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Theeppori Benny

2023-09-29T09:51:48Z

Khushi Sonker: Created page with '{{Short description|2023 Indian Malayalam comedy film}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}} {{Infobox film | name = Theeppori Benny | image = | caption = Official Theatrical Poster | director = Rajeesh Mohan<br>Joji Thomas | writer = Rajeesh Mohan<br>Joji Thomas | producer = Shebin Backer | starring = {{ubl|Arjun Ashokan|Femina George |Jagadish|Aparna Balamurali|}} | cinematography = Ajay Fr...'

{{Short description|2023 Indian Malayalam comedy film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Theeppori Benny
| image = Theeppori_Benny_First_Look_Poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = {{Plain list|
* Rajeesh Mohan
* Joji Thomas
}}
| writer = {{Plain list|
* Rajeesh Mohan
* Joji Thomas
}}
| producer = Shebin Backer
| starring = {{Plain list|
* [[Arjun Ashokan]]
* Femina George
* [[Jagadish]]
}}
| cinematography = Ajay Francis George
| editing = Sooraj E. S.
| music = Sreerag Saji
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2023|09|22|ref1=<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 September 2023 |title=Arjun Ashokan’s Theeppori Benny gets a release date, to clash with his own film Chaaver |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/arjun-ashokans-theeppori-benny-gets-a-release-date-to-clash-with-his-own-film-chaaver/373cf5f21984 |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>}}
| studio = Shebin Backer Productions
| distributor = {{Plain list|
* Central Pictures
* Phars Film {{Small|(Overseas)}}
}}
| runtime = 122 minutes<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theeppori Benny (2023) - Movie {{!}} Reviews, Cast & Release Date in Kochi |url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/kochi/movies/theeppori-benny/ET00370130 |access-date=29 September 2023 |website=in.bookmyshow.com}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
}}

'''''Theeppori Benny''''' ({{Translation|Spark Benny}}) is a 2023 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[comedy drama]] film written and directed by Rajeesh Mohan and Joji Thomas. The film was produced by Shebin Backer under the banner of Shebin Backer Productions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-11 |title=Arjun Ashokan-starrer Theeppori Benny’s Trailer Promises A Comedy Drama With Political Undertones |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/arjun-ashokan-starrer-theeppori-bennys-trailer-promises-a-comedy-drama-with-political-undertones-8573284.html |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> The film stars [[Arjun Ashokan]], Femina George, [[Jagadish]], and [[Aswathy Sreekanth]] in lead roles.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Arjun Ashokan's 'Theeppori Benny' trailer promises a rollercoaster of fun, romance, and political intrigue!|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/arjun-ashokans-theeppori-benny-trailer-promises-a-rollercoaster-of-fun-romance-and-political-intrigue/articleshow/103576225.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2023-09-11|website=[[Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Principal photography]] of the film began in March 2023. The shooting took place in and around [[Thrissur]] and [[Kochi]]. The film was released on {{Date|22 September 2023}}.

== Synopsis ==
It revolves around the lives of Benny and his father Vattakuttayil Chettayi who is a selfless communist.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Theeppori Benny' Review: Is Arjun Ashokan's movie worth watching? Read THIS|url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/entertainment/-theeppori-benny-review-is-arjun-ashokan-s-movie-worth-watching-read-this-rkn-s1dty5|access-date=2023-09-22|website=[[Asianet News]]|language=en}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Arjun Ashokan]] as Benny
*Femina George as Ponnila
*[[Jagadish]] as Vattakuttayil Chettayi
*[[Aswathy Sreekanth]] as Dincy
*[[Nisha Sarang]] as Gracy
*[[T. G. Ravi]] as Pappettan
*Shaju Shreedar as Manthan Baby
*[[Santhosh Keezhattoor]] as Maramattam Varkey
*Muhammed Rafi as Binu Mon
*[[Srikant Murali]] as Shekharan
*Dayyana Hameed as Aparna
*Tony Jose as Kuttliveli Sojan
}}

== Production ==
The title of the film was officially announced on {{Date|18 March 2023}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Madhu |first=Vignesh |date=18 March 2023 |title=Arjun Ashokan's next titled Theepori Benny |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/mar/18/arjun-ashokans-next-titled-theepori-benny-41217.html |access-date=29 September 2023 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
The makers started the [[principal photography]] on {{Date|18 March 2023}} with the switch-on ceremony and completed it on {{Date|24 April 2023}}.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Devan |first=Aswin |date=24 April 2023 |title=Filming of Arjun Ashokan's Theeppori Benny wrapped up |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/apr/24/filming-of-arjun-ashokans-theeppori-benny-wrapped-up-42635.html |access-date=29 September 2023 |website=CinemaExpress}}</ref> It took 37 days to complete the shoot. Much of the filming took place in and around [[Thrissur]] and [[Kochi]]. The post-production of the film started in May 2023.

== Music ==
The songs and background score are composed by Sreerag Saji.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arjun Ashokan's Theepori Benny teaser is here |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/jul/14/arjun-ashokanstheepori-bennyteaser-is-here-45610.html |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Release ==

=== Theatrical ===
The film was released on {{Date|22 September 2023}}.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Arjun Ashokan's Theeppori Benny clears censorship formalities|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/sep/19/arjun-ashokans-theeppori-benny-clears-censorship-formalities-47774.html|access-date=2023-09-19|website=[[Cinema Express]]|language=en}}</ref>

== Reception ==

=== Critical reception ===
Gopika Is of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Raajesh Mohan and Joji Thomas's ''Theeppori Benny'' is an attempt at delivering a quirky political satire along the lines of ''[[Vellimoonga]]'', a comparison that cannot be helped given how the latter was clear about how the main character was not a conventional hero."<ref>{{Cite news |last=ls |first=Gopika |date=23 September 2023 |title=Theeppori Benny Movie Review : A half-baked entertainer |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/theeppori-benny/movie-review/103883163.cms |access-date=29 September 2023 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Swathi P. Ajith of ''[[Onmanorama]]'' wrote "The film does incorporate subtle moments of humour, albeit not strong enough to evoke hearty laughter from the audience. Unfortunately, the movie's climax tends to follow a rather cliched path, where a slight political agenda becomes prominent, culminating in a dialogue delivered by Arjun Ashokan that ties things together."<ref>{{Cite web |last=P. Ajith |first=Swathi |date=22 September 2023 |title='Theeppori Benny' falls short of becoming a 'Vellimoonga' successor {{!}} Review |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/2023/09/22/theeppori-benny-malayalam-movie-arjun-ashokan-jagadish-review0.html |access-date=29 September 2023 |website=OnManorama}}</ref> Arjun Ramachandran of ''The South First'' gave 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "''Theeppori Benny'' is a light-hearted movie that deals with the father-son relationship. It also delves into local politics but fails to accommodate all stakeholders (political parties)."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramachandran |first=Arjun |date=2023-09-22 |title=Theeppori Benny review: An engaging political satire that also explores the generational gap |url=https://thesouthfirst.com/entertainment/theeppori-benny-movie-review/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=The South First |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt22797978}}

[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2023 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:2020s Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kochi]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thrissur]]

Next Indian general election in Meghalaya

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History of education in the Indian subcontinent

2022-08-05T23:56:25Z

Khushi Sonker: Added a new contribution to the website.

