states that it is unclear whether Liu really hid and burned the documents, but she surmises that the documents were possibly destroyed in the chaos when [[Beijing]] was captured by the rebel [[Li Zicheng]] and his army in the 17th century.<ref>{{Harvp|Schottenhammer |2021|loc=157}}.</ref>

Suryadinata (2005) remarks that Southeast Asian sources also provide information about the voyages, but that their reliability should be scrutinized as these local histories can be intertwined with legends but still remain relevant in the collective memories of the people concerned.<ref>{{Harvp|Suryadinata|2005b|loc=91}}.</ref> This includes the ''Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon'', a text containing accounts that often lack in historicity, which records several interactions between local Muslim communities and the Chinese.<ref>{{Harvp|Suryadinata|2005b|loc=83–87}}.</ref> As such, he highlights the difficulties of doing research about the role of the Chinese voyages in the Islamization of Java and Malacca, because these activities are not mentioned in the Chinese chronicles and local accounts may contain more legend than history.<ref>{{Harvp|Suryadinata|2005a|loc=xv}}; {{Harvp|Suryadinata|2005b|loc=72–91}}.</ref>

Arabic sources provide insight on the dates of the fleet's arrival and course of events at various locations in the Arabic region, which supplements the general time frames provided in Chinese sources.<ref>{{harvp|Jost|2019|loc=82–89}}.</ref> It also offers insight about the commodity exchange, such as which commodities were traded and what value was placed on Chinese trade goods or gifts.<ref>{{harvp|Jost|2019|loc=90–93}}.</ref> The ''Tarih al-Yaman fi d-daulati r-Rasuliya'' (ca. 1440) is an example of an Arabic text that adds to the insight about the dates and commodity exchange.<ref name=jost95>{{harvp|Jost|2019|loc=95}}.</ref> The ''Qurrat al-Uyun fi Akhbar al-Yaman al-Maimun'' (1461–1537) describes an encounter between [[Rasulid dynasty|Rasulid]] Sultan [[al-Nasir Ahmad ibn Isma'il|al-Nasir Ahmad]] (r. 1400–1424) and Chinese envoys, providing an example of a ruler who willingly accedes to the requested protocol of the tributary relationship in the unique perspective of a non-Chinese party.<ref>{{harvp|Jost|2019|loc=90–95}}.</ref> The ''Kitab as-Suluk li-ma rifat duwal al-muluk'' (1436–1442), a text from Mamluk Egypt, describes the contacts between the Chinese and the Mamluk rulers, which adds to the dating and understanding of the expedition to Mecca during the seventh voyage.<ref name=jost95/>

===Legacy===
{{Quote box
|quote = It is now about 80 years since there arrived in this city of Chalicut certain vessels of white Christians, who wore their hair long like Germans, and had no beards except around the mouth, such as are worn at Constantinople by cavaliers and courtiers. They landed, wearing a cuirass, helmet, and vizor, and carrying a certain weapon [sword] attached to a spear. Their vessels are armed with [[Bombard (weapon)|bombards]], shorter than those in use with us. Once every two years they return with 20 or 25 vessels. They are unable to tell what people they are, nor what merchandise they bring to this city, save that it includes very fine linen-cloth and brass-ware. They load spices. Their vessels have four masts like those of Spain. If they were Germans it seems to me that we should have had some notice about them; possibly they may be Russians if they have a port there. On the arrival of the captain we may learn who these people are, for the [[Gaspar da Gama|Italian-speaking pilot]], who was given him by the Moorish king, and whom he took away contrary to his inclinations, is with him, and may be able to tell.
|source = — Girolamo Sernigi (1499) about the then-unknown Chinese visitors<ref>Sernigi, Girolamo (1499). Translation in {{cite book|title=A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497–1499 |editor-first=E. G. |editor-last=Ravenstein | publisher = Hakluyt Society|location=London|year= 1898|page= 131|url=https://archive.org/stream/worksissuedbyha00unkngoog#page/n175/mode/2up}} See also {{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=225}}.</ref>
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[[File:Rowers during 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony.jpg|thumb|A [[2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony]] performance representing the voyages]]
In 1499, shortly before [[Vasco da Gama]]'s return from India to Portugal, [[Girolamo Sernigi]] reported on the Portuguese accounts from da Gama's expedition that "certain vessels of white Christians" had made port at Calicut on the Malabar coast generations before their arrival.<ref name=finl92-225/> He speculated that these unknown mariners could have been the Germans or the Russians, but concluded that they may learn who those people are when da Gama arrives.<ref name=finl92-225>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=225}}.</ref> After his arrival at Calicut, da Gama began hearing tales of pale bearded men who sailed with their giant ships along the local coastal waters of Calicut generations before.<ref name=wil98-335>{{Harvp|Wills|1998|loc=335}}.</ref> The Portuguese had encountered Malabar traditions that preserved the memory of the Ming treasure voyages led by Zheng He,<ref name=finl92-226>{{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=226}}.</ref> but they were not aware that these tales were about his fleet.<ref name=wil98-335/> They would eventually discover that these unknown mariners were the Chinese.<ref name=finl92-225/> Da Gama's men were apparently even mistaken for the Chinese at first on arrival at the [[East Africa]]n coast, because the Chinese were the last pale-skinned strangers arriving in large wooden ships in the memories of the East African people.<ref name=finl92-225/>

In the late 16th century, [[Juan González de Mendoza]] wrote that "it is plainly seene that [the Chinese] did come with the shipping unto the Indies, having conquered al that is from China, unto the farthest part thereof. [...] So that at this day there is great memory of them [...] The like notice and memory is there in the kingdom of Calicut, wheras be many trees and fruits, that the naturals of that countrie do say, were brought thither by the Chinos, when that they were lords and governours of that countrie."<ref>Mendoza, Juan González de (16th century). Translation by Parke, Robert (1588) in {{cite book|title=The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof|editor-first= George T. |editor-last=Staunton|location=London | publisher=Hakluyt Society |year= 1853|pages=92–96 |url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofgreatmi14151gonz#page/94/mode/2up}} See also {{Harvp|Finlay|1992|loc=225}}.</ref>

Many present-day Chinese people perceive that these expeditions were conducted in accordance with [[Confucianism|Confucian]] ideals.<ref name=lee10-104>{{Harvp|Lee|2010|loc=104}}.</ref> During a [[Harvard University]] speech in November 1997, [[President of China|President]] [[Jiang Zemin]] praised Zheng for spreading Chinese culture abroad.<ref name=lee10-104/> Since 2005, in commemoration of the voyages, China annually celebrates its [[China National Maritime Day|National Maritime Day]] on 11 July.<ref name=do12-54>{{Harvp|Dooley|2012|loc=54}}.</ref> That year also marked the 600th anniversary of Zheng's maiden voyage.<ref name=do12-54/><ref>{{Harvp|Dreyer|2007|loc=xii}}.</ref>

Although the present-day popular narrative may emphasize the peaceful nature of the voyages, especially in terms of the absence of territorial conquest and colonial subjugation, it overlooks the heavy [[militarization]] of the Chinese treasure fleet to exercise [[power projection]] and thereby promote its interests.<ref>{{Harvp|Wang|2015|loc=59–62}}.</ref> In present-day Chinese political discourse, with rising developments in China's maritime capabilities and ambitions, the voyages are evoked to underscore a [[China's peaceful rise|peaceful emergence of modern China]].<ref>{{Harvp|Dooley|2012|loc=54–55 & 69–72}}.</ref><ref name=no17-221-3/> By drawing parallels between contemporary China and the historical narrative as provided by these voyages, the political process serves to stimulate national pride, shape national identity, reaffirm a maritime identity, legitimize the development of maritime power, provide an image of a harmonious and peaceful development, highlight interconnectedness with the broader world, and provide contrast to the violent nature of western colonialism.<ref name=no17-221-3/> As such, the voyages play an important role in China's promotion of [[maritime power]] as a dominant strategic paradigm<ref name=no17-221-3>{{Harvp|Nohara|2017|loc=221–223}}.</ref> and [[soft power]] diplomacy in the maritime region.<ref>{{Harvp|Holmes|Yoshihara|2008|loc=373–377}}.</ref>

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot|1}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|25em}}

== Bibliography ==
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* {{cite book | last=Needham | first=Joseph | title=Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics | year=1971 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-07060-7 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Nohara |first1=Jun J. |title=Sea Power as a Dominant Paradigm: The Rise of China's New Strategic Identity |journal=Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies |date=2017 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=210–232 |doi=10.1080/24761028.2017.1391623 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=O'Rourke |first1=Kevin H. |author-link1=Kevin O'Rourke (economist) |last2=Williamson |first2=Jeffrey G. |author-link2=Jeffrey G. Williamson|title=Did Vasco da Gama Matter for European Markets? |journal=The Economic History Review |date=2009 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=655–684 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00468.x |s2cid=154740598 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ray |first1=Haraprasad |title=An Analysis of the Chinese Maritime Voyages Into the Indian Ocean During Early Ming Dynasty and Their Raison d'Etre |journal=China Report |date=1987a |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=65–87 |doi=10.1177/000944558702300107 |s2cid=154116680 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ray |first1=Haraprasad |title=The Eighth Voyage of the Dragon That Never Was: An Enquiry Into the Causes of Cessation of Voyages During Early Ming Dynasty |journal=China Report |date=1987b |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=157–178 |doi=10.1177/000944558702300202|s2cid=155029177 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Schottenhammer| first1=Angela |title=Early Global Interconnectivity Across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I: Commercial Structures and Exchanges |date=2019 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Cham |isbn=978-3-319-97666-2 |chapter=Introduction }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Schottenhammer |first1=Angela |title=Consolidating Southeast Asia and the Meaning of Force in History: Pax Ming and the Case of Chen Zuyi 陳祖義 |journal=China and Asia |date=2021 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=130–168 |doi=10.1163/2589465X-030105}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Sen |first1=Tansen |title=The Impact of Zheng He's Expeditions on Indian Ocean Interactions |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |date=2016 |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=609–636 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X16001038}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Siu |first1=Yiu |title=The Cessation of Zheng He's Voyages and the Beginning of Private Sailings: Fiscal Competition Between Emperors and Bureaucrats |journal=Journal of Chinese History |date=2023 |volume=8 |pages=95–114 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.45|s2cid=258586977 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite book |last1=Suryadinata |first1=Leo |title=Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia |date=2005a |publisher=International Zheng He Society |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-329-5 |chapter=Introduction | author-link=Leo Suryadinata }}
*{{cite book |last1=Suryadinata |first1=Leo |title=Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia |date=2005b |publisher=International Zheng He Society |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-329-5 |chapter=Zheng He, Semarang and the Islamization of Java: Between History and Legend}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tan |first1=Ta Sen |title=Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia |date=2005 |publisher=International Zheng He Society |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-329-5 |chapter=Did Zheng He Set Out to Colonize Southeast Asia? }}
*{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Shih-shan Henry |title=Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle |date=2001 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |isbn=978-0-295-98109-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Wang | first=Gungwu | title=The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1398–1644, Part 2 | year=1998 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | author-link=Wang Gungwu | isbn=978-0-521-24333-9 | chapter=Ming Foreign Relations: Southeast Asia }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Yuan-kang |title=Responding to China's Rise: US and EU Strategies |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-10033-3 |chapter=The Myth of Chinese Exceptionalism: A Historical Perspective on China's Rise}}
* {{cite book | last=Wills | first=John E. Jr. | title=The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1398–1644, Part 2 | year=1998 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-24333-9 | chapter=Relations With Maritime Europeans, 1514–1662 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Zheng |first1=Yangwen |title=China on the Sea: How the Maritime World Shaped Modern China |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-19477-9}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Ying |last2=Chen |first2=Zhongping |last3=Blue |first3=Gregory |title=Zheng He's Maritime Voyages (1405–1433) and China's Relations With the Indian Ocean World: A Multilingual Bibliography |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-28016-8}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Voyages of Zheng He}}
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
* [[Melvyn Bragg|Bragg, Melvyn]]; [[Rana Mitter|Mitter, Rana]]; [[Julia Lovell|Lovell, Julia]]; [[Craig Clunas|Clunas, Craig]]; Morris, Thomas (2011). "[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b015p8c2 The Ming Voyages]". ''In Our Time''. BBC Radio 4.
* Luard, Tim (2005). "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03cgdlg Swimming Dragons]". ''Masterpiece''. BBC World Service.
* Mitter, Rana; Crighton, Ben; Smith Rosser, Elizabeth (2018). "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b09zv3d7 Zheng He: The Admiral Goes to Africa]". ''Chinese Characters''. BBC Radio 4.
* Smith, Adam (2013). "[http://www.penn.museum/blog/research/zheng-he-great-voyages-lecture/ The Voyages of Chinese Explorer Zheng He]". ''Great Voyages: Travels, Triumphs, and Tragedies''. Penn Museum. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020071746/http://www.penn.museum/blog/research/zheng-he-great-voyages-lecture/ |date=20 October 2022 |nolink=y }}. {{YouTube|id=le7r93whykg|link=no}}.
* [[Dan Snow|Snow, Dan]]; Clunas, Craig; Hickmann, James; Patmore, Dougal (2023). [https://shows.acast.com/dansnowshistoryhit/episodes/zheng-he Zheng He: The Ming Dynasty Explorer]. ''Dan Snow's History Hit''. Acast.
* [[Joanna Waley-Cohen|Waley-Cohen, Joanna]] (2012). "[https://www.brown.edu/about/administration/international-affairs/year-of-china/joanna-waley-cohen-lecture-sail-seas-marine-technology-and-treasure-fleets-early-ming-china-0 To Sail the Seas: Marine Technology and the Treasure Fleets of Early Ming China]". ''Technology and Society in Pre-Modern China''. Brown University. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209051521/https://www.brown.edu/about/administration/international-affairs/year-of-china/joanna-waley-cohen-lecture-sail-seas-marine-technology-and-treasure-fleets-early-ming-china-0 |date=9 December 2022 |nolink=y }}. {{YouTube|id=IgwkMYq8Aw4|link=no}}.
{{refend}}

{{Ming dynasty topics}}
{{Ancient and Dynastic Chinese Military History}}

[[Category:Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Maritime history of China]]
[[Category:Ming dynasty]]
[[Category:Naval warfare]]
[[Category:Ming treasure voyages| ]]
[[Category:Yongle Emperor]]

Kutthaka

2026-04-29T09:23:02Z

KiaGreenwald: Stub - done

{{Short description|General in the Anuradhapura army}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Kutthaka
| image =
| caption =
| office1 =
| term_start1 =
| term_end1 =
| parents =
| office2 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| death_date =
| issue =
| children =
| monarch = [[Sena I]]
| monarch2 = [[Sena II]]
| monarch1 =
| office3 =
| monarch3 = [[Udaya I]]
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| honorific_prefix = Senevirad <ref>Ranawella, S., 2001. Inscription of Ceylon. Volume V, Part I. Department of Archaeology. ISBN: 955-9159-21-6. pp.13-92</ref>
| battles = [[Anuradhapura invasion of Pandya]]
| resting_place =
| relations =
| successor = Ilanaga Sena
| death_place = [[Anuradhapura]], Sri Lanka
| term_end =
| term_start =
| allegiance = {{flagicon|Anuradhapura Kingdom}} [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]]
| occupation = [[Commander-in-chief]]
| service_years = 853-889
| branch = {{flagicon|Anuradhapura Kingdom}} [[Anuradhapura Army]]
| unit =
| office = [[General]] of The [[Anuradhapura Army]]
| rank = [[General]]
| birth_place =
}}
'''Kutthaka''' (fl. 9th century CE), also known in inscriptions as Senevirad Kuttha, was a distinguished general in the [[Anuradhapura army]], serving under the King [[Sena II]] of the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]]. He is best known for leading a disputed military expedition against the [[Pandyan Kingdom]] in South India.

==Early Life==

Next to nothing is available on Kutthaka’s early life or his journey of becoming the Senevirad ([[Senapati]]) of the Anuradhapura Army.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sirimunasiha.wordpress.com/about/military-history-of-sri-lanka/a-list-of-army-commanders-of-sinhala-kings/|title=RANK STRUCTURE OF OFFICERS IN SINHALA ARMIES.
|last=blog |first=sirimunasiha |publisher=sirimunasiha |date=October 10, 2021 |website=sirimunasiha wordpress |access-date=March 28, 2026}}</ref>

==Military career==

Kutthaka served during the reigns of three kings as a senapati under [[Sena I]] (853), Sena II (853–887) and [[Udaya I]] (889).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sirimunasiha.wordpress.com/about/military-history-of-sri-lanka/a-list-of-army-commanders-of-sinhala-kings/|title=RANK STRUCTURE OF OFFICERS IN SINHALA ARMIES.
|last=blog |first=sirimunasiha |publisher=sirimunasiha |date=October 10, 2021 |website=sirimunasiha wordpress |access-date=March 28, 2026}}</ref> Under Sena II, he was entrusted with the command of a large army to battle the hostile king [[Srimara Srivallabha]] of the [[Pandyan Kingdom]].<ref> Wilhelm Geiger, Cūḷavaṃsa, being the more recent part of the Mahāvaṃsa. New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1953, P 147-155</ref>

===Pandyan Campaign ===
{{main|Anuradhapura invasion of Pandya}}

The [[Cūḷavaṃsa]] records that Sena II dispatched general Kutthaka to invade the Pandyan kingdom in coordination with a northern offensive by the [[Pallava]] ruler [[Nriputungavarman]]<ref>Nicholas, C. W., 1963. Historical topography of ancient and medieval Ceylon. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series (Vol VI). Special Number: Colombo. Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch). pp.43,48,77,111,131,133,143,144,145,146-147,160,164,183.</ref><ref>Ray, H.C. (Editor in chief), 1959. History of Ceylon: Vol. I: Part I. Ceylon University Press. Colombo. pp.328-330</ref>, creating a two-front conflict. As per culawamsa, Kutthaka advanced into South India, laid siege to the Pandyan capital [[Madurai]], defeated the Pandyan king [[Srimara Srivallabha]], captured and plundered the city, and recovered treasures previously taken from Sri Lanka including sacred and royal objects such as a golden Buddha image and ceremonial regalia, symbolizing both restitution and victory, after which he installed [[Varagunavarman II]], son of the defeated king on the Pandyan throne on behalf of Sena II. After touring the Pandyan country, returned to Anuradhapura with the recovered treasures. <ref> Wilhelm Geiger, Cūḷavaṃsa, being the more recent part of the Mahāvaṃsa. New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1953, P 147-155</ref><ref>Lives of Indian Images. p. 59</ref>But the Culawamsa is a highly embellished and poetic account of the history of Ceylon and it persistently colours the account favourably to the Ceylonese kings and commanders to obscure the defeat of them. So it is done intended to obscure the defeat of Sena II. <ref name="Sastri 1929">Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. (1929) The Pandyan Kingdom. London, Luzac and Company. 71.</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Leão |first=David Pierdominici |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=KP5BEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA78&dq=Sena+2+madurai&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj6r5vimciTAxWcSmwGHbiHGN0Q6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q=Sena%202%20madurai&f=false |title=Breaking the Crown of Indra: The Pāṇḍyas and Their Dynastic Identity in the South Indian Context |date=2025-01-27 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-72150-0 |language=en}}</ref> The Pandyan side of the evidence makes the ruling king [[Srimara Srivallabha]] successful in repelling a Maya Pandya and [[Sinhalese forces]] thus keeping his throne to himself at the end of the struggle.<ref>Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. (1929) The Pandyan Kingdom. London, Luzac and Company. 71.</ref><ref>South Indian Inscriptions (Vol. III, Pt. IV). (n.d.). No. 206a Copper-Plate Grant from Tirukkalar. In *South Indian Inscriptions*. Retrieved July 6, 2025, from whatisindia.com</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Amunugama |first=E. M. C. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=Sri+mara+sri+Vallabha+defeated+maya+pandya&dq=Sri+mara+sri+Vallabha+defeated+maya+pandya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiW3f3am_aSAxUHTGwGHV12J4QQ6AF6BAgKEAM#Sri%20mara%20sri%20Vallabha%20defeated%20maya%20pandya |title=The History of Ancient Aryan Tribes in Sri Lanka: Yaksas, Nagas, Devas, Sakyas |date=1994 |publisher=J.R. Jayewardene Cultural Centre |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Leão |first=David Pierdominici |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=KP5BEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA78&dq=Sena+2+madurai&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj6r5vimciTAxWcSmwGHbiHGN0Q6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q=Sena%202%20madurai&f=false |title=Breaking the Crown of Indra: The Pāṇḍyas and Their Dynastic Identity in the South Indian Context |date=2025-01-27 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-72150-0 |language=en}}</ref>

==Works of Kutthaka==

Senevirad Kuttha built a [[monastery]] named Sen Senevirad Pirivena near a village named Sulinnarugama according to the Tamarawewa pillar inscription.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lankapradeepa.com/2021/10/king-sena-ii-anuradhapura.html|title=King Sena II of Anuradhapura |last=Manjula |first=H.A.K.L. |date=October 10, 2021 |website=Lankapradeepa |access-date=February 23, 2026}}</ref><ref>Ranawella, S., 2001. Inscription of Ceylon. Volume V, Part I. Department of Archaeology. ISBN: 955-9159-21-6. pp.13-92</ref>

==Legacy and Death==

Kutthaka is regarded as one of the most distinguished military commanders of the Anuradhapura period, noted especially for leading a disputed overseas expedition against the [[Pandya kingdom]] during the reign of King [[Sena II]]. His campaign resulted in the various as both of them claimed victory. Further inscriptions from the reign of King [[Udaya I]] indicate that Senevirad Kutthaka continued to serve as senapati under Sena II’s immediate successor. His name appears for the last time in the Nidinegama pillar inscription dated to the third regnal year (c. 889 CE) of Udaya I, suggesting that he held high military office for at least 35 years. Taken together, the chronicle and inscriptional evidence attest to Kutthaka’s long career and enduring legacy in strengthening the military and political authority of the [[Anuradhapura kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sirimunasiha.wordpress.com/about/military-history-of-sri-lanka/a-list-of-army-commanders-of-sinhala-kings/|title=RANK STRUCTURE OF OFFICERS IN SINHALA ARMIES.
|last=blog |first=sirimunasiha |publisher=sirimunasiha |date=October 10, 2021 |website=sirimunasiha wordpress |access-date=March 28, 2026}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}{{Anuradhapura period topics}}
{{Armed Conflicts Involving Sri Lanka}}

[[Category:People of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan generals]]

Kashmir Princess

2026-04-23T14:35:39Z

KiaGreenwald: Done - done

{{Short description|1955 airliner bombing}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Italic title}}

{{more citations needed|date = April 2014}}
{{copyedit|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox Airliner accident
| name = Air India Flight 300
| occurrence_type = Bombing
| image = Lockheed L-749A VT-DEO AII LAP 08.06.53 edited-2.jpg
| image_upright = 1.16
| alt =
| caption = A Lockheed Constellation similar to the incident aircraft
| date = {{start date|1955|04|11}}
| summary = Bombing
| site = off the [[Natuna Islands]], Indonesia
| coordinates =
| aircraft_type = [[Lockheed L-749 Constellation|Lockheed L-749A Constellation]]
| aircraft_name = ''Kashmir Princess''
| operator = [[Air India]]
| plane1_IATA = AI300
| plane1_ICAO = AIC300
| plane1_callsign = AIRINDIA 300
| tail_number = {{airreg|VT|DEP}}
| origin = [[Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport|Santa Cruz Airport]], Bombay, India
| stopover = [[Kai Tak Airport]], Hong Kong
| stopover0 =
| last_stopover =
| destination = [[Kemayoran Airport]], Jakarta, Indonesia
| passengers = 11
| crew = 8
| injuries = 3
| fatalities = 16
| missing =
| survivors = 3
}}

The '''''Kashmir Princess''''', or '''Air India Flight 300''',<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Target Zhou Enlai: The "Kashmir Princess' Incident of 1955 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/655141 |access-date=November 23, 2021 |journal=The China Quarterly |jstor=655141 |last1=Tsang |first1=Steve |year=1994 |volume=139 |issue=139 |pages=766–782 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000043150 |s2cid=154183849 |archive-date=8 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908224623/https://www.jstor.org/stable/655141 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> was a chartered [[Lockheed L-749 Constellation|Lockheed L-749A Constellation]] [[Air India]] flight. On 11 April 1955, it was damaged midair by a bomb explosion and crashed into the [[South China Sea]] while en route from [[Bombay]], India, and Hong Kong to [[Jakarta]], Indonesia.<ref name="AS">{{cite web|url =http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19550411-1|title =Accident description|access-date =18 June 2009|publisher =Aviation Safety|archive-date =25 August 2009|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090825205700/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19550411-1|url-status =live}}</ref> Of the nineteen passengers, only three survived. <ref name="CD">{{cite news|url =http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-07/21/content_350313.htm|title =China spills Zhou Enlai secret|date =21 July 2004|access-date =18 June 2009|work =China Daily|archive-date =9 March 2009|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090309203746/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-07/21/content_350313.htm|url-status =live}}</ref> The explosion was an assassination attempt targeting Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Déjà vu from 30,000 ft|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/deep-focus/Dj-vu-from-30000-ft/articleshow/45747222.cms|work=The Times of India|date=4 January 2015|access-date=29 September 2015|archive-date=7 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607212935/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/deep-focus/Dj-vu-from-30000-ft/articleshow/45747222.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> who missed the flight either due to a medical emergency or, as one historian concluded, because he had prior knowledge. The Chinese government insisted that Hong Kong authorities investigate; they concluded that the [[Kuomintang]] were responsible for the bombing.<ref name="tsang-1994">{{cite journal|last1=Tsang|first1=Steve|date=September 1994|title=Target Zhou Enlai: The 'Kashmir Princess' Incident of 1955|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/655141|journal=China Quarterly|volume=139|issue=139|pages=766–782|doi=10.1017/S0305741000043150|jstor=655141|s2cid=154183849|access-date=8 September 2021|archive-date=8 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908224623/https://www.jstor.org/stable/655141|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Explosion==
Flight 300 departed Hong Kong at 04:25 [[GMT]] carrying Chinese and Eastern European delegates, mainly journalists, to the Afro-Asian [[Bandung Conference]] in Jakarta.<ref name="CD"/> At approximately 09:25 GMT, the crew heard an explosion; smoke quickly entered the cabin from a fire on the right wing directly behind the No. 3 (or right inboard) engine. Upon hearing the explosion and seeing the fire-warning light for the baggage compartment come on, the captain shut down the No. 3 engine and feathered its propeller, fearing it might catch fire. This left three engines running. The crew sent out three distress signals giving their position over the [[Natuna Islands]] before the radio went dead.<ref name="AS"/>

The captain tried to land the plane on the sea, but the [[depressurisation|depressurising]] cabin and failing circuits made it impossible. Additionally, smoke was seeping into the cockpit. Left with no other option, the crew issued [[life jacket]]s and opened the emergency doors to ensure a quick escape as the plane plunged into the sea below.

==Crash==
The starboard wing struck water first, tearing the plane into three parts. The aircraft maintenance engineer (ground engineer), navigator and first officer escaped and were later found by the [[Indonesian Coast Guard]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Karnik |first1=A.S. |title=Kashmir Princess |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.127556 |website=Internet Archive |publisher=Digital Library Of India |access-date=3 July 2025 |ref=Karnik}}</ref> The remaining 16 passengers and crew members, however, drowned at sea.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mendis |first=Sean |url=http://www.airwhiners.net/whine_cheez/20040726.htm |title=Air India : The story of the aircraft |work=Airwhiners.net |date=26 July 2004 |access-date=13 June 2013 |archive-date=24 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724221328/http://www.airwhiners.net/whine_cheez/20040726.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Investigators believed that the explosion had been caused by a [[Time bomb (explosive)|time bomb]] placed aboard the aircraft by a [[Kuomintang]] [[secret service|secret agent]] who was attempting to assassinate [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Chinese Premier]] [[Zhou Enlai]], who had been scheduled to board the plane to attend the conference but had changed his travel plans at the last minute.<ref name="CD"/>

== Zhou Enlai ==
The target of the assassination attempt, Zhou Enlai, had planned to fly from Beijing to Hong Kong and then on to Jakarta on the ''Kashmir Princess''. An emergency [[appendectomy]] delayed his arrival in Hong Kong;<ref name="Itoh2017">{{cite book|author=Mayumi Itoh|title=''The Making of China's Peace with Japan: What Xi Jinping Should Learn from Zhou Enlai''| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=weAqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|year=2017| publisher=Springer|isbn=978-9811040085|page=37}}</ref> he left China three days after the crash and flew to [[Rangoon]] to meet with [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and Burmese Prime Minister [[U Nu]] before continuing to Bandung to attend the conference.<ref name="CD"/>

Some historians have argued that Zhou may have known about the assassination plot beforehand and that the premier did not undergo an appendectomy at the time. [[Steve Tsang]] of [[Oxford University]] wrote in the September 1994 edition of ''[[The China Quarterly]]'', "Evidence now suggests that Zhou knew of the plot beforehand and secretly changed his travel plans, though he did not stop a decoy delegation of lesser cadres from taking his place."<ref name="tsang-1994" />

== Investigation ==
The day after the crash, China's [[Foreign Ministry]] issued a statement that described the bombing as "a murder by the special service organizations of the United States and [[Chiang Kai-shek]]",<ref name=Tsang>Steve Tsang, The Cold War's Odd Couple: The Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK (New York: IB Tauris, 2006), 181.</ref> while [[Hong Kong Governor]] Sir [[Alexander Grantham]] maintained that the plane was not tampered with in Hong Kong.

The Hong Kong authorities offered [[HK$]]100,000 for information leading to the arrest of those responsible. They questioned 71 people connected with the servicing of the Air India flight. When police began focusing on Chow Tse-ming, a janitor for Hong Kong Aircraft Engineering Co., he stowed away on a [[CIA]]-owned [[Civil Air Transport]] aircraft to Taiwan. The Hong Kong police reported that a warrant charging a murder conspiracy was issued, but the man with the name Chow Tse-ming in the warrant had flown to Taiwan on 18 May 1955, and Chow Tse-ming had three aliases.<ref>"Police Seek Chinese in Crash Case" from Daytona Beach Morning Journal, 3 September 1955</ref>

Steve Tsang collected evidence from British, Taiwanese, American, and Hong Kong archives that points directly to KMT agents operating in Hong Kong as the perpetrators of the aircraft bombing. According to him, the [[Kuomintang|KMT]] had a special operations group stationed in Hong Kong responsible for assassination and sabotage. Designated the Hong Kong Group under [[Major-General]] Kong Hoi-ping, it operated a network of 90 agents. In March 1955, the group recruited Chow for the assassination because his job at the airport gave him easy access to the Air India plane, and offered him HK$600,000 and refuge in Taiwan, if necessary.<ref name=Tsang />

A [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|Chinese Foreign Ministry]] document declassified in 2004 also indicates that the [[Kuomintang|KMT]] secret service was responsible for the bombing.<ref>{{cite news |title=外交部揭密"克什米尔公主号"周总理座机被炸案(图) |url=http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2004-07-20/07153133667s.shtml |access-date=27 March 2019 |agency=京华时报 |publisher=新华网 |date=20 July 2004 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327033802/http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2004-07-20/07153133667s.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

China had from the outset accused the United States of involvement in the bombing, but while the CIA had considered a plan to assassinate Zhou Enlai at this time,<ref>Minnick, Wendell L. "Target: Zhou Enlai", Far Eastern Economic Review, 1995-07-13, pp. 54–55.</ref> the [[Church Committee]] – a US Senate select committee that investigated the US intelligence community – reported that these plans were disapproved of and "strongly censured" by Washington.<ref>Arthur M. Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), 517.</ref> In a 1971 face-to-face meeting in the [[Great Hall of the People]] in Beijing, Zhou directly asked [[Henry Kissinger]] about US involvement in the bombing. Kissinger responded, "As I told the Prime Minister the last time, he vastly overestimates the competence of the CIA."<ref>{{citation
| volume = Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume E-13, Documents on China, 1969–1972
| series = Foreign
| title = Memorandum of conversation (Henry Kissinger, Zhou Enlai, and staff)
| date = 21 October 1971
| publisher = [[United States Department of State]]
}}</ref> However, in 1967, an American defector in Moscow, John Discoe Smith, had claimed that he had delivered a suitcase containing an explosive mechanism to a Chinese nationalist in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=John Discoe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31MMAAAAIAAJ |title=I was a CIA Agent in India |date=1967 |publisher=Communist Party of India |language=en |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412045255/https://books.google.com/books?id=31MMAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Urquhart |first=Brian |title=Hammarskjold |publisher=Knopf |year=1972 |isbn=978-0394479606 |location=New York |pages=121–122 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Indonesia, 1957–1958: War and pornography – William Blum |url=https://williamblum.org/chapters/killing-hope/indonesia |access-date=2022-12-29 |website=williamblum.org |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229211018/https://williamblum.org/chapters/killing-hope/indonesia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lewis |first=Paul |date=2002-11-08 |title=Harry Rositzke, 91, Linguist And American Spymaster |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/08/us/harry-rositzke-91-linguist-and-american-spymaster.html |access-date=2022-12-29 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229211017/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/08/us/harry-rositzke-91-linguist-and-american-spymaster.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | author = Peter Grose |date=1967-12-05 |title=U.S. Defector in Moscow Is Pictured as a Paranoid in Wife's Testimony in Florida Divorce Case; Fixed Code Machines Court Records Found |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1967/12/05/archives/us-defector-in-moscow-is-pictured-as-a-paranoid-in-wifes-testimony.html |access-date=2022-12-29 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229211018/https://www.nytimes.com/1967/12/05/archives/us-defector-in-moscow-is-pictured-as-a-paranoid-in-wifes-testimony.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In addition to the [[Kuomintang|KMT]], there were rumors of CIA involvement in this incident as well. Aside from the fact that Chow escaped to Taiwan aboard a CIA-owned aircraft, there was no evidence that the CIA was involved until a decade later, when several Americans claimed they were involved.<ref name="namebase">{{cite web
|url=https://archive.today/20130113072231/http://www.namebase.org/ppost07.html
|title=Target: Zhou Enlai
|first=Wendell L.
|last=Minnick
|date=1995-07-13
|work=[[NameBase]]
|publisher=
|archiveurl=https://archive.today/aqVXzJ
|archivedate=2013-01-13
|accessdate=2025-07-03}}</ref>

Zhou Enlai was an influential figure in Communist China, and the United States saw him as an obstacle in the [[Cold War]]. At the time, the West viewed the Bandung Conference as a gathering of communists and pro-communists that would boost the expansion of [[communism]] in Asia. The CIA believed that China planned to use the conference to boost its image as a world power. Although the CIA sent several agents posing as journalists to cover the conference, evidence suggests that some CIA officers might have taken further action.<ref name="namebase"/>

In 1966, a [[U.S. Senate]] committee investigating CIA operations heard testimony that gave murky details of a CIA plot to assassinate an "East Asian leader" attending a 1955 Asian conference. That leader's identity would remain unknown until 1977, when [[William R. Corson]], a retired U.S. Marine Corps intelligence officer who served in Asia, published ''Armies of Ignorance'' identifying that leader as Zhou Enlai.<ref name="namebase"/>

On 24 October 1967, a CIA agent [[John Discoe Smith]] defected to the [[Soviet Union]]. There, Smith recounted many of his operations in his memoirs, titled ''I Was an Agent of the CIA'', including his delivery of a mysterious bag to a KMT agent. He says that in 1955, Jack Curran, a CIA officer attached to the [[U.S. Embassy]] in [[New Delhi]], asked him to deliver a bag to Wang Feng at the [[Maidens Hotel]] in the Indian capital. Smith claimed that the bag contained the bomb used to sabotage ''Kashmir Princess''.<ref name="namebase"/>

== Commemorations ==
Captain D.K. Jatar was awarded the [[Ashoka Chakra Award|Ashok Chakra]], and stewardess Gloria Eva Berry was awarded the [[Kirti Chakra]] posthumously. First officer M.C Dixit, ground maintenance engineer Anant Karnik, and navigator J.C. Pathak were awarded the [[Shaurya Chakra]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gallantryawards.gov.in/awards|title=Gallantry awards|work=[[Government of India]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-05 |title=The death of an unknown Indian pilot, and the lost history of a CIA plot to kill a Chinese premier |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/death-unknown-indian-pilot-lost-history-cia-plot-kill-chinese-premier-8307275/ |access-date=2022-12-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=14 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214093059/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/death-unknown-indian-pilot-lost-history-cia-plot-kill-chinese-premier-8307275/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2005, the [[Xinhua News Agency]] hosted a [[Academic conference|symposium]] to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the crash; three Xinhua journalists had been among the victims.<ref name="XN">{{cite news|date=11 April 2004|title=China marks journalists killed in premier murder plot 50 years ago|work=[[Wayback Machine]]|agency=Xinhua Net|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-04/11/content_2815170.htm|access-date=2021-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050419074046/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-04/11/content_2815170.htm|archive-date=2005-04-19}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Timeline of airliner bombing attacks]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Further reading ===
* Li, Hong. "The Truth Behind the 'Kashmir Princess' Incident". In ''Selected Essays on the History of Contemporary China'', (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2015), {{doi|10.1163/9789004292673_013}}
* [http://www.airwhiners.net/whine_cheez/20040726.htm "Air India: The Story of the Aircraft"], [http://airwhiners.net Air Whiners], 2004-07-26
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050419074046/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-04/11/content_2815170.htm "China marks journalists killed in premier murder plot 50 years ago"], [[Xinhua News Agency]], 2005-04-11
* [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-07/21/content_350313.htm "China spills Zhou Enlai secret"], [[China Daily]], 2004-07-21
* Minnick, Wendell L. "[http://www.namebase.org/ppost07.html Target: Zhou Enlai]", ''[[Far Eastern Economic Review]]'', 1995-07-13, pp. 54–55. ([https://archive.today/20130113072231/http://www.namebase.org/ppost07.html Archive])

== External links ==
* {{ASN accident|id=19550411-1|type=Criminal Occurrence}}
*[https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/49740/GIPE-053164.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y Final Report]

{{Air India}}
{{Lockheed Constellation family}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in Indonesia before 2000}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 1955}}
{{Cross-Strait relations}}
{{Portal bar|Aviation|China|Taiwan|Hong Kong|India|Indonesia|1950s|Politics}}
{{authority control}}
{{coord|12|N|113|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Explosions in 1955]]
[[Category:Zhou Enlai]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1955]]
[[Category:1955 mass murders]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by Taiwan]]
[[Category:Airliner bombings]]
[[Category:Assassinations in Asia]]
[[Category:Cross-strait relations]]
[[Category:Failed assassination attempts in Asia]]
[[Category:1955 in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:1955 in China]]
[[Category:1955 murders in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Terrorist incidents in Asia in 1955]]
[[Category:Anti-communist terrorism]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents involving the Lockheed Constellation]]
[[Category:Air India accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Improvised explosive device bombings in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Hong Kong–Taiwan relations]]
[[Category:CIA activities in Asia]]
[[Category:Individual aircraft]]
[[Category:April 1955 in Asia]]
[[Category:State-sponsored terrorism]]
[[Category:1955 disasters in Indonesia]]
[[Category:20th-century mass murders in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Natuna Regency]]
[[Category:History of the South China Sea]]
[[Category:1950s in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Improvised explosive device bombings in the 1950s]]

Sanjay Upadhyay

2026-04-22T20:59:49Z

KiaGreenwald: added new details...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Borivali Assembly constituency|Borivali]]
| term_start = 2024
| term_end =
| profession = Politician
| predecessor = [[Sunil Rane]]
| birth_date = {{date of birth and age|df=y|1973|05|28}}
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}
'''Sanjay Upadhyay''' is an Indian politician from Maharashtra. He is a [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] from [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]], representing [[Borivali Assembly constituency]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Borivali Election Result 2024 LIVE: Sanjay Upadhyay of BJP wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/borivali-election-result-2024-live-leading-winner-mla-9130098.html |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-23 |title=Borivali, Maharashtra Assembly Election Results 2024 Highlights: BJP's Sanjay Upadhyay defeats SHS (UBT)'s Sanjay Waman Bhosale with 100257 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/borivali-maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-maelb-2638262-2024-11-23 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra assembly to have 78 first-time MLAs">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/maharashtra-assembly/maharashtra-assembly-to-have-78-first-time-mlas/article68926011.ece|title=Maharashtra assembly to have 78 first-time MLAs|last1=The Hindu|date=29 November 2024|accessdate=29 November 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241129133813/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/maharashtra-assembly/maharashtra-assembly-to-have-78-first-time-mlas/article68926011.ece|archivedate=29 November 2024|language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra Elections 2024: 14 candidates win by over 1 lakh votes, all from Mahayuti">{{cite news |last1=CNBCTV18 |date=23 November 2024 |title=Maharashtra Elections 2024: 14 candidates win by over 1 lakh votes, all from Mahayuti |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/politics/maharashtra-elections-2024-14-candidates-win-1-lakh-vote-margin-mahayuti-19513783.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127053121/https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/politics/maharashtra-elections-2024-14-candidates-win-1-lakh-vote-margin-mahayuti-19513783.htm |archive-date=27 November 2024 |access-date=27 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra election results: These candidates have won by biggest margins so far">{{cite news |last1=Hindustantimes |date=23 November 2024 |title=Maharashtra election results: These candidates have won by biggest margins so far |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-election-results-these-candidates-have-won-by-biggest-margins-so-far-101732376089333.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124125058/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-election-results-these-candidates-have-won-by-biggest-margins-so-far-101732376089333.html |archive-date=24 November 2024 |access-date=24 November 2024}}</ref>

==Political career==

Sanjay Upadhyay is a member of the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS), Since his Childhood a far-right Hindu nationalist paramilitary volunteer organisation.
== See also ==
* [[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra]]
* [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Upadhyay, Sanjay}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Maharashtra-BJP-politician-stub}}

Thakur Bakhtawar Singh

2026-04-21T23:42:51Z

KiaGreenwald: added a bio...

{{Infobox officeholder
| image =
| name = Bakhtawar Singh
| caption = Thakur Bakhtawar Singh
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Kolu, Malani [[Rajputana]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = [[Inspector General of Police]]
| predecessor5 =
| successor5 =
| spouse =
| children =
| year =
| source =
}}

'''Thakur Bakhtawar Singh''' (also known as IG Bakhtawar Singhji) was the Inspector General of Police of Jodhpur (1946–48) while the transition of the [[Jodhpur]] State from monarchy to democracy and Merger in the Republic of India.<ref>Thakur Bakhtawar Singh by Mahendra Singh Nagar</ref>
One of the most irrepressible officers of his time, he killed, suppressed or brought to book many dreaded dacoits during his service in the Police Department.<ref>Who's who in India and Pakistan, 1948, page 1137</ref>

==Background==
His family belonged to village Kolu in Barmer District.

==Career==
He was trained initially at Phillaur Police Training School, Punjab and posted as an Inspector of Police in then Marwar in 1912.
He was a pioneer in organising the Railway Police Branch in Jodhpur as a train used to run from [[Jodhpur]] to [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] in Sindh province.

==Honours==
He was awarded the King's Police Medal for Gallantry in 1929. In June 1946, the title of Rao Bahadur was conferred on him by Lord F.M.Wavell, Viceroy of India (1943–46).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

* ''Memoirs of Marwar Police'' by Kishan Puri
* ''Marwar Ka Itihas'' by V.N. Reu, vol. II
* ''Marwar Ka Itihas'' by Jagdish Singh Gahlot

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Thakur Bakhtawar}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Inspectors general]]
[[Category:Indian police officers]]

Amraiwadi Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:23:04Z

KiaGreenwald: Created basic info from scratch

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Gujarat State, India}}
{{incomplete list|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Amraiwadi
| mla = [[Hasmukhbhai Somabhai Patel]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| state = Gujarat
| district = [[Ahmedabad district|Ahmedabad]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Ahmedabad West Lok Sabha constituency|Ahmedabad West]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:296798}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14750-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 18 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|2}}
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 50
}}
'''Amraiwadi''' is one of the 182 assembly constituency of Gujarat. It is located in [[Ahmedabad District]]. This seat came into existence after 2008 delimitation.<ref name=gjceo>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125011107/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/PCAC.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2014 |title=Parliament / Assembly constituency wise PS & Electors Detail - Draft Roll - 2014 |access-date= 1 June 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly constituency and Their Extent |date=12 December 2006 |website=Election Commission of India |publisher=Delimitation Commission of India |pages=2–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 February 2017 }}</ref>

==List of segments==
This assembly seat represents the following segments<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |title=Gujarat: Order No. 33: Table-A: Assembly constituency and Their Extent |date=12 December 2006 |website=Election Commission of India |publisher=Delimitation Commission of India |pages=2–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 February 2017 }}</ref>

# Ahmedabad City Taluka (Part) – [[Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation]] (Part) Ward No. – 32, 33, 41

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| Patel Hasmukhbhai Somabhai<ref name=election2017/>
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|2017*
| Jagdish Patel
|-
| [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| Patel Hasmukhbhai Prahladbhai
|-
|}
*By-Poll

==Election results==
===2022===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Assembly Election, 2022]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 January 2023 |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2022|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14750-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2022/|website=Election Commission of India}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dr. Hasmukh Patel
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 93,994
|percentage = 58.98
|change = +8.74
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dharmendra Shantilal Patel (Dhambhai)
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 50,722
|percentage = 31.83
|change = -13.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Vinay Nandlal Gupta
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|votes = 7,787
|percentage = 4.89
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate = Rathod Yalpeshkumar Pravinbhai
|party =Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes. =1529
|percentage =0.96
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Bhatt Sunilkumar Narendrabhai
|party = Right to Recall Party
|votes = 68
|percentage = 0.04
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes =
|percentage = 27.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 159361
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|loser =
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2019 Bypoll ===
{{Election box begin | title=By-election, 2019: Amraiwadi}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate =Jagdish Ishwarbhai Patel
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 48,657
|percentage = 50.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dharmendra Shantilal Patel
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 43,129
|percentage = 44.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Tarunkumar Jivanbhai Parmer
|party = Bahujan Mukti Party
|votes =1,407
|percentage = 1.45
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Desai Natvarbhai Tokarbhai |party = Communist Party of India
|votes =1,224
|percentage = 1.26
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 5,528
|percentage = 5.71
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 96,864
|percentage =34.67
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|Gujarat Legislative Assembly Election, 2017]]: Amraiwadi<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3841-gujarat-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Gujarat General Legislative Election 2017 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date= 11 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Patel Hasmukhbhai Somabhai
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Amraiwadi]]}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2012 to the Legislative Assembly of Gujarat |access-date=9 June 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126215052/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Detail_Report_AC2012.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Hasmukh Patel
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 1,08,683
|percentage = 67.36
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Bipinbhai Gadhvi
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 43,258
|percentage = 26.81
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 65,425
|percentage = 40.55
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,61,348
|percentage = 66.25
|change =
}}
{{Election box new seat win|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Gujarat Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/72-gujarat/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Gujarat}}
{{coord|23|72.63|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Ahmedabad district]]
[[Category:Politics of Gujarat]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

1997 ethnic violence and displacement of Bru-Reang

2026-04-19T16:30:03Z

KiaGreenwald: Created the post more to come

{{Short description|Ethnic violence and displacement of Bru/Reang community from Mizoram in 1997}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = 1997 ethnic violence and displacement of Bru Reang
| partof = Ethnic conflict in Northeast India
| date = October 1997
| place = Mizoram (Mamit, Kolasib, and Lunglei districts); displacement to Tripura
| status = ~35,000–40,000 displaced; partial repatriation and later permanent resettlement in Tripura
| combatant1 = Mizo civil society groups (alleged)
| combatant2 = Bru / Reang community
| commander2 = Bru National Liberation Front (BNLF)
}}
'''1997 Bru-Reang ethnic violence and displacement''' refers to a period of ethnic violence in the Indian [[Mizoram]] during October 1997, which resulted in the mass displacement of approximately 35,000–40,000 members of the Bru ([[Reang]]) tribe to refugee camps in [[Tripura|North Tripura]].<ref name="eurasia">{{Cite web |date=27 September 2016 |title=India: Brus Still Delayed Homecoming – Analysis |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/27092016-india-brus-still-delayed-homecoming-analysis/ |access-date=18 July 2025 |work=Eurasia Review}}</ref>

==Background==
The Bru or Reang people are an indigenous tribal community primarily inhabiting Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, and Manipur.<ref name="eurasia"/> They are classified as a Scheduled Tribe in India. Traditionally, a significant portion of the Bru community followed animist or Hindu-influenced indigenous practices, worshipping deities such as Tuibuma and Mailoma.<ref name="scroll17">{{Cite web |date=21 April 2017 |title=Will the Brus of Mizoram ever get to return to their homeland? |url=https://scroll.in/article/833481/will-the-brus-of-mizoram-ever-get-to-return-to-their-homeland |access-date=18 July 2025 |work=Scroll}}</ref> The Bru-Reang people historically inhabited north and central Tripura , the Mizo districts of [[Aizawl]], [[Lunglei]] and [[Chhimtuipui]], [[Rangamati]] in Bangladesh and [[Karimganj]] in Assam.{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}}

Historically, the Brus were both minorities in Mizoram and Tripura and thus underdeveloped and marginalized. Sadhan Sengupta of the [[archaeological Survey of India]] visited the Bru dominated areas between 1982-1984 and discovered that there was a complete lack of tube wells or passable roads and a lack of effective funding for rural development. With this reason, the Bru further claimed that as a minority population they were neglected in government jobs, education and community development policies. Furthermore, the Bru lacked political representation. Despite a significant population in Mizoram the Bru never won a single representative in the state [[government of Mizoram]]. Reforms and changes to the Bru's political opportunities were introduced in the 1980s regarding education. In 1989, the [[Reang People's Union]] (RPU) was formed by three Bru leaders, Sawibunga, Lalringthanga and Ramawia.{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}}

The RPU submitted a memorandum to the Mizorfam government demanding inclusion of Kau Bru programming on the state radio network, reservation of jobs for the Brus in state government and nomination of a Bru to the legislative assembly. The RPU transitioned into the Bru Socio-Cultural ORganisation in 1990 and formed the Reang Democratic Convetnion Party. The Reang Democratic COnvention Party was made for the preservation of Bru culture and language and coordinated along the Tripura Bru organisations into a common ethnic name "Bru".{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}}

The Reang Democratic Convention Party failed in contesting district and state elections despite supporting the [[Indian National Congress]]. Congress instead ignored Bru demands for an autonomous district council and this led the RDCP to align with the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] which would be in vain as they would still lack political representation. In 1994, the [[Bru National Union]] (BNU) was formed which led to widespreadprotests against the exclusion of Bru citizens from electoral rolls.

