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Vitthal Sakharam Page

2026-05-06T11:12:46Z

Khorang: Put Up The Stub W/ Refs

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Chairmen of the Maharashtra Legislative Council
| order = 1st
| assembly =
| legislature = Maharashtra Legislative Council
| term_end = 10 July 1960
| term_start = 21 November 1956
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1910|07|21|df=yes}}
| death_date = {{death date and age |1990|3|16|1910|6|21|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Satara district]], [[Maharastra]]
| occupation = Freedom Fighter
}}
'''Vitthal Sakharam Page''' was an [[Indian freedom fighter]] and [[politician]] who served as [[Chairmen of the Maharashtra Legislative Council|1st Chairman of the Maharashtra Legislative Council]] from 11 July 1960 to 24 April 1978.<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of Chairmen of Council |url=https://mls.org.in/pdf2020/list/Chairman%20list.pdf |website=Maharashtra Legislature |language=mr}}</ref>

== Biography ==
He was born on 21 July 1910 in [[Satara district]] and he completed a [[Bachelor of Laws]] from [[Mumbai University]].{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}

On 16 March 1990, he died.<ref name=":0" />

== Honors ==
* 2011, [[President of India|The president of India]], [[Pratibha Patil]], and [[India Post]] released a [[commemorative stamp]] on him.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=President Releases Postage Stamp on Vitthal Sakharam Page |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=73404 |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=Press Information Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-05-04 |title=Vitthal Sakharam Page |url=https://istampgallery.com/vitthal-sakharam-page/ |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=iStampGallery |language=en-US}}</ref>
* 2020: MP [[Sanjaykaka Patil]], laid a statement in [[Indian parliament]] to honor him with [[Padma Award]] posthumously.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LOK SABHA SYNOPSIS OF DEBATES (Proceedings other than Questions & Answers) Tuesday, March 3, 2020 / Phalguna 13, 1941 (Saka) OBSERVATION BY THE SPEAKER |url=https://loksabhadocs.nic.in/Synop/17/III/Synopsis-03-03-2020.pdf |website=Parliament Library, National Informatics Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploring "Part 2 (Other than Questions And Answers)" by Members Sanjay (Kaka) Ramchandra Patil |url=https://eparlib.nic.in/handle/123456789/10/browse?type=members&order=ASC&rpp=20&value=Sanjay+(Kaka)+Ramchandra+Patil |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=Digital Library, National Informatics Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Need To Honour Vitthal Sakharam Page, Freedom Fighter Of Maharashtra ... on 3 March, 2020 |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/177979208/ |website=Indian Kanoon}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Chairs of the Maharashtra Legislative Council]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1990 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:University of Mumbai alumni]]
[[Category:People from Satara district]]

Mizo people in Tripura

2026-05-05T19:50:02Z

Khorang: Created Initial Stub More To Come...

{{Short description|People of Mizo descent in Tripura, India}}
{{Original research|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Mizo people in Tripura
| native_name = Tripura a awm Mizote
| image = Cheraw jampui.jpg
| caption = Traditional [[Cheraw (dance)|cheraw dance]] performed in the Jampui Hills
| population = 14850 (2024)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42561|title=India - Census of India 2011 - LANGUAGE ATLAS - INDIA|website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>
| popplace = {{hlist|[[Agartala]]|[[Jampui Hills]]|[[Khumulwng]]}}
| rels = {{hlist|[[Christianity]]|[[Hinduism]]}}
| related_groups = {{hlist|[[Halam people]]|[[Mizo diaspora]]}}
| langs = [[Mizo language|Mizo]] [[Kokborok]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
}}
The '''Mizo people in Tripura''' are an ethnic minority in the [[northeast India]]n state. They have established settlements in areas like the [[Jampui Hills]] and integrated into [[Tripura]]'s socio-cultural landscape.

==History==
{{main|Jampui Hills#History}}
The Mizo population in the Jampui Hills grew steadily until the mid-19th century when the [[monkeypox|monkeypox disease]] caused widespread fatalities, forcing many to vacate the area. The last major wave of Mizo migration to the Jampui Hills occurred in the early 20th century under the leadership of Chief Dokhuma Sailo in 1910 and Chief Hrangvunga Sailo in 1912.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vanghmun |url=https://anvayins.com/country/india/states/tripura/locations/jampui-hills/attractions/vanghmun |website=anvayins.com}}</ref>

In 1930, Dokhuma Sailo and Hrangvunga Sailo were honored by the Maharaja of [[Twipra Kingdom|Tippera]] with the titles [[Raja Bahadur]] and [[Raja]], respectively. Vungsakeia, a close associate of Dokhuma Sailo, was also conferred the title of Montri for his wisdom and bravery. Since the early 20th century, the Mizo people have continued to inhabit the Jampui Hills peacefully.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://southasiaviews.com/featured/vanghum-the-clean-and-green-village-of-tripura-sets-example-for-the-whole-nation/|title=Vanghum, the 'clean and green village' of Tripura sets example for the whole nation! - South Asia Views|date=26 May 2021}}</ref>

===Vanghmun===
{{main|Vanghmun}}
One of the most significant Mizo settlements in Tripura is Vanghmun, established on February 5, 1919, by Raja Bahadur Dokhuma Sailo. The village started with 20 houses and has grown into a community that preserves Mizo culture and history. It is notable for being the cleanest village in Tripura.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tripuratourism.gov.in/single-tour.php?id=59|title=Tripura Tourism|website=tripuratourism.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.krctimes.com/editors-pick/vanghmun-village-the-cleanest-village-of-tripura/|title=Vanghmun Village – the Cleanest village of Tripura|date=25 July 2019}}</ref> It is also known for contributions to local agriculture and its involvement in significant historical events, such as:

*1944: The rescue of an American fighter plane crew that crash-landed near the village.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/vanghmun-locals-vie-for-indias-cleanest-village-tag/cid/1700230|title=Vanghmun locals vie for India's cleanest village tag}}</ref>
*1967: During the [[Mizo National Front uprising|Mizo unrest]], the village became a transit point for the [[Mizo National Front]].<ref name="auto"/>

==Culture and economy==
The Mizo people of Tripura retain their traditional culture while integrating with the region's broader society. [[Agriculture]] remains a primary occupation, with [[pineapple]] and [[Citrus|citrus fruit cultivation]] being significant contributors to their economy. The Jampui Hills, known for their scenic beauty, is a hub for [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] cultivation, often referred to as the "Orange Bowl of Tripura," and introduced Tripura the Orange Festival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://northtripura.nic.in/tourist-place/jampui-hills/|title=Jampui Hills | District North Tripura, Government of Tripura | India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tripuraonline.in/guide/orange-festival-of-tripura|title=Orange Festival of Tripura, Importance of Orange Festival in Tripura}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://tripuratourism.gov.in/single-tour.php?id=7|title=Tripura Tourism|website=tripuratourism.gov.in}}</ref>

[[Christianity in Tripura|Christianity]] is the predominant religion among the Mizo, introduced through missionary activities. However, some Mizo people, particularly the early settlers, adopted Hinduism and worshipped deities such as [[Kali]].<ref name="auto1"/>

==Notable Tripuri Mizos==
{{unreferenced section|date= December 2024}}
The Mizos of Tripura have made significant contributions to contemporary culture, particularly in music and politics. Prominent figures include:

* [[Borkung Hrangkhawl]] (B.K.): A rapper, singer, and songwriter. Born on October 7, 1987, he has won the VIMA Asia Award and is widely recognized across Northeast India. He is the son of Bijoy Kumar Hrangkhawl.
* [[Bijoy Kumar Hrangkhawl]]: Born on January 25, 1946, he is a prominent political leader and the current president of [[Tipra Motha Party|The Indigenous Progressive Regional Alliance]] (TIPRA). A former leader of the Indigenous Nationalist Party of Twipra, his work has been instrumental in advocating for the rights of indigenous communities in Tripura.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Kuki-Chin-Mizo tribes}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Northeast India]]
[[Category:Sino-Tibetan-speaking peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Asia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Tripura]]
[[Category:Mizo clans| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]

Bawani Imli massacre

2026-05-04T04:58:11Z

Khorang: New

{{Short description|1858 massacre}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Bawani Imli massacre
| location = 6 km from [[Bindki]] [[Fatehpur district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India (30 km from [[Khajuha]], Fatehpur district)
| target = Indian rebels
| date = 28 April 1858
| type = Mass execution by hanging
| fatalities = 52
| perpetrators = [[East India Company]]
| weapons = Hanging
}}

The '''Bawani Imli massacre''' ({{Langx|hi|बावनी इमली हत्याकांड}}) was the execution of 52 [[Indian freedom fighter]]s including [[Thakur Jodha Singh Ataiya]] by British [[East India Company]] forces on 28 April 1858 during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. The executions took place on a [[tamarind]] tree, locally known as "Bawani Imli" (meaning "52 tamarind"), 6 km from [[Bindki]] tehsil,<ref name=book/> and located 30 km from the town of [[Khajuha]] in [[Fatehpur district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. This event is considered a significant yet often overlooked episode in the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=52 स्वतंत्रता सेनानियों की फांसी का गवाह रहा 'बावनी इमली', को है राष्ट्रीय स्तर की पहचान का इंतजार |url=https://hindi.theprint.in/culture/bawan-imli-uttar-pradesh-freedom-fighter-waiting-for-national-level-recognition/114435/ |website=ThePrint Hindi |date=15 August 2019 |access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bawani Imali |url=https://fatehpur.nic.in/tourist-place/bawani-imali/ |website=District Fatehpur, Government of Uttar Pradesh - India |access-date=10 November 2023}}</ref>

==Background==

During the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], also known as the First War of Indian Independence, various regions across India witnessed uprisings against [[Company rule in India|British colonial rule]]. In Fatehpur district, Thakur [[Jodha Singh Ataiya]], a zamindar from Rasulpur in [[Fatehpur district]], was a prominent figure in the revolt. Inspired by contemporaries like [[Rani of Jhansi]], Jodha Singh, alongside Deputy Collector Hikmat Ullah Khan, organised rebel activities, including the capture of the Fatehpur treasury and court. He also collaborated with leaders like [[Tatya Tope]] and engaged in guerrilla warfare against British forces, defeating Colonel Powell in battle. He was known for rallying thousands of peasants under his banner. He is remembered as a local hero who ignited the flame of revolt in the [[Awadh]] and [[Bundelkhand]] regions.<ref name="w439" /><ref name="y592" /> However, following a betrayal by informants, Jodha Singh and 51 of his compatriots were captured by British forces near the village of Ghoora.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bawani Imli – History Cafe |url=https://historycafe.in/bawani-imli/ |website=History Cafe |access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="w439" />

==Executions==

On 28 April 1858, British forces arrested Thakur Jodha Singh and 51 of his fellow rebels after they were betrayed by local informations. All 52 men were executed by hanging from a large tamarind tree near Khajuha. The bodies were left hanging for several weeks after their execution, with the colonial authorities issuing strict orders forbidding their removal. According to reports, the tree was surrounded by 300 EIC soldiers to prevent any funerary rites. Colonial authorities warned the local population that anyone attempting to remove the bodies would face the same fate.<ref name="w439" /><ref name="y592" />

After 37 days, on the night of 3 June 1858, local leader Maharaja Bhawani Singh and his associates defied the orders, removed the bodies, and on June 4, 1858, conducted cremation rituals at [[Shivrajpur]] Ghat on the banks of the Ganges. Singh's removal of the bodies is remembered as an important moment of resistance.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Bawani Imli Tree |url=https://amritmahotsav.nic.in/district-reopsitory-detail.htm?12856 |website=Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India |access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="w439">{{cite web | last=सिंह | first=धीरेंद्र | title=बावनी इमली फतेहपुर,स्वतंत्रता दिवस: 52 स्वतंत्रता सेनानियों की फांसी का गवाह इमली का पेड़, अंग्रेजों ने धोखे से किया था गिरफ्तार | website=Navbharat Times | date=15 August 2024 | url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/uttar-pradesh/fatehpur/independence-day-tamarind-tree-witnessed-hanging-of-52-freedom-fighters-fatehpur-crime-news/articleshow/112539644.cms | language=hi | access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Thakur Jodha Singh.png|thumb|Statue of Jodha Singh Ataiya at Bawani Imli Memorial, Fatehpur]]

The tamarind tree, now known as "Bawani Imli," still stands as a living memorial to the executed men. Locals believe that the tree ceased to grow following the massacre, symbolising the gravity of the event. The site has been recognised as a place of historical significance, with a memorial established to honour all 52 men. Their names are inscribed on stone tablets at the site, ensuring that future generations remember their contributions. The site draws visitors annually on Independence Day and Republic Day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Heritage tree on which 52 martyrs were hanged |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/heritage-tree-on-which-52-martyrs-were-hanged/articleshow/117379302.cms |website=The Times of India |date=20 January 2025 |access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref>

==Commemoration==
The Bawani Imli Memorial has been acknowledged by various governmental and non-governmental organisations for its historical importance. It serves as a reminder of the sacrifices made during India's struggle for independence. It is often referred to as the "second [[Jallianwala Bagh]]" due to the scale and brutality of the massacre.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yugantarpravah.com/news/on-28-april-1858-fifty-two-revolutionaries-were-hanged-in-khajuha-bavani-imali-tree-128475-28-04-2022|title=Bavani Imali Fatehpur: On this day 52 revolutionaries were hanged on the land of Fatehpur|website=Yugantar Pravah|access-date=28 April 2022}}</ref><ref name="y592">{{cite web | title=यूपी: दूसरा 'जलियां वाला बाग' है बावनी इमली, एक साथ 52 क्रांतिकारियों को दी गई थी फांसी (Second Jallianwala Bagh)| website=Amar Ujala | date=14 December 2021 | url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/kanpur/second-jallianwala-bagh-is-bawani-imli-52-revolutionaries-were-hanged-simultaneously | language=hi | access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref>

In April 2025, a Hindi-language book documenting the massacre titled"''Darakht: The Witness of Freedom Fighter,''" written by Vijay Narayan was released by local scholars and officials in Bindki.<ref name=book>{{cite web |title=52 क्रांतिकारियों की शहादत पर आधारित पुस्तक का विमोचन |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/fatehpur/bindki/news/book-released-on-the-martyrdom-of-52-revolutionaries-134925256.html |website=Dainik Bhaskar |date=14 August 2024 |language=hi |access-date=28 May 2025}}</ref>

==Bibliography==
* ''Darakht: The Witness of Freedom Fighter'' (Hindi) by Vijay Narayan. Bluerose Publishers, 2025. {{ISBN|93-6261-492-8}}

==See also==

* [[Fatehpur district]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [https://fatehpur.nic.in/tourist-place/bawani-imali/#:~:text=This%20monument%20is%20the%20symbol,has%20stopped%20after%20the%20massacre. Bawani Imli official webpage] Govt. of India

[[Category:1858 in India]]
[[Category:Massacres in British India]]
[[Category:British administration in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Indian Rebellion of 1857]]
[[Category:Fatehpur district]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Military history of British India]]
[[Category:People executed by British India by hanging]]
[[Category:Military history of the British East India Company]]
[[Category:April 1858]]

Hinduism

2026-05-01T11:47:42Z

Khorang: typo fix

{{Short description|Range of Indian religious traditions}}
{{Pp-semi-indef | small=yes}}
{{Pp-move|small=no}}
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
{{Hinduism}}

'''Hinduism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɪ|n|d|u|ˌ|ɪ|z|əm}})<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Hinduism |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref> is an [[Hypernymy and hyponymy|umbrella term]]{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a}}{{sfn|Flood|2022|p=339}}{{efn|name="umbrella-term"}} for a range of [[Indian religions|Indian]] [[List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions|religious and spiritual traditions]] ([[Sampradaya|''sampradaya''s]]){{Sfnmp|Holberg|2000|1p=316|Nicholson|2013|2pp=2–5|McDaniel|2007|3pp=52–53|Michaels|2004|4p=21}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} that are unified by adherence to the concept of ''[[dharma]]'', a [[Ṛta|cosmic order]] maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living,{{Sfnmp|Flood|2003a|1p=9|Thomas|2012|2p=175|Bhattacharya|2006}}{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"}} as expounded in the [[Vedas]].{{efn|name="vedas_dharma"|{{harvtxt|Flood|2003a|p=4}}: "This revelation of the Veda[s], verses believed to have been revealed to and heard by (sruti) the ancient sages (rsi), as symbol and legitimizing reference if not actual text, is central as a constraining influence on later traditions, providing the authority for tradition (Oberhammer 1997: 21–31). Some would argue that this is a defining feature of Hinduism.}} The word ''Hindu'' is an [[exonym]],{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}} and while Hinduism has been called the oldest surviving religion in the world,{{refn|name="oldest religion"|group=note}} it is also described by the 19th century term ''[[Sanātana Dharma]]'' ({{lit|eternal dharma}}).{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"}} ''[[Hinduism#Vaidika Dharma|Vaidika Dharma]]'' ({{lit|Vedic dharma}}){{Sfnmp|Wimberley|2009|1p=99|Klostermaier|1989|2p=16|Chung|2022|3p=183|Lipner|1998|4p=2}} and ''[[Arya]] Dharma'' are historical [[Endonym and exonym|endonyms]] for Hinduism.{{Sfnmp|Olivelle|2009|1p=489|Sharma|2011|2p=124|Varghese|2008|3p=743|Monier-Williams|1891|4p=20|Raju|1989|5p=147}}

Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared [[Glossary of Hinduism terms|concepts]] that discuss [[God in Hinduism|theology]], [[Hindu mythology|mythology]], and other topics in [[Hindu texts|textual sources]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Hindu texts have been classified into [[Śruti]] ({{Literal translation|heard}}) and [[Smṛti]] ({{Literal translation|remembered}}). The major Hindu scriptures are the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], the [[Puranas]], the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (including the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''), the ''[[Ramayana]]'', and the [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]].{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1992|pp=1–7}} Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include ''[[karma]]'' (action, intent and consequences),{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} [[Saṃsāra#In Hinduism|''saṃsāra'']] (the cycle of death and rebirth) and the four [[Puruṣārtha]]s, proper goals or aims of human life, namely: ''[[dharma]]'' (ethics/duties), ''[[artha]]'' (prosperity/work), ''[[kama]]'' (desires/passions) and ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation/emancipation from passions and ultimately ''saṃsāra'').{{sfn|Bilimoria|Prabhu|Sharma|2007}}{{sfn|Koller|1968}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=7}} Hindu religious practices include devotion (''[[bhakti]]''), worship ([[Puja (Hinduism)|''puja'']]), sacrificial rites (''[[yajna]]''), and meditation ([[Dhyana in Hinduism|''dhyana'']]) and [[Yoga]].<ref name="ellinger70" /> Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many Hindus do not claim to belong to any denomination.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} However, scholarly studies recognise four major denominations: [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Smartism]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} The six [[Āstika and nāstika|Āstika]] schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] that recognise the authority of the Vedas are: [[Samkhya|Sankhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta]].{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}}

While the traditional [[Itihasa-Purana]] and its derived [[Epic-Puranic chronology]] present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} or synthesis{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"}} of [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical orthopraxy]]{{refn|group=note|name="Brahmanism"}} with various Indian cultures,{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} having diverse roots{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} and no specific founder.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}} This [[Hindu synthesis]] emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} to 200{{Sfn|Larson|2009}} [[Common Era|BCE]], and {{Circa|300 CE}},{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} in the period of the [[second urbanisation]] and the early [[History of Hinduism#Hindu synthesis and Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE)|classical period of Hinduism]] when the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]] and the first Purānas were composed.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} It flourished in the [[Medieval India|medieval period]], with the [[Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|decline of Buddhism in India]].{{sfn|Larson|1995|pp=109–111}} Since the 19th century, [[Neo-Vedanta|modern Hinduism]], influenced by [[Western culture]], has acquired a great appeal in [[Western world|the West]], notably reflected in the popularisation of [[Yoga]] and various sects such as [[Transcendental Meditation]] and the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON's]] [[ISKCON|Hare Krishna movement]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is ISKCON » Home - ISKCON - The Hare Krishna Movement |url=https://www.iskcon.org/about-us/what-is-iskcon.php |access-date=2025-10-05 |website=www.iskcon.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

Hinduism is the [[major religious groups|world's third-largest]] religion, with approximately 1.17 billion followers, or around 14.7% of the global population,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Fahmy|first=Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia|date=2025-06-09|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/|access-date=2025-06-24|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hackett|first=Conrad|date=2025-06-09|title=Hindu Population Change|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/hindu-population-change/|access-date=2025-11-22|website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> known as [[Hindus]], largely in [[religion in India|India]],{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}} [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Religion in Mauritius|Mauritius]], and in [[Hinduism in Bali|Bali]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]].{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} [[Hinduism by country|Significant numbers]] of Hindu communities are found in the countries of [[Hinduism in South Asia|South Asia]], in [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], in the [[Hinduism in the West Indies|Caribbean]], [[Hinduism in the Middle East|Middle East]], [[Hinduism in the United States|North America]], [[Hinduism in Europe|Europe]], [[Hinduism in Oceania|Oceania]] and [[Hinduism in Africa|Africa]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vertovec |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |title=The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-36705-2 |pages=1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143 |access-date=18 July 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155539/https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Hindus|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|archive-date=9 February 2020|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers (2010)|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201224548/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-date=1 February 2013|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref group="web" name="pewforum_Hinduism" /><ref name="gordonconwell.edu" group="web" />
{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

== Etymology ==
{{further|Hindu}}
The word ''Hindū'' is an [[Endonym and exonym|exonym]],<ref>{{harvnb|Siemens|Roodt|2009|p=546}}; {{harvnb|Leaf|2014|p=36}}</ref> derived from [[Sanskrit]] word ''Sindhu'',<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 1"}}</ref> the name of the [[Indus River]] as well as the country of the lower Indus basin ([[Sindh]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Singh|2008|p=433}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Eggermont |first=Pierre Herman Leonard |title=Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nG0_xoDS3hUC&pg=PA145 |year=1975 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-6186-037-2 |page=145 |quote=''Sindhu'' means a stream, a river, and in particular the Indus river, but likewise it denotes the territory of the lower Indus valley, or modern Sind... It denotes a geographical unit to which different tribes may belong. |access-date=25 December 2024 |archive-date=23 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123010456/https://books.google.com/books?id=nG0_xoDS3hUC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn |group=note |The Indo-Aryan word ''Sindhu'' means "river", "ocean".{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=3}} It is frequently being used in the [[Rigveda]]. The Sindhu-area is part of [[Āryāvarta]], "the land of the Aryans".}}
The [[Proto-Iranian language|Proto-Iranian]] sound change ''*s'' > ''h'' occurred between 850 and 600 BCE.<ref>{{harvp|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 9"}}: "In Iranian languages, Proto-Iranian *s became h before a following vowel at a relatively late period, perhaps around 850–600 BCE."</ref>
"Hindu" occurs in [[Avesta]] as ''heptahindu'', equivalent to Rigvedic ''sapta sindhu''.<ref name="Thapar p.38">{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |title=Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap |publisher=University of California Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/38 38]}}</ref>
The 6th-century BCE inscription of [[Darius I]] mentions [[Hindush]] (referring to Sindh) among his provinces.{{sfn|Sharma|2002}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|loc=p. 6: "The actual term ''Hindu'' first occurs as a [[Persian language|Persian]] geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')."}}
''Hindustan'' (spelt "''hndstn''") is found in a [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] inscription from the 3rd century CE.<ref name="Thapar p.38" />
The term ''Hindu'' in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} In Arabic texts, "Hind", a derivative of Persian "Hindu", was used to refer to the land beyond the Indus<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|2004|p=38}}: "...in Arab sources, ''al-Hind'' (the land beyond the Indus)."</ref> and therefore, all the people in that land were "Hindus", according to historian [[Romila Thapar]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|1989|p=222}}: "Al-Hind was therefore a geographical identity and the Hindus were all the people who lived on this land." {{harvnb|Thapar|1993|p=77}}</ref>
By the 13th century, ''[[Hindustan]]'' emerged as a popular [[Names of India|alternative name]] of India.{{sfn|Thompson Platts|1884}}

Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text ''Record of the Western Regions'' by [[Xuanzang]].{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} In the 14th century, 'Hindu' appeared in several texts in Persian, Sanskrit and Prakrit within India, and subsequently in vernacular languages, often in comparative contexts to contrast them with Muslims or "Turks". Examples include the 14th-century Persian text ''Futuhu's-salatin'' by 'Abd al-Malik [[Isami (historian)|Isami]],{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}}
Jain texts such as ''[[Vividha Tirtha Kalpa]]'' and ''Vidyatilaka'',{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=251–252}}
circa 1400 [[Apabhramsa]] text ''Kīrttilatā'' by [[Vidyapati]],{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=253–254}} 16–18th century [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] texts,<ref name="O'Connell">{{Cite journal |last=O'Conell |first=Joseph T. |year=1973 |title=The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts |volume=93 |pages=340–344 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/599467 |jstor=599467| issn=0003-0279 }}</ref> etc.
These native usages of "Hindu" were borrowed from Persian, and they did not always have a religious connotation, but they often did.<ref>{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=252}}: "Christine Chojnacki has argued that ''hinduka'' and related terms mark a combination of religious, linguistic, and cultural affinities in early Jain sources."
{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=253}}: "Writing for the Bahmani court in the Deccan in 1350, Isami paired ''hindū'' and ''musalmān'', elsewhere using ''hindī'' to mean Indian."
{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=254}}: "[Vidyapati] equates Hindu and Muslim religious and cultural practices, positing comparable differences between their respective ''dhamme'' (Sanskrit ''dharma'')."
{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=260}}: "Most passages identified a mix of religious and cultural norms. For instance, the texts refer to the “Hindu god” (''hindura īśvara'') and “Hindu treatise” (''hindu-śāstre''), on the one hand, and to “hindu clothes” (''hindu-beśa''), on the other."</ref>
In Indian texts, ''Hindu Dharma'' ("Hindu religion") was often used to refer to Hinduism.<ref name="O'Connell" />{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=254}}

Starting in the 17th century, European merchants and colonists adopted "Hindu" (often with the English spelling "Hindoo") to refer to residents of India as a religious community.{{sfn|Truschke|2023|p=261}}{{Refn|In the contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practising or ''[[Laissez-faire]]''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Bryan |last=Turner |year=2010 |title=The New Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Religion |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-8852-4 |pages=424–425}}</ref> The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as ''Sarnaism''.<ref>{{cite book |first=James |last=Minahan |year=2012 |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 |pages=97–99 |publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states [[Julius J. Lipner|Julius Lipner]], to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=8}}|group=note}}
The term got increasingly associated with the practices of Brahmins, who were also referred to as "Gentiles" and "Gentoos".{{sfn|Truschke|2023|p=261}}
Terms such as "Hindoo faith" and "Hindoo religion" were often used, eventually leading to the appearance of "Hindooism" in a letter of [[Charles Grant (British East India Company)|Charles Grant]] in 1787, who used it along with "Hindu religion".{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=261–262}}
The first Indian to use "Hinduism" may have been [[Raja Ram Mohun Roy|Raja Ram Mohan Roy]] in 1816–17.<ref>{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=262}}; {{harvnb|Singh|2008|p=433}}</ref> By the 1840s, the term "Hinduism" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2010|p=17}}; {{harvnb|Doniger|2014|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|p=5}}</ref>
Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]], [[jāti]], occupation, and sect.{{sfn |Doniger |2014 |p=3}}{{refn|group=note |In [[D. N. Jha]]'s essay ''Looking for a Hindu identity'', he writes: "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century" and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity."<ref name="Mukul Dube">{{Cite web |first=Mukul |last=Dube |title=A short note on the short history of Hinduism |website=Scroll.in |date=10 January 2016 |url=http://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128182331/https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |url-status=live}}</ref> He further wrote "The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, [and] reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Short note on the short history of Hinduism |date=10 January 2016 |url=https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |access-date=13 November 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113220512/https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |url-status=live}}</ref>}}

== Definitions ==
"Hinduism" is an umbrella-term,<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002a}}; {{harvnb|Flood|2022|p=339}}</ref>
referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Holberg|2000|p=316}}; {{harvnb|Nicholson|2013|pp=2–5}}; {{harvnb|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=21}}</ref>
In Western ethnography, the term refers to the fusion,{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} or synthesis,{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"|{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads ({{Circa|500 BCE}}) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."}}{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=193}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,<ref name="various cultures">{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} with diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} and no founder.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}} This [[Hindu synthesis]] emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}–200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE and {{Circa|300 CE}},{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} in the period of the [[Second Urbanisation]] and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]] and the first Puranas were composed.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} It flourished in the [[Medieval India|medieval period]], with the [[Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|decline of Buddhism in India]].{{sfn|Larson|1995|pp=109–111}} Hinduism's variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.{{sfn|Turner|1996a|p=275}}

Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on [[Spirituality#Hinduism|spirituality]] and traditions; Hindus can be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], [[Pantheism|pantheistic]], [[Panentheism|panentheistic]], [[Pandeism|pandeistic]], [[Henotheism|henotheistic]], [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Monism|monistic]], [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], [[Atheism|atheistic]] or [[Humanism|humanist]].<ref name="Lipner2009p8">{{harvnb|Lipner|2009|p=8}} Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, henotheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict |publisher=Academic Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-12-369503-1 |editor-last=Kurtz |editor-first=Lester}}</ref> According to [[Mahatma Gandhi]], "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu".<ref>MK Gandhi, ''[http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724045756/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf |date=24 July 2015 }}, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3</ref> According to [[Wendy Doniger]], "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even [[Caste system in India|caste]] – are subjects of debate, not [[dogma]]."{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=3}}

Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=117}} Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life".{{sfn|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term ''(Hindu) dharma'' is used, which is broader than the Western term "religion," and refers to the religious attitudes and behaviours, the 'right way to live', as preserved and transmitted in the various traditions collectively referred to as "Hinduism."{{sfn|Flood|2003a|p=9}}{{sfn|Thomas|2012|p=175}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006}}{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"}}

The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{sfn|King|1999}} Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{Refn|group=note|Sweetman mentions:
* {{harvnb|Halbfass|1988}}, ''India and Europe''
* {{harvnb|Sontheimer|1989}}, ''Hinduism Reconsidered''
* [[Ronald Inden]], ''Imagining India''
* [[Carol Breckenridge]] and [[Peter van der Veer]], ''Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament''
* [[Vasudha Dalmia]] and [[Heinrich von Stietencron]], ''Representing Hinduism''
* [[S.N. Balagangadhara]], ''The Heathen in his Blindness...''
* [[Thomas Trautmann]], ''Aryans and British India''
* {{harvnb|King|1999}}, ''Orientalism and religion''}} and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.{{sfn|Nussbaum|2009}}{{refn|group=note|See [[Rajiv Malhotra]] and [[Being Different]] for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, [[Invading the Sacred]], and [[Hindu studies]].}}

=== Typology ===
[[File:Aum Om navy blue circle coral.svg|thumb|upright|[[Om]], a stylised letter of the [[Devanagari]] script, used as a religious symbol in Hinduism]]
{{Main|Hindu denominations}}

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six [[darsanas]] (philosophies), two schools, [[Vedanta]] and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], are currently the most prominent.{{sfn|Clarke|2011|p=28}}
The six [[āstika]] schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas are: [[Samkhya|Sānkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Nyāya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimāmsā]], and [[Vedānta]].{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}}

Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are [[Vaishnavism]] ([[Vishnu|God Vishnu)]], [[Shaivism]] ([[Shiva|God Shiva]]), [[Shaktism]] ([[Shakti|Goddess Adi Shakti]]) and [[Smarta Tradition|Smartism]] (five deities treated as equals).{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or [[Supreme God (Hinduism)|Supreme God]], while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=14}} Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]] (self), [[reincarnation]] of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs.