{{short description|Aspect of history}}
{{History of South Asia}}
{{Science and technology in India}}
[[File:Suryaprajnapati Sutra.jpg|thumb|Jain astronomical work ''[[Sūryaprajñapti|Surya Prajnapti Sutra]]'' onpaper, Western India, ca. 1500, in [[Devanagari script]]]]

Education in the [[Indian subcontinent]] began with teaching of traditional elements such as [[Indian religions]], [[Indian mathematics]], [[Indian logic]] at early [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] centres of learning such as [[Taxila (ancient)|ancient Takshashila]] (in modern-day [[Pakistan]]) and [[Nalanda]] (in India). [[Islam]]ic education became ingrained with the establishment of [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic empires in the Indian subcontinent]] in the Middle Ages while the coming of the [[Europe]]ans later brought western education to [[colonial India]].

Several Western-style universities were established during the period of British rule in the 19th century. A series of measures continuing throughout the early half of the 20th century ultimately laid the foundation of the [[education in India|educational system of the Republic of India]], [[education in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and much of the [[Indian subcontinent]].

==Early history==
[[File:MohraMuraduMainStupa.JPG|thumb|The [[Mohra Muradu]] monastery at [[Taxila (modern)|Taxila]], in modern-day [[Pakistan]]]]
[[File:Nalanda - 043 Teaching Platform (9253479492).jpg|thumb|[[Nalanda]] - teaching platform]]

Early education in India commenced under the supervision of a ''[[guru]]'' or ''prabhu''.<ref name=Prabhu24>Prabhu, 24</ref> Initially, education was open to all and seen as one of the methods to achieve Moksha in those days, or enlightenment.{{Cn}} As time progressed, due to a decentralised social structure,{{Cn}} the education was imparted on the basis of varna and the related duties that one had to perform as a member of a specific caste.<ref name=Prabhu24/> The ''[[Brahmans]]'' learned about scriptures and religion while the ''[[Kshatriya]]'' were educated in the various aspects of warfare.<ref name=Prabhu24/> The ''[[Vaishya]]'' caste learned commerce and other specific vocational courses.{{Cn}} The other caste ''[[Shudras]]'', were men of working class and they were trained on skills to carry out these jobs.<ref name=Prabhu24/> The earliest venues of education in India were often secluded from the main population.<ref name=Prabhu24/> Students were expected to follow strict monastic guidelines prescribed by the ''guru'' and stay away from cities in ''[[ashram]]s''.<ref name=Prabhu25>Prabhu, 25</ref> However, as population increased under the [[Gupta empire]] centres of urban learning became increasingly common and Cities such as [[Varanasi]] and the [[Buddhist]] centre at [[Nalanda]] became increasingly visible.<ref name=Prabhu25/>

Education in India is a piece of education traditional form was closely related to religion.<ref name=Blackwell88>Blackwell, 88</ref> Among the [[Heterodox]] schools of belief were the [[Jain]] and Buddhist schools.<ref name=Blackwell90>Blackwell, 90</ref> Heterodox Buddhist education was more inclusive and aside of the monastic orders the Buddhist education centres were urban institutes of learning such as Taxila and Nalanda where grammar, medicine, philosophy, logic, metaphysics, arts and crafts etc. were also taught.<ref name=Prabhu24/><ref name=Prabhu25/> Early Buddhist institutions of higher learning like Taxila and Nalanda continued to function well into the common era and were attended by students from [[China]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name=Blackwell88/>

On the subject of education for the nobility Joseph Prabhu writes: "Outside the religious framework, kings and princes were educated in the arts and sciences related to government: politics (''danda-nıti''), economics (''vartta''), philosophy (''anvıksiki''), and historical traditions (''itihasa''). Here the authoritative source was [[Kautilya]]’s ''[[Arthashastra]]'', often compared to [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]’s ''[[The Prince]]'' for its worldly outlook and political scheming."<ref name=Prabhu24/> The ''[[Rgveda|Rigveda]]'' (c.1700-1000 BCE) mentions female poets called ''brahmavadinis'', specifically [[Lopamudra]] and [[Ghosha]].<ref name=Raman236/> By 800 BCE women such as [[Gargi]] and [[Maitreyi]] were mentioned as scholars in the religious ''[[Upnishads]]''.<ref name=Raman236>Raman, 236</ref> [[Maya (mother of Buddha)|Maya]], mother of the historic [[Buddha]], was an educated queen while other women in India contributed to writing of the ''[[Pali canon]]''.<ref name=Raman236/> Out of the composers of the [[Sangam literature]] 154 were women.<ref name=Raman237>Raman, 237</ref> However, the education and society of the era continued to be dominated by educated male population.<ref name=Raman236-237>Raman, 236–237</ref>
[[File:10th century college foundation grant Devanagari inscription in Sanskrit on stone, Kaladgi Karnataka.jpg|thumb|A mid 10th-century college land grant in Devanagari inscription (Sanskrit) discovered on a buried, damaged stone in north Karnataka. Parts of the inscription are in Canarese script.]]

== Early Common Era—High Middle Ages ==
[[China|Chinese]] scholars such as [[Xuanzang]] and [[I Ching (monk)|Yi Jing]] arrived on Indian institutions of learning to survey Buddhist texts.<ref name=Scharfe144-145>Scharfe, 144–145</ref> Yi Jing additionally noted the arrival of 56 scholars from India, [[Japan]], and [[Korea]].<ref name=Scharfe145>Scharfe, 145</ref> However, the Buddhist institutions of learning were slowly giving way to a resurgent tradition of [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]] during that era.<ref name=Scharfe145/> Scholars from India also journeyed to China to translate Buddhist texts.<ref name=Scharfe161>Scharfe, 161</ref> During the 10th century a monk named Dharmadeva from [[Nalanda]] journeyed to China and translated a number of texts.<ref name=Scharfe161/> Another centre at [[Vikramshila]] maintained close relations with [[Tibet]].<ref name=Scharfe161/> The Buddhist teacher [[Atisa]] was the head monk in Vikramshila before his journey to Tibet.<ref name=Scharfe161/>

Examples of royal patronage include construction of buildings under the [[Rastrakuta dynasty]] in 945 CE.<ref name=Scharfe180/> The institutions arranged for multiple residences for educators as well as state sponsored education and arrangements for students and scholars.<ref name=Scharfe180>Scharfe, 180</ref> Similar arrangements were made by the [[Chola dynasty]] in 1024 CE, which provided state support to selected students in educational establishments.<ref name=Scharfe180-181>Scharfe, 180–181</ref> Temple schools from 12–13th centuries included the school at the [[Nataraja]] temple situated at [[Chidambaram]] which employed 20 librarians, out of whom 8 were copiers of manuscripts and 2 were employed for verification of the copied manuscripts.<ref name=Scharfe183-184>Scharfe, 183–184</ref> The remaining staff conducted other duties, including preservation and maintained of reference material.<ref name=Scharfe183-184/>

Another establishment during this period is the [[Uddandapura]] institute established during the 8th century under the patronage of the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]].<ref name="Sen 1988_12">Sen (1988), 12</ref> The institution developed ties with Tibet and became a centre of [[Tantric Buddhism]].<ref name="Sen 1988_12"/> During the 10–11th centuries the number of monks reached a thousand, equaling the strength of monks at the sacred [[Mahabodhi Temple|Mahabodhi complex]].<ref name="Sen 1988_12"/> By the time of the arrival of the Islamic scholar [[Al Biruni]] India already had an established system of science and technology in place.<ref name=Blackwell88-89>Blackwell, 88–89</ref> Also by the 12th century, invasions from India's northern borders disrupted traditional education systems as foreign armies raided educational institutes, among other establishments.<ref name="Sen 1988_12"/>