The BNU demanded for the creation of an autonomous district council to protect and preserve the cultural identity of the Brus and a demand of three reserved seats in the [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly]].{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}} This demand was opposed by Mizo civil society organisations, including the [[Young Mizo Association]] and [[Mizo Zirlai Pawl]], who asserted that the Bru were not indigenous to Mizoram and should be excluded from state electoral rolls.<ref name="eurasia"/>

Religion also played a significant role in the escalation of tensions. While over 90% of Mizoram's population are Christian, many Brus continued to practice [[Hinduism in Mizoram|Hindu or traditional animist beliefs]]. Some Bru leaders claimed they faced discrimination or pressure to convert, particularly from missionary schools.<ref name="hindu2018">{{Cite news |date=15 December 2018 |title=Ground Zero: Being Bru in Mizoram |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ground-zero-being-bru-in-mizoram/article25746175.ece |access-date=18 July 2025 |newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref><ref name="scroll17"/> About 70% of the Bru-Reang people are Hindu and the remaining are Christians.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2024-12-22 |title=More than 37,500 Bru tribal refugees rehabilitated in Tripura: Union Home Ministry |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tripura/more-than-37500-bru-tribal-refugees-rehabilitated-in-tripura-union-home-ministry/article69015259.ece |access-date=2025-07-18 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In January 2017, a Tripura-based group, the '''Bru Hindu Joint Coordination Committee (BHJCC)''', petitioned the Union Home Ministry to safeguard the community’s Hindu or indigenous faith while repatriation talks were underway.<ref name="hindu2018"/><ref name="scroll17"/>

==Events==
Tensions arose when the Mizoram government declared an area of the [[Dampa Forest]], a historical Bru area, to be the location of the state's tiger sanctuary. This led to protests from the BNU as it would result in uncompensated displacement of the inhabitants. As a result, Bru youth took up arms and forced the [[Bru National Liberation Front]] (BNLF).{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}} In September 1997, the BNU passed a resolution demanding an autonomous district council in Mizoram under the sixth schedule. This led to the [[Mizo Zirlai Pawl]] (MZP) to oppose the political demands of the BNU and reported to have stated that:{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=87}}

{{Blockquote|text=if the Reangs want to divide or disintegrate Mizoram further, it would be better that they go away. The resolution demanding Autonomous District Council (ADC) could not be accepted by MZP. If the Reangs go ahead with their plan, the MZP was ready to fight against such a demand. Mizoram is the only land the Mizos have, and it could not be lost to foreigners or other communities.||author=MZP|source=Conflicts in the Northeast: Internal and External Effects{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=87}}}}

On 21 October 1997, militants associated with the BNLF killed a Mizo forest guard in Mizoram’s [[Mamit district]], triggering retaliatory violence.<ref name="eurasia"/> Mizo groups reportedly torched Bru villages in [[Mamit district|Mamit]], [[Kolasib district|Kolasib]], and [[Lunglei district|Lunglei]] districts. Bru sources claimed that around 1,391 houses in 41 villages were burned, while official estimates put the number at 325 houses in 16 villages. Allegations of killings and sexual violence were also raised, though unconfirmed by state authorities.<ref name="eurasia"/> Crops were also destroyed and sexual assault of Bru women occurred during the violence retaliated by Mizos. In response to ethnic cleansing, 40000 Brus fled as refugees to Tripura and [[Hailakandi]] in Assam.{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}}

==Displacement and camp conditions==
Following the violence, approximately 35,000–40,000 Bru individuals fled to [[North Tripura district|North Tripura]] and were settled in six relief camps: Asapara, Naisingpara, Hazacherra, Kaskau, Khakchangpara, and Hamsapara.<ref name="eurasia"/> The camps were understaffed and lacked resources such as food, medicine and adequate shelter, leading to deaths of the refugees. The most egregious deaths were mass outbreaks of Malaria and diarrhoea, which claimed hundreds of Brus.{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}} The lack of water infrastructure in the camps meant that potable water like streams and wells dry up before the monsoon. Children were made to claim down 2-3km pits to collect waters and trek uphills.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=88}}

Official rations are allot adults with 600g of rice and {{currency|5|INR}} a day. Minors get half of this amount. Clothes for refugees are distributed to everyone once a year. The refugees collect wild potatoes, different types of fruits and edible forest stems to satisfy food resource strains. Sanitation is poor in the camps with no bathroom or toilets. Refugees bathe in rivulets and use the forest for ablutions.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=88}}

The camps have seen a baby boom but without any schools, the state government engaged 72 teachers in the refugee camps at a rate of {{currency|1000|INR}} a month, but without school buildings the teaching efforts have been ineffective. The President of the [[Bru Displaced Peoples Forum]], Elvis Chorkhy, states that all refugee individuals except newborns possess citizenship certificates, bankbook and birth certificates of belonging to Mizoram.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=88}}

A 2018 survey by the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights and the Quality Council of India noted widespread malnutrition, early marriage, and substance abuse among camp youth.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=15 July 2018 |title='Bru families in Tripura camps living without basic facilities for last 21 years' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/7000-children-among-32875-bru-people-displaced-from-their-mizoram/articleshow/64991481.cms |access-date=18 July 2025 |newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=10 December 2018 |title=Bru community: Mizoram's tribals who fled to Tripura 21 years ago over ethnic strife |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/bru-community-mizorams-tribals-who-fled-to-tripura-21-years-ago-over-ethnic-strife-5730821.html |access-date=18 July 2025 |newspaper=Firstpost}}</ref>

==Rehabilitation and resettlement==
Peace talks were held with the BNLF and the Mizoram government on September 7 2001 and finalized on 26 April 2005 where the BNLF laid down its arms in return for amnesty and reptariation. The agreement further saw the change of the term Reang to Bru in the listing of scheduled tribes, immediate placement of returning refugees on the electoral rolls and fast development of Bru areas of western Mizoram. Mizo youth groups such as the [[Mizo Zirlai Pawl]] (MZP) and [[Young Mizo Association]] (YMA) have objected to the repatriation of all Brus in refugee camps. The argument is made that they should only be reptariated if they were registered in the 1995 voter's list. However, the Bru argue that the disenfranchisement of Brus in the 1990s makes this more difficult to achieve.{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}}

Mizo leaders such as [[Lalthanhawla]] have argued the Brus are not native to Mizoram and only migrated a few decades ago and hence lack the right for political demands.{{sfn|Pereira|Kashyap|2023|loc=Chapter Seven}}
Between 2009 and 2019, several repatriation efforts were initiated, resulting in around 5,407 families returning to Mizoram. However, most camp residents declined to return, citing inadequate assurances for safety, livelihood, and cultural respect.<ref name="eurasia"/><ref name="scroll17"/> Chorkhy on behalf of the BDPF argues that the Brus should be granted a tribal council similar to the [[Chakma people|Chakma]], [[Lai people|Lai]] and [[Mara people|Mara]].{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=89}} Repatriation agreements were signed on 31 April 2009 between the then Chief Minister [[Lalthanhawla]] and the Mizo Bru Displaced People's Forum. Chorkhy however claims that the names of Brus were struck off the electoral lists in the assembly election of May 2009 to further discredit their settlement in Mizoram. The initiative eventually stalled in November 2009.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=89}}

On 16 January 2020, a quadripartite agreement was signed among the [[Government of India]], Government of Tripura, Government of Mizoram, and Bru leaders. This agreement provided for permanent resettlement of over 30,000 displaced Brus in Tripura, along with land, financial assistance, and citizenship documentation.<ref name=":0" />

==Impact and ongoing issues==
The protracted displacement led to severe developmental challenges, identity insecurity, and social marginalisation of the Bru community. Reports in 2024 indicated persistent struggles in rehabilitation colonies, including education gaps, mental health stress, and lack of political integration.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1998-05-02 |title=Outlook India - India's Best Magazine{{!}} Find Latest News, Top Headlines, Live Updates |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/exodus-to-despair-news-205509 |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=Outlook India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

==See also==
* [[Reang|Bru people]]

==External links==
* [https://www.eurasiareview.com/27092016-india-brus-still-delayed-homecoming-analysis/ India: Brus Still Delayed Homecoming – Eurasia Review]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Das|editor-first1=Amiya Kumar|editor-last2=Kikhi|editor-first2=Kedilezo|editor-last3=Dutta|editor-first3=Piyashi|last1=Pereira |first1=Melvil|last2=Kashyap|first2=Furzee |date=16 June 2023 |title=Indigeneity, Citizenship and the State: Perspectives from India's Northeast |url=https://www.google.co.nz/books/edition/Indigeneity_Citizenship_and_the_State/f-C3EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |location=New York |publisher=Routeledge|isbn=9781003406259|chapter=Land as Foundation of Identity: The Case of the Brus in Mizoram |access-date=19 July 2025}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Hazarika|editor-first1=Sanjoy|editor-last2=Raghavan|editor-first2=V.R.|last=Bhattacharya|first=Udayon |date=2011 |title=Conflicts in the Northeast: Internal and External Effects |url=https://www.google.co.nz/books/edition/Conflicts_in_the_Northeast/wgCqCQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |location=New Delhi |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd |access-date=19 July 2025|chapter=Ramifications of Conflicts in Tripura and Mizoram}}

[[Category:Ethnic riots]]
[[Category:1990s in Mizoram]]
[[Category:Refugees in India]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence in Asia]]
[[Category:1997 riots]]
[[Category:1997 in India]]

Cooch Behar West Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:39:25Z

KiaGreenwald: Created The Info W/ Refs

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Cooch Behar West
| type = SLA
| region =
| state = West Bengal
| district = [[Cooch Behar district|Cooch Behar]]
| division =
| loksabha_cons =
| constituency_no =
| established = 1967
| reservation =
| abolished = 2011
}}
'''Cooch Behar West''' was an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Cooch Behar district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
| colspan="3" |'''''Cooch Behar West'''''
|-
|[[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]||Prasenjit Barman||Indian National Congress<ref name="vidhansabha1967">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1967, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20report%20WB1967.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|[[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969]]||Prasenjit Barman||Indian National Congress<ref name="vidhansabha1969">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1969, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1969/StatReport_WB_69.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|1971||Rajani Das||Indian National Congress<ref name="vidhansabha1971">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1971, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_WB_71.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|1972||Rajani Das||Indian National Congress<ref name="vidhansabha1972">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1972, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_WB_72.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|1977||Bimal Kanti Basu||Forward Bloc<ref name="vidhansabha1977">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1977, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportWestBengal77.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|1982||Bimal Kanti Basu||Forward Bloc<ref name="vidhansabha1982">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1982, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1982/StatisticalReportWestBengal82.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|1987||Bimal Kanti Basu||Forward Bloc<ref name="vidhansabha1987">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1987, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReportWestBengal87.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|1991||Soumindra Chandra Das||Forward Bloc<ref name="vidhansabha1991">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1991, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|1996||Soumindra Chandra Das||Forward Bloc<ref name="vidhansabha1996">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 1996, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-WB96.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|[[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]||Akshay Thakur||Forward Bloc<ref name="vidhansabha2001">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 2001, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/StatRept_WB_2001.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|-
|[[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]||Akshay Thakur||Forward Bloc<ref name="vidhansabha2006">{{cite web |title=General Elections, India, 2006, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_WB_2006.pdf |access-date=18 June 2014 |work=Constituency-wise Data |publisher=Election Commission}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Cooch Behar district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]

Chevella Lok Sabha constituency

2026-04-15T10:52:05Z

KiaGreenwald: Created First Post W/ Sources

{{Short description|Lok Sabha Constituency in Telangana}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Chevella
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Andhra Pradesh/Chevella.map}}
| map_caption = Chevella Lok Sabha constituency in Telangana
| established = 2008
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| mp = [[Konda Vishweshwar Reddy]]
| reservation = None
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general elections|2024]]
| state = [[Telangana]]
| electors = 2,443,112<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140702210941/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/GE2014/PC_WISE_TURNOUT.htm Parliamentary Constituency wise Turnout for General Election - 2014"]</ref>
| assembly_cons = [[Maheshwaram Assembly constituency|Maheswaram]] [[Rajendranagar Assembly constituency|Rajendranagar]] [[Serilingampally Assembly constituency|Serilingampally]] [[Chevella Assembly constituency|Chevella]] [[Pargi Assembly constituency|Pargi]] [[Vikarabad Assembly constituency|Vikarabad]] [[Tandur Assembly constituency|Tandur]]
}}

'''Chevella Lok Sabha constituency''' or Chevella is one of the 17 [[Lok Sabha]] of Telangana State.(Lower House of the Parliament) constituencies in [[Telangana]] state in southern [[India]].<ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|page=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/582-candidates-in-fray-in-Hyderabad-Ranga-Reddy-districts/articleshow/33676445.cms|title=582 candidates in fray in Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy districts - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

[[Konda Vishweshwar Reddy]] of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] is currently representing the constituency for the second time.

==History==
The constituency came into existence in 2008, following the implementation of [[Electoral boundary delimitation|delimitation]] of parliamentary constituencies based on the recommendations of the [[Delimitation Commission of India]] constituted in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/battle-of-four-equals-in-unequal-chevella/|title=Battle of four equals in unequal Chevella|date=25 April 2014|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140427/nation-politics/article/elections-2014-chevella-witness-triangular-contest|title=Elections 2014: Chevella to witness triangular contest|first=m roushan|last=ali|date=27 April 2014|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>

==Assembly segments==
Chevella Lok Sabha constituency comprises the following [[Telangana Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] segments:<ref name="ceo"/>

{|class="wikitable"
!No
!Name
!District
!Member
!colspan=2 |Party
!colspan=2 |Leading {{small|(in 2024)}}
|-
|50
|[[Maheshwaram Assembly constituency|Maheswaram]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Ranga Reddy district|Ranga Reddy]]
|[[Sabitha Indra Reddy]]
|{{party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi|rowspan=4}}
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
|51
|[[Rajendranagar Assembly constituency|Rajendranagar]]
|[[T. Prakash Goud]]
|-
|52
|[[Serilingampally Assembly constituency|Serilingampally]]
|[[Arekapudi Gandhi]]
|-
|53
|[[Chevella Assembly constituency|Chevella]] (SC)
|[[Kale Yadaiah]]
|-
|54
|[[Pargi Assembly constituency|Pargi]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Vikarabad district|Vikarabad]]
|[[T. Ram Mohan Reddy]]
|{{party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|55
|[[Vikarabad Assembly constituency|Vikarabad]] (SC)
|[[Gaddam Prasad Kumar]]
|{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|56
|[[Tandur Assembly constituency|Tandur]]
|[[B. Manohar Reddy]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|}

==Members of Parliament==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
! colspan=4| [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|-
| [[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
| [[Sudini Jaipal Reddy]]
| {{full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
! colspan=4| [[Telangana]]
|-
| [[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
| [[Konda Vishweshwar Reddy]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharat Rashtra Samiti]]
|-
| [[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
| [[G. Ranjith Reddy]]
|-
| [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| [[Konda Vishweshwar Reddy]]
| {{full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==
===2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general election]]: [[Chevella]]<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Chevella">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Chevella |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2910.htm |access-date=30 July 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730035649/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2910.htm |archive-date=30 July 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Konda Vishweshwar Reddy]]|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes= 809,882|percentage= 48.34|change={{up}}34.81}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[G. Ranjith Reddy]]|party=Indian National Congress|votes= 636,985|percentage=38.02 |change={{down}}1.48}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Kasani Gnaneshwar Mudiraj ]]|party=Bharat Rashtra Samithi|votes= 178,968|percentage= 10.68 |change={{down}}29.94}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the above]]|votes= 6,423|percentage= 0.38|change={{down}}0.33}}
{{Election box majority||votes= 172,897|percentage=10.32|change={{up}}9.20}}
{{Election box turnout||votes= 1,675,354 |percentage=56.40|change={{up}}3.15}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| loser = Bharat Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Chevella]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
|candidate = [[G. Ranjith Reddy]]
|votes = 528,148
|percentage = 40.62
|change = {{up}}7.56
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Konda Vishweshwar Reddy]]
|votes = 513,831
|percentage = 39.50
|change = {{up}}11.99
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = B. Janardhan Reddy
|votes = 201,960
|percentage = 15.53
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 9,244
|percentage = 0.71
|change = {{down}}0.05
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 14,317
|percentage = 1.12
|change = {{down}}4.43
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 1,300,998
|percentage = 53.25
|change = {{down}}7.26
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing = {{up}}7.56
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election, 2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Chevella]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/telangana/parliamentary-constituencies/chelvella.html|title=Chelvella(Telangana) Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 with Sitting MP and Party Name|website=www.elections.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
|candidate = [[Konda Vishweshwar Reddy]]<ref name="mathrubhumi.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/news/india/chevella-mp-vishweshwar-reddy-quits-from-telangana-1.3328099|title=തിരഞ്ഞെടുപ്പിന് ദിവസങ്ങള്‍ മാത്രം; ടിആര്‍എസ് എംപി കോണ്‍ഗ്രസിലേക്ക്|website=Mathrubhumi}}</ref>
|votes = 435,077
|percentage = 33.06
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Patlolla Kartik Reddy
|votes = 362,054
|percentage = 27.51
|change = {{down}}11.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Tulla Veerender Goud
|votes = 353,203
|percentage = 26.84
|change = {{down}}10.24
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = Konda Raghava Reddy
|votes = 40,135
|percentage = 3.04
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 10,018
|percentage = 0.76
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 73,023
| percentage = 5.55
| change = {{up}}3.85
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,322,312
| percentage = 60.51
| change = {{down}}0.53
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = {{up}}27.42
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election, 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Chevella]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Jaipal Reddy]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |title=General Elections, 2009 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2014-05-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811090059/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref>
| votes = 420,807
| percentage = 38.78
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = [[A. P. Jithender Reddy]]
| votes = 402,275
| percentage = 37.08
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Baddam Bal Reddy
| votes = 112,701
| percentage = 10.39
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
| party = PPoI
| candidate = Kumari Giri
| votes = 37,076
| percentage = 3.42
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Lok Satta Party
| candidate = Dr. B. Raghuveer Reddy
| votes = 35,660
| percentage = 3.28
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
| party = MANP
| candidate = [[Kasani Gnaneshwar Mudiraj]]
| votes = 19,996
| percentage = 1.84
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 18,532
| percentage = 1.70
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,085,000
| percentage = 64.52
| change =
}}
{{Election box new seat win
| winner = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==Trivia==
*[[Jaipal Reddy]], former Union Minister represented the constituency when it came into existence in 2008.
*The constituency includes suburb areas like [[Madhapur]], [[Gachibowli]], [[Kondapur, Ranga Reddy|Kondapur]], [[Miyapur]].

==See also==
* [[Rangareddy district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.indiaelections2014.info/parliament/2019/states/telangana/chevella/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_dates.html Chevella lok sabha constituency election 2019 date and schedule]

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Telangana}}

{{coord|17.3|78.1|display=title}}

[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Telangana]]
[[Category:Ranga Reddy district]]

Dausa Junction

2026-04-15T04:56:28Z

KiaGreenwald: Created Initial Stub Needs Work

{{Short description|Railway Station in Rajasthan, India}}
{{multiple issues|
{{citation style|date=January 2019}}
{{independent sources|date=January 2019}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2011}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Dausa Junction railway station
| type = [[Indian Railways]] station
| Award = Zero plus
| style = Indian Railways
| image = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|80px]]
| image_caption =
| address = Shiv Shakti Nagar, [[Dausa]], [[Rajasthan]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coord|26.8999450|76.3303484|type:railwaystation_region:IN|format=dms|display=inline}}
| map_type = Rajasthan
| map_size = 300
| line = [[Delhi–Ahmedabad Main Line]], [[Dausa–Gangapur City Railway Line]]
| other = Auto stand
| elevation = {{convert|334|m|ft}}
| structure = Standard (on-ground station)
| platform = 2
| depth =
| levels =
| tracks = 4 [[broad gauge]]
| parking = Available
| bicycle =
| opened =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = Yes
| accessible = {{Access icon|20px}} Available
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = DO
| zone = [[North Western Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Jaipur}}
}}
| status = Functioning
| operator = [[Jaipur railway division]]
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = 
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-caption = Interactive map
| mapframe-custom = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-align=center|frame-width=300|frame-height=180|zoom=13|type=point|marker=rail}}
}}
'''Dausa Junction''' is a railway station in [[Dausa]], [[Dausa district]], in the state of Rajasthan, India.

It is located {{convert|60|km|mi}} from [[Jaipur railway station]]. It is administered by the [[Jaipur railway division|Jaipur Railway Division]] of the [[North Western Railway zone]] of [[Indian Railways]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nwr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,304,380,552
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918030521/http://www.nwr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C1%2C304%2C380%2C552
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=18 September 2011
|title=RPF Posts – Location of RPF Posts and Outposts over NWR
|publisher=North Western Railway
|access-date=18 September 2011
}}</ref>

The main lines passing through Dausa is Delhi–Ahmedabad line via Ajmer (electric double broad-gauge line).

== Named trains ==
Named trains that stop at Dausa railway station include

* Code: DO
*[[Mandor Express]]
*Pooja Express
*[[Ashram Express]]
*Ajmer–Agra Fort Express
* [[Ala Hazrat Express (via Bhildi)|Ala]]

A computerized announcement system has been provided at the station.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nwr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,291,360,484
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531010206/http://www.nwr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C1%2C291%2C360%2C484
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=31 May 2011
|title=Signal & Telecommunication
|publisher=North Western Railway
|access-date=18 September 2011
}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite web
|url=http://www.nwr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,2,282
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103140411/http://www.nwr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C2%2C282
|url-status=dead
|archive-date= 3 January 2011
|title=Locations of UTS facility over NWR
|publisher=North Western Railway
|access-date=18 September 2011
}}
*{{cite web
|url=http://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/362
|title=Dausa/DO Railway Station
|publisher=India Rail Info
|access-date=18 September 2011}}

{{Railway stations in Rajasthan}}

{{coord|26.9005|76.3304|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Dausa district]]
[[Category:Jaipur railway division]]

{{Rajasthan-railstation-stub}}

Garautha Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:48:36Z

KiaGreenwald: Created Basic Post Basic Info

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Garautha
| map_image = 225-Garautha.svg
| mla = [[Jawahar Lal Rajput]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janta Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Jhansi district|Jhansi]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 3,52,776 (2022)
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 225
}}
'''Garautha''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] covering the city of Garautha in the [[Jhansi district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>

Garautha is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Jalaun Lok Sabha constituency]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 225 amongst 403 constituencies.

Currently this seat belongs to [[Bharatiya Janta Party]] candidate '''Jawahar Lal Rajpoot''' who won in last Assembly election of [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections]] defeating [[Samajwadi Party]] candidate '''Deep Narayan Singh (Deepak Yadav)''' by a margin of 33,662 votes.

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Garautha Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/garautha.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1957 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Lachman Rao Kadam
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1962 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Kashi Prasad Dwivedi
|-
|[[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Kanhaiya Lal
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]]
|-
|[[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|[[Atmaram Govind Kher]]
| rowspan="4" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="4" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Ranjeet Singh Judeo]]
|-
|[[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|-
|[[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|-
|[[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|[[Kunwar Manvendra Singh]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Ranjeet Singh Judeo]]
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
|[[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|-
|[[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|[[Chandrapal Singh Yadav|Chandrapal Yadav]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|Brijendra Kumar Vyas
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|-
|[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Deep Narayan Singh Yadav|Deep Narayan Yadav]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Jawahar Lal Rajput]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Garautha<ref name="election2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-25 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Legislative Election 2022|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/|website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = Jawahar Lal Rajput
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:114059}}
|percentage = 48.34
|change = +7.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Deep Narayan Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:80397}}
|percentage = 34.07
|change = +0.18
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Bira Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:29333}}
|percentage = 12.43
|change = -8.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Neha
|votes = {{formatnum:3303}}
|percentage = 1.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2767}}
|percentage = 1.17
|change = +0.0
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:33662}}
|percentage = 14.27
|change = +7.35
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:235972}}
|percentage = 67.06
|change = -0.49
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Garautha<ref name="election2017">{{cite web |date=2018-08-16 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Legislative Election 2017|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3471-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = Jawahar Lal Rajpoot
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:93378}}
|percentage = 40.81
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Deep Narayan Singh (Deepak Yadav)
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = {{formatnum:77547}}
|percentage = 33.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Dr. Arun Kumar Mishra
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:48387}}
|percentage = 21.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2645}}
|percentage = 1.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:15831}}
|percentage = 6.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:228787}}
|percentage = 67.55
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{coord|25.57|79.30|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Jhansi district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1956]]
[[Category:1956 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]

Mandangad Dapoli Assembly constituency

2026-04-09T18:24:13Z

KiaGreenwald: Starting a details

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Mandangad Dapoli
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1951 <ref name="delimitation1951">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3968-dpaco-1951/ |title=DPACO (1951) - Archive Delimitation Orders - Election Commission of India |access-date= 9 December 2020 |pages=344-357}}</ref>
| abolished = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| electors =
| mla =
| party =
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year =
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation = None
}}
Mandangad Dapoli Assembly constituency was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]].
==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Peje Shantaram Laxman || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Mandangad Dapoli <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Peje Shantaram Laxman |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 9,764 |percentage = 45.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Parkar Mohmad Abdulla Mulla Ahmed |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 4,714 |percentage = 22.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Relekar Prabhakar Ganpat |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,619 |percentage = 16.91% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Belose Ram Chandra Laxman |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,137 |percentage = 9.99% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Agarkar Achuyat Jagannath |party = Independent politician |votes = 631 |percentage = 2.95% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sule Satyaniwas Ganesh |party = Independent politician |votes = 534 |percentage = 2.50% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,050 |percentage = 23.60% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 21,399 |percentage = 40.24% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 21,399}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 53,175 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]][[Constituencies established in 1951]]
{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Knanaya Region

2026-04-09T02:50:51Z

KiaGreenwald: Entry - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}

{{Infobox diocese
| jurisdiction = Knanaya Catholic Region
| name = St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago
| latin =
| local =
| image = Region Esablishment.jpg
| image_size = frameless
| image_alt =
| caption = Bishop Mar Jacob Angadiath handing over to the first Knanaya Region director Fr. Abraham Mutholath the decree establishing the Knanaya Region

| country = {{flag|USA}}
| metropolitan =
| territory = [[United States]]
| province = Knanaya Catholic Region
| coordinates =

| area_km2 =
| population =
| population_as_of =
| catholics =
| catholics_percent =
| parishes = 7 missions
| churches = 15 
| congregations = 4 convents 
| schools = 
| members = 

| denomination = [[Eastern Catholic]]
| rite = [[Syro-Malabar]]
| established = 28 April 2006
| cathedral =
| cocathedral =
| patron =
| priests = 19 
| parent_church =
| pope = {{Incumbent pope}}
| patriarch =
| major_archbishop = Mar [[Raphael Thattil]]
| bishop = Mar [[Joy Alappatt]]
| bishop_title = Bishop
| metro_archbishop = 
| coadjutor =
| suffragans = 
| auxiliary_bishops =
| apostolic_admin =
| vicar_general = Fr. Thomas Mulavanal
| episcopal_vicar =
| judicial_vicar =
| dean =
| archdeacons =
| emeritus_bishops =
Mar [[Jacob Angadiath]]
| map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =

| website = [http://www.knanayaregion.us/ www.knanayaregion.us] [http://www.knanayaregion.org/ www.knanayaregion.org]
| footnotes =
}}

[[Knanaya]] Region is a subdivision of the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Eparchy of St. Thomas of Chicago|St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago]]. This region was officially established by Mar [[Jacob Angadiath]], the bishop of the diocese on 30 April 2006. On that day, the bishop appointed Fr. Abraham Mutholath, the then [[Vicar general|Vicar General]] for Knanaya Community, as the first director of the '''Knanaya Region'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://knanayaregion.us/history.html|title=HISTORY OF KNANAYA REGION|website=knanayaregion.us|access-date=25 July 2021|archive-date=22 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622155446/https://knanayaregion.us/history.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The purpose of this region is to coordinate all the pastoral activities of the diocese under the leadership of Knanaya Region director who is also one of the Vicar Generals of the diocese.

According to the decree of the Bishop, all Knanaya Catholic parishes, Knanaya missions, and all the Knanaya Catholic faithful who live in the USA outside the proper territory of an established Knanaya Catholic parish or mission will come under this region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://knanayaregion.us/index.html|title=KNANAYA CATHOLIC REGION. St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic DIocese of Chicago.|website=knanayaregion.us|access-date=25 July 2021|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725170239/https://knanayaregion.us/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This is a personal jurisdiction style followed in the Syro-Malabar Church in India where the Archbishop of Kottayam has personal jurisdiction over all the Knanaya Catholics within the juridical boundary of the Syro-Malabar Church.

The Knanaya Catholic Region has five [[Parish#Territorial structure|forane parishes]], 15 parishes, seven missions, and four convents.

==History==

[[Knanaya Catholics]] from the Archdiocese of [[Kottayam]], [[Kerala]] began to migrate to the United States in the 1950s. They came mainly for education and later for job opportunities. However, they eventually settled in this country and brought their family also to the [[United States]]. When they came to this foreign land, they missed their [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church|Syro-Malabar]] [[Malayalam]] [[Qurbana]] and wanted to arrange it for prayer followed by a social gathering. They arranged such [[Holy Mass]] whenever they could get a Syro-Malabar priest who came either for studies or for work in American parishes.

The Knanaya Catholics in [[Chicago]] organized and appealed to the Bishop of Kottayam Mar [[Kuriakose Kunnacherry]] on 17 January 1981 to send a priest to meet their pastoral needs in the Syro-Malabar Rite. Since the Bishop of Kottayam has no ecclesiastical jurisdiction outside the proper territory of the Syro-Malabar Church in Kerala, he wrote a letter to Cardinal [[John Cody]], the Archbishop of Chicago, on 18 March 1981, seeking his help to establish a special ministry for Knanaya Catholics in Chicago. Because of some confusion the cardinal postponed his decision.

When [[Joseph Bernardin]] became the new Archbishop of Chicago, Bishop Mar [[Kuriakose Kunnacherry]] wrote to him asking to reconsider the former request to start a special ministry for Knanaya Catholics in Chicago. At the direction of the Archbishop of Chicago, his chancellor convened a meeting of the Knanaya Associations on 27 September 1983, and decided to start the proposed ministry. Bishop Mar [[Kuriakose Kunnacherry]] sent Fr. Jacob Chollampel from the diocese of Kottayam in October 1983 to serve the newly constituted ministry.<ref>Mutholath, Msgr. Abraham & George Thottapuram, "Origin and Growth of Knanaya Region in North America," Silver Jubilee Souvenir, Missionary Society of St. Pius X, January 2011, page 52.</ref>

Following the example of Knanaya Catholics in Chicago, the Knanaya Catholic migrants in the other cities of the United States also applied to their local Latin bishops to start Knanaya Catholic missions for them. Bishop Kunnacherry also recommended for the same and sent priests from the Diocese of Kottayam to serve the Knanaya Catholic Missions established by the Latin bishops. Thus the Latin Catholic dioceses in the United States established nine Knanaya Catholic missions before the establishment of the St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago in 2001. They are Chicago (1983), Brooklyn, NY (1993), Westchester and Bronx, NY (1993), Houston (1994), Dallas (1996), [[Newark, New Jersey]] (1996), Rockland, NY (1996), Philadelphia (1999), and San Jose (2000).
[[File:Fr abraham mutholath.jpg|thumb|First Vicar General and Region Director of Knanaya Region from 2001 to 2014.]]
When Pope [[John Paul II]] established the St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago in 2001, all the Knanaya Catholic faithful in the United States who had become part of the local Latin parishes and the nine Knanaya Catholic Missions under the Latin bishops came under the pastoral jurisdiction of this diocese.<ref>"A church that grew strong amidst many hurdles," Mission Silver Jubilee Souvenir 2008, Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Parish, Chicago, December 2008.</ref> Considering the desire of the community and to help him with the pastoral administration of the Knanaya Catholic faithful in the diocese, Bishop Mar [[Jacob Angadiath]] appointed Rev. Fr. Abraham Mutholath on 3 October 2001 as one of the two Vicar Generals (Syncellus) of the diocese with special charge of the [[Knanaya Catholics]]. Bishop Mar [[Jacob Angadiath]] officially accepted all the Knanaya Catholic missions in the United States on 29 October 2003 as part of his diocese and asked the mission directors to continue their service in their respective missions.
[[File:Fr-mulavanal.jpg|thumb|Vicar General and Knanaya Region Director from 2014.]]
First Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath motivated the Knanaya Catholic faithful in the different parts of the United States to start Knanaya Missions wherever possible and to buy churches to grow as parishes. The first church was brought in the City of [[Maywood, Illinois|Maywood]] in [[Chicago]] in 2006. Later more churches and missions were added.

Since the St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Diocese of Chicago is spread all over the United States, Bishop Mar [[Jacob Angadiath]] established seven regions in his diocese on 28 April 2006. One of these regions is for all Knanaya Catholics in the diocese. According to the decree issued by the bishop, "The formal Knanaya Catholic missions and the faithful of the Knanaya community living in other places where no formal missions are established will make one region".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://knanayaregion.us/chronology.html|title=CHRONOLOGY|website=knanayaregion.us|access-date=25 July 2021|archive-date=22 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622162454/https://knanayaregion.us/chronology.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath is appointed as the director of this region. The official declaration of this region was held at OLV Church Chicago on 30 April 2006, by Bishop Mar Jacob Angadiath.

Bishop Mar Jacob Angadiath appointed Fr. Thomas Mulavanal as the Vicar General and director of the Knanaya Catholic Region on 8 February 2014.

==Knanaya forane parishes in the United States==
[[File:Maywood Sanctuary.jpg|thumb|Sanctuary of Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish, Chicago, the first Knanaya Catholic Parish outside Kerala.]]
[[File:Chicago SH Knanaya Church.jpg|thumb|Exterior view of Chicago Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church, the first church of the Knanaya Catholics in the diaspora.]]
Mar [[Jacob Angadiath]] raised the following parishes of the Knanaya Region of the diocese into forane status on 28 February 2015:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://knanayaregion.us/forane.html|title=FORANES|website=knanayaregion.us|access-date=25 July 2021|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725170245/https://knanayaregion.us/forane.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

*[[Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church Chicago|Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church, Chicago, IL]]
*St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Church Houston, TX
*Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church Tampa, FL
*St. Stephen Knanaya Catholic Church Hempstead, NY
*St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Church [[San Jose, California|San Jose, CA]]

===Chicago Knanaya Forane===
The parishes and missions that come under Chicago Knanaya Catholic Forane are the following:

*[[Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church Chicago|Chicago Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish]]
*[[St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish, Chicago|Chicago St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish]]
*Detroit St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish
*Minnesota, St. Paul Knanaya Catholic Mission

===Houston Knanaya Forane===
The parishes and missions that come under Houston Knanaya Catholic Forane are the following:

*Houston St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish
*Dallas Christ the King Knanaya Catholic Parish
*San Antonio St. Anthony's Knanaya Catholic Parish

===Tampa Knanaya Forane===
The parishes and missions that come under Tampa Knanaya Catholic Forane are the following:

*Tampa Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish
*Atlanta Holy Family Knanaya Catholic Parish
*Miami (South Florida) St. Jude Knanaya Catholic Parish
*Orlando St. Stephen's Knanaya Catholic Parish

===New York Knanaya Forane===
The parishes and missions that come under New York Knanaya Catholic Forane are the following:

*New York St. Stephen Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish
*New Jersey Christ the King Knanaya Catholic Parish, Carteret
*Rockland, New York St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish
*Connecticut, New York Holy Family Knanaya Catholic Mission
*Westchester-Bronx, New York Knanaya Catholic Mission
*Philadelphia St. [[John Neumann]] Knanaya Catholic Mission

===San Jose Knanaya Forane===
The parishes and missions that come under San Jose Knanaya Catholic Forane are the following:

*San Jose St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish
*[[Knanaya Catholic Parish, Los Angeles|Los Angeles Pope St. Pius X Knanaya Catholic Parish]]
*Las Vegas, NV St. Stephen's Knanaya Catholic Mission
*Sacramento, CA St. John Paul II Knanaya Catholic Mission
*Tracy (Stockton), CA St. Joseph’s Knanaya Catholic Mission

== Chronology ==

* 1981 January: Knanaya Catholics in Chicago started attempts to get a Knanaya Catholic priest from the Knanaya Catholic Diocese of Kottayam.
* 1983 October 28: Fr. Jacob Chollampel came from Kottayam and started his ministry.
* 2000 July 1: Establishment of Knanaya Catholic Mission of San Jose with Fr. Dominic Madathilkalathil as its director.
* 2001 July 1: Inauguration of the St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago and consecration of its bishop Mar Jacob Angadiath at Hyatt Hotel in Chicago.
* 2001 October 3: Mar Jacob Angadiath appointed Fr. Abraham Mutholath as Syncellus (Vicar General) with responsibility over the Knanaya Catholics in the eparchy.
* 2002 March 17: Mar Jacob Angadiath established St. Pius X Knanaya Catholic Mission in Los Angeles with Fr. Abraham Mutholath as the director.
* 2003 October 29: Mar Jacob Angadiath officially recognized 10 Knanaya Catholic Mission Missions in the US, as missions of the St. Thomas Diocese of Chicago.
* 2006 April 28: Mar Jacob Angadiath established seven regions in St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Diocese of Chicago. One of these regions is for all Knanaya Catholics in the diocese.
* 2006 April 30: Mar Jacob Angadiath officially declared the establishment of Knanaya Catholic Region at OLV Church Chicago and appointed Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath as the Region Director.
* 2006 September 3: Inauguration of the first Diaspora Knanaya Catholic Parish in the name of Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church, Chicago by Vicar General Rev. Fr. Abraham Mutholath.
* 2006 September 24: Mar Jacob Angadiath established the first Diaspora Knanaya Catholic Parish in Chicago by elevating the Knanaya Catholic Mission as a parish and appointing Fr. Abraham Mutholath as the pastor.
* 2007 January 1: Formation of St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish Unit in Chicago.
* 2007 June 1: Dedication of the first Diaspora Knanaya Catholic Parish Cemetery in Chicago.
* 2007 July 21: Mar Jacob Angadiath established Knanaya Catholic Mission, Miami in South Florida, and appointed Fr. George Pakkuvettithara as its director in charge.
* 2008 August 15: Mar Jacob Angadiath established Knanaya Catholic Mission in Atlanta with Fr. Stany Edathiparambil as its director.
* 2008 September 20: Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath inaugurated the Knanaya Catholic Mission on Atlanta, Georgia.
* 2009 January 3: Establishment of Knanaya Catholic Missions in Detroit and Las Vegas by Mar Jacob Angadiath. Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath was the mission director in Detroit and Fr. Thomas Mulavanal was the mission director in Las Vegas in addition to their other responsibilities.
* 2009 January 25: Mar Jacob Angadiath established Knanaya Catholic Mission in Tampa with Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath as the director.
* 2009 February 21: Inauguration of the Knanaya Catholic Mission in Las Vegas by Mar [[Mathew Moolakkatt]].
* 2009 April 4: Mar Jacob Angadiath consecrated Holy Family Knanaya Catholic Church in Atlanta and elevated it as the second parish of the Knanaya Region with Fr. Stany Edathiparambil as the pastor.
* 2009 April 18: The first feast and inauguration of Knanaya Catholic Mission of Detroit by Bishop Mar Jacob Angadiath.
* 2009 May 16: Inauguration of the Knanaya Catholic Mission of San Antonio by Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath. Fr. James Cheruvil was the director.
* 2009 October 18: Vicar general Fr. Abraham Mutholath inaugurated Knanaya Mission at Minnesota. Fr. Abraham Mutholath is the official mission director and Fr. Biju Pattasseril is in charge of the mission.
* 2009 October 23: Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath inaugurated the Knanaya Catholic Mission in Connecticut. Fr. James Ponganayil is the mission director.
* 2010 July 17: Church Consecration and elevation of mission as parish in Detroit by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt, and Mar [[Joseph Pandarasseril]]. Fr. Mathew Meledath was the pastor.
* 2010 July 18: Consecration of St. Mary's Church in Morton Grove, Chicago, and elevation of it as parish with Fr. Abraham Mutholath as the pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt, and Mar Joseph Pandarasseril. This was followed by convent blessing in Morton Grove, Chicago.
* 2010 July 21: Consecration of St. Antony's Knanaya Catholic Church in San Antonio and elevation of it as a parish with Fr. James Cheruvil as the pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt, and Mar Joseph Pandarasseril.
* 2010 July 26: Consecration of Knanaya Catholic Church in Dallas and elevation of it as a parish with Fr. Jose Sauriamakil as the pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt, and Mar Joseph Pandarasseril.
* 2010 July 31: Consecration of Knanaya Catholic Church in Los Angeles and elevation of the mission as a parish with Fr. Thomas Mulavanal as pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt, and Mar Joseph Pandarasseril.
* 2010 August 1: Consecration of the Knanaya Catholic Church in Tampa and elevation of the mission as a parish with Fr. Bins Chethalil as the pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt, and Mar Joseph Pandarasseril.
* 2011 November 5: Consecration of the Knanaya Catholic Church in Houston and elevation of the mission as parish by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt, and Mar Joseph Pandarasseril.
* 2011 November 12: Inauguration of Blessed Pope John Paul II Knanaya Catholic Mission, Sacramento with Fr. Stany Edathiparambil as the director by Vicar General Fr. Abraham Mutholath.
* 2014 February 8: Mar Jacob Angadiath appointed Fr. Thomas Mulavanal as the Vicar General and director of the Knanaya Catholic Region.
* 2014 September 27: Episcopal Ordination of Mar Joy Alappatt at Mar Thoma Sleeha Cathedral.
* 2015 February 28: Mar Jacob Angadiath elevated five Churches of the Knanaya Region to the status of Forane Parishes: Sacred Heart Church Chicago IL, Sacred Heart Church Tampa FL, St. Mary's Church Houston TX, St. Stephen's Church New York, and St. Mary's Church San Jose CA.
* 2015 May 31: Consecration of the Knanaya Catholic Church in Miami and elevation of the mission as a parish with Fr. Jose Adoppallil as the pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkatt and Archbishop Thomas Wenskat.
* 2016 September 10: 10th anniversary celebration of Knanaya Catholic Region at St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish, Chicago.
* 2016 November 10: Blessing of Visitation Convent in Tampa by Bishop Mar Jacob Angadiath.
* 2017 August 5: St. Joseph's Congregation sent three sisters to start a new convent in Houston, TX.
* 2017 September 23: Consecration of Knanaya Catholic Church in Rock Land, New York and elevated the mission as a parish with Fr. Jose Adoppallil as the pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath and Mar Mathew Moolakkatt.
* May 25, 2018: Mar Jacob Angadiath established Knanaya Catholic Mission in Orlando with Fr. Mathew Meledath as the director. Mar Joy Alappatt inaugurated the mission.
* 2018 September 15: Consecration of Knanaya Catholic Church in Carteret and elevation of the mission as a parish with Fr. Renny Kattel as pastor by Mar Jacob Angadiath, Mar Mathew Moolakkat, and Mar Joy Alappatt
* 2022 October 1: Episcopal Installation of Mar [[Joy Alappat|Joy Alappatt]] as the Second Bishop of the Syro Malabar Eparchy of St Thomas of Chicago.

== See also ==
[[Syro-Malabar Catholic Eparchy of St. Thomas of Chicago|St. Thomas Diocese of Chicago]]

[[Syro-Malabar Catholic Archeparchy of Kottayam]]

[[Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church Chicago|Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Church, Chicago]]

[[St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish, Chicago|St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Church, Chicago]]

[[Knanaya Catholic Parish, Los Angeles|St. Pius X Knanaya Catholic Parish, Los Angeles]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
<references responsive="0" />

==Bibliography==
* Commemorative Souvenir 2001, Syro-Malabar Catholic Convention, Inauguration of St. Thomas Diocese of Chicago, Episcopal Ordination of Mar Jacob Angadiath, Editor in Chief: George Joseph Kottukappally.
* Diocesan Bulletin, The Official Bulletin of St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago, October 2001.
* [https://shkcparish.us/souvenir/mobile/index.html Karakkatt, Bijo (Executive Editor), Tenth Anniversary Souvenir of Chicago Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish, 2016.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718231400/https://shkcparish.us/souvenir/mobile/index.html |date=18 July 2019 }}
* Karukaparambil, Dr. George. (2005). ''Marganitha Kynanaitha'' (ക്നാനായ മുത്ത്) (English Book), Kottayam: Jyothi Book House.
* Mathrusmruthi (മാതൃസ്മൃതി), Church establishment Souvenir, St. Mary's Knanaya Catholic Parish, Chicago, 2010.
* Mutholath, Abraham. (2014). ''Preservation of the Ecclesial Nature of Knanaya Community in North America.'' Jacob Kollaparambil and Baiju Mukalel, (Eds.)''.'' Kottayam: Centenary Symposiums. pp. 497–505.
* Mutholath, Fr. Abraham & George Thottappuram, "വടക്കേ അമേരിക്കയിലെ ക്നാനായ റീജിയന്റെ ഉത്ഭവവും വളർച്ചയും," (The Origin and Growth of the Knanaya Region in North America") Silver Jubilee Souvenir, Missionary Society of St. Pius X, 2009, pp. 51–56.
* Silver Jubilee Souvenir - 2008, Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Parish, Chicago.
* Souvenir 2011, St. Pius X Knanaya Catholic Church, Los Angeles, January 2012.
* [https://shkcparish.us/souvenir/mobile/index.html Karakkatt, Bijo (Executive Editor), Tenth Anniversary Souvenir of Chicago Sacred Heart Knanaya Catholic Forane Parish, 2016.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718231400/https://shkcparish.us/souvenir/mobile/index.html |date=18 July 2019 }}
* Uralil, Baby (Ed.). (2001). The Future of Knanaya Community in America. (അമേരിക്കയിലെ ക്നാനായ സമൂഹത്തിന്റെ ഭാവി) (Malayalam Language). A collection of papers and speeches at the Millennium Conference held at New Jersey organized by KCCNA from 17–19 November 2000.

==External links==
*[http://www.knanayaregion.us/ Knanaya Region]
*[http://www.stthomasdiocese.org/ St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago]
*[https://www.knanayology.org/ Knanayology]
*[http://www.kottayamad.org/ Archdiocese of Kottayam]
*[http://www.syromalabarchurch.in/ Syro-Malabar Church]
*[https://christianhomily.com/ Homilies by Fr. Abraham Mutholath]

[[Category:Christian communities of India]]
[[Category:History of Christianity in Asia]]
[[Category:Knanaya Community]]

M. V. Veerabhadraiah

2026-03-28T11:09:30Z

KiaGreenwald: Starting new stub

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
'''M.V. Veerabhadraiah''' (born 8 March 1955) is an Indian politician. He is a Member of the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]] from the [[Madhugiri Assembly constituency]] since 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=M.v. Veerabhadraiah(JD(S)):Constituency- MADHUGIRI(TUMKUR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/karnataka2018/candidate.php?candidate_id=6368 |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=myneta.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Madhugiri Election Result 2018 live updates: JD(S)'s M.V Veerabhadraiah has won with 88,521 votes |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/karnataka-assembly-election-2018-latest/constituency/article/madhugiri-ramesh-reddy-kyathasandra-n-rajanna-bjp-congress-jds/224641 |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=www.timesnownews.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Madugiri Election Results 2018 Live Updates: JD(S)'s M.V Veerabhadraiah Won |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/madugiri-election-results-2018-live-updates-1748671.html |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> He is associated with the [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]. He quit politics in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |date=2022-10-08 |title=Goodbye: రాజకీయాలకు ఎమ్మెల్యే గుడ్‌బై |url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2022/national/politics-mla-goodbye-bengaluru-ksvmrgsnational-901739.html |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=Andhrajyothy Telugu News |language=te}}</ref> He was an IAS Officer before joining politics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-10 |title=Bureaucracy to politics: The ‘poll vault’ to public life |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/top-karnataka-stories/bureaucracy-to-politics-the-poll-vault-to-public-life-1125331.html |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |agency=Press Trust of India |date=2011-12-28 |title=Ex-BBMP commissioner raided |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/ex-bbmp-commissioner-raided-111122800021_1.html |access-date=2022-12-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=ND Shiva Kumar|date=17 Apr 2013 |title=KAS officer resigns to contest assembly polls. {{!}} Bengaluru News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ias-officer-resigns-to-contest-assembly-polls-/articleshow/19601217.cms |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023: Madhugiri">{{cite news |date=13 May 2023 |title=Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023: Madhugiri |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2023/ConstituencywiseS10138.htm?ac=138 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505104253/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2023/ConstituencywiseS10138.htm?ac=138 |archive-date=5 May 2025 |access-date=5 May 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref><ref name="Former policemen, bureaucrats bite the dust">{{cite news |date=8 May 2013 |title=Former policemen, bureaucrats bite the dust |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/331215/former-policemen-bureaucrats-bite-dust.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505104828/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/331215/former-policemen-bureaucrats-bite-dust.html |archivedate=5 May 2025 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |publisher=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Retired bureaucrats and police officers fail to make a mark">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=13 May 2023 |title=Retired bureaucrats and police officers fail to make a mark |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/karnataka-assembly/retired-bureaucrats-and-police-officers-fail-to-make-a-mark/article66846954.ece |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505104706/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/karnataka-assembly/retired-bureaucrats-and-police-officers-fail-to-make-a-mark/article66846954.ece |archivedate=5 May 2025 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Veerabhadraiah, M.V.}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Janata Dal (Secular) politicians]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Bhubaneswar - Dhanbad Garib Rath Express

2026-03-19T03:50:45Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{Short description|Indian train}}
{{more citations needed|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Bhubaneswar - Dhanbad special fare Express
| image =
| caption =
| type = [[Daily express]]
| locale = [[Jharkhand]], [[Orissa, India|Orissa]]
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2017|7|24}}
| last =
| successor = 18403/18404 [[Bhubaneswar - Dhanbad Express]]
| operator = [[East Coast Railway]]
| ridership =
| start = {{rws|Bhubaneswar}} ('''BBS''')
| stops = 10
| end = {{rws|Dhanbad| }} ('''DHN''')
| distance = {{convert|776|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 15h
| frequency = Daily
{{efn|Runs daily for every direction.}}
| class = AC 3 Tier
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack = Yes
| catering = Yes
| observation = Large windows
| stock = 01
| gauge = {{RailGauge|1676mm|lk=on}}
| trainnumber = 02832/02831
| speed = {{convert|51|km/h|abbr=on}} (average with halts)
| maintenance = Bhubaneswar
}}
The '''Bhubaneswar - Dhanbad Garib Rath Express''' is a [[Garib Rath]] train belonging to the [[East Coast Railway zone]] that runs between and [[Bhubaneswar railway station|Bhubaneswar]] and [[Dhanbad]] in [[India]]. During Covid-19 pandemic the train was discontinued. Post-covid, It is started being operated with 02832/02831 train numbers on daily basis as a normal train. In 2017, after the closure of [[Dhanbad–Chandrapura line]], the train was short terminated/originated from [[Bokaro Steel City railway station]]. After opening of [[Dhanbad–Chandrapura line]] in 2019, it was again extended up to [[Dhanbad Junction railway station|Dhanbad]].

Due to [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the train was cancelled and not yet restored. Instead a tri-weekly special train was introduced with train number 02832/02831 in August 2022 which is running on the route with same time table. Later on the train was made to run daily.

==Service==

The 12832 Bhubaneswar - Dhanbad Garib Rath Express has an average speed of 52 km/h and covers 776 km in 15 h. The 12831 Dhanbad - Bhubaneswar Garib Rath Express has an average speed of 49 km/h and covers 779 km in 16 h.

== Route and halts ==

The important{{According to whom|date=September 2019}} halts of the train are:

* [[Dhanbad Junction railway station]]
* {{rws|Bokaro Steel City}}
* {{rws|Muri Junction}}
* {{rws|Ranchi Junction}}
* {{rws|Hatia}}
* {{rws|Rourkela Junction}}
* {{rws|Jharsuguda Junction}}
* {{rws|Sambalpur City}}
* {{rws|Angul}}
* {{rws|Talcher Road}}
* {{rws|Dhenkanal}}
* {{rws|Cuttack Junction}}
* {{rws|Bhubaneswar}}

==Coach composite==

The train has standard ICF rakes with max speed of 110 km/h. The train consists of 12 coaches.

== Traction==

One train comprising 12 wagons is hauled by a Visakhapatnam electric loco shed based [[Indian locomotive class WAP-7|WAP-7]] electric locomotive end to end.{{Clarify|reason=What does this sentence mean?|date=September 2019}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==See also==

* [[Dhanbad Junction railway station]]
* [[Ranchi Railway Station]]
* [[Bhubaneswar railway station]]

== External links ==

* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/503 12831/Bokaro - Bhubaneswar Garib Rath Express]
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/bhubaneswar-bokaro-garib-rath-express-12832/504/238/380 12832/Bhubaneswar - Bokaro Garib Rath Express]

{{Railways in Northern India}}
{{Garib Rath Express}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bokaro Steel City - Bhubaneswar Garib Rath Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Bhubaneswar]]
[[Category:Garib Rath Express trains]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Odisha]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2008]]

New Jalpaiguri–Bongaigaon Express

2026-03-16T17:06:22Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up stub.

{{Short description|Express train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = New Jalpaiguri - Bongaigaon BG Passenger (Express)
| image = Ministry of Railways India.svg
| caption =
| type = [[Express trains in India|Express]]
| locale = [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]]
| first = Running since Pre-independence Times
| base = {{rws|New Jalpaiguri Junction}}
| operator = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone]]
| ridership =
| start = {{rws|New Jalpaiguri Junction}}
| stops = 28
| end = [[Bongaigaon]]
| distance = {{convert|253|km|0|abbr=on}}
| frequency = Daily
| class = General unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| line_used = *[[New Jalpaiguri–New Bongaigaon section|New Jalpaiguri–New Bongaigaon line]]
| autorack =
| catering = No
| observation =
| entertainment =
| baggage =
| other facilities =
| stock = Standard [[Indian Railways]] Coaches
| gauge = {{RailGauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}
| electrification =
| trainnumber = 15703 / 15704
| speed = {{convert|30|km/h|0|abbr=on}}
| map =
| map_state =
}}
One of The Oldest Passenger Train of [[Northeast Frontier Railway]]
15703 / 04 '''New Jalpaiguri - Bongaigaon Express'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=New Jalpaiguri Bongaigaon BG Passenger (Express) Express|url=http://amp.indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-new-jalpaiguri-bongaigaon-express-15703/7773/444/549|website=indiarailinfo.com|access-date=18 July 2022|archive-date=15 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615131921/http://amp.indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-new-jalpaiguri-bongaigaon-express-15703/7773/444/549|url-status=dead}}</ref> is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train belonging to [[Indian Railways]] [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone]] that runs between {{rws|New Jalpaiguri Junction}} of [[Siliguri]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Bongaigaon]] of [[Assam]] in India.

It operates as train number 15703 from {{rws|New Jalpaiguri Junction}} to [[Bongaigaon]] and as train number 15704 in the reverse direction serving the state of [[West Bengal]] and [[Assam]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=New Jalpaiguri Bongaigaon Express |url=https://runningstatus.in/status/15703|website=runningstatus in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=New Jalpaiguri Bongaigaon Express |url=https://www.trainman.in/seat-availability/15703|website=www.trainman.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title =New Jalpaiguri Bongaigaon Train|url=https://railenquiry.in/runningstatus/15703|website=railenquiry.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=New Jalpaiguri Bongaigaon Express Train|url=https://www.gettraininfo.com/train/15703-337224|website=gettraininfo.com}}</ref>

==Timings==
The train starts from [[Bongaigaon]] at 06:25 everyday and reaches {{rws|New Jalpaiguri}} at 16:15.The train starts from {{rws|New Jalpaiguri}} at 07:30 everyday and reaches [[Bongaigaon]] at 15:55.
The train covers total distance of 253 Kilometres.

==Route==
* '''{{rws|New Jalpaiguri Junction}}'''(starts)
* Ambari Falakata
* [[Belakoba]]
* [[Raninagar Jalpaiguri Junction railway station|Raninagar Jalpaiguri Junction]]
* {{rws|Jalpaiguri Road}}
* {{rws|New Domohani}}
* {{rws|New Maynaguri}}
* {{rws|Betgara}}
* {{rws|Altagram}}
* {{rws|Dhupguri}}
* {{rws|Kolaigram}}
* {{rws|Salbari}}
* [[Falakata Railway Station|Falakata]]
* {{rws|Gumanihat}}
* {{rws|Ghoksadanga}}
* '''{{rws|New Cooch Behar}}'''
* {{rws|New Baneswar}}
* '''{{rws|New Alipurduar}}'''
* {{rws|Samuktala Road Junction}}
* [[Kamakhyaguri Railway Station|Kamakhyaguri]]
* [[Jorai Railway Station|Jorai]]
* {{rws|Srirampur Assam}}
* {{rws|Gossaigaon Hat}}
* {{rws|Chautara}}
* {{rws|Fakiragram Junction}}
* '''{{rws|Kokrajhar}}'''
* {{rws|Salakati}}
* [[Basugaon]]
* '''{{rws|New Bongaigaon Junction}}'''
* [[Bongaigaon]] (Ends)

==Locomotive==
[[Diesel Loco Shed, Siliguri|Siliguri Loco Shed]] - based [[WAP-7]] electric locomotive hauls the train from {{rws|New Jalpaiguri Junction}} to [[New Bongaigaon Junction railway station|Bongaigaon]] and vice versa.

==Rake sharing==
The train shares its rake with [[New Jalpaiguri -Malda Town Express]].
==See also==
*[[New Jalpaiguri - Guwahati Express]]
*[[New Jalpaiguri -Malda Town Express]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Alipurduar railway division]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Assam]]
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Transport in Jalpaiguri]]
[[Category:Transport in Bongaigaon]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:New Jalpaiguri-Bongaigaon Express}}

[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Transport in Siliguri]]

Vinayak Pai

2026-03-15T08:49:41Z

KiaGreenwald: added a info...