June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus.{{sfn|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}} The major kinds, according to McDaniel are [[Folk Hinduism]], based on local traditions and cults of local [[deities]] and is the oldest, non-literate system; [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic Hinduism]] based on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the [[Upanishad]]s, including [[Advaita Vedanta]], emphasising knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]] emphasising introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and [[bhakti]] or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.{{sfn|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}}

Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}} The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=22}} The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} [[Jnana yoga|jnana-marga]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} [[bhakti yoga|bhakti-marga]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} and "heroism", which is rooted in [[Sannyasa#Warrior ascetics|militaristic traditions]]. These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, [[Rama]], believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of RAMAISM|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ramaism|access-date=28 October 2020|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174144/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ramaism|url-status=live}}</ref> and parts of [[Hindu nationalism|political Hinduism]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} "Heroism" is also called [[Vīrya (Hinduism)|virya-marga]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practising or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasise [[Brahmin|Brahman]] (Brahmin) priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=21–22}} He includes among "founded religions" [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], Sikhism that are now distinct religions, [[Syncretism|syncretic]] movements such as [[Brahmo Samaj]] and the [[Theosophical Society]], as well as various "[[Guru]]-isms" and new religious movements such as [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]],
[[BAPS]] and [[ISKCON]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=22–23}}

Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests.<ref name=ronaldinden127 /> Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.<ref name=ronaldinden127 /> From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of [[Indology]]. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.<ref name="ronaldinden127">Ronald Inden (2001), ''Imagining India'', Indiana University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-253-21358-7}}, pp. 117–122, 127–130</ref>

Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea [[Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi]] has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferro-Luzzi |title=Hinduism Reconsidered |publisher=Manohar |year=1991 |editor-last=Sontheimer |editor-first=G.D. |location=Delhi |pages=187–195 |chapter=The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism |editor-last2=Kulke |editor-first2=H.}}</ref>

=== {{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}} ===
{{See also|Sanātanī}}

[[File:Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple]], dedicated to the [[Hindu]] deity [[Vishnu]], is said to be worshiped by [[Ikshvaku]] (and the descendants of [[Solar dynasty|Ikshvaku Vamsam]]).<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya kanda, sarga 6, sloka 1, 2 and 3</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Srirangam-temple-rich-with-elaborate-details/article59829979.ece|title=Srirangam temple rich with elaborate details|newspaper=The Hindu|date=3 April 2014|access-date=28 August 2023|via=www.thehindu.com|archive-date=16 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816200421/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Srirangam-temple-rich-with-elaborate-details/article59829979.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/was-ram-born-in-ayodhya/articleshow/77380259.cms|title=Was Ram born in Ayodhya?|website=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=28 August 2023|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814150318/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/was-ram-born-in-ayodhya/articleshow/77380259.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Insoll |first=Timothy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35 |title=Archaeology and world religion |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-22155-9 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174124/https://books.google.com/books?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox" form of Hinduism as ''[[Sanātana Dharma|{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}]]'', "the eternal law" or the "eternal way".<ref>{{harvnb|Bowker|2000}}; {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}</ref>{{sfn|Vivekjivandas|2010|p=1}} Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The [[Puranic chronology]], as narrated in the [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], and the [[Puranas]], envisions a timeline of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000 BCE. The word ''dharma'' is used here to mean ''[[religion]]'' similar to modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]], rather than with its original Sanskrit meaning. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (''artha''), fulfilment of desires (''kama''), and attaining liberation (''moksha''), are viewed here as part of "dharma", which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfilment.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=111}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hacker |first=Paul |title=Dharma in Hinduism |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |year=2006 |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=479–496 |doi=10.1007/s10781-006-9002-4|s2cid=170922678 }}</ref> The use of the term ''Sanātana Dharma'' for Hinduism is a modern usage, based on the belief that the origins of Hinduism lie beyond human history, as revealed in the [[Hindu texts]].{{sfn|Knott|1998|pp=3, 5, 117}}{{sfn|Bowker|2000}}{{sfn|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=3}}{{Clarify|reason=Not clear what is revaalex in Hindu texts.|date=February 2024}}

''Sanātana Dharma'' refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and traditions with origins beyond human history– truths divinely revealed ([[Shruti]]) in the [[Vedas]], the most ancient of the world's scriptures.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=3}} To many Hindus, Hinduism is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era. The Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}{{refn|group=note|The term ''sanatana dharma'' and its Vedic roots had another context in the colonial era, particularly the early 19th-century through movements such as the [[Brahmo Samaj]] and the [[Arya Samaj]]. These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that vis-à-vis Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of 1895.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOyYCgAAQBAJ |title=The Encyclopedia of Caribbean Religions: Volume 1: A – L; Volume 2: M – Z |last2=Case |first2=Frederick I. |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-252-09433-0 |pages=902–903 |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155559/https://books.google.com/books?id=XOyYCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}'' historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (''[[ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]''), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with [[svadharma]], one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (''varṇa'') and stage in life ([[puruṣārtha]]).<ref name="EB-sanatana dharma" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sanatana dharma {{!}} Hinduism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503143650/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma |url-status=live }}</ref> In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".<ref name="EB-sanatana dharma" group="web" />

=== ''Vaidika Dharma'' ===
{{See also|Historical Vedic religion|Vedic period}}
Some have referred to Hinduism as the ''Vaidika dharma'',{{sfn|Sharma|Sharma|2004|pp=1–2}} bypassing the [[Tantra#Tantrika|Tantric revelations]]. The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'.<ref name="MW_Vaidika dharma" group="web">{{Cite web|last=Monier-Williams|first=Monier|author-link=Monier Monier-Williams|year=1988|title=Sanskrit English Dictionary|url=http://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/http://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|archive-date=29 December 2020|access-date=24 July 2018|website=sanskritdictionary.com}}</ref> Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Charvaka]]. According to [[Klaus Klostermaier]], the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2014|p=2}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007b|p=7}} According to [[Arvind Sharma]], the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term ''vaidika dharma'' or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE.<ref name="Sharma1985a">{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=A|author-link=Arvind Sharma|year=1985|title=Did the Hindus have a name for their own religion?|url=https://josa-publications.sydney.edu.au/chronological-index-1960-2002/|journal=The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia|volume=17|issue=1|pages=94–98 [95]|access-date=17 March 2021|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304042137/https://josa-publications.sydney.edu.au/chronological-index-1960-2002/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Brian K. Smith]], "[i]t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term ''Vaidika Dharma'' cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."{{sfn|Smith|1998}}

Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic [[Varnasrama Dharma|varṇāśrama]] – 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa). For example, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana|Bhāgavata Purāṇa]]'' considers Buddhists, Jains as well as some [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] groups like the [[Pashupata Shaivism|Paśupatas]] and [[Kapalika|Kāpālins]] to be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics).<ref>Valpey, Kenneth Russell; Gupta, Ravi Mohan (2013). ''The Bhāgavata Purāṇa, sacred text and living tradition'', p. 146. Columbia University Press.</ref>

According to [[Alexis Sanderson]], the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of [[Antinomianism|antinomian]] Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> Some in the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hindu philosophy considered the ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]]'' such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma.<ref group=web name="sandersonpart1">{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=March 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part One |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174134/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=May 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Two |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-two-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174151/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-two-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref> The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas.<ref group=web name="sandersonpart3">{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=July 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Three |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-three-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174219/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-three-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref> However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, [...] and that as such they [Vedas] are man's sole means of valid knowledge [...]".<ref group=web name="sandersonpart3" />

The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}} The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}} To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their [Hindus] whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=16}}{{refn|group=note|Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), ''The sacred tread'', p. 5.}} and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<ref>{{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=18}}; see also {{harvnb|Lipner|2009|p=77}}; and {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Brian K. |title=Sacred Texts and Authority |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2008 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |page=101 |chapter=Hinduism}}</ref> Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}

=== Legal definition ===
[[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] gave the following definition in ''Gita Rahasya'' (1915): "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".<ref name=Tilak2>Kohli Hari Dev (2010), ''Supreme Court On Hindu Law'', p.251</ref><ref name=Tilak>Ved P. Nanda (ed.)(2016), ''Compassion in the 4 Dharmic Traditions'', p.71</ref> It was quoted by the [[Supreme Court of India|Indian Supreme Court]] in 1966,<ref name=Tilak2 /><ref name=Tilak /> and again in 1995, "as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition,"<ref>Peter Beyer, ''Religions in Global Society''</ref> and is still the legal definition of a Hindu today.{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=20}}

== Diversity and unity ==
[[File:Angkor Wat Temple, Cambodia in 2013.JPG|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]] temple in Cambodia, the largest Hindu temple in the world]]

=== Diversity ===
{{See also|Hindu denominations}}Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a "family of religions" rather than a single religion.<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Hinduism |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism |access-date=23 April 2020 |website=History.com |date=30 September 2019 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174138/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism |url-status=live }}</ref> Within each tradition in Hinduism, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts, often including unique interpretations, commentaries, and derivative works that build upon shared foundational scriptures.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Surendranath |title=A history of Indian philosophy (part 1) |last2=Banarsidass |first2=Motilall |year=1992 |page=70}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chande |first=M.B. |title=Indian Philosophy in Modern Times |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist. |year=2000 |page=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Culp |first=John |date= 2008 |entry=Panentheism |editor=Edward N. Zalta |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Summer 2017 |entry-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/ |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174122/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a [[creed]]",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.{{efn|name="umbrella-term"|{{harvtxt|Smith|1963|loc=pp. 65–66}}: "My point, and I think that this is the first step that one must take towards understanding something of the vision of Hindus, is that the mass of religious phenomena that we shelter under the umbrella of that term, is not a unity and does not aspire to be." {{harvtxt|Brodd|Little|Nystrom|Platzner|2018|loc=p. 92}}: "Hinduism has neither a single founder nor a single sacred book. There is no single historical event that marks its birth. The history of Hinduism embodies both continuity and change. Having never had a sole central authority, Hinduism's fluid character has always allowed it to adapt to a variety of social and cultural contexts. This diversity has led many scholars to argue that Hinduism is not one religion at all but a constellation of many religious sects that share some common aspects. Others see enough by way of common beliefs and practices to regard Hinduism as a single religious tradition."}}{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|pp=1–22}} According to the [[Supreme Court of India]],

{{blockquote|Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}}}

Part of the problem with a single definition of the term ''Hinduism'' is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=1, 7}} It is a synthesis of various traditions,<ref>{{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}</ref> the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}

[[Theism]] is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic [[ontology]] of creation, other [[Hindu atheism|Hindus are or have been atheists]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Quack |first1=Johannes |last2=Binder |first2=Stefan |date=22 February 2018 |title=Atheism and Rationalism in Hinduism |journal=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0196}}</ref>

=== Sense of unity ===
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or [[sastra|sacred literature]], the Vedas,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} although there are exceptions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=35}} These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus,<ref name=andreapinkney /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haines |first=Jeffrey |title=Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-60029-3 |page=80}}</ref> though [[Louis Renou]] stated that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".<ref name="andreapinkney">{{Cite book |last=Pinkney |first=Andrea |title=Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-63503-5 |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=Bryan |pages=31–32 |editor-last2=Salemink |editor-first2=Oscar}}</ref>{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=1}}

Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}}

==== Classical Hinduism ====
[[Brahmin]]s played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=99–100}} In the post-[[Gupta empire|Gupta period]] Vedanta developed in southern India, where [[Brahmanism|orthodox Brahmanic culture]] and the Hindu culture were preserved,{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=100–101}} building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda[ting] the multiple demands of Hinduism."{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=101}}

==== Medieval developments ====
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|pp=1–36}}</ref> Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=36}} Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other".{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=648}} According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other"{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=648}} is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|pp=648, 655}}

[[File:Pashupatinath Temple-2020.jpg|thumb|227x227px|[[Pashupatinath Temple]] in [[Nepal]], dedicated to the [[Hindu]] deity [[Shiva]] as the lord of all beings]]

According to the Indologist [[Alexis Sanderson]], before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain [[antinomian]] tantric movements.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism".<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 />

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by [[Mikel Burley]].{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Hacker called this "inclusivism"{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|pp=24–33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}}{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|pp=26–27}} Michaels notes:
{{blockquote|As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=44}}}}

==== Colonial views ====
The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"{{sfn|King|1999|pp=100–102}} were also popularised by 19th-century proselytising missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.{{sfn|King|1999|pp=100–102}}<ref name=ronaldinden127 />{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|pp=14–15}} These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils,{{refn|group=note|Pennington{{sfn|Pennington|2005|pp=76–77}} describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings [impoverished, famine-prone Bengal – now West Bengal and Bangladesh]. Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."}} while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the ''Vedas'', ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Manusmriti]]'' and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature".{{sfn|King|1999|p=169}}{{refn|group=note|name="Sweetman"}} Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.{{sfn|Pennington|2005|loc=pp. 4–5 and Chapter 6}} He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.{{sfn|Pennington|2005|loc=pp. 4–5 and Chapter 6}}{{refn|group=note|Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times:
* Klaus Witz<ref>{{Cite book |last=Witz |first=Klaus G |title=The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1573-5 |pages=10–11|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}</ref> states that Hindu [[Bhakti movement]] ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
* John Henderson<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henderson |first=John |title=Scripture, Canon and Commentary |url=https://archive.org/details/scripturecanonco0000hend |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-691-60172-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/scripturecanonco0000hend/page/120 120]}}</ref> states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognised attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.
* Patrick Olivelle<ref name=Olivelle2014p3q>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |author-link=Patrick Olivelle |title=The Early Upanisads |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-535242-9 |page=3 |quote=Even though theoretically the whole of Vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the [[Upanishad]]s that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.}}</ref> and others<ref>{{harvnb|Doniger|1990|pp=2–3}}: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref name=McDowell>{{Cite book |last1=McDowell |first1=Michael |title=World Religions |last2=Brown |first2=Nathan |publisher=Penguin |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-59257-846-7 |pages=208–210}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dissanayake |first=Wiman |title=Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1080-6 |editor-last=Kasulis |editor-first=Thomas P. |page=39 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.}}

==== Hindu modernism and neo-Vedanta ====
[[File:Swami Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg|thumb|[[Swami Vivekananda]] was a key figure in introducing [[Vedanta]] and Yoga in Europe and the United States,{{sfn|Feuerstein|2002|p=600}} raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.{{sfn|Clarke|2006|p=209}}]]
{{Quote box
|quote = All of religion is contained in the Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism.
|author = — [[Swami Vivekananda]]<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=https://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_5/epistles_first_series/039_alasinga.htm|title=Complete-Works/Volume 5/Epistles – First Series|access-date=2024-01-27|website=ramakrishnavivekananda.info|archive-date=27 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127095409/https://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_5/epistles_first_series/039_alasinga.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|width = 30%
|align = right|salign=right
}}
{{See also|Hindu reform movements}}

{{See also|Orientalism|Neo-Vedanta}}
This inclusivism<ref>Hackel in {{harvnb|Nicholson|2010}}.</ref> was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by [[Hindu reform movements]] and Neo-Vedanta,{{sfn|King|2001}} and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}

Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,{{sfn|King|1999}} meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements{{sfn|Lorenzen|2002|p=33}} and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasising the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.{{sfn|King|1999}} This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.{{sfn|King|1999}} Major representatives of [[Neo-Vedanta|"Hindu modernism"]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} are [[Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=256–261}}

Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the [[Hindu Renaissance]].<ref name="hindu1">{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Serinity |title=Hinduism |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-2116-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hinduism0000youn/page/87 87] |quote=Rammohun Roy Father of Hindu Renaissance. |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduism0000youn |access-date=19 February 2015 |url-access=registration}}</ref> He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=257}} Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=259}} Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=249}}

This "Global Hinduism"{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} It emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} or the [[pizza effect]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} This globalisation of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=267–268}}

==== Modern India and the world ====
[[File:Hare Krishna in Helsinki H1118 C.JPG|thumb|The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] group at the [[Esplanadi Park]] in [[Helsinki, Finland]]]]
The [[Hindutva]] movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hansen|first=Thomas Blom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|title=The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India|year=1999|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-2305-5|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C&q=hindutva+in+modern+india 77]|language=en|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180224/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|url-status=live}}</ref> And there are assumptions of political dominance of [[Hindu nationalism]] in [[India]], also known as {{'}}''Neo-Hindutva''{{'}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Edward|last2=Longkumer|first2=Arkotong|date=2 October 2018|title='Neo-Hindutva': evolving forms, spaces, and expressions of Hindu nationalism|journal=Contemporary South Asia|volume=26|issue=4|pages=371–377|doi=10.1080/09584935.2018.1548576|issn=0958-4935|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/8da58c02-ac36-46f1-a4f6-71ad6be1be09|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chacko|first=Priya|date=2019c|title=Marketizing Hindutva: The state, society, and markets in Hindu nationalism|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/marketizing-hindutva-the-state-society-and-markets-in-hindu-nationalism/92243742C585CD73910BA63030F6A655|journal=Modern Asian Studies|language=en|volume=53|issue=2|pages=377–410|doi=10.1017/S0026749X17000051|hdl=2440/117274|s2cid=149588748|issn=0026-749X|hdl-access=free|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307235100/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/marketizing-hindutva-the-state-society-and-markets-in-hindu-nationalism/92243742C585CD73910BA63030F6A655|url-status=live}}</ref> There have also been increase in pre-dominance of [[Hindutva]] in [[Nepal]], similar to that of [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?|url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/24085/will-an-incident-of-anti-muslim-violence-upend-nepals-bid-for-inclusivity|access-date=2 March 2021|website=www.worldpoliticsreview.com|date=30 January 2018|language=en|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413000033/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/24085/will-an-incident-of-anti-muslim-violence-upend-nepals-bid-for-inclusivity|url-status=live}}</ref> The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to the cultural influences such as [[Yoga]] and [[Hare Krishna movement]] by many missionaries organisations, especially by [[ISKCON]] and this is also due to the migration of [[Indian Hindus]] to the other nations of the world.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|p=239}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berg|first1=Travis Vande|last2=Kniss|first2=Fred|date=2008|title=ISKCON and Immigrants: The Rise, Decline, and Rise Again of a New Religious Movement|journal=[[The Sociological Quarterly]]|volume=49|issue=1|pages=79–104|doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00107.x|issn=0038-0253|jstor=40220058|s2cid=146169730}}</ref> Hinduism is growing fast in many [[Hinduism in the West|western nations]] and in some [[Hinduism in Africa|African nations]].{{Refn|* Hinduism is the fastest growing religion in [[Hinduism in Russia|Russia]], [[Hinduism in Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Hinduism in the United States|United States]]. This was due to the influence of the [[ISKCON]] and the migration of [[Hindus]] in these nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/700557/how-iskcon-took-hinduism-to-the-us-heartland|title=How ISKCON took Hinduism to the US heartland|access-date=9 April 2021|website=scroll.in|date=17 January 2015|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511101216/https://scroll.in/article/700557/how-iskcon-took-hinduism-to-the-us-heartland|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Hinduism in the West|In western nations]], the ''growth of Hinduism'' has been very fast and is the second fastest growing religion in [[Europe]], after [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.erg.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.329209.1492613166!/menu/standard/file/Hinduism%20in%20Europe_Abstracts.pdf|title=Hinduism in Europe|website=[[Microsoft Word]]|date=28 April 2017|access-date=9 April 2021|archive-date=23 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523082912/https://www.erg.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.329209.1492613166!/menu/standard/file/Hinduism%20in%20Europe_Abstracts.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=ty78|group=note}}

== Main traditions ==

=== Denominations ===
{{Further|Hindu denominations}}
[[File:Ganesha pachayatana.jpg|thumb|A Ganesha-centric [[Panchayatana puja|Panchayatana]] ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): [[Ganesha]] (centre) with [[Shiva]] (top left), [[Parvati]] (top right), [[Vishnu]] (bottom left) and [[Surya]] (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.]]