==Late Middle Ages—Early Modern Era==
[[File:Complete_view_of_Mahumad_Gawan.JPG|alt=|left|thumb|The 15th-century [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa]] in [[Bidar]]]][[File:Mir Sayyid Ali - Portrait of a Young Indian Scholar.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a young Indian scholar, [[Mughal painting|Mughal]] miniature by Mir Sayyid Ali, ca. 1550]]

With the advent of [[Islam]] in India the traditional methods of education increasingly came under Islamic influence.<ref name="Sen 1988_22">Sen (1988), 22</ref> Pre-Mughal rulers such as [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]] and other Muslim rulers initiated institutions which imparted religious knowledge.<ref name="Sen 1988_22" /> Scholars such as [[Nizamuddin Auliya]] and [[Moinuddin Chishti]] became prominent educators and established Islamic monasteries.<ref name="Sen 1988_22" /> Students from [[Bukhara]] and [[Afghanistan]] visited India to study humanities and science.<ref name="Sen 1988_22" />

Islamic institution of education in India included traditional ''[[madrassas]]'' and ''[[Maktab (education)|maktab]]s'' which taught grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and law influenced by the [[Greeks|Greek]] traditions inherited by [[Persia]] and the [[Middle East]] before Islam spread from these regions into India.<ref name=Kumar03-678>Kumar (2003), 678</ref> A feature of this traditional Islamic education was its emphasis on the connection between science and humanities.<ref name=Kumar03-678/> Among the centres of education in India was 18th century [[Delhi]] was the [[Madrasah-i Rahimiyah]] under the supervision of Shah Waliullah, an educator who favored an approach balancing the Islamic scriptures and science.<ref name=Kumar03-679/> The course at the Madrasa Rahimiya prescribed two books on grammar, one on philosophy, two on logic, two on astronomy and mathematics, and five on mysticism.<ref name=Kumar03-679/> Another centre of prominence arose in [[Lucknow]] under Mulla Nizamuddin Sahlawi, who educated at the Firangi Mahal and prescribed a course called the Dars-i-Nizami which combined traditional studies with modern and laid emphasis on logic.<ref name=Kumar03-679/>

The education system under the rule of [[Akbar]] adopted an inclusive approach with the monarch favoring additional courses: medicine, agriculture, geography, and texts from other languages and religions, such as [[Patanjali]]'s work in [[Sanskrit]].<ref name=Kumar03-678-679>Kumar (2003), 678–679</ref> The traditional science in this period was influenced by the ideas of [[Aristotle]], [[Bhāskara II]], [[Charaka]] and [[Ibn Sina]].<ref name=Kumar03-680/> This inclusive approach was not uncommon in [[Mughal India]].<ref name=Kumar03-679>Kumar (2003), 679</ref> The more conservative monarch [[Aurangzeb]] also favored teaching of subjects which could be applied to administration.<ref name=Kumar03-679/> The Mughals, in fact, adopted a liberal approach to sciences and as contact with Persia increased the more intolerant [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] school of ''manqul'' education came to be gradually substituted by the more relaxed ''maqul'' school.<ref name=Kumar03-678-680>Kumar (2003), 678-680</ref>

The Middle Ages also saw the rise of private tuition in India as state failed to invest in public education system.<ref name=Kumar03-680/> A tutor, or ''riyazi'', was an educated professional who could earn a suitable living by performing tasks such as creating calendars or generating revenue estimates for nobility.<ref name=Kumar03-680>Kumar (2003), 680</ref> Another trend in this era is the mobility among professions, exemplified by Qaim Khan, a prince famous for his mastery in crafting leather shoes and forging cannons.<ref name=Kumar03-680/>

[[François Bernier]], a French physician, would spend 12 years in India, from 1658, serving Shah Jahan's sons, [[Dara Shikoh]], and [[Aurangzeb]]. During his time he travelled with the Mughal court, and complied a series of observations on the structure and state of education in the empire, which he would publish in France, under the title ''Travels in the Mogul Empire, in 1670''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Travels in the Mogul empire, |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/05007866/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref> His critique identified the lack of any formal higher education institutions, other than small groups of disciples under religious gurus, who would be housed in the homes of rich merchants. The disciples spending up to a decade studying little more than Sanskrit scripture, astronomy, a taught mythical geographical model, of a flat triangular earth, supported on the backs of elephants, and medicine without the study of anatomy or dissection, with a taught assertion of human bodies containing 5000 veins.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Revising the Raj |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/modern/revising-the-raj-india/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=HistoryExtra |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bernier |first=François |url=http://archive.org/details/travelsinmogulem00bernuoft |title=Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656-1668 |last2=Constable |first2=Archibald |publisher=Oxford : University Press |others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref>

===Traditional schools===
Male education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru in traditional schools called [[gurukul]]s. The gurukuls were supported by public donation and were one of the earliest forms of public school offices. However these Gurukuls catered only to the Upper castes of the Indian society and the overwhelming masses were denied any formal education.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamat |first1=A.R. |title=Women's Education and Social Change in India |journal=Social Scientist |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=3–27 |doi=10.2307/3516600 |jstor=3516600 }}</ref>

Austrian missionary, linguist, and orientalist [[Paulinus of St. Bartholomew]], would spend 13 years travelling the [[Malabar Coast]] of [[Hyder Ali|Hyder Ali's]] [[Kingdom of Mysore]], from 1776. Compiling and later publishing the first European grammar of the Sanskrit, pointing out similarities between Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages, and a critique of education in the Kingdom, noting:<ref>{{Cite book |last=DA BARTOLOMEO |first=FRA PAOLINO |url=https://kastalia.medienhaus.udk-berlin.de/community/data/5634.FraBartolomeo.pdf |title=ON EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN INDIA |year=1796 |pages=254}}</ref>

{{Quote|text=The education of youth in India is much simpler, and not near so expensive as in Europe. The children assemble half naked under the shade of a coconut tree; place themselves in rows on the ground, and trace out on the sand, with the fore finger of the right hand, the elements of their alphabet, and then smooth it with the left when they wish to trace out other characters. The writing master, called Agian, or Eluttacien, who stations himself opposite to his pupils, examines what they have done; points out their faults, and shows them how to correct them. At first, he attends them standing; but when the young people have acquired some readiness in writing, he places himself cross-legged on a tiger or deer skin, or even on a mat made of the leaves of the coconut-tree, or wild bananas, which is called Kaida*, plaited together. This method of teaching writing was introduced into India two hundred years before the birth of Christ, according to the testimony of Magasthenes, and still continues to be practised. No people, perhaps, on earth have adhered so much to their ancient usages and customs as the Indians.

A schoolmaster in Malabar receives every two months, from each of his pupils, for the instruction given them, two Fanon or Panam. Some do not pay in money, but give him a certain quantity of rice, so that this expense becomes very easy to the parents. There are some teachers who instruct children without any fee, and are paid by the overseers of the temple, or by the chief of the caste. When the pupils have made tolerable progress in writing, they are admitted into certain schools, called Eutupalli, where they begin to write on palm leaves (Pana), which, when several of them are stitched together, and fastened between two boards, form a Grantha, that is, an Indian book. If such a book be written upon with an iron style, it is called Granthavari, or Lakya, that is, writing, to distinguish it from Alakya, which is something not written.