{{Short description|Indian business executive}}
{{Notability|1=Biographies|date=December 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vinayak Pai
| image = Vinayak Pai.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1966|09|19|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[India]]
| alma_mater = {{UBL |[[College of Engineering, Pune]] |[[Symbiosis Institute of Business Management, Pune]] |IIT Bombay's - [[Shailesh J. Mehta School of Management]] }}
| occupation = [[Business executive]]
| known_for = Managing Director and Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Tata Projects
}}

'''Vinayak Pai''' (born 19 September 1966) is an Indian [[business executive]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-26 |title=NOTICE OF 45th ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING |url=https://nsearchives.nseindia.com/content/debt/WDM/Debt_23082024174553_NoticeOfAGM.pdf |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=NSE India}}</ref> He is [[Director (business)|managing director]] and CEO of [[Tata Projects]], an [[engineering, procurement, and construction]] company that is part of the [[Tata Group]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Samar Srivastava |title=Forbes India {{!}} Inside Tata Projects |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/take-one-big-story-of-the-day/inside-tata-projects-indias-newest-infra-builder/81533/1 |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chakraborty |first=Alokananda |date=2023-02-27 |title=After hours with Vinayak Pai, MD & CEO, Tata Projects |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/brandwagon-after-hours-withnbspvinayak-pai-md-amp-ceonbsptata-projects-2993582/ |access-date=2023-11-09 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-11-26 |title=Fit to Lead {{!}} Tata Projects CEO & MD Vinayak Pai: 'Being fit helps me remain calm in the face of adversities' |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/health-and-fitness/fit-to-lead-tata-projects-ceo-md-vinayak-pai-being-fit-helps-me-remain-calm-in-the-face-of-adversities-11813941.html |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=Moneycontrol |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Twesh |date=2024-06-08 |title=Better planning can check delays in infra creation: Tata Projects |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/infrastructure/better-planning-can-check-delays-in-infra-creation-tata-projects/articleshow/110805589.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-06-13 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Tata Projects CEO calls for stricter quality standards amid infrastructure push |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/tata-projects-ceo-calls-for-stricter-quality-standards-amid-infrastructure-push-12766607.html |archive-date= |website=Money Control}}</ref>

== Education ==
Pai obtained a degree in BE ([[electrical engineering]]) from the [[College of Engineering, Pune|College of Engineering]], [[Pune]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pune |first=College of Engineering |title=Engineer's day Programme held at COEP Technological University {{!}} College of Engineering, Pune |url=https://www.coep.org.in/content/engineer%E2%80%99sdayprogrammeheldatcoeptechnologicaluniversity |access-date=2023-11-13 |website=www.coep.org.in}}</ref> He also holds a post-graduate degree in management from [[Symbiosis International University|Symbiosis]], [[Pune]] and an [[Executive MBA]] program from [[IIT Bombay]]'s [[Shailesh J. Mehta School of Management]] in 2004.{{citation needed|date=December 2025}}

Pai is the president of Construction Federation of India National Council.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-06-09 |title=CFI elects Tata Projects MD & CEO Vinayak Pai as President of national council |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/construction/cfi-elects-tata-projects-md-ceo-vinayak-pai-as-president-of-national-council/articleshow/110842440.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst |access-date=2024-06-10 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us - National Council Members, CFI (cfiindia.com) |url=http://cfiindia.com/national_council_members.html |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=cfiindia.com}}</ref> He is the Chairman of [[Confederation of Indian Industry|Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)]] [[Maharashtra]] and Chairman of the National Committee of Roads & Highways.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CII |url=https://www.cii.in/States.aspx?enc=5WcSaM0yzEfRFlFUNeIvYGPI9xL9HypQH+qrcmYEmb5AiJloBVkxerCgn7p5lokpLPlM2Gbp69Fg549uwn3k/g== |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=www.cii.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CII |url=https://www.cii.in/PhotoGalleryDetail.aspx?enc=5n2rGqsSwJ5x/5r4xH01UvgKFaSCzVorfWu3HGN+e5I= |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.cii.in}}</ref> He is also on the Board of Governors of Construction Industry Development Council and First Construction Council of India and is the Chairman - Board of Governance, [[College of Engineering, Pune|COEP Technological University]], Pune.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Construction Industry Development Council (CIDC) |url=https://www.cidc.in/aboutus2.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=COEP Website |url=https://www.coeptech.ac.in/about-us/board-of-governance/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=First Construction Council |url=https://firstconstructioncouncil.com/board_of_governors}}</ref>

== Career ==
Pai started his career with [[Aker Solutions]] as a trainee engineer in 1987 and served 25 years. He was Director of Operations in [[Aker Solutions]]. Subsequently, Pai served as the President of [[Jacobs Solutions|Jacobs']] global Energy Chemicals and Resources (ECR) business in December 2017, based in [[Houston]], [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=BP Awards Jacobs Phase 2 of the Khazzan Tight Gas Project in the Sultanate of Oman |url=https://www.euro-petrole.com/bp-awards-jacobs-phase-2-of-the-khazzan-tight-gas-project-in-the-sultanate-of-oman-n-i-16071 |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=www.euro-petrole.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-02 |title=Jacobs Appoints Gary Mandel to Lead Integration of Newly Announced CH2M Acquisition |url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170802006048/en/Jacobs-Appoints-Gary-Mandel-to-Lead-Integration-of-Newly-Announced-CH2M-Acquisition |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en}}</ref> He became Global Group President of [[Worley (company)|Worley]]'s Energy and Chemical Services business in May 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Worley |date=2020-10-02 |title=Worley appointed by Group Technology as engineering contractor partner |url=https://www.miningreview.com/energy/worley-appointed-by-group-technology-as-engineering-contractor-partner/ |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=Miningreview.com |language=en-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=IChemE |title=Worley awarded contract for Drax BECCS power station |url=https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/news/worley-awarded-contract-for-drax-beccs-power-station/ |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=www.thechemicalengineer.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=WorleyParsons to buy Jacobs' energy, chemicals and resources division |url=https://environment-analyst.com/71237/worleyparsons-to-buy-jacobs-energy-chemicals-and-resources-division |access-date=2023-11-21 |website=Environment Analyst Global |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, Pai joined [[Tata Projects]] as the managing director and CEO.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Business standards |url=https://www.business-standard.com/companies/results/tata-projects-q4-results-pat-at-rs-120-5-cr-on-back-of-higher-revenues-124050201035_1.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-05-02 |title=Tata Projects Q4 Results: Firm posts PAT of Rs 120.5 crore |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/earnings/tata-projects-q4-results-firm-posts-pat-of-rs-120-5-crore/articleshow/109789181.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-05-08 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-02 |title=Tata Projects reports net profit of ₹121 crore in Q4 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/market/earnings/tata-projects-reports-net-profit-of-121-crore-in-q4-revenue-dividend-19406455.htm/ |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-02 |title=Tata Projects Q4 results: Company posts PAT of Rs 120.5 crore, on back of higher revenues |url=https://www.zeebiz.com/companies/news-tata-projects-q4-results-company-posts-pat-of-rs-1205-crore-on-back-of-higher-revenues-tata-projects-tata-group-tata-share-price-tata-projects-share-price-tata-287871 |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=Zee Business}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-bus}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Vinayak Deshpande]]}}
{{S-ttl|title= Managing Director and CEO of [[Tata Projects]]|years=2022–present}}
{{S-inc}}
{{S-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pai, Vinayak}}
[[Category:Indian chief executives]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Tata Group people]]

Kapilavastu (ancient city)

2026-03-08T09:06:07Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{Short description|Ancient city in the Indian subcontinent}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=270|caption_align=center
| align = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=Kapilavastu
| image1 = Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu in full Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg
| caption1 = Procession of king [[Suddhodana]] from Kapilavastu, proceeding to meet his son the Buddha walking in mid-air (head raised at the bottom of the panel), and to give him a Banyan tree (bottom left corner).<ref>[[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Marshall, John]] (1918). [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 Guide To Sanchi], Calcutta: ASI; p.64]</ref> The dream of [[Maya (mother of the Buddha)|Maya]] at the top of the panel is a sure marker of Kapilavastu. [[Sanchi]].
| footer=
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|float = center
|width = 250
|caption = Proposed location of Kapilavastu, in [[Tilaurakot]] and [[Piprahwa]], in South Asia.
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief=yes
|places =
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=27.58 |N |long=83.08|E |label=[[Tilaurakot]]|position=top |label_size=80}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=27.443 |N |long=83.1278|E |label=[[Piprahwa]] |position=bottom |label_size=80}}
}}
{{Location map+
|Nepal
|float = center
|width = 250
|caption = Proposed location of Kapilavastu, in [[Tilaurakot]] and [[Piprahwa]], each on a different side of the India-Nepal frontier.
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief=yes
|places =
{{location map~ |Nepal |lat=27.58 |N |long=83.08|E |label=[[Tilaurakot]]|position=top |label_size=80}}
{{location map~ |Nepal |lat=27.443 |N |long=83.128|E |label=[[Piprahwa]] |position=bottom |label_size=80}}
}}
}}
{{BuddhasHolySites}}
'''Kapilavastu''' was an ancient city in the eastern [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plains]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]] which was the capital of the clan ''[[gaṇasaṅgha]]'' or "republic" of the [[Shakya]]s in the late [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]], around the 6th and 5th centuries BC. King [[Śuddhodana]] and [[Maya (mother of the Buddha)|Queen Māyā]] are believed to have lived at Kapilavastu, as did their son Prince Siddhartha Gautama ([[Gautama Buddha]]) until he [[Gautama Buddha#Renunciation|left the palace]] at the age of 29.<ref name=EoB2010>{{cite book|last=Trainor|first=K|editor-last=Keown|editor-first=D|editor2-last=Prebish|editor2-first=CS|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|chapter=Kapilavastu|pages=436–7|publisher=Routledge|location=Milton Park, UK|year=2010|isbn=978-0-415-55624-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFpcAgAAQBAJ&q=kapilavatthu}}</ref>

Buddhist [[Buddhist texts|texts]] such as the [[Pāli Canon]] say that Kapilavastu was the childhood home of Gautama Buddha, on account of it being the capital of the Shakyas, over whom his father ruled.<ref name="EoB2010" /> Kapilavastu is the place where Siddhartha Gautama spent the first 29 years of his life. According to Buddhist sources the name Kapilvatthu means "tawny area", due to the abundance of reddish sand in the area.<ref>Kapila, PTS Pali English Dictionary. Link: https://suttacentral.net/define/kapila</ref><ref>Suttacentral</ref> Most foreign accounts from the medieval period, particularly from China, described Kapilavastu as being part of "Central India".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mosca |first1=Matthew |title=Indian Mendicants in Ming and Qing China: A Preliminary Study |journal=India-China: Intersecting Universalities |date=2020 |url=https://books.openedition.org/cdf/7531?lang=en}}</ref>

Kapilavastu never became a major pilgrimage site like Buddha's birthplace at [[Lumbini]] not far away, which would have left unmistakable remains. The settlement was probably never as large as depictions in early [[Buddhist art]] suggest, and after the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] its location faded into obscurity.{{cn|date=November 2022}} There are now two sites near the border between [[Nepal]] and [[India]] which are claimed as Kapilavastu — [[Piprahwa]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]], India and [[Tilaurakot]] in Nepal. Finds at the Piprahwa (including a [[reliquary]] found inside a mud [[stupa]]) indicate Buddhist activity dating to the 5th–4th century BCE, around the time of the death of the Buddha.<ref name=Srivastava1980>{{cite journal|last=Srivastava|first=KM|title=Archaeological Excavations at Piprāhwā and Ganwaria and the Identification of Kapilavastu|journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies|volume=13|issue=1|pages=103–10|year=1980|url=http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8511/2418}}</ref>

==Search for Kapilavastu==
The 19th-century search for the historical site of Kapilavastu followed the accounts left by [[Faxian]] and later by [[Xuanzang]], who were Chinese [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] who made early pilgrimages to the site.<ref>[[Beal, Samuel]] (1884). ''Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang''. 2 vols. Translated by Samuel Beal. London. 1884. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969. [https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistre01hsuoft Volume 1]</ref><ref>Beal, Samuel (1911). ''The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang. Translated from the Chinese of Shaman (monk) Hwui Li'' by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint [[Munshiram Manoharlal]], New Delhi. 1973. [https://archive.org/details/ajf4729.0001.001.umich.edu Internet Archive]</ref><ref>Li, Rongxi (translator) (1995). ''[http://bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_T2087_GreatTangRecordofWesternRegions_1996_0.pdf The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713195617/http://bdkamerica.org/system/files/pdf/dBET_T2087_GreatTangRecordofWesternRegions_1996_0.pdf |date=13 July 2018 }}''. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. {{ISBN|1-886439-02-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Watters |first=Thomas | authorlink = Thomas Watters |title=On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629–645 A.D. Volume1|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924071132769#page/n3/mode/2up|year=1904|publisher=Royal Asiatic Society, London}}</ref> Some archaeologists have identified present-day [[Tilaurakot]], [[Nepal]], while others have identified present-day [[Piprahwa]], [[India]] as the location for the historical site of Kapilavastu, the seat of governance of the Shakya state that would have covered the region.<ref>{{Citation | last =Tuladhar | first =Swoyambhu D. | title =The Ancient City of Kapilvastu – Revisited | journal = Ancient Nepal | issue = 151 | date = November 2002 | pages = 1–7 | url =http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_151_01.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Archaeology">{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0103/newsbriefs/buddha.html|title=Competing Claims on Buddha's Hometown|publisher=[[Archaeology.org]]|date=March 2001|accessdate=21 March 2011|first=Chris|last=Hellier}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Srivastava|first=KM|title=Kapilavastu and Its Precise Location|jstor=29756506|year=1979|journal=East and West|volume=29|issue=1/4|pages=61–74}}{{registration required}}</ref> Both sites contain archaeological ruins. Those at Piprahwa show it was a significant early Buddhist site with a [[stupa]] and monasteries, and probably relics of the Buddha.<ref name=Srivastava1980/><ref>{{Citation|title=UP's Piprahwa is Buddha's Kapilvastu?|date=4 May 2015|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/UPs-Piprahwa-is-Buddhas-Kapilvastu/articleshow/47143085.cms?|author=Sharda, Shailvee|journal=Times of India}}</ref><ref name="V and A">{{cite web|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/buddhist_pilgrimage/sites_india/kapilavastu/index.html|title=Kapilavastu|accessdate=1 March 2011|archive-date=8 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108040311/http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/buddhist_pilgrimage/sites_india/kapilavastu/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Huntington|first =John C |title= Sowing the Seeds of the Lotus|journal=[[Orientations]]|date=1986|volume= September 1986 |pages=54–56| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20141128233735/http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/resources/downloads/jchArticles/Part%205.pdf | archivedate = 28 November 2014 | url = http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/resources/downloads/jchArticles/Part%205.pdf }}</ref>

==Proposed sites==
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
Suddhodana Palace-east gate.JPG|Proposed site of Suddhodanda's Palace at [[Tilaurakot]]
File:Stupas-Original-00020.jpg|Stupa at [[Piprahwa]]
</gallery>

==Ancient depictions==
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Maya's dream Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern gateway.jpg|Maya's dream of an elephant during her conception of the Buddha, an identifier of the city of Kapilavastu.
File:Departure_of_the_Buddha_from_Kapilavastu_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Northern_Gate.jpg|The departure of the Buddha from Kapilavastu, [[Sanchi]], Stupa 1, Northern Gate.
</gallery>

==Notable people==
* [[Puṇṇa Mantānīputta]] – one of [[the Buddha]]'s [[ten principal disciples]]
* [[Anuruddha]] – among the ten principal disciples and also a cousin of the Buddha
* [[Rāhula]] – the only son of the Buddha
* [[Ānanda]] – primary attendant of the Buddha and among the ten principal disciples
* [[Sahajaśrī]] - 14th century CE Buddhist monk

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last1=Coningham|first1=Robin |author1link=Robin Coningham |last2=Young|first2=Ruth |title=The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&dq=Coningham+Tilaurakot&pg=PA440|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-41898-7|pages=438–440}}

[[Category:History of Buddhism]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian cities]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimages]]
[[Category:Shakyas]]

Krishna

2026-03-04T18:27:03Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{short description|Major deity in Hinduism}}
{{about|the Hindu deity}}
{{Redirect|Krsna|other uses|Krsna (disambiguation)}}
{{good article}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| gender = Male
| name = Krishna
| image = Krishna Holds Up Mount Govardhan (MET 70694) cropped.png
| member_of = [[Dashavatara]]
| caption = Krishna lifting [[Govardhan]] Hill; folio from the ''[[Harivaṃśa|
Harivamsa]]'' ([[Mughal painting|Mughal]], c. 1590).
| avatar_birth = [[Mathura]], [[Surasena]] (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]], India)<ref name="Raychaudhuri 1972124">{{harvnb|Raychaudhuri|1972|p=124}}</ref>
| Sanskrit_transliteration = {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}
| Devanagari = कृष्ण
| affiliation = *[[Svayam Bhagavan]]<ref name="KK"/> (Krishnaism-Vaishnavism)
*[[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]
*[[Dashavatara]]
*[[Radha Krishna]]
| weapon = {{unbulleted list|[[Sudarshana Chakra]]|[[Kaumodaki]]}}
| day = [[Wednesday]]
| battles = [[Kurukshetra War|Kurukshetra War (Mahabharata)]]
| mount = [[Garuda]]
| abode = {{hlist|[[Goloka]]|[[Vrindavan]]|[[Gokul]]|[[Mathura]]|[[Dvaraka]]|[[Vaikuntha]]}}
| mantra = *हरे कृष्ण [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]]
*ॐ नमो भगवते वासुदेवाय [[Om Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya]]
| texts = ''{{unbulleted list|[[Mahabharata]] (incl. [[Bhagavad Gita]])|
[[Harivaṃśa|Harivamsa]]|
[[Bhagavata Purana]]|
[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]|
[[Vishnu Purana]]|
[[Garuda Purana]]|
|[[Padma Purana]]|
[[Garga Samhita (Vaishnavite text)|Garga Samhita]]|
[[Brahma Samhita]]|
}}''
| parents = {{unbulleted list|[[Devaki]] (mother)|[[Vasudeva]] (father)|[[Yashoda]] (foster-mother)|[[Nanda (Hinduism)|Nanda]] (foster-father)|[[Rohini (wife of Vasudeva)|Rohini]] [[Vasudeva#Wives and children|and the other wives of Vasudeva]] (step-mothers)}}
| siblings = {{unbulleted list|[[Balarama]] (elder brother)|[[Subhadra]] (half-sister)|[[Vasudeva#Wives and children|other children of Vasudeva]]}}
| consorts = {{hlist|[[Radha]]|[[Rukmini]]|[[Satyabhama]]|[[Jambavati]]|
[[Ashtabharya|other 5 chief queens]]| [[Junior wives of Krishna|16,000 – 16,100 Junior queens]]<ref name=hawley12>{{cite book |title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|author=John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-89581-102-8 |page=12}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|Radha is seen as Krishna's lover-consort (although in some beliefs Radha is considered to be Krishna's married consort). On the other hand, Rukmini and others are already married to him. Krishna had eight chief wives, known as Ashtabharyas. Regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wives (consorts), some presenting them as Rukmini, some as Radha, all gopis, and some identifying all as different aspects or manifestations of the goddess Lakshmi.<ref name=hawley12 />{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}}}}
| festivals = {{hlist|[[Krishna Janmashtami]]
|[[Gita Mahotsav]]|
|[[Gopashtami]]|[[Govardhan Puja]]|[[Kartik Purnima]]|[[Sharad Purnima]]|[[Lathmar Holi]]|
[[Holi]]}}
| children = {{hlist|[[Pradyumna]]|[[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]]|[[Charudeshna]] and other children<ref>{{Cite book|last=Naravane|first=Vishwanath S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZTXAAAAMAAJ&q=+eighty+sons+|title=A Companion to Indian Mythology: Hindu, Buddhist & Jaina|date=1987|publisher=Thinker's Library, Technical Publishing House|language=en}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|The number of Krishna's children varies from one interpretation to another. According to the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', Krishna had 10 sons from each of his 8 chief wives (80 sons) and 1 daughter, Charumati, from Rukmini.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=426-27 ''"Ten sons were born to each of the eight chief wives—from Rukmiṇī to Lakṣmaṇā—of Kṛṣṇa. Names of the chief among those eighty sons are given below...."''}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sinha|first=Purnendu Narayana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OveYh2v-1roC&q=sons+of+krishna&pg=PT691|title=A Study of the Bhagavata Purana: Or, Esoteric Hinduism|date=1950|publisher=Library of Alexandria|isbn=978-1-4655-2506-2|language=en}}</ref>}}
| god_of = God of Protection, Compassion, Tenderness, and Love,{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=20–25, quote: "Three Dimensions of Krishna's Divinity (...) divine majesty and supremacy; (...) divine tenderness and intimacy; (...) compassion and protection.; (..., p. 24) Krishna as the God of Love"}} [[Yogeshvara|Lord of Yogis]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Sri Krishna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oKiGPRGChjYC|author=Swami Sivananda|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1964|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Krishna the Yogeshwara|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/religious-discourse-krishna-the-yogeshwara/article6405504.ece|work=The Hindu|date=12 September 2014}}</ref> [[Parabrahman|The Supreme Being]] ([[Krishnaism]]-[[Vaishnavism]])
| avatar_end = [[Bhalka]], [[Saurashtra Kingdom|Saurashtra]] (present-day [[Veraval]], Gujarat, India)<ref name=eck380 />
| other_names = [[Achyuta]], [[Damodar (Krishna)|Damodara]], [[Gopala-Krishna|Gopala]], [[Gopinath (Krishna)|Gopinath]], [[Govinda]], [[Keshava]], [[Madhava (Vishnu)|Madhava]], [[Radha Ramana]], [[Shyam]], [[Vāsudeva]], Dwarakadhish
| dynasty = [[Yadava|Yaduvamsha]] –
[[Lunar dynasty|Chandravamsha]]
}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = [[Dashavatara]] Sequence
| predecessor = [[Rama]]
| successor = [[Gautama Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]]
}}
{{Contains special characters|Sanskrit}}
'''Krishna''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|ɪ|ʃ|n|ə}};<ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/krishna "Krishna"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: कृष्ण, {{IAST3|Kṛṣṇa}} {{IPA|sa|ˈkr̩ʂɳɐ|lang|audio=Krishna.ogg}})  is a major [[deity]] in [[Hinduism]]. He is worshipped as the eighth [[avatar]] and the [[Svayam Bhagavan]] or the Purna Avatar<ref>{{Cite Web |title=" The Purna Avatar of Lord Vishnu"| url=https://www.dlshq.org/religions/sri-krishna-the-purna-avatara/}} </ref>(the complete, original form possessing all 16 divine attributes or kalas) of [[Vishnu]] and also as the [[God in Hinduism|Supreme God]] in his own right.<ref name="EB">{{cite encyclopedia |title= Krishna |url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/323556/Krishna |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online|date= 26 June 2023 }}</ref> He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love;<ref name="Scharfstein1993p166">{{cite book|author=Ben-Ami Scharfstein|title=Ineffability: The Failure of Words in Philosophy and Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha |url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1347-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha/page/166 166]}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=20–25, quote: "Three Dimensions of Krishna's Divinity (...) divine majesty and supremacy; (...) divine tenderness and intimacy; (...) compassion and protection.; (..., p. 24) Krishna as the God of Love"}} and is widely revered among Hindu divinities.<ref>{{cite book|title =Krishna, Lord Or Avatara?|author=Freda Matchett|publisher =Psychology Press|date=2001|isbn =978-0-7007-1281-6|page=199}}</ref> Krishna's birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on [[Krishna Janmashtami]] according to the [[lunisolar calendar|lunisolar]] [[Hindu calendar]], which falls in late August or early September of the [[Gregorian calendar]].<ref>{{Cite web| last1=Cartwright | first1=Mark |title=Krishna|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Krishna/#:~:text=One%20day%20Vishnu%2C%20the%20great,his%20earthly%20father%20being%20Vasudeva.|website=World History Encyclopedia | date=October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Krishna Janmashtami|url=https://www.iskconbangalore.org/sri-krishna-janmashtami|website=International Society for Krishna Consciousness|date=26 May 2022 }}</ref><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p314">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/n436 314]–315}}</ref>

The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally titled as ''Krishna [[Lila (Hinduism)|Līlā]]''. He is a central figure in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]],'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', and is mentioned in many [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophical]], [[Hindu theology|theological]], and [[Hindu mythology|mythological]] texts.<ref name=Thompson>{{cite web |author=Richard Thompson, Ph.D. | date = December 1994 | title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism | url = http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html | access-date = 12 April 2008 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110104040530/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html | archive-date = 4 January 2011 | df = dmy-all}}</ref> They portray him in various perspectives: as a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the universal supreme being.<ref name="Mahony1987">{{cite journal | author = Mahony, W. K. | year = 1987 | title = Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities | journal = History of Religions | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 333–335 | jstor = 1062381 | doi=10.1086/463085| s2cid = 164194548 | issn = 0018-2710}} Quote: "Krsna's various appearances as a divine hero, alluring god child, cosmic prankster, perfect lover, and universal supreme being (...)".</ref> His iconography reflects these legends and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a [[Venu|flute]], a handsome youth with [[Radha]] or surrounded by female devotees, or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to [[Arjuna]].<ref name=Knott2000>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|pp=15, 36, 56}}</ref>

The name and synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st{{nbsp}}millennium{{nbsp}}[[BCE]] literature and cults.<ref name="Cultofgopal" /> In some sub-traditions, like [[Krishnaism]], Krishna is worshipped as the [[Supreme God (Hinduism)|Supreme God]] and ''[[Svayam Bhagavan]]'' (God Himself). These sub-traditions arose in the context of the medieval era [[Bhakti movement]].{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref name="Kenneth Valpey 2013">Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), ''The Bhagavata Purana'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149990}}, pp. 185–200</ref> Krishna-related literature has inspired numerous performance arts such as [[Bharatanatyam]], [[Kathakali]], [[Kuchipudi]], [[Odissi]], and [[Manipuri dance]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|page=118}}<ref name="ML Varadpande 1987">ML Varadpande (1987), ''History of Indian Theatre'', Vol 1, Abhinav, {{ISBN|978-8170172215}}, pp. 98–99</ref> He is a pan-Hindu god, but is particularly revered in some locations, such as [[Vrindavan]] in Uttar Pradesh,{{sfn|Hawley|2020}} [[Dwarka]] and [[Junagadh]] in Gujarat; the [[Jagannath]]a aspect in [[Odisha]], [[Mayapur]] in West Bengal;{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}{{sfn|Miśra|2005}}<ref>{{cite book |author=[[J. Gordon Melton]] |title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDU30Ae4S4cC&pg=PA330 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-Clio |isbn=978-1-59884-205-0 |pages=330–331}}</ref> in the form of [[Vithoba]] in [[Pandharpur]], Maharashtra, [[Shrinathji]] at [[Nathdwara]] in Rajasthan,{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Packert|title=The Art of Loving Krishna: Ornamentation and Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyTgMt4AQl4C&pg=PA181 |year=2010|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-22198-8|pages=5, 70–71, 181–187}}</ref> [[Udupi]] Krishna in [[Karnataka]],{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=3}} [[Parthasarathy Temple, Chennai|Parthasarathy]] in Tamil Nadu, [[Aranmula]] and [[Guruvayoorappan]] ([[Guruvayoor]]) in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lavanya Vemsani |title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA112|year=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-211-3|pages=112–113}}</ref>

Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, largely due to the work of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON).<ref name="bare_url">{{Cite journal|last=Selengut |first=Charles |title=Charisma and Religious Innovation: Prabhupada and the Founding of ISKCON |journal=[[ISKCON Communications Journal]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |year=1996 |url=http://content.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710005633/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html |archive-date=10 July 2012 }}</ref>

== Names and epithets ==
{{Main|List of titles and names of Krishna}}

The name "Krishna" originates from the Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa}}'', which means "black", "dark" or "dark blue".<ref name="dictionaries">*[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0306-kRzanAvat.jpg Monier Williams Sanskrit–English Dictionary (2008 revision)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018224028/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=%2Fscans%2FMWScan%2FMWScanjpg%2Fmw0306-kRzanAvat.jpg |date=18 October 2019 }}
*[http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1423.apte Apte Sanskrit–English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916122511/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1423.apte |date=16 September 2018 }}</ref> The waning moon is called [[Paksha#Krishna Paksha|Krishna Paksha]], relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".<ref name="dictionaries" /> Some Vaishnavas also translate the word as "All-Attractive", though it lacks that meaning in Sanskrit.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hiemstra |first=Gabe |date=December 19, 2011 |title=Krishna, Kṛṣṇā, Kṛṣṇa: 74 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/krishna#hinduism-general |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926154943/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/krishna#hinduism-general |archive-date=September 26, 2024 |access-date=October 19, 2024 |website=Wisdomlib |language=en}}</ref>

As a name of [[Vishnu]], Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the ''[[Vishnu Sahasranama]]''. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in [[murti|idols]] as black- or blue-skinned.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cummins |first=Joan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-8FfAEACAAJ |title=Vishnu: Hinduism's Blue-skinned Savior |date=2011 |publisher=Grantha Corporation |isbn=978-1-935677-08-6 |language=en}}</ref> Krishna is also known by various [[List of titles and names of Krishna|other names, epithets, and titles]] that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are ''Mohan'' "enchanter"; ''[[Govinda]]'' "chief herdsman",<ref>Monier Monier Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0399.html Go-vinda], Sanskrit English Dictionary and Etymology, Oxford University Press, p. 336, 3rd column</ref> ''[[Keev]]'' "prankster", and ''[[Gopala Krishna|Gopala]]'' "Protector of the 'Go'", which means "soul" or "the cows".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=17}}</ref><ref name="Hilt">{{cite book|author = Hiltebeitel, Alf|title = Rethinking the Mahābhārata: a reader's guide to the education of the dharma king|url = https://archive.org/details/rethinkingmahabh0000hilt|url-access = limited|publisher = University of Chicago Press|location = Chicago|year = 2001|pages = [https://archive.org/details/rethinkingmahabh0000hilt/page/n130 251]–253, 256, 259|isbn = 978-0-226-34054-8}}</ref> Some names for Krishna hold regional importance; ''[[Jagannatha]]'', found in the [[Jagannatha Puri|Puri]] Hindu temple, is a popular incarnation in [[Odisha]] state and nearby regions of [[eastern India]].<ref>{{cite book|author = B. M. Misra|title = Orissa: Shri Krishna Jagannatha: the Mushali parva from Sarala's Mahabharata|year = 2007|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]|isbn = 978-0-19-514891-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=139}}<ref>For the historic Jagannath temple in Ranchi, [[Jharkhand]] see: {{cite book|author=Francis Bradley Bradley-Birt|title=Chota Nagpur, a Little-known Province of the Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0x74TZB3eoC&pg=PA61|year=1989|publisher=Asian Educational Services (Orig: 1903) |isbn= 978-81-206-1287-7|pages=61–64}}</ref>

== Historical and literary sources ==
The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several independent deities of ancient India, the earliest of whom to be attested being [[Vāsudeva]].<ref name="GDF119">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/119 119]–120}}</ref> Vāsudeva was a hero-god of the tribe of the [[Vrishni]]s, belonging to the [[Vrishni heroes]], whose worship is attested from the 5th–6th century BCE in the writings of [[Pāṇini]], and from the 2nd century BCE in epigraphy with the [[Heliodorus pillar]].<ref name="GDF119" /> At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the Vrishnis fused with the tribe of the [[Yadavas]], whose own hero-god was named Krishna.<ref name="GDF119" /> Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', and they started to be identified with [[Vishnu]] in the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref name="GDF119" /> Around the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult of [[Gopala-Krishna]] of the [[Abhira people|Ābhīra]]s, the protector of cattle, was also absorbed into the Krishna tradition.<ref name="GDF119" />

===Early epigraphic sources===
{{main|Vāsudeva-Krishna}}

====Depiction in coinage (2nd century BCE)====
[[File:Vasudeva Krishna on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria circa 180 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|[[Vāsudeva]]-Krishna, on a coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria]], {{circa}}{{nbsp}}180{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref name="US">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |pages=436–438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA437 |language=en}}</ref><ref>[[Osmund Bopearachchi]], [https://www.academia.edu/25807197 Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence], 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Allchin |first1=Raymond |title=The Archaeology of Afghanistan from earliest times to the Timurid period |date=1978 |publisher=London; New York : Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-050440-4 |page=209, Fig. 4.13 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.3525/page/209/mode/1up}}</ref> This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.<ref name="BRILL">{{cite book |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Doris |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |date=1997 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA215 |language=en}}</ref>}}]]
Around 180 BCE, the [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]] issued some coinage (discovered in [[Ai-Khanoum]], Afghanistan) bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related to [[Vaisnava]] imagery in India.<ref name="Bopearachchi"/><ref>Audouin, Rémy, and Paul Bernard, "[http://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1974_num_6_16_1062 Trésor de monnaies indiennes et indo-grecques d'Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan). II. Les monnaies indo-grecques.]" Revue numismatique{{nbsp}}6, no.{{nbsp}}16 (1974), pp.{{nbsp}}6–41 (in French).</ref> The deities displayed on the coins appear to be [[Saṃkarṣaṇa]]-[[Balarama]] with attributes consisting of the [[Gada (mace)|gada]] mace and the [[plow]], and Vāsudeva-Krishna with attributes of the [[shankha]] (conch) and the [[Sudarshana Chakra|sudarshana chakra]] wheel.<ref name="Bopearachchi" /><ref>Nilakanth Purushottam Joshi, Iconography of Balarāma, Abhinav Publications, 1979, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5vd-lKzyFg0C&pg=PA22 p. 22]</ref> According to [[Bopearachchi]], the [[headdress]] of the deity is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top ([[chattra]]).<ref name="Bopearachchi" />

====Inscriptions====
[[File:Heliodorus pillar.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Heliodorus Pillar]] in the Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]], erected about 120{{nbsp}}BCE. The inscription states that Heliodorus is a ''Bhagvatena'', and a couplet in the inscription closely paraphrases a Sanskrit verse from the ''Mahabharata''.<ref name=allchin309>{{cite book|author1=F. R. Allchin|author2=George Erdosy|title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C&pg=PA309 |year=1995| publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-37695-2|pages=309–310}}</ref><ref>L. A. Waddell (1914), Besnagar Pillar Inscription{{nbsp}}B Re-Interpreted, ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', Cambridge University Press, pp.{{nbsp}} 1031–1037</ref>]]
The [[Heliodorus Pillar]], a stone pillar with a [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] script inscription, was discovered by colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar ([[Vidisha]], in the central Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]). Based on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100{{nbsp}}BCE and is now known after [[Heliodorus (ambassador)|Heliodorus]] – an [[Indo-Greek]] who served as an ambassador of the Greek king [[Antialcidas]] to a regional Indian king, Kasiputra [[Bhagabhadra]].<ref name="Bopearachchi" /><ref name=allchin309 /> The Heliodorus pillar inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to "[[Vāsudeva]]", an early deity and another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by "the ''Bhagavata'' Heliodorus" and that it is a "''Garuda'' pillar" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter{{nbsp}}11.7 of the ''Mahabharata'' stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three virtues: self-[[Temperance (virtue)|temperance]] (''damah''), generosity (''cagah'' or ''tyaga''), and vigilance (''apramadah'').<ref name=allchin309 /><ref name=salomon265>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3|pages=265–267}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Benjamín Preciado-Solís|title=The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvCaWvjGDVEC&pg=PA34 |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-0-89581-226-1|page=34}}</ref> The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, ''[[mandapa]]s'', and seven additional pillars.{{sfn|Khare|1967}}{{sfn|Irwin|1974|pp=169–176 with Figure 2 and 3}} The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and the temple are among the earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion and [[Vaishnavism]] in ancient India.{{sfn|Susan V Mishra|Himanshu P Ray|2017|p=5}}<ref name="Bopearachchi">{{cite web|author=[[Osmund Bopearachchi]]| year= 2016| url=https://www.academia.edu/25807197|title= Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Burjor Avari|title=India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-23673-3|pages=165–167}}</ref>

[[File:Rama Krishna at Chilas.jpg|thumb|[[Balarama]] and Krishna with their attributes at [[Chilas]]. The [[Kharoshthi]] inscription nearby reads ''Rama [kri]ṣa''. 1st century CE.<ref name="BRILL"/>]]

The [[Heliodorus Pillar|Heliodorus inscription]] is not isolated evidence. The [[Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions]], all located in the state of [[Rajasthan]] and dated by modern methodology to the 1st{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, mention Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva, also mention that the structure was built for their worship in association with the supreme deity [[Narayana]]. These four inscriptions are notable for being some of the oldest-known [[Sanskrit]] inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ |year= 1998|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509984-3|pages=86–87}}</ref> However, historians argue that the Hathibada-Ghosundi inscription is associated with [[Jainism]], as it explicitly mentions the [[Tirthankara|Jina]].<ref>Bühler, Georg (1886). "The Ghosundi and Hāthibāḍā Inscriptions". ''Epigraphia Indica''. Vol. I. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 7–12.</ref>

A [[Mora well inscription|Mora stone slab]] found at the Mathura-Vrindavan archaeological site in [[Uttar Pradesh]], held now in the [[Mathura Museum]], has a Brahmi inscription. It is dated to the 1st{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}CE and mentions the five [[Vrishni heroes]], otherwise known as Saṃkarṣaṇa, Vāsudeva, [[Pradyumna]], [[Aniruddha]], and [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]].<ref name=vardpande6>{{cite book|author=Manohar Laxman Varadpande|title=Krishna Theatre in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TaF603WEv4IC&pg=PA6 |year=1982|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-151-5|pages=6–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Hindu Gods and Heroes: Studies in the History of the Religion of India|last= Barnett|first= Lionel David|year= 1922 |publisher= J. Murray|page= [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173123/page/n92 93]|url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173123}}</ref><ref name=Puri1968>{{cite book|author = Puri, B. N.|year = 1968|title = India in the Time of Patanjali|publisher = Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan}} p. 51: The coins of Rajuvula have been recovered from the Sultanpur District...the Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum,</ref>

The inscriptional record for [[Vāsudeva]] starts in the 2nd century BCE with the coinage of Agathocles and the Heliodorus pillar, but the name of Krishna appears rather later in epigraphy. At the [[Chilas]] II archaeological site dated to the first half of the 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan, near the Afghanistan border, are engraved two males, along with many Buddhist images nearby. The larger of the two males held a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an inscription with it in [[Kharosthi]] script, which has been deciphered by scholars as ''Rama-Krsna'', and interpreted as an ancient depiction of the two brothers, Balarama and Krishna.<ref>{{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC |year=1997|publisher=Broll Academic|isbn=90-04-10758-4|pages=214–215 with footnotes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jason Neelis|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC |year=2010|publisher=Btill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-18159-5|pages=271–272}}</ref>

The first known depiction of the life of Krishna himself comes relatively late, with [[:File:Vasudeva_Carrying_Baby_Krishna_in_Basket_Across_Yamuna_-_Circa_1st_Century_CE_-_Gatashram_Narayan_Temple.jpg|a relief]] found in [[Mathura]], and dated to the 1st–2nd century CE.<ref name="KCIA">{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Sunil Kumar |title=Krishna-cult in Indian Art |date=1996 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-7533-001-6 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyyNIL7Ug2kC&pg=PA27 |language=en}}</ref> This fragment seems to show [[Vasudeva]], Krishna's father, carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the [[Yamuna river|Yamuna]].<ref name="KCIA"/> The relief shows at one end a seven-hooded Naga crossing a river, where a ''[[makara]]'' crocodile is thrashing around, and at the other end a person seemingly holding a basket over his head.<ref name="KCIA"/>

===Literary sources===
==== Mahabharata ====
{{See also|Krishna in the Mahabharata|Bhagavad Gita}}
[[File:Krishna advising Pandavas.jpg|thumb|Krishna advising Pandavas]]
The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-357806/Mahabharata|title= Britannica: Mahabharata|access-date=2008-10-13 |encyclopedia = encyclopedia|publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online |year= 2008|author = Wendy Doniger}}</ref> Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (''Bhishma Parva'') of the epic that constitute the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' contain the advice of Krishna to [[Arjuna]] on the battlefield.

During the ancient times that the ''Bhagavad Gita'' was composed in, Krishna was widely seen as an avatar of Vishnu rather than an individual [[deity]], yet he was immensely powerful and almost everything in the universe other than Vishnu was "somehow present in the body of Krishna".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |title=A History of God: The 4000-year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf Inc]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-679-42600-4 |location=New York |pages=85–86 |author-link=Karen Armstrong}}</ref> Krishna had "no beginning or end", "fill[ed] space", and every god but Vishnu was seen as ultimately him, including [[Brahma]], "storm gods, sun gods, bright gods", light gods, "and gods of ritual."<ref name=":0" /> Other forces also existed in his body, such as "hordes of varied creatures" that included "celestial serpents."<ref name=":0" /> He is also "the essence of humanity."<ref name=":0" />

The ''[[Harivamsa]]'', a later appendix to the ''Mahabharata,'' contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.<ref>Maurice Winternitz (1981), ''History of Indian Literature'', Vol. 1, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-0836408010}}, pp. 426–431</ref>

==== Other sources ====
[[File:Baby thief Krishna (bazaar art, c.1950's).jpg|thumb|Krishna is celebrated in the Vaishnava tradition in various stages of his life.]]
The ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'' (verse III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in ''Krishnaya Devakiputraya'' as a student of the sage Ghora of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified with [[Neminatha]], the twenty-second ''[[tirthankara]]'' in [[Jainism]], by some scholars.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=23}} This phrase, which means "To Krishna the son of [[Devaki]]", has been mentioned by scholars such as [[Max Müller]]<ref name=maxmuller316>Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.16–3.17], The Upanishads, Part{{nbsp}}I, Oxford University Press, pp. 50–53 with footnotes</ref> as a potential source of fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in the ''Mahabharata'' and other ancient literature{{snd}} only potential because this verse could have been interpolated into the text,<ref name=maxmuller316 /> or the Krishna Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna.<ref>Edwin Bryant and Maria Ekstrand (2004), ''The Hare Krishna Movement'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231122566}}, pp. 33–34 with note 3</ref> These doubts are supported by the fact that the much later age ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutras'', a treatise on Krishna,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/ShandilyaBhaktiSutra/shandilya_bhakti_sutras#page/n0/mode/2up Sandilya Bhakti Sutra] SS Rishi (Translator), Sree Gaudia Math (Madras)</ref> cites later age compilations such as the ''[[Narayana Upanishad]]'' but never cites this verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along with [[Devaki]] in the ancient Upanishad is unrelated to the later Hindu god of the ''Bhagavad Gita'' fame. For example, Archer states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse cannot be dismissed easily.<ref>WG Archer (2004), ''The Loves of Krishna in Indian Painting and Poetry'', Dover, {{ISBN|978-0486433714}}, p. 5</ref>

[[Yāska]]'s ''[[Nirukta]]'', an etymological dictionary published around the 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of [[Akrura]], a motif from the well-known Puranic story about Krishna.<ref name = bryant4>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=4}}</ref> [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] and ''Aitareya-Aranyaka'' associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.<ref>Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996 M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7533-001-5}} p. 128: Satha-patha-brahmana and Aitareya-[[Aranyaka]] with reference to first chapter.</ref>

In ''Ashṭādhyāyī'', authored by the [[ancient]] grammarian [[Pāṇini]] (probably belonged to the 5th or 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE), ''Vāsudeva'' and ''Arjuna'', as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the same ''[[sutra]]''.<ref name="kurukshetra.nic.in">[http://kurukshetra.nic.in/museum-website/archeologicaltreasure.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217161420/http://kurukshetra.nic.in/museum-website/archeologicaltreasure.html|date=17 February 2012}}</ref><ref>Pâṇ. IV. 3. 98, Vâsudevârjunâbhyâm vun. See Bhandarkar, Vaishnavism and Śaivism, p.{{nbsp}}3 and J.R.A.S. 1910, p.{{nbsp}}168. Sûtra{{nbsp}}95, just above, appears to point to bhakti, faith or devotion, felt for this Vâsudeva.</ref><ref>Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996 M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7533-001-5}} p. 1</ref> [[File:Dancing Krishna, India, Tanjore, Tamil Nadu, Chola dynasty, 14th century, bronze, HAA.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Bala Krishna]] dancing, 14th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}CE [[Chola]] sculpture, [[Tamil Nadu]], in the [[Honolulu Academy of Arts]].]]
[[Megasthenes]], a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of [[Seleucus I]] to the court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] towards the end of 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, made reference to [[Megasthenes' Herakles|Herakles]] in his famous work [[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indica]]. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such as [[Arrian]], [[Diodorus]], and [[Strabo]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}} According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares. According to [[Edwin Bryant (author)|Edwin Bryant]], a professor of Indian religions known for his publications on Krishna, "there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the [[Yadu]] dynasty to which Krishna belonged".{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}} The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares of [[Yamuna|Jamuna]]. Later, when [[Alexander the Great]] launched his campaign in the northwest [[Indian subcontinent]], his associates recalled that the soldiers of [[King Porus|Porus]] were carrying an image of Herakles.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}}

The Buddhist [[Pali canon]] and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No. {{nbsp}}454) [[polemic]]ally mention the devotees of Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused version of the Krishna legends.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=5–6}} The texts of [[Jainism]] mention these tales as well, also with many peculiarities and different versions, in their legends about [[Tirthankara]]s. This inclusion of Krishna-related legends in ancient [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology was existent and important in the religious landscape observed by non-Hindu traditions of [[Ancient india|ancient India]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=6}}<ref>Hemacandra Abhidhânacintâmani, Ed. Boehtlingk and Rien, p. 128, and Barnett's translation of the Antagada Dasāo, pp.{{nbsp}}13–15, 67–82.</ref>

The ancient Sanskrit grammarian [[Patanjali]] in his ''[[Mahabhashya]]'' makes several references to Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse 3.1.26, he also uses the word ''Kamsavadha'' or the "killing of Kamsa", an important part of the legends surrounding Krishna.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1990|editor=K.S. Gautam|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/73 73]}}</ref>

====Puranas====
Many [[Puranas]] tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story,<ref name="Elkman1986">{{cite book|author = Elkman, S. M.|author2=Gosvami, J.|year = 1986|title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref> but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=18, 49–53, 245–249}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Gregory Bailey|editor=Arvind Sharma|title=The Study of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npCKSUUQYEIC|year=2003|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-449-7|pages=141–142}}</ref> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' consists of twelve books subdivided into 332{{nbsp}}chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version.<ref name=barbaraholdrege109>Barbara Holdrege (2015), Bhakti and Embodiment, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415670708}}, pp.{{nbsp}}109–110</ref><ref>Richard Thompson (2007), ''The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819191}}</ref> The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=112}}{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pages=127–137}}

== Iconography ==
{{Main|Iconography of Krishna}}

<gallery mode="slideshow" showfilename="yes" caption="The Variation in Iconography Depicting Krishna and the Ras Leela">
File:Krishna dances in the Raslila with the Gopis.jpg
File:Radha, Krishna and the gopis, Bharatiya Lok Kala Museum, Udaipur, India.jpg
File:Krishna dancing with the gopis (6124519381).jpg
File:Krishna and Radha dancing the Rasalila, Jaipur, 19th century.jpg
File:Fresco depicting Raslila, the joyful dance of Krishna with his favourite gopi, Radha, from a Hindu temple in Fateh Jang, Attock district.jpg
File:ShyamRai Mandir Bishnupur WB Terracotta works Ras Leela.jpg
File:The Hindu deity Krishna playing the flute.jpg|alt=|[[15th century|15th Century]] [[South India|South-Indian]] statue of Krishna carved from [[Granite]]
</gallery>
Krishna is represented in the [[Indian tradition]]s in many ways, but with some common features.{{sfn|Archer|2004|loc=The Krishna of Painting}} His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA134 |year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|pages=133–134}}</ref> But ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Guy, John|title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA222|year=2014|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-524-5|pages=222–223}}</ref><ref>[a] {{cite journal | last=Cooler | first=Richard M. | title=Sculpture, Kingship, and the Triad of Phnom Da | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=40 | issue=1 | pages=29–40 | year=1978 | doi=10.2307/3249812 | jstor=3249812}}; [b] Bertrand Porte (2006), "La statue de Kṛṣṇa Govardhana du Phnom Da du Musée National de Phnom Penh." UDAYA, Journal of Khmer Studies, Volume 7, pp. 199–205</ref> In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of [[Jambul]] (''[[Jamun]]'', a black-colored fruit).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vishvanatha|first1=Cakravarti Thakura|title=Sarartha-darsini|date=2011|publisher=Sri Vaikunta Enterprises|isbn=978-81-89564-13-1|page=790|edition=[[Bhanu Swami]]}}</ref>
[[File:Krishna-in-Kyoto.jpg|thumb|upright|Depiction of Krishna playing the flute in [[Tōdai-ji|Todai-ji Temple]], constructed in 752{{nbsp}}CE on the order of Emperor Shomu, in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], Japan]]

Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather [[wreath]] or crown, and playing the [[bansuri]] (Indian flute).<ref name="Grolier">{{cite book|title = The Encyclopedia Americana|publisher = Grolier|location = [s.l.]|year = 1988|page = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589 589]|isbn = 978-0-7172-0119-8|url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The New Encyclopædia Britannica |author = Benton, William|year= 1974|publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica|isbn=978-0-85229-290-7|page= 885|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G8YqAAAAMAAJ&q=Krsna+blue+skin+deity}}</ref> In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of the other in the ''[[Tribhanga]]'' posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsman ''Govinda''. Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with the [[gopi]]s (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks.<ref>{{cite book |author=Harle, J. C. |title=The art and architecture of the Indian subcontinent |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=New Haven, Conn |year=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410 410] |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5 |quote=figure 327. Manaku, Radha's messenger describing Krishna standing with the cow-girls, gopi from Basohli. |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410 }}</ref>
[[File:Krishna Govardhana. Bharat Kala Bhavan, ni03-24.jpg|thumb|upright|Krishna lifting Govardhana at [[Bharat Kala Bhavan]], recovered from Varanasi. It is dated to the [[Gupta Empire]] era (4th/6th century{{nbsp}}CE).<ref>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=Banaras, City of Light|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J57C4d8Bv6UC|year=1982|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-11447-9|pages=66–67}}</ref>]]

In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''. He is shown as a charioteer, notably when he is addressing the Pandava prince [[Arjuna]], symbolically reflecting the events that led to the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''{{snd}}a scripture of Hinduism. In these popular depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna or as the driver of the chariot while Arjuna aims his arrows in the [[Kurukshetra war|battlefield of Kurukshetra]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Ariel Glucklich|title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC&pg=PA106|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-971825-2|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA210 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=210–212}}</ref>

Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby (''[[Bala Krishna]]'', the child Krishna), a toddler crawling on his hands and knees, a dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing or consuming butter (''Makkan Chor''),<ref name="hawley3">{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncb_AwAAQBAJ|title=Krishna, The Butter Thief|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4008-5540-7|pages=3–8}}</ref> holding [[Laddu]] in his hand (''Laddu Gopal'')<ref>{{cite book |title= Students' Britannica India|last= Hoiberg|first= Dale |author2=Ramchandani, Indu |year= 2000|publisher= Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|page= 251|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kEj-2a7pmVMC&q=Bala+Krishna&pg=PA251}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | title = The Qualities of Sri Krsna | author = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami| author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami | publisher = GNPress | year = 1998 | page = 152 | isbn = 978-0-911233-64-3 }}</ref> or as a cosmic infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during the [[Pralaya]] (the cosmic dissolution) observed by sage [[Markandeya]].<ref>{{cite book |
title=India: Art and Culture, 1300–1900
|author=Stuart Cary Welch
|publisher = Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=1985
|isbn= 978-0-03-006114-1|page =58}}</ref> Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as [[Jaganatha]] in Odisha, [[Vithoba]] in Maharashtra,<ref name="vithoba">[[Vithoba]] is not only viewed as a form of Krishna. He is also by some considered that of Vishnu, [[Shiva]] and [[Gautama Buddha]] according to various traditions. See: {{cite encyclopedia | title = ''Sri-Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi)'' by R. C. Dhere | volume = 5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&q=vithoba&pg=PA4179|access-date=2008-09-20|author= Kelkar, Ashok R.| encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Indian literature|publisher = [[Sahitya Akademi]]|pages= 4179|year = 2001|orig-year = 1992| isbn = 978-8126012213 }} and {{Cite book|author=Mokashi, Digambar Balkrishna|author2=Engblom, Philip C. |title=Palkhi: a pilgrimage to Pandharpur – translated from the Marathi book Pālakhī by Philip C. Engblom|year=1987|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|isbn=978-0-88706-461-6| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vgLZGFH1ZTIC&q=Palkhi:+a+pilgrimage+to+Pandharpur&pg=PA14|page = 35|location=Albany}}</ref> [[Shrinathji]] in Rajasthan<ref>{{cite book|author=Tryna Lyons|title=The Artists of Nathdwara: The Practice of Painting in Rajasthan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKnGJGOEQukC |year=2004|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34417-5|pages=16–22}}</ref> and [[Guruvayurappan|Guruvayoorappan]] in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kunissery Ramakrishnier Vaidyanathan|title=Sri Krishna, the Lord of Guruvayur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1XLXAAAAMAAJ |year=1992|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|pages=2–5}}</ref>

Guidelines for the preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such as ''Vaikhanasa [[Agama (Hinduism)|agama]]'', ''Vishnu dharmottara'', ''Brihat samhita'', and ''[[Agni Purana]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA200 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=201–204}}</ref> Similarly, early medieval-era [[Tamil literature|Tamil texts]] also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according to these guidelines are in the collections of the [[Government Museum, Chennai]].<ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA204 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=204–208}}</ref>

Krishna iconography forms an important element in the figural sculpture on 17th–19th century terracotta temples of Bengal. In many temples, the stories of Krishna are depicted on a long series of narrow panels along the base of the facade. In other temples, the important Krishnalila episodes are depicted on large brick panels above the entrance arches or on the walls surrounding the entrance.<ref name="Amit">{{citation|url=https://www.aishee.org/krishnalila-in-terracotta-temples|title=Krishnalila in Terracotta Temples|author=Amit Guha|access-date=2 January 2021|archive-date=2 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102202220/https://www.aishee.org/krishnalila-in-terracotta-temples|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Life and legends ==
This summary is an account based on literary details from the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', the ''[[Harivamsa]]'', the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]''. The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], Bihar, [[Rajasthan]], Haryana, Delhi, and [[Gujarat]]. The legends about Krishna's life are called ''Krishna charitas'' ([[IAST]]: Kṛṣṇacaritas).{{sfn|Matchett|2001|p=145}}

=== Birth ===
{{Main|Birth of Krishna|}}

[[File: Indischer Maler um 1755 002.jpg|thumb|right|Baby Krishna on a swing, depicted with his foster parents [[Nanda Baba|Nanda]] and [[Yashoda]].]]

In the ''Krishna Charitas'', Krishna is born to [[Devaki]] and her husband, [[Vasudeva]], in [[Mathura]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmUssUXUFFYC&pg=PA359 |title=The Poems of Sūradāsa|publisher=Abhinav publications|year=1999|isbn=978-8170173694}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2024}} Devaki's brother is a tyrant named [[Kamsa]]. At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Sometimes, it is depicted as an [[Akashvani (word)|akashvani]] announcing Kamsa's death. Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna away across the Yamuna, and exchanges him with [[Yashoda]]'s daughter. When Kamsa tries to kill the newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess [[Yogmaya|Yogamaya]], warning him that his death has arrived in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the Puranas. Krishna grows up with [[Nanda Baba|Nanda]] and his wife, [[Yashoda]], near modern-day [[Mathura]].<ref name="yashoda">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/sss/ho_1982.220.8.htm|title=Yashoda and Krishna|date=2011-10-10|publisher=Metmuseum.org|access-date=2011-10-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013214426/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/sss/ho_1982.220.8.htm|archive-date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="tkk">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UiwMRwcT-kC|title=The Krishna key|date=2012|publisher=Westland|isbn=978-9381626689|location=Chennai|page=Key7|language=en|last1=Sanghi|first1=Ashwin|access-date=9 June 2016}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Lok Nath Soni">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wT-BAAAAMAAJ |title=The Cattle and the Stick: An Ethnographic Profile of the Raut of Chhattisgarh|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, 2000 Original from the University of Michigan|year=2000|isbn=978-8185579573|location=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, Delhi|pages=16|author=Lok Nath Soni}}</ref> Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namely [[Balarama]] and [[Subhadra]], according to these legends.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=124–130, 224}}</ref> The day of the birth of Krishna is celebrated as [[Krishna Janmashtami]].