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'', ''Smartism'', and ''Vaishnavism''.{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the [[soteriology|soteriological]] outlook.<ref name="sskumar">SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref> The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=371–375}}

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ The global religious landscape: Hindus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ |date=9 February 2020}}, Pew Research (2012)</ref> Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University's Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 399 million Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 385 million Hindus, Shaktism with 305 million Hindus and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million Hindus.<ref name="preston">{{Cite web |last=Preston |first=Charles |title=List of religious populations {{!}} Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations |access-date=2025-02-01 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=14 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114131904/https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations |url-status=live }}</ref>    In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{refn|group=note|According to {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{dubious|date=February 2022}}}}

Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu{{Refn|group=note|sometimes with [[Lakshmi]], the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri;{{sfn|Beck|2005|p=65 and Chapter 5}}}} and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=15–17}} The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" ''Krishna'' and other Vishnu avatars.<ref name=sskumar /> These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of [[Kirtan]]s and [[Bhajan]]s, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nettl |first1=Bruno |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia: the Indian subcontinent |last2=Stone |first2=Ruth M. |last3=Porter |first3=James |last4=Rice |first4=Timothy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1 |pages=246–247 |access-date=21 February 2016 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011163910/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.<ref>{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|pp=1441, 376}}</ref>

Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.<ref name=sskumar /> Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.<ref name="lancenelson">{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|year=2007|pp=562–563}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasise yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=209}} Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualise god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles ([[Ardhanarishvara]]). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.<ref name=lancenelson /> Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the [[Kumbh Mela]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2010), ''God's Gateway: Identity and Meaning in a Hindu Pilgrimage Place'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-538614-1}}</ref> Shaivism has been more commonly practised in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.{{sfn|Isaeva|1995|pp=141–145}}

Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother,<ref name=sskumar /> and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as [[Assam]] and [[West Bengal|Bengal]]. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like [[Parvati]], the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]. Followers of Shaktism recognise Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with [[Tantra]] practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scaligero |first=Massimo |year=1955 |title=The Tantra and the Spirit of the West |journal=East and West |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=291–296 |jstor=29753633}}</ref> Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.<ref>'''History:''' Hans Koester (1929), The Indian Religion of the Goddess Shakti, Journal of the Siam Society, Vol 23, Part 1, pp. 1–18; '''Modern practices:''' June McDaniel (2010), ''Goddesses in World Culture'', Volume 1 (Editor: Patricia Monaghan), {{ISBN|978-0-313-35465-6}}, Chapter 2</ref>

[[Smartism]] centers its worship simultaneously on all the major [[Hindu deities]]: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, [[Surya]] and [[Kartikeya|Skanda]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Flood|1996}} The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards [[Adi Shankara]] as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes ([[Saguna Brahman]]) as a journey towards ultimately realising God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).<ref name="williamw">{{Cite book |last=Wainwright |first=William |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |publisher=Stanford University |year=2012 |chapter=Concepts of God |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323084508/http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Murthy |first=U |title=Samskara |url=https://archive.org/details/samskarariteford0000anan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-561079-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/samskarariteford0000anan/page/n150 150]}}</ref> The term ''Smartism'' is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref name="williamsonp89">{{cite book|first=L |last=Williamson |year=2010 |title=Transcendent in America: Hindu-inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9450-0 |page=89}}</ref> This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Murray |title=Status and Sacredness |url=https://archive.org/details/statussacredness00miln |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-508489-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statussacredness00miln/page/194 194]–197}}</ref>

=== Ethnicities ===
[[File:Prambanan Java245.jpg|thumb|[[Prambanan]] Hindu temple complex built in the 9th century, [[Java]], Indonesia]]
[[File:Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg|thumb|[[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] at [[Pura Besakih]], one of the most significant [[Balinese Hinduism]] temples]]
{{See also|Hinduism in South Asia|Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism in Java|Hinduism in Vietnam|Hinduism in the West|label 2=Southeast Asia|label 3=Bali|l4=Java|l5=Vietnam|l6=West}}

Hinduism is traditionally a multi- or [[Polyethnicity|polyethnic]] religion. On the [[Indian subcontinent]], it is widespread among many [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]], [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] and other [[South Asian ethnic groups]],{{sfn|West|2010}} for example, the [[Meitei people]] ([[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state [[Manipur]]).{{sfn|Singh|2004}}

In addition, in antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], Hinduism was the [[state religion]] in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the ''[[Greater India]]''{{snd}}from Afghanistan ([[Kabul]]) in the West and including almost all of [[Southeast Asia]] in the East ([[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], partly [[Philippines]]){{snd}}and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam,{{sfnm|1a1=Cœdès|1y=1968|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=|3a1=Acri|3a2=Creese|3a3=Griffiths|3y=2011|3p=}}<ref name="spread">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|url-status=live}}</ref> except several still Hindu minor [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] ethnic groups, such as the [[Balinese people|Balinese]]{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} and [[Tenggerese people]]{{sfnm|1a1=Hefner|1y=1989|1p=|2a1=Kinney|2a2=Klokke|2a3=Kieven |2y=2003|2p=}} in Indonesia, and the [[Chams]] in Vietnam.{{sfnm|1a1=Phuong|1a2=Lockhart|1y=2011|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=231}} Also, a small community of the Afghan [[Pashtuns]] who migrated to India after [[partition of India|partition]] remain committed to Hinduism.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |title=Tattooed 'blue-skinned' Hindu Pushtuns look back at their roots |author=Haider, Suhasini |date=3 February 2018 |website=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=9 February 2020 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822082221/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Indo-Aryan [[Kalash people]] in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which is closely related to ancient Indo-Iranian religion, and resembles the ancient Vedic religion.{{sfn|Michael|2004}} While it has been related to Greek religion, due to an origin-narrative which says that the Kalash descend from Alexander the Great's Greek soldiers, the Kalash speak an Indo-Aryan language, and their religion is closer to Hinduism than to the religion of Alexander's army.{{sfn|West|2010|p=[{{Google books|id=pCiNqFj3MQsC|plainurl=y|page=357|keywords=|text=}} 357]|loc=quote: "The Kalasha [...] religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash [...] However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies."}}

There are many new ethnic [[Hinduism in Ghana|Ghanaian Hindus]] in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of [[Swami Ghanananda Saraswati]] and [[Hindu Monastery of Africa]]<ref name="Joshi">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/10401741.stm |title=Ghana's unique African-Hindu temple |author=Rajesh Joshi |website=BBC News |date= |access-date= |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231013628/https://www.bbc.com/news/10401741 |url-status=live }}</ref> From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.{{sfn|Carney|2020}}

== Scriptures ==
{{Main|List of Hindu texts}}

{{See also|Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism}}
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Rigveda]]'' is the first among four Vedas<ref group="note">Rigveda is not only the oldest among the Vedas, but is one of the earliest [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] texts.</ref> and is one of the oldest [[religious texts]]. This Rigveda [[manuscript]] is in [[Sanskrit]].]]
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are initially in [[Vedic Sanskrit]] and later in classical Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: [[Śruti|Shruti]] and [[Smriti]]. Shruti is ''[[apauruṣeyā]]'', ({{literal translation|not made of a man}}) but revealed by the ''[[rishis]]'' ({{literal translation|seers}}), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=202}} They are the two highest [[sources of dharma]], the other two being ''[[Ācāra|Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara]]'' ({{literal translation|conduct of noble people}}) and finally ''[[Atmatusti|Ātma tuṣṭi]]'' ({{literal translation|what is pleasing to oneself}}).{{refn|group=note|According to [[Bhavishya Purana]], Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7, there are four [[sources of dharma]]: ''[[Śruti]]'' (Vedas), ''[[Smṛti]]'' (Dharmaśāstras, Puranas), ''[[Ācāra|Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara]]'' (conduct of noble people) and finally ''[[Atmatusti|Ātma tuṣṭi]]'' (Self satisfaction). From the sloka:
: {{lang|sa|वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedagyana.info/maha-puranas-telugu/bhavishya-purana/brahma-parva/?chapter=7 |script-title=te:ఏడవ అధ్యాయము – 7. వివాహ ధర్మ వర్ణనము |trans-title=Chapter 7 – 7. Description of Marriage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610234713/http://www.vedagyana.info/maha-puranas-telugu/bhavishya-purana/brahma-parva/?chapter=7 |archive-date=10 June 2020}}</ref>
:''{{IAST|vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam}}''
:– Bhavishya Purāṇa, Brahmaparva, Adhyāya 7
The meaning is ''vedas, smritis, good (approved) tradition and what is agreeable to one's Self (conscience), the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma''.}}

Hindu scriptures were composed, memorised and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.{{sfn|Flood|2003|loc=See [[Michael Witzel]] quote|pp=68–69}}{{sfn|Sargeant|Chapple|1984|p=3}}

''Shruti'' ({{literal translation|that which is heard}}){{sfn|Rinehart|2004|p=68}} primarily refers to the ''Vedas'', which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (''rishis'').{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=4}} There are four ''Vedas'' – ''[[Rigveda]]'', ''[[Samaveda]]'', ''[[Yajurveda]]'' and ''[[Atharvaveda]]''. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the [[Samhita]]s (mantras and benedictions), the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the [[Upanishads]] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=35–39}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|pp=8–14}}<ref>George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-533261-2}}, p. 285</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1975), ''Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas)'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}</ref> The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the ''{{IAST|Karmakāṇḍa}}'' (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ''{{IAST|Jñānakāṇḍa}}'' (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).<ref>{{harvnb|Roer|1908|pp=1–5}}; "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) {{IAST|pūrva-kāṇḍa}}, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the {{IAST|jñāna-kāṇḍa}}, the part which contains knowledge, also named {{IAST|uttarra-kāṇḍa}} or posterior part and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal Self."</ref>{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=10, 58, 66}}{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=25–41}}<ref name="Olivelle1998Introduction">{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |year=1998 |title=Upaniṣads |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-282292-5 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions.<ref name="wendydoniger" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dissanayake |first=Wiman |title=Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1080-6 |editor-last=Kasulis |editor-first=Thomas P. |page=39 |quote=The Upanishads form the '''foundations of Hindu philosophical thought''' and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self |display-editors=etal}}</ref><ref name="McDowell" /> Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.<ref name="wendydoniger">{{harvnb|Doniger|1990|pp=2–3}}: "The Upanishads supply the '''basis of later Hindu philosophy'''; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref name="Olivelle2014p3q" /> Indian philosopher [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |year=1969|orig-date=1953 |title=The Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/PrincipalUpanishads/129481965-The-Principal-Upanishads-by-S-Radhakrishnan#page/n19/mode/2up |publisher=George Allen & Co. |isbn=978-81-7223-124-8 |edition=reprint |pages=17–19}}</ref> There are 108 [[Muktikā]] Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as [[Mukhya Upanishads|Principal Upanishads]].<ref name="Olivelle1998Introduction" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Thirteen Principal Upanishads |year=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |translator-last=Hume |translator-first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n1/mode/2up}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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The most notable of the Smritis ({{literal translation|that which is remembered}}) are the Hindu epics and the ''[[Puranas]]'' ({{literal translation|that which is ancient}}). The epics consist of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''. The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' is an integral part of the ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism.<ref>''Sarvopaniṣado gāvo'', etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', cited in {{cite book |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/introduction/ |title=Bhagavad-gītā |trans-title=As It Is |via=Bhaktivedanta VedaBase |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174201/https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/introduction/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is sometimes called ''Gitopanishad'', then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category, being Upanishadic in content.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coburn |first=Thomas B. |date=September 1984 |title="Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]] |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=435–459 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435 }}</ref> The ''Puranas'', which started to be composed of {{Circa|300 CE}} onward,{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=655}} contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'' is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained renewed popularity in the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michelis |first=Elizabeth De |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHBBDq_Ul3sC |title=A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism |date=2005 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-8772-8 |access-date=14 October 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155602/https://books.google.com/books?id=sHBBDq_Ul3sC |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since the 19th century, Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements{{sfn|Lorenzen|2002|p=33}} and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.{{sfn|Vivekananda|1987|loc=Volume I|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Harshananda|1989}}

[[Tantra]] are the religious scriptures that give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form. In Tantric tradition, [[Radha]], [[Parvati]], [[Durga]], and [[Kali]] are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balfour |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3U0OAAAAQAAJ&dq=worship+radha&pg=PA62 |title=The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures |date=1885 |publisher=B. Quaritch |pages=60 |language=en |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-date=20 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320150436/https://books.google.com/books?id=3U0OAAAAQAAJ&dq=worship+radha&pg=PA62 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''[[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]]'' in Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti,{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=13}} while ''Nigamas'' refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=13}} In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhavamony |first=Mariasusai |title=Hindu Spirituality |publisher=Gregorian University and Biblical Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |pages=31–34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=David |title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India |url=https://archive.org/details/danceofsivarelig0000smit |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-48234-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/danceofsivarelig0000smit/page/116 116]}}</ref>

== Beliefs ==
[[File:Halebid3.JPG|thumb|right|Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the [[Hoysaleswara Temple]] in [[Halebidu]], representing the [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]]]]
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) [[Dharma]] (ethics/duties), [[samsara|{{IAST|Saṃsāra}}]] (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices).{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterised by a belief in an [[Afterlife]], with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such as [[Śrāddha]]. [[Ancestor worship]] once formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.<ref name="A.M. Boyer 1901">A.M. Boyer: ''Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara.'' Journal Asiatique, (1901), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451–453, 459–468</ref><ref name="Yuvraj Krishan 1997">Yuvraj Krishan: ''Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan'', 1997, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref><ref name="Laumakis">{{Cite book |last=Laumakis |first=Stephen J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC |title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46966-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155520/https://books.google.co.ma/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hayakawa 2014">{{Cite book |last=Hayakawa |first=Atsushi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7LtAgAAQBAJ |title=Circulation of Fire in the Veda |date=2014 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-90472-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sayers">{{Cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor Worship in Ancient India |year=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="repositories.lib.utexas.edu">{{Cite thesis |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |date=May 2008 |degree=Thesis |first=Matthew R. |last=Sayers |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sayers 182–197">{{Cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=June 2015 |title=The Śrāddha : The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism: The Śrāddha |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |journal=Religion Compass |language=en |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=182–197 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12155 |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119210615/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Purusharthas ===
{{Main|Puruṣārtha}}

{{See also|Diksha|l1=Diksha|Dharma|l2=Dharma|Artha|l3=Artha|Kama|l4=Kāma|Moksha#Hinduism|l5=Mokṣa}}
Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas – [[Dharma]], [[Artha]], [[Kama]] and [[Moksha]].<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103">{{harvnb|Bilimoria|Prabhu|Sharma|2007}}; see also {{harvnb|Koller|1968}}.</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1997|p=11}}

==== Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics) ====
{{Main|Dharma}}

Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=The Fruits of Our Desiring |year=1996a |isbn=978-1-896209-30-2 |editor-last=Lipner |editor-first=Julius |pages=16–21 |chapter=The meaning and context of the Purusarthas |publisher=Bayeux |author-link=Gavin Flood}}</ref> The concept of dharma includes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with [[rta]], the order that makes life and universe possible,<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 "Dharma"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926234045/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 |date=26 September 2016 }}, The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]'': "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."</ref> and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".<ref name="tce">{{Cite book |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5 |edition=6th |chapter=Dharma}}</ref> Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref name=tce /> Dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.<ref name="vanbuitenen">{{Cite journal |last=Van Buitenen |first=J. A. B. |date=April–July 1957 |title=Dharma and Moksa |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=7 |issue=1/2 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.2307/1396832 |jstor=1396832}}</ref> The [[Brihadaranyaka]] Upanishad states it as:

{{blockquote|Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv<ref>[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Charles Johnston]], The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra, {{ISBN|978-1-4959-4653-0}}, p. 481, for discussion: pp. 478–505</ref><ref>Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), "From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Vol 32, pp. 423–448, (2004)</ref>}}

In the [[Mahabharata]], [[Krishna]] defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word ''Sanātana'' means ''eternal'', ''perennial'', or ''forever''; thus, ''Sanātana Dharma'' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Prabhupādā |first=A. C. Bhaktivedanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither%20beginning%20nor%20end%22&pg=PA16 |title=Bhagavad-gītā as it is |publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-89213-268-3 |page=16 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174159/https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither+beginning+nor+end%22&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life) ====
{{Main|Artha}}

Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.{{sfn|Koller|1968}} The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|pp=55–56}}<ref name="bruces">Bruce Sullivan (1997), ''Historical Dictionary of Hinduism'', {{ISBN|978-0-8108-3327-2}}, pp. 29–30</ref>

A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.<ref>John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct. 1968), pp. 315–319</ref>

==== Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure) ====
{{Main|Kama}}

Kāma (Sanskrit, [[Pali]]: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, and pleasure of the [[senses]], the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Macy |first=Joanna |year=1975 |title=The Dialectics of Desire |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.2307/3269765 |jstor=3269765}}</ref><ref name="mmwse">Monier Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html काम, kāma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019211540/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html |date=19 October 2017 }} ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary'', p. 271, see 3rd column</ref>
[[File:Khajuraho couple kissing.jpg|thumb|493x493px|[[Tantra|Tantric]] depiction of loving embrace at a temple relief of [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India – a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]]

In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|Epic]] the [[Mahabharata]] describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).<ref>R. Prasad (2008), ''History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization'', Volume 12, Part 1, {{ISBN|978-8180695445}}, Chapter 10, particularly pp. 252–255</ref>

In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.<ref>See:
*"The Hindu Kama Shastra Society" (1925), ''[https://archive.org/stream/kamasutraofvatsy00vatsuoft#page/8/mode/2up The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana]'', University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8;
*A. Sharma (1982), ''The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology'', Michigan State University, {{ISBN|978-99936-24-31-8}}, pp. 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (July 1984), pp. 140–142;
*A. Sharma (1999), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 "The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174154/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 |date=29 December 2020 }}, ''The Journal of Religious Ethics'', Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;
*Chris Bartley (2001), ''Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy'', Editor: Oliver Learman, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, p. 443</ref>

==== Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering) ====
{{Main|Moksha}}

Moksha ({{Langx|sa|मोक्ष|translit=mokṣa}}) or mukti ({{Langx|sa|मुक्ति|links=no}}) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation from [[samsara]] (a birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.<ref name="vanbuitenen" />{{sfn|Rinehart|2004|pp=19–21}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Long|first=J. Bruce|title=The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata|publisher=University of California Press|year=1980|isbn=978-0-520-03923-0|editor-last=O'Flaherty|editor-first=Wendy D.|chapter=2 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions}}</ref>

[[File:The Muktinath Temple.jpg|thumb|217x217px|[[Muktinath]] temple in [[Mustang District|Mustang]], [[Nepal]], considered one of the focal pilgrimage places for liberation ([[moksha]] or [[nirvana]])]]

Due to the belief in Hinduism that the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is eternal, and the concept of [[Purusha]] (the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness),<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Far East and Australasia, 2003 – Regional surveys of the world |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85743-133-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |page=39 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174155/https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |url-status=live }}</ref> death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal Atman or Purusha.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |title=Hindu spirituality – Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia |publisher=Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana |year=1999 |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |page=1 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229001010/https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Differing views on the nature of moksha =====
The meaning of ''moksha'' differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.

[[Advaita Vedanta]] holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical to [[Brahman]].<ref name=karlpotter /><ref name=klausklost />

More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter">{{Cite journal|last=Potter|first=Karl H.|date=1958|title=Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=8|issue=1/2|pages=49–63|doi=10.2307/1397421|jstor=1397421|issn=0031-8221}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ingalls|first=Daniel H. H.|date=1957d|title=Dharma and Moksha|url=https://cup.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Philosophies-of-Happiness-Supplementary-Notes.pdf|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=7|issue=2|pages=41–48|doi=10.2307/1396833|jstor=1396833}}{{dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="danielingails">{{Cite book|last=Pal|first=Jagat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|title=Karma, Dharma and Moksha: Conceptual Essays on Indian Ethics|date=2004|publisher=Abhijeet Publications|isbn=978-81-88683-23-9|language=en|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164240/https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="klausklost">{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|title=Philosophy East & West|date=1985|publisher=[[University Press of Hawaii]]|pages=61–71|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter" /><ref name="danielingails" /> ''Moksha'' when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests [[Klaus Klostermaier]],<ref name="klausklost" /> implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.<ref name="klausklost" />

Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the [[vedanta|Vedantic school]] separates this into two views – ''[[jivanmukta|Jivanmukti]]'' (liberation in this life) and ''[[videha mukti|Videhamukti]]'' (liberation after death).<ref name="klausklost" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Brück |first=M. |year=1986 |title=Imitation or Identification? |journal=Indian Theological Studies |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=95–105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fort|first=Andrew O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation|title=Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta|date=1998|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-0-7914-3904-3|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164245/https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation#v=snippet&q=Jivanmukti%20in%20Transformation&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Karma and saṃsāra ===
{{Main|Karma}}

''Karma'' translates literally as ''action'', ''work'', or ''deed'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman S |url=https://archive.org/details/studentsenglishs00apte_271 |title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |year=1997 |isbn=978-81-208-0300-8 |edition=New |location=Delhi}}</ref> and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |year=1991 |title=The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions |location=San Francisco |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0-06-250799-0 |page=64 |author-link=Huston Smith |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsreligions000smit}}</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1964), "The Naturalistic Principle of Karma", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (April 1964), pp. 39–49</ref> The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicisation, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.<ref name="wdointro">Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. xi–xxv (Introduction) and 3–37</ref> Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to their actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives.<ref name=wdointro /><ref>Karl Potter (1980), in ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'' (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. 241–267</ref> This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called ''[[saṃsāra]]''. Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting [[Ānanda (Hindu philosophy)|happiness]] and [[Peace#Hinduism|peace]].{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1996|p=254}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |title=Jnana Yoga |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4254-8288-6 |author-link=Swami Vivekananda |pages=301–302}} (8th Printing 1993)</ref> Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chapple|first=Christopher Key|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity|title=Karma and Creativity|date=1986|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-0-88706-250-6|pages=60–64|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity#v=snippet&q=Karma%20and%20Creativity&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The idea of [[reincarnation]], or [[saṃsāra]], is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Boyer |first=A. M. |year=1901 |title=Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara |journal=Journal Asiatique |volume=9 |issue=18 |pages=451–453, 459–468}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Krishan |first=Yuvraj |title=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1997 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref> The later layers of the ''Rigveda'' do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.{{sfn|Laumakis|2008|pp=90–99}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ranade |first=R. D. |url=https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926#page/n181/mode/2up |title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1926 |pages=147–148 |quote=... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.}}</ref> According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as ''sraddha'' (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the ''Aranyakas'' and the ''Upanisads'' show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |pages=1–9 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |first=Matthew Rae |last=Sayers |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Texas |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |page=12 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=1 November 2015 |editor-last=McGovern |editor-first=Nathan |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=336–338 |doi=10.1093/jhs/hiv034 |issn=1756-4255 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204170604/https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the [[Upanishads]] of the late [[Vedic period]], predating the [[Buddha]] and the [[Mahavira]].<ref name="damienkeown32">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |title=Buddhism: A very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966383-5 |pages=28, 32–38 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164154/https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Laumakis|2008}}

=== Concept of God ===
{{Main|Ishvara|God in Hinduism}}

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs<ref name="Lipner2009p8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chakravarti |first=Sitansu |title=Hinduism, a way of life |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1991 |isbn=978-81-208-0899-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |page=71 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413105302/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Smart |first=Ninian |year=2007 |title=Polytheism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |access-date=5 July 2007 |archive-date=5 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805040843/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469156/polytheism |url-status=live }}</ref> its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]] followed. It is sometimes referred to as [[God in Hinduism|henotheistic]] (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralisation.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=xiv}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gill |first=N.S |title=Henotheism |work=About.com Education |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317151629/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-date=17 March 2007 |access-date=5 July 2007 |publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]]}}</ref>

{{Rquote|left|"Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen?"|[[Nasadiya Sukta]], concerns the [[origin of the universe]], [[Rigveda]], ''10:129–6''{{sfn|Kramer|1986|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34 34–]}}{{sfn|Christian|2011|pp=[https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n46 18–]}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA206 206–]}}}}
The ''[[Nasadiya Sukta]]'' (''Creation Hymn'') of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' is one of the earliest texts{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=226}} which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|pp=20–21}}</ref><ref name="3translations">* Original Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९ Rigveda 10.129] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525145645/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%3A_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF |date=25 May 2017 }} Wikisource;
* '''Translation 1''': {{harvnb|Muller|1859|pp=559–565}}
* '''Translation 2''': {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|p=[https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram/page/21 21]}}
* '''Translation 3''': {{harvnb|Christian|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA17 17]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18 18]}}</ref> The ''Rig Veda'' praises various [[Hindu deities|deities]], none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.<ref>{{cite book |last=Muller |first=Max |author-link=Max Muller |year=1878 |title=Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India |publisher=Longmans Green & Co |pages=260–271}} {{cite book |last=Wilkins |first=William Joseph |year=1882 |title=Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic |publisher=London Missionary Society |location=Calcutta |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8 |access-date=19 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164250/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The hymns repeatedly refer to [[Brahman|One Truth and One Ultimate Reality]]. The "One Truth" of [[Vedas|Vedic literature]], in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raghavendrachar |first=H.N. |year=1944 |title=Monism in the Vedas |journal=The Half-yearly Journal of the Mysore University |department=Section A – Arts |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=137–152 |url=http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206070146/http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2015}} {{cite journal |last=Werner |first=K. |year=1982 |title=Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=14–24|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00158575 |s2cid=163754819 }} {{cite journal |last=Coward |first=H. |year=1995 |department=Book Review |title=The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas |journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=45–47 |doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1116 |quote=There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{multiple image
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 300
| perrow = 2
| title = [[Hindu deities|Gods and Goddesses]] in Hinduism
| image1 = The Hindu God Vishnu LACMA M.70.5.1 (1 of 12).jpg
| alt1 = Vishnu
| caption1 = [[Vishnu]]
| image2 = Brahma on hamsa.jpg
| alt2 = Brahma
| caption2 = [[Brahma]]
| image3 = MurudeshwarStatue.JPG
| alt3 = Shiva
| caption3 = [[Shiva]]
| image4 = Durga idol 2011 Burdwan.jpg
| alt4 = Shakti
| caption4 = [[Shakti]]
}}

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called the ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]]''. The Self is believed to be eternal.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}} According to the monistic/pantheistic ([[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualist]]) theologies of Hinduism (such as [[Advaita Vedanta]] school), this [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is indistinct from [[Brahman]], the supreme spirit or [[Ultimate reality|the Ultimate Reality]].<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvnb | Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita school]], is to realise that [[Jiva|one's Self]] is identical to [[Paramatman|supreme Self]], that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.{{sfn|Vivekananda|1987}}<ref>John Koller (2012), ''Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'' (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pp. 99–107</ref><ref>Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in ''Living Liberation in Hindu Thought'' (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pp. 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref> [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|Dualistic]] schools ([[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]] and [[Bhakti]]) understand [[Brahman]] as a Supreme Being separate from [[Ātman (Hinduism)|individual Selfs]].<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">R Prasad (2009), ''A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals'', Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pp. 345–347</ref> They worship the Supreme Being variously as [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]], depending upon the sect. God is called ''[[Ishvara]]'', ''[[Bhagavan]]'', ''[[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshwara]]'', ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'', and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.{{sfn|Eliade|2009|pp=73–76}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|pp=37–39, 401–403, 498–503}}{{sfn|Monier-Williams|2001}}

Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berntsen |first=Maxine |url=https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell |title=The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-88706-662-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell/page/n45 18]–19 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n301/mode/2up Taittiriya Upanishad] Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pp. 281–282; Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp. 229–231</ref> It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the [[Vedas|Vedic]] foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from [[animism]], in which all things are themselves divine.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, [[man and nature]], etc. The [[Vedas|Vedic]] view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.<ref name="Wallin1999p64">{{Cite book |last1=Buttimer |first1=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |title=Nature and Identity in Cross-Cultural Perspective |last2=Wallin |first2=L. |publisher=Springer |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7923-5651-6 |pages=64–68 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162533/https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mabry |first=John R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |title=Noticing the Divine: An Introduction to Interfaith Spiritual Guidance |publisher=Morehouse |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8192-2238-1 |pages=32–33 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160602/https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Samovar |first1=Larry A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |title=Communication Between Cultures |last2=Porter |first2=Richard E. |last3=McDaniel |first3=Edwin R. |publisher=Cengage |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-305-88806-7 |pages=140–144 |display-authors=etal |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]] name celestial entities called ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (or ''{{IAST|[[Devi]]}}'' in feminine form), which may be translated into English as ''gods'' or ''heavenly beings''.{{refn|group=note|For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=492}}. For translation of ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' as "godhead, divinity", see: {{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=495}}.}} The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, [[Hindu architecture|architecture]] and through [[Hindu iconography|icons]], and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the [[Puranas]]. They are, however, often distinguished from [[Ishvara]], a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping [[Ishvara]] in one of its particular manifestations as their ''{{IAST|[[iṣṭa devatā]]}}'', or chosen ideal.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=9, 15, 49, 54, 86}}{{sfn|Renou|1964|p=55}} The choice is a matter of individual preference,<ref name="harman1">{{harvnb|Harman|2004|pp=104–106}}</ref> and of regional and family traditions.<ref name=harman1 />{{refn|group=note|Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are called ''[[Kuladevata|Kuldevis]]'' or ''[[Kuladevata|Kuldevata]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harlan |first=Lindsey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-07339-5 |pages=19–20, 48 with footnotes |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The multitude of Devas is considered manifestations of Brahman.<ref name=avatars>* {{harvnb|Hark|DeLisser|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "Three gods or [[Trimurti]], [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]], and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of [[Brahman]]."
* {{harvnb|Toropov|Buckles|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities is understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality."
* {{harvnb|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas."</ref>

[[File:Vishnu Avatars.jpg|thumb|Hindu god [[Vishnu]] (centre) surrounded by his [[Dashavatara|ten major avatars]], namely [[Matsya]]; [[Kurma]]; [[Varaha]]; [[Narasimha]]; [[Vamana]]; [[Parashurama]]; [[Rama]]; [[Krishna]]; [[Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]], and [[Kalki]]]]
The word ''[[avatar]]'' does not appear in the [[Vedas|Vedic literature]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bassuk |first=Daniel E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1987 |isbn=978-1-349-08642-9 |pages=2–4 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160747/https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> It appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hacker |first=Paul |title=Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=1978 |isbn=978-3-447-04860-6 |editor-last=Schmithausen |editor-first=Lambert |pages=424, also 405–409, 414–417 |language=de}}</ref> Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the ''avatars'' of Hindu god [[Vishnu]], though the idea has been applied to other deities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865735-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |edition=Second |volume=2 |pages=707–708}}</ref> Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten [[Dashavatara]] of the ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' and the twenty-two avatars in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18}} The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based [[Shaktism]] tradition, avatars of the [[Devi]] are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same [[Brahman|metaphysical Brahman]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDaniel |first=June |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC&pg=PA90 |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-534713-5 |pages=90–91}}</ref> and [[Shakti]] ''(energy)''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawley |first1=John Stratton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |title=The life of Hinduism |last2=Narayanan |first2=Vasudha |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24914-1 |page=174 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174125/https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1522-3 |pages=115–119 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160534/https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |url-status=live }}</ref> While avatars of other deities such as [[Ganesha]] and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.<ref>"Shiva" in {{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002b|p=635}}</ref>

Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early [[Nyaya]] school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist,<ref>John Clayton (2010), ''Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, page 150</ref> but later [[Nyaya]] school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic.<ref>Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0365-7}}, pp. 209–210</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reichenbach |first=Bruce R. |date=April 1989 |title=Karma, causation, and divine intervention |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=135–149 [145] |doi=10.2307/1399374 |jstor=1399374 |url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |access-date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027070413/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |archive-date=27 October 2009|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. [[Samkhya]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajadhyaksha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |title=The six systems of Indian philosophy |year=1959 |page=95 |quote=Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mimamsa<ref name=Coward2008p114>{{harvnb|Coward|2008|p=114}}: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."</ref> and [[Carvaka]] schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption".<ref group="web">[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft_djvu.txt Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra] I.92.</ref>{{sfn|Sen Gupta|1986|p=viii}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neville |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |title=Religious truth |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7914-4778-9 |page=51 |publisher=SUNY Press |quote=Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |url-status=live }}</ref> Its [[Vaisheshika]] school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.<ref>A Goel (1984), ''Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science'', Sterling, {{ISBN|978-0-86590-278-7}}, pp. 149–151</ref><ref>Collins, Randall (2000), ''The sociology of philosophies'', Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00187-9}}, p. 836</ref>{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=337–338}} The [[Raja yoga|Yoga]] school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define their god.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-64887-5 |pages=39–41 |author-link=Mikel Burley}}; {{Cite book |last=Pflueger |first=Lloyd |title=Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-208-3232-9 |editor-last=Knut Jacobsen |pages=38–39}}; {{Cite book |last=Behanan |first=K. T. |title=Yoga: Its Scientific Basis |publisher=Dover |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-486-41792-9 |pages=56–58 |author-link1=K. T. Behanan}}</ref> Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious".<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), ''Theory and Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pp. 77–78</ref> Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347" />

[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|[[Ardhanarishvara]], showing both feminine and masculine aspect of god in Hinduism]]
God in Hinduism is often represented having both the [[God and gender in Hinduism|feminine and masculine]] aspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati ([[Ardhanarishvara]]), [[Vishnu]] accompanied by Lakshmi, [[Radha]] with [[Krishna]] and [[Sita]] with [[Rama]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rankin|first=John|date=1 June 1984|title=Teaching Hinduism: Some Key Ideas|journal=British Journal of Religious Education|volume=6|issue=3|pages=133–160|doi=10.1080/0141620840060306|issn=0141-6200}}</ref>

According to [[Graham Schweig]], Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=441}} The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric [[Shaivism|Saiva traditions]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=200–203}}

=== Authority ===
{{Anchor|Questioning authority}}
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism.<ref name="frazier1415">{{Cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies |date=2011 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/14 14]–15, 321–325 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars.<ref name=frazier1415 /> But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason."<ref name=frazier1415 /> Narratives in the [[Upanishads]] present characters questioning persons of authority.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The [[Kena Upanishad]] repeatedly asks ''kena'', 'by what' power something is the case.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The [[Katha Upanishad]] and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticises the teacher's inferior answers.<ref name=frazier1415 /> In the [[Shiva Purana]], Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.<ref name=frazier1415 /> Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.<ref name=frazier1415 /> [[Jayadeva]]'s [[Gita Govinda]] presents criticism via [[Radha]].<ref name=frazier1415 />

Titles such as [[Guru]], [[Acharya]], or [[Mahacharya]] may be used to remark authority in Hindu and yogic traditions.

== Practices ==
Practices in Hinduism include worship at home, at temples, and at sacred places such as rivers, mountains, etc. The underpinning of Hindu worship is ''bhakti'', or loving devotion to God. Worship includes practices such as ''puja, arti,'' and ''havan''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Different forms of worship - Practices in Hinduism - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - AQA |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zvrsv9q/revision/4 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=BBC Bitesize |language=en-GB}}</ref>{{Main|Puja (Hinduism)|Arti (Hinduism)|Abhisheka|Japa|Havan|Yajna|Hindu wedding}}

=== Rituals at home ===
[[File:(A) Hindu wedding, Saptapadi ritual before Agni Yajna.jpg|right|thumb|A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in their life. A typical [[Hindu wedding]] is solemnised before Vedic [[Yajna|fire]] ritual (shown).{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=427}}]]
Most Hindus observe [[Puja (Hinduism)|religious rituals at home]].<ref>{{harvnb|Muesse|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/hindutraditionsc00mues/page/216 216]}}. "rituals daily prescribe routine"</ref> The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, [[meditation]], chanting mantras and others.{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=145–146}}

=== Yajna ===
Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (''[[yajna]]'') and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=A |year=1985 |title=Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition |journal=Journal of Ecumenical Studies |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=69–80}}</ref> Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic [[mantra]]s.<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 |url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm |access-date=25 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605133731/http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm |archive-date=5 June 2007}}</ref>

The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=346–347}} and "do not constitute [[Speech act|linguistic utterances]]."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become [[Magic (supernatural)|magical]] sounds, "means to an end."{{refn|group=note|Klostermaier: "''Brahman'', derived from the root ''bŗh'' {{=}} to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified [[Speech act|speech-act]]" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}} quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), [https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds ''Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds''], p.4.}} In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the ''mantras'' will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}}<ref name="Coward2008p114" />

=== ''Sādhanā'' ===
{{Main|Sādhanā}}

Sādhanā is derived from the root "sādh-", meaning "to accomplish", and denotes a means for the realisation of spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage. They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=36–37}}<ref>NK Brahma, Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā, {{ISBN|978-8120333062}}, pp. ix–x</ref>

=== Life-cycle rites of passage ===
{{Main|Saṃskāra}}

Major life stage milestones are celebrated as ''sanskara'' (''saṃskāra'', [[rites of passage]]) in Hinduism.<ref name="pandey">{{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=R |title=Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1969 |isbn=978-81-208-0434-0 |edition=2nd |location=Delhi}}</ref><ref name="knipe">{{Cite book |last=Knipe |first=David |title=Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-939769-3 |page=52}}</ref> The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally.<ref name="pvkanesamsk">{{Cite book |last=Kane |first=PV |title=History of Dharmasastras |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |series=Part I |volume=II |pages=190–417 |chapter=Saṁskāra |year=1941 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofdharmas029210mbp#page/n248/mode/2up}}</ref> Gautama [[Dharmasutra]]s composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras,<ref name="patrick" /> while [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Gryhasutra]] and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras.<ref name="pandey" /><ref name="carlolson">{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=Carl |title=The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9 |pages=93–94}}</ref> The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as [[Compassion#Hinduism|compassion]] towards all living beings and positive attitude.<ref name="patrick">{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=Dharmasutras – The Law Codes of Ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009b |isbn=978-0-19-955537-6 |pages=90–91}}</ref>

The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include<ref name="pvkanesamsk" /> [[Garbhadhana]] (pregnancy), [[Pumsavana]] (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), [[Simantonnayana]] (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), ''Jatakarman'' (rite celebrating the new born baby), ''Namakarana'' (naming the child), ''Nishkramana'' (baby's first outing from home into the world), ''Annaprashana'' (baby's first feeding of solid food), ''Chudakarana'' (baby's first haircut, tonsure), ''Karnavedha'' (ear piercing), ''Vidyarambha'' (baby's start with knowledge), [[Upanayana]] (entry into a school rite),<ref>For Vedic school, see: {{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Brian K. |year=1986 |title=Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India |journal=Numen |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=65–89 |doi=10.2307/3270127 |jstor=3270127}}</ref><ref>For music school, see: {{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=Alison |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1 |volume=5 |page=459 |display-authors=etal}} For sculpture, crafts and other professions, see: {{cite book|first=Heather |last=Elgood |year=2000 |title=Hinduism and the religious arts |isbn=978-0-304-70739-3 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |pages=32–134}}</ref> ''Keshanta'' and ''Ritusuddhi'' (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), [[Samavartana]] (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), ''Vratas'' (fasting, spiritual studies) and [[Antyeshti]] (cremation for an adult, burial for a child).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Siqueira |first=Thomas N. |date=March 1935 |title=The Vedic Sacraments |journal=Thought |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.5840/thought1935945}}</ref> In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these [[Saṃskāra|sanskaras]] are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as ''[[Śrāddha]]'' (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practised.<ref name="pvkanesamsk" />{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=146–148}}

=== Bhakti (worship) ===
{{Main|Bhakti|Puja (Hinduism)|Japa|Mantra|Bhajan}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
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| image1 = Vishu-kani 1.JPG
| image2 = Kumuthavalli AvatharaAthalam.jpg
| footer = A home shrine with offerings at a regional [[Vishu]] festival (left); a priest in a temple (right)
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''Bhakti'' refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.<ref name="encyclopediabrit" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Bhakti |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174330/https://www.britannica.com/topic/bhakti |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="karen">{{Cite book |last=Pechelis |first=Karen |title=The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |editor-last=Frazier |editor-first=Jessica |pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/107 107]–121 |chapter=Bhakti Traditions |editor-last2=Flood |editor-first2=Gavin}}</ref> ''Bhakti-marga'' is considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha.<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002a|pp=98–100}}; also see articles on karmamārga and jnanamārga</ref> The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are ''Jnana-marga'' (path of knowledge), ''Karma-marga'' (path of works), ''Rāja-marga'' (path of contemplation and meditation).<ref name="johnmartin">{{Cite book |last=Sahajananda |first=John Martin |year=2014 |title=Fully Human Fully Divine |publisher=Partridge India |isbn=978-1-4828-1955-7 |page=60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tiwari |first=Kedar Nath |title=Comparative Religion |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-208-0293-3 |page=31}}</ref>

Bhakti is practised in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, [[japa]]s (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Huyler |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cnNcDn36VHcC |title=Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devotion |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-08905-9 |pages=10–11, 71 |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161119/https://books.google.com/books?id=cnNcDn36VHcC |url-status=live }}</ref> or in a temple before a [[murti]] or sacred image of a deity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gonda |first=Jan |year=1963 |title=The Indian Mantra |journal=Oriens |volume=16 |pages=244–297 |doi=10.1163/18778372-01601016}}</ref>{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=41–50}} [[Hindu temple]]s and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism.<ref name="Foulston2012p20">{{Cite book|last=Foulston|first=Lynn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3N4mGlbutbgC|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1-135-18978-5|editor-last=Cush|editor-first=Denise|pages=21–22, 868|display-editors=etal|access-date=10 November 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161120/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N4mGlbutbgC|url-status=live}}</ref> While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.<ref name="Foulston2012p20" />

One form of daily worship is [[arti (Hinduism)|aarati]], or "supplication", a ritual in which a flame is offered and "accompanied by a song of praise".<ref name="lutgendorf-2007">{{Cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman's+tale|title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804220-4|page=401|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174158/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman%27s+tale|url-status=live}}</ref> Notable aaratis include [[Om Jai Jagdish Hare]], a [[Hindi]] prayer to [[Vishnu]], and [[Sukhakarta Dukhaharta]], a [[Marathi language|Marathi]] prayer to [[Ganesha]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ganesh, the benevolent |date=1995 |publisher=Marg Publications|editor=Pal, Pratapaditya |isbn=81-85026-31-9|location=Bombay |oclc=34752006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Raj |first=Dhooleka S. |title=Where Are You From?: Middle-Class Migrants in the Modern World |date=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23382-9 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1pn917}}</ref> Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to "human exemplar[s]".<ref name="lutgendorf-2007" /> For instance, Aarti is offered to [[Hanuman]], a devotee of God, in many temples where the primary deity is an incarnation of [[Venkateswara|Vishnu]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman's+tale|title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804220-4|pages=23, 262|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174126/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman%27s+tale|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya|Swaminarayan]] temples and home shrines, aarati is offered to [[Swaminarayan]], considered by followers to be [[Supreme God (Hinduism)|Supreme God]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond Brady|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdqDwAAQBAJ&q=an+introduction+to+swaminarayan+hinduism|title=Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism|year= 2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-42114-0|pages=84, 153–154|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174204/https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdqDwAAQBAJ&q=an+introduction+to+swaminarayan+hinduism|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarati,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=51}} kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees.<ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title=Puja |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174151/https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=DeNapoli |first=Antoinette |title=Real Sadhus Sing to God |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-994003-5 |pages=19–24}}</ref> While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reinhart |first=Robin |title=Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryhind0000unse_x1k0 |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryhind0000unse_x1k0/page/35 35]–47|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman.{{sfn|Prentiss|2014}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=72–75}}<ref name="avatars" /> Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalising god.{{sfn|Prentiss|2014|pp=22–29}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865735-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |volume=2 |pages=856–857}}</ref> While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (''saguna Brahman'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Bob |title=Hindus meeting Christians |publisher=OCMS |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-870345-39-2 |pages=288–295 |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Vroom |first=Hendrick |title=No Other Gods |url=https://archive.org/details/noothergodschris0000vroo |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-4097-4 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/noothergodschris0000vroo/page/68 68]–69}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smart |first=Ninian |title=The Yogi and the Devotee |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-68499-6 |pages=52–80}}</ref> Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes (''[[nirguna Brahman]]''), and god within oneself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ardley |first=Jane |title=Spirituality and Politics: Gandhian and Tibetan cases, in The Tibetan Independence Movement |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-138-86264-7 |pages=ix, 98–99, 112–113 |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Helen |title=Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-285-19712-8 |pages=188–189|publisher=Cengage Learning }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhavasar |first=SN |title=Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-208-1937-5 |editor-last=Sundararajan |editor-first=K. R. |pages=28–29 |editor-last2=Mukerji |editor-first2=Bithika}}</ref>

=== Festivals ===
{{Main|List of Hindu festivals}}

[[File:Deepawali-festival.jpg|thumb|right|The festival of lights, [[Diwali]], is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.]]
[[File:Holi Festival of Colors Utah, United States 2013.jpg|thumb|[[Holi]] being celebrated at the [[Sri Sri Radha Krishna Temple]] in [[Utah]], United States]]
[[File:Ganesh mimarjanam EDITED.jpg|thumb|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesh Chaturthi|Ganesh Chaturti]] in [[Hyderabad]], India]]
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: ''Utsava''; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma.<ref name="sandrarobinson" /><ref name="yustf">{{Cite book |last=Yust |first=Karen-Marie |title=Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-4463-5 |page=234 |chapter=Sacred Celebrations, see also Chapter 18.}}</ref> Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar [[Hindu calendar]], many coinciding with either the full moon (''Holi'') or the new moon (''Diwali''), often with seasonal changes.<ref name="denisecushf">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Sandra |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |editor-last=Cush |editor-first=Denise |page=907 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as ''Holi'' and ''Diwali'' are pan-Hindu.<ref name="denisecushf" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Foulston |first1=Lynn |title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul |last2=Abbott |first2=Stuart |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-902210-43-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul/page/155 155]}}</ref>
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over the ''Raksha Bandhan'' (or [[Bhau-beej|Bhai Dooj]]) festival.<ref name="yustf" /><ref>{{harvnb|Holberg|2000|loc=''Festival calendar of India'', p. 120}}: "Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection."</ref> The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, [[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] rituals and feasts.<ref name="sandrarobinson">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Sandra |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |editor-last=Cush |editor-first=Denise |pages=908–912 |display-editors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4725-1151-5 |pages=255, 271–273}}</ref>

Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
{{div col start|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Ashadhi Ekadashi]]
* [[Bonalu]]
* [[Chhath]]
* [[Dashain]]
* [[Diwali]] or [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]] or [[Deepawali]]
* [[Durga Puja]]
* [[Dussehra]]
* [[Ganesh Chaturthi]]
* [[Gowri Habba]]
* [[Gudi Padwa]]
* [[Holi]]
* [[Karva Chauth]]
* [[Kartika Purnima]]
* [[Krishna Janmashtami]]
* [[Maha Shivaratri]]
* [[Makar Sankranti]]
* [[Navaratri]]
* [[Onam]]
* [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]]
* [[Radhashtami]]
* [[Raksha Bandhan]]
* [[Rama Navami]]
* [[Ratha Yatra]]
* [[Sharad Purnima]]
* [[Shigmo]]
* [[Thaipusam]]
* [[Ugadi]]
* [[Vasant Panchami]]
* [[Vishu]]
{{div col end}}