When the Guru, or teacher, enters the school, he is always received with the utmost reverence and respect. His pupils must throw themselves down at full length before him; place their right hand on their mouth, and not venture to speak a single word until he gives them express permission. Those who talk and prate contrary to the prohibition of their master are expelled from the school, as boys who cannot restrain their tongue, and who are consequently unfit for the study of philosophy. By these means the preceptor always receives that respect which is due to him: the pupils are obedient, and seldom offend against rules which are so carefully inculcated. ...|source=FRA PAOLINO DA BARTOLOMEO, ON EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN INDIA, Rome, 1796
}}

A near identical system was observed, described, and enumerated in Adam's 1836 report on vernacular education in Bengal and Bihar; of village schools offering respectable boys between 5-6 years and 10-12 years of age, instruction under a respectable guru, in or near his home, for a small fee.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adam |first=William |url=http://archive.org/details/adamsreportsonve00adam/page/18/mode/1up |title=Adam's reports on vernacular education in Bengal and Behar, submitted to Government in 1835, 1836 and 1838. With a brief view of its past and present condition |last2=Long |first2=James |publisher=Calcutta Printed at the Home Secretariat Press |others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref> A system of instruction local artists, in the 1850s, were still illustrating.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Museum |first=Victoria and Albert |title=A class of children {{!}} Unknown {{!}} V&A Explore The Collections |url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O431447/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum: Explore the Collections |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Museum |first=Victoria and Albert |title=Indian School Calcutta {{!}} William Simpson {{!}} V&A Explore The Collections |url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O430785/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum: Explore the Collections |language=en}}</ref>

Indigenous education was given higher importance from early time to colonial era.

{{Quote|text=In every Hindoo village which has retained anything of its form, I am assured that the rudiments of knowledge are sought to be imparted; that there is not a child, except those of the outcasts (who form no part of the community), who is not able to read, to write, to cipher; in the last branch of learning they are confessedly most proficient.|author=[[John Malcolm Forbes Ludlow]]British India, Vol 1,1858, p62-3<ref name="BT" /><ref name="Ludlow">{{cite book |last1=Ludlow |first1=John Malcolm |title=British India Vol. 1 |date=1858 |publisher=Macmillan And Co., Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.195586/page/n80 62]–63 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.195586 |access-date=23 April 2019}}</ref> }}

==Colonial era==
The [[Jesuits]] introduced India to both the European college system and the printing of books, through founding [[Saint Paul's College, Goa]] in 1542. The French traveler François Pyrard de Laval, who visited Goa c. 1608, described the College of St Paul, praising the variety of the subjects taught there free of charge. Like many other European travelers who visited the college, he recorded that at this time it had 3,000 students, from all the missions of Asia. Its library was one of the biggest in Asia, and the first printing press was mounted there, in September 1556.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About-us – Government Printing Press & Stationery, Govt of Goa, India |url=https://goaprintingpress.gov.in/about-e-gazettes/about-us/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===British India===
[[File:Literacy India 1901 2011 Detail.png|right|thumb|[[Literacy in India]] grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.]]

In 19th century India, "English education" meant "modern education". Most taught a curriculum similar to public schools. Britain at the time through English as a medium of instruction, especially those sponsored by missionaries. Some taught the curriculum through vernacular languages with English as a second language. The term "pre-modern" was used for three kinds of schools. The Arabic and Sanskrit schools taught Muslim or Hindu sacred literature, while the Persian schools taught Persian literature. The vernacular schools across India taught reading and writing the vernacular language and arithmetic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Parimala V. |title=Modern education and the revolt of 1857 in India |journal=Paedagogica Historica |volume=52 |issue=1-2 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.1080/00309230.2015.1133668}}</ref>

As a result of decades of lobbying by the likes of [[William Wilberforce#Evangelical Christianity|William Wilberforce]], and [[Charles Grant (British East India Company)|Charles Grant]], the [[Charter Act of 1813|1813 renewal of East India Company's charter]] carried a duty to educate, and assist previously excluded Christian missionaries to educate the population, in addition to the Company's corporate activities.<ref name="BritSurv">{{cite book |last1=Naik |first1=J.P. |last2=Nurullah |first2=Syed |title=History of education in India during the British period |publisher=Macmillan & Co. |pages=1–20 |url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/26867/GIPE-013633.pdf?sequence=3 |access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref> The Company's officers were divided as to how to implement this imposed duty, with the orientalists, who believed that education should happen in Indian languages (of which they favored classical or court languages like Sanskrit or Persian), while the utilitarians (also called anglicists) like [[Lord William Bentinck]], and [[Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay|Thomas Macaulay]], strongly believed that traditional India had nothing to teach regarding modern skills; the best education for them would happen in English. Macaulay called for an educational system - now known as [[Macaulayism]] - that would create a class of anglicised Indians who would serve as cultural intermediaries between the British and the Indians.<ref>Stephen Evans, "Macaulay's minute revisited: Colonial language policy in nineteenth-century India," ''Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development'' (2002) 23#4 pp 260-281 {{doi|10.1080/01434630208666469}}</ref>

==== Early 19th-century surveys ====
According to [[Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Sir Thomas Munro's]] ''Minutes on Native Education, in 1822 and 1826'',<ref name="Gleig1830">{{cite book|author=George Robert Gleig|title=The Life of Major-General Sir Thomas Munro, Bart. and K. C. B., Late Governor of Madras: With Extracts from His Correspondence and Private Papers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6hkbznDsg4C&pg=PA407|access-date=23 April 2019|year=1830|publisher=Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley|pages=407–413}}</ref> the [[Madras Presidency]] had 11,758 schools, and 740 centers for higher education in the Presidency, and with the exception of a few European missionary schools were funded and managed at a community level.<ref name="Hunter" /> The number of students was recorded as 161,667, with 157,644 boys, and 4,023 girls, or approximately 1 in 6 boys of school-age, which was better than the 1 in 8 boys identified by a similar exercise in the [[Bombay Presidency]].<ref name="BT" /> According to the Adam's enquiry, around 1835 there existed approximately 100,000 village schools in the [[Bengal Presidency]], offering an education to 13.2% of boys.<ref name="AREB">{{cite book |last1=Adams|first1=William |title=Vernacular Education in Bengal and Behar (Calcutta, 1868) |publisher=Home Secretariat Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/AdamsReportsOnVernacularEducationInBengalAndBeharcalcutta1868/page/n10 3]-
|url=https://archive.org/details/AdamsReportsOnVernacularEducationInBengalAndBeharcalcutta1868|access-date=29 August 2018}}</ref><ref name="BT" /><ref name="BritSurv" /> Though the standard of instruction was criticized as rudimentary, well below European standards, and cultivating little more than memory.<ref name="Hunter" />