=== Childhood and youth ===
The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow-herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earn him the nickname ''Makhan Chor'' (butter thief), and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts the [[Govardhana hill]] to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from [[Sāṁvartaka|devastating rains and floods]].<ref name="MW">{{cite book|author = Lynne Gibson|title = Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|publisher = Merriam-Webster|year = 1999|page = 503}}</ref>

[[File:Krishna and Balarama Studying with the Brahman Sandipani (1525-1550 CE).jpg|thumb|''Krishna and [[Balarama]] Studying with the Brahman [[Sandipani]]'' (''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', 1525–1550 CE print).]]
Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially [[Radha]]. These metaphor-filled love stories are known as the ''[[Rasa lila]]'' and were romanticized in the poetry of [[Jayadeva]], author of the [[Gita Govinda]]. They are also central to the development of the Krishna [[bhakti]] traditions worshiping [[Radha Krishna]].<ref>{{cite book|author = Schweig, G. M.|year = 2005|title = Dance of divine love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred love story.|publisher = [[Princeton University Press]], Princeton, NJ; Oxford|isbn = 978-0-691-11446-0}}</ref>

Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept of ''Lila'', playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or [[Rasa-lila]] is an example. Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the [[Yamuna River]] and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent the ''[[prakṛti]]'' matter and the impermanent body.<ref name="Largen">{{cite book|author=Largen|first=Kristin Johnston|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7_gveSP6-sC|title=God at Play: Seeing God Through the Lens of the Young Krishna|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2011|isbn=978-1608330188|location=India|pages=|oclc=1030901369}}</ref>{{rp|256}}

This ''Lila'' is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game.<ref name=Largen />{{rp|255}} This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-Lila and [[Janmashtami]], where Hindus in some regions such as [[Maharashtra]] playfully mimic his legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break open ''handis'' (clay pots) hung high in the air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group.<ref name=Largen />{{rp|253–261}}

=== Adulthood ===
{{further information|Krishna in the Mahabharata}}
[[File:Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama Garuda.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Krishna with his consorts [[Rukmini]] and [[Satyabhama]] and his mount [[Garuda]], Tamil Nadu, India, late 12th–13th{{nbsp}}century<ref name="lacma">{{cite web|url=http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|title=Krishna Rajamannar with His Wives, Rukmini and Satyabhama, and His Mount, Garuda | LACMA Collections|publisher=collections.lacma.org|access-date=2014-09-23|archive-date=16 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716040855/http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, his maternal uncle Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father, [[Ugrasena]], as the king of the [[Yadava]]s and becomes a leading prince at the court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=290}}</ref> In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads the Yadavas to the newly built city of [[Dvārakā|Dwaraka]]. Thereafter Pandavas rise. Krishna befriends [[Arjuna]] and the other [[Pandava]] princes of the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]] kingdom. Krishna plays a key role in the ''Mahabharata''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rao|first1=Shanta Rameshwar|title=Krishna|date=2005|publisher=Orient Longman|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8125026969|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ747fOWTRMC&pg=PA1}}</ref>

The Bhagavata Purana describes [[Ashtabharya|eight wives]] of Krishna that appear in sequence as [[Rukmini]], [[Satyabhama]], [[Jambavati]], [[Kalindi]], [[Mitravinda]], [[Nagnajiti]] (also called Satya), [[Bhadra (Krishna's wife)|Bhadra]] and [[Lakshmana (Krishna's wife)|Lakshmana]] (also called Madra).<ref name="Hudson2008">{{cite book|author=D Dennis Hudson|title=The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264|access-date=28 March 2013|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-970902-1|pages=263–264}}</ref> This has been interpreted as a metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him.<ref>{{cite book|author=D Dennis Hudson|title=The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264|access-date=28 March 2013|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-970902-1|pages=102–103, 263–273}}</ref> Vaishnava texts mention all Gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is understood as spiritual symbolism of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted to him.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Mason Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA188|access-date=10 March 2013|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=188, 222}}</ref>

In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen with [[Radha]]. All of his wives and his lover Radha are considered in the Hindu tradition to be the [[avatar]]s of the goddess [[Lakshmi]], the consort of Vishnu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2006|p=136}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}} [[Gopi]]s are considered as Lakshmi's or Radha's manifestations.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}}<ref name=hawley13>{{cite book|title = The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|author=John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher|date= 1982|isbn = 978-0-89581-102-8|page=12}} Quote: "The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, some as Svaminiji, some adding all ''gopis'', and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of one [[Devi]] Lakshmi."</ref>

=== Kurukshetra War and ''Bhagavad Gita'' ===
{{Main|Kurukshetra War|Bhagavad Gita}}

According to the epic poem ''Mahabharata'', Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the [[Kurukshetra War]], but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down his ''[[Gandiva]]'' (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the nature of life, ethics, and morality when one is faced with a war between good and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul and the good, duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace and bliss and the different types of yoga to reach this state of bliss and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as a discourse called the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.<ref>Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, by Robert N. Minor in {{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=77–79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHX5XwAACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-84519-520-5|pages=1–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Eknath Easwaran|title=The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian Spirituality)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnJAAAAQBAJ|year=2007|publisher=Nilgiri Press|isbn=978-1-58638-019-9|pages=21–59}}</ref>

=== Death and ascension ===
{{Main|Mausala Parva}}

It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War led to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits [[Gandhari (Mahabharata)|Gandhari]] to offer his condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshetra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari said, "Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other. Therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen!" According to the ''Mahabharata'', a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow towards Krishna's foot that fatally injures him. Krishna forgives ''Jara'' and dies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=148}}</ref><ref name=eck380>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0P6gS-vMC&pg=PA380|year=2012|publisher=Harmony |isbn=978-0-385-53190-0|pages=380–381}}, Quote: "Krishna was shot through the foot, hand, and heart by the single arrow of a hunter named Jara. Krishna was reclining there, so they say, and Jara mistook his reddish foot for a deer and released his arrow. There Krishna died."</ref><ref name="Mani, Vettam 1975 429">{{cite book|author = Mani, Vettam|title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature|url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass|year = 1975|location = Delhi|isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0|author-link =Vettam Mani|page=[https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/429 429]}}</ref> The pilgrimage (''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|tirtha]]'') site of [[Bhalka]] in Gujarat marks the location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known as ''Dehotsarga'', states [[Diana L. Eck]], a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up his body".<ref name=eck380 /> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' in Book 11, Chapter 31 states that after his death, Krishna returned to his transcendent abode directly because of his yogic concentration. Waiting gods such as [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]] were unable to trace the path Krishna took to leave his human incarnation and return to his abode.{{Sfn|Bryant|2003|p=417-418}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Baby Krishna, Infant Christ: A Comparative Theology of Salvation|last=Largen|first=Kristin Johnston|publisher=Orbis Books|year=2011|isbn=978-1-60833-018-8|page=44}}</ref>

=== Versions and interpretations ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Shrinathji Vitthalanath Birthday Shringar.jpg
| total_width = 380
| image2 = Lord Jagannath Patachitra.jpg
| image3 = Syayambhuvithoba.jpg
| footer = Krishna iconography appears in many versions across India. For example (left to right): Srinath, Jagannath, Vithoba.
}}
There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: the ''Harivamsa'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=9–14, 145–149}} They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles.<ref>{{cite book|author=Benjamín Preciado-Solís|title=The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvCaWvjGDVEC&pg=PA40 |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-89581-226-1|page=40}}, Quote: "Within a period of four or five centuries [around the start of the common era], we encounter our major sources of information, all in different versions. The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Visnu Purana, the Ghata Jataka, and the Bala Carita all appear between the first and the fifth century AD, and each of them represents a tradition of a Krsna cycle different from the others".</ref> The most original composition, the ''Harivamsa'' is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves in poetic and [[Allusion|allusive]] fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=44–49, 63–64, 145}} Differing in some details, the fifth book of the ''Vishnu Purana'' moves away from ''Harivamsa'' realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=89–104, 146}} The ''Vishnu Purana'' manuscripts exist in many versions.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=18, 245–249}}

The tenth and eleventh books of the ''Bhagavata Purana'' are widely considered to be a poetic masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life found in the ''Harivamsa''. Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play (''Lila''), where his youth is set as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=108–115, 146–147}} Krishna's life is closer to that of a human being in ''Harivamsa'', but is a symbolic universe in the ''Bhagavata Purana'', where Krishna is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself, always.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=145–149}} The ''Bhagavata Purana'' manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian languages.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=138–149}}{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=112}}

== Proposed datings and historicity ==
{{See also|Vedic-Puranic chronology|History of Hinduism}}
[[File:RadhaKrishnaUdaipur.JPG|thumb|upright|14th-century [[fresco]] of [[Radha Krishna]] in [[Udaipur]], Rajasthan]]

The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as [[Janmashtami]].{{sfn|Knott|2000|p=58}}

According to Guy Beck, "most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of Krishna{{snd}}that he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic and puranic histories." Yet, Beck also notes that there is an "enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit canon".<ref>{{cite book|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional And Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity|pages=4–5|first=Guy|last=Beck|publisher=Suny Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K0XqbG0LKBUC&pg=PA4|isbn=978-0-7914-8341-1|date=2012}}</ref>

Some scholars believe that, among others, the detailed description of Krishna's peace mission in the 5th Book of the Mahabharata (Udyogaparvan) is likely to be based on real events. The epic's translator J.A.B. van Buitenen in this context assumes "that there was some degree of verisimilitude in the Mahabharata’s depictions of life."<ref>J.A.B. van Buitenen, ''The Mahabharata'', vol. 3, University of Chicago 1978, p. 134</ref>

== Philosophy and theology ==
[[File:12th-century Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings lost in music at Shaivism Hindu temple Hoysaleswara arts Halebidu Karnataka India.jpg|thumb|12th-century art depicting Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings at [[Hoysaleswara Temple|Hoysaleswara temple]], Karnataka]]

A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. The teachings of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' can be considered, according to [[Friedhelm Hardy]], as the first Krishnaite system of theology.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}

[[Ramanuja]], a Hindu theologian and philosopher whose works were influential in [[Bhakti movement]],<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004p149">{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA149|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=149}}</ref> presented Krishna in terms of qualified [[monism]], or [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]] (namely, the [[Vishishtadvaita]] school).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=329–334 (Francis X Clooney)}} [[Madhvacharya]], a philosopher whose works led to the founding of the [[Haridasa]] tradition of Vaishnavism,<ref name="SharmaB">{{cite book|author1=Sharma|author2=B. N. Krishnamurti|title=A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120815759|pages=514–516}}</ref> presented Krishna in the framework of [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] ([[Dvaita]]).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=358–365 (Deepak Sarma)}} [[Bhedabheda]]—a group of schools, which teaches that the individual self is both different and not different from the ultimate reality—predates the positions of monism and dualism. Among medieval Bhedabheda thinkers are [[Nimbarkacharya]], who founded the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] (of [[Dvaitadvaita Vedanta]]),{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}} and [[Jiva Goswami]], a saint in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Tripurari |first=Swami |title=The Life of Sri Jiva Goswami |url=http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |work=Harmonist |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324101939/http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |archive-date=24 March 2013 }}</ref> who described Krishnaite theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=373–378 (Satyanarayana Dasa)}} Krishnaite theology is presented in a pure monism (''[[Shuddhadvaita]]'') framework by [[Vallabha Acharya]], the founder of the [[Pushtimarg]] sect of Vaishnavism.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=175zjT9bStcC&q=nathdwara | title=Culture of a Sacred Town: A Sociological Study of Nathdwara | publisher=Popular Prakashan | author=Jindel, Rajendra | year=1976 | pages=34, 37 | isbn=978-8171540402}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–480 (Richard Barz)}} [[Madhusūdana Sarasvatī]], an Indian philosopher,<ref name="David_1996">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEUdPqYQjhoC&pg=PA156 |title=Contesting the Nation |editor=David Ludden |chapter=Soldier Monks and Militant Sadhus |author=William R. Pinch |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8122-1585-4 |pages=148–150 }}</ref> developed a theology of Krishna using a nondualism-monism framework ([[Advaita Vedanta]]), while [[Adi Shankara]], credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism,<ref>Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), ''Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora'', {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1913-2}}, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."</ref><ref>''Shankara'', Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived."; David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."</ref><ref>Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), ''The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-10335-0}}, p. 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".</ref> mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on [[Panchayatana puja]].{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=313–318 (Lance Nelson)}}

The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' synthesizes an Advaita, ''[[Samkhya]]'', and Yoga framework of Krishna that is based on loving devotion to Krishna.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}}{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}{{sfn|Brown|1983|pages=553–557}} Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in the ''Bhagavata Purana'':

{{Blockquote|The philosophy of the ''Bhagavata'' is a mixture of Vedanta terminology, Samkhyan metaphysics, and devotionalized Yoga praxis. (...) The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead – the personality behind the term [[Ishvara]] and the ultimate aspect of [[Brahman]].|Edwin Bryant|''Krishna: A Sourcebook''{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=114}}}}

While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view emphasized in the ''Bhagavata'' is [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualist]] with a difference. In conventional nondual Vedanta, all reality is interconnected and one; the ''Bhagavata'' posits that reality is interconnected and plural.<ref>Tracy Pintchman (1994), ''The rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421123}}, pp. 132–134</ref>{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pages=17–21}}

Across various theologies and philosophies, a common theme presents Krishna as the essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love reflecting the divine. The longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the ''gopi''s, his playful pranks as a baby,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|title=Krishna, The Butter Thief|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncb_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5540-7|pages=10, 170}}</ref> as well as his later dialogues with other figures, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the human soul.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity Krishna: Hindu Deity], Encyclopædia Britannica (2015)</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|pages=210–215}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Vaudeville | first=Ch. | title=Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=82 | issue=1 | pages=31–40 | year=1962 | doi=10.2307/595976 | jstor=595976}}</ref> Krishna's ''lila'' is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "love is presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love.<ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|page=210}}</ref>

Other texts that include Krishna, such as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', have attracted numerous ''[[bhasya]]'' (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions.<ref name=Juanxxvi /> Though only a part of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'' has functioned as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life through Krishna and Arjuna. It then presents a spectrum of answers, addressing the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities towards self and others.<ref name=Juanxxvi /><ref name=feuersteinix /> This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous interpretations, from being a metaphor for inner human struggle that teaches non-violence to being a metaphor for outer human struggle that advocates a rejection of quietism and persecution.<ref name=Juanxxvi>{{cite book|author=Juan Mascaró|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCNbVIC |year=1962|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044918-1|pages=xxvi–xxviii}}</ref><ref name=feuersteinix>{{cite book|author1=Georg Feuerstein|author2=Brenda Feuerstein|title=The Bhagavad-Gita: A New Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0exkVFiyvcC |year=2011| publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-1-59030-893-6|pages=ix–xi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas F. Gier|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA36| year=2004| publisher= State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=36–40}}</ref>

[[Madhusūdana Sarasvatī]], known for his contributions to classical Advaita Vedanta, was also a devotee of Krishna and expressed his devotion in various verses within his works, notably in his ''Bhagavad Gita'' commentary, ''Bhagavad Gita Gudarthadipika''. In his works, Krishna is identified as the Supreme Deity and as Bhagavan, whom Madhusudana describes as the nondual Self, embodying Being, Consciousness, and Bliss, the pure Existence underlying all. In his commentary on the ''Gita'', Krishna is often interpreted as representing [[nirguna Brahman]], thus presenting a [[transtheistic]] understanding of deity.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=315}}

== Influence ==
=== Vaishnavism ===
{{Main|Vaishnavism|Krishnaism}}

[[File:Le temple de Chennakesava (Somanathapura, Inde) (14466110935).jpg|thumb|Relief from the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Somanathapura|Chennakeshava Temple]] of Krishna with flute with humans and cows listening, 1258 CE.]]
The worship of Krishna is part of [[Vaishnavism]], a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Dowson |title=Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7661-7589-1 |page=361}}</ref> However, the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,<ref name = Beck>See Beck, Guy, ''"Introduction"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=1–18}}</ref> with Krishna of [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] sampradayas considered an independent deity and supreme.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref name=Knott55>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|p=55}}</ref> Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such as Krishna as supreme. The terms [[Krishnaism]] and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to distinguish the two, the former implying that Krishna is the transcendent Supreme Being.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p =117}} Some scholars, as [[Friedhelm Hardy]], do not define Krishnaism as a sub-order or offshoot of Vaishnavism, considering it a parallel and no less ancient current of Hinduism.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as the eighth avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu, while Krishnaite traditions such as [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]],<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''Folk Vaishnavism and {{IAST|Ṭhākur Pañcāyat}}: Life and status among village Krishna statues'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref><ref name=Kennedy1925>{{cite book| author = Kennedy, M. T.| year = 1925 | title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal| url = https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.24847| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford university press}}</ref> [[Ekasarana Dharma]], [[Mahanam Sampraday]], [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] and the [[Pushtimarg|Vallabha Sampradaya]] regard Krishna not just as an avatar of Vishnu, but as the ''[[Svayam Bhagavan]]'', the original form of Lord or the same as the concept of [[Brahman]] in Hinduism.<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972–1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |year=1997 |page= 109 |isbn=978-90-04-07863-5 |quote=(...) After attaining to fame eternal, he again took up his real nature as [[Brahman]]. The most important among Visnu's avataras is undoubtedly Krsna, the black one, also called ''Syama''. For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself.|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&q=Svayam+bhagavan&pg=PA109 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}}</ref><ref name = VaisnavaInstitute1956>{{cite book |title= Indian Philosophy & Culture, Volume 20 |year= 1975|publisher=The Institute |page= 148|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yEMB3RBwjTsC |others= Institute of Oriental Philosophy (Vrindāvan, India), Institute of Oriental Philosophy, Vaishnava Research Institute, contributors |quote=On the touch-stone of this definition of the final and positive characteristic of Sri Krsna as the Highest Divinity as Svayam-rupa Bhagavan}}</ref><ref name=Delmonico>Delmonico, N., ''The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism'' in {{Harvnb|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004}}</ref><ref name=De1960>{{cite book|author = De, S. K.|year = 1960|title = Bengal's contribution to Sanskrit literature & studies in Bengal Vaisnavism|publisher = KL Mukhopadhyaya}} p. 113: "The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest personal God."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=381}}</ref> [[Gitagovinda]] of [[Jayadeva]] considers Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms. [[Swaminarayan]], the founder of the [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]], also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the [[Vasudeva]], Krishna, and [[Gopal (Krishna)|Gopala]] of the late [[Vedic period]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html|title= Vaishnava|access-date= 13 October 2008|encyclopedia= encyclopedia|publisher= Division of Religion and Philosophy University of Cumbria|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120212183626/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html|archive-date= 12 February 2012|df= dmy-all}}, University of Cumbria website Retrieved 21 May 2008</ref> Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.<ref name="Princeton">{{cite book|author = Graham M. Schweig|title = Dance of Divine Love: The Rڄasa Lڄilڄa of Krishna from the Bhڄagavata Purڄa. na, India's classic sacred love story|publisher = Princeton University Press|location = Princeton, N.J.|year = 2005|pages = Front Matter|isbn = 978-0-691-11446-0|no-pp = true}}</ref>

==== Early traditions ====

The deity ''[[Krishna-Vāsudeva]]'' (''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa vāsudeva}}'' "Krishna, the son of [[Vasudeva Anakadundubhi]]"{{source needed|date=February 2026}}) is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in [[Krishnaism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].<ref name="Cultofgopal">{{cite journal|title = A Revolution in {{IAST|Kṛṣṇaism}}: The Cult of Gopāla |last = Hein|first = Norvin|jstor = 1062622 |volume=25 |issue = 4|pages=296–317 |doi=10.1086/463051 |journal=History of Religions |year=1986|s2cid = 162049250}}</ref><ref name = bryant4 /> It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of Krishna religion in antiquity.<ref>Bhattacharya, Gouriswar: ''Vanamala of Vasudeva-Krsna-Visnu and Sankarsana-Balarama''. In: Vanamala. Festschrift A. J. Gail. Serta Adalberto Joanni Gail LXV. diem natalem celebranti ab amicis collegis discipulis dedicata.</ref> Thereafter, there was an amalgamation of various similar traditions. These include ancient [[Bhagavatism]], the cult of [[Gopala]], of "Krishna Govinda" (cow-finding Krishna), of [[Bala Krishna|Balakrishna]] (baby Krishna) and of "Krishna Gopivallabha<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-08-05|title=Gopala: Understanding the Essence of Krishna as a Cowherd|url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/in/en/wisdom/article/gopala-understanding-essence-krishna-cowherd |access-date=2021-06-30 |website=Isha Sadhguru|language=en}}</ref>" (Krishna the lover).<ref name=kk20072>{{cite book|author = Klostermaier, Klaus K.|pages = [https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos/page/n221 203]–204|year = 2005|title = A Survey of Hinduism|url = https://archive.org/details/surveyhinduismth00klos|url-access = limited|publisher = State University of New York Press; 3 edition|isbn = 978-0-7914-7081-7|quote = Present-day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies, Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Child Krishna{{snd}}a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books, Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = Review: ''Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes''. by Milton Singer; Daniel H. H. Ingalls|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=27 |number=3 |date=May 1968|last = Basham|first = A. L.
|jstor = 2051211|pages=667–670 |doi=10.2307/2051211|s2cid=161458918 }}</ref> According to Andre Couture, the [[Harivamsa]] contributed to the synthesis of various figures as aspects of Krishna.<ref>{{cite journal |title= The emergence of a group of four characters (Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) in the Harivamsa: points for consideration|journal = Journal of Indian Philosophy|author = Couture, André |s2cid = 170133349|year= 2006|volume = 34|issue = 6|pages= 571–585|doi= 10.1007/s10781-006-9009-x }}</ref>

Already in the early Middle Ages, Jagannathism ({{a.k.a.}} [[Odisha|Odia]] Vaishnavism) originated as the cult of the god [[Jagannath]] ({{lit|'Lord of the Universe'}}){{snd}}an abstract form of Krishna.{{sfnm|1a1=Eschmann|1a2=Kulke|1a3=Tripathi|1y=1978|1p=|2a1=Hardy|2y=1987|2pp=387–392|3a1=Starza|3y=1993|3p=|4a1=Miśra|4y=2005|4loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism}} Jagannathism was a regional temple-centered version of [[Krishnaism]],{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}} where Jagannath is understood as a principal god, [[Purushottama]] and [[Para Brahman]], but can also be regarded as a non-sectarian syncretic Vaishnavite and all-Hindu cult.{{sfn|Miśra|2005|p=97|loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism}} According to the ''Vishnudharma Purana'' ({{circa}} 4th century), Krishna is woshipped in the form of Purushottama in Odia (Odisha).{{sfn|Starza|1993|p=76}} The notable [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath temple]] in [[Puri]], Odisha has been particularly significant within the tradition since about 800 CE.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=139–141}}

=== Bhakti tradition ===
{{Main|Bhakti movement|Bhakti yoga}}

[[File:Meerabai (crop).jpg|thumb|Krishna has been a major part of the [[Bhakti movement]]. One of the key devotees was [[Meera]] (pictured).]]
The use of the term bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However, Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism, particularly among the [[Vaishnava]] [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] sects.<ref name = McDaniel /><ref name="Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal|author = Klostermaier, K.|year = 1974|title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume = 94|issue = 1|pages = 96–107|doi = 10.2307/599733 |jstor = 599733}}</ref> Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of ''[[lila (divine play)|lila]]'', meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''.<ref name="Kennedy1925" /><ref name="Jacobsen">{{cite book |editor-last=Jacobsen |editor-first=Knut A. | year = 2005 | title = Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson | page=351 | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers| isbn=978-90-04-14757-7}}</ref><ref name=chapple>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, pp. 302–303, 318</ref>

==== Indian subcontinent ====
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th{{nbsp}}centuries CE. The earliest works included those of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name=Vaudeville1962>{{cite journal|author = Vaudeville, C.|year = 1962|title = Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume = 82|issue = 1|pages = 31–40|doi = 10.2307/595976|jstor = 595976}}</ref> A major collection of their works is the ''[[Divya Prabandham]]''. Alvar [[Andal]]'s popular collection of songs [[Tiruppavai]], in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.<ref name="cassel">{{cite book |author=Bowen, Paul |title=Themes and issues in Hinduism |publisher=Cassell |location=London |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/themesissuesinhi0000unse/page/64 64–65] |isbn=978-0-304-33851-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/themesissuesinhi0000unse/page/64 }}</ref><ref name=Radhak1975>{{cite book|author = Radhakrisnasarma, C.|year = 1975|title = Landmarks in Telugu Literature: A Short Survey of Telugu Literature|publisher = Lakshminarayana Granthamala}}</ref><ref name=histor>{{cite book|author = Sisir Kumar Das|year = 2005|title = A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular|publisher = Sahitya Akademi|page = 49|isbn = 978-81-260-2171-0}}</ref>

The movement originated in South India during the 7th century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the 15th{{nbsp}}century, it was established in Bengal and northern India.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2}} Early [[Krishnaism|Krishnaite]] Bhakti pioneers included [[Nimbarkacharya]] (7th{{nbsp}}century CE),{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=323}}<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nimbarka-Indian-philosopher Nimbarka], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>{{refn|group=note|"The first ''Kṛṣṇaite sampradāya'' was developed by Nimbārka."{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}}} and his disciple [[Srinivasacharya]] but most emerged later, including [[Vallabhacharya]] (15th{{nbsp}}century CE) and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]. They started their own schools, namely [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]], [[Vallabha Sampradaya]], and [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], with Krishna and Radha as the supreme gods. In addition, since the 15th century, flourished [[Tantra|Tantric]] variety of Krishnaism, [[Vaishnava-Sahajiya]], is linked to the Bengali poet [[Chandidas]].{{sfn|Basu|1932}}

In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], particularly in [[Maharashtra]], saint poets of the [[Warkari]] sect such as [[Dnyaneshwar]], [[Namdev]], [[Janabai]], [[Eknath]], and [[Tukaram]] promoted the worship of [[Vithoba]],<ref name="vithoba" /> a local form of Krishna, from the 13th to 18th century.<ref name=" Mahony1987" /> Before the Warkari tradition, Krishna devotion became well established in Maharashtra due to the rise of the [[Mahanubhava|Mahanubhava Sampradaya]] founded by Sarvajna [[Chakradhar Swami|Chakradhara]].<ref>''The religious system of the Mahānubhāva sect'', by Anne Feldhaus, Manohar publications: Delhi, 1983.</ref> The [[Pranami|Pranami Sampradaya]] emerged in the 17th century in [[Gujarat]], based on the Krishna-focussed syncretist Hindu-[[Islam]]ic teachings of Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath.{{sfn|Toffin|2012|pp=249–254}} In southern India, [[Purandara Dasa]] and [[Kanakadasa]] of [[Karnataka]] composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of [[Udupi]]. [[Rupa Goswami]] of Gaudiya Vaishnavism has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti called Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.<ref name="Klostermaier1974" />

In South India, the acharyas of the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Sampradaya]] have written reverently about Krishna in most of their works, including the [[Thiruppavai|''Tiruppavai'']] by [[Andal]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Thiruppavai|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/tpv/|work=Ibiblio|access-date=2013-05-24}}</ref> and ''[[Gopalavimshati]]'' by [[Vedanta Desika]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Desika|first=Vedanta|title=Gopala Vimshati|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/vdesikan/gopala_vimsati/index.html|work=Ibiblio, Sripedia|access-date=2013-05-23}}</ref>

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala states have many major Krishna temples, and [[Janmashtami]] is one of the widely celebrated festivals in South India.<ref name="Maithily">{{cite book |last1=Jaganathan |first1=Maithily |title=South Indian Hindu festivals and traditions |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xcIrkKUJH9QC|edition= 1st |year=2005 |publisher=Abhinav Publication |location=New Delhi |language=en |isbn=978-81-7017-415-8 |pages=104–105 |chapter=Sri Krishna Jayanti }}</ref>

==== Outside Asia ====
[[File:Radhakrishna manor.JPG|thumb|upright|Krishna (left) with Radha at [[Bhaktivedanta Manor]], [[Watford]], England]]
By 1965, the ''Krishna-bhakti'' movement had spread outside India after [[Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] (as instructed by his [[guru]], [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura]]) travelled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later, in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]. In the biographies of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the mantra he received when he was given [[diksha]] or initiation in [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] was the six-word verse of the ''[[Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad|Kali-Santarana Upanishad]]'', namely "Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare". In the Gaudiya tradition, it is the ''maha-mantra'', or the great mantra of Krishna [[bhakti]].{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=42}}<ref>Alanna Kaivalya (2014), Sacred Sound: Discovering the Myth and Meaning of Mantra and Kirtan, New World, {{ISBN|978-1608682430}}, pp. 153–154</ref> The chanting of this ''maha-mantra'' is known as ''hari-nama sankirtana''.<ref>''Srila Prabhupada – He Built a House in which the whole world can live in peace'', Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1984, {{ISBN|0-89213-133-0}} p. xv</ref>

The ''maha-mantra'' gained the attention of [[George Harrison]] and [[John Lennon]] of [[the Beatles]] fame,<ref name=charlesbrooks83 /> and Harrison produced a 1969 recording of the mantra by devotees from the London [[Radha Krishna Temple]].<ref>Peter Lavezzoli (2006), ''The Dawn of Indian Music in the West'', Continuum, {{ISBN|0-8264-2819-3}}, p. 195</ref> Titled "[[Hare Krishna Mantra (song)|Hare Krishna Mantra]]", the song reached the top twenty on the UK music charts and was also successful in West Germany and Czechoslovakia.<ref name=charlesbrooks83 /><ref name=Clarke308>Peter Clarke (2005), ''Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415267076}}, p. 308 Quote: "There they captured the imagination of The Beatles, particularly George Harrison who helped them produce a chart-topping record of the Hare Krishna mantra (1969) and ...".</ref> The mantra of the Upanishad thus helped bring Bhaktivedanta and ISKCON ideas about Krishna into the West.<ref name=charlesbrooks83>Charles Brooks (1989), ''The Hare Krishnas in India'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-8120809390}}, pp. 83–85</ref> ISKCON has built many Krishna temples in the West, as well as other locations such as South Africa.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian A. Hatcher|title=Hinduism in the Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IdeoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 |year= 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-04631-6|pages=118–119}}</ref>

=== Southeast Asia ===
[[File:Krishna, Khuong My, 7th-8th century, Quang Nam - Museum of Cham Sculpture - Danang, Vietnam - DSC01580.JPG|thumb|''Krishna lifting the "[[Govardhan Hill|Govardhan]]" mountain'', a 7th-century artwork from an archaeological site in [[Danang|Da Nang]], Vietnam<ref name="John2014p17" /><ref>{{cite book|author1=Anne-Valérie Schweyer|author2=Paisarn Piemmettawat|title=Viêt Nam ancien: histoire arts archéologie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mSrsUuIxZXkC&pg=PA388 |year=2011|publisher=Editions Olizane|isbn=978-2-88086-396-8|page=388}}</ref>]]
Krishna is found in Southeast Asian history and art, but to a far lesser extent than [[Shiva]], [[Durga]], [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]], [[Agastya]], and [[Buddha]]. In temples (''candi'') of the archaeological sites in hilly volcanic [[Java]], Indonesia, temple reliefs do not portray his pastoral life or his role as the erotic lover, nor do the historic Javanese Hindu texts.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23}} Rather, either his childhood or the life as a king and Arjuna's companion have been more favored. The most elaborate temple arts of Krishna is found in a series of ''Krsnayana'' reliefs in the Prambanan Hindu temple complex near [[Yogyakarta]]. These are dated to the 9th{{nbsp}}century CE.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Subhadradis Diskul (M.C.) |author2=[[Jean Boisselier]] |editor=Natasha Eilenberg |editor2=Robert L. Brown |title=Living a life in accord with Dhamma: papers in honor of professor Jean Boisselier on his eightieth birthday |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--m5oQEACAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Silpakorn University |pages=191–204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Triguṇa (Mpu.)|author2=Suwito Santoso|title=Krĕṣṇāyana: The Krĕṣṇa Legend in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=341kAAAAMAAJ |year=1986|publisher=IAIC| oclc= 15488486}}</ref> Krishna remained a part of the Javanese cultural and theological fabric through the 14th{{nbsp}}century, as evidenced by the 14th-century [[Penataran]] reliefs along with those of the Hindu god Rama in east Java, before Islam replaced Buddhism and Hinduism on the island.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23, for reliefs details see 24–41}}

The medieval era arts of Vietnam and Cambodia feature Krishna. The earliest surviving sculptures and reliefs are from the 6th and 7th{{nbsp}}centuries, and these include Vaishnavism iconography.<ref name="John2014p17">{{cite book|author=John Guy|title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-524-5|pages=17, 146–148}}</ref> According to John Guy, the curator and director of Southeast Asian arts at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], the Krishna Govardhana art from 6th/7th-century Vietnam at [[Danang]], and 7th-century Cambodia at [[Phnom Da]] cave in [[Angkor Borei District|Angkor Borei]], are some of the most sophisticated of this era.<ref name="John2014p17" />

Krishna's iconography has also been found in Thailand, along with those of [[Surya]] and [[Vishnu]]. For example, a large number of sculptures and icons have been found in the Si{{nbsp}}Thep and Klangnai sites in the [[Phetchabun Province|Phetchabun]] region of northern Thailand. These are dated to about the 7th and 8th{{nbsp}}centuries, from both the Funan and Zhenla period archaeological sites.<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Guy |author2=Pierre Baptiste |author3=Lawrence Becker |title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCw_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-20437-7 |pages=222–223 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

== Performance arts ==
=== Dance and culture ===
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 350
| image1 = Flickr - dalbera - Danseuse de Kuchipudi jouant Krishna (musée Guimet).jpg
| image2 = Rasa Lila in Manipuri dance style.jpg
| image3 = Krishnanattam (théâtre rituel du Kerala).jpg
| footer = The Krishna legends in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' have inspired many performance arts repertoire, such as [[Kathak]], [[Kuchipudi]] (left), [[Odissi]] and [[Krishnanattam]] (right).<ref name="Kenneth Valpey 2013"/><ref name="ML Varadpande 1987"/> The ''[[Rasa lila|Rasa Lila]]'' where Krishna plays with the gopis in [[Manipuri dance]] style (center)
}}

Indian dance and music theatre traces its origins and techniques to the ancient ''[[Samaveda|Sama Veda]]'' and ''[[Natyasastra]]'' texts.{{sfn|Beck|1993|pp=107–108}}<ref>PV Kane, ''History of Sanskrit Poetics'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120802742}} (2015 Reprint), pp. 10–41</ref> The stories enacted and the numerous choreographic themes are inspired by the legends in Hindu texts, including Krishna-related literature such as ''[[Harivamsa]]'' and ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pages=92–94}}

The Krishna stories have played a key role in the history of Indian theatre, music, and dance, particularly through the tradition of [[Rasa leela|''Rasaleela'']]. These are dramatic enactments of Krishna's childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. One common scene involves Krishna playing flute in Rasa Leela, only to be heard by certain gopis (cowherd maidens), which is theologically supposed to represent divine call only heard by certain enlightened beings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vemsani |first1=Lavanya |title=Krishna in history thought and culture |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=ABC-Clio LLC|location=California |language=en |isbn=978-1-61069-210-6|pages=179–180 |chapter=Music and Krishna }}</ref> Some of the text's legends have inspired secondary theatre literature such as the eroticism in [[Gita Govinda]].<ref>Graham Schweig (2007), ''Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions'' (Editor: Yudit Kornberg Greenberg), Volume{{nbsp}}1, {{ISBN|978-1851099801}}, pp. 247–249</ref>

Krishna-related literature such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' accords a metaphysical significance to the performances and treats them as a religious ritual, infusing daily life with spiritual meaning, thus representing a good, honest, happy life. Similarly, Krishna-inspired performances aim to cleanse the hearts of faithful actors and listeners. Singing, dancing, and performing any part of ''Krishna Lila'' is an act of remembering the dharma in the text, as a form of ''para bhakti'' (supreme devotion). To remember Krishna at any time and in any art, asserts the text, is to worship the good and the divine.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pages=95–97}}

Classical dance styles such as [[Kathak]], [[Odissi dance|Odissi]], [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]], [[Kuchipudi]] and [[Bharatanatyam]] in particular are known for their [[Krishna legends in Kathak|Krishna-related performances]].{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|page=98}} [[Krisnattam]] (Krishnattam) traces its origins to Krishna legends, and is linked to another major classical Indian dance form called [[Kathakali]].<ref name=Zarrilli2000>{{cite book|author = Zarrilli, P. B.|year = 2000|title = Kathakali Dance-Drama: Where Gods and Demons Come to Play|url = https://archive.org/details/kathakalidancedr00zarr|url-access = limited|publisher = Routledge|page = [https://archive.org/details/kathakalidancedr00zarr/page/n262 246]}}</ref> Bryant summarizes the influence of Krishna stories in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' as, "[it] has inspired more derivative literature, poetry, drama, dance, theatre and art than any other text in the history of Sanskrit literature, with the possible exception of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|page=118}}{{sfn|Archer|2004}}

The [[Palliyodam]], a type of large boat built and used by [[Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple]] in Kerala for the annual water processions of [[Aranmula Boat Race|Uthrattathi Jalamela]] and [[Valla Sadhya]] has the legend that it was designed by Krishna and were made to look like [[Shesha]]naga, the serpent on which Vishnu rests.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/explained-what-palliyodam-and-why-kerala-actor-was-arrested-photoshoot-it-155155|title=Explained: What is a Palliyodam, and why a Kerala actor was arrested for photoshoot on it|newspaper=thenewsminute|access-date=13 September 2021}}</ref>

=== In popular culture ===
====Films====
* In the 1933 Bengali film ''[[Radha Krishna (1933 film)|Radha Krishna]]'', Krishna was portrayed by Shreemati Lakshmi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcUtCgAAQBAJ&q=Radha+Krishna+1933&pg=PA69|title=Bengali Cinema: 'An Other Nation'|last=Sharmistha Gooptu|date=November 2010|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136912177|access-date=3 May 2018}}</ref>
*In the 1957 Telugu-Tamil film ''[[Mayabazar]]'', the 1966, 1967 and 1971 Telugu films ''[[Sri Krishna Tulabharam (1966 film)|Sri Krishna Tulabharam]]'', ''[[Sri Krishnavataram]]'' and ''[[Sri Krishna Vijayamu]]'' respectively, Krishna was portrayed by [[N. T. Rama Rao]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nag |first=Kushali |date=23 May 2012 |title=Mayabazar is an interplay of illusions and reality |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120523/jsp/entertainment/story_15519255.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104003336/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120523/jsp/entertainment/story_15519255.jsp#.VjlScWQrIxc |archive-date=4 November 2015 |access-date=4 November 2015 |website=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Thurlapati|date=4 September 1966|title=శ్రీ కృష్ణ తులాభారం|trans-title=Sri Krishna Tulabharam|work=[[Andhra Jyothi]]|url=https://indiancine.ma/documents/GSW/0,39,2550,1689|access-date=12 September 2020|archive-date=26 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826223537/https://indiancine.ma/documents/GSW/0,39,2550,1689|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Srikanth|date=15 October 1967|title=సినిమా: శ్రీ కృష్ణ అవతారం|trans-title=Cinema: Sri Krishnavataram|work=[[Visalaandhra]]|url=https://indiancine.ma/documents/GVM/0,0,2550,1650|access-date=17 September 2020|language=te|archive-date=14 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114130711/https://indiancine.ma/documents/GVM/0,0,2550,1650|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In the 1971 Hindi film ''[[Shri Krishna Leela]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Sachin Pilgaonkar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.citwf.com/film318824.htm|title=Shri Krishna Leela|author=Alan Goble|accessdate=17 September 2014|website=[[Complete Index to World Film]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923224634/http://www.citwf.com/film318824.htm|archive-date=2015-09-23}}</ref>
* In the 1986 Hindi film ''[[Krishna-Krishna]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Biswajeet]].
* In the 2012 Hindi animated film ''[[Krishna Aur Kans]]'', Krishna was voiced by [[Prachi Save Saathi]].<ref>{{cite web|title='Krishna Aur Kans' set for widest ever domestic release of an Indian animation movie|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-07-26/news/32869469_1_gokulathil-kannan-movie-in-different-languages-english-movie|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812233618/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-07-26/news/32869469_1_gokulathil-kannan-movie-in-different-languages-english-movie|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 August 2014|work=The economic times|access-date=26 July 2012}}</ref>

====Television====
* In [[B. R. Chopra]]'s 1988 series ''[[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharat]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Nitish Bharadwaj]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-02|title=31 years of Mahabharat on Doordarshan: Interesting facts about one of most popular TV shows ever|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/31-years-of-mahabharat-on-doordarshan-know-interesting-facts-about-one-of-most-popular-tv-shows-ever/1724556/|access-date=2020-07-24|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US}}</ref>
* In [[Ramanand Sagar]]'s 1993 series ''[[Shri Krishna (1993 TV series)|Shri Krishna]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Sarvadaman D. Banerjee]], [[Swapnil Joshi]] and [[Ashok Kumar (Tamil actor)|Ashok Kumar Balkrishnan]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-04-27 |title=After 'Ramayan' and 'Mahabharat', now 'Shri Krishna' is returning to Doordarshan |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/after-ramayan-and-mahabharat-now-shri-krishna-is-returning-to-doordarshan/articleshow/75400171.cms |access-date=2024-06-30 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>
* In the 2008 series ''[[Jai Shri Krishna (TV series)|Jai Shri Krishna]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Meghan Jadhav]], Dhriti Bhatia and Pinky Rajput.
* In the 2008 series ''[[Kahaani Hamaaray Mahaabhaarat Ki]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Mrunal Jain]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/Mahabharata-interpreted-differently/article15308422.ece|title=Mahabharata interpreted differently|newspaper=The Hindu |date=23 September 2008|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>
* In the 2011 series ''[[Dwarkadheesh Bhagwan Shree Krishn]]'' and the 2019 series ''[[Dwarkadheesh Bhagwan Shree Krishn – Sarvkala Sampann]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Vishal Karwal]].
* In the 2013 series ''[[Mahabharat (2013 TV series)|Mahabharat]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Saurabh Raj Jain]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-mahabharat-so-far-so-good-tv/20130917.htm|title=Review: Mahabharat, so far so good|publisher=Rediff|author=Nishi Tiwari|access-date=17 September 2013|archive-date=1 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501105830/https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-mahabharat-so-far-so-good-tv/20130917.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In the 2017 series ''[[Vithu Mauli]]'', Krishna was portrayed by Ajinkya Raut.
* In the 2017 series ''[[Paramavatar Shri Krishna]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Sudeep Sahir]] and Nirnay Samadhiya.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ssudeep Sahir to play grown-up Krishna in 'Paramavatar Shri Krishna' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ssudeep-sahir-to-play-grown-up-krishna-in-paramavatar-shri-krishna/articleshow/69411657.cms|access-date=23 February 2022|website=The Times of India|date=21 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
* In the 2018 series ''[[RadhaKrishn]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Sumedh Mudgalkar]] and [[Himanshu Soni]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mallika Singh and Sumedh Mudgalkar: We feel fortunate, it's a blessing to portray Radha and Krishna |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/mallika-singh-and-sumedh-mudgalkar-we-feel-fortunate-its-a-blessing-to-portray-radha-and-krishna/articleshow/80886998.cms|access-date=2021-09-11|website=The Times of India|date=13 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* In the 2019 series ''[[Shrimad Bhagwat Mahapuran]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Rajneesh Duggal]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uddhav Thackeray extends his best wishes to the team of Color's 'Shrimad Bhagwat Mahapuran'! SEE PICS |work=ABP News |date=2 June 2019 |access-date=2 June 2019 |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/shrimad-bhagwat-mahapuran-shri-uddhav-thackeray-extends-his-best-wishes-to-the-team-of-colors-show-1004181}}</ref>
* In the 2021 series ''[[Jai Kanhaiya Lal Ki (2021 TV series)|Jai Kanhaiya Lal Ki]]'', Krishna was portrayed by Hazel Gaur.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/lifestyle/star-bharat-announces-the-launch-of-haathi-ghoda-paal-ki-jai-kanhaiya-laal-ki-283568|title=Star Bharat announces the launch of 'Jai Kanhaiya Lal Ki'|website=Tribune India|accessdate=11 September 2020}}</ref>
* In the 2022 series ''[[Brij Ke Gopal]]'', Krishna was portrayed by [[Paras Arora]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Manul Chudasama & Paras Arora to play Radha and Krishna in the new historical show Brij Ke Gopal|url=https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/videos/tv-news/manul-chudasama-paras-arora-to-play-radha-and-krishna-in-the-new-historical-show-brij-ke-gopal-video-90714091/amp?|work=Zoom TV Entertainment|accessdate=17 April 2021}}</ref>
{{Hinduism}}
{{Vaishnavism}}

== Outside Hinduism ==
=== Jainism ===
The [[Jainism]] tradition lists 63 ''[[Śalākāpuruṣa]]'' or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-four ''[[Tirthankara]]s'' (spiritual teachers) and nine sets of triads. One of these triads is Krishna as the ''Vasudeva'', [[Balarama]] as the ''[[Balabhadra|Baladeva]]'', and [[Jarasandha]] as the ''Prati-Vasudeva''. In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a ''Vasudeva'' with an elder brother termed the ''Baladeva''. Between the triads, ''Baladeva'' upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea of Jainism. The villain is the ''Prati-vasudeva'', who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world, ''Vasudeva-Krishna'' has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill the ''Prati-Vasudeva''.<ref>{{citation|last=Jaini|first=P. S.|author-link=Padmanabh Jaini|date=1993|title=Jaina Puranas: A Puranic Counter Tradition|publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1381-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA207}}</ref> The stories of these triads can be found in the ''[[Harivamsa Purana]]'' (8th{{nbsp}}century CE) of [[Jinasena]] (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to ''Mahābhārata'') and the ''Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita'' of [[Hemachandra]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=26}}<ref name = Jer>See Jerome H. Bauer "Hero of Wonders, Hero in Deeds: [https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA151 "Vasudeva Krishna in Jaina Cosmohistory]" in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=167–169}}</ref>

The story of Krishna's life in the ''Puranas'' of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details, they are very different: they include Jain ''Tirthankaras'' as figures in the story, and generally are polemically critical of Krishna, unlike the versions found in the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''.<ref>{{citation|last=Cort| first=J. E.|date=1993|editor=Wendy Doniger|title=An Overview of the Jaina Puranas, in Purana Perennis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA191 |pages=220–233 | publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0136-2}}</ref> For example, Krishna loses battles in the Jain versions, and his ''gopis'' and his clan of Yadavas die in a fire created by an ascetic named Dvaipayana. Similarly, after dying from the hunter Jara's arrow, the Jaina texts state Krishna goes to the [[Naraka (Jainism)|third hell]] in [[Jain cosmology]], while his brother is said to go to the [[Svarga (Jainism)|sixth heaven]].<ref name="Glasenapp1999p317">{{cite book|author=Helmuth von Glasenapp|title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&pg=PA317 |year=1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1376-2|pages=316–318}}</ref>

Vimalasuri is attributed to be the author of the Jain version of the ''Harivamsa Purana'', but no manuscripts have been found that confirm this. It is likely that later Jain scholars, probably Jinasena of the 8th{{nbsp}}century, wrote a complete version of Krishna legends in the Jain tradition and credited it to the ancient Vimalasuri.<ref name=Cort1993>{{citation|last=Cort| first=J. E.|date=1993|editor=Wendy Doniger|title=An Overview of the Jaina Puranas, in Purana Perennis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA191 |page=191 | publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0136-2}}</ref> Partial and older versions of the Krishna story are available in Jain literature, such as in the ''Antagata Dasao'' of the ''[[Svetambara]]'' ''Agama'' tradition.<ref name=Cort1993 />

In other Jain texts, Krishna is stated to be a cousin of the twenty-second ''Tirthankara'', Neminatha. The Jain texts state that Neminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''. According to [[Jeffery D. Long]], a professor of religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read, and cite the ''Bhagavad Gita'' as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna-related festivals, and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |year= 2009|publisher =I.B. Tauris|isbn= 978-1-84511-625-5|page=42}}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
[[File:Tibetan_Krishna.jpg|thumb|Depiction of Krishna playing the flute, mural of [[Bhutia Busty Monastery]], [[Darjeeling district]], India]]
The story of Krishna occurs in the [[Jataka]] tales in [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.vipassana.info/ay/andhakavenhu_puttaa.htm|title = Andhakavenhu Puttaa|publisher = www.vipassana.info|access-date = 15 June 2008}}</ref> The ''Vidhurapandita Jataka'' mentions ''Madhura'' (Sanskrit: Mathura), the ''Ghata Jataka'' mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk: Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, Keshava).<ref name=Law1941>{{cite book|author = Law, B. C.|year = 1941|title = India as Described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism|publisher = Luzac|url =https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.513920/2015.513920.India-as#page/n5/mode/2up|pages=99–101}}</ref><ref name=Jaiswal>{{cite journal|author = Jaiswal, S.|year = 1974|title = Historical Evolution of the Ram Legend|journal = Social Scientist|jstor = 3517633|volume = 21|issue = 3–4|pages = 89–97|doi = 10.2307/3517633}}</ref>

Like the Jain versions of the Krishna legends, the Buddhist versions such as one in ''Ghata Jataka'' follow the general outline of the story,<ref>{{cite book|author=G.P. Malalasekera|title=Dictionary of Pali Proper Names|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x8ObMQ1GGsUC&pg=PA439|year=2003|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1823-7|page=439}}</ref> but are different from the Hindu versions as well.<ref name=Law1941 />{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=6}} For example, the Buddhist legend describes Devagabbha (Devaki) to have been isolated in a palace built upon a pole after she is born, so no future husband could reach her. Krishna's father similarly is described as a powerful king, but who meets up with Devagabbha anyway, and to whom Kamsa gives away his sister Devagabbha in marriage. The siblings of Krishna are not killed by Kamsa, though he tries. In the Buddhist version of the legend, all of Krishna's siblings grow to maturity.<ref name= Francis314 />

Krishna and his siblings' capital becomes Dvaravati. The Arjuna and Krishna interaction is missing in the Jataka version. A new legend is included, wherein Krishna laments in uncontrollable sorrow when his son dies, and a Ghatapandita feigns madness to teach Krishna a lesson.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera|title=Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names: A-Dh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=up5O9zrSX80C&pg=PA825 |year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3021-9|pages=825–826}}</ref> The Jataka tale also includes internecine destruction among his siblings after they all get drunk. Krishna also dies in the Buddhist legend by the hand of a hunter named Jara, but while he is traveling to a frontier city. Mistaking Krishna for a pig, Jara throws a spear that fatally pierces his feet, causing Krishna great pain and then his death.<ref name= Francis314>{{cite book|author1=H. T. Francis|author2=E. J. Thomas|title=Jataka Tales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYjRAwAAQBAJ |year=1916|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Reprinted: 2014) |isbn=978-1-107-41851-6|pages=314–324}}</ref>

At the end of this ''Ghata-Jataka'' discourse, the Buddhist text declares that [[Sariputta]], one of the revered disciples of the Buddha in the Buddhist tradition, was incarnated as Krishna in his previous life to learn lessons on grief from the Buddha in his prior rebirth:

{{Blockquote|Then he [Master] declared the Truths and identified the Birth: "At that time, Ananda was Rohineyya, Sariputta was Vasudeva [Krishna], the followers of the Buddha were the other persons, and I myself was Ghatapandita."|Jataka Tale No. 454|Translator: W. H. D. Rouse<ref name=cowell57>{{cite book|author1=E.B. Cowell|author2=WHD Rouse|title=The Jātaka: Or, Stories of the Buddha's Former Births|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497|year=1901|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497/page/n75 57]}}</ref>}}

While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Krishna-Vasudeva and make him a student of the [[Buddha]] in his previous life,<ref name=cowell57 /> the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Daniel E Bassuk |title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |date= 1987 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-349-08642-9 |pages=40 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Geoffrey Parrinder|title=Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VkV5AAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford: Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-130-3|pages=19–24, 35–38, 75–78, 130–133}}</ref> In [[Chinese Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Chinese folk religion]], the figure of Krishna has been amalgamated and merged with that of [[Nalakuvara]] to influence the formation of the god [[Nezha]], who has taken on iconographic characteristics of Krishna such as being presented as a divine god-child and slaying a [[nāga]] in his youth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shahar|first=Meir|title=Oedipal god : the Chinese Nezha and his Indian origins|date=2015|isbn=978-0-8248-4760-9|location=Honolulu|oclc=899138008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shen|first1=Xuezheng|last2=Li|first2=Jingwen|last3=Zhang|first3=Yunzhuo|last4=Liu|first4=Shanshan|last5=Hong|first5=Jangsun|last6=Lee|first6=Jongyoon|date=2020-03-31|title=Devil or God: Image Transformation of Chinese Mythology Character "Nezha"（1927–2019）|url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE09330491|journal=Cartoon and Animation Studies|language=en|volume=58|pages=159–200|doi=10.7230/KOSCAS.2020.58.159|s2cid=219661006|issn=1738-009X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Other ===
Krishna's life is written about in "Krishna Avtar" of the ''[[Chaubis Avtar]]'', a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to [[Sikh]] [[Guru Gobind Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.info-sikh.com/VVPage1.html|title=Chaubis Avtar|website=info-sikh.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810182823/http://www.info-sikh.com/VVPage1.html |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Within the Sikh-derived 19th-century [[Radha Soami]] movement, the followers of its founder [[Shiv Dayal Singh]] used to consider him the [[Living Master]] and incarnation of God (Krishna/Vishnu).{{refn|group=note|"Various branches of Radhasoami have argued about the incarnationalism of Satguru ([[David C. Lane|Lane]], 1981). Guru Maharaj Ji has accepted it and identifies with Krishna and other incarnations of Vishnu."<ref>{{cite journal |last=DuPertuis |first=Lucy |title=How People Recognize Charisma: The Case of Darshan in Radhasoami and Divine Light Mission |journal=Sociological Analysis |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=111–124 |date=1986 |doi=10.2307/3711456 |jstor=3711456}}</ref>}}

[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]] believe that Krishna was a "[[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestation of God]]", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Zoroaster]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], the [[Báb]], and the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Bahá'u'lláh]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Smith |first= Peter |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title= Manifestations of God |year= 2000 |publisher= Oneworld Publications |location= Oxford |isbn= 978-1-85168-184-6 |page= [https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/231 231] |url= https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Esslemont, J. E. |author-link=John Esslemont |year= 1980 |title= Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era |edition= 5th |publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois|isbn= 978-0-87743-160-2 |url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/bne-6.html#gr5 |page = 2}}</ref>

[[Ahmadiyya]], a 20th-century Islamic movement, consider Krishna as one of their ancient prophets.<ref>Siddiq & Ahmad (1995), Enforced Apostasy: Zaheeruddin v. State and the Official Persecution of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan, Law & Inequality, Volume 14, pp. 275–324</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Minahan | first=James | title=Ethnic groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia | publisher=ABC-CLIO | location=Santa Barbara, California| year=2012 | isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 | pages=6–8}}</ref><ref>Burhani A. N. (2013), Treating minorities with fatwas: a study of the Ahmadiyya community in Indonesia, Contemporary Islam, Volume 8, Issue 3, pp. 285–301</ref> Their founder, [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]] stated that he was himself a prophet in the likeness of prophets such as Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad,<ref>{{cite book|title=Muslims, and Others in Sacred Space|pages=104–105|first=Margaret|last=Cormack|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> who had come to earth as a latter-day reviver of religion and morality. He also claimed to be Krishna himself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmad |first1=Mirza Ghulam |title=Haqiqatul Wahi |date=1907 |publisher=Islam International Publications |isbn=978-1-84880-764-8 |page=655 |url=https://new.alislam.org/library/books/haqiqatul-wahi |access-date=6 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Al Hakam - The claims of Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (as) |url=https://www.alhakam.org/the-claims-of-hazrat-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |access-date=6 February 2026 |archive-date=11 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251211142322/https://www.alhakam.org/the-claims-of-hazrat-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several [[new religious movements]] since the 19th{{nbsp}}century, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in [[occult]] texts, along with [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Bible|biblical]], and even historical figures.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Harvey |first= D. A. |s2cid= 143606373 |year= 2003|title= Beyond Enlightenment: Occultism, Politics, and Culture in France from the Old Regime to the ''Fin-de-Siècle'' |journal= [[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]] |volume= 65 |issue= 3 |pages= 665–694|doi= 10.1111/1540-6563.00035 }}</ref> For instance, [[Édouard Schuré]], an influential figure in [[perennial philosophy]] and occult movements, considered Krishna a ''Great Initiate'', while [[Theosophist]]s regard Krishna as an incarnation of [[Maitreya (Theosophy)|Maitreya]] (one of the [[Ascended master|Masters of the Ancient Wisdom]]), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha.<ref name = Schure>{{cite book|last = Schure| first = Edouard| author-link = Édouard Schuré |title=Great Initiates: A Study of the Secret History of Religions| publisher = Garber Communications| year = 1992|isbn = 978-0-89345-228-5}}</ref><ref name = Others>See for example: {{cite book|last = Hanegraaff |first = Wouter J. | author-link = Wouter Hanegraaff |title = New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought |publisher = [[Brill Publishers]] |year= 1996|page =390 |isbn=978-90-04-10696-3}}, {{cite book|last = Hammer |first =Olav| author-link = Olav Hammer |title = Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age|url = https://archive.org/details/claimingknowledg00hamm_713 |url-access = limited |publisher =Brill Publishers |year=2004 |pages =[https://archive.org/details/claimingknowledg00hamm_713/page/n83 62], 174 |isbn = 978-90-04-13638-0}}, and {{cite book|last = Ellwood |first = Robert S. |title =Theosophy: A Modern Expression of the Wisdom of the Ages | publisher = Quest Books |page= 139 |year =1986 |isbn=978-0-8356-0607-3 }}</ref>

Krishna was canonised by [[Aleister Crowley]] and is recognised as a saint of [[Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica]] in the [[Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass|Gnostic Mass]] of [[Ordo Templi Orientis]].<ref>Crowley associated Krishna with Roman god [[Dionysus]] and [[Magick (Aleister Crowley)|Magickal formulae]] IAO, [[Om|AUM]] and [[INRI]]. See {{Cite book|last = Crowley|first = Aleister| author-link = Aleister Crowley | title = Liber Aleph |publisher = Weiser Books| isbn=978-0-87728-729-2| page = 71|url = http://sacred-texts.com/oto/aleph_3.htm|year = 1991}} and {{cite book | last = Crowley|first = Aleister| author-link = Aleister Crowley| title = The Book of Lies| publisher = Red Wheels| year = 1980|isbn = 978-0-87728-516-8| pages = 24–25|title-link = The Book of Lies (Crowley)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Apiryon |first = Tau |author2=Apiryon |title = Mystery of Mystery: A Primer of Thelemic Ecclesiastical Gnosticism | publisher = Red Flame|location= Berkeley |year = 1995| isbn = 978-0-9712376-1-2}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Krishnaism]]
*[[Vishnuism]]

== Notes ==
{{Contains special characters|Sanskrit}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Sources ==
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* {{cite book|author=Marijke J. Klokke|title=Narrative Sculpture and Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fx3mpR4uKmkC|year=2000|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-11865-2|location=|pages=}}
* {{cite book|last=Kumar Das|first=Sisir|title=A history of Indian literature, 500–1399|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|year=2006|isbn=978-81-260-2171-0|location=|pages=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC3l1AbPM8sC}}
* {{cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hemchandra |title=Political History of Ancient India |date=1972 |publisher=University of Calcutta |location=Calcutta}} [https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft Originally published in 1923].
* {{cite thesis|surname=Ramnarace |given=Vijay |year=2014 |title=Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa's Vedāntic Debut: Chronology & Rationalisation in the Nimbārka Sampradāya |type=PhD thesis |place=University of Edinburgh |url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/26018/Ramnarace2015.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/26018/Ramnarace2015.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|first=Ludo|last=Rocher|year=1986|author-link=Ludo Rocher|title=The Puranas|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02522-5|location=|pages=}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Steven|author-link=Satyaraja Dasa|title=Essential Hinduism|publisher=Praeger|location=New York|pages=|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-99006-0}}
* {{citation |last=|first=|title=The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India |volume=|editor1-first=Karine |editor1-last=Schomer |editor2-first=W. H. |editor2-last=McLeod |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=|year=1987 |isbn=978-8120802773}}
* {{cite book|last=Sheridan|first=Daniel|title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa|publisher=South Asia Books|location=Columbia, Mo|pages=|year=1986|isbn=978-81-208-0179-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C}}
* {{cite book|surname=Starza |given=O. M. |title=The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art and Cult |series=Studies in South Asian culture, 15 |url={{Google books|v4bV3beb0n8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=Leiden; New York; Köln |year=1993 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-09673-6}}
* {{cite book|surname=Toffin |given=Gérard |chapter=The Power of Boundaries: Transnational Links among Krishna Pranamis of India and Nepal |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uuuICwAAQBAJ&pg=PT249 |editor=John Zavos |display-editors=etal |title=Public Hinduisms |url={{Google books|uuuICwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2012 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Sage Publ. India |isbn=978-81-321-1696-7 |pages=249–254}}
* ''History of Indian Theatre'' By M. L. Varadpande. Chapter ''Theatre of Krishna'', pp. 231–94. Published 1991, Abhinav Publications, {{ISBN|81-7017-278-0|}}.
* {{cite book|last=Varadpande|first=Manohar Laxman|title=History of Indian theatre|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1987|isbn=978-81-7017-221-5|volume=3|location=|pages=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |surname=Brown |given=Sara Black |title=Krishna, Christians, and Colors: The Socially Binding Influence of Kirtan Singing at a Utah Hare Krishna Festiva |journal=Ethnomusicology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454 |date=2014 |volume=58 |number=3 |pages=454–480 |doi=10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454|jstor=10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |surname=Case |given=Margaret H. |title=Seeing Krishna: The Religious World of a Brahman Family in Vrindavan |url={{Google books|Zh7OoTSH5UwC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-513010-3}}
* {{cite journal |surname=Crooke |given=W. |title=The Legends of Krishna |journal=Folklore |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1253142 |date=March 1900 |volume=11 |number=1 |pages=1–42|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1900.9720517 |jstor=1253142 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |surname=Hudson |given=Dennis |title=Bathing in Krishna: A Study in Vaiṣṇava Hindu Theology |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1509739 |date=1980 |volume=73 |number=3/4 |pages=539–566|doi=10.1017/S0017816000002315 |jstor=1509739 |s2cid=162804501 |url-access=subscription }}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt= no|n= no |b= no |v= no|commonscat=yes|d=Q42891}}
* {{Britannica|323556}}


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Vattathukkul Chaduram

2026-03-04T04:48:13Z

KiaGreenwald: added a article...