=== Pilgrimage ===
{{See also|Tirtha (Hinduism)|Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India|l2=Tirtha locations|Yatra}}
Many adherents undertake [[pilgrimage]]s, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today.{{Sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=204–05}} Pilgrimage sites are called ''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'', ''Kshetra'', ''Gopitha'' or ''Mahalaya''.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|pp=698–699}}{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013|pp=4, 22, 27, 140–148, 157–158}} The process or journey associated with ''Tirtha'' is called ''Tirtha-yatra''.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=2}} According to the Hindu text ''[[Skanda Purana]]'', Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a [[sadhu]], a [[rishi]], a [[guru]]; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Krishan |last2=Sinha |first2=Anil Kishore |last3=Banerjee |first3=Bijon Gopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC |title=Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-89091-09-5 |pages=3–5 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161616/https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maw |first=Geoffrey Waring |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ |title=Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas |publisher=Sessions Book Trust |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-85072-190-1 |page=7 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=16 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216202914/https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Tīrtha-yatra'' is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013|pp=157–158}}{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=288–289}}

Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the [[Puranas]].{{Sfn|Kane|1953|p=561}}{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=7–9}} Most Puranas include large sections on ''Tirtha Mahatmya'' along with tourist guides,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC |title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-971825-2 |page=146 |quote=The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas'' [in Puranas]. |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161546/https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC |url-status=live }}</ref> which describe sacred sites and places to visit.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|pp=559–560}}{{sfn|Holm|Bowker|2001|p=68}}{{sfn|Rocher|1986|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}} In these texts, [[Varanasi]] (Benares, Kashi), [[Rameswaram]], [[Kanchipuram]], [[Dwarka]], [[Puri]], [[Haridwar]], [[Sri Rangam]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Ayodhya]], [[Tirupati]], [[Mayapur]], [[Nathdwara]], twelve [[Jyotirlinga]] and [[Shakti Pitha]] have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (''sangam'') or join the sea.{{Sfn|Kane|1953 |pp=553–556, 560–561}}{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=7–9}} [[Kumbh Mela]] is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival [[Makar Sankranti]]. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: [[Prayagraj]] at the confluence of the [[Ganges]] and [[Yamuna]] rivers, [[Haridwar]] near source of the [[Ganges]], [[Ujjain]] on the [[Shipra]] river and [[Nashik]] on the bank of the [[Godavari]] river.{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}} This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event.{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}}{{Sfn|Klostermaier |2010|p=553, note 55}}<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last=Taylor |first=Alan |date=14 January 2013 |title=Kumbh Mela: The Largest Gathering on Earth |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/01/kumbh-mela-the-largest-gathering-on-earth/100438/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174128/https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/01/kumbh-mela-the-largest-gathering-on-earth/100438/ |url-status=live }} {{Cite news |last=Memmott |first=Mark |date=14 January 2013 |title=Biggest Gathering On Earth' Begins In India; Kumbh Mela May Draw 100 Million |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/01/14/169313222/biggest-gathering-on-earth-begins-in-india-kumbh-mela-may-draw-100-million |website=NPR |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174326/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/01/14/169313222/biggest-gathering-on-earth-begins-in-india-kumbh-mela-may-draw-100-million |url-status=live }}</ref> At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river,{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}} a tradition attributed to [[Adi Shankara]].{{Sfn|Dalal|2010|loc=chapter Kumbh Mela}}
[[File:Kedar Ghat in Varanasi.jpg|right|thumb|Kedar Ghat, a bathing place for pilgrims on the Ganges at Varanasi]]
Some pilgrimages are part of a ''Vrata'' (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=9–11}}{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=6}} It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a [[sanskara (rite of passage)|rite of passage]] such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bharati |first=Agehananda |year=1963 |title=Pilgrimage in the Indian Tradition |journal=History of Religions |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=135–167 |doi=10.1086/462476|s2cid=162220544 }}</ref> It may also be the result of prayers answered.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}} An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after their death.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}} This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honour the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}}{{refn|group=note|The cremation ashes are called ''phool'' (flowers). These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage called ''asthi sanchayana'', then dispersed during ''asthi visarjana''. This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living. Tirtha locations offer these services.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maclean |first=Kama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HznRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228 |title=Pilgrimage and Power: The Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, 1765–1954 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-971335-6 |pages=228–229 |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161603/https://books.google.com/books?id=HznRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=68}}}}

Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by travelling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|pp=3–5}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amazzone |first=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7618-5314-5 |pages=43–45 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111153836/https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Holm|Bowker|2001|pp=69–77}} Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition.{{Sfn|Lingat|1973|pp=98–99}}{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=4}} The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|p=573}} The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from travelling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|pp=576–577}}

== Culture ==
The term "Hindu culture" refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as [[festivals]] and dress codes followed by the [[Hindus]] which is mainly can be inspired from the [[culture of India]] and [[Culture of Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]].

=== Architecture ===
Hindu architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in [[Hindu texts]].{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41">{{harvnb|Sinha|1998|pages=27–41}}</ref> The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the [[Vastu shastra]]s, [[Shilpa Shastras]], the ''Brihat Samhita'', architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the [[Manasara]] among others.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts}}{{sfn|Shukla|1993|p=}}

By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are [[Hindu temple]]s, with an [[Hindu temple architecture|architectural tradition]] that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut architecture]] dating back to the [[Gupta Empire]]. These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian and [[Hellenistic influence on Indian art|Hellenistic]] architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Vincent Arthur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPstAAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+Hellenistic+is+not+the+only+foreign+element+in+ancient+Indian+art+.+The+influence+of+Persia+is+apparent+,+and+the+columnar+architecture+of+the+Achaemenian+monarchy+supplied+the+models+for+Asoka's+monolithic+pillars+and+many%22|title=Research Articles in Epigraphy, Archaeology, and Numismatics of India|date=1977|publisher=Sheikh Mubarak Ali|language=en}}</ref> Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.<ref name="Murthy1987">{{cite book|author=K. Krishna Murthy|title=Early Indian Secular Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gsNAQAAIAAJ|year=1987|isbn=978-81-85067-01-8|pages=5–16|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan }}</ref>

Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas.<ref name="Branfoot 2008 pp. 171–194">{{cite journal | last=Branfoot | first=Crispin | title=Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred Space in Sixteenth-Century South India | journal=The Art Bulletin | publisher=Taylor & Francis| volume=90 | issue=2 | year=2008 | doi=10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389 | pages=171–194| s2cid=154135978 }}</ref><ref name=harle331>{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=330–331}}</ref> The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.<ref name="Harle1994">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=43–47, 67–68, 467–480}}</ref>

=== Art ===
{{Main|Hindu art}}

[[File:Krishna with flute.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Krishna with cows, herdsmen, and [[Gopi]]s]]

[[Hindu art]] encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

=== Calendar ===
{{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar}}
{{Main|Hindu calendar}}

The Hindu calendar, Panchanga ({{Langx|sa|पञ्चाङ्ग}}) or Panjika is one of various [[lunisolar calendar]]s that are traditionally used in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asia]], with further regional variations for social and [[Hindu]] religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on [[sidereal year]] for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.<ref name="richmond80">{{Cite book |author=B. Richmond |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wwEVAAAAIAAJ |title=Time Measurement and Calendar Construction |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1956 |pages=80–82 |access-date=18 September 2011 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328165207/https://books.google.com/books?id=wwEVAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the [[Shaka era|Shalivahana Shaka]] (Based on the [[Shalivahana|King Shalivahana]], also the [[Indian national calendar]]) found in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan region]] of Southern India and the [[Vikram Samvat]] (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of [[India]] – both of which emphasise the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasised and this is called the [[Tamil calendar]] (though Tamil calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and [[Malayalam calendar]] and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="richmond80" /><ref name="Fuller2004p109">{{cite book |author=Christopher John Fuller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |pages=109–110 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162536/https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |url-status=live }}</ref> A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as [[Panchangam]] (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as [[Panjika]] in Eastern India.<ref>{{cite book |author=Klaus K. Klostermaier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490 |title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |page=490 |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161801/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the [[Hebrew calendar]], the [[Chinese calendar]], and the [[Babylonian calendar]], but different from the Gregorian calendar.<ref name="nesbittbc">{{cite book |author=Eleanor Nesbitt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |title=Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-874557-0 |pages=122–123 |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415073742/https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)<ref>{{cite book |author=Orazio Marucchi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoBjBYdzrkQC&pg=PA289 |title=Christian Epigraphy: An Elementary Treatise with a Collection of Ancient Christian Inscriptions Mainly of Roman Origin |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-23594-5 |page=289}}, Quote: "the lunar year consists of 354 days".</ref> and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.<ref name="nesbittbc" /><ref name="Fuller2004p109" />

The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the [[Hindu]]s all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local [[Buddhist calendar]]s. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anita Ganeri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-EawToG-6YC&pg=PT11 |title=Buddhist Festivals Through the Year |publisher=BRB |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58340-375-4 |pages=11–12}}</ref> The [[Buddhist calendar]] and the traditional lunisolar calendars of [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Thailand]] are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient [[Jain]] traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.{{Sfn|Long|2013|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{cite book |author=John E. Cort |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip7mCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513234-2 |pages=142–146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8 |page=156}}</ref>

The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as [[Ekadashi]].<ref>{{cite web |date=22 May 2017 |title=Ekadasi: Why Ekadasi is celebrated in Hinduism?-by Dr Bharti Raizada |url=https://www.newsgram.com/ekadasi-importance-hinduism/ |website=NewsGram }}{{dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Physical culture ===
{{Main|Hindu physical culture|Hindu martial arts}}

== Person and society ==

=== Varnas ===
{{Main|Varna (Hinduism)}}

[[File:12BCM11.jpg|thumb|Priests performing ''Kalyanam'' (marriage) of the holy deities at [[Bhadrachalam Temple]], in [[Telangana]].|left]]
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called [[Varna (Hinduism)|''varṇas'']]. They are the ''[[Brahmin]]s'': [[Vedas|Vedic]] teachers and priests; the ''[[Kshatriya]]s'': warriors and kings; the ''[[Vaishya]]s'': farmers and merchants; and the ''[[Shudra]]s'': servants and labourers.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=132–180}}
The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gītā]]'' links the varṇa to an individual's duty (''svadharma''), inborn nature (''svabhāva''), and natural tendencies (''[[guṇa]]'').{{sfn|Halbfass|1995|p=264}} The ''[[Manusmriti]]'' categorises the different [[Caste system in India|castes]].<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Manu Smriti Laws of Manu |at=1.87–1.91 |url=http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528064608/http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2010}}</ref>
Some mobility and flexibility within the [[Varna (Hinduism)|varṇas]] challenge allegations of social discrimination in the [[Caste system in India|caste system]], as has been pointed out by several sociologists,<ref name="Silverberg Paper">{{Harvnb|Silverberg|1969|pp=442–443}}</ref>{{sfn|Smelser|Lipset|2005}} although some other scholars disagree.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld00smit_1 |title=The Illustrated World's Religions |publisher=Harper Collins |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067440-3 |location=New York |chapter=Hinduism: The Stations of Life |author-link=Huston Smith |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld00smit_1 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Scholars debate whether the so-called ''[[Caste system in India|caste system]]'' is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=188–197}}<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last=V |first=Jayaram |title=The Hindu Caste System |url=http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_caste.asp |access-date=28 November 2012 |website=Hinduwebsite |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902004553/https://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_caste.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of [[Hindu texts|Hindu sacred texts]] that divinity is inherent in all beings."<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last1=Venkataraman |first1=Swaminathan |last2=Deshpande |first2=Pawan |title=Hinduism: Not Cast In Caste |url=http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/hinduism-not-cast-caste-full-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202101032/http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/hinduism-not-cast-caste-full-report |archive-date=2 December 2012 |access-date=28 November 2012 |publisher=Hindu American Foundation}}</ref>}} And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was introduced by the [[British Raj|British colonial regime]]; which is indeed false as it existed even before the westerners came to India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pattanaik |first=Devdutt |date=2025-09-27 |title=How caste manifested before the British |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/how-caste-manifested-before-the-british/articleshow/124168630.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-10-05 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

A [[sannyasa|renunciant]] man of knowledge is usually called ''Varṇatita'' or "beyond all varṇas" in [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like [[Adi Shankara|Adi Sankara]] affirm that not only is [[Brahman]] beyond all [[Varna (Hinduism)|varṇas]], the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jhingran |first=Saral |title=Aspects of Hindu Morality |url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsofhindumo0000jhin |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-208-0574-3 |location=Delhi |page=[https://archive.org/details/aspectsofhindumo0000jhin/page/143 143] |oclc=905765957}}</ref>

=== Yoga ===
[[File:Shiva Bangalore .jpg|thumb|right|A statue of [[Shiva]] in yogic meditation]]
{{Main|Yoga}}

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that [[Rishi|sages]] have taught for reaching that goal. [[Yoga]] is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health, [[Ātman (Hinduism)|tranquility]], and spiritual insight.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Suresh |title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-7625-039-9 |edition=1st |location=New Delhi |page=178 |oclc=40479929}}</ref> Texts dedicated to [[yoga]] include the ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'', the ''[[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]]'', the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the [[Upanishads]]. [[Yoga]] is means, and the four major ''marga'' (paths) of Hinduism are: [[Bhakti Yoga]] (the path of love and devotion), [[Karma Yoga]] (the path of right action), [[Rāja Yoga]] (the path of meditation), and [[Jñāna Yoga]] (the path of wisdom)<ref name="bhaskaressentgeneral">{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to their inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of [[yoga as exercise]] (traditionally [[Hatha yoga]]) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.{{sfn|Jain|2015|pp=130–157}}

=== Symbolism ===
[[File:Hindu Symbols2.png|thumb|Some of the most prominent Hindu symbols: [[Om]] (left) and the [[Swastika]] (right)]]
Hinduism has a developed system of [[Hindu iconography|symbolism and iconography]] to represent the sacred in art, architecture, [[Hindu texts|literature]] and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable ''[[Om]]'' (which represents the ''[[Brahman]]'' and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the [[Swastika#Hinduism|Swastika]] (from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: स्वस्तिक, [[Romanization of Sanskrit|romanized]]: ''svastika) a'' sign that represents auspiciousness,{{sfn|Doniger|2000|p=1041}} and ''[[Tilaka]]'' (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of [[Third eye|spiritual third eye]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Napier |first=A David |title=Masks, Transformation, and Paradox |publisher=University of California Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-520-04533-0 |pages=186–187}}</ref> marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a [[Puja (Hinduism)|ritual or rite of passage]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=SD |title=Rice: Origin, Antiquity and History |publisher=CRC Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-57808-680-1 |pages=68–70}}</ref> Elaborate ''Tilaka'' with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric [[mandala]] drawings, objects, [[lingam]], idols are all part of [[Hindu iconography|symbolic iconography]] in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao |first=TA Gopinath |title=Elements of Hindu iconography |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2 |pages=1–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerjea |first=JN |title=The Development of Hindu Iconography |date=September 2004 |publisher=Kessinger |isbn=978-1-4179-5008-9 |pages=247–248, 472–508}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Babary, Abrar |author2=Zeeshan, Mahwish |title=Reminiscent of Hinduism: An Insight of Katas Raj Mandir |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37458369/EJSS__30_REMINISCENT_OF_HINDUISM_AN_INSIGHT_OF_KATAS_RAJ_MANDIR_Aftab_Chaudhrys_conflicted_copy_2015-04-29-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1669503265&Signature=I~TyyMPSWigzUm~PSf6wtc9ZkJonPeGFd9TNfh3RWD7xfeNBXX1oBsuba0VIRR~yn4TbjllmNc2EIdjmc3PRPv5UXKaUNSrbjs4HA6ULwg6FInDXfVjOdSAkAk62Yp06Q7S~dRr52ao1euNu8YUNY8tp-KUkJzlOJxwQSgZhJz78Ql388BwiXHmrRf1ApJE87J98awqVlzRfo9wufG-xeDfCzQ4jkrpXpKeYFup0mFlcJg9phn5YF35CrQ2rnVxuuN3xRBKwbkGR3iSR1wLrjoyJxKqrQNDyM6upOiddLPRHDVZd2YiwfC5Ep4F3l77KUzicDuavMds6JhUdFSLQbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |journal=The Explorer: Journal of Social Sciences |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=122 |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=26 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126215653/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37458369/EJSS__30_REMINISCENT_OF_HINDUISM_AN_INSIGHT_OF_KATAS_RAJ_MANDIR_Aftab_Chaudhrys_conflicted_copy_2015-04-29-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1669503265&Signature=I~TyyMPSWigzUm~PSf6wtc9ZkJonPeGFd9TNfh3RWD7xfeNBXX1oBsuba0VIRR~yn4TbjllmNc2EIdjmc3PRPv5UXKaUNSrbjs4HA6ULwg6FInDXfVjOdSAkAk62Yp06Q7S~dRr52ao1euNu8YUNY8tp-KUkJzlOJxwQSgZhJz78Ql388BwiXHmrRf1ApJE87J98awqVlzRfo9wufG-xeDfCzQ4jkrpXpKeYFup0mFlcJg9phn5YF35CrQ2rnVxuuN3xRBKwbkGR3iSR1wLrjoyJxKqrQNDyM6upOiddLPRHDVZd2YiwfC5Ep4F3l77KUzicDuavMds6JhUdFSLQbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Clear left|left}}