Munro's 1826 critique<ref name="Gleig1830" /> also covered the funding, and teacher quality in the traditional system, with a claim that due to the average teacher earning no more than 6 or 7 Rupees monthly, from fees of 4 to 8 [[Indian anna|Annas]] per pupil, the calibre of the teachers was wanting, before suggesting the [[East India Company]] (EIC) fund both the construction of new schools, textbooks, and offer a 9 to 15 Rupee stipend to the teachers in the new schools, to supplement their incomes derived from tuition fees, in the Madras Presidency. After the introduction of Western-style education, the numbers of these indigenous educational institutions began to drastically decline.<ref>Historical Sociology in India By Hetukar Jha {{ISBN|978-1-138-93127-5}}</ref><ref name="BT" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Leitner |first=G. W. |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.granth.106559 |title=History of Indigenous Education in the Panjab since Annexation and in 1882, Part I-V. |publisher=The Superintendent of Government of Printing (Calcutta)}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Educational comparison of England and Madras presidency of India
!
! England
! Madras presidency
|-
| population
| 12,000,000 (1816)
| 12,350,941 (1823)
|-
| No of students attending schools
| 875,000/1,500,000 (approx)<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gillard|first1=Derek|title=Education in England: a brief history|url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/history/chapter02.html|website=Education in England|access-date=26 November 2017}}</ref>
| 161,667<ref name="BT">{{cite book |last1=Dharampal |title=THE BEAUTIFUL TREE - Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century |publisher=Other India Press |pages=352–356
|isbn=81-85569-49-5|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheBeautifulTree-Dharampal/beautifultree#page/n367 |access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref>
|}
In the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], Dr Leitner, the Principal of the Oriental College and Government College, Lahore, estimated that in 1855-1856, six years after the province was annexed by the East India Company, there were at least five thousand indigenous schools operating, and assuming 6 pupils per indigenous school the total number of pupils was approximately thirty thousand, while there were 456 Government supported schools, of approximately 13 pupils per school, instructing a further six thousand and sixty four pupils, in the region that hosted 17.6 million.<ref name="BT" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krishan |first=Gopal |title=Demography of Punjab (1849-1947) |url=https://punjab.global.ucsb.edu/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume11/no1/6_krishan.pdf |journal=JPS |pages=77}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Leither goes in to criticize the Provincial Government for subsidising the education of pupils, in the Government supported schools, at Rs 15 per year, when the Indigenous schools only chargred one Rs per pupil.<ref name=":0" />

==== Reform ====
British education became solidified into India as missionary schools were established during the 1820s.<ref name=Blackwell92>Blackwell, 92</ref>

Macaulay succeeded in replacing Persian with English, as the administrative language, the use of English as the medium of instruction, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers, through the [[English Education Act 1835]].<ref name="Blackwell92"/> He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for "useful learning."<ref>Suresh Chandra Ghosh, "Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India," ''History of Education,'' (March 1995) 24#1 pp 17-24</ref><ref>[[Percival Spear]], "Bentinck and Education," ''Cambridge Historical Journal'' (1938) 6#1 pp. 78-101 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3020849 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>Catriona Ellis, "Education for All: Reassessing the Historiography of Education in Colonial India." ''History Compass'' (2009) 7#2 pp 363-375</ref>

In 1854 the [[Wood's despatch]] to the then Governor General Dalhousie stipulated a number of reforms be made to the Companies Education system, in British India.

The effectiveness of the measures stipulated in the Wood's despatch were subsequently reviewed and a number of subsequent changes made following the publication of [[William Wilson Hunter|William Hunter's]] Report of the Indian Education Commission 1882, in 1883<ref name="Hunter">{{cite web |last1=Hunter |first1=William |title=Report of the Indian Education Commission 1882|url=https://archive.org/details/ReportOfTheIndianEducationCommission |website=Archive.org |publisher=British Government of India |access-date=28 August 2018}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[Census of India]] - Number of institutions and pupils according to the returns of the Education Department since 1855
|-
! !! colspan="9" | Number of institutions
|-
! Class of institution !! 1941 !! 1931 !! 1921 !! 1911 !! 1901 !! 1891 !! 1881 !! 1871 !! 1855
|-
| Universities and colleges || || 333 || 233 || 193 || 186 || 155 || || ||
|-
| align="right" | Universities || align="right" | 16 || align="right" | 16 || align="right" | 13 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 4 || align="right" | 3 || align="right" | 3 ||
|-
| align="right" | Arts colleges || || align="right" | 244 || align="right" | 154 || || || || align="right" | 70 || align="right" | 42 || align="right" | 21
|-
| align="right" | Professional colleges || || align="right" | 73 || align="right" | 66 || || || || align="right" | 62 || align="right" | 26 || align="right" | 13
|-
| Secondary schools || || 13,581 || 8,816 || 6,442 || 5,416 || 5,134 || 3,906 || 3,070 || 281
|-
| Primary schools || || 204,384 || 158,792 || 118,413 || 97,116 || 99,630 || 84,734 || 16,473 || 2,810
|-
| Special schools || || 8,891 || 3,948 || 5,783 || 956 || 550 || || ||
|-
| Unrecognized institutions || || 34,879 || 33,929 ||39,491 || 43,292 || || 25,150 || || 47,866
|-
! Total !! !! 262,068 !! 206,016 !! 179,322 !! 148,966 !! 149,794 !! 112,632 !! 83,052 !! 50,998
|-
! !! colspan="9" | Scholars
|-
! Class of institution !! 1941 !! 1931 !! 1921 !! 1911 !! 1901 !! 1891 !! 1881 !! 1871 !! 1855
|-
| Universities and colleges || || 92,029 || 59,595 || 31,447 || 20,447 || 18,878 || || ||
|-
| align="right" | Universities || || align="right" | 8,159 || || || || || || ||
|-
| align="right" | Arts colleges || || align="right" | 66,837 || align="right" | 46,737 || || || || align="right" | 7,205 || align="right" | 3,566 || align="right" | 3,246
|-
| align="right" | Professional colleges || || align="right" | 17,002 || align="right" | 12,203 || || || || align="right" | 4,163 || align="right" | 2,826 || align="right" | 912
|-
| Secondary schools || || 2,286,411 || 1,239,524 || 890,06l || 582,551 || 530,783 || 117,044 || 204,294 || 33,801
|-
| Primary schools || || 9,362,748 || 6,310,451 || 4,575,465 || 8,150,678 || 3,051,925 || 2,152,311 || 607,320 || 96,923
|-
| Special schools || || 315,650 || 132,706 || 164,544 || 83,000 || 23,381 || || ||
|-
| Unrecognized institutions || || 632,249 || 639,126 || 630,438 || 617,818 || || 354,655 || || 788,701
|-
! Total !! !! 12,689,086 !! 8,381,401 !! 8,281,955 !! 4,405,988 !! 4,207,021 !! 2,766,436 !! 1,894,823 !! 923,780
|-
! !! colspan="9" | Literacy rate (age 5+)
|-
! Percentage !! 1941 !! 1931 !! 1921 !! 1911 !! 1901 !! 1891 !! 1881 !! 1871 !! 1855
|-
| Male || 24.9 || 15.6 || 12.2 ||10.6 || 9.8 || 8.44 || 8.1 || ||
|-
| Female || 7.3 || 2.9 || 1.8 || 1.0 || 0.6 || 0.42 || 0.35 || ||
|-
! Total !! 16.1 !! 9.5 !! 7.2 !! 5.9 !! 5.4 !! 4.62 !! 4.32 !! 3.25 !!
|}<ref name="C1931">{{cite web |last1=Hutton |first1=J.H. |title=Census of India 1931 |url=https://archive.org/details/CensusOfIndia1931 |website=Archive.org |publisher=British Government of India |access-date=28 August 2018}}</ref><ref name="Hunter" />

===Universities===
[[File:Victoria gate.jpg|thumb|Victoria gate, named after the Empress in 1914, at the [[Aligarh Muslim University]]]]

India established a dense educational network (very largely for males) with a Western curriculum based on instruction in English. To further advance their careers many ambitious upper-class men with money, including [[Gandhi]], [[Nehru]] and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] went to England, especially to obtain a legal education at the Inns of Court. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated, chiefly in the liberal arts or law. About a third entered public administration, and another third became lawyers. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. By 1887 of 21,000 mid-level civil service appointments, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (one European parent and one Indian), and 29% by Europeans. Of the 1000 top -level positions, almost all were held by Britons, typically with an Oxbridge degree. Today also the same old syllabus is followed in India which was introduced by the Indian National Congress.