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Vattathukkul Chaduram.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[S. P. Muthuraman]]
| screenplay = [[Panchu Arunachalam]]
| based_on = {{based on|''Vattathukkul Chaduram''|[[Maharishi (writer)|Maharishi]]}}
| producer = N. S. Mani
| starring = [[Latha (actress)|Latha]] [[Sumithra (actress)|Sumithra]] [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]] [[Sarath Babu]]
| cinematography = Babu
| editing = R. Vittal N. Dhamodharan
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = M. A. M. Films
| released = {{Film date|1978|7|29|df=y}}
| runtime = 136 minutes{{sfn|Dharap|1979|p=338}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Vattathukkul Chaduram''''' ({{translation|A square within a circle}}) is a 1978 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[female buddy film]], directed by [[S. P. Muthuraman]] and written by [[Panchu Arunachalam]]. Based on the novel of the same name by [[Maharishi (writer)|Maharishi]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 September 2019 |title=Novelist Maharishi, famed for Bhuvana Oru Kelvi Kuri, no more |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2019/sep/29/novelist-maharishi-famed-for-bhuvana-oru-kelvi-kuri-no-more-2040622.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005205407/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2019/sep/29/novelist-maharishi-famed-for-bhuvana-oru-kelvi-kuri-no-more-2040622.html |archive-date=5 October 2019 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> the film stars [[Latha (actress)|Latha]], [[Sumithra (actress)|Sumithra]], [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]] and [[Sarath Babu]]. It depicts the depth of friendship shared between the characters Anu and Malathy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shekar |first=Anjana |date=28 January 2020 |title=From 'Sakuntalai' to 'Game Over': Female friendships in Tamil cinema |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/sakuntalai-game-over-female-friendships-tamil-cinema-116987 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200317105553/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/prisoners-open-jail-kerala-are-leading-agri-revolution-worth-rs-2-crore-119732 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Subhakeerthana |first=S |date=30 July 2022 |title=Must-watch Tamil movies that celebrate friendship |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/must-watch-tamil-movies-that-celebrate-friendship/e8ba910a64606 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731180457/https://www.ottplay.com/news/must-watch-tamil-movies-that-celebrate-friendship/e8ba910a64606 |archive-date=31 July 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=[[OTTPlay]]}}</ref> The film was released on 29 July 1978,<ref>{{Cite web |title=வட்டத்துக்குள் சதுரம் / Vatathukkul Chadhuram (1978) |url=https://screen4screen.com/movies/vatathukkul-chadhuram |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117172558/https://screen4screen.com/movies/vatathukkul-chadhuram |archive-date=17 November 2023 |access-date=17 November 2023 |website=Screen 4 Screen}}</ref> and Latha won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015069813841&view=1up&seq=488 |title=The Times of India Directory and Year Book Including Who's who |publisher=[[The Times Group|Bennett Coleman & Co. Ltd]] |year=1984 |pages=234}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{more plot|date=August 2022}}
Anu falls in love with Karthik, the brother of her best friend Malathy from childhood. Karthik doesn't like her, since she was born out of wedlock. Malathy has always done well in school and wishes to continue studying further. Kartik and Malathy's mother tries to get her married. Anu suggests that she could take her along to [[Chennai]], where she could continue studying while Anu pursues a dancing career. Anu has to compromise and get along with her hotel managers to get a dancing contract to earn money to educate Malathy. Meanwhile, Malathy's fiancée doesn't approve of her friendship with a club dancer, and asks Malathy to cut Anu out of her life. Though Malathy doesn't approve of her friend's way of earning a living, she cannot throw away 15 years of friendship. Malathy decides to cancel the marriage proposal in order to save her friendship. Anu goes to extreme measures to save her friend's love life.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Latha (actress)|Latha]] as Anu
*[[Sumithra (actress)|Sumithra]] as Malathy
*[[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]] as Karthik
*[[Sarath Babu]]
*[[Thengai Srinivasan]]
*[[V. Gopalakrishnan (actor)|V. Gopalakrishnan]]
*[[Savitri (actress)|Savitri]]
*[[C. K. Saraswathi]]
*Udayalakshmi
*[[Sumathi (actress)|Baby Sumathi]]
*[[Baby Indira]]
*Master Sunil Kumar
*Karuppiah
*[[Ceylon Manohar]]
*Narayanan
*Natarajan
*Jothi Shanmugam
*Rajaram
*Panikkar
}}

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]], with lyrics by [[Panchu Arunachalam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 December 1978 |title=Vattathukkul Chaduram |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/vattathukkul-chaduram/kC6,mFXkBMM_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121135054/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/vattathukkul-chaduram/kC6,mFXkBMM_ |archive-date=21 January 2021 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vattathukkul Chaduram (EP, 45 RPM) |url=https://avdigital.in/products/vattathukkul-chaduram-ep-45-rpm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021232103/https://avdigital.in/products/vattathukkul-chaduram-ep-45-rpm |archive-date=21 October 2021 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=AVDigital}}</ref> The song "Kaadhal Ennum Kaaviyam" is set to the raga [[Kamavardhani|Panthuravali]],{{Sfn|Sundararaman|2007|p=143}} and "Idho Idho En Nenjile" is set to [[Mayamalavagowla]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ராமானுஜன் |first=டாக்டர் ஜி. |date=18 May 2018 |title=ராக யாத்திரை 05: தாழ் திறந்த இசையின் கதவு |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/127932-05.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813042815/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/127932-05.html |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=13 August 2022 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref>{{Sfn|Sundararaman|2007|p=132}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Length
|-
| "Idho Idho En Nenjile" || [[S. Janaki]], B. S. Sasirekha, Uma Devi || 05:13
|-
| "Perazhagu Meni" || S. Janaki || 03:15
|-
| "Kaadhal Ennum Kaaviyam" || [[Jikki]] || 04:35
|-
| "Aadachonnare" || [[Jency]] || 03:23
|}

==Reception==
Naagai Dharuman of ''Anna'' praised the acting, dialogues, music, direction and cinematography but panned Latha's characterisation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=தருமன் |first=நாகை |date=6 August 1978 |title=🟗 |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_2_37/2.jp2/full/1000,1368/90/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250511021926/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_2_37/2.jp2/full/1000,1368/90/default.jpg |archive-date=11 May 2025 |access-date=11 May 2025 |newspaper=Anna |pages=2 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref> According to Muthuraman, the film failed at the box-office.{{sfn|Muthuraman|2017|page=187}} However Maharishi was completely satisfied with the film adaptation.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=அசோக்குமார் |date=22 June 1980 |title=நாவல் படமான போது... |trans-title=When a novel becomes a film... |url=https://archive.org/download/kalki1980-06-22/kalki1980-06-22.pdf |access-date=10 April 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=60–62 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Dharap |first=B. V. |title=Indian Films |publisher=Motion Picture Enterprises |year=1979 |oclc=982194991}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sundararaman |title=Raga Chintamani: A Guide to Carnatic Ragas Through Tamil Film Music |publisher=Pichhamal Chintamani |year=2007 |edition=2nd |oclc=295034757 |orig-date=2005}}
*{{Cite book |last=Muthuraman |first=S. P. |title=AVM Thandha SPM |publisher=Vikatan |year=2017 |edition=3rd |language=Tamil |oclc=607342391 |author-link=S. P. Muthuraman |orig-date=2005}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
{{S. P. Muthuraman}}

[[Category:1970s female buddy films]]
[[Category:1978 Indian films]]
[[Category:1978 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1978 films]]
[[Category:Films about friendship]]
[[Category:Films based on Tamil novels]]
[[Category:Films directed by S. P. Muthuraman]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Panchu Arunachalam]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:Indian female buddy films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Aspirated consonant

2026-03-04T00:02:53Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{Short description|Consonant followed by a strong burst of air}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2009}}
{{Infobox IPA
| above = Aspirated
| ipa symbol = ◌ʰ
| ipa number= 404
| decimal = 688
| imagefile = IPA Unicode 0x02B0.svg
}}
{{IPA notice}}

In [[phonetics]], '''aspiration''' is a strong burst of [[breathing|breath]] that accompanies either the release or, in the case of [[preaspiration]], the [[Stop consonant#articulation|closure]] of some [[obstruent]]s. In English, aspirated [[consonant]]s are [[allophone]]s in [[complementary distribution#In phonology|complementary distribution]] with their unaspirated counterparts, but in some other languages, notably most North American languages, [[Languages of South Asia|South Asian languages]] and [[Languages of East Asia|East Asian languages]], the difference is [[Contrastive distribution#Phonology|contrastive]].

==Transcription==
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), aspirated consonants are written using the symbols for [[voicelessness|voiceless consonants]] followed by the [[Phonetic symbols in Unicode#Spacing Modifier Letters (U+02B0–02FF)|aspiration modifier letter]] {{angbr IPA|◌ʰ}}, a [[subscript and superscript|superscript form]] of the symbol for the [[voiceless glottal fricative]] {{angbr IPA|h}}. For instance, {{angbr IPA|p}} represents the voiceless [[bilabial stop]], and {{angbr IPA|pʰ}} represents the aspirated bilabial stop.

[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced consonants]] are seldom actually aspirated. Symbols for [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonants]] followed by {{angbr IPA|◌ʰ}}, such as {{angbr IPA|bʰ}}, typically represent consonants with [[murmured voice]]d release (see [[#Breathy-voiced release|below]]). In the [[shiksha|grammatical tradition]] of [[Sanskrit]], aspirated consonants are called '''voiceless aspirated''', and breathy-voiced consonants are called '''voiced aspirated'''.

There are no dedicated IPA symbols for degrees of aspiration and typically only two degrees are marked: unaspirated {{angbr IPA|k}} and aspirated {{angbr IPA|kʰ}}. [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|An old symbol]] for light aspiration was {{angbr IPA|ʻ}}, but this is now obsolete. The aspiration modifier letter may be doubled to indicate especially strong or long aspiration. Hence, the two degrees of aspiration in Korean stops are sometimes transcribed {{angbr IPA|kʰ kʰʰ}} or {{angbr IPA|kʻ}} and {{angbr IPA|kʰ}}, but they are usually transcribed {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[kʰ]}},<ref>{{cite web |editor1-last=Ladefoged |editor1-first=Peter |editor1-link=Peter Ladefoged |editor2=Barbara Blankenship
|editor3=Russell G. Schuh |title=Korean |url=http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/KOR/kor.html |website= UCLA Phonetics Archive |date=21 April 2009 |access-date=20 February 2015 }} word lists from [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/KOR/kor_word-list_1977_01.html 1977], [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/KOR/kor_word-list_1966_01.html 1966], [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/KOR/kor_word-list_1975_01.html 1975].</ref> with the details of voice onset time given numerically.

Preaspirated consonants are marked by placing the aspiration modifier letter before the consonant symbol: {{angbr IPA|ʰp}} represents the preaspirated bilabial stop.

'''Unaspirated''' or [[tenuis consonant]]s are occasionally marked with the modifier letter for unaspiration {{angbr IPA|◌˭}}, a [[Unicode subscripts and superscripts|superscript]] [[equals sign]]: {{angbr IPA|t˭}}. Usually, however, unaspirated consonants are left unmarked: {{angbr IPA|t}}.

==Phonetics==
{{listen
| type = speech
| header = Aspiration of final stops and affricates in Eastern Armenian
| filename = Hy-EA-տաք-տակ.ogg
| title = Final aspirated and voiceless velar stops
| description = {{wikt-lang|hy|տաք}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|տակ}} "hot, under" ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|tak’ tak}}'' {{IPA|hy|tɑkʰ tɑk|}}
| filename2 = Hy-ea-այծ-այց.ogg
| title2 = Final voiceless and aspirated alveolar affricates
| description2 = {{wikt-lang|hy|այծ}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|այց}} "goat, visit" ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|ayc ayc’}}'' {{IPA|hy|ɑjt͡s ɑjt͡sʰ|}}
| filename3 = Hy-EA-գնացք.ogg
| title3 = Final aspirated affricate–stop cluster
| description3 = {{wikt-lang|hy|գնացք}} "train" ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|gnac’k’}}'' {{IPA|hy|ɡəˈnɑt͡sʰkʰ|}}
| filename4 = Hy-EA-աղոթք.ogg
| title4 = Final aspirated stop–stop cluster
| description4 = {{wikt-lang|hy|աղոթք}} "prayer" ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|aġot’k’}}'' {{IPA|hy|ɑˈʁɔtʰkʰ|}}
}}
[[Voicelessness|Voiceless consonants]] are produced with the [[vocal folds]] open (spread) and not vibrating, and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed and vibrating ([[modal voice]]). Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal folds remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant's [[voice onset time]], as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal folds close.

In some languages, such as [[Navajo phonology|Navajo]], aspiration of stops tends to be phonetically realised as voiceless velar airflow; aspiration of affricates is realised as an extended length of the frication.

Aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds. For example, in [[Eastern Armenian]], aspiration is contrastive even word-finally, and aspirated consonants occur in [[consonant cluster]]s. In [[Wahgi language|Wahgi]], consonants are aspirated only when they are in final position.

Kurukh distinguishes /Ch, Cʰ, Cʰh/ with occasional minimal pairs like /dʱandha:/ "astonishment" and /dʱandʱa:/ "exertion". Clusters of voiced aspirates and /h/ are possible too as in /madʒʱhi:/ "middle" and /madʒʱis/ "zamindar's agent".{{sfnp|Kobayashi |Tirkey|2017|p=35}}

===Degree===
The degree of aspiration varies: the voice onset time of aspirated stops is longer or shorter depending on the language or the place of articulation.

Armenian and [[Cantonese]] have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, in addition to unaspirated stops. Korean has lightly aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops as well as strongly aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese.

Aspiration varies with [[place of articulation]]. The Spanish voiceless stops {{IPA|/p t k/}} have [[Voice onset time|voice onset times]] (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, and English aspirated {{IPA|/p t k/}} have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Voice onset time in Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for {{IPA|/p t k/}} and 90, 95, and 125 for {{IPA|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lisker and Abramson|title=A cross-language Study of Voicing in Initial Stops|journal=Word|date=1964|volume=20|pages=384–422|doi=10.1080/00437956.1964.11659830|doi-access=}}</ref>

===Doubling===
{{listen
| type = speech
| help = no
| header = Gemination of aspirated consonants in Eastern Armenian
| filename = Hy-EA-Մեքքա.ogg
| title = Double aspirated ''k’k’''
| description = {{wikt-lang|hy|Մեքքա}} ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|Mek’k’a}}'' "[[Mecca]]": {{IPA|/ˈmekʰkʰa/}} {{IPA|hy|ˈmekːʰa|}}
| filename2 = Hy-EA-կեցցե.ogg
| title2 = Double aspirated ''c’c’''
| description2 ={{wikt-lang|hy|կեցցե}} ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|kets’ts’e}}'' "long live!": {{IPA|/kʲetsʰˈtsʰe/}} {{IPA|hy|kʲeˈtːsʰe|}}}}
When aspirated consonants are doubled or [[gemination|geminated]], the stop is held longer and then has an aspirated release. An aspirated affricate consists of a stop, fricative, and aspirated release. A doubled aspirated affricate has a longer hold in the stop portion and then has a release consisting of the fricative and aspiration.

===Preaspiration===
[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]] have consonants with [[preaspiration]] {{IPA|[ʰp ʰt ʰk]}}, and some scholars{{who|date=April 2017}} interpret them as consonant clusters as well. In Icelandic, preaspirated stops [[Icelandic phonology#Aspiration and length contrasts (medial and final)|contrast with double stops and single stops]]:
{| class="wikitable"
! Word
! IPA
! Meaning
|-
|''{{lang|is|kapp}}''
|{{IPA|[kʰɑʰp]}} or {{IPA|[kʰɑhp]}}
|zeal
|-
|''{{lang|is|gabb}}''
|{{IPA|[kɑpp]}}
|hoax
|-
|''{{lang|is|gap}}''
|{{IPA|[kɑːp]}}
|opening
|}
Preaspiration is also a feature of [[Scottish Gaelic]]:
{| class="wikitable"
! Word
! IPA
! Meaning
|-
|''{{lang|gd|cat}}''
|{{IPA|[kʰɑʰt]}}
|cat
|}
Preaspirated stops also occur in most [[Sami languages]]. For example, in [[Northern Sami]], the unvoiced stop and affricate phonemes {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/ts/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} are pronounced preaspirated ({{IPA|[ʰp]}}, {{IPA|[ʰt]}} {{IPA|[ʰts]}}, {{IPA|[ʰtʃ]}}, {{IPA|[ʰk]}}) in medial or final position. Further, [[Proto-Siouan language|Proto-Siouan]] is notable for contrasting aspirated stops with preaspirated stops.

===Fricatives and sonorants===
Although most aspirated obstruents in the world's languages are stops and affricates, [[aspirated fricative]]s such as {{IPA|[sʰ]}}, {{IPA|[ɸʷʰ]}} and {{IPA|[ɕʰ]}} have been documented in [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Xuanzhou Wu]], and {{IPA|[xʰ]}} has been described for Spanish,<ref>Schwegler, Kempff & Ameal-Guerra (2010) ''Fonética y fonología españolas.'' John Wiley, 4th ed.</ref> though these are allophones of other phonemes. Similarly, aspirated fricatives and even aspirated nasals, approximants, and trills occur in a few [[Tibeto-Burman languages]], some [[Oto-Manguean languages]], the [[Hmongic languages|Hmongic]] language [[Hmu language|Hmu]], the [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] language [[Ofo language|Ofo]], and the [[Chumashan languages|Chumashan]] languages [[Barbareño language|Barbareño]] and [[Ventureño language|Ventureño]]. Some languages, such as [[Choni language|Choni Tibetan]], have as many as four contrastive aspirated fricatives {{IPA|[sʰ]}} {{IPA|[ɕʰ]}}, {{IPA|[ʂʰ]}} and {{IPA|[xʰ]}}.<ref>[[Guillaume_Jacques]] 2011. A panchronic study of aspirated fricatives, with new evidence from Pumi, ''Lingua'' 121.9:1518–1538 [https://www.academia.edu/968778/A_panchronic_study_of_aspirated_fricatives_with_new_evidence_from_Pumi]</ref>

==={{anchor|Voiced stop}}Voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration===
True aspirated voiced consonants, as opposed to [[murmured]] (breathy-voice) consonants such as the {{IPA|[bʱ], [dʱ], [ɡʱ]}} that are common among the [[languages of South Asia]], are extremely rare. They have been documented in [[Kelabit language|Kelabit]].<ref>[[Robert Blust]], 2006, "The Origin of the Kelabit Voiced Aspirates: A Historical Hypothesis Revisited", ''Oceanic Linguistics'' 45:311</ref>

==Phonology==
Aspiration has varying significance in different languages. It is either allophonic or phonemic, and may be analyzed as an [[underlying representation|underlying]] consonant cluster.

===Allophonic===
{{listen
| type = speech
| header = Aspiration and voicing of stops in American English
| filename = En-us-pin spin bin nip nib.ogg
| title = Labial stops
| description = ''pin'' with aspirated ''p'', ''spin'' with unaspirated ''p'', ''bin'' with partially voiced ''b'', ''nip'' with unaspirated ''p'', ''nib'' with partially voiced ''b'': {{IPA|[pʰɪˑn spɪˑn bɪˑn nɪp nɪˑb]}}
| filename2 = En-us-distend distaste.ogg
| title2 = Aspiration alternation in single-stem and compound word
| description2 = ''distend'' with unaspirated ''t'', ''distaste'' (''dis-taste'') with aspirated ''t'': {{IPA|[dɨˈstɛnd dɨsˈtʰeɪst]}} }}
In some languages, stops are distinguished primarily by [[voice (phonetics)|voicing]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Exploring Minimal Pairs of Consonants in English: A Literature Review|url=https://jurnal.geinrafflesia.com/index.php/JPR/article/view/41|journal=Jurnal Pendidikan Rafflesia|date=2023-06-30|issn=2962-0643|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.70963/jpr.v1i2.41|first=Nadhira|last=Afifah|first2=Yani|last2=Lubis|doi-access=free}}</ref> and voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated, while voiced stops are usually unaspirated.

[[English language|English]] [[voiceless]] [[stop consonant|stops]] are aspirated for most native speakers when they are word-initial or begin a [[stressed syllable]]. Pronouncing them as unaspirated in these positions, as is done by many [[Indian English]] speakers, may make them get confused with the corresponding voiced stop by other English-speakers.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} Conversely, this confusion does not happen with the native speakers of languages which have aspirated and unaspirated but not voiced stops, such as [[Mandarin Chinese]].

S+consonant clusters can vary between aspirated and unaspirated forms depending on whether the cluster crosses a morpheme boundary. For example, distend features an unaspirated [t] because it is not analyzed as comprising two morphemes. In contrast, distaste includes an aspirated middle [tʰ] since it is analyzed as dis- + taste, and the word taste begins with an aspirated [t].

Word-final voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated.

Voiceless stops in [[Pashto]] are slightly aspirated prevocalically in a stressed syllable.

===Phonemic===
In many languages, such as [[Hindi language|Hindi]], tenuis and aspirated consonants are [[phoneme|phonemic]]. Unaspirated consonants like {{IPA|[p˭ s˭]}} and aspirated consonants like {{IPA|[pʰ ʰp sʰ]}} are separate phonemes, and words [[distinctive feature|are distinguished]] by whether they have one or the other.

====Consonant cluster====
[[Alemannic German|Alemannic German dialects]] have unaspirated {{IPA|[p˭ t˭ k˭]}} as well as aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ kʰ]}}; the latter series are usually viewed as [[consonant cluster]]s.

===Absence===
[[Afrikaans]], [[French language|French]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Tranel|first=Bernard|url=https://archive.org/details/soundsoffrenchin0000tran|title=The sounds of French: an introduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1987|isbn=0-521-31510-7|edition=3rd|location=Cambridge, New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/soundsoffrenchin0000tran/page/129 129]–130|url-access=registration}}
</ref> [[Dutch language|Standard Dutch]],<ref>Frans Hinskens, Johan Taeldeman, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t8jmBQAAQBAJ&dq=frisian%20substrate%20dutch&pg=PA66 Language and space: Dutch]'', Walter de Gruyter 2014. 3110261332, 9783110261332, p.66</ref> [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Greek language|Modern Greek]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] are languages that do not have phonetic aspirated consonants.

==Examples==

===Chinese===
{{Listen
| type = speech
| header = Aspirated stops and affricates in Mandarin Chinese
| filename = Zh-dan4.ogg
| title = Unaspirated ''t''
| description = {{transliteration|zh|ISO|dàn}} {{IPA|cmn|tân|}}
| filename2 = Zh-tan4.ogg
| title2 = Aspirated ''t''
| description2 = {{transliteration|zh|ISO|tàn}} {{IPA|cmn|tʰân|}}
| filename3 = Zh-zao3.ogg
| title3 = Unaspirated ''ts''
| description3 = {{transliteration|zh|ISO|zǎo}} {{IPA|cmn|tsɑʊ̀|}}
| filename4 = Zh-cǎo.ogg
| title4 = Aspirated ''ts''
| description4 = {{transliteration|zh|ISO|cǎo}} {{IPA|cmn|tsʰɑʊ̀|}}
}}

[[Standard Chinese]] (Mandarin) has stops and affricates distinguished by aspiration: for instance, {{IPA|/t tʰ/}}, {{IPA|/t͡s t͡sʰ/}}. In [[pinyin]], tenuis stops are written with letters that represent voiced consonants in English, and aspirated stops with letters that represent voiceless consonants. Thus ''d'' represents {{IPA|/t/}}, and ''t'' represents {{IPA|/tʰ/}}.

[[Wu Chinese]] and [[Southern Min]] has a three-way distinction in stops and affricates: {{IPA|/p pʰ b/}}. In addition to aspirated and unaspirated consonants, there is a series of ''muddy consonants'', like {{IPA|/b/}}. These are pronounced with [[slack voice|slack]] or [[breathy voice]]: that is, they are weakly voiced. Muddy consonants as [[Syllable#Chinese model|initial]] cause a syllable to be pronounced with low pitch or [[four tones (Middle Chinese)|''light'' (陽 ''yáng'') tone]].

===Indian languages===
{{Listen
| type = speech
| filename = Hi-टाल ठाल डाल ढाल.ogg
| title = Retroflex stops in Hindi
| description = {{lang|hi|टाल}}, {{wikt-lang|hi|ठाल}}, {{lang|hi|डाल}}, {{wikt-lang|hi|ढाल}} ''ṭāl ṭhāl ḍāl ḍhāl'' "postpone, wood shop, branch, shield" {{IPA|hi|ʈal ʈʰal ɖal ɖʱal|}}
}}

{{main|Indo-Aryan languages#Charts|Dravidian languages#Phonology}}
Many [[Indo-Aryan languages]] have aspirated stops. [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] have a four-way distinction in stops: voiceless, aspirated, voiced, and voiced aspirated, such as {{IPA|/p pʰ b bʱ/}}. [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] has lost voiced aspirated consonants, which resulted in a [[tone (linguistics)|tone system]], and therefore has a distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced: {{IPA|/p pʰ b/}}.

Other languages such as [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], and [[Kannada]], have a distinction between voiced and voiceless, aspirated and unaspirated. However, in all of these languages, aspirated consonant occur (mostly) in borrowed words, and commonly substituted with their unaspirated counterparts.

===Armenian===
{{listen
| type = speech
| header = Voicing and aspiration in Eastern Armenian stops and affricates
| help = no
| filename = Hy-EA-դուր-տուր-թուր.ogg
| title = Dental stops
| description = {{wikt-lang|hy|դուր}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|տուր}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|թուր}} "chisel, give!, sword" ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|dur, tur, tʻur}}'' {{IPA|[duɾ tuɾ tʰuɾ]}}
| filename2 = Hy-EA-թագ-թակ-թաք.ogg
| title2 = Final voiced, voiceless, and aspirated velar stops
| description2 = {{wikt-lang|hy|թագ}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|թակ}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|թաք}} "crown, mallet, only" ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|tʻag tʻak tʻakʻ}}'': {{IPA|hy|tʰɑɡ tʰɑk tʰɑkʰ|}}
| filename3 = Hy-EA-ձախ-ծախ-ցախ.ogg
| title3 = Dental affricates
| description3 = {{wikt-lang|hy|ձախ}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|ծախ}}, {{wikt-lang|hy|ցախ}} "left-hand, sale, brushwood" ''{{transliteration|hy|ISO|jax cax cʻax}}'': {{IPA|hy|dzɑχ tsɑχ tsʰɑχ|}}
}}

Most dialects of [[Armenian language|Armenian]] have aspirated stops, and some have breathy-voiced stops.

[[Classical Armenian|Classical]] and [[Eastern Armenian]] have a three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced, such as {{IPA|/t tʰ d/}}.

[[Western Armenian]] has a two-way distinction between aspirated and voiced: {{IPA|/tʰ d/}}. Western Armenian aspirated {{IPA|/tʰ/}} corresponds to Eastern Armenian aspirated {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and voiced {{IPA|/d/}}, and Western voiced {{IPA|/d/}} corresponds to Eastern voiceless {{IPA|/t/}}.

===Greek===
{{main|Ancient Greek phonology}}

[[Ancient Greek]], including the [[Attic Greek|Classical Attic]] and [[Koine Greek]] dialects, had a three-way distinction in stops like Eastern Armenian: {{IPA|/t tʰ d/}}. These series were called {{wikt-lang|grc|ψιλός|ψιλά}}, {{wikt-lang|grc|δασύς|δασέα}}, {{wikt-lang|grc|μέσος|μέσα}} (''psilá, daséa, mésa'') "smooth, rough, intermediate", respectively, by Koine Greek grammarians.

There were aspirated stops at three places of articulation: labial, coronal, and velar {{IPA|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}. Earlier Greek, represented by [[Mycenaean Greek]], likely had a labialized velar aspirated stop {{IPA|/kʷʰ/}}, which later became labial, coronal, or velar depending on dialect and phonetic environment.

The other Ancient Greek dialects, [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]], [[Doric Greek|Doric]], [[Aeolic Greek|Aeolic]], and [[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot]], likely had the same three-way distinction at one point, but Doric seems to have had a fricative in place of {{IPA|/tʰ/}} in the Classical period.

Later, during the Koine and Medieval Greek periods, the aspirated and voiced stops {{IPA|/tʰ d/}} of Attic Greek [[Lenition#Opening|lenited]] to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding {{IPA|/θ ð/}} in [[Medieval Greek|Medieval]] and [[Modern Greek]]. [[Cypriot Greek]] is notable for aspirating its inherited (and developed across word-boundaries) voiceless geminate stops, yielding the series /pʰː tʰː cʰː kʰː/.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loukina|first=Anastassia|date=2005|title=Phonetics and Phonology of Cypriot Geminates in Spontaneous Speech|url=http://www.aloukina.com/papers/LoukinaCamling.pdf|journal=CamLing|pages=263–270}}</ref>

==Other uses==

===Debuccalization===
The term ''aspiration'' sometimes refers to the sound change of [[debuccalization]], in which a consonant is [[lenition|lenited]] (weakened) to become a [[glottal stop]] or [[voiceless glottal fricative|fricative]] {{IPA|[ʔ h ɦ]}}.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

===Breathy-voiced release===
{{main|Breathy voice}}

So-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with [[breathy voice]], a type of [[phonation]] or vibration of the [[vocal folds]]. The modifier letter {{angbr IPA|◌ʰ}} after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured consonant, as with the "voiced aspirated" bilabial stop {{angbr IPA|bʰ}} in the [[Indo-Aryan languages]]. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as {{angbr IPA|b̤}}, with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter {{angbr IPA|bʱ}}, a superscript form of the symbol for the [[voiced glottal fricative]] {{angbr IPA|ɦ}}.

Some linguists restrict the double-dot subscript {{angbr IPA|◌̤}} to murmured [[sonorant]]s, such as [[vowel]]s and [[nasal consonant|nasals]], which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript hook-aitch {{angbr IPA|◌ʱ}} for the breathy-voiced release of obstruents.

==See also==

* [[Aspirated h]]
* [[Implosive consonant]]
* [[Index of phonetics articles]]
* [[Rough breathing]]
* [[Smooth breathing]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last1=Kobayashi |first1=Masato |last2=Tirkey |first2=Bablu |title=The Kurux Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v9BCDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Brill |publication-place=Boston |date=2017 |isbn=978-90-04-34766-3}}
*Cho, T., & Ladefoged, P., "Variations and universals in VOT". In ''Fieldwork Studies of Targeted Languages V: UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' vol. 95. 1997.

{{Articulation navbox}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aspiration (Phonetics)}}
[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Consonants by airstream]]

Mirza Juuliet

2026-03-02T10:07:47Z

KiaGreenwald: typo fix

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mirza Juuliet
| image = Mirza Juuliet Official Poster.jpg
| director = Rajesh Ram Singh
| producer = Neeraj Kumar Burman Ketan Maru Amit Singh
| writer = Shanti Bhushan
| based_on = ''[[Mirza Sahiban]]''
| starring = [[Darshan Kumar]] [[Pia Bajpai]]
| music = '''Songs''' Krsna Solo '''Background music''' Hitesh Sonik
| cinematography = Ajay Pandey
| editing = Sahil Sai
| studio = [[Shemaroo Entertainment]] Green Apple Media
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2017|04|07|df=y}}
| runtime = 130 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Hindi]]
| budget =
| gross = {{INR|link=yes}}9.5 million<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=3502 |title=Mirza Juuliet |website=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>
}}
'''''Mirza Juuliet''''' is a 2017 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[Romantic Drama film|romantic drama film]], directed by Rajesh Ram Singh and produced by Green Apple Media in association with Falansha Media Private Limited and [[Shemaroo Entertainment]]. It is a modern-era retelling of the ''[[Mirza Sahiban]]'' folk story from [[Punjab]]. The film was released on 7 April 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mirza-juuliet/cast/ |title=Mirza Juuliet Cast & Crew |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=7 April 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-04-07 |title=Mirza Juuliet movie review: This is not a film, it is a travesty |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/mirza-juuliet-darshan-kumar-pia-bajpai-swanand-kirkire-star-rating-4603655/ |access-date=2024-04-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mirza Juuliet review. Mirza Juuliet Bollywood movie review, story, rating |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/mirza-juuliet-review-hindi-movie-review-21391 |access-date=2024-04-20 |website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Mirza Juuliet Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/mirza-juuliet/movie-review/58049543.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-04-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=September 2024}}

==Cast==
*[[Darshan Kumar]] as Mirza
*[[Pia Bajpai]] as Juliet
*[[Chandan Roy Sanyal]] as Rajan
*[[Priyanshu Chatterjee]] as Dharamraj (a.k.a., Dharmaraj Shukla)
*Hemant Kumar as Bheem
*[[Swanand Kirkire]] as Veer Pandey
* Yogendra Vikram Singh as Nakul
* Rashid Siddiqui as Jailor Pathak<ref>{{Cite web |last=Correspondent |first=D. C. |date=2017-03-24 |title=Darshan Kumar had to consult a psychologist while filming Mirza Juuliet |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/bollywood/240317/darshan-kumar-had-to-consult-a-psychologist-while-filming-mirza-juuliet.html |access-date=2024-04-20 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Mirza Juuliet
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Krsna Solo]] & DJ Notorious
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2017|03|14}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/ca/album/mirza-juuliet-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1215557153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327220646/https://itunes.apple.com/ca/album/mirza-juuliet-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1215557153 |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 March 2018 |title=Mirza Juuliet (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |date=14 March 2017 |publisher=[[iTunes]]}}</ref>
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 22:46
| label = [[Zee Music Company]]
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{External media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|cuCHTVjLqG8|Audio Jukebox}}}}
}}
The soundtrack of ''Mirza Juuliet'' contains five songs composed by [[Krsna Solo]] with lyrics written by Sandeep Nath.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gaana.com/album/mirza-juuliet |title=Mirza Juuliet - 2017 - Zee Music Company |website=[[Gaana]] |access-date=21 April 2018 |archive-date=22 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422062806/https://gaana.com/album/mirza-juuliet |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length ={{Duration|m=22|s=46}}
| title1 = Tukda Tukda
| extra1 = [[Asees Kaur]]
| length1 = 4:33
| title2 = Muhabbat Ko Misuse
| extra2 = [[Krsna Solo]]
| length2 = 3:48
| title3 = Seene Mein Lagi Aag
| extra3 = [[Javed Bashir]]
| length3 = 4:41
| title4 = Teri Razamandi
| extra4 = [[Javed Ali]]
| length4 = 5:53
| title5 = Muhabbat Ko Misuse (Remix)
| extra5 = Krsna Solo
| length5 = 3:51
}}

==Marketing==
The movie poster was launched on 28 February 2017 and the trailer on 7 March 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyHeAHJUuhc |title=Mirza Juuliet - Official Trailer |website=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> The first song, "Tukda Tukda" was released on 16 March 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b6ChR9AxeKc |title=Tukda Tukda - Mirza Juuliet - Asees Kaur - Krsna Solo |website=[[YouTube]]|date=16 March 2017 }}</ref>

==Critical reception==
Reza Noorani of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 and said that, "In an effort to capture the magic of the tragic love story it is inspired from, 'Mirza Juuliet' crumbles under its own ambition and becomes a cinematic tragedy instead."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/mirza-juuliet/movie-review/58049543.cms |title=Mirza Juuliet - Movie Review|author=Reza Noorani |work=[[The Times of India]]|date=7 April 2017}}</ref> Saibal Chatterjee of ''[[NDTV]]'' gave the film a rating of 1 out of 5 and said that, "Mirza Juuliet is a crass, clammy and clichéd concoction that is best avoided. The single star isn't for the film. It's for Darshan Kumaar."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/mirza-juuliet-movie-review-darshan-kumar-is-the-only-redeeming-feature-of-this-abomination-3047 |title=Mirza Juuliet Movie Review: Darshan Kumaar Is The Only Redeeming Feature Of This Abomination |website=[[NDTV]] |author=Saibal Chatterjee |access-date=21 April 2018 |archive-date=22 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422063001/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/mirza-juuliet-movie-review-darshan-kumar-is-the-only-redeeming-feature-of-this-abomination-3047 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Shubhra Gupta of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave the film a rating of 1/2 star out of 5 stars and said that, "This film comes stuffed with the most abominable clichés which are clearly aligned to the power structures in place. This is not a film, it is a travesty."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/mirza-juuliet-darshan-kumar-pia-bajpai-swanand-kirkire-star-rating-4603655/ |title=Mirza Juuliet movie review: This is not a film, it is a travesty|author=Shubhra Gupta |work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=7 April 2017}}</ref> Stutee Ghost of ''[[The Quint]]'' gave the film a rating of 1 out of 5 under the headline, "This One's So Bad, It's Truly a Tragedy".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thequint.com/lifestyle/life/mirza-juuliet-movie-review-rj-stutee |title='Mirza Juuliet' Review: This One's So Bad, It's Truly a Tragedy|author=Stutee Ghost |work=[[The Quint]]|date=7 April 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.facebook.com/MirzaJuuliet ''Mirza Juuliet''] on ''Facebook''

[[Category:2017 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2017 Indian films]]
[[Category:2017 films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films about prostitution in India]]
[[Category:2017 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Krsna Solo]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian folklore]]

{{2010s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Pappinisseri

2026-02-27T15:48:19Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up a page

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Pappinisseri
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ml
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Census Town]]
| image_skyline = File:Mangroves park pappinisseri1.JPG
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Mangroves Park
| pushpin_map = India Kerala
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|11.95|N|75.35|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kannur district|Kannur]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Panchayati raj (India)]]
| governing_body = Special Grade Panchayat
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 15.22
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 1
| population_total = 35,134
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/india/kerala/|title = Kerala (India): Districts, Cities and Towns - Population Statistics, Charts and Map}}</ref>
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], English
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 670561, 670565, 670566
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 0497278
| registration_plate = KL-13
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1068 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-KL]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Pappinisseri''' is a [[census town]] in [[Kannur district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Pappinissery have consistently won the Swaraj Trophy for best Grama Panchayat from 2017-2018 to 2021. Pappinisseri Panchayat also bagged the third position in the Swaraj Trophy during 2015-2016. Also, Pappinissery has been declared as the best Grama Panchayat in Kerala by Kerala government.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/100-tax-collection-biogas-plant-and-more-2-kerala-panchayats-named-best-local-bodies-118759 |title=100% tax collection, biogas plant and more: 2 Kerala panchayats named best local bodies |work=[[The News Minute]] |access-date=23 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/swaraj-trophy-for-best-local-bodies-declared-in-kerala/articleshow/74151166.cms |title=Swaraj trophy for best local bodies declared in Kerala| work=[[Times of India]] |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>
Pappinisseri Panchayat comprises two villages, viz Pappinisseri and [[Aroli]]. Pappinisseri better known for visha chikitsa kendram (a treatment for snake bite.)

==Geography==
Pappinisseri is located at {{Coord|11.95|N|75.35|E|}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/13/Pappinisseri.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Pappinisseri]</ref> It has an average elevation of 1 metres (3 feet).

==Demographics==
As of [[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]], Pappinisseri had a population of 35,134 of which males constitute 15,988 (45.5%) of the population and 19,146 (54.5%) females. Pappinisseri census town spreads over an area of {{cvt|15.22|km2}} with 7,225 families residing in it. The sex ratio of Pappinisseri was 1,197 higher than state average of 1,084.
In Pappinisseri, 11.3% of the population is under 6 years of age. Pappinisseri had an overall literacy of 95.5% higher than state average of 94%. The male literacy stands at 97.6% and female literacy was 93.9%.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kerala |first1=Directorate of Census Operations |title=District Census Handbook, Kannur |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala |location=Thiruvananthapuram |page=186,187 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3202_PART_B_KANNUR.pdf |access-date=14 July 2020}}</ref>

==Religions==
As of 2011 census, Pappinisseri census town had total population of 35,134 among which 18,155 (51.7%) are Hindus, 15,774 (44.9%) are Muslims, 1,136 (3.2%) are Christians and 0.2% others.<ref name=census2011>{{cite web |title=Religion – Kerala, Districts and Sub-districts |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW32C-01%20MDDS.XLS |work=Census of India 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General}}</ref>

==Culture and geography==
[[File:Valapattanam Junction (5007898761).jpg|thumbnail|The National Highway at Pappinisseri]]

Pappinisseri Panchayat comprises Pappinisseri town and [[Aroli]] village. Two major roads viz [[NH 66]] and KSTP Pappinisseri - [[Pilathara]] road. Pappinisseri panchayat is situated on the banks of [[Valapattanam River]] between Kannur and Payyanur on NH-66. Though the Pappinisseri village provides spaces for both of these major roads, Aroli is home for only NH-66. KSTP constructed Pappinisseri Pilathara road which act as a bypass towards Payyanur that reduces the distance and travel time between Kannur and Payyanur.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/pappinissery-pilathara-kstp-road-formally-inaugurated/articleshow/66793894.cms |title=Pappinissery-Pilathara KSTP road formally inaugurated |work=[[Times of India]] |access-date=25 November 2018}}</ref>

Major portion of Pappinisseri is surrounded by Baliapatam river which stretches from Mankkadav at the East to CRC at the West. Pappinisseri has many small islands and hills. Pampuruthi is a very famous islands in the Baliapatam river.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Vadeswaram Hill, popularly known as Kailasam of Kerala, is famous for its scenery.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Pappinisseri shares borders with [[Kalliasseri]] to the north-east and [[Valapattanam]] to the south-west.

Pappinisseri is a rail head (Nearest Major Railway Station is [[Kannur]]). [[Kannur International Airport]] is the nearest airport.

Pappinisseri is known for

* Moonnu Pettumma Palli
* Chittothidam Mantramoorthi temple
* [[Vadeshwaram Temple|Sree Vadeswaram Shiva Temple]]
* Aaron Church
* [[Assemblies of God Church]], Pappinisseri
* [[Aroli|Mankadavu Juma Masjid]]
* Keecheri Juma Masjid
* Keecheri Paalottu Kavu,
* Visha Chikilsa Kendram
* Tile Works,
* Cotton Factory
* [[M.V. Raghavan]]

==Visha Chikilsa Kendram==

Pappinisseri Visha Chikilsa Kendram situated near Panchayat on [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH 66]] is very known for its versatile role in diagnosis and treatment for venom and poison threats to humans. This hospital was the first to accommodate Dialysis machine in North Malabar region. It is heard that nowadays this hospital has started its own antevenom production unit. Sree Kumaran Vaidyar and former minister [[M.V. Raghavan]] took keen interest to set up this hospital which is of first in its kind in this region.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/marine-aquarium-new-attraction-at-snake-park/article7103672.ece |title=Marine aquarium new attraction at snake park |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=15 April 2015}}</ref>

===Baliapattam Tile Works===

This an ancient tile factory situated in Pappinisseri.

===Western India Cottons===

This an ancient cotton factory situated in Pappinisseri.

==Political violence==

This area is an epicenter of political violence between RSS and Communists. [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)) and the [[Hindus]]-led [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS) have been fighting in this area for supremacy for the last 50 years. Clashes in 2008 left seven people killed and many have been injured. The [[High Court of Kerala]] called this manslaughter a "compelling sport" and suggested permanent deployment of Central forces in the affected areas.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/03/12/stories/2008031250410100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315053323/http://www.hindu.com/2008/03/12/stories/2008031250410100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 March 2008 |title=Only Centre can end Kannur violence: High Court | location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=12 March 2008}}</ref>

==Education==

Pappinisseri has an average literacy rate of more than 90%.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} The schools in this area often score excellent position in state level examinations including scholarship exams.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

The important schools of Pappinisseri are:

* [[Aroli]] Govt. Higher Secondary School
* Pappinisseri EMS smaraka Higher Secondary School
* Aaron UP School
* [[Aroli]] Central UP School
* Pappinissri West LP School
* Govt:UP school Pappinisseri west
* Pappinisseri LP school

==Major industries==
The major industries are:
* [[Cotton]]
* [[Tile]]
* [[Handloom]]
* [[Plywood]]
* Hand weave
* Milk production and marketing
* Co-Op Banking

The majority of the people of this villages depend on the income from Gulf Countries as well as the varied local industries.

==Transportation==

===By air===
* The nearest Airport is [[Kannur International Airport]] to the east at an approximate distance of 33 km

===By train===
* Nearest major Railway Station is [[Kannur]] and other nearest Railways Station is Pappinisseri and Valapattanam.
* Two trains originating from Mangalore/Trivandrum and bound for Trivandrum/Mangalore, Ernad and Malabar express, stop at Valapattanam.
* All passenger trains stop at Valapattanam and Pappinisseri.
* All the trains runs through this line including New Delhi-Trivandrum Rajdhani Express, stop at Kannur.<ref name="RlyTT">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/26.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 26 : Gandhidham-Nagercoil|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="RlyTT2">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/26A.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 26A : Nagercoil-Gandhidham|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="RlyTT3">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/26-1.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 26-1 : Monsoon Timing Gandhidham-Nagercoil|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="RlyTT4">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/26-1A.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 26-1A : Monsoon Timing Nagercoil-Gandhidham|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="RlyTT5">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/86.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 86 : Chennai-Mangalore|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="RlyTT6">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/86A.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 86A : Mangalore-Chennai|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="RlyTT7">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/85.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 85 : Nagercoil-Mangalore|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="RlyTT8">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/directorate/coaching/pdf/85A.pdf|title=Railway Time Table No 85A : Mangalore-Nagercoil|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref>

===By bus===
* From Kannur :
** 1) Board any bus going to Pazhayangadi for Moonnu Pettumma Palli and Western Part of Pappinisseri
** 2) Board any bus going to Taliparamba for Keecheri and Eastern Part of Pappinisseri
** 3) Board any bus going to Parassinikkadavu via Mankadavu for [[Aroli]] village area.
** 4) board any bus going anchampeedika for keecheri village area

==Mangroves Park, Pappinisseri==
<gallery>
File:Mangrove park.JPG
File:Mangroves park pappinisseri10.JPG
File:Mangroves park pappinisseri11.JPG
File:Mangroves park pappinisseri4.JPG
File:Mangroves park pappinisseri7.JPG
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://wikimapia.org/#lat=11.959731&lon=75.3268147&z=14&l=0&m=b&show=/8276181/PAPPINISSERI Wiki Map - Pappinisseri]

{{Kerala}}
{{Kannur district}}
{{Navboxes
|title = [[North Malabar]]
|list =
{{North Malabar}}
{{Places of interest in North Malabar}}
}}
{{Malabar}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Kannur district]]

P. S. Subrahmanyam

2026-02-26T15:28:09Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up new details.

{{Short description|Linguist and Dravidologist (1939–2016)}}
{{dist|P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri}}

{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}

{{Infobox academic
|name = P. S. Subramanyam
|image =
|caption =
| birth_date = 1939
| birth_place = [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2016|03|17|1939|04|20|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Hyderabad]], India
|
| alma_mater = [[Andhra University]]{{sfn|Prema|Sreekumar}}
| doctoral_advisor =
| thesis_title =
| thesis_url =
| thesis_year =
| discipline = [[Linguistics]]
| sub_discipline = [[Dravidian languages]]
| workplaces = [[Annamalai University]]{{sfn|Prema|Sreekumar}}
| known_for =
| mother =
| father =
| spouse =
}}

'''Prakya Sreesaila Subrahmanyam''' (20 April 1939{{spnd}}17 March 2016) was an Indian linguist primarily known for his work on the [[Comparative linguistics|comparative]] and [[historical linguistics]] of the [[Dravidian languages]]. He also wrote about the [[Sanskrit]] grammatical tradition ([[vyākaraṇa]]). He was a professor at [[Annamalai University]].{{sfn|Prema|Sreekumar}}

==Bibliography==
* 1987. The non-literary languages and their contribution to Dravidian comparative grammar.
* 1991. Tense formation in Kota-Toda: a comparative study. I
* 1993. The personal pronouns in Dravidian.
* 1994 The translation of Mahabharata into Telugu: some observations.

==References==

{{citation
|last1=Prema
|first1=S.
|last2=Sreekumar
|first2=P.
|title=Professor P. S. Subrahmanyam, (1939-2016) the distinguished Dravidian linguist: A short profile and his publications
|url=https://www.academia.edu/23734414
}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Subrahmanyam, P. S.}}
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:2016 deaths]]
[[Category:Linguists from India]]
[[Category:People from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Annamalai University]]
[[Category:Dravidian studies]]
[[Category:Andhra University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian linguists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian linguists]]
[[Category:Indian Sanskrit scholars]]

Parchur mandal

2026-02-21T05:39:33Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up new stub.

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Parchur mandal
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Mandal]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|15.967|N|80.264|E|display=inline,title|region:IN_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bapatla district|Bapatla]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Parchur]]
| parts_type = [[Administrative divisions of India|Major villages]]
| parts_style = para
| parts =
| leader_title = [[Tehsildar]]
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 225.13
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 53269
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
| mapframe = yes
| map_alt = Interactive map of mandal
| map_caption = Interactive map
}}

'''Parchur mandal''' is a mandal in [[Bapatla revenue division]] of the [[Bapatla district]] [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]. [[Parchur]] is its headquarter.

==Demographics==

{{bar box
|title=Religions in Parchur mandal (2011)<ref name="religion">{{Cite web|date=2011|title=Population by Religion - Andhra Pradesh|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11363/download/14476/DDW28C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|89.20}}
{{bar percent|[[Andhra Muslims|Islam]]|green|10.19}}
{{bar percent|[[Telugu Christians|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|0.43}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.18}}
|caption=Distribution of religions
}}

As of 2011 census, the mandal had a population of 53,269 in 15,531 households. The total population constitutes
26,622 males and 28,046 females — a sex ratio of 1053 females per 1000 males. 4,833 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, of which 2,406 are boys and 2,427 are girls — a sex ratio of 1009 per 1000. The average literacy rate stands at 67.71% with 33,741 literates. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 14,000 (26.28%) and 3,691 (6.93%) of the population respectively.<ref name="demographics">{{cite web |title=District Census Hand Book – Prakasam |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/126/download/154/DH_2011_2818_PART_A_DCHB_PRAKASAM.pdf|website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Parchur mandal (2011)<ref name="language"/>
|thumb = left
|label1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]] |value1 = 89.44 |color1 = steelblue
|label2 = [[Urdu]] |value2 = 9.67 |color2 = green
|label3 = Others |value3 = 0.89 |color3 = grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 89.44% of the population spoke [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and 9.67% [[Urdu]] as their first language.<ref name="language">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Andhra Pradesh |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10193/download/13305/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2800.XLSX |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Bapatla district}}
[[Category:Mandals in Bapatla district]]

Hathras Lok Sabha constituency

2026-02-19T02:44:20Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{short description|Lok Sabha Constituency in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|type = LS
|name = Hathras {{Small|UP-16}}
|established = 1962
|electors = 19,37,926<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://elections24.eci.gov.in/docs/WYKXFehhEH.pdf | title=EC releases absolute number of voters for all completed phases | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526095942/https://elections24.eci.gov.in/docs/WYKXFehhEH.pdf | archive-date=26 May 2024 }}</ref>
|reservation =SC
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general elections|2024]]
|mp = [[Anoop Pradhan]]
|map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Uttar Pradesh/Hathras.map}}
|map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Hathras Lok Sabha constituency
|state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|assembly_cons =[[Chharra Assembly constituency|Chharra]] [[Iglas Assembly constituency|Iglas]] [[Hathras Assembly constituency|Hathras]] [[Sadabad Assembly constituency|Sadabad]] [[Sikandra Rao Assembly constituency|Sikandra Rao]]
}}
'''Hathras''' ({{IPA|hi|ɦaːt̪ʰ.ɾəs}}) is a [[Lok Sabha]] parliamentary [[constituency]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>

==Assembly segments==
The Hathras Lok Sabha constituency comprises 5 [[State Legislative Assembly (India)|legislative assembly]] segments:

{|class ="wikitable sortable"
|-
!No
!Name
!District
!Member
!colspan="2"| Party
!colspan="2"| 2024 Lead
|-
|74
|[[Chharra Assembly constituency|Chharra]]
|rowspan="2"| [[Aligarh district|Aligarh]]
|[[Ravendra Pal Singh (politician)|Ravendra Pal Singh]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
|77
|[[Iglas Assembly constituency|Iglas]] (SC)
|[[Rajkumar Sahyogi]]
|-
|78
|[[Hathras Assembly constituency|Hathras]] (SC)
|rowspan="3"| [[Hathras district|Hathras]]
|[[Anjula Singh Mahaur]]
|-
|79
|[[Sadabad Assembly constituency|Sadabad]]
|[[Pradeep Kumar Singh (Uttar Pradesh politician)|Pradeep Kumar Singh]]
|{{party name with color|Rashtriya Lok Dal}}
|-
|80
|[[Sikandra Rao Assembly constituency|Sikandra Rao]]
|[[Birendra Singh Rana]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|[[Nardeo Snatak]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[Joti Saroop]]
|{{Full party name with color|Republican Party of India}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1967|1967]]
|[[Nardeo Snatak]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1971|1971]]
|[[Chandra Pal Shailani]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1977|1977]]
|Ram Prasad Deshmukh
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1980|1980]]
|[[Chandra Pal Shailani]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party (Secular)}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1984|1984]]
|Puran Chand
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1989|1989]]
|[[Bangali Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1991|1991]]
|Lal Bahadur Rawal
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Kishan Lal Diler]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1998|1998]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1999|1999]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2004|2004]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2009|2009]]
|[[Sarika Devendra Singh Baghel|Sarika Baghel]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Lok Dal}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2014|2014]]<ref name="Reserved seats of UP: Basic needs matter more than symbols and narratives">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=1 April 2024 |title=Reserved seats of UP: Basic needs matter more than symbols and narratives |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2024/Apr/01/reserved-seats-of-up-basic-needs-matter-more-than-symbols-and-narratives |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250302204506/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2024/Apr/01/reserved-seats-of-up-basic-needs-matter-more-than-symbols-and-narratives |archivedate=2 March 2025 |accessdate=2 March 2025 |publisher=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|[[Rajesh Diwakar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2019|2019]]
|[[Rajvir Singh Diller]]
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|[[Anoop Pradhan]]
|}

==Election results==

=== General Election 2024 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general election]]: [[Hathras]]<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Hatras">{{cite news |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Hatras |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2416.htm |access-date=3 October 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241003075934/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2416.htm |archive-date=3 October 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Anoop Pradhan]]|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=5,54,746|percentage=51.24|change={{down}}8.25}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Jasveer Valmiki
|votes = 3,07,428
|percentage = 28.39
|change = {{down}}8.48
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Hembaboo Dhangar |party=Bahujan Samaj Party|votes=2,01,263|percentage=18.59|change={{up}}18.59}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=6,299|percentage=0.58|change={{down}}0.16}}
{{Election box majority||votes=2,47,318|percentage=22.84|change={{up}}0.22}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=10,82,720|percentage=55.87|change={{down}}5.89}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = BJP
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: Hathras<ref name=election2019>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/1551-general-election-2019-including-vellore-pc/ |title=General Election 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate =[[Rajvir Singh Diler]]
|votes = 6,84,299
|percentage =59.49
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Ram Ji Lal Suman]]
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 4,24,091
|percentage = 36.87
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Triloki Ram
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 23,926
|percentage = 2.08
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes =8,568
|percentage = 0.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes = 2,60,208
|percentage = 22.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =11,51,461
|percentage =61.76
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: Hathras<ref name=election2014>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/2857-constituency-wise-detailed-result/ |title=General Election 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Rajesh Diwakar|Rajesh Kumar Diwakar]]
|votes = 5,44,277
|percentage = 51.87
|change = +51.87
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Manoj Kumar Soni
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 2,17,891
|percentage = 20.77
|change = -11.78
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Ram Ji Lal Suman|Ramji Lal Suman]]
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 1,80,891
|percentage = 17.24
|change = -0.52
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Niranjan Singh Dhangar
|party = Rashtriya Lok Dal
|votes = 86,109
|percentage = 8.21
|change = -30.02
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Sunhari Lal
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|votes = 5,043
|percentage = 0.48
|change = +0.48
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 5,669
|percentage = 0.54
|change = +0.54
}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes = 3,26,386
|percentage = 31.10
|change = +25.42
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,49,289
|percentage = 59.66
|change = +14.56
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Rashtriya Lok Dal
|swing = +13.64
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Hathras]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Aligarh division topics}}

{{Coord|27.6|78.05|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hathras Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Hathras district]]

List of hospitals in Kollam

2026-02-08T00:25:53Z

KiaGreenwald: adjust page and corrected details

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
'''[[Kollam]]''' or '''[[Quilon]]''' is one of the oldest port cities in [[India]]. It is also an ancient civilization in the country. Kollam city is home to a population of more than 3.5 [[Lakh]] (350,000) people. The city has population density of 6199/[[Square kilometre|km2]], which is the second highest in [[Kerala]] next to [[Kollam Metropolitan Area]] with a total population of 11.10 Lakh.

Kollam's healthcare sector is considered one of the most developed in the state of [[Kerala]]. There were hospitals giving free Modern medical treatment (Dharmasupathris) in Quilon since [[Malayalam calendar|ME]] 995.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/lifestyle/health/2020/03/18/rpidemics-in-1800s-how-travancore-tackled-them.html |title=Epidemics in 1800s and how Kerala's princely state Travancore tackled them |date=18 March 2020 |accessdate=18 March 2020}}</ref> The [[Kollam Metropolitan Area|Metropolitan Area of Kollam]] has 3 Medical Colleges and a good number of multi-speciality and super-speciality hospitals. At present, the [[healthcare industry]] is witnessing stiff competition among these hospitals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ksid.ac.in/academics/pdf/papers/Availability%20of%20Medical%20Services%20in%20Chandanathope,%20Kollam-%20Madhuri%20Menon.pdf |title=AVAILABILITY OF MEDICAL SERVICES IN CHANDANATHOPE, KOLLAM |accessdate=16 August 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Azeezia Medical College.jpg|right|thumb|[[Azeezia Medical College|Azeezia Medical College & Hospital]], Meeyannoor]]
[[File:Travancore Medicity Medical College, Kollam.jpg|right|thumb|Travancore Medicity Medical College Hospital, Palathara]]
[[File:Building in Government Medical College, Kollam.jpg|right|thumb|[[Government Medical College, Kollam]]]]
[[File:N. S. Memorial Institute of Medical Sciences in Kollam city, Apr 2016.jpg|right|thumb|[[N. S. Memorial Institute of Medical Sciences]], Palathara]]
[[File:An arial view of SIMS, Kollam.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of Sankar's Institute of Medical Sciences(SIMS) in [[Asramam]], [[Kollam]]]]
[[File:Government District Hospital in Kollam, Aug 2018.jpg|right|thumb|Entrance of Government District Hospital in [[Cutchery]], Kollam]]
[[File:Ashtamudi Hospital in Kollam.jpg|right|thumb|Ashtamudi Hospital, [[Mevaram]]]]

==Medical College Hospitals==
* [[Government Medical College, Kollam|Government Medical College Hospital, Kollam]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sha.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Kerala-Hospital-List-Public.pdf |title=Kerala Public Hospital List - State Health Agency, Kerala |accessdate=23 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Azeezia Medical College|Azeezia Medical College Hospital, Meeyannoor]]
* Travancore Medical College Hospital, Mevaram

==Multi-specialty/Super-specialty Hospitals==

* KIMSHEALTH Hospital,Kottiyam -Kollam
* [[Meditrina Hospital]], [[Ayathil]]
* [[N. S. Memorial Institute of Medical Sciences]], Palathara
* ESIC Model & Super Speciality Hospital, [[Asramam]]
* ESIC Hospital, [[Ezhukone]]
* Padmavathy Medical Foundation, Sasthamkotta
* Holy Cross Super Speciality Hospital, Kottiyam
* Dr. Nairs Hospital, [[Asramam]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/mindspace/2019/nov/22/a-paper-doesnt-only-provide-news--views-2065348.html |title=A paper doesn't only provide news & views |date=22 November 2019 |accessdate=8 December 2015}}</ref>
* Shankar's Institute Of Medical Science (SIMS), [[Kadappakada]]
* Upasana Hospital, [[Chinnakada]]
* Bishop Benziger Hospital, Beach Road
* [http://www.ashtamudihospitalandtraumacare.com/ Ashtamudi Hospital & Trauma Care Centre, Mevaram]
* [https://www.kimshealth.org/kollam/ Kerala Institute of Medical Sciences (KIMS)], [[Kottiyam]]
* Valiyath Institute of Medical Sciences, [[Karunagappally]]
*Parabrahma Hospital and Research Centre, Oachira
*EMS Co-Operative Hospital, Pathanapuram
*Sree Sathya Sai Super Speciality Hospital, Kottarakkara
*Vijaya Hospital, Kottarakkara
*Poyanil Hospital, Punalur
* [http://www.mathamedicalcentre.com/ Matha Medical Centre, Kadavoor, Kollam]
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.listbesthospitals.com/Hospitals-India/Kerala/Kollam.aspx |title=List of Best Hospitals - Kollam |accessdate=8 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hospitalkhoj.com/hospitals/private/kollam |title=HospitalKhoj - Kollam |accessdate=8 December 2015}}</ref>
*BR Hospital & Research Centre, Nedungolam

==Other Government Hospitals==
* Government District Hospital, [[Downtown Kollam|Downtown]]
* [[Government Victoria Hospital, Kollam|Government Victoria Hospital]] (for Women & Children), [[Downtown Kollam|Downtown]]
* District TB Centre, [[Chinnakada]]
* Government Taluk Hospital, [[Neendakara]]
* Government TB Centre, [[Karunagappally]]
* Government Taluk Headquarters Hospital, [[Karunagappally]]
* Government Taluk Hospital, [[Kadakkal]]
* Ramarao Memorial Government Taluk Hospital, Nedungolam, [[Paravur, Kollam|Paravur]]
* Government Taluk Hospital, [[Kundara]]
* Government Taluk Headquarters Hospital, [[Kottarakkara]]
*Govt Taluk Headquarters Hospital, Punalur
* Government Taluk Headquarters Hospital, [[Sasthamkotta]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.kerala.gov.in/docs/orders/combined.pdf |title=LIST OF MODERN MEDICINE INSTITUTIONS UNDER DIRECTORATE OF HEALTH SERVICES |publisher=DIRECTORATE OF HEALTH SERVICES - KERALA |accessdate=7 January 2020}}</ref>

==Private Hospitals==
* Kumar Hospital, High School Jn.
* P.N.N Memorial Hospital, [[Anchalumoodu]]
* C. Achutha Menon Co-Operative Hospital, Palathara
* Kerala ENT Research Foundation, [[Thevally]]
* Amardeep Eye Hospital, [[Kilikollur]]
* Mar Theodosius Memorial Medical Mission Hospital, [[Sasthamcotta]]
* K. Damodaran Memorial Hospital, [[Chinnakada]]
* PMR Hospital, [[Valathungal]]
* Prathiba Hospital, [[Tangasseri]]
* Christ Church Hospital, [[Pallithottam]]
* Chaithanya Eye Hospital, Pallimukku
* C.Achutha Menon Co-operative Hospital, Decent Jn.
* Devans Hospital, [[Keralapuram]]
* SSR Hospital, [[Keralapuram]]
* London Missionary Society Boys' Brigade Hospital (LMS), [[Kundara]]
* Assisi Atonement Hospital, [[Kottamkara]]
* Lekshmi Trust Hospital, [[Kundara]]
* Star Hospital, Oachira
*Pranavam Hospital, Punalur
*St Thomas Hospital, Punalur
* A.M Hospital, [[Karunagappally]]
* Pearl Hospital, [[Karunagappally]]
* S.B.M Hospital, [[Karunagappally]]
* Ideal Clinic, [[Karunagappally]]
* Royal Hospital, [[Chathannoor]]
* MKM Hospital, Kuttivattom
* Paravur Hospital, [[Paravur, Kollam|Paravur]]
* Captain Mathews Hospital, [[Mulavana]]
* Christhuraj Hospital, [[Kottarakara]]
* Lotus Heart Hospital, [[Kottarakara]]
* MGM Hospital, [[Puthoor]]
*Thettikkuzhy Hospital, Kunnikodu
* St Joseph Hospital, Anchal
* Shanker's Eye Hospital, [[Kadakkal]]
* Kadakkal Institute of Medical Sciences & Technology Hospital, [[Kadakkal]]
* Arafa Medical Mission Hospital, [[Kadakkal]]
* SM Hospital, [[Kadakkal]]
* PVS Hospital, [[Kadakkal]]
*Dr K Damodaran Memorial Hospital, Kollam
* The Lifeline Fertility and Well Woman Centre, Prathibha Jn, Kadappakkada

<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kollam.nic.in/ayurr.html |title=Health Services & Hospitals - Kollam |accessdate=8 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medindia.net/patients/hospital_search/hospitals-kollam.htm |title=MediIndia - Kollam |accessdate=8 December 2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{Portal|India}}
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Hospitals in Kollam}}

{{Kollam |state=expanded}}

[[Category:Hospitals in Kollam|*]]
[[Category:Lists of hospitals in India|Kollam]]
[[Category:Kollam-related lists|Hospitals]]
[[Category:Lists of hospitals by city|Kollam]]

Ruma Devi

2026-02-07T23:22:42Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up biography.

{{short description|Indian fashion designer (born 1989)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox fashion designer
| name =Ruma Devi
| image = Ruma Devi.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1988|11|16|df=y}}
| birth_place =Rawatsar
| education = Honored with an honorary doctorate degree
| awards = [[Nari Shakti Puraskar]] (2019)
| known_for =
| occupation = [[Social Activist]]
| spouse ={{marriage|Tiku Ram |2005|}}
| website = {{URL|www.rumadevi.com}}
}}

'''Dr. Ruma Devi''' is an Indian traditional [[handicraft]] designer, [[social work]]er and global speaker from [[Barmer district|Barmer]], Rajasthan. She is President of Gramin Vikas Evam Chetna Sansthan (GVCS) and Director of the Ruma Devi Foundation, organisations working towards women’s empowerment, rural livelihoods and craft revival in India. Having trained and supported 50,000 women artisans across the Thar region, she currently acts as Brand Ambassador of RAJEEVIKA (Rajasthan Livelihoods Mission) under the Government of [[Rajasthan]].

Ruma Devi received the “[[Nari Shakti Puraskar|Nari Shakti Puraskar 2018]]”, India’s highest civilian honour for women, in recognition of her contribution to women’s empowerment and rural enterprise development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Ruma Devi |url=https://rumadevi.com/pages/about-ruma-devi |access-date=2025-11-08 |website=Ruma Devi |language=en}}</ref> She has also been invited by institutions such as [[Harvard University]] to speak on women’s entrepreneurship and artisan livelihoods.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raja |first=Vidya |title=Harvard Invited This School Dropout From for Empowering 30,000 Women |url=https://thebetterindia.com/291700/ruma-devi-barmer-invited-by-harvard-for-empowering-women-via-fashion/ |access-date=2025-11-08 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

Through her organisations, she has led initiatives that integrate skill development, design innovation and market linkages for rural artisans, creating [[sustainable livelihood]] opportunities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women Economic Forum (WEF) |url=https://www.wef.org.in/ |access-date=2025-11-08 |website=Women Economic Forum |language=en-US}}</ref> She has also promoted access to education through the Akshara Scholarship Programme which supports under-privileged students to pursue higher education.

Her work has been widely recognised for contributing to grassroots social empowerment in western Rajasthan, particularly in enhancing women’s financial inclusion, decision-making and participation in community development.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-09 |title=Meet designer Ruma Devi from Rajasthan who is now a guest speaker at Harvard |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/life-style/class-8-dropout-harvard-guest-speaker-ruma-devi-8880329/ |access-date=2025-11-08 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

==Early and personal life==
Ruma Devi was born in 1988 and grew up in Rawatsar in [[Barmer, Rajasthan]]. She dropped out of school when she was in 8th class.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-02-26 |title=Ruma Devi: From school dropout to changing fortunes of 22,000 women |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/ruma-devi-from-school-dropout-to-changing-fortunes-of-22k-women/articleshow/68160212.cms |access-date=2023-07-16 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> She learned embroidery from her grandmother during her childhood. She got married at the age of 17 and lost her first son in 48 hours of his birth.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/meet/ruma-devi-and-her-motifs-of-change/article29297537.ece|title=Ruma Devi and her motifs of change|last=Roytalukdar|first=Rakhee|website=@businessline| date=30 August 2019 |language=en|access-date=2020-02-15}}</ref>

== Social work and activism ==
Ruma Devi’s social work programmes in education, health, women’s hygiene, infrastructure, and cultural preservation. Key initiatives include:<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=What We Do |url=https://www.rumadevifoundation.org/what-we-do |access-date=2025-10-10 |website=Ruma Devi Foundation |language=en}}</ref>

* '''Akshara Scholarship''': Financial aid and mentorship provided annually to rural students, especially girls, to support academic and professional development.<ref name=":8" />
* '''Rural Sports Infrastructure''': Construction of Barmer’s first rural multi-sports complex (Sugani Devi Sports Complex) with investment of several crores, intended to train youth, particularly girls, for state and national level sports.<ref name=":8" />
* '''Visualities and Culture Preservation''': Events like ''Vanee Utsav'' recognizing folk and traditional music across artists; promotion of artisan craft via exhibitions; reviving folk art traditions.<ref name=":8" />
* '''Menstrual Hygiene Campaign & Sanitary-Pad Distribution''': Free sanitary pads are distributed across remote villages (e.g. Barmer, Balotra, Tilwara), accompanied by awareness sessions on menstrual hygiene, safe usage, disposal, and breaking taboos.<ref name=":8" />
* '''Eye-Screening Camps''': Mobile eye-test camps across dozens of gram panchayats, with free eyewear provided to artisans, children, elderly, to reduce avoidable visual impairment. Over 60,000 people have benefited between 2020-2024.<ref name=":8" />
* '''Project Chirag''': Distribution of solar-powered lights to households in electricity-deprived areas, illuminating over 2,000 rural homes.<ref name=":8" />
* '''Relief & Essential Services''': During COVID-19, provision of sanitising kits to over 16,500 families, ration kits to over 3,000, oxygen equipment to more than 25 Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and Community Health Centres (CHCs). Water-tanker relief to drought-hit villages.<ref name=":8" />

Ruma Devi’s activism for women’s rights extends beyond artisan livelihood, encompassing advocacy around gender equality, social justice, and women’s safety. Coming from Barmer, Rajasthan, a region marked by traditional patriarchy, she has worked to challenge norms such as purdah and limited female mobility by mobilising women into self-help groups and encouraging their participation in public life.<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |last=Moneycontrol.com |title=Ruma Devi: Empowering Women & Taking Traditional Rajasthani Handicrafts To The World |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/msite/badlaav-humse-hai/article-page/ruma-devi-empowering-women-taking-traditional-rajasthani-handicrafts-to-the-world-9398181.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102192449/https://www.moneycontrol.com/msite/badlaav-humse-hai/article-page/ruma-devi-empowering-women-taking-traditional-rajasthani-handicrafts-to-the-world-9398181.html |archive-date=2022-11-02 |access-date=2025-10-10}}</ref> She has also led educational interventions, pushing for girl child education and organising scholarships to reduce barriers for girls, especially school dropouts.<ref name=":9" /> Ruma Devi Foundation In public forums and cultural events (such as ''Vani Utsav'' and ''Harjas Utsav''), she uses platforms to highlight women’s rights and foster community among women, which functions both as empowerment and collective awareness-raising. Web India News Her work was formally recognised by the Government of India when she was awarded the '''Nari Shakti Puraskar''' in 2019, affirming her contributions to women’s empowerment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=WoW |date=2019-03-12 |title=Ruma Devi receives Nari Shakti Puraskar |url=https://www.womenonwings.com/2019/03/ruma-devi-receives-nari-shakti-puraskar/ |access-date=2025-10-10 |website=Women on Wings |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Career==
She started to do some work for earning. She started a self-help group after managing to convince about 10 women from her village in 2006. With a contribution of Rs 100 from each woman, they bought second-hand stitching machine, cloth, threads and plastic wrappers for making cushions and bags.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=February 26, 2019|first=Shoeb|last=Khan|title=Ruma Devi: From school dropout to changing fortunes of 22,000 women|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/ruma-devi-from-school-dropout-to-changing-fortunes-of-22k-women/articleshow/68160212.cms|access-date=2020-07-15|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

Her quest for success took her to the doorstep of Gramin Vikas Evam Chetna Sansthan in Barmer<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=A Stitch in Time {{!}} The Social Warriors |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/the-big-story/story/19700101-a-stitch-in-time-the-social-warriors-1415260-2018-12-23 |access-date=2022-10-10 |website=India Today |date=23 December 2018 |language=en}}</ref> and she joined it as a member in 2008 and went on to become the president of the non-governmental organization in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajasthan: Married off at 17, Ruma Devi is now guardian angel for over 20,000 women|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/rajasthan-married-off-at-17-ruma-devi-is-now-guardian-angel-for-over-20000-women20190421091616/|access-date=2020-07-15|website=ANI News|language=en}}</ref> She did her first exhibition in Rafi Marg, Delhi in 2010 and her first fashion show in Rajasthan Heritage Week 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-08-30 |title=Ruma Devi and her Barmeri motifs of change |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/meet/ruma-devi-and-her-motifs-of-change/article29297537.ece |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=www.thehindubusinessline.com |language=en}}</ref> She is now working towards promoting the craft of tribal artisans and minorities of all over India to get their craft and hands behind craft recognized.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ruma devi Hindi News and Today's Trending Topics with ruma devi Latest Photos and Videos|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/trending/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310144207/https://www.bhaskar.com/trending/|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 March 2018|access-date=2020-07-15|website=Dainik Bhaskar|language=hi}}</ref>

==Awards and honors==

*[[Nari Shakti Puraskar|Nari Shakti Puraskar (2018) presented by the President of India Sh.Ramnath Kovind]].
* Shared stage with Amitabh Bachchan and Sonakshi Sinha on Kon Banega Crorepati Show (20 September 2019).<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Inter-Asian News Service|date=2019-09-21|title=Amitabh Bachchan bemused at Sonakshi Sinha over 'KBC' gaffe|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/big-bs-dig-at-sonakshi-sinha-over-kbc-gaffe/article29476411.ece|access-date=2020-07-15|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=केबीसी 11: आर्थिक तंगी से हुई थी बच्चे की मौत, बाद में ऐसे बदल दी 22 हजार महिलाओं की किस्मत|url=https://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/entertainment/television/kbc-11-amitabh-bachchan-show-ruma-devi-participate-karmaveer-episode|access-date=2020-07-15|website=Amar Ujala|language=hi}}</ref>
* Invited by Harvard University, Boston, U.S. as a panelist in its 17th all India conference (15-16 February 2020).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-12|title=February 13, 2020|url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/student-affairs/february-13-2020/|access-date=2020-07-15|website=Office for Student Affairs|language=en-us}}</ref>
* Featured in Khaleej Times, Dubai <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/fashion/meet-ruma-devi-a-barmer-based-artisan-whose-craftsmanship-is-now-globally-recognised | title=A school dropout who made it to Harvard: The story of artisan Ruma Devi }}</ref>
* Featured at Indian singing reality show 'Indian Idol' in the special episode of Women's day (10 July 2021).<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/rajasthan/barmer/news/barmers-ruma-devi-will-be-guest-in-the-ladies-special-episode-of-indian-a-show-the-show-will-be-telecast-on-saturday-128678837.html|title=इंडियन आइडल शो में दिखेगी बाड़मेर की रूमा देवी: लेडीज स्पेशल एपिसोड में होगी गेस्ट, बुधवार को शूट पूरा हुआ, शनिवार को होगा टेलीकास्ट, अनु मलिक बोले: सेट पर आना हमारे लिए गौरव|date=8 July 2021|website=Dainik Bhaskar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tv9hindi.com/entertainment/television/arunita-kanjilal-got-special-gift-from-ruma-devi-on-the-sets-of-indian-idol-12-730614.html|title = Indian Idol 12: अरुणिता कांजीलाल को नारी शक्ति पुरस्कार से सम्मानित रूमा देवी ने दिया खास तोहफा|date = 10 July 2021}}</ref>
* Won the title of 'TFI Designer of the year 2019'.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sheikh|first=Sajid|date=2019-07-18|title=फैशन के सतरंगी रैंप पर बाड़मेर की रूमा का ब्लैक एंड व्हाइट कलेक्शन छाया, जीता डिजाइनर ऑफ दी ईयर अवाॅर्ड|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/rajasthan/jodhpur/news/ruma-devi-of-barmer-topped-among-14-selected-designers-of-the-country-01597109.html|access-date=2020-07-15|website=Dainik Bhaskar|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainable fashion forward|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/fashion/2019/jul/19/sustainable-fashion-forward-2006128.html|access-date=2020-07-15|website=The New Indian Express |date=19 July 2019 }}</ref>
* Featured on the cover page of India Today magazine in its anniversary edition with the title 'The New Bharat' in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 23, 2018|first=Rohit|last=Parihar|title=A Stitch in Time {{!}} The Social Warriors|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/the-big-story/story/19700101-a-stitch-in-time-the-social-warriors-1415260-2018-12-23|access-date=2020-07-15|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref>
* Goodwill Ambassador and Chief Designer of Tribes India.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=2019-11-26|title=आदि महोत्सव में छाया बाड़मेर की रूमा देवी का कलेक्शन, ट्राइब्स इंडिया ने बनाया 'गुड विल एंबेसडर'|url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/off-beat/barmer-lady-ruma-devi-promoting-tribes-made-collection-overall-india/601460|access-date=2020-07-15|website=Zee News Hindi}}</ref>
* State Brand Ambassador, Rajeevika<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Iqbal |first=Mohammed |date=2021-12-17 |title=₹2,400-crore shot in the arm for women's SHGs |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/2400-crore-shot-in-the-arm-for-womens-shgs/article37981873.ece |access-date=2024-05-23 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://hindi.oneindia.com/news/jaipur/ruma-devi-of-barmer-rajasthan-has-been-appointed-as-brand-ambassador-of-rajeevika-653166.html | title=Ruma Devi Barmer : रूमा देवी बनीं Rajeevika ब्रांड एंबेसडर, अब बदलेंगीं 20 लाख महिलाओं की तकदीर | date=14 December 2021 }}</ref>
* Honored by Doctorate in the field of art & textile by Mahatma Jyoti Rao Phule University, Jaipur.
* Shilpa Abhimani Award by the Govt of Sri Lanka: Promotion of handicrafts
* Honour by Women on Wings Netherlands (2016)

==External links==
* {{URL|www.rumadevifoundation.org}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Nari Shakti Puraskar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Devi, Ruma}}
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women fashion designers]]
[[Category:Indian fashion designers]]
[[Category:Women artists from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:People from Barmer, Rajasthan]]
[[Category:People from Barmer district]]
[[Category:Nari Shakti Puraskar 2018 winners]]

Jaguar Thangam

2026-02-07T22:59:55Z

KiaGreenwald: New - done

{{Short description|Indian Tamil actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jaguar Thangam
| image = Jaguar Thangam.jpg
| caption = Jaguar Thangam
| birth_name = Thanga Pazham
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1952|6|6|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Thoothukudi|Tuticorin]], [[Tamilnadu]], [[India]]
| other_names =
| occupation = {{Hlist|[[Stunt coordinator|Stunt Choreographer]] | [[actor]] |[[Film producer|producer]]|[[screenplay writer]]|[[Film director|Director]]}}
| years_active = 1978–present
| spouse = Shanthi Jaguar Thangam (1984–present)
| children = Vijaya Siranjeevi, Jai J Jaguar
| awards = [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Stunt Coordinator]]
| honours = [[Kalaimamani]] 2020 <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tn-govt-announces-kalaimamani-awards-for-2019-2020/article33885249.ece|title = T.N. Govt. Announces Kalaimamani awards for 2019, 2020|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 20 February 2021}}</ref>
}}

Thanga Pazham (born 6 June 1952 ), known by his [[Stage name|screen]] name '''Jaguar Thangam''', is a [[Stunt coordinator|stunt choreographer]] in the [[Indian film industry]] who works in almost all [[regional]] [[language]]s in [[India]] primarily in [[Tamil Cinema]]. He began ''[[Silambam]]'' when he was 6 years old. In the middle of 1978, he was given the name Jaguar Thangam by a [[Malayalam]] [[Film director|director]] Mr. Chandrakumar. Following his debut in Chandrakumar's [[Hindi]] [[drama]] ''Meena Bazzar (1978)'' as a [[stunt coordinator]], his [[stunt]] career commenced with a brief phase of stunt sequences in nationwide [[film industry]].

Jaguar Thangam was found by Mr. [[M. G. Ramachandran|M.G.Ramachandran]] popularly known as [[M. G. Ramachandran|M.G.R.]] (a famous actor and former [[List of Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu|Chief Minister of Tamilnadu]] ) in his early stage. As of now Jaguar Thangam completed 1000+ films in almost all languages in India. Jaguar Thangam has won Four [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Stunt Coordinator]] for Five [[Tamil language|Tamil]] movies.

In addition to [[stunt]], he is also working as an [[actor]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nowrunning.com/celebrity/34359/jaguar-thangam/movies.htm |title=Jaguar Thangam Movies - actor Jaguar Thangam Movies |access-date=13 August 2017 |archive-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710133519/https://www.nowrunning.com/celebrity/34359/jaguar-thangam/movies.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nowrunning.com/celebrity/34359/jaguar-thangam/movies.htm|title=Jaguar as Actor|access-date=13 August 2017|archive-date=10 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710133519/https://www.nowrunning.com/celebrity/34359/jaguar-thangam/movies.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Film producer|producer]], [[Script writer]] and [[Film director|Director]]. Apart from his stunt career, he is interested in social activities and [[politics]]. Jaguar Thangam is associated as Honourable Secretary with the Film and Television Producers’ Guild of South India, which is located in Thiyagaraya Nagar in [[Chennai]], [[Tamilnadu]].

==Early career==
[[File:Jaguar Thangam@40.jpg|thumb|left|Jaguar Thangam at the age of 40]]
Jaguar Thangam started learning ''Silambam'' at the age of 6. From then till now, he has been the only person in the film industry who has mastered 27 kinds of stunt arts.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Puthuyugam|first1=Manam Thirumbuthe|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuHeE3WDM0I|website=youtube.com|accessdate=7 September 2017|title=Jaguar Thangam was Interviewed in Manam Thirumbuthe by Puthu Yugam TV|date=9 February 2015 }}</ref>

==Film career==
Jaguar Thangam started his film career in [[Hindi]] as a [[Stunt coordinator|Stunt Choreographer]] in the movie ''[[Meena Bazaar]]'' in 1978. Following that, he has done more than 87 films in [[Hindi]] where he did 17 movies with the veteran actor [[Mithun Chakraborty]].

He started his film career as a stunt fighter in the Tamil movie [[Vetri (film)|Vetri]] in which famous [[Tamil language|Tamil]] actor [[Vijayakanth]] got a lead role. He started his [[career]] as a [[Stunt coordinator|Stunt Choreographer]] in Tamil movie ''[[Vaigasi Poranthachu]]''. He worked in the [[Hollywood (film industry)|Hollywood]] movie [[Blood Stone]], which is the only Hollywood movie of [[Rajinikanth]]. He worked with the veteran actor [[Kamal Hasan]] in the movie ''[[Maharasan]]''.

Jaguar Thangam completed more than 1000 films in almost all languages in the [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]].

The following [[Stunt coordinator|stunt choreographers]] are the students of Jaguar Thangam: [[Peter Hein]], [[Anal Arasu]], K. Ganesh Kumar, [[Stunt Silva]], S. R. Murugan, and Knockout Nandha.

==Personal life==

Jaguar Thangam married Shanthi, whose native was in Chakkammalpuram, near [[Pudukkottai]], [[Thoothukudi]] district, but she was born in [[Chennai]] on 24 September 1963 and was named by [[M. G. Ramachandran]] known as [[M. G. Ramachandran|M.G.R.]] (a famous actor and former [[List of Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu|Chief Minister of Tamilnadu]] ).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotstar.com/tv/namma-veetu-kalyanam/1484/jaguar-thangam/1000025483|title = Namma Veetu Kalyanam - Watch Episode 14 - Jaguar Thangam on Disney+ Hotstar}}</ref> The marriage took place on 9 September 1984 at Pasumpon Muthuramalinga Dever Kalyana Mandapam in Thiyagaraya Nagar, [[Chennai]]. The couple has two sons named Vijaya Siranjeevi and Jai J Jaguar. Both are very active in Tamil [[Film industry|cinema]] as [[Stunt coordinator|Stunt Choreographer]] as well as actors. Vijay Chiranjeevi made his acting debut with ''Suryaa'' (2008), directed by his father.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-reviews/reviews-2/surya.html |title=Surya movie Review - Behindwoods.com - Vijaya Chiranjeevi Jaguar Thangam Keerthi Chawla Neepa Music Jerome Pushparaj Images Gallery Stills |publisher=Behindwoods.com |date=2007-12-05 |accessdate=2022-08-10}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date= February 2023}}
;Films
{{Colbegin}}
* 1978 ''Meena Bazaar'' (Hindi)
* 1990 ''[[Vaigasi Poranthachu]]''
* 1991 ''[[Naan Pudicha Mappillai]]''
* 1991 ''Nenjamundu Nermaiundu''
* 1991 ''[[Ennarukil Nee Irunthal]]''
* 1991 ''Vaidehi Vandhachu''
* 1991 ''[[Pondatti Sonna Kettukanum]]''
* 1992 ''[[Thanga Manasukkaran]]''
* 1992 ''[[Pondatti Rajyam]]''
* 1992 ''Thilagam''
* 1992 ''[[Onna Irukka Kathukanum]]''
* 1993 ''[[Manikuyil]]''
* 1993 ''[[Maharasan]]''
* 1993 ''[[Amma Ponnu]]''
* 1993 ''Shenbagam''
* 1993 ''[[Nallathe Nadakkum]]''
* 1993 ''Captain'' (Kannada)
* 1993 ''[[Band Master (film)|Band Master]]''
* 1993 ''[[Pass Mark]]''
* 1993 ''Akkarai Cheemaiyile''
* 1993 ''[[Parvathi Ennai Paradi]]''
* 1993 ''[[Purusha Lakshanam]]''
* 1993 ''[[Kizhakke Varum Paattu]]''
* 1994 ''[[Varavu Ettana Selavu Pathana]]''
* 1994 ''Madhumathi''
* 1994 ''[[Veettai Paaru Naattai Paaru]]''
* 1994 ''[[Sevatha Ponnu]]''
* 1994 ''Bombat Raja Bandal Rani'' (Kannada)
* 1994 ''Pandianin Rajyathil''
* 1994 ''[[Thamarai (film)|Thamarai]]''
* 1994 ''[[Thaai Manasu]]''
* 1995 ''[[Valli Vara Pora]]''
* 1995 ''[[Thedi Vandha Raasa]]''
* 1995 ''[[Manathile Oru Paattu]]''
* 1995 ''[[Witness (1995 film)|Witness]]''
* 1995 ''Chithirai Thiruvizha''
* 1995 ''[[Thaikulame Thaikulame]]''
* 1995 ''[[Murai Mappillai]]''
* 1996 ''[[Amman Kovil Vaasalile]]''
* 1996 ''[[Kaalam Maari Pochu (1996 film)|Kaalam Maari Pochu]]''
* 1996 ''[[Andha Naal (1996 film)|Andha Naal]]''
* 1996 ''[[Take It Easy Urvashi]]''
* 1996 ''[[Gopala Gopala (1996 film)|Gopala Gopala]]''
* 1996 ''[[Poomani]]''
* 1996 ''[[Purushan Pondatti]]''
* 1997 ''[[Pongalo Pongal]]''
* 1997 ''[[Pagaivan]]''
* 1997 ''[[Periya Manushan]]''
* 1997 ''[[Thadayam]]''
* 1997 ''[[Roja Malare]]''
* 1997 ''[[Thambi Durai]]''
* 1997 ''[[Pudhalvan]]''
* 1998 ''[[Kizhakkum Merkkum]]''
* 1998 ''[[Veera Thalattu]]''
* 1998 ''[[Aval Varuvala]]''
* 1998 ''[[Priyamudan]]''
* 1998 ''[[Ellame En Pondattithaan]]''
* 1998 ''[[Nilaave Vaa]]''
* 1999 ''[[Endrendrum Kadhal]]''
* 1999 ''[[Annan (film)|Annan]]''
* 1999 ''[[Poomagal Oorvalam]]''
* 1999 ''[[Chinna Raja]]''
* 1999 ''[[Poomaname Vaa]]''
* 1999 ''[[Viralukketha Veekkam]]''
* 1999 ''[[Manaivikku Mariyadhai]]''
* 1999 ''[[Maravathe Kanmaniye]]''
* 2000 ''[[Magalirkkaga]]''
* 2000 ''[[Koodi Vazhnthal Kodi Nanmai (2000 film)|Koodi Vazhnthal Kodi Nanmai]]''
* 2001 ''[[Seerivarum Kaalai]]''
* 2001 ''[[Dhosth (2001 Tamil film)|Dhosth]]''
* 2001 ''[[Viswanathan Ramamoorthy (film)|Viswanathan Ramamoorthy]]''
* 2001 ''[[Veettoda Mappillai]]''
* 2001 ''[[Kabadi Kabadi (2001 film)|Kabadi Kabadi]]''
* 2001 ''[[Shahjahan (film)|Shahjahan]]''
* 2001 ''[[Vadagupatti Maapillai]]''
* 2002 ''[[Unnai Ninaithu]]''
* 2002 ''[[Thenkasi Pattanam]]''
* 2002 ''[[Namma Veetu Kalyanam]]''
* 2002 ''[[Bagavathi]]''
* 2002 ''[[Mutham]]''
* 2003 ''[[Annai Kaligambal]]''
* 2003 ''[[Student Number 1]]''
* 2003 ''[[Anbu Thollai]]''
* 2003 ''[[Dum (2003 Tamil film)|Dum]]''
* 2003 ''Vani Mahal''
* 2003 ''[[Thiruda Thirudi]]''
* 2003 ''Athanda Ithanda''
* 2003 ''[[Aalukkoru Aasai]]''
* 2004 ''[[Adi Thadi]]''
* 2004 ''[[Jore (film)|Jore]]''
* 2004 ''[[Azhagesan]]''
* 2004 ''[[Adhu]]''
* 2004 ''[[Maha Nadigan]]''
* 2004 ''[[Ramakrishna (2004 Tamil film)|Ramakrishna]]''
* 2005 ''[[Sukran]]''
* 2005 ''[[Kannamma (film)|Kannamma]]''
* 2005 ''[[Gurudeva (film)|Gurudeva]]''
* 2005 ''[[Girivalam (film)|Girivalam]]''
* 2005 ''[[Karka Kasadara]]''
* 2005 ''[[Kaatrullavarai]]''
* 2005 ''[[Vetrivel Sakthivel]]''
* 2006 ''[[Chennai Kadhal]]''
* 2007 ''[[Thirumagan]]''
* 2007 ''[[Dhandayuthapani]]''
* 2007 ''[[Vyabari]]''
* 2007 ''[[Veeramum Eeramum]]''
* 2007 ''[[Manikanda]]''
* 2007 ''[[Pazhaniappa Kalloori]]''
* 2008 ''[[Ayyavazhi]]''
* 2008 ''[[Suryaa (film)|Suryaa]]''
* 2010 ''[[Pollachi Mappillai]]''
* 2010 ''[[Gowravargal]]''
* 2011 ''[[Narthagi]]''
* 2012 ''[[Idhayam Thiraiarangam]]''
* 2012 ''Uyir Ezhuthu''
* 2012 ''[[Sengathu Bhoomiyile]]''
* 2014 ''[[Snehavin Kadhalarkal]]''
* 2014 ''[[MGR Sivaji Rajini Kamal]]''
{{Colend}}
;Television
* 2000 ''[[Krishnadasi (2000 TV series)|Krishnadasi]]''
* 2001 ''Jhala Khreedai''
* 2014 ''[[Romapuri Pandian]]''

===Director===
* 2008 ''[[Suryaa (film)|Suryaa]]''

===Actor===
* 1990 ''[[Vaigasi Poranthachu]]''
* 1996 ''[[Gopala Gopala (1996 film)|Gopala Gopala]]''
* 1997 ''[[Thadayam]]''
* 1998 ''[[Priyamudan]]''
* 1998 ''[[Nilaave Vaa]]''
* 2004 ''[[Ramakrishna (2004 Tamil film)|Ramakrishna]]''
* 2005 ''[[Vetrivel Sakthivel]]''
* 2006 ''[[Chennai Kadhal]]''
* 2015 ''[[MGR Sivaji Rajini Kamal]]''
* 2017 ''[[Julieum 4 Perum]]''
* 2022 ''Uzhaikkum Kaigal''
* 2022 ''[[Peya Kaanom]]''

==Awards==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date= February 2023}}
* 1996 : [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Stunt Coordinator]] - ''[[Poomani (film)|Poomani]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/1996awards.htm |title=1996 CINEMA STATE AWARDS |publisher=[[Dinakaran]] |date=22 May 2012 |accessdate=14 February 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522211531/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/1996awards.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1998 : [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Stunt Coordinator]] - ''[[Priyamudan]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rrtd.nic.in/Film%20Bulletin-July.html |title=Tamil Nadu State Film Awards announced; "Natpukkaga" bags Best Film Award |publisher=rrtd.nic.in |date=30 April 2003 |accessdate=14 February 2023 |archive-date=30 April 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030430210643/http://rrtd.nic.in/Film%20Bulletin-July.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>
* 1999 : [[Cinema Express Awards|Cinema Express Award for Best Stunt Master]] - Many movies<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cinematoday2.itgo.com/4Hot%20News%20Just%20for%20U4.htm |title=Cinema Express Awards |publisher=Cinematoday2.itgo.com |date=24 March 2012 |accessdate=14 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2002 : [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Stunt Coordinator]] - ''[[Bagavathi]]''
* 2019 : [[Kalaimamani]] Award from the Government of [[Tamil Nadu]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|3840629}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thangam, Jaguar}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Indian action choreographers]]
[[Category:People from Thoothukudi district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Film directors from Tamil Nadu]]

Vasudeva

2026-02-04T09:55:32Z

KiaGreenwald: page edit

{{Infobox deity
| Devanagari = वसुदेव
| type = Hindu
| image = File:Raja Ravi Varma, Birth of Krishna (1890).jpg
| caption = Vasudeva secretly exits the prison to go to Gokula, a painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]]
| spouse = [[Rohini Devi|Rohini]], [[Devaki]], and ''[[#Wives and children|various other wives]]''
| children = [[Balarama]], [[Krishna]], [[Subhadra]], and ''[[#Wives and children|various other children]]''
| father = [[Shurasena]]
| mother = Marisha
| siblings = [[Samudravijaya]], [[Kunti]]
| dynasty = [[Yadava|Yaduvamsha]] – [[Chandravamsha]]
| texts = ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', ''[[Harivamsa]]'', ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', ''[[Brahma Purana]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]''
| venerated_in = [[Vaishnavism]]
}}{{short description|Father of Hindu god Krishna}}
{{For|his son Vāsudeva the deity|Vāsudeva|Krishna}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
'''Vasudeva''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|v|ʌ|s|u|ˈ|d|eɪ|v|ə}}; [[Sanskrit]]: वसुदेव {{IPA|sa|ʋɐsudéːʋɐ|}}), also called '''Anakadundubhi''' (''anakas'' and ''dundubhis'' both refer to ''drums'', after the musicians who played these instruments at the time of his birth),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Garg |first1=Gaṅgā Rām |title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World |date=1992 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7022-375-7 |page=408 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjDcd0cTFxQC&pg=PA408 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ph.D |first1=Lavanya Vemsani |title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-211-3 |page=297 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA297 |language=en}}</ref> is the father of the Hindu deities [[Vāsudeva]]-[[Krishna]], [[Balarama]], and [[Subhadra]]. He was a king of the [[Vrishni]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Joanna Gottfried |title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India |date=1981 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-06498-0 |page=129 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA129 |language=en}}</ref> His sister [[Kunti]] was married to [[Pandu]] and elder brother [[Samudravijaya]] is father of [[Neminath]].

"Vasudeva" as an object of worship in Hinduism usually refers to the son {{IAST|Vāsudeva}} (Krishna), rather than his father Vasudeva.

==Family==
Vasudeva was born to the king [[Shurasena]] in the [[Surasena]] kingdom of Khandalwansha.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Appadorai |first=A. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.39545 |title=Economic Condition In Southern India Vol. 1 |date=1936}}</ref> Vasudeva had many brothers such as Devashrava and Devabhaga, and 5 sisters Srutakirti, [[Kunti]], Rajadhidevi, Srutadeva (Mother of the [[Dantavakra]]), and Shrutasravas (mother of [[Shishupala]]). According to the [[Harivamsa Purana]], Vasudeva and [[Nanda Baba|Nanda]], the chief of Gokula, his Step-Brother.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prabhupada |first=His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oohOCgAAQBAJ&dq=nanda+vaisya&pg=PT457 |title=Srimad-Bhagavatam, Tenth Canto: The Summum Bonum |last2=Prabhupada |first2=Disciples of His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |date=1977-12-31 |publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |isbn=978-91-7149-643-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wT-BAAAAMAAJ&q=Kshatriya|title=The Cattle and the Stick: An Ethnographic Profile of the Raut of Chhattisgarh|last=Soni|first=Lok Nath|date=2000|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture|isbn=978-81-85579-57-3|language=en|page=13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuqB0o8aGzMC&pg=PA240 |title=Hindu Primary Sources: A Sectarian Reader |date=2007 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-4070-2 |language=en}}</ref>

===Wives and children===
Vasudeva married [[Devaki]], and also had other wives such as [[Rohini (wife of Vasudeva)|Pauravi Rohini]], Madira, Vaishakhi, Bhadra, Sunama, Sahadeva, Shantideva, Shrideva, Devarakshita, Vrikadevi, Upadevi, and Badarva. Rohini bore several sons, namely, [[Balarama]], Sarana and Shatha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/shatha|title = Shatha, Śaṭha, Satha, Saṭha, Śaṭhā: 19 definitions|date = 3 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/sharana#purana|title=Sharana, Sārana, Sarana, Saraṇa, Sāraṇā, Śaraṇa, Sāraṇa, Saraṇā: 25 definitions|date=12 April 2009}}</ref> Vrikadevi gave birth to Avagaha and Nandaka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vrikadevi|title = Vrikadevi, Vṛkadevī: 2 definitions|date = 18 February 2017}}</ref> By Devaki, he had eight sons–six of whom were killed by [[Kamsa]] and the other two being Balarama (transferred into the womb of Rohini) and [[Krishna]]. He also had a daughter – [[Subhadra]] from Rohini.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/vishnu-purana-wilson/d/doc116012.html|title = The story of the previous birth of Shishupala and the sons of Vasudeva [Chapter XV]|date = 30 August 2014}}</ref> In some versions of the Bhagavata Purana, Vasudeva also married Sutanu, the princess of Kasi, and they had a son named [[Paundraka Vasudeva|Paundraka]].<ref>Bhagavata Purana Skandha X Chapter 66, Motilal Bansaridass Publishers Book 4 Appendix (66A) pages 1884- 1885, additional verses in Vijaya-dhvaja's Bhagavata Purana, Chapter 69</ref>

===Descendants===
Vasudeva traced a number of descendants through his sons. Sarana had many sons like Satyadhriti and Marsti, and Shatha had a son called Sarthi. Balarama married [[Revati]] and had two sons – Nishatha and Ulmuka & a daughter – Vatsala/Shashirekha. Krishna had [[Ashtabharya|eight principal wives]], and he begat many children from them, such as [[Pradyumna]], [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]], Bhanu etc., and they also had many children. Vasudeva's daughter [[Subhadra]] married Pandava prince [[Arjuna]], and they had a son [[Abhimanyu]]. Ultimately, it was Abhimanyu's son [[Parikshit]] who ascended the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru throne]] after [[Yudhishthira]].

Many of the Yadavas killed themselves in the [[Mausala Parva|Yadava fratricide]]. Krishna, Balarama and Vasudeva later gave up their lives, and the [[Pandava]]s collected the remaining Yadava children and ladies with them to [[Indraprastha]], where Pradyumma's grandson Vajra was crowned as king of [[Mathura]], and some other survivors also were crowned as kings of different places.''(See [[Mausala Parva]])''.Many migrated southwards and known as ''[[Balija|vira balija]]'' or ''vir banajiga'' and created a powerful warrior merchant class of south India and ruled [[nayaka dynasties]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Appadorai |first=A. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.39545 |title=Economic Condition In Southern India Vol. 1 |date=1936}}</ref>

{{multiple image|border=infobox|perrow=2/1|total_width=600|caption_align=center
| align = center
| direction =horizontal
| image1 = Vasudeva carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the Yamuna, Art of Mathura, circa 1st century CE.jpg
| image2 = Vasudeva_Carrying_Baby_Krishna_in_Basket_Across_Yamuna_-_Circa_1st_Century_CE_-_Gatashram_Narayan_Temple.jpg
| footer = Vasudeva carrying baby Krishna across the [[Yamuna river|Yamuna]]. Circa 1st Century CE, Gatashram Narayan Temple. [[Mathura Museum]]}}
The sons of Vasudeva were related to [[Bhagavatism]] that was largely formed by the 1st-millennium BCE where ''[[Vāsudeva]]'' (Krishna, the son of Vasudeva) was worshiped as supreme ultimate reality. This is evidenced by texts and archaeological evidence. As textual evidence, the [[Mahanarayana Upanishad]] records the verse:

{{Quote|
नारायाणाय विद्महे '''वासुदेवाय''' धीमहि तन्नो विष्णुः प्रचोदयात्

''nārāyāṇāya vidmahē vāsudēvāya dhīmahi tannō viṣṇuḥ pracōdayāt''

We endeavor to know Narayana, we meditate on Vāsudeva and [[Vishnu]] bestows wisdom on us.
|Mahanarayana Upanishad|Chapter 7{{Sfn|Hattangadi|1999|p=॥ ७॥ Adhayaya}}<ref name=srinivaschari132>SM Srinivaschari (1994), Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120810983}}, page 132-134, 212-218</ref>}}

[[File:Krishna meets parents.jpg|thumb|[[Krishna]] and [[Balarama]] meeting their parents (painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]])]]
This verse asserts that Narayana, Vāsudeva (Krishna), and Vishnu are synonymous.<ref name=srinivaschari132/> The author and the century in which the above Mahanarayana Upanishad was composed is unknown. The relative chronology of the text, based on its poetic verse and textual style, has been proposed by Parmeshwaranand to the same period of composition as [[Katha Upanishad|Katha]], [[Isha Upanishad|Isha]], [[Mundaka Upanishad|Mundaka]] and [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]s, but before [[Maitri Upanishad|Maitri]], [[Prashna Upanishad|Prashna]] and [[Mandukya Upanishad]].{{Sfn| Parmeshwaranand|2000|pp=458-459}} Feuerstein places the relative composition chronology of Mahanarayana to be about that of Mundaka and Prashna [[Upanishads]].{{Sfn|Feuerstein|1989|pp=119-120}} These relative chronology estimates date the text to second half of 1st millennium BCE.{{Sfn| Parmeshwaranand|2000|pp=458-459}}{{Sfn|Olivelle|1998|pp=11-14}} Srinivasan suggests a later date for the composition of the Mahanarayana Upanishad, one after about 300 BCE and probably in the centuries around the start of the common era.{{Sfn|Srinivasan|1997|pp=112, 120}}

Other evidence is from archeological inscriptions, where ''Bhagavan'' is documented epigraphically to be from around 100 BCE, such as in the inscriptions of the [[Heliodorus pillar]]. An [[Indo-Greek]] ambassador from [[Taxila]] named Heliodorus, of this era, visited the court of a [[Shunga Empire|Shunga]] king, and addresses himself as a Bhagavata on this pillar, an epithet scholars consider as evidence of Vāsudeva worship was well established in 1st millennium BCE.<ref>John Irvin (1973-1975), Aśokan Pillars: A Reassessment of the Evidence, The Burlington Magazine. v. 115, pages 706-720; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/877843 v. 116, pages 712-727]; v. 117, pages 631-643; v. 118, pages 734-753; {{oclc|83369960}}</ref> A popular short prayer for worshipping Vāsudeva is [[Dwadashaakshar]].

==Kashyapa incarnated as Vasudeva==
[[File:Vasudeva Takes the Infant Krishna Across the Yamuna River.jpg|thumb|Vasudeva Takes the Infant Krishna Across the Yamuna River. [[Rajput painting|Master at the Court of Mankot]], {{Circa|1700}}. [[Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh]]]]<nowiki> </nowiki>
Sage [[Kashyapa]] is said to have incarnated as Vasudeva, the father of Krishna, due to a curse of the deities [[Varuna]] or [[Brahma]].