The Raj, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186 colleges and universities. Starting with 600 students scattered across 4 universities and 67 colleges in 1882, the system expanded rapidly. More exactly, there never was a "system" under the Raj, as each state acted independently and funded schools for Indians from mostly private sources. By 1901 there were 5 universities and 145 colleges, with 18,000 students (almost all male). The curriculum was Western. By 1922 most schools were under the control of elected provincial authorities, with little role for the national government. In 1922 there were 14 universities and 167 colleges, with 46,000 students. In 1947, 21 universities and 496 colleges were in operation. Universities at first did no teaching or research; they only conducted examinations and gave out degrees.<ref>C. M. Ramachandran, ''Problems of higher education in India: a case study'' (1987) p 71-7</ref><ref>Zareer Masani, ''Indian Tales of the Raj'' (1988) p. 89</ref>

The [[Madras Medical College]] opened in 1835, and admitted women so that they could treat the female population who traditionally shied away from medical treatments under qualified male professionals.<ref name=Arnold88>{{harvnb|Arnold|2004|p=88}}</ref> The concept of educated women among medical professionals gained popularity during the late 19th century and by 1894, the Women's Christian Medical College, an exclusive medical school for women, was established in [[Ludhiana]] in Punjab.<ref name=Arnold88/>

The British established the [[Government College University, Lahore|Government College University]] in [[Lahore]], of present-day Pakistan in 1864. The institution was initially affiliated with the University of Calcutta for examination. The prestigious [[University of the Punjab]], also in Lahore, was the fourth university established by the colonials in South Asia, in the year 1882.

[[Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College]], founded in 1875, was the first modern institution of higher education for Muslims in India. By 1920 it became The [[Aligarh Muslim University]] and was the leading intellectual center of Muslim political activity.<ref>Gail Minault and David Lelyveld, "The Campaign for a Muslim University 1898-1920," ''Modern Asian Studies,'' (March 1974) 8#2 pp 145-189</ref> The original goals were to train Muslims for British service and prepare an elite that would attend universities in Britain. After 1920 it became a centre of political activism. Before 1939, the faculty and students supported an all-India nationalist movement. However, when the Second World War began political sentiment shifted toward demands for a Muslim separatist movement. The intellectual support it provided proved significant in the success of Jinnah and the Muslim League.<ref>[[Mushirul Hasan]], "Nationalist and Separatist Trends in Aligarh, 1915-47," ''Indian Economic and Social History Review,'' (Jan 1985), Vol. 22 Issue 1, pp 1-33</ref>

At the 21st Conference of the [[Indian National Congress]] in [[Benares]] in December 1905, Madan Mohan Malaviya publicly announced his intent to establish a university in Varanasi. On 22 November 1911, he registered the Hindu University Society to gather support and raise funds for building the university. Malaviya sought and received early support from the Kashi Naresh Prabhu Narayan Singh, Thakur Jadunath Singh of Arkha and Rameshwar Singh Bahadur of Raj Darbhanga.<ref>Singh Varanasi: Indica Books (2002) pp 141. {{ISBN|81-86569-24-3}}</ref> BHU [[Banaras Hindu University]] was finally established in 1916, the first university in India that was the result of a private individual's efforts.

Amongst the Universities founded in the period are the: [[University of Bombay]] 1857, [[University of Calcutta]] 1857, [[University of Madras]] 1857, [[University of the Punjab]] 1882, [[Allahabad University]] 1887, [[University of Mysore]] 1916, [[Patna University]] 1917, [[Osmania University]] 1918, [[Rangoon University]] 1920, [[University of Lucknow]] 1921, [[University of Dhaka]] 1921, [[University of Delhi]] 1922, [[Nagpur University]] 1923, [[Andhra University]] 1926, [[Agra University]] 1927, [[Annamalai University]] 1929, [[University of Kerala]] 1937, [[Utkal University]] 1943, [[Panjab University]] 1947, [[University of Rajasthan|University of Rajputana]] 1947

====Engineering====
The East India Company in 1806 set up [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury College]] in England to train administrators. In India, there were four colleges of civil engineering; the first was Thomason College (Now IIT Roorkee), founded in 1847. The second was Bengal Engineering College (now Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, IIEST). Their role was to provide civil engineers for the Indian Public Works Department. Both in Britain and in India, the administration and management of science, technical and engineering education was undertaken by officers from the Royal Engineers and the Indian Army equivalent, (commonly referred to as sapper officers). This trend in civil/military relationships continued with the establishment of the Royal Indian Engineering College (also known as Cooper's Hill College) in 1870, specifically to train civil engineers in England for duties with the Indian Public Works Department. The Indian Public Works Department, although technically a civilian organisation, relied on military engineers until 1947 and after.<ref>John Black, "The military influence on engineering education in Britain and India, 1848-1906," ''Indian Economic and Social History Review,'' (Apr-June 2009), 46#2 pp 211-239</ref>

Growing awareness for the need of technical education in India gave rise to establishment of institutions such as the [[Indian Institute of Science]], established by philanthropist [[Jamshetji Tata]] in 1909.<ref name=Sen_1989_227>Sen (1989), 227</ref> In 1919 Banaras Hindu University Founded the Banaras Engineering College, it became the Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University in 1968, It was designated an Indian Institute of Technology in 2012. By the 1930s India had 10 institutions offering engineering courses.<ref name=Sen_1989_229>Sen (1989), 229</ref> However, with the advent of the [[Second World War]] in 1939 the "War Technicians Training Scheme" under [[Ernest Bevin]] was initiated, thereby laying the foundation of modern technical education in India.<ref name="Sen 1989_229"/> Later, planned development of scientific education under Ardeshir Dalal was initiated in 1944.<ref name="Sen 1989_229">Sen, Bimal (1989), pp. 229</ref>

=== Criticism ===
In 1919, [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress|president]] of the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC) [[C. Sankaran Nair]] criticised the colonial education system:

{{Quote|text=Efforts were then made by the Government to confine higher education and secondary education leading to higher education to boys in affluent, circumstances. This again was done not in the interests of sound education but for political reasons. Rules were made calculated to restrict the diffusion of education generally and among the poorer boys in particular. Conditions for recognition for "grants" —stiff and various—were laid down and enforced, and the non-fulfilment of any one of these conditions was liable to be followed by serious consequences. Fees were raised to a degree which considering the circumstances of the classes that resort to schools, were abnormal. When it was objected that the minimum fee would be a great hardship to poor students the answer was—such students had no business to receive that kind of education. Managers of private schools who remitted fees in whole or in part were penalized by reduced grants-in-aid.Many schools were against the high fee but those who accepted it were given grants by British government. Along with fixed fee there was fix timetable , printed books etc. Students had to attend regular classes which was a problem for students belonging to peasant families. These rules had undoubtedly the effect of checking the great expansion of education that would have taken place. This is the real explanation of the very unsatisfactory character of the nature and progress of secondary education and it will never be remedied till we are prepared either to give education to the boys ourselves or to make sufficient grants to the private schools to enable them to be staffed with competent teachers. We are at present not prepared to do either. English education, according to this policy, is to be confined to the well-to-do classes.They, it was believed, would give no trouble to Government. For this purpose, the old system of education under which a pupil could prosecute his studies from the lowest to the highest class was altered.
|author=Sir Sankaran Nair|source=''Minutes of Dissent''<ref>Sir Sankaran Nair's Minutes of Dissent, 1919, Madras-Ganesh {{ISBN|978-1-293-56309-0}}</ref> }}

[[Robert Eric Frykenberg]] examines the 1784 to 1854 period to argue that the colonial education system helped integrate the diverse elements Indian society, thereby creating a new common bond from among conflicting loyalties. The native elite demanded modern education. The University of Madras, founded in 1857, became the single most important recruiting ground for generations of ever more highly trained officials. This exclusive and select leadership was almost entirely "clean-caste" and mainly Brahman. It held sway in both the imperial administration and within princely governments to the south. The position of this mandarin class was never seriously challenged until well into the twentieth century.<ref>Robert Eric Frykenberg, "Modern Education in South India, 1784-1854: Its Roots and Its Role as a Vehicle of Integration under Company Raj," ''American Historical Review,'' (Feb 1986), 91#1 pp 37-67 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1867234 in JSTOR]</ref>

Catriona Ellis argues that historians of Indian education have generally confined their arguments to very narrow themes linked to colonial dominance and education as a means of control, resistance, and dialogue. Ellis emphasizes the need to evaluate the education actually experienced by most Indian children, which was outside the classroom.<ref>Catriona Ellis, "Education for All: Reassessing the Historiography of Education in Colonial India," ''History Compass,'' (March 2009) 7#2 pp 363-375</ref> Public education expenditures varied dramatically across regions with the western and southern provinces spending three to four times as much as the eastern provinces. The reason involved historical differences in land taxes. However the rates of attendance and literacy were not nearly as skewed.<ref>Latika Chaudhary, "Land revenues, schools and literacy: A historical examination of public and private funding of education," ''Indian Economic and Social History Review,'' (Apr-June 2010), 47#2 pp 179-204</ref>

====Bihar and Bengal villages====
Sociologist, [[Hetukar Jha]], argued that local schools for pre-adolescent children were in a flourishing state in thousands of villages of Bihar and Bengal until the early decades of the nineteenth century. They were village institutions, maintained by village elders with local funds, where their children (from all caste clusters and communities) could, if the father wished, receive useful skills. However, British colonial policies in respect of education and land control adversely affected both the village structure and the village institutions of secular education. The colonial legal system and the rise of caste consciousness since the second half of the nineteenth century only accentuated the problem. Gradually, village as the base of secular identity and solidarity became too weak to create and maintain its own institution by the end of the nineteenth century and the traditional system decayed.<ref>Hetukar Jha, "Decay of Village Community and the Decline of Vernacular Education in Bihar and Bengal in the Colonial Era," ''Indian Historical Review,'' (June 2011), 38#1 pp 119-137</ref>

====Science====
[[File:Rajabai under Const.jpg|thumb|A file photo of University of Bombay's Fort Campus taken in the 1870s]]

[[Deepak Kumar (historian)|Deepak Kumar]] argues British colonial rule during the 19th century did not take adequate measures to help develop Western science and technology in India and instead focused more on arts and humanities.<ref name=Kumar84-253-254/> Till 1899 only the [[University of Bombay]] offered a separate degree in sciences.<ref name=Kumar84-254>{{harvnb|Kumar|1984|p=254}}</ref> In 1899 B.Sc and M.Sc. courses were also supported by the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref name=Kumar84-255>{{harvnb|Kumar|1984|p=255}}</ref>
By the late 19th century India had lagged behind in Western science and technology and related education.<ref name=Kumar84-253-254>{{harvnb|Kumar|1984|pp=253-254}}</ref> However, the nobility and aristocracy in India largely continued to encourage the development of sciences and technical education, both traditional and Western.<ref name=Arnold8>{{harvnb|Arnold|2004|p=8}}</ref>

While some science related subjects were not allowed in the government curriculum in the 1850s{{citation needed}} the private institutions could also not follow science courses due to lack of funds required to establish laboratories etc.<ref name="Kumar84-255"/> The fees for scientific education under the British rule were also high.<ref name=Kumar84-255/> The salary that one would get in the colonial administration was meager and made the prospect of attaining higher education bleak since the native population was not employed for high positions in the colonial setup.<ref name=Kumar84-255/> Even the natives who did manage to attain higher education faced issues of discrimination in terms of wages and privileges.<ref name=Kumar84-255-256>{{harvnb|Kumar|1984|pp=255-256}}</ref>

Deepak Kumar goes on to argue that the British detachment towards the study of Western science in India is that England itself was gradually outpaced in science and technology by European rival Germany and a fast-growing United States so the prospects of the British Raj adopting a world class science policy towards its colonies increasingly decreased.<ref name=Kumar84-258>{{harvnb|Kumar|1984|p=258}}</ref> However, Deepak Kumar notes the British turn to professional education during the 1860s and the French initiatives at raising awareness on science and technology in French colonies.<ref name=Kumar84-258/>

=== Native states ===

In 1906, the Maharaja of [[Baroda State]] introduced measures to implement compulsory primary education in his territory, for both sexes. Schools were built, and parents fined, and occasionally imprisoned for non-attendance, where schools existed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naik |first1=J.p. |title=Compulsory Primary Education in Badora State |journal=Progress of Education |volume=Bulletin No. 2 |url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/33666/GIPE-051536.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=n |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref> This program tripled the kingdoms literacy, from 9% to 27%, in the 1906-1939 period, and resulted in primary school provision for approximately 80% of target population, by the end of the period.

== Post-independence ==

=== India ===
The first [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] were established in the 1950s to promote technical education in India. Now, there are 23 IITs in India that are considered to be the premier engineering universities of the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Banshal |first1=Sumit Kumar |last2=Singh |first2=Vivek Kumar |last3=Basu |first3=Aparna |last4=Muhuri |first4=Pranab Kumar |title=Research performance of Indian Institutes of Technology |journal=Current Science |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=923-932 |url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/112/05/0923.pdf}}</ref>

The [[Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan|Sarva Shikhsha Abhiyan]] is aimed at free and compulsory education as a fundamental right to children between the ages of 6 and 14. The [[Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009|Right to Education Act]] was passed in 2009.<ref>Gursharan Singh Kainth, "A mission approach to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan." ''Economic and Political Weekly'' (2006): 3288-3291. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4418492 online]</ref>

=== Pakistan===
Pakistan for centuries has had an elaborate network of religious educational institutions, known as madāris or madrasahs. They have been the target of criticism by both political elites and religious scholars for their conservatism and resistance to change.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zaman |first1=Muhammad Qasim |title=Religious Education and the Rhetoric of Reform: The Madrasa in British India and Pakistan |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=294–323 |url=http://www.ilmgate.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Religious-Education-and-the-Rhetoric-of-Reform-The-Madrasa-in-British-India-and-Pakistan.pdf |jstor=179448}}</ref>