Once, the sage is said to have performed a [[yajna]] (a ritual sacrifice) in his [[Ashram|hermitage]]. Kashyapa sought the help of the god [[Varuna]] for the offerings of milk and [[ghee]]. Varuna lent the sage a divine cow that would provide him the required offerings. After completing the sacrifice, Kashyapa delayed in returning the cow back to the deity. Varuna cursed the sage and his wife, Aditi, to be born on earth as Vasudeva and Devaki, the parents of Vishnu in his avatar of Krishna.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vemsani |first=Lavanya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56QvEAAAQBAJ&dq=Kashyapa+Yadava&pg=PA231 |title=Feminine Journeys of the Mahabharata: Hindu Women in History, Text, and Practice |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-73165-6 |page=231 |language=en}}</ref>

In other iterations, Kashyapa is stated to have stolen a divine cow from Varuna for the performance of a ritual sacrifice. The deity requested [[Brahma]] for his intervention. For his theft of a cow, Brahma cursed Kashyapa to be born on earth as a cowherd. Since his wives, [[Aditi]] and Surasa, had assisted him in concealing the cows in his hermitage, they were also born on earth as his two wives, Devaki and [[Rohini (wife of Vasudeva)|Rohini]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mani |first=Vettam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvXsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA397 |title=Puranic Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Work with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |date=2015-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0597-2 |page=397 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Preciado-Solis |first1=Benjamin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvCaWvjGDVEC&q=gopatve+ka%C5%9Byapo+bhuvi |title=The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga |last2=Preciado-Solís |first2=Benjamín |date=1984 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-0-89581-226-1 |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Hinduism small}}
{{Commons category}}
* [[Heliodorus pillar]]
* [[Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions]]
* [[Naneghat]]
* [[Vasu Doorjamb Inscription]]
* [[Vasudeva Upanishad]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W. IV |title=Indo-European Language and Culture |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-4051-0316-7 }}
*{{cite book|title= Yoga: The Technology of Ecstasy|first= Georg|last= Feuerstein|publisher= Tarcher|year= 1989|isbn= 978-0-87477-525-9}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/mahanarayana.pdf |title= महानारायणोपनिषत् (Mahanarayana Upanishad)|access-date=23 January 2016| language = sa|last= Hattangadi| first= Sunder| year= 1999 }}
*{{citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|title=Ascetics and Brahmins: Studies in Ideologies and Institutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TecNS3Vi2F4C|year=2011|publisher=[[Anthem Publishing|Anthem Press]]|isbn=978-0-85728-432-7}}
* {{Citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|title=Upaniṣads|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-283576-5}}
*{{cite book|last= Parmeshwaranand |first=S|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upanisads|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zQytiw_cg8C|year=2000|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-148-8}}
*{{cite book|author= Hastings, James Rodney|author-link=James Hastings|others=John A Selbie, ed|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, v.4: Behistun (continued) to Bunyan, p. 540.|publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC (Reprint 1990)|location=Edinburgh|year=1908|page=476|isbn=978-0-7661-3673-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kaz58z--NtUC&q=Krishna&pg=PA540 }}
*{{cite book|last=Srinivasan |first=Doris |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes| publisher=BRILL Academic| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA111| isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |year=1997 }}

==Further reading==
*[[RG Bhandarkar]]: "Vasudeva of Panini" 4.3.98. ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', 1910.
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:People related to Krishna]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Characters in the Bhagavata Purana]]

Surir

2026-02-03T21:26:49Z

KiaGreenwald: added a data

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name=Surir
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh#India3
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Surir Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|27.771787|N|77.720847|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name=India
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mathura district|Mathura]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| unit_pref = Metric
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 9845
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 281205
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Surir''' is a town located in [[Mant Tehsil]] of [[Mathura district]] in the Indian state of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Mathura: Blaming cops for inaction; couple attempts self-immolation inside police station |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-mathura-blaming-cops-for-inaction-couple-attempts-self-immolation-inside-police-station-2785727 |accessdate=5 October 2019 |work=DNA India |date=29 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref> [[Bhidauni]] is a nearby village on the Yamuna river. Surir kalan is a residential place and Surir Vijau is a marketplace. Now Surir is known as Bricks Udyog as it has more than 100 bricks factories, which provide employment to thousands of workers from this area. Currently, Gram Pradhan of Surir Vijau is Mona Devi W/O Peetam Singh (Shera Thakur), elected on 3 May 2021.
Surir is well connected to the big cities such as [[Mathura]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Khair]], Aligarh, Agra, Noida, Palwal, Bulandshahar, Ghaziabad and Delhi. It lies on the [[Yamuna Expressway]], connecting it to Delhi and Agra.<ref>{{cite web |title= Surir Vijaru Bangar Population - Mathura, Uttar Pradesh |url= http://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/123923-surir-vijaru-bangar-uttar-pradesh.html |work= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional) |accessdate= 2008-11-01 |publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= सुरीर में सांप्दायिक तनाव, फोर्स तैनात |url= http://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/mathura/crime/communal-voilence-in-mathura-hindi-news |accessdate= 5 April 2016 |agency= Amar Ujala}}</ref>

== Villages ==
Surir encompasses the villages of [[Garhi Parsoti]], [[Bhidauni]], [[Auhawa Bangar]], [[Shihavan Bangar]], [[Kewat Nagla]], [[Nagla Jagarupa]],[[Sikanderpur, Mathura|Sikanderpur]], [[Bera, Mathura|Bera]],Jarara Bhadanwara, Bhalai, Hasanpur, Karahari, Khairakothi, Lohai, Meerpur, Nawali, Rajagarhi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mathura News, News In Hindi, Local News|url=http://www.uniquesamay.com/diarrhea-did-not-get-there-where-malaria-was-spread/#.WTue-_6cHIU|accessdate=10 June 2017|work=www.uniquesamay.com}}</ref> Lamtori

==Politics==
[[Mant (Assembly constituency)]] is the Vidhan Sabha constituency.<ref name="Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008">{{cite news|title= Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] official website|access-date=11 Nov 2015|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf}}</ref> [[Mathura (Lok Sabha constituency)]] is the parliamentary constituency.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/parliamentary-constituencies/mathura.html#sthash.Np3vzKmF.dpuf|title=Mathura General (Lok Sabha) Election Results 2019|website=elections.in|access-date=2 March 2021}}</ref>

== Commerce ==
'''Painth Vegetable Bazar''' is a local green vegetable market situated in the main market. The [[State Bank of India]] and [[Syndicate Bank]] serve the banking needs of Surir residents and nearby villagers.
At present about 100 bricks factories are running around this town. The main market has all kind of shops for daily need of the residents of this area.
[[File:Vegetable survivors.jpg|thumb|right|A Vegetable vendors selling geen vegetables in Painth Vegetable Bazar]]

== Road ==
Surir is well connected to [[Mathura]], [[Khair]], [[Mant]], [[Aligarh]] and [[Agra]] by Mathura-Bajna road and well connected to [[Kosi kalan]], [[Faridabad]], [[Delhi]] by Shergarh-Kosi Road and to the rest of Yamuna Expressway (from Noida to Agra). At present no cut & bypass near Surir, but villagers have been demanding a cut between Surir and Tentigaon on Yamuna e-way. At present Bajana Cut open to reach Yamuna Expressway. Surir Also connected to Noida, Delhi and Agra.<ref>{{cite news |title=सूरीर मैं फिर सुलग़ेगी आन्दोलन की चिंगारी |url= https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=783321235132947&set=pcb.783321951799542&type=3&theater |accessdate= 5 April 2016 |publisher= Hindustan (newspaper)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Accidents kill 7 on Yamuna e-way|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/noida/Accidents-kill-7-on-Yamuna-e-way/articleshow/47076959.cms |accessdate= 28 April 2015 |publisher= [[times of india]] }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Mathura district}}
{{Villages in Mant Tehsil}}

[[Category:Villages in Mathura district]]

{{Mathura-geo-stub}}टूट गया दिल
अब बवाल क्या करें
ख़ुद ही किया था पसंद
अब सवाल क्या करें

Bhankora

2026-01-31T16:26:46Z

KiaGreenwald: updated page

#REDIRECT [[Music of Uttarakhand]]
{{R from merge}}{{R from alternative transliteration}}

Ayilyam Thirunal

2026-01-28T06:26:21Z

KiaGreenwald: Content updated and refined

{{Short description|Maharaja of Travancore from 1860 to 1880}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma
| title = [[Maharaja of Travancore]]
| image = Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma of Travancore 1875.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = The Maharaja circa 1875
| reign = 18 August 1860 – 30 May 1880
| coronation =
| full name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1832|03|14|df=yes}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1880|05|30|1832|03|14|df=yes}}
| death_place =
| burial_date =
| burial_place = 
| predecessor = [[Uthram Thirunal]]
| successor = [[Visakham Thirunal]]
| spouse 1 =Panapillai Madhavi Pillai Lakshmi Pillai Kochamma
| spouse 2 =Kalyanikutty Amma
| issue =
| royal house = [[Travancore royal family|Venad Swaroopam]]
| dynasty =Kulasekhara
| father =Punartham Thirunal Rama Varma Koil Thampuran
| mother = [[Gowri Rukmini Bayi]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| signature =
}}
[[File:Princess Rugmini Bhye.png|thumb|Princess Rukmini Bayi, mother of Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma]]

'''Sir Sri Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma IV''' {{post nominals|post-noms=[[Order of the Star of India|GCSI]] [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]]}} (14 March 1832 – 30 May 1880) was the [[Travancore royal family|Maharaja of Travancore]] from 1860 to 1880. His reign was highly successful, with [[Travancore]], gaining the appellation of "model [[Princely state|state]] of [[British Raj|India]]", with such celebrated administrators as [[T. Madhava Rao|Raja Sir T. Madhava Rao]] and [[A. Seshayya Sastri|Sir A. Seshayya Sastri]] serving him as [[Diwan of travancore|Diwans]].

Ayilyam Thirunal was the nephew of his predecessors [[Uthram Thirunal]] and [[Swathi Thirunal]], and the grandson of [[Gowri Lakshmi Bayi|Maharani-Regent Gowri Lakshmi Bayi]]; he was succeeded by his brother, [[Visakham Thirunal]].

==Early life==
Ayilyam Thirunal was born on 14 March 1832 to Rani Rukmini Bayi, the only sister of Maharajahs [[Swathi Thirunal]] and [[Uthram Thirunal]]. In the [[Travancore Royal Family]] inheritance and primogeniture was determined by the [[Marumakkathayam]] system i.e. through the female line. With the accession of [[Uthram Thirunal]] in 1846 and his elder brother's exclusion from the line of succession due to imbecility, Ayilyam Thirunal became the Elaya Rajah or heir apparent of [[Travancore]] State. Of the seven children born to Rukmini Bayi, only four, including a daughter, Rani Lakshmi Bayi, survived and the eldest and third son were declared unfit to rule owing to mental incapacity. Ayilyam Thirunal's youngest brother [[Visakham Thirunal]] was therefore to be his successor.

Ayilyam Thirunal's early education was provided privately and later [[T. Madhava Rao]] was appointed tutor to the Elaya Rajah and his brother in 1848. Madhava Rao eventually rose in service and was appointed by [[Uthram Thirunal]] in 1857 as [[Dewan]] of Travancore and remained in that capacity during the initial decade of Ayilyam Thirunal's reign, until, owing to personal disaffection, he was retired in 1872. In 1854 Ayilyam Thirunal was married to his uncle's daughter, [[Panapillai Amma|Panapillai]] Madhavi Pillai Lakshmi Pillai Kochamma of the [[Thiruvattar]] [[Ammaveedu]]. His consort however died a few years later. In 1860 Maharajah [[Uthram Thirunal]] died and Ayilyam Thirunal ascended the [[musnud]] as Maharajah.

==Maharajah of Travancore==
[[File:Madhava Rao.jpg|thumb|Rajah Sir [[T. Madhava Rao]] served as Dewan during
The Maharaja's reign]]
The accession of Ayilyam Thirunal ushered in a new era in [[Travancore]]. Assisted by his Dewan [[T. Madhava Rao]], the Maharajah implemented many reforms and changes in Travancore, which were all agreeably beneficial for the state. At the time of his accession, the Travancore Government was struggling with its many debts and mismanaged financial department. Nevertheless, many monopolies, taxes and cessations were abolished by the government. In 1863 the Dewan finally declared that Travancore no longer had any public debt. Gradually salaries of public servants were raised by more than 50% and its efficiency was bettered. A great deal of development in Education, legislation, public works, medicine, vaccination and public health, agriculture etc. was made. Year after year Travancore was commended by the Madras Government. Important proclamations such as the [[Jenmi]]-Kudiyan Proclamation of 1867 were made. In 1866 the Maharajah was admitted into the [[Order of the Star of India]] while his Dewan was admitted into the [[Order of the Indian Empire]]. In the same year the British Government officially granted the title of ''Maharajah'' to Ayilyam Thirunal, who was in formal communications so far addressed only as ''Rajah''. By 1872 Travancore was in a prosperous state with a surplus revenue of 4 million rupees. However, by now the relations between the Maharajah and his Dewan, now styled Rajah Sir [[T. Madhava Rao]] had turned sour and the latter was retired on a lavish pension of Rs. 1000 per mensem. [[Seshayya Sastri]] was now appointed Dewan, a position he held until 1877. The new Dewan concentrated on the development of roads and infrastructure in the state. In 1874 the Maharajah's College in Trivandrum started a Law class and other developments in the education department were made. In 1875, the first systematic census of Travancore was taken by the government. in 1877 Seshayya Sastri was retired on a pension of Rs. 500 per mensem. In accepting this liberal pension, the outgoing Dewan said:
{{cquote|In service, Your Highness made me affluent by the grant of a high salary, out of service, Your Highness makes me comfortable with a liberal pension and a generous donation. The bread thus given will not be eaten in ungratefulness or sulky discontent. The brightest chapter in my life is my service under Your Highness. The little name and fame I have acquired is in reality but the light reflected on the servant by an illustrious master, to serve whom, even for a brief period, has been my pride and privilege}}
Seshayya Sastri was later admitted into the [[Order of the Star of India]]. He was succeeded by Dewan Nanoo Pillai, a native of Travancore. During his premiership which lasted until 1880 irrigation was expanded in Travancore, museums and other institutions were established, surveys of land and agriculture etc. were taken and several other legislative and judicial reforms were passed. With the death of Ayilyam Thirunal in 1880, Nanoo Pillay was retired by his successor, [[Visakham Thirunal]]. Prior to this Ayilyam Thirunal had been admitted into the [[Order of the Indian Empire]].

==Personal life==
[[File:Ammachee wife of His Highness the Maharaja of Travancore 1868.jpg|thumb|Ammachee, wife of the Maharaja of Travancore in 1868]]

After the death of Thiruvattar Ammachi, his first consort, the Maharajah married again in 1862 Kalyanikutty Amma of Mathruppillil, a prestigious family of Nadavarambu, Irinjalakuda, [[Thrissur]] in the neighbouring state of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]]. She was born in 1839 as the only daughter of Nadavarambathu Kunju Krishna Menon, a former Dewan of Cochin and his wife Mathruppillil Lakshmi Amma. She was first married to Punnakkal Easwara Pillai ''Vicharippukar''. Kalyanikutty Amma was a woman of renowned beauty and the first commission given to [[Raja Ravi Varma]] by Ayilyam Thirunal was for her portrait. In 1865 after their marriage, she was adopted by the Maharajah into the [[Nagercoil]] [[Ammaveedu]] after which her full title became Nagercoil Ammachi [[Panapillai Amma]] Srimathi Lakshmi Pillai Kalyanikutty Pillai Ammachi. Nagercoil Ammachi was also a scholar of [[Sanskrit]] and a poet in her own right, having authored ''Rasa Krida'', ''Satya Panchakam'', ''Pativrataya Panchakam'', ''Ambarishacharitram'' and other works. She died in 1909. The Maharajah had no children of his own from either marriage. However along with his consort he adopted two nieces and nephew of hers, one niece Panapillai Ananthalakshmi Pillai Kochamma, who married in 1879 the Maharajah's nephew [[Moolam Thirunal]], the other niece married to a Thirumulpadu and a son Nagercoil Achyuthan Thampi. The Maharajah was also a poet having authored the ''Meenaketanacharitram'' and ''Bhasha Sakuntalam''.

The first decade of the Maharajah's reign was happy and peaceful but several problems arose after the dismissal of Dewan Madhava Rao. The Maharajah's relationship with [[Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran]], the consort of his niece, the [[Rani Lakshmi Bayi of Travancore|Rani Lakshmi Bayi]] (who was adopted in 1857 soon after the Maharajah's sister of the same name died giving birth to [[Moolam Thirunal]]) turned sour and subsequently he was imprisoned in [[Haripad]] in 1875 where he stayed until his release in 1880 after the Maharajah's death. Ayilyam Thirunal's own brother, [[Visakham Thirunal]] was also on bad terms with him until his death. However, in the last week before his demise, the brothers reconciled. Maharajah Ayilyam Thirunal died on 30 May 1880. The Gazette of Fort St. George of the British Government makes the following comment on the Maharajah's reign:
{{cquote|His Highness ascended the musnud on the 19th of October 1860 and his reign has been marked by the development of wise and enlightened principles of administration which have placed Travancore in the first rank of [[princely state|Native States]]}}

==Honours==
*[[Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India]] (GCSI), ''1866''
*Prince of Wales Gold Medal, ''1875''
*[[Empress of India Medal|Empress of India Gold Medal]], ''1877''
*[[Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire]] (CIE), ''1878''

==References==
* Travancore State Manual (1906) by V. Nagam Aiya
* Travancore State Manual (1940) by Velu Pillai
* Visakhavikaya, a study by Poovattoor Ramakrishna Pillai

==See also==
{{Commons category|Ayilyam Thirunal}}
* [[Travancore]]
* [[Visakham Thirunal]]
* [[Moolam Thirunal]]
* [[T. Madhava Rao]]
* [[Seshayya Sastri]]
* [[Travancore Royal Family]]
* [[Ammaveedu]]
* [[Panapillai Amma]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Travancore royal family|Kulasekhara Dynasty]]||14 March 1832||30 May 1880}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Kingdom of Travancore|Maharaja of Travancore]]|years=1860–1880}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Visakham Thirunal]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Travancore}}
{{Kingdom of Travancore}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thirunal, Ayilyam}}
[[Category:1832 births]]
[[Category:1880 deaths]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Travancore royal family]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Maharajas of Travancore|Ayilyam]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian royalty]]

Eknath Solkar

2026-01-23T02:15:51Z

KiaGreenwald: brief improve details per standard format and cleaned formatting for accuracy

{{Short description|Indian all-round cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Eknath Solkar
| nickname = Ekki
| image = Eknath_Solkar.jpg
| country = India
| fullname = Eknath Dhondu Solkar
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1948|3|18|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Bombay]], India
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2005|6|26|1948|3|18|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], India
| family = [[Anant Solkar]] (brother)
| batting = Left-handed
| bowling = {{ubl|Left-arm medium|Slow left-arm orthodox}}
| international = true
| testdebutdate = 15 October
| testdebutyear = 1969
| testdebutagainst = New Zealand
| testcap = 123
| lasttestdate = 1 January
| lasttestyear = 1977
| lasttestagainst = England
| odidebutdate = 13 July
| odidebutyear = 1974
| odidebutagainst = England
| odicap = 8
| lastodidate = 22 February
| lastodiyear = 1976
| lastodiagainst = New Zealand
| columns = 3
| column1 = [[Test cricket|Test]]
| matches1 = 27
| runs1 = 1,068
| bat avg1 = 25.42
| 100s/50s1 = 1/6
| top score1 = 102
| deliveries1 = 2,265
| wickets1 = 18
| bowl avg1 = 59.44
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 3/28
| catches/stumpings1 = 53/–
| column2 = [[One Day International|ODI]]
| matches2 = 7
| runs2 = 27
| bat avg2 = 4.50
| 100s/50s2 = 0/0
| top score2 = 13
| deliveries2 = 252
| wickets2 = 4
| bowl avg2 = 42.25
| fivefor2 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = 2/31
| catches/stumpings2 = 2/–
| column3 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches3 = 189
| runs3 = 6,895
| bat avg3 = 29.34
| 100s/50s3 = 8/36
| top score3 = 145[[not out|*]]
| deliveries3 = 21,721
| wickets3 = 276
| bowl avg3 = 29.89
| fivefor3 = 10
| tenfor3 = 1
| best bowling3 = 6/38
| catches/stumpings3 = 190/–
| date = 27 February
| year = 2013
| source = http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/34085.html ESPNcricinfo
}}

'''Eknath Dhondu Solkar'''<ref name=Guardian /> {{Audio|Eknath_Solkar.ogg|pronunciation}} (18 March 1948 – 26 June 2005) was an Indian [[all-rounder|all-round]] [[cricket]]er who played 27 [[Test cricket|Test matches]] and seven [[One Day International]]s for his country. He was born in [[Bombay]], and died of heart attack in the same city at the age of 57.<ref name=Guardian>{{cite web|title=Obituary: Eknath Solkar|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/sep/14/obituaries.india|work=The Guardian|date=14 September 2005|access-date=7 January 2014}}</ref> A specialist close-in fielder, he was regarded as one of the greatest fielders in the world during his playing days. His catches per match ratio is one of the best in Test cricket.

Solkar was a capable batsman with a Test century to his name, and he could bowl fast as well as slow.<ref name=Guardian /> Solkar was renowned for his excellent close fielding, of which he once remarked, "I only watch the ball."<ref name=Guardian /> His catches helped [[India national cricket team|India]] to victory against [[England cricket team|England]] at [[The Oval]] in 1971, the team's first Test win in England.<ref name=Guardian /> Eknath's teammate at [[Sussex County Cricket Club|Sussex]], [[Tony Greig]] once said, "He was the best forward short leg I've ever seen."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/584181.html|title = Not stars but heroes}}</ref>

His 53 catches in only 27 matches is the best ratio for catches per Test match among non-wicket-keepers with 20 or more Tests. He is responsible for one of cricket's most celebrated quotes, directed at [[Geoffrey Boycott]]: "I will out you bloody."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/346893.html|title=Ghost-Spoken – ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>

==Early life==
Solkar's father was the head groundsman at [[Hindu Gymkhana, Mumbai]]. Solkar used to change the scoreboards for the matches played at that ground.<ref name=Guardian /> [[Anant Solkar]], Eknath's younger brother, also played cricket at first class level, representing Maharashtra in Ranji Trophy matches.

During his days as a school cricketer, he toured Sri Lanka in 1964 and captained the Indian schools team against London Schools in 1965–66.<ref name=Guardian /> The team included future India players [[Sunil Gavaskar]] and [[Mohinder Amarnath]].<ref name=Guardian /> He played for [[Sussex County Cricket Club#Second XI|Sussex Second XI]] in 1969 and 1970 and became eligible to play for the first XI, but represented them in only one match.<ref name=Guardian />

==Career==
Solkar made his Test debut against New Zealand at Hyderabad in 1969–70 and volunteered to field at short-leg. He became the first Indian Test Cricketer to be born post independence. He had a successful series against Australia the same season and against the West Indies in 1971. He was selected to open the bowling along with [[Syed Abid Ali|Abid Ali]] against England in England in 1971. In the first Test match of that series, he scored 67 and formed a 92-run partnership with [[Gundappa Viswanath]] which helped India take first innings lead. In the third Test at the Oval, he returned figures of 3/28 in the first innings, scored 44 runs, and took two catches, thereby played an important part in India's win. In the 1972–73 home series against England, he scored 75 in the first Test at Delhi. He took 12 catches in the five-Test series.

He did not play well against England in the away series of 1974, but dismissed Geoffrey Boycott in three successive innings (India vs Yorkshire and India vs MCC – first class fixtures). He scored his only Test century against the West Indies in Mumbai in 1975. Apart from his 53 catches in 27 Tests, he made 1,068 runs at an average of 25.42 and claimed 18 wickets at an average of 59.44.<ref name=Guardian /> In the 16 years of his [[first-class cricket]] career, he scored 6,851 runs at an average of 29.27, including eight centuries, took 276 wickets at an average of 30.01 and took 190 catches.<ref name=Guardian /> In Test Cricket, his job as bowler was to bowl 4–5 overs to take the shine off the new ball as much as possible before the Indian spinners took over.

At the end of 1976, Solkar, with 52 catches in 26 Tests, was the only non-wicketkeeper ever, with more than 50 catches, to average two catches per Test match. But in his 27th and last Test, he took only one catch and the average dropped below two per match, with 53 catches in 27 Tests.

For Mumbai's [[Ranji Trophy]] team he formed an opening bowling partnership with [[Abdul Ismail]]. In the 1973 Ranji final, he bowled spin on a turning pitch and took five wickets to help Mumbai to a famous victory in a match dominated by the spin bowling of Venkat, V. V. Kumar, and Shivalkar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ranji Trophy, 1972/73, Final |url=https://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1970S/1972-73/IND_LOCAL/RANJI/KNOCK-OUTS/TN_BOM_RJI-FINAL_18-20APR1973.html |publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cricinfo|id=34085}}

{{India Squad 1975 Cricket World Cup}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Solkar, Eknath}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Mumbai]]
[[Category:India One Day International cricketers]]
[[Category:India Test cricketers]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:Mumbai cricketers]]
[[Category:Sussex cricketers]]
[[Category:Indian expatriate cricketers in England]]
[[Category:West Zone cricketers]]
[[Category:State Bank of India cricketers]]
[[Category:Vazir Sultan Tobacco cricketers]]
[[Category:Marathi sportspeople]]
[[Category:Cricketers at the 1975 Cricket World Cup]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
{{India-cricket-bio-stub}}

Miss Ida

2026-01-13T21:06:03Z

KiaGreenwald: Starting a post

{{Short description|Goan theatre actor and singer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Miss Ida
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = José Mendes
| other_names = Joseph Mendes
| birth_place = [[Calvim]], [[Goa]], [[Portuguese India]], [[Portuguese Empire]] (now in India)
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|singer|playwright|female impersonator}}
| known_for = ''Kombekar'' (1938)
}}

'''José Mendes''', known professionally as '''Miss Ida''', was an early 20th-century [[Goan]] theatre actor, singer, playwright, and [[Drag queen|female impersonator]] known for his work in ''[[tiatr]]'' productions during the early phase of ''tiatr''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fernandes |first=André Rafael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKAbygAACAAJ |title=When the Curtains Rise--: Understanding Goa's Vibrant Konkani Theatre |date=2010 |publisher=Tiatr Academy of Goa |isbn=978-93-80739-01-4 |pages=135 |language=en |access-date=2024-02-11 |archive-date=2023-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126045216/https://books.google.com/books?id=vKAbygAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Described as a "celebrated female impersonator on the ''tiatr'' stage" by writer Fausto V. Da Costa,<ref name=":0" /> Mendes was among the pioneering [[cross-gender actor]]s who was instrumental in preserving the vitality of the [[Konkani language|Konkani]] ''tiatr'' (theatre) during a time when there was a shortage of female performers.

Originating from the village of [[Calvim]], [[Goa]], Mendes began his career in the Konkani ''tiatr'' stage by portraying female roles. He later transitioned to singing [[duet]]s with fellow [[Konkani language|Konkani]] artists and collaborated with [[Thomas Coogan]], a Konkani composer and singer, forming a [[musical duo]]. Their work was featured in about 20–25 ''tiatrs''. The duets they recorded were aired on [[All India Radio]] after being recorded on [[Gramophone Company India]]. Mendes also ventured into playwriting, with his ''tiatr Kombekar'' (Poultryman) gaining significant attention after its staging at Indra Bhavan, [[Dhobitalao]] in [[Bombay]] (now Mumbai) in 1938.

This production was known for providing opportunities to emerging Konkani ''[[tiatrist]]s'', including Carmo Valeriano Mascarenhas known professionally as [[Valente Mascarenhas]] and [[Alfred Rose (singer)|Alfred Rose]] (Rosario Alfred Fernandes), who made their debuts and showcased their talents. The [[Trio (music)|trio]] of Selvyn, Thomas Coogan, and Alfred Rose delivered a popular performance of the song "Kiteak Jiv Khatai?" during the same ''tiatr'', earning acclaim from the audience.

==Career==
During the early years of the [[Konkani language|Konkani]] ''[[tiatr]]'' stage, women were absent from the performances, and the availability of female artists was limited. Consequently, [[Cross-gender acting|male actors took on the roles of female characters]]. Mendes, among the male artists, demonstrated skill in portraying female roles and became known as a [[Drag queen|female impersonator]] on the ''tiatr'' stage. Mendes's performances were characterized by his ability to convincingly portray female characters, to the point where it was challenging to discern his true gender. Writer Irene Cardozo acknowledges Mendes and other male artists for their contribution to the ''tiatr'' tradition. Not only did they sustain the art form in the absence of female artists, but they also injected elegance and vitality into the performances, states Cardozo.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=TIATR 125th Anniversary Commemorative Volume |publisher=[[Tiatr Academy of Goa]] |year=2019 |location=[[Panaji, Goa]] |pages=6–82}}</ref>

In addition to acting as female characters, Mendes engaged in singing [[duet]]s with male co-artists.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-1PAQAAIAAJ |title=100 Years of Konkani Tiatro |date=2000 |publisher=Government of Goa, Directorate of Art & Culture |pages=88, 110 |language=en |access-date=2024-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107200151/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-1PAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=2024-01-07 |url-status=live}}</ref> Writer Fausto V. da Costa commends Mendes as an early pioneer who adeptly assumed feminine roles. ''Tiatr'' enthusiasts bestowed applause and praise upon Mendes for his performances. He undertook female roles and vocalized songs in the persona of a female character. Mendes frequently collaborated with [[Thomas Coogan]], a fellow Konkani composer and singer hailing from the village of [[Calvim]], [[Aldona]]. Their partnership in approximately 20–25 ''tiatrs'' left an impression on audiences and formed an unforgettable combination, states da Costa. Several of their duets and duos have been captured by [[Gramophone Company India]] and aired on [[All India Radio]] (known as Akashvani).

Mendes's contributions to the ''tiatr'' extended beyond acting and singing. He penned several ''tiatrs'', with their work ''Kombekar'' (Poultryman) generating a significant impact in [[Bombay]] during the [[British India]] era. The ''tiatr Kombekar'' was staged at Indra Bhavan in [[Dhobitalao]], Bombay in 1938.<ref name=":1" /> It was within this production that Mendes provided a platform for the emerging Konkani actor and singer [[Valente Mascarenhas]] (Carmo Valerian Mascarenhas), who showcased his talent through five songs. Accompanying Mascarenhas were vocalists A. M. B. Rose, [[Alfred Rose (singer)|Alfred Rose]], Thomas Coogan, and Selvyn. It was during the same ''tiatr'' that young Alfred Rose made his debut on the Konkani stage. The audience embraced the popular ''[[Tiatr#Songs|cantar]]'' "Kiteak Jiv Khatai?" performed by the trio of Selvyn, Thomas Coogan, and Alfred Rose.<ref name=":0" />

==Personal life==
Information about Mendes's personal life is scarce. He was born in the island village of [[Calvim]], located in [[Aldona]], [[Bardez]], [[Goa]], which was a territory of [[Portuguese India]] during the era of the [[Portuguese Empire]] (now part of India). He had a nephew named Joaquim Mendes, who was professionally known as Young Mendes and was also involved in the [[Tiatr|Konkani theater industry]] as an actor and playwright. It was Mendes himself who played a pivotal role in introducing Joaquim to the ''[[tiatr]]'' stage at a young age, and Joaquim's debut performance in ''tiatr'' turned out to be a success.<ref name=":0" />

==Selected stage works==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
!Ref
|-
|
|''Kombekar''
|Writer
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ida, Miss}}
[[Category:Tiatrists]]
[[Category:Actors from North Goa district]]
[[Category:Musicians from North Goa district]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Goa]]

Sanaleipak Nachom

2026-01-10T02:43:59Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{Short description|Meitei artists' association}}
{{About|a Meitei artistes' association based in [[Manipur]]|the [[Meitei language]] term|Sanaleipak|the other uses|Sanaleipak (disambiguation)}}
{{Contains special characters|Meitei}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Sanaleipak Nachom
| full_name = Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Association
| native_name = {{langx|mni|{{Script|Latn|Sanaleipak Nachom}}|}} 
| native_name_lang = mni 
| logo =
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| origins = {{langnf|mni|[[Kangleipak]]|[[Manipur]]}}
| region_served = [[Northeast India]] 
| products = 
| services = [[Shumang Kumhei]]
| methods = [[Shumang Kumhei]] 
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'''Sanaleipak Nachom''', also known as '''Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes' Association''' or simply '''Sanaleibak Nachom''', is a [[Meitei culture|Meitei cultural]] association of artists of [[Shumang Kumhei]] art form of {{langnf|mni|[[Kangleipak]]|[[Manipur]]}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes' Assn observes 24th foundation day |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2020/11/1/-Sanaleipak-Nachom-Artistes-Assn-observes-24th-foundation-day.html |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Anniversary of Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Assn celebrated : 09th oct14 |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=34..091014.oct14 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes' Assn observes 24th foundation day : 02nd nov20 |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=13..021120.nov20 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=}}</ref>

== Awards and honours ==
In February 2013, in the ''"IX Shumang Leela Ningtham Kumhei"'' ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|꯹ꯁꯨꯕ ꯁꯨꯃꯥꯡ ꯂꯤꯂꯥ ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯝ ꯀꯨꯝꯍꯩ}}|}}) organised by the Manipur State Shumang Leela Council in the Iboyaima Shumang Leela Shanglen, artists of Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Association achieved two awards. Artist Nilachandra won the Best Actor Award and Somorjit won the Best Actress Award.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Press |first=Imphal Free |date=2013-02-05 |title=Shuumang Leela awards – KanglaOnline |url=https://kanglaonline.in/2013/02/shuumang-leela-awards/ |access-date=2023-10-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In the 50th All Manipur Sumang Leela Festival 2021–22, organised by the Manipur State Kala Academy in the Iboyaima Shumang Leela Shanglen, Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Association won the Best Play Award for their production "Wakhal Eronba" (also spelled as "Wakhal Irolba")({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯋꯥꯈꯜ ꯏꯔꯣꯜꯕ}}|}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Naorem |first=Victor |title=50th All Manipur Sumang Leela Festival released the results of plays for men's category. |url=https://www.citizenradio.in/2022/09/50th-all-manipur-sumang-leela-festival.html |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=Citizen Radio}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=51st All Manipur Shumang Leela Festival kicks off : 11th feb23 |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=9..110223.feb23 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=51st All Manipur Shumang Leela Festival kicks off |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2023/2/11/By-Our-Staff-ReporterIMPHAL-Feb-10-The-51st-All-Manipur-Shumang-Leela-Festival-2022-23-kicked-of.html |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}</ref>

In March 2023, in the 51st All Manipur Shumang Leela Festival 2022–23, organised by Manipur State Kala Akademi in the Th Iboyaima Shumang Leela Shanglen, the Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Association achieved the Best Disciplined Team status as well as the Second Best Playback Singer position (K Janeman) for their production "Panthou Mangol Khenjonglang" ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯄꯟꯊꯧ ꯃꯥꯡꯒꯣꯜ ꯈꯦꯟꯖꯣꯡꯂꯥꯡ}}|}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shumang Leela Festival : "Panthou Sanggai" by Lamjingba Artistes Assn wins Best Production : 04th mar23 |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=40..040323.mar23 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=}}</ref>

== Events organised ==
Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes' Association organised an event named "Dances of India", in which five dances are performed simultaneously in a solo show, spreading the message of national integration and communal harmony through the means of dances. The performed dances are [[Manipuri classical dance]], [[Kathak]], [[Bharatanatyam]], [[Odissi]] and [[Bhangra (dance)]].{{efn|The Punjabi dance [[Bhangra (dance)]] was specifically performed for the Punjabi audiences in the event.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peace missive through dances - Manipur artiste thrills audience with five solo recitals |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/peace-missive-through-dances-manipur-artiste-thrills-audience-with-five-solo-recitals/cid/836780 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref>}} It was performed at the Jawaharlal Nehru Dance Academy in [[Imphal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peace missive through dances - Manipur artiste thrills audience with five solo recitals |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/peace-missive-through-dances-manipur-artiste-thrills-audience-with-five-solo-recitals/cid/836780 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Notable productions ==
In 2016, the Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Association performed a play named "Mera Thaomei" ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯃꯦꯔꯥ ꯊꯥꯎꯃꯩ}}|}}), directed by O. Praphulochand, as a part of the then annually ongoing [[Sangai Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shumang Leela festival begins |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/shumang-leela-festival-begins/cid/1402003 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Sangai Festival 2016 Shumang Leela |url=https://www.kumhei.com/sangaifestival/655-sangai-festival-2016-shumang-leela |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=Kumhei |language=en}}</ref>

In 2019, "Ahingda Numit" ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯍꯤꯡꯗ ꯅꯨꯃꯤꯠ}}|}}), a play produced by the Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Association, was selected to be one of the three [[Shumang Kumhei]] plays of the annual session 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AK Bengol to be conferred Iboyaima Award 2019 : 11th apr19 |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=21..110419.apr19 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=}}</ref>

== Notable artists ==
[[Meitei cinema]] actor Denny Likmabam ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯗꯦꯟꯅꯤ ꯂꯤꯛꯃꯥꯕꯝ}}|}}) joined Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Association in 1997. He made his debut in the [[Shumang Kumhei]] play "Sajibugi Leihao" ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯖꯤꯕꯨꯒꯤ ꯂꯩꯍꯥꯎ}}|}}), playing the role of a police officer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Denny Likmabam - Biography |url=https://klmdb.com/name/0000343/biography |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=KLMDb |language=en}}</ref>

Comedian artist [[Shougrakpam Hemanta]] ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯧꯒ꯭ꯔꯥꯛꯄꯝ ꯍꯦꯃꯟꯇ}}|}}), besides being an actor by his own right, also serves as the founder secretary,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letpao Haokip underscores importance of Shumang Leela as medium of education |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2022/10/9/IMPHAL-Oct-9TA-Hills-Minister-Letpao-Haokip-has-asserted-that-as-a-medium-of-education-Shuman.html |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}</ref> president as well as the director of the Sanaleipak Nachom Artiste Association.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ngangbam |first=Amukhomba |date=2013-07-26 |title=Shumang Leela comedian Sougrakpam Hemanta – People's Oja Tolhal {{!}} Manipur Times |url=https://manipurtimes.com/shumang-leela-comedian-sougrakpam-hemanta-people-s-oja-tolhal/ |access-date=2023-10-01 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNIT REVISED REFERENCE LIST AS ON 30/04/2019 I N D E X |url=https://www.iccr.gov.in/sites/default/files/uploadfiles/Reference_List-2019.pdf |website=Indian Council for Cultural Relations |quote=Sougrakpam Hemanth Singh - Sanaleipak Nachom Artists Director (August 2005)...}}</ref>

[[Meitei cinema]] artist Yumnam Nilachandra Singh ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯌꯨꯝꯅꯥꯝ ꯅꯤꯂꯆꯟꯗ꯭ꯔ ꯁꯤꯡꯍ}}|}}) was also a prominent leading actor in the field of [[Shumang Kumhei]], as a member of the Sanaleipak Nachom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yumnam Nilachandra Singh Manipur Kala Akademi Award 2013 |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=reviews.arts.Yumnam_Nilachandra_Singh_Manipur_Kala_Akademi_Award_2013 |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Laihui Ensemble]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{Cite web |title=Kshetrimayum Ingocha Singh A Dress Designer Profile |url=http://e-pao.org/erang/Fashion/Kshetrimayum_Ingocha_Singh_A_Dress_Designer_Profile.php |access-date=2023-10-01 |website=}}
* {{Cite web |date=2014-10-08 |title=Anniversary of Sanaleipak Nachom Artistes Assn celebrated – Manipur News |url=https://www.manipur.org/news/2014/10/08/anniversary-of-sanaleipak-nachom-artistes-assn-celebrated/ |access-date=2023-10-01 |language=en-US}}

{{Portal bar|Arts|Asia|India|Theatre}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Meitei theatre]]
[[Category:Meitei cultural plays]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Manipur]]
[[Category:Indian artist groups and collectives]]

SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu

2026-01-07T08:15:27Z

KiaGreenwald: Put up page.

{{Short description|Film award}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}{{Use Indian English|date=October 2020}}

{{Infobox award
| name = SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu
| awardname = SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu
| awarded_for = Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in Telugu cinema
| most_nominations = Rajendra Prasad (6)
| most_wins = [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] (3)
| image = Indian actor Amitabh Bachchan.jpg
| image caption = The 2025 recipient: [[Amitabh Bachchan]]
| country = [[India]]
| presenter = Vibri Media Group
| year = 21 June 2012 (for films released in 2011)
| holder = [[Amitabh Bachchan]], ''[[Kalki 2898 AD]]'' ([[13th South Indian International Movie Awards|2024]])
| holder_label = Most recent winner
}}

'''SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu''' is presented by Vibri media group as part of its annual [[South Indian International Movie Awards]], for the best acting done by an actor in a supporting role in [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] films. The award was first given in 2012 for films released in 2011. [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] is the most nominated with six nominations and most awarded with three wins.

== Superlatives ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! width="25" |[[wiktionary:superlative|Categories]]
! width="100" |Recipient
!Notes
|- style="height:2.5em;"
| width="250" |Most wins
| rowspan="2" width="150" |[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]]
|3
|-
|Most nominations
|6
|-
|Most consecutive nominations
|[[Prakash Raj]]
|4 ([[1st South Indian International Movie Awards|2011]]{{Ndash}}[[4th South Indian International Movie Awards|2014]])
|-
| rowspan="2" |Most nominations without a win
|[[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]]
| rowspan="2" |3
|-
|[[Rao Ramesh]]
|-
|Oldest winner
|[[Amitabh Bachchan]]
|Age 82 ([[13th South Indian International Movie Awards|13th SIIMA]])
|-
|Youngest winner
|[[Dheekshith Shetty]]
|Age 28 ([[12th South Indian International Movie Awards|12th SIIMA]])
|-
|Oldest nominee
|[[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]]
|Age 88 ([[1st South Indian International Movie Awards|1st SIIMA]])
|-
|Youngest nominee
|Dheekshith Shetty
|Age 28 ([[12th South Indian International Movie Awards|12th SIIMA]])
|}

== Winners ==

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:50%;"
!Year
!Actor
!Film
!Ref
|-
|[[1st South Indian International Movie Awards|2011]]
|[[Prakash Raj]]
|''[[Dookudu]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|date=2012-06-24|title=SIIMA Awards 2012 Winners List|url=https://archive.gulte.com/news/8138/SIIMA-Awards-2012-Winners-List|access-date=2020-10-12|website=Gulte|language=english|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623115611/https://archive.gulte.com/news/8138/SIIMA-Awards-2012-Winners-List|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[2nd South Indian International Movie Awards|2012]]
|[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]]
|''[[Julayi]]''
|<ref>{{Cite news |last=IANS |date=2013-09-14 |title=Dhanush, Shruti Haasan win top laurels at SIIMA awards |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/dhanush-shruti-haasan-win-top-laurels-at-siima-awards-113091400402_1.html |access-date=2020-10-12 |work=Business Standard India}}</ref>
|-
|[[3rd South Indian International Movie Awards|2013]]
|[[Sunil (actor)|Sunil]]
|''[[Tadakha]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=2014 SIIMA award winners list - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/2014-SIIMA-award-winners-list/articleshow/42547641.cms |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[4th South Indian International Movie Awards|2014]]
|[[Srinivas Avasarala]]
|''[[Oohalu Gusagusalade]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Siima awards: Telugu winners |url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/south-indian/siima-awards-telugu-winners-1.1563019 |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[5th South Indian International Movie Awards|2015]]
|Rajendra Prasad
|''[[Srimanthudu]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=SIIMA Awards 2016 Telugu Winners List {{!}} RITZ |url=https://www.ritzmagazine.in/siima-awards-2016-telugu-winners-list/ |access-date=2020-10-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|[[6th South Indian International Movie Awards|2016]]
|[[Srikanth (Telugu actor)|Srikanth]]
|''[[Sarrainodu]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vadlmudi |first=Raghu |date=2017-07-01 |title=SIIMA 2017 Awards Winner List |url=https://telugustop.com/siima-2017-awards-winner-list/ |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=TeluguStop.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[7th South Indian International Movie Awards|2017]]
|[[Aadhi Pinisetty]]
|''[[Ninnu Kori]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aadhi pinisetty at SIIMA Awards 2018 |url=https://www.xappie.com/gallery-album/aadhi-pinisetty-at-siima-awards-2018-4281 |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=Xappie.com |language=en |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421092520/https://www.xappie.com/gallery-album/aadhi-pinisetty-at-siima-awards-2018-4281 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Telugu360 |date=2018-09-14 |title=SIIMA 2018 Awards : Telugu Films Winners List |url=https://www.telugu360.com/siima-2018-awards-telugu-films-tollywood-winners-list/ |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=Telugu360.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|[[8th South Indian International Movie Awards|2018]]
|Rajendra Prasad
|''[[Mahanati]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-08-16 |title=SIIMA Awards 2019: Ram Charan, Keerthy Suresh and Yash win big laurels |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/siima-awards-2019-ram-charan-keerthy-suresh-and-yash-win-big-laurels/story-6vzWXWtpm5Kz6fGyAIQFXJ.html |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[9th South Indian International Movie Awards|2019]]
|[[Allari Naresh]]
|[[Maharshi (2019 film)|''Maharshi'']]
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=News9live |date=2021-09-19 |title=SIIMA awards 2021 winners list: Jersey, Lucifer, Asuran, Yajamana win big |url=https://www.news9live.com/entertainment/siima-2021-complete-winner-list-telugu-maharshi-jersey-kannada-darshan-yajamana-malayalam-mohanlal-lucifer-best-actor-120953.html |access-date=2021-09-19 |website=NEWS9 LIVE |language=English |archive-date=20 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920212704/https://www.news9live.com/entertainment/siima-2021-complete-winner-list-telugu-maharshi-jersey-kannada-darshan-yajamana-malayalam-mohanlal-lucifer-best-actor-120953.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|[[9th South Indian International Movie Awards|2020]]
|[[Murali Sharma]]
|''[[Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-21 |title=Manju Warrier, Suriya, others win at SIIMA Awards: Full list of winners |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/manju-warrier-suriya-others-win-siima-awards-full-list-winners-155560 |website=The News Minute}}</ref>
|-
|[[10th South Indian International Movie Awards|2021]]
|[[Jagadeesh Prathap Bandari]]
|''[[Pushpa: The Rise]]''
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-09-11 |title=SIIMA 2022: Pushpa wins big, Allu Arjun is best actor |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/buzz/siima-2022-pushpa-wins-big-allu-arjun-is-best-actor/articleshow/94130430.cms |access-date=2022-09-11 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |quote=Awards for Tamil and Malayalam films will be distributed on Sunday evening.}}</ref>
|-
|[[11th South Indian International Movie Awards|2022]]
|[[Rana Daggubati]]
|''[[Bheemla Nayak]]''
|<ref>{{Cite news |title=SIIMA Awards 2023: RRR, 777 Charlie win big; Jr NTR, Yash named Best Actors; Sreeleela and Srinidhi Shetty are Best Actresses |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/siima-awards-2023-telugu-kannada-winners-list-jr-ntr-yash-rrr-kantara-8942103/lite/ |access-date=2023-09-15 |work=Indian Express}}</ref>
|-
|[[12th South Indian International Movie Awards|2023]]
|[[Dheekshith Shetty]]
|''[[Dasara (film)|Dasara]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=SIIMA winners list 2024 (Telugu, Kannada): Nani, Rakshit Shetty win Best Actor; Keerthy, Chaithra wins Best Actress |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/siima-2023-winners-jr-ntr-wins-best-actor-award-for-rrr-rishab-shettys-kantara-wins-101694837099476.html |access-date=15 September 2024 |website=News18 India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[13th South Indian International Movie Awards|2024]]
|[[Amitabh Bachchan]]
|[[Kalki 2898 AD|''Kalki 2898 AD'']]
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-06 |title=SIIMA 2025 Telugu, Kannada winners list: Allu Arjun, Rashmika Mandanna win big for Pushpa 2; Kamal Haasan, Amitabh Bachchan honoured for Kalki 2898 AD |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/siima-2025-telugu-kannada-winners-list-allu-arjun-rashmika-mandanna-pushpa-2-kalki-2898-ad-kamal-haasan-amitabh-bachchan-10233441/ |access-date=2025-09-08 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|}

== Nominations ==

* '''2011: [[Prakash Raj]]''' '''–''' '''''[[Dookudu]]'''''
** [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] – ''[[Sri Rama Rajyam]]''
** [[Ashish Vidyarthi]] – ''[[Ala Modalaindi]]''
** [[Srihari (actor)|Srihari]] – ''[[Aha Naa Pellanta (2011 film)|Aha Naa Pellanta]]''
** [[Annie (Telugu actress)|Annie]] – ''[[Rajanna]]''
* '''2012: [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] – ''[[Julayi]]'''''
** [[Prakash Raj]] – ''[[Dhamarukam]]''
** [[Kota Srinivasa Rao]] – ''[[Krishnam Vande Jagadgurum]]''
** [[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]] – ''[[Ishq (2012 film)|Ishq]]''
** [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] – ''[[Businessman (film)|Businessman]]''
* '''2013: [[Sunil (actor)|Sunil]] – ''[[Tadakha]]'''''
** [[Prakash Raj]] – ''[[Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu]]''
** [[Sathyaraj]] – ''[[Mirchi (film)|Mirchi]]''
** [[Madhunandan]] – ''[[Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde]]''
** [[Boman Irani]] – ''[[Attarintiki Daredi]]''
* '''2014: [[Srinivas Avasarala]] – ''[[Oohalu Gusagusalade]]'''''
** [[Meka Srikanth|Srikanth]] – ''[[Govindudu Andarivadele]]''
** [[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]] – ''[[Dikkulu Choodaku Ramayya]]''
** [[Prakash Raj]] – ''[[Govindudu Andarivadele]]''
** [[Srinivasa Reddy]] – ''[[Geethanjali (2014 film)|Geethanjali]]''
* '''2015: [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]]''' '''–''' '''''[[Srimanthudu]]'''''
** [[Jagapathi Babu]] – ''[[Srimanthudu]]''
** [[Posani Krishna Murali]] – ''[[Temper (film)|Temper]]''
** [[Sathyaraj]] – ''[[Baahubali: The Beginning]]''
** [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]] – ''[[S/O Satyamurthy]]''
* '''2016: [[Meka Srikanth|Srikanth]] – ''[[Sarrainodu]]'''''
** [[Mohanlal]] – ''[[Janatha Garage]]''
** [[Nara Rohith]] – ''[[Appatlo Okadundevadu]]''
** [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] – ''[[Supreme (film)|Supreme]]''
** [[Satyam Rajesh]] – ''[[Kshanam]]''
* '''2017: [[Aadhi Pinisetty]]''' '''–''' '''''[[Ninnu Kori]]'''''
** [[Kay Kay Menon]] – ''[[Ghazi (film)|Ghazi]]''
** [[Prakash Raj]] – ''[[Sathamanam Bhavati]]''
** [[Sathyaraj]] – ''[[Baahubali 2: The Conclusion]]''
** [[Sree Vishnu]] – ''[[Vunnadhi Okate Zindagi]]''
* '''2018: [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] – ''[[Mahanati]]'''''
** [[Aadhi Pinisetty]] – ''[[Rangasthalam]]''
** [[Murali Sharma]] – ''[[Vijetha (2018 film)|Vijetha]]''
** [[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]] – ''[[Sammohanam (2018 film)|Sammohanam]]''
** [[Ramki]] – ''[[RX 100 (film)|RX 100]]''
* '''2019: [[Allari Naresh]]''' '''– [[Maharshi (2019 film)|''Maharshi'']]'''
** [[Rao Ramesh]] – ''[[Prati Roju Pandage]]''
** [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] – ''[[Oh! Baby (2019 film)|Oh! Baby]]''
** [[Atharvaa]] – ''[[Gaddalakonda Ganesh]]''
** [[Suhas (Telugu actor)|Suhas]] – ''[[Majili]]''
*'''2020: [[Murali Sharma]]''' '''– ''[[Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo]]'''''
**[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] – ''[[Sarileru Neekevvaru]]''
**[[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]] – ''[[Uma Maheswara Ugra Roopasya]]''
**[[Rao Ramesh]] – ''[[Solo Brathuke So Better]]''
**[[Thiruveer]] – ''[[Palasa 1978]]''
*'''2021: [[Jagadeesh Prathap Bandari]] – ''[[Pushpa: The Rise]]'''''
** [[Rahul Ramakrishna]] – ''[[Jathi Ratnalu]]''
** [[P. Sai Kumar]] – ''[[SR Kalyanamandapam]]''
** [[Jagapathi Babu]] – ''[[Maha Samudram]]''
** [[Priyadarshi Pulikonda|Priyadarshi]] – ''[[Jathi Ratnalu]]''
*'''2022: [[Rana Daggubati]] – ''[[Bheemla Nayak]]'''''
** [[Muralidhar Goud]] – ''[[DJ Tillu]]''
** [[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]] – ''[[Ante Sundaraniki]]''
** [[Rao Ramesh]] – [[Dhamaka (2022 film)|''Dhamaka'']]
** [[Sumanth]] – ''[[Sita Ramam]]''
*'''2023:''' '''[[Dheekshith Shetty]] – ''[[Dasara (film)|Dasara]]'''''
** [[Angad Bedi]] – ''[[Hi Nanna]]''
** [[Brahmanandam]] – ''[[Ranga Maarthaanda]]''
** [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] – ''[[Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefire]]''
** [[Ravi Krishna (actor, born 1989)|Ravi Krishna]] – [[Virupaksha (film)|''Virupaksha'']]
** [[Viraj Ashwin]] – [[Baby (2023 film)|''Baby'']]
*'''2024: [[Amitabh Bachchan]] – [[Kalki 2898 AD|''Kalki 2898 AD'']]'''
** [[Allari Naresh]] – [[Naa Saami Ranga|''Naa Saami Ranga'']]
** [[Muralidhar Goud]] – [[Tillu Square|''Tillu Square'']]
** [[Ramki]] – [[Lucky Baskhar|''Lucky Baskhar'']]
** [[P. Sai Kumar]] – [[Saripodhaa Sanivaaram|''Saripodhaa Sanivaaram'']]
**

== See also ==

* [[SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actress – Telugu]]

== References ==
<references />{{SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu}}{{South Indian International Movie Awards}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:SIIMA_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor_-_Telugu}}
[[Category:South Indian International Movie Awards]]
[[Category:Film awards for supporting actor]]

List of Odia films of 2000

2026-01-07T04:10:19Z

KiaGreenwald: Starting a post

{{Short description|None}}
{{Ollywood films}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
This is a list of films produced by the [[Ollywood]] film industry based in [[Bhubaneshwar]] and [[Cuttack]] in 2000:

==A-Z==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Title !! Director !! Cast !! Genre !! Notes
|-
| {{Year header}} | '''[[2000 in film|2000]]'''
|-
|''[[Ama Ghar Ama Sansar]]''||[[Mohmadd Mohsin]] ||[[Prajukta Kulkarni]], [[Bijay Mohanty]] || ||
|-
| ''[[Babu Parsuram]]''<ref>{{Citation|title=Babu Parsuram|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1468292/|access-date=2019-02-08}} {{unreliable?|date=September 2022}}</ref>|| Jyoti Prakash ||[[Bijay Mohanty]], [[Mihir Das]], [[Sritam Das]], [[Rekha Rao]] || ||
|-
|''[[Bou (1998 film)|Bou]]''<ref>{{Citation|title=Bou|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1431227/|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref>||[[Sabyasachi Mohapatra]] ||[[Bijay Mohanty]], [[Maheswata Roy]], [[Siddhanta Mahapatra]], [[Jyoti Misra]], [[Usasi Misra]] ||||
|-
|''[[Coolie (2004 film)|Cooli]]''|| [[Swapan Saha]] || [[Mithun Chakraborty]], [[Abhishek Chattopadhyay]] || [[Romance film|Romance]] ||
|-
|''[[Hari Bhai Harena]]''<ref>{{Citation|title=Hari Bhai Harena|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1456857/|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref>||[[Raju Mishra]] ||Sunil Kumar, [[Anu Chowdhury]] || ||
|-
|''[[Kandhei Akhire Luha]]''<ref>{{Citation|title=Kandhei Akhire Luha|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1466956/|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref>||[[Ravi Kinagi]]|| [[Siddhanta Mahapatra]], [[Rachana Banerjee]]|| ||
|-
|''[[Kashia Kapila]]''<ref>{{Citation|title=Kasia Kapila|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1423948/|access-date=2019-02-07}}</ref>||[[Jitendra Mohapatra]] ||[[Bijay Mohanty]], [[Ashrumochan Mohanty]] || ||
|-
|''[[Laxmi Pratima]]''||[[Mohmadd Mohsin]] ||[[Siddhanta Mahapatra]], [[Rachana Banerjee]] || ||
|-
|''[[Pritsodha Apradha Nuhe]]''||[[Binod Nanda]] ||[[Uttam Mohanty]], [[Bijay Mohanty]] || ||
|-
|''[[Raja (2000 film)|Raja]]''|| [[Snehasis Chakraborty]] ||[[Rachana Banerjee]], [[Mithun Chakraborty]] || ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Indian film list}}
{{2000 films}}

[[Category:Lists of Odia films by year|2000]]
[[Category:Lists of 2000 films by language|Ollywood]]
[[Category:2000s in Orissa]]
[[Category:2000 in Indian cinema]]

Roller Skating Federation of India

2025-12-11T05:59:09Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox sport governing body
|name = Roller Skating Federation of India
|abbrev = RSFI
|logo = ISLOGO.png
|logosize = 250px
|sport = [[Roller Sports]]
|category = SKATES
|image =
|caption =
|jurisdiction = [[India]]
|membership = 19 State/UT associations<ref name="Members"/>
|founded = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1965}}
|aff = [[World Skate]]<ref name = "World Skate">{{cite web |title=Skateboarding & Roller Sports - National Federations |url=http://www.worldskate.org/about/organisation/national-federations/anagraficas.html |website=Worldskate |accessdate=31 July 2018}}</ref>
|affdate = 1971
|region = [[Confederation of Asian Roller Sports]] (CARS)
|regionyear = 1978
|headquarters = [[Shastri Nagar]], [[North Delhi]]<ref name = "World Skate"/>
|president = Tulsi Ram Agarwal
|secretary = Dr Bhagirath Kumar Dadhich<ref>{{cite web |title=Contact Us |url=https://indiaskate.com/office-bearers/ }}</ref>
|coach =
|womenscoach =
|key staff =
|operating income =
|sponsor =
|url = http://www.indiaskate.com
|countryflag = IND
|more =
}}
The '''Roller Skating Federation of India (RSFI)''' is the national [[governing body]] for [[roller sports]] in India. The RSFI was established in 1955 and has been affiliated with the [[Fédération Internationale de Roller Sports]] (now [[World Skate]]) since 1971. The RSFI was a founder member of the [[Confederation of Asian Roller Sports|Confederation Asian Roller Sports]] (CARS) in 1978. The Federation was officially recognized by the Union [[Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports]] in September 1990, and was subsequently recognized by the [[Indian Olympic Association]].<ref name="About RSFI">{{cite web |title=About Roller Skating Federation of India |url=http://www.rollersportsindia.org/About%20RSFI.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214041346/http://www.rollersportsindia.org/About%20RSFI.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=14 February 2012 |website=Roller Skating Federation of India |accessdate=31 July 2018}}</ref>

The RSFI holds the annual National Roller Sports Championships for males and females. Effective 1 January 2025, the Roller Skating Federation of India (RSFI) revised its age-group classifications for athlete registration and competitions. The updated categories include: Tots: 6–8 years, Minis: 8–10 years, Cadet: 10–12 years, Sub-Junior: 12–15 years, Junior: 15–18 years, Senior: 18 years and above, Masters: 35 years and above<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 1, 2025 |title=Implementation of New Age Groups Effective from January 1, 2025 |url=https://indiaskate.com/fwd-implementation-of-new-age-groups-effective-from-january-1-2025/ |website=India Skate - Roller Skating Federation of India}}</ref> in the disciplines of artistic skating, speed skating, inline freestyle, roller freestyle, roller hockey, inline hockey, inline downhill, inline alpine, skateboarding and roller derby.<ref name="About RSFI"/>

Nineteen state and union territory associations are affiliated with the RSFI.<ref name="Members">{{cite web |title=State/U.T Associations |url=http://www.rollersportsindia.org/State%20ut.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213075919/http://www.rollersportsindia.org/State%20ut.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=13 February 2012 |website=Roller Skating Federation of India |accessdate=31 July 2018}}</ref>

In July 2017, the RSFI announced that it was planning to introduce a professional roller sports league along the lines of the [[Indian Premier League]], [[Pro Kabaddi]], and the [[Pro Wrestling League]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Roller Skating Federation planning IPL-like league |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/roller-skating-federation-planning-ipl-like-league/440882.html |website=The Tribune Chandigarh |accessdate=31 July 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Roller sport in India]]
*[[India national roller hockey team]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sports governing bodies in India]]
[[Category:Roller sports]]
[[Category:1955 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Sports organizations established in 1955]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Delhi]]

Syed Ameer Ali

2025-12-08T19:27:04Z

KiaGreenwald: fixed issues

{{Short description|Indian jurist (1849–1928)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = [[List of modern-day Muslim scholars|Muslim scholar]] in [[British India]] and United Kingdom
| image =
| caption =
| name = '''Syed Ameer Ali''' [[Order of the Star of India|CSI]]
| birth_date = 6 April 1849
| birth_place = [[Cuttack]], [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[Company rule in India|British India]]<ref name="britannica">{{Britannica|20785|Sayyid Amir Ali}}. "Sayyid Amir Ali, (born April 6, 1849, Cuttack, India—died Aug. 3, 1928, Sussex, Eng.), jurist, writer, and Muslim leader who favoured British rule in India rather than possible Hindu domination of an independent India."</ref><ref name="Banglapedia" /><ref name="ia">{{cite web |title=Emir Ali, Sayyid |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/emir-ali-seyyid |website=[[Islam Ansiklopedisi]] |author=Abdullah Ahsan |quote=He was born on April 8, 1849 in Cuttack, Orissa, India.}}</ref>
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1928|08|03|1849|04|06}}
| death_place = [[Sussex]], England, United Kingdom
| spouse = {{marriage|Isabelle Ida Konstam|1884}}<ref name="ia"/>
| children = 2<ref name="Banglapedia" />
| notable_works = ''The Spirit of Islam''<ref name=storyofpakistan/>
| alma_mater = [[University of Calcutta]]
| era = [[Islamic modernism]]
| relatives = [[Mahbub Ali Khan]] (grandnephew)
}}
'''Syed Ameer Ali''' {{post nominals|post-noms=[[Order of the Star of India|CSI]]}}<ref>Ali, Syed Ameer. ''The Legal Position of Women in Islâm''. University of London Press. Title page.</ref> (6 April 1849 – 3 August 1928) was an Indian jurist, a prominent political leader, and the author of a number of influential books on [[Muslim history]] and the modern development of Islam.<ref name="britannica"/><ref name="Banglapedia" /><ref name="ia"/><ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=ALI, SYED AMEER |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/syed-ameer-ali_(Dizionario-di-Storia) |website=[[Treccani]] |quote=Indian Muslim jurist and politician ([[Mohan, Uttar Pradesh|Mohan]] 1849-[[Rudgwick, Sussex]], 1928)}}.</ref>

He hailed from the [[Oudh State|State of Oudh]], from where his father moved and settled down in the [[Bengal Presidency]], and is credited for his contributions to the [[Law of India]], particularly [[Muslim personal law]], as well as the development of political philosophy for Muslims, during the [[British Raj]].