In the early 1970s President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Ali Bhutto]] imposed a new educational policy which nationalized all private educational institutions and placed greater emphasis upon "agro-technical" education. The Bhutto government established a large number of rural and urban schools, including around 6,500 elementary schools, 900 middle schools, 407 high schools, 51 intermediate colleges and 21 junior colleges. At the top he created [[Quaid-i-Azam University]] and the nationwide [[Allama Iqbal Open University]] based in Islamabad, and Gomal University Dera Ismail Khan in 1973. Ali Bhutto was himself educated in elite American and British universities.<ref>J. Henry Korson, "Bhutto's Educational Reform." ''Journal of Asian and African Studies'' 8.3-4 (1973): 279-306. {{doi|10.1163/15685217_008_03-04-09}} </ref><ref>Dawn E. Jones, and Rodney W. Jones, "Nationalizing education in Pakistan: Teachers' associations and the People's Party." ''Pacific Affairs'' 50.4 (1977): 581-603.</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of universities in India]]
<ref>"Founder of Banaras Hindu University: Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya" (PDF). Banarash Hindu University. 2006. p. 30. Retrieved 6 June 2012.</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Adam, William. ''One Teacher, One School: The Adam Reports on Indigenous Education in 19th Century India'' (Biblia Impex, 1983).
* Aggarwal, D. D. ''History and Development of Elementary Education in India '' (3 vol. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2002) {{ISBN|81-7625-332-4}}
* Ali, Azra Asghar. "Educational development of Muslim women in colonial India." ''Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan'' 36.1 (1999): 56-62.
* {{cite book |last=Arnold |first=David |year=2004 |title=The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-56319-4}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bagchi |first1=Barnita |title=Connected and entangled histories: writing histories of education in the Indian context |journal=Paedagogica Historica |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=813–821 |doi=10.1080/00309230.2014.948013}}
* "Founder of Banaras Hindu University: Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya" (PDF). Banarash Hindu University. 2006. p. 30. Retrieved 6 June 2012.
* Blackwell, Fritz (2004), ''India: A Global Studies Handbook'', ABC-CLIO, Inc., {{ISBN|1-57607-348-3}}.
* Chaudhary, Latika. "Determinants of primary schooling in British India." ''Journal of Economic History'' (2009): 269-302 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Latika_Chaudhary/publication/231178962_Determinants_of_Primary_Schooling_in_British_India/links/56e3212208ae68afa10ca642/Determinants-of-Primary-Schooling-in-British-India.pdf online].
* [[Dharampal]], . (2000). The beautiful tree: Indigenous Indian education in the eighteenth century. Biblia Impex Private Limited, New Delhi 1983; reprinted by Keerthi Publishing House Pvt Ltd., Coimbatore 1995.
* {{cite journal |last1=Ellis |first1=Catriona |title=Education for All: Reassessing the Historiography of Education in Colonial India |journal=History Compass |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=363–375 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-0542.2008.00564.x}}
* Ghosh, Suresh Chandra. ''The History of Education in Modern India, 1757-2012''. (4th ed. Orient Black Swan, 2013), a standard scholarly history.
* Ghosh, Suresh Chandra. "Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India." History of Education 24.1 (1995): 17-24.
* Hamid, M. Obaidul, and Elizabeth J. Erling. "English-in-education policy and planning in Bangladesh: A critical examination." in ''English language education policy in Asia'' (Springer, Cham, 2016). 25-48.
* Hartog, Philip. (1939) ''Some aspects of Indian education past and present'' [https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5605 online], an old scholarly history.
* Jayapalan N. (2005) ''History Of Education In India'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC excerpt and text search], a standard scholarly history.
* Khan, Ghazanfar Ali. ''History of Islamic Education in India and Nadvat Ul-'Ulama'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Islamic-Education-Nadvat-Ul-Ulama/dp/B08JRHS9J8/ excerpt]
* Kumar, Deepak (2003), "India", ''The Cambridge History of Science vol 4: Eighteenth-Century Science'' edited by Roy Porter, pp. 669–687, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-57243-6}}.
* {{cite journal |last=Kumar |first=Deepak |year=1984 |title=Science in Higher Education: A Study in Victorian India |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=253–260}}
* Minault, Gail. ''Secluded Scholars: Women's Education & Muslim Social Reform in Colonial India'' (1999), 359pp
* {{cite book |last1=Morison |first1=Theodore|author-link=Theodore Morison|title=The Empire and the century |publisher=John Murray |location=London|chapter=[[s:The Empire and the century/Indian Education|Indian Education]] |pages=696–706}}
* Mukerji, Shridhar Nath. ''History of education in India: modern period'' (1961) [https://archive.org/details/historyofeducati0000muke online], a standard scholarly history.
* Nurullah, Syed, and J. P. Naik. ''A Students' History of Education In India (1800-1961)'' (2nd ed. 1962), an old scholarly history. [https://archive.org/details/AStudentsHistoryOfEducationInIndia1800-1961 online]
* Prabhu, Joseph (2006), "Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'' edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 23–28, Thomson Gale, {{ISBN|0-684-31351-0}}.
* Raman, S.A. (2006), "Women's Education", ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 4)'' edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 235–239, Thomson Gale, {{ISBN|0-684-31353-7}}.
* {{cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Parimala V. |title=Modern education and the revolt of 1857 in India |journal=Paedagogica Historica |volume=52 |issue=1-2 |pages=25–42 |doi=10.1080/00309230.2015.1133668}}
* {{cite book |first=Yvette Claire |last=Rosser |title=Curriculum as Destiny: Forging National Identity in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh |year=2003 |publisher=University of Texas at Austin |type=Dissertation |url=http://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2003/rosseryc036/rosseryc036.pdf |access-date=2017-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911035259/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2003/rosseryc036/rosseryc036.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-11 |url-status=dead }}
* Sarangapani, Padma M., and Rekha Pappu, eds. ''Handbook of Education Systems in South Asia'' (Springer Singapore, 2019).
* Savage, David W. "Missionaries and the development of a colonial ideology of female education in India." ''Gender & History'' 9.2 (1997): 201-221.
* Scharfe, Hartmut (2002), ''Education in Ancient India'', (Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|978-90-04-12556-8}})
* Sen, Bimal (1989), "Development of Technical Education in India and State Policy-A Historical Perspective", ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', 24#2 pp: 224–248, Indian National Science Academy.
* Sen, S.N. (1988), "Education in Ancient and Medieval India", ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', 23#1 pp: 1-32, Indian National Science Academy.
* Sharma, Ram Nath. (1996) ''History of education in India'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=yqtAAgS3NSEC excerpt and text search], a standard scholarly history.
* Sharma, S.R. History & Development of Education in Modern India (2010), a standard scholarly history.
* Spear, Percival. "Bentinck and Education." ''Cambridge Historical Journal'' 6#1 (1938): 78-101. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3020849 online] debates in 1834.
* [[Ram Swarup|Swarup, Ram]] (2000). "Educational System During Pre-British Days" In: ''On Hinduism: Reviews and reflections''. New Delhi: Voice of India.

{{Education in Asia}}

[[Category:History of education in Asia]]
[[Category:History of education in India|*]]
[[Category:History of education in Pakistan| ]]
[[Category:South Asian culture]]

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