He was a signatory to the [[Simla Deputation|1906 Petition to the Viceroy]] and was thus a founding member of the [[All India Muslim League]].<ref name="storyofpakistan">{{cite web |url=https://storyofpakistan.com/syed-ameer-ali/#google_vignette |title=Profile of Syed Ameer Ali |website=Storyofpakistan.com website |archive-date=21 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821214915/https://storyofpakistan.com/syed-ameer-ali/#google_vignette |url-status=dead |access-date=29 January 2024}}</ref> He played a key role in securing separate [[electoral district|electorates]] for the Muslims in [[British India]] and promoting the cause of the [[Khilafat Movement]].<ref name=cis/><ref name=storyofpakistan/>

==Family background==
He was born on 6 April 1849, toward the end of the [[Mughal Empire]] in India, at [[Cuttack]] in [[Odisha]] as the fourth of five sons of Syed Saadat Ali (d. 1856) from [[Mohan, Uttar Pradesh|Mohan]] in [[Unnao district|Unnao]] of [[Oudh State]].<ref name="storyofpakistan" /><ref name=":0" /> The [[Shia Islam|Shiite]] family [[Sayyid|traced its descent]] to [[Muhammad]] through his daughter [[Fatima]] from [[Ali al-Rida|Imam Ali al-Rida]], his great-grandfather having moved to India from [[Khurasan|Khorasan]] in 1739, during [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|Nadir Shah's Indian campaign]].<ref name="ia" />

His father settled in Cuttack after Ameer Ali's grandfather (who worked in the service of [[Asaf-ud-Daulah]] - the [[Nawab of Awadh]]) died in 1820. There he married the daughter of Shamsuddin Khan, one of the nobles of [[Sambalpur]].<ref name="ia" /> He would later move the family to [[Calcutta]], and then to [[Chinsura]] where they settled more permanently. His family took advantage of the educational facilities provided by the [[British government]] but was otherwise shunned by the Muslim community. He received his initial education at [[Hooghly Mohsin College]], and with the assistance of his British teachers and supported by several competitive scholarships, he achieved outstanding examination results, graduating from [[Calcutta University]] in 1867, and gaining an MA degree with Honours in history in 1868. The [[LLB]] degree followed quickly in 1869. He then began legal practice in Calcutta. By this time, he was already one of the few outstanding Muslim achievers of his generation.<ref name="Banglapedia">{{cite book |last=Powell |first=Avril A. |year=2012 |chapter=Ali, Syed Ameer |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ali,_Syed_Ameer |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |quote=Ali, Syed Ameer (1849-1928) lawyer, spokesman on Indian Muslim concerns, and writer on Islamic history and society, was born on 6 April 1849 at Cuttack in Orissa.}}</ref><ref name="ia" />

==Political career==
After moving to London, where he stayed between 1869 and 1873,<ref name=cis/> he joined the [[Inner Temple]] (one of four professional associations for [[barrister]]s and judges) and made contacts with some people of London.<ref name=storyofpakistan/> He absorbed the influence of contemporary liberalism. He had contacts with almost all the administrators concerned with India and with leading English liberals such as [[John Bright]] and the Fawcetts, [[Henry Fawcett|Henry]] (1831–1898) and his wife, [[Millicent Fawcett]] (1847–1929.)<ref name=MilliGazette>{{cite news |title=Profile: Syed Ameer Ali [1849–1928] |url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/15-8-2000/Art19.htm |newspaper=The Milli Gazette |date=15 August 2000 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226084324/https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/15-8-2000/Art19.htm|archive-date=26 December 2021|access-date=29 January 2024}}</ref>

Syed Ameer Ali resumed his legal practice at [[Calcutta High Court]] on his return to India in 1873. The year after, he was elected as a [[Fellow]] of Calcutta University as well as being appointed as a lecturer in [[Islamic Law]] at the [[Presidency College, Kolkata]]. In 1878, he was appointed as a member of the Bengal Legislative Council. He revisited England in 1880 for one year.

He became a professor of law at Calcutta University in 1881. In 1883, he was nominated to the membership of the Governor General Council. In 1890, he was made a judge in the Calcutta High Court.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Shan |year=1991 |title=The Right Honourable Syed Ameer Ali: Personality and Achievements |publisher=Updal Publishing House |location=Delhi, India |pages=66 |isbn=978-81-85024-94-3}}</ref> Earlier he had founded the political organization, Central National Muhammedan Association, in Calcutta in 1877. This association later spread nationwide, with 34 branches from [[Madras]] to [[Karachi]].<ref name=cis/> This made him the first Muslim leader to put into practice the need for such an organisation due to the belief that efforts directed through an organisation would be more effective than those originating from an individual leader. The Association played an important role in the modernization of Muslims and in arousing their political consciousness.<ref>{{cite book |last=Khaleque |first=Md Abdul |year=2012 |chapter=Central National Muhamedan Association |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Central_National_Muhamedan_Association |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> He was associated with it for over 25 years and worked for the political advancement of the Muslims.
[[File:Syed Ameer Ali Grave Brookwood.jpg|thumb|right|Syed Ameer Ali's grave in [[Brookwood Cemetery]]]]
Syed Ameer Ali established the London Muslim League in 1908.<ref name=cis/> This organisation was an independent body and not a branch of the [[All India Muslim League]]. In 1909, he became the first Indian to sit as a member of the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], on which he would serve till his death in 1928.<ref name=cis/> On appointment to the [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|Privy Council]], he became entitled to be addressed as [[The Right Honourable]].

In 1908, he was an advisory member to the Muhammadan Art and Life in Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Morocco and India exhibition held at the Whitechapel Gallery. The Autumn Exhibition was held from 23 October to 6 December. The opening day for the public was on 27th Ramadan.

In 1910, he formally co-established the London Mosque Fund, alongside a group of prominent [[British Muslims]], to finance the building of the first mosque in the capital: [[East London Mosque]], today one of the largest mosques in Europe. His field of activities was now broadened, and he stood for Muslim welfare all over the world. He played an important role in securing separate [[electoral district|electorates]] for the Muslims in India and promoting the cause of the [[Khilafat Movement]].<ref name=cis/><ref name=storyofpakistan/>

He retired from Calcutta High Court in 1904 and decided to settle down with his English wife (Isabelle Ida Konstam) in England, where he was somewhat isolated from the main current of Muslim political life.<ref name=cis/> Throughout his career, he was known as a [[jurist]] and a well-known [[Islamic scholar]]. He died on 4 August 1928 in [[Sussex]] ([[Rudgwick]]) and was buried in [[Brookwood Cemetery]].<ref name="cis">{{cite web |title=Profile of Syed Ameer Ali |url=http://cis-ca.org/voices/a/AmeerAli.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117152628/http://cis-ca.org/voices/a/AmeerAli.htm |archive-date=17 January 2020 |access-date=29 January 2024 |website=The Center for Islamic Sciences (Canada)}}</ref><ref name=cybercity/>

==Personal beliefs==
Syed Ameer Ali believed that the Muslims, as a downtrodden nation, could get more benefit from loyalty to the British rather than from any opposition to them. For this reason, he called upon his followers to devote their energy and attention to popularising English education among the Muslims. This perception and consequent activism have been known as the [[Aligarh Movement]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh: Political Parties |work=South Asian Media Net |url=http://www.southasianmedia.net/profile/Bangladesh/bangladesh_politicalparties.cfm |date=29 March 2007 |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=16 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616083416/http://www.southasianmedia.net/profile/Bangladesh/bangladesh_politicalparties.cfm |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Referring to polygamy, Syed Ameer Ali wrote:
{{blockquote|text=Each age has its own standard. What is suited for one time is not suited for the other.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ali |first=Syed Ameer |title=The Spirit of Islam: A History of the Evolution and Ideals of Islam: With a Life of the Prophet |year=1946 |orig-year=First published 1922 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.53103/page/n312/mode/1up |publisher=Christophers |page=240 |oclc=6464194}}</ref>
}}

==Opinions and legacy==
[[David Samuel Margoliouth]], in the preface of his book ''Mohammed and the Rise of Islam'', wrote:
{{blockquote|text=The charming and eloquent treatise of Syed Ameer Ali [''The Spirit of Islam''] is probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed that is ever likely to be composed in a European language.<ref>{{cite book |last=Margoliouth |first=D.S |author-link=David Samuel Margoliouth |year=2003 |orig-year=First published 1905 |title=Mohammed and the Rise of Islam |publisher=Gorgias Press |page=vii |isbn=978-1-931956-74-1}}</ref>}}

Syed Ameer Ali, like some other authors of his time, tried to show that Islam was a rational religion.<ref name=cis/>

==Honors and recognition==
The Sayed Ameer Ali Hall in the [[University of Rajshahi]] in Bangladesh is named for him.

[[Pakistan Post|Pakistan Postal Service]] issued a commemorative postage stamp in 1990 to honor him in its 'Pioneers of Freedom' series.<ref name="cybercity">{{cite web |title=Syed Ameer Ali Profile |url=http://www.cybercity-online.net/pof/syed_ameer_ali.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807234738/http://www.cybercity-online.net/pof/syed_ameer_ali.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 |access-date=29 January 2024 |website=Cybercity.net}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[The Nineteenth Century (periodical)|''The Nineteenth Century'' (periodical)]], for which Ameer Ali authored articles
* [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]]
* [[Shia Islam in India]]

==Books==
* ''A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mohammed'' (1873)<ref name=cis/> – His first book, written when he was 24, while in England. The orientalist [[Robert Durie Osborn|Major R. D. Osborn]] (1835–1889) wrote: "Regarded simply as a literary achievement, we have never read anything issuing from the educated classes in this country which could be compared with it; and the Muslims of India are to be congratulated on the possession of so able a man in their rank. It is impossible if his after-life accords with this early promise that he should not leave his influence for good stamped upon the country in deep and enduring characters."<ref name=MilliGazette/>
* ''The Personal Law of Muhammedans'' (1880)<ref name=cybercity/>
* ''The Spirit of Islam'' (editions in 1891, 1922, 1953)<ref name=cis/> – A book covering the life of Muhammad, and the political, cultural, literary, scientific, mystic, philosophical, and social history of Islam.
* ''Ethics of Islam'' (1893)<ref name=cybercity/>
* ''A Short History of Saracens'' (1899)<ref name=cis/>
* ''Islam'' (1906)
* ''The Legal Position of Women in Islam'' (1912)<ref name=cybercity/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource author-inline}}
{{Pakistan Movement}}
* [[s:Dictionary of Indian Biography/Ameer Ali, Syad|Ameer Ali, Syad]] in the ''[[Dictionary of Indian Biography]]''
* [[s:Men-at-the-Bar/Ameer, Ali (Hon. Syed)|Ameer, Ali (Hon. Syed)]] in Men-at-the-Bar by [[Joseph Foster (genealogist)|Joseph Foster]]
* [https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Ali%2C%20Syed%20Ameer%2C%201849-1928 Ali, Syed Ameer, 1849-1928] at [[Online Books Page]]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/000359}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Syed Ameer Ali}}
[[Category:1849 births]]
[[Category:1928 deaths]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslims]]
[[Category:Bengali lawyers]]
[[Category:19th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:Aliah University alumni]]
[[Category:All-India Muslim League politicians]]
[[Category:Burials at Brookwood Cemetery]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Indian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Judges of the Calcutta High Court]]
[[Category:Leaders of the Pakistan Movement]]
[[Category:Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Presidency University, Kolkata]]
[[Category:Shia scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Calcutta]]
[[Category:Politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:People from Cuttack]]

Alp Khan

2025-12-02T06:45:20Z

KiaGreenwald: quick adjust information and updated info per standard format

{{Short description|General of the Delhi Sultanate}}
{{for|the 15th century ruler of Malwa|Hoshang Shah}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}

'''Alp Khan''' (died December 1315<ref name="n301">{{cite web | last=Misra | first=S. C. | title=The Rise of Muslim Power in Gujarat | url=https://ia601902.us.archive.org/15/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.111119/2015.111119.The-Rise-Of-Muslim-Power-In-Gujarat_text.pdf | access-date=2 December 2025 | page=213}}</ref>) was a general and brother-in-law of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] ruler [[Alauddin Khalji]]. He served as Alauddin's governor of [[Gujarat]], and held considerable influence at the royal court of Delhi during the last years of Alauddin's life. He was executed on the charges of conspiring to kill Alauddin, possibly because of a conspiracy by [[Malik Kafur]].

== Early life ==

Alp Khan was originally named Junaid,{{sfn|Iqtidar Alam Khan|2008|p=24}} and was later called [[Malik]] Sanjar. He appears to have come from a family of [[Khalji]] chiefs.{{sfn|Iqtidar Alam Khan|2008|p=24}} According to [[Isami (historian)|Isami]], Alauddin had brought him up as a child.{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=171}}

Upon becoming the Sultan of Delhi in 1296, Alauddin gave him the title Alp Khan ("Powerful [[Khan (title)|Khan]]").{{sfn|Sunil Kumar|2013|p=61}} Alp Khan's sister (named Mahru, according to the 16th-17th century chronicler Haji-ud-Dabir{{sfn|Kishori Saran Lal|1950|p=42}}) married Alauddin: Khizr Khan was the issue of this marriage.{{sfn|Iqtidar Alam Khan|2008|p=24}}

== Career ==

Alauddin appointed Alp Khan as ''Amir-i-Majlis'' (chief of protocol), and granted him the [[iqta']] of [[Multan]]. In c. 1310, Alauddin granted Alp Khan the iqta' of [[Gujarat]].{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=171}} The [[Jain]] works praise Alp Khan for allowing reconstruction of the shrines destroyed by the Muslim conquerors.{{sfn|Iqtidar Alam Khan|2008|p=24}} Kakka Suri's ''[[Nabhi-nandana-jinoddhara-prabandha]]'' records the [[Shatrunjaya]] temple renovation permitted by him.{{sfn|John Cort|2010|pp=213-214}}

In 1308, Alauddin ordered Alp Khan to support [[Malik Kafur]] during the [[Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Devagiri|invasion of Devagiri]]. Alp Khan's forces invaded [[Baglana]], where the [[Vaghela dynasty|Vaghela]] king [[Karna (Vaghela dynasty)|Karna]] had been given a principality by the Devagiri ruler [[Ramachandra of Devagiri|Ramachandra]]. Alp Khan's soldiers were unable to apprehend Karna, but managed to capture Karna's daughter [[Devaladevi]]. Alp Khan sent her to Delhi, where she was married to his nephew Khizr Khan.{{sfn|Kishori Saran Lal|1950|pp=190-191}}{{sfn|Banarsi Prasad Saksena|1992|pp=402-403}}

== Death ==

Alp Khan's daughters married Alauddin's sons Khizr Khan and Shadi Khan.{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=176}} As the maternal uncle and the father-in-law of the [[heir apparent]] Khizr Khan, Alp Khan held considerable influence at the Delhi court, especially during the last years of Alauddin's life. In 1315, when Alauddin suffered from a serious illness, Alp allegedly vied with Alauddin's slave-viceroy [[Malik Kafur]] for control of power.{{sfn|Iqtidar Alam Khan|2008|p=24}} Kafur convinced Alauddin to sanction the murder of Alp Khan. It was alleged that Alp Khan, his sister and Khizr Khan had conspired to poison Alauddin in order to make Khizr Khan the new king. However, this might have been Kafur's propaganda.{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=176}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book |author=Banarsi Prasad Saksena |author-link=Banarsi Prasad Saksena |chapter=The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji |editor=[[Mohammad Habib]] and [[K. A. Nizami]] |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526) |volume=5 |edition=Second |year=1992 |orig-year=1970 |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180 }}
* {{cite book |author=Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGSKTttoa3IC&pg=PR24 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |publisher=Scarecrow |year=2008 |isbn=9780810864016 }}
* {{cite book |author=John Cort |title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IF2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PT392 |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-045257-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Kishori Saran Lal |author-link=K. S. Lal |title=History of the Khaljis (1290-1320) |year=1950 |publisher=The Indian Press |location=Allahabad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XXqAQAACAAJ |oclc=685167335 }}
* {{cite book |author=Peter Jackson|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian)|title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA221 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 }}
* {{cite book |author=Sunil Kumar |chapter=The Ignored Elites: Turks, Mongols and a Persian Secretarial Class in the Early Delhi Sultanate |editor=[[Richard M. Eaton|Richard Eaton]]|title=Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h0_xhdCScQkC&pg=PA61 |year=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-03428-0 }}
{{ref end}}

{{Alauddin Khalji}}

[[Category:Alauddin Khalji]]
[[Category:14th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:14th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:1310s deaths]]

Bidar–Kalaburagi rail line

2025-12-02T03:03:06Z

KiaGreenwald: Created initial data w/ infobox

{{Orphan|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox rail line
| name = Bidar–Kalaburagi rail line
| color =
| logo =
| logo_width =
| image =
| caption =
| type = [[Regional rail]]
| system = [[Indian Railways]]
| status = Operational
| locale = [[Karnataka]], India
| start = {{rws|Bidar}}
| end = {{rws|Kalaburagi Junction}}f
| stations = 11
| open = August 2015 (partial DEMU service) 29 October 2017 (fully operational)
| owner = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[South Central Railway zone|South Central Railway]]
| linelength_km = 72.26
| tracklength_km =
| gauge = {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}}
| elevation_m =
| website =
}}

The '''Bidar–Kalaburagi rail line''' is a {{convert|72.26|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, single-track [[Indian Railways#Track gauges|broad-gauge]] railway line in the Indian state of [[Karnataka]]. It connects [[Bidar]] and [[Kalaburagi]] (formerly Gulbarga), providing a direct rail link for the [[Kalyana-Karnataka]] region. After a prolonged development period affected by funding and land acquisition issues, with a final project cost of ₹1,462 crore, the line was fully inaugurated in October 2017. The line is operated by the [[South Central Railway zone]].

== History ==
The proposal for a direct railway line was initially sanctioned in the [[Railway budget of India|1996-97 railway budget]].<ref name="Express2009">{{cite news |title=Gulbarga-Bidar railway line pushes ahead |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2009/May/02/gulbarga-bidar-railway-line-pushes-ahead-45884.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=2 May 2009 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> The project subsequently stalled for years due to lack of funding. By December 2004, Members of Parliament were questioning the government in the [[Lok Sabha]], demanding funds be allocated for its "early completion".<ref name="LokSabha2004Funds">{{cite web |title=Need to allocate funds for early completion of new rail line between Bidar and Gulbarga in Karnataka |url=https://eparlib.sansad.in/bitstream/123456789/716985/1/2377.pdf |publisher=[[Parliament of India|eParliament]] |date=2004 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> The official response from the Ministry of Railways stated that the project was pending due to "resource constraints".<ref name="LokSabha2004Status">{{cite web |title=UNSTARRED QUESTION NO.2570: New Railway line between Bidar and Gulbarga |url=https://eparlib.sansad.in/bitstream/123456789/549288/1/5193.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Railways (via eParliament) |date=16 December 2004 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref>

A final location survey was completed by 2009.<ref name="Express2009"/> The project was approved anew in the [[Railway budget of India|2010-11 budget]].<ref name="Express2014">{{cite news |title='Bidar-Gulbarga rly line delay affecting growth' |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2014/Jul/13/%E2%80%98bidar-gulbarga-rly-line-delay-affecting-growth%E2%80%99-635124.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=13 July 2014 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> The foundation stone for a station and goods shed at Sultanpur was laid by then [[Minister of Railways (India)|Railway Minister]] [[Mallikarjun Kharge]] on 27 October 2013.<ref name="TOI2013">{{cite news |title=Railway Minister lays foundation stone for station and goods shed in Sultanpur |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/railway-ministermallikarjun-kharge-lays-foundation-stone-for-construction-of-station-and-goods-shed-insultanpur-which-is-a-part-of-the-bidar-gulbarga-new-rail-line-/articleshow/28743015.cms |work=The Times of India |date=27 October 2013 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref>

By 2014, business leaders stated the lack of connectivity was affecting growth in the region.<ref name="Express2014"/> The project cost increased from ₹450 crore in 2014<ref name="Express2014"/> to ₹1,050 crore by 2015,<ref name="Hindu2015">{{cite news |title=Railway Budget: Kalaburagi-Bidar rail line needs more funds |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/railway-budget-kalaburagibidar-rail-line-needs-more-funds/article6931116.ece |work=The Hindu |date=19 February 2015 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> and further to ₹1,150 crore by 2016.<ref name="DH2016">{{cite news |title=Cost escalates to Rs 1,150 crore |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/639939/cost-escalates-rs-1150-crore.html |work=Deccan Herald |date=6 June 2016 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> Officials attributed the increases to land acquisition challenges and alignment change demands.<ref name="DH2016"/> The project also became a subject of political debate.<ref name="BS2017Politics">{{cite news |title=Congress caused delay in Bidar-Kalaburagi railway line project: Piyush Goyal |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/congress-caused-delay-in-bidar-kalaburagi-railway-line-project-piyush-goyal-117102900620_1.html |work=Business Standard |date=29 October 2017 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref>

By early 2017, 59% of the work was completed.<ref name="Hindu2017Progress">{{cite news |title=Kalaburagi-Bidar railway line work in progress: Baig |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/kalaburagibidar-railway-line-work-in-progress-baig/article7928958.ece |work=The Hindu |date=10 January 2017 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> The line was inaugurated by Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] on 29 October 2017, with a final project cost of ₹1,462 crore.<ref name="PIB2017">{{cite press release |title=PM dedicates Bidar - Kalaburagi New Railway Line to the Nation |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=172031 |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |date=29 October 2017 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> As of December 2023, the project was officially reported as completed and operational by the Ministry of Railways.<ref name="LokSabha2023">{{cite web |title=Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No. 5992: Development of Railway Lines |url=https://eparlib.sansad.in/bitstream/123456789/715401/1/5992.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Railways (via eParliament) |date=14 December 2023 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref>

== Route and specifications ==
The {{convert|72.26|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, single broad-gauge line originates at {{rws|Bidar}} (station code: BIDR) and terminates at {{rws|Kalaburagi Junction}} (KLBG).<ref name="PIB2017"/><ref name="SCR2015">{{cite web |title=South Central Railway - Timetable Notice No. 27 of 2015 |url=https://scr.indianrailways.gov.in/scr/notice/1441257905227_T.N.No.27%20of%2031.08.2015.pdf |publisher=[[South Central Railway]] |date=31 August 2015 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> It passes through the following 11 stations:
Bidar, Hunsihadalli (HSHL), Hira (HIRA), Taj Sultanpur (TSPR), Kamalapur (KMPR), Dudhani (DODI), Hotgi Road (HGRD), Sonala (SNL), Sedam (SEM), Malkhed (MLK), and Kalaburagi Junction.<ref name="SCR2015"/>

== Operation ==
Initial [[Diesel Electric Multiple Unit]] (DEMU) services (Train numbers 77651/77652) began operation on a partially completed section as early as August 2015.<ref name="SCR2015"/> The line was fully inaugurated in October 2017.<ref name="PIB2017"/>

Following inauguration, the line operated with limited service. A 2020 report noted the line had one train per day with irregular scheduling.<ref name="TOI2020">{{cite news |title=Kalaburagi-Bidar railway line waiting for trains since three years |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hubballi/kalaburagi-bidar-railway-line-waiting-for-trains-since-three-years/articleshow/78959235.cms |work=The Times of India |date=23 July 2020 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref>

Service frequency increased in October 2023 with the introduction of the daily '''Kalyana Karnataka Express''', which connects the region to [[Bengaluru]] via this line.<ref name="DH2023">{{cite news |title=Kalyana Karnataka's first dedicated train to Bengaluru from Oct 28 |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnatka/kalyana-karnataka-s-first-dedicated-train-to-bengaluru-from-oct-28-2731114 |work=Deccan Herald |date=26 October 2023 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> The line is operated by the [[South Central Railway zone]].

== Future development ==
In the 2018-19 Railway Budget, the line was identified for future development, with plans announced for its doubling (adding a second track) and electrification.<ref name="Hindu2018">{{cite news |title=Line doubling, rail electrification projects get a boost in Karnataka |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/Line-doubling-rail-electrification-projects-get-a-boost-in-Karnataka/article17184845.ece |work=The Hindu |date=3 February 2018 |access-date=14 September 2025}}</ref> However, as of December 2023, an official parliamentary document stated that "at present, no proposal... is under consideration with the Ministry of Railways" for the doubling of this line.<ref name="LokSabha2023"/>

== Impact ==
The railway line reduces travel time between Bidar and Kalaburagi from nearly four hours by road to about {{convert|90|min}} by train.<ref name="PIB2017"/> At the inauguration, the Prime Minister stated the line would "give impetus to the overall development of the region and help in providing seamless connectivity to the people of Karnataka and the neighbouring regions."<ref name="PIB2017"/> The line serves the [[Kalyana-Karnataka]] region.<ref name="Express2014"/>

== See also ==
* [[Transport in Karnataka]]
* [[Rail transport in Karnataka]]
* [[List of railway lines in India]]
* [[South Central Railway zone]]
* [[Kalaburagi Junction railway station]]
* [[Bidar railway station]]

== External links ==
* [https://scr.indianrailways.gov.in/ South Central Railway official website] (accessed 14 September 2025)

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:South Central Railway zone]]
[[Category:Transport in Kalaburagi district]]
[[Category:Transport in Bidar district]]
[[Category:Rail transport in India]]

Flora and fauna of Rajasthan

2025-11-27T12:31:01Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:IN-RJ.svg|thumb|Location of Rajasthan (in red) within India]]
'''Wildlife of Rajasthan''' comprises the flora and fauna of the state of [[Rajasthan]], India. The region ranges from the arid [[Thar Desert]] to the ancient [[Aravalli Range]], and important wetlands such as the [[Keoladeo Ghana National Park]]. Continuous human habitation since the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] at sites like [[Kalibangan]] and [[Balathal]] has influenced local ecosystems over millennia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Udayavani |title=10 tiger cubs born in Rajasthan’s wildlife reserves |url=https://www.udayavani.com/english-news/10-tiger-cubs-born-in-rajasthans-wildlife-reserves |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=Udayavani |language=kn}}</ref>

==Geography==
Rajasthan is India’s largest state by area. It borders Pakistan to the west and covers:
* '''[[Thar Desert]]''': sand dunes, rocky outcrops, saline depressions; annual rainfall 100–500 mm.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shagun |date=2025-04-08 |title=Thar desert is greening, thanks to higher rainfall, excessive groundwater pumping |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/climate-change/thar-desert-is-greening-thanks-to-higher-rainfall-excessive-groundwater-pumping |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=Down To Earth |language=en}}</ref>
* '''[[Aravalli Range]]''': SW–NE fold mountains rising to ~1 700 m at Mount Abu.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-10-03 |title=Rajasthan’s rare-earth elements (REE) potential set to be unlocked by the end of this fiscal |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/unlocking-rajasthans-rare-earth-elements-potential-a-game-changer-for-indias-resource-sector/articleshow/113915303.cms |access-date=2025-05-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* '''Eastern plains and wetlands''': alluvial areas in Bharatpur and Dausa districts.
* '''[[Mount Abu]]''': the state’s only hill station with subtropical evergreen forests.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=O. T. |date=2024-12-18 |title=Rajasthan's Only Hill Station Receives Snowfall: Top 7 Things To Do In Mount Abu |url=https://www.outlooktraveller.com/destinations/india/rajasthans-only-hill-station-receives-snowfall-top-7-things-to-do-in-mount-abu |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=Outlook Traveller |language=en}}</ref>

==Ecosystems and vegetation types==
===Thar Desert===
* [[Xerophytic]] shrubs and trees: ''[[Prosopis cineraria]]'', ''[[Tecomella undulata]]'', ''[[Acacia]]'' spp.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Plants of the Thar Desert |url=https://www.sahapedia.org/the-plants-of-the-thar-desert |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=Sahapedia |language=en}}</ref>
* Grasses: ''[[Lasiurus scindicus|Lasiurus sindicus]]'' (sewan grass)
* “Greening” trends since late 20th century due to monsoon variability and the [[Indira Gandhi Canal|Indira Gandhi Canal.]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-24 |title=Indira Gandhi Canal closure to impact water supply in 12 dists |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/indira-gandhi-canal-closure-to-impact-water-supply-in-12-dists/articleshow/119398554.cms |access-date=2025-05-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

===Aravalli Hills===
* Lower slopes: tropical thorn and dry deciduous forests (''[[Tectona grandis]]'', ''Acacia'' spp.).
* Mount Abu: subtropical evergreen forests with endemic [[orchids]], [[bryophytes]] and [[freshwater algae]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary - keybiodiversityareas.org |url=https://www.keybiodiversityareas.org/site/factsheet/18354 |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=www.keybiodiversityareas.org}}</ref>
* Acts as corridor for wildlife movement and barrier between desert and plains.

===Wetlands===
* '''Keoladeo Ghana National Park''' (Bharatpur; ~29 km²; UNESCO World Heritage Site): wintering ground for >350 waterfowl species.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2025-03-10 |title=Migratory Birds Bidding Farewell To Winter Home In Rajasthan's Keoladeo National Park |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!state/migratory-birds-bidding-farewell-to-winter-home-in-rajasthan-keoladeo-ghana-national-park-enn25031002163 |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=en}}</ref>
* '''Sambhar Lake''': India’s largest salt lake, important for [[flamingos]] and [[Halophyte|halophytes]] (''[[Salvadora persica|Salvadora]]'' spp.).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mohanty |first=Swapna Sarita |date=2025-05-15 |title=How community ponds are reviving life and landscapes around Rajasthan’s Sambhar Lake |url=https://www.indiawaterportal.org/rivers-and-lakes/how-community-ponds-are-reviving-life-and-landscapes-around-rajasthans-sambhar-lake |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=India Water Portal |language=en}}</ref>

===Other forest types===
* '''Tropical thorn forests''': western Rajasthan.
* '''Dry deciduous forests''': eastern and southern districts.
* '''Subtropical evergreen forests''': Mount Abu highlands.
* '''Bamboo and riverine forests''': in moist southeastern Aravallis.

==Flora==
Regional representative species include:
;Thar Desert
:* ''Prosopis cineraria'' (khejri; state tree)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khejri: A Wonder Tree of the Thar |url=https://www.sahapedia.org/khejri-wonder-tree-of-the-thar |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=Sahapedia |language=en}}</ref>
:* ''Tecomella undulata'' (rohida; state flower)
:* ''[[Ziziphus]]'' spp., ''Acacia'' spp.
:* ''[[Lasiurus scindicus|Lasiurus sindicus]]''
;Aravalli Range
:* ''Tectona grandis'' (teak)
:* Diverse orchids at Mount Abu
;Wetlands
:* ''[[Nelumbo nucifera]]'' (lotus), ''[[Nymphaea]]'' spp.
:* ''[[Salvadora oleoides]]'', ''S. persica''
;Other forests
:* ''[[Shorea robusta]]'', ''[[Madhuca longifolia]]'', ''[[Diospyros melanoxylon]]''
:* [[Bamboo]] spp.

==Fauna==
===Mammals===
==== Common mammals ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Common name !! Scientific name !! IUCN status
|-
| [[Rhesus macaque]]|| ''Macaca mulatta'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Hanuman langur]]|| ''Semnopithecus entellus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian leopard]]|| ''Panthera pardus fusca'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Jungle cat]]|| ''Felis chaus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian desert cat]]|| Felis lybica ornata || Least Concern
|-
| [[Asian palm civet]]|| ''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Small Indian mongoose]]|| ''Herpestes javanicus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian brown mongoose]]|| ''Herpestes brachyurus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Ruddy mongoose]]|| ''Herpestes smithii'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian grey mongoose]]|| ''Herpestes edwardsi'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Striped hyena]]|| ''Hyaena hyaena'' || Near Threatened
|-
| [[Indian jackal]]|| Canis aureus indicus || Least Concern
|-
| [[Sloth bear]]|| ''Melursus ursinus'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Asian house shrew|Grey musk shrew]]|| ''Suncus murinus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian flying fox]]|| ''Pteropus giganteus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Short-nosed fruit bat]]|| ''Cynopterus sphinx'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Five-striped palm squirrel]]|| ''Funambulus pennantii'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian palm squirrel|Three-striped palm squirrel]]|| ''Funambulus palmarum'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian gerbil]]|| ''Tatera indica'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian desert jird|Indian desert gerbil]]|| ''Meriones hurrianae'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[House rat]]|| ''Rattus rattus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse]]|| ''Vandeleuria oleracea'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Cutch rat]]|| ''Cremnomys cutchicus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Soft-furred metad]]|| ''Millardia meltada'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[House mouse]]|| ''Mus musculus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Little Indian field mouse]]|| ''Mus booduga'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Phillips's mouse|Phillips’s mouse]]|| ''Mus phillipsi'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian bush rat]]|| ''Golunda ellioti'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Lesser bandicoot rat]]|| ''Bandicota bengalensis'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian porcupine]]|| ''Hystrix indica'' || Least Concern
|-
|[[Indian hedgehog]]
|''Paraechinus micropus''
|Least Concern
|-
|[[Indian long-eared hedgehog]]
|''Hemiechinus collaris''
|Least Concern
|-
| [[Chinkara]] (state animal) || ''Gazella bennettii'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Blackbuck]]|| ''Antilope cervicapra'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Nilgai]]|| ''Boselaphus tragocamelus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Sambar deer|Sambar]]|| ''Cervus unicolor'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Chital]]|| ''Axis axis'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Wild boar]]|| ''Sus scrofa'' || Least Concern
|}

==== Rare mammals ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Common name !! Scientific name !! IUCN status
|-
| [[Bengal tiger]]|| ''Panthera tigris tigris'' || Endangered
|-
| [[Caracal]]|| ''Caracal caracal'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian wolf]]|| ''Canis lupus pallipes'' || Endangered
|-
| [[White-footed fox]]|| ''Vulpes vulpes pusilla'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian fox]]|| ''Vulpes bengalensis'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Smooth-coated otter]]|| ''Lutrogale perspicillata'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Four-horned antelope]]|| ''Tetracerus quadricornis'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Indian pangolin]]|| ''Manis crassicaudata'' || Vulnerable
|}

==== Recently reported mammals ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Common name !! Scientific name !! IUCN status
|-
| [[Rusty-spotted cat]]|| ''Prionailurus rubiginosus'' || Near Threatened
|-
| [[Fishing cat]]|| ''Prionailurus viverrinus'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Large brown flying squirrel]]|| ''Petaurista petaurista'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian spotted chevrotain]]|| ''Moschiola indica'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Gangetic dolphin]]|| ''Platanista gangetica'' || Endangered
|-
| [[Painted bat]]|| ''Kerivoula picta'' || Least Concern
|}
===Birds===
Over 500 species have been recorded in Rajasthan.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Common name !! Scientific name !! IUCN status
|-
| [[Great Indian bustard|Great Indian Bustard]] (state bird) || ''Ardeotis nigriceps'' || Critically Endangered
|-
| [[Demoiselle crane|Demoiselle Crane]]|| ''Anthropoides virgo'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Sarus crane|Sarus Crane]]|| ''Antigone antigone'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Red-naped ibis|Red-naped Ibis]]|| ''Pseudibis papillosa'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian roller|Indian Roller]]|| ''Coracias benghalensis'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Laggar falcon|Laggar Falcon]]|| ''Falco jugger'' || Near Threatened
|-
| [[Red-wattled lapwing|Red-wattled Lapwing]]|| ''Vanellus indicus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Green avadavat|Green Avadavat]]|| ''Amandava formosa'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Grey junglefowl|Grey Junglefowl]]|| ''Gallus sonneratii'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Painted spurfowl|Painted Spurfowl]]|| ''Galloperdix lunulata'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Red spurfowl|Aravalli Red Spurfowl]]|| ''Galloperdix sp.'' || Data Deficient
|-
| [[White-naped tit|White-naped Tit]]|| ''Parus nuchalis'' || Vulnerable
|-
| [[Indian eagle-owl]]|| ''Bubo bengalensis'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Eurasian spoonbill|Eurasian Spoonbill]]|| ''Platalea leucorodia'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Black-necked stork|Black-necked Stork]]|| ''Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus'' || Near Threatened
|-
| [[Lesser flamingo|Lesser Flamingo]]|| ''Phoeniconaias minor'' || Near Threatened
|-
| [[Greater flamingo|Greater Flamingo]]|| ''Phoenicopterus roseus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Bar-headed goose|Bar-headed Goose]]|| ''Anser indicus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Northern pintail|Northern Pintail]]|| ''Anas acuta'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Common Teal]]|| ''Anas crecca'' || Least Concern
|}

===Reptiles and amphibians===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Group !! Representative species !! IUCN status
|-
| [[Bengal monitor]]|| ''Varanus bengalensis'' || Near Threatened
|-
| [[Spiny-tailed lizard]]|| ''Saara hardwickii'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Saw-scaled viper]]|| ''Echis carinatus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Russell's viper]]|| ''Daboia russelii'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian cobra]]|| ''Naja naja'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Common krait]]|| ''Bungarus caeruleus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Rat snake]]|| ''Ptyas mucosa'' || Least Concern
|-
|[[Red sand boa]]
|Eryx johnii
|Near Threatened
|-
| [[Gharial]]|| ''Gavialis gangeticus'' || Critically Endangered
|-
| [[Psammophis condanarus|Slender racer snake]]|| ''Psammophis condanarus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Black-headed Snake|Dumeril's black-headed snake]]|| ''Sibynophis subpunctatus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Rhabdophis plumbicolor|Green keelback snake]]|| ''Rhabdophis plumbicolor'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Rajasthan toad-headed agama|Rajasthan toad-headed lizard]]|| ''Bufoniceps laungwalaensis'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Common toad]]|| ''Duttaphrynus melanostictus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Indian bullfrog]]|| ''Hoplobatrachus tigerinus'' || Least Concern
|-
| [[Common tree frog]]|| ''Polypedates maculatus'' || Least Concern
|}

===Insects and other invertebrates===
Insects from >14 orders (Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera), including desert locusts, butterflies, beetles, bees and ants. Arachnids include scorpions (e.g. ''Hottentotta tamulus'') and spiders.
* [[Giant wood spider]] (''Nephila pilipes'')

==Protected areas==
===National parks===
* [[Ranthambore National Park]] (Sawai Madhopur; 1411 km²)
* [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]] (Alwar; 1213 km²)
* [[Desert National Park]] (Jaisalmer & Barmer; 3162 km²)
* [[Keoladeo Ghana National Park]] (Bharatpur; 28.7 km²)
* [[Mukundara Hills National Park|Mukundra Hills National Park]] (Kota; 759 km²)
* [[Ramgarh Vishdhari Wildlife Sanctuary|Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve]] (Bundi;1502 km²)

===Wildlife sanctuaries===
* [[Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Sita Mata Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Todgarh-Raoli Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Tal Chhapar Sanctuary]]
* [[Phulwari ki Nal Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Jaisamand Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Bhensrodgarh Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Bassi Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Gajner Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Sawai Man Singh Wildlife Sanctuary]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Parks and Sanctuaries in Rajasthan |url=https://forest.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/forest/en/resources/forest-statistics/general-introduction1/national-parks-and-sanctuaries-in-rajasthan.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250323212522/https://forest.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/forest/en/resources/forest-statistics/general-introduction1/national-parks-and-sanctuaries-in-rajasthan.html |archive-date=2025-03-23 |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=forest.rajasthan.gov.in |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Sawai Madhopur Wildlife Sanctuary]]

===Conservation reserves and wetlands===
* [[Sundha Mata conservation reserve|Sundha Mata Conservation Reserve]]
* Umedganj Bird Conservation Reserve
* Gudha Bisnoiyan Conservation Reserve
* Shakambhari Conservation Reserve
* [[Jodbeed Gadhwala Conservation Reserve]]
* [[Jhalana Amagarh leopard conservation reserve|Jhalana Amagarh Leopard Conservation Reserve]]
* [[Jawai Bandh Leopard Conservation Reserve]]

==Conservation efforts==
===Government initiatives===
* ''Project Tiger'': tiger reserves at Ranthambore and Sariska under NTCA.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2024-07-29 |title=International Tiger Day {{!}} Project Tiger To Displace 5.50 Lakh Tribals With 967% Increase Of Displacement Per Tiger Reserve Post-2021 Period |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!bharat/international-tiger-day-project-tiger-to-displace-550-000-tribals-with-967-percent-increase-of-displacement-per-tiger-reserve-post-2021-period-enn24072906276 |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=en}}</ref>
* ''Project Great Indian Bustard'': launched 5 June 2013 for captive breeding and habitat protection.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-02 |title=Project GIB sees success as four captive-bred Great Indian Bustard chicks hatch in Jaisalmer |url=https://mid-day.com/news/india-news/article/project-gib-welcomes-four-new-captive-bred-great-indian-bustard-chicks-in-jaisalmer-23533379 |access-date=2025-05-20 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref>

===Research and institutions===
* Wildlife Institute of India – research, training
* Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI), Jodhpur – dryland forestry research

===Challenges===
* Habitat fragmentation: agriculture, urbanization, mining, infrastructure
* Poaching and illegal wildlife trade
* Human–wildlife conflict: crop raiding, livestock predation
* Climate change: altered monsoons, temperature rise, habitat shifts
* Ecological shifts: Thar “greening” favouring generalists over specialists

==See also==
* [[Wildlife of India]]
* [[Ranthambore National Park]]
* [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]]
* [[Great Indian Bustard]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* Rajasthan Forest Department: [https://forest.rajasthan.gov.in/ Rajasthan Forests]
* Wildlife Institute of India: [https://wii.gov.in/ WII]

[[Category:Environment of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Fauna of Rajasthan]]

Deep Sengupta

2025-11-25T06:53:04Z

KiaGreenwald:

{{short description|Indian chess grandmaster (born 1988)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox chess player
|name = Deep Sengupta
|image = Deep Sengupta 2014 Basel.jpg
|caption = Deep Sengupta (2014)
|country = India
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1988|06|30|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Chakradharpur]], [[Jharkhand]], India
|death_date =
|death_place =
|title = [[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]] (2010)
|worldchampion =
|rating =
|peakrating = 2596 (July 2017)
|FideID = 5008352
}}

'''Deep Sengupta''' (born 30 June 1988) is an Indian [[chess]] player. He is India's 22nd player to be awarded the title [[grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]] by [[FIDE]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/top-stories/Deep-likely-to-be-awarded-with-the-GM-title/articleshow/5662432.cms | work=The Times Of India | title=Deep likely to be awarded with the GM title | date=9 March 2010}}</ref> Sengupta competed in the [[FIDE World Cup]] in 2017.

== Career ==
Born in [[Chakradharpur]],<ref name=fide/> Sengupta started chess with the Chakradharpur Chess Academy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/finally-a-grandmaster-from-home-22-year-old-deep-sengupta-clinches-coveted-chess-title-at-cannes/cid/539434|title=Finally, a Grandmaster from home – 22-year-old Deep Sengupta clinches coveted chess title at Cannes|author=Jayesh Thaker|date=2010-03-09|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]|location=Kolkata|accessdate=3 April 2011}}</ref> He won the [[World Youth Chess Championship]]s in the Under 12 category in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TWIC 312: World Youth Championships Oropesa del Mar|last=Crowther|first=Mark|url=https://theweekinchess.com/html/twic312.html#7|date=2000-10-30|access-date=2020-08-07|website=The Week in Chess}}</ref>

Sengupta achieved his first [[Norm (chess)|norm]] for the title Grandmaster (GM) in the [[World Junior Chess Championship]] in [[Kochi]], India in December 2004<ref name=fide>[http://ratings.fide.com/crt/main1348.pdf GM title application] (PDF). FIDE.</ref> and won the Indian juniors title in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianchessfed.org/News/12news46.asp |title=Deep, Soumya Become Junior Champions |publisher=All India Chess Federation |accessdate=3 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726174914/http://www.indianchessfed.org/News/12news46.asp |archivedate=26 July 2011 }}</ref>

In April 2009, he won the [[Doeberl Cup]], earning his second GM norm.<ref name=fide/> In 2010, he tied for the top position with [[Tigran Gharamian]] and [[Vadim Malakhatko]] at the 24th Open "Pierre and Vacances"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessdom.com/news-2010/pierre-vacances-open|title=Tigran Gharamian wins Pierre and Vacances open|date=7 March 2010 |publisher=Chessdom|accessdate=8 March 2010}}</ref> in [[Cannes]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ratings.fide.com/view_source.phtml?code=47145|title=FIDE Original Tournament Report. 24e Open International "Pierre et Vacances" – A|website=ratings.fide.com|access-date=2019-04-24}}</ref> thereby completing the requirements for the Grandmaster title.<ref name="fide" /> He tied for first with [[Arghyadip Das]] in the 2010/11 [[Hastings International Chess Congress|Hastings Masters]] tournament and won the event on tiebreak.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6926|title=Indians Sengupta and Das win Hastings|date=2011-01-06|publisher=ChessBase.com|accessdate=6 January 2011}}</ref> In 2011 he tied for 2nd–7th with [[Maxim Turov]], [[Viacheslav Zakhartsov]], [[Krisztián Szabó (chess player)|Krisztián Szabó]], [[Lev Gutman]], [[Dávid Bérczes]] and [[Samuel Shankland]] in the [[ZMDI]] Open in [[Dresden]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theweekinchess.com/html/twic875.html#12|title=The Week in Chess 875: 20th ZMDI Open|publisher=London Chess Centre|accessdate=24 April 2018}}</ref> He was placed 4th in the [[Indian Chess Championship]] 2012. Sengupta won the 2014 [[Commonwealth Chess Championship]], held in [[Glasgow]], edging out [[Aravindh Chithambaram]] on tiebreak score. Both players concluded the event with 7½/9 points each.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessdom.com/gm-sengupta-deep-claims-commonwealth-chess-championship-2014|title=GM Sengupta Deep claims Commonwealth Chess Championship 2014|date=10 July 2014 |publisher=Chessdom|accessdate=10 July 2014}}</ref> Sengupta won the 2016/2017 Hastings tournament, being a clear winner with 7/9 points. This led to his name being embedded in the Golombek Trophy once again.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/gm-deep-sengupta-wins-hastings-masters|title=Deep Sengupta victorious in Hastings|date=2017-01-07|publisher=ChessBase}}</ref> Sengputa also tied for first at the 2017/2018 Hastings Congress.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/hastings-2017-deep-sengupta|title=Hastings: the incredible rally of Deep Sengupta|date=2018-01-09|website=Chess News|access-date=2019-04-15}}</ref> In 2019 he tied with [[Jan Gustafsson]] for first in the [[Bangkok]] Open.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chess24.com/en/read/news/jan-wins-his-2nd-bangkok-chess-club-open|title=Jan wins his 2nd Bangkok Chess Club Open|last=McGourty|first=Colin|date=15 April 2019|work=Chess24.com|accessdate=2019-04-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/gustafsson-bags-bangkok-open|title=Gustafsson bags Bangkok Open|date=2019-04-15|website=Chess News|publisher=ChessBase|access-date=2019-04-24}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Sengupta resides in [[Kasba (Kolkata)|Kasba]]. He works for the [[Oil and Natural Gas Corporation]] of India. He has an elder brother, Pratik Sengupta, who plays chess as well.

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*{{Fide}}
*{{chessgames.com player|56773}}
*{{365Chess.com player|Deep_Sengupta}}
*[http://www.olimpbase.org/playerst/1jnbr7de.html Deep Sengupta] team chess record at Olimpbase.org

{{Indian grandmasters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sengupta, Deep}}
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Chess Grandmasters]]
[[Category:World Youth Chess Champions]]
[[Category:People from West Singhbhum district]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian chess players]]