=== Ahiṃsā and food customs ===
{{Main|Ahimsa|Diet in Hinduism|Sattvic diet|Mitahara|Jhatka}}

{{Multiple image
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| image1 = Gosala in Guntur, India.jpg
| caption1 = A [[goshala]] or cow shelter at [[Guntur]]
| image2 = '8' A Thali, a traditional style of serving meal in India.jpg
| caption2 = A vegetarian ''[[thali]]''
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Hindus advocate the practice of {{IAST|[[Ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]}} ([[nonviolence]]) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974}} The term ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' appears in the [[Upanishads]],<ref name="Radhakrishnan">{{Cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 |publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd. |year=1929 |edition=2nd |series=Muirhead library of philosophy |location=London |page=148 |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan}}</ref> the epic [[Mahabharata]]<ref>For ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the {{IAST|[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]}} see: {{Cite book |last=Brockington |first=John |title=Flood |year=2003 |page=125 |chapter=The Sanskrit Epics}}</ref> and {{IAST|ahiṃsā}} is the first of the five [[Yamas]] (vows of self-restraint) in [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Patanjali's Yoga Sutras]].<ref>For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of ''{{IAST|yama}}'' as "vow of self-restraint", see: {{Cite book |last=Taimni |first=I. K. |title=The Science of Yoga |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |year=1961 |isbn=978-81-7059-212-9 |location=Adyar, India |page=206 |author-link=I. K. Taimni}}</ref> Hindu texts such as [[Shandilya Upanishad|Śāṇḍilya Upanishad]]<ref name="KN Aiyar 1914 pages 173-176">{{Cite book |last=Aiyar |first=KN |title=Thirty Minor Upanishads |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=1914 |isbn=978-1-164-02641-9 |pages=173–176 |chapter=22}}</ref> and [[Hatha Yoga Pradipika|Svātmārāma]]<ref name="svatmaram">{{Cite book |last1=Svatmarama |url=https://archive.org/stream/hathayogapradipika/hatha_yoga_pradipika#page/n219/mode/2up |title=The Hathayogapradīpikā of Svātmārāma |last2=Brahmananda |year=2014 |at=verse 1.58–63, pp. 19–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/kapalikaskalamuk0000lore/page/186 |title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas |date=1972 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01842-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kapalikaskalamuk0000lore/page/186 186–190]}}</ref> recommend [[Mitahara]] (eating in moderation) as one of the [[Yamas]] (virtuous Self restraints). According to Hindu beliefs, food affects the body, mind, and spirit.<ref name="Vasudha">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=Vasudha |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseintroduct00oxto |title=A Concise Introduction to World Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-542207-8 |editor-last=Oxtoby |editor-first=Willard G. |location=New York |chapter=The Hindu Tradition |editor-last2=Segal |editor-first2=Alan F.}}</ref><ref name="Rosen">{{Cite book |last=Rosen |first=Steven |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialhinduis00stev |title=Essential Hinduism |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2006 |edition=1st |location=Westport |page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialhinduis00stev/page/n211 188]}}</ref> The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.<ref name="ckc">{{Cite book |last=Chapple |first=Christopher Key |url=https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgitatwen00sarg |title=The Bhagavad Gita |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4384-2842-0 |edition=25th Anniversary |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgitatwen00sarg/page/641 641]–643}}</ref>

In accordance with {{IAST|[[Ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]}}, many Hindus embrace [[vegetarianism]] to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict [[lacto vegetarian]]s in [[India]] (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.<ref name="veg">Surveys studying food habits of Indians include:
* {{Cite web |ref=none |last1=Delgado |first1=Christopher L. |last2=Narrod |first2=Claire A. |last3=Tiongco |first3=Marites |date=24 July 2003 |title=Growth and Concentration in India |website=Policy, Technical, and Environmental Determinants and Implications of the Scaling-Up of Livestock Production in Four Fast-Growing Developing Countries: A Synthesis |url=http://www.fao.org/3/x6170e09.htm |quote=An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) shows that 42 percent of households are vegetarian, in that they never eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174129/http://www.fao.org/3/x6170e09.htm |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |ref=none |last=Goldammer |first=Ted |title=Passage to India |publisher=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619160055/http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf |archive-date=19 June 2009 }}
* {{cite web |ref=none |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/February04/Features/ElephantJogs.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061228214808/http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/february04/features/elephantjogs.htm |archive-date=28 December 2006 |title=The Elephant Is Jogging: New Pressures for Agricultural Reform in India |last=Landes |first=Maurice R. |date=February 2004 |website=Amber Waves |quote=Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. }}</ref> Those who eat meat seek [[Jhatka]] (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike [[Halal]] (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Neville |title=Animal Welfare and Meat Production |last2=Grandin |first2=Temple |publisher=CABI |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84593-215-2 |pages=206–208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Veena |title=The Oxford India companion to sociology and social anthropology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-564582-8 |volume=1 |pages=151–152}}</ref> The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in [[Himalayas|Himalayan regions]], or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grover |first1=Neelam |title=Cultural Geography, Form and Process, Concept |last2=Singh |first2=Kashi N. |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-8069-074-7 |page=366|publisher=Concept Publishing Company }}</ref> Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jagannathan |first=Maithily |title=South Indian Hindu Festivals and Traditions |publisher=Abhinav |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-7017-415-8 |pages=53, 69 |postscript=;}} {{cite book|first=Pyong Gap |last=Min |year=2010 |title=Preserving Ethnicity through Religion in America |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9586-6 |page=1}}</ref> Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. Hinduism specifically considers [[Zebu|''Bos indicus'']] to be sacred.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3390/ani8050064|title=The Sheltering of Unwanted Cattle, Experiences in India and Implications for Cattle Industries Elsewhere|author1=Uttara Kennedy|author2=Arvind Sharma|author3=Clive J.C. Philips|journal=Animals|year=2018|volume=8|issue=5|page=64|pmid=29701646|pmc=5981275|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=India's scared cow|url=http://spraakdata.gu.se/taraka/SacredCow.pdf|author=Marvin Harris|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907031005/http://spraakdata.gu.se/taraka/SacredCow.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/preliminary_literature_review_on_sacred_species__3_.pdf|title=Preliminary Literature Review On Scared Species|author1=Gloria Pungetti|author2=Anna Maclvor|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724135557/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/preliminary_literature_review_on_sacred_species__3_.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[cow]] in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,{{sfn|Walker|1968|p=257}} and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving,{{sfn|Richman|1988|p=272}} selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance.<ref name="ajai16P pg62">{{cite journal|title=Stewards of Creation Covenant: Hinduism and the Environment|last=Mansingh|first=Ajai|journal=Caribbean Quarterly|year=2016|volume=41|issue=1|publisher=A Journal of Caribbean Culture|page=62|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|doi=10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907185105/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict [[vegetarian]] diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |title=An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |edition=1st |location=Cambridge |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will/page/159 159]|isbn=978-0-521-65279-7 }}</ref>

Some Hindus such as those belonging to the [[Shaktism]] tradition,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Harold F. |title=Outline of Hinduism |date=2007 |publisher=Read Books |isbn=978-1-4067-8944-7 |chapter=12}}</ref> and Hindus in regions such as [[Bali]] and [[Nepal]]{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=83|loc="Chapter 4"}}<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Gouyon |editor-first=Anne |title=The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference |first=Bumi Kita |last=Yayasan |year= 2005 |publisher=Equinox Publishing (Asia) |isbn=978-979-3780-00-9 |page=51 |chapter=The Hidden Life of Bali |access-date=12 August 2010 |chapter-url=http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/welcome.jsp?action=search&type=isbn&term=9793780002 |archive-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726113644/http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/welcome.jsp?action=search&type=isbn&term=9793780002 |url-status=live }}</ref> practise [[Animal sacrifice in Hinduism|animal sacrifice]].{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=83|loc="Chapter 4"}} The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gwynne |first=Paul |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT75 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9 |page=5 footnote 16}}</ref> In contrast, the [[Vaishnava]] Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olcott |first=H.S. |title=The Theosophist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jKBVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146 |publisher=Theosophical Publishing House |year=1906 |volume=XXVII |pages=146 with footnote |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162108/https://books.google.com/books?id=jKBVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}, Quote: "It is well known that Vaishnavas abhor animal sacrifice. In this province, like nearly all Bengalis, they celebrate [[Durga Puja]], but their ceremonies are bloodless".</ref>{{sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=101–102, Quote: "Blood sacrifice was a clear case in point, (,,,) sacrifice was a barbarity inconsistent with Hinduism's central tenet of non-violence. [...] Contemporary opposition to animal sacrifice rests on an old foundation, although it also stems from the very widespread influence of reformism, whose antipathy to ritual killing has spread well beyond the self-consciously nationalist political classes".}} The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|p=169}}, Quote: "The acceptance of the principle of non-violence has been so through that animal sacrifice among Hindus today is uncommon, and many Indians are of the opinion that such things as cow slaughter were never practiced in [[History of India|ancient India]]".</ref> and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bekoff |first=Marc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AmgYIBQ-XKkC&pg=PA482 |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare |edition=2nd |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-313-35256-0 |page=482 |access-date=11 October 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162252/https://books.google.com/books?id=AmgYIBQ-XKkC&pg=PA482 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Institutions ==

=== Temple ===
{{Main|Hindu temple|Murti|Hindu iconography|Hindu architecture}}

{{For|list of temples|List of Hindu temples}}
{{multipleimage
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 335
| footer = Clockwise from top-left: [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]; [[Chennakeshava Temple, Somanathapura|Chennakeshava Temple]], [[Karnataka]]; [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], [[Odisha]]; [[Padmanabhaswamy temple]], [[Kerala]]; [[Swaminarayan Mandir, Vadtal|Swaminarayan Mandir]], [[Vadtal]], [[Gujarat]].
| image1 = Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg
| image2 = Somanathapura Keshava temple altered.JPG
| image3 = Shri Jagannatha Temple.jpg
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| image5 = Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple Thiruvananthapuram, kerala.jpg
| image6 = Vadtal-temple.jpg
| header = Illustration of [[Hindu temple]]s in Asia
}}

A [[Hindu temple]] is a house of god(s).{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=61–65}} It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.<ref name="stellakvol1">{{harvnb|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=1–16}}</ref> A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing [[Mount Meru]] – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe,{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=161–169}} the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting [[dharma]], [[kama]], [[artha]], [[moksha]] and [[karma]].{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976b|pp=346–357, 423–424}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007a|pp=268–277}} The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.<ref name="stellakvol1" /> Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, [[sanskara (rite of passage)|rite of passage]] rituals, and community celebrations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stein |first=Burton |date=February 1960 |title=The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=163–176 |doi=10.2307/2943547 |jstor=2943547|s2cid=162283012 }}</ref>{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=58–65}}

Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boner |first=Alice |title=Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period |year=1990 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0705-1 |at=Introduction and pp. 36–37}}</ref> Two major styles of Hindu temples include the [[Gopuram]] style found in south India, and [[Nagara architecture|Nagara]] style found in north India.<ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Gopura |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura |access-date=16 June 2015 |date= |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819003114/https://www.britannica.com/technology/gopura |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nagara |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-Indian-temple-architecture |access-date=16 June 2015 |date= |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174235/https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-Indian-temple-architecture |url-status=live }}</ref> Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |year=1981 |title=Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān |journal=Archives of Asian Art |volume=34 |pages=56–73 |jstor=20111117}}</ref> Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.<ref name="stellakvol1" />

Many temples feature one or more idols ([[murti]]s). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (''darsana'', a sight) in a Hindu temple.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=8–9}} In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the [[Purusha|Purusa]] ([[Brahman]]), the universal essence.<ref name="stellakvol1" />

=== Asrama ===
[[File:Iraivan Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Saiva Siddhanta Church|Kauai Hindu monastery]] on [[Kauaʻi Island]] in Hawaii is the only Hindu monastery in North America.]]
{{Main|Āśrama (stage)}}

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution |url=https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv/page/n1 1]–29, 84–111 |isbn=978-0-19-508327-9 |oclc=466428084}}</ref> The four ashramas are: [[Brahmacharya]] (student), [[Grihastha]] (householder), [[Vānaprastha]] (retired) and [[Sannyasa]] (renunciation).<ref name="rks">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=RK |title=Indian Society, Institutions and Change |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-7156-665-5 |page=28|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist }}</ref>
Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.<ref name="rks" /> Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.<ref name="alnu">{{Cite book |last=Nugteren |first=Albertina |title=Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India |publisher=Brill Academic |year=2005 |isbn=978-90-04-14601-3 |pages=13–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Saraswathi |title=Bridging Cultural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-538343-0 |editor-last=Jensen |editor-first=Lene Arnett |pages=280–286 |chapter=Reconceptualizing Lifespan Development through a Hindu Perspective |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1922}}<ref name="DP Bhawuk 2011 pages 93-110">{{Cite book |last=Bhawuk |first=DP |title=Spirituality and Indian Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/spiritualityindi00bhaw |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4419-8109-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/spiritualityindi00bhaw/page/93 93]–110 |chapter=The Paths of Bondage and Liberation}}</ref>

The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} Combined with four proper goals of human life ([[Purusartha]]), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara |title=The Hindu World |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduworld00mitt |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-21527-5 |editor-last=Mittal |editor-first=Sushil |page=[https://archive.org/details/hinduworld00mitt/page/231 231] |chapter=Dharma |editor-last2=Thursby |editor-first2=Gene}}</ref> Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-534478-3}}</ref>

=== Monasticism ===
[[File:Indian sadhu performing namaste.jpg|thumb|A sadhu in [[Madurai]], India]]
{{Main|Sannyasa}}

Some Hindus choose to live a [[monastic]] life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection.<ref name="ellinger70">{{Cite book |last=Ellinger |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ |title=Hinduism |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-56338-161-4 |pages=69–70 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162258/https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation.<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential112">{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=112}}</ref> A Hindu monk is called a ''[[Sannyasa|Sanyāsī]]'', ''Sādhu'', or ''Swāmi''. A female renunciate is called a ''Sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple [[ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism.<ref name="DP Bhawuk 2011 pages 93-110" /> Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=316}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of Hinduism}}

[[File:Goddess Kali.jpg|thumb|A [[Tamil language|Tamil]] depiction of Kali from the 12th century]]

Hinduism's varied history{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]], with some of its traditions tracing back to [[prehistoric religion]]s such as those of the Bronze Age [[Indus Valley Civilisation]]. While the traditional [[Itihasa-Purana]] and the [[Epic-Puranic chronology]] derived from it present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a [[Hindu synthesis|synthesis]]{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} with diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}} and no single founder,{{sfn|Osborne|2005|p=9}}{{refn|group=note| Among its roots are the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of the late [[Vedic period]] and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–53}} but also the religions of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}} the śramaṇa{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of [[Maurya Empire|east India]],{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}}} which emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}–200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} [[Common Era|BCE]] and {{Circa|300 CE}}.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}

The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the [[historical Vedic religion]] with the [[Indo-Aryan migrations]], starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=32–36}}{{refn|group=note|There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|1995|pp=3–4}} Flood mentions 1500 BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=21}}}} The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} and a formative period for Hinduism, [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from {{Circa|200 BCE}} to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism ({{Circa|320–650 CE}}), which coincides with the [[Gupta Empire]]. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta]]. Monotheistic sects like [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] developed during this same period through the [[Bhakti movement]]. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and [[Adi Shankara]]'s influential consolidation of [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=J. J. Navone|first=S. J.|date=1956|title=Sankara and the Vedic Tradition|journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research|volume=17|issue=2|pages=248–255|doi=10.2307/2104222|issn=0031-8205|jstor=2104222}}</ref>

[[File:Shore temple, mahabalipuram.jpg|thumb|The Hindu [[Shore Temple]] at [[Mahabalipuram]] was built by [[Narasimhavarman II]].|left]]
Hinduism under both Hindu and [[Islamic rulers in South Asia|Islamic]] rulers from {{Circa|{{CE|1250–1750}}}},<ref>Blackwell's History of India; Stein 2010, page 107</ref><ref>Some Aspects of Muslim Administration, R.P.Tripathi, 1956, p. 24</ref> saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. Historic persecutions of [[Hindus]] happened under [[Muslim conquest of India|Muslim rulers]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Lal|first=Kishori Saran|title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|year=1999|isbn=978-81-86471-72-2|pages=90–145|author-link=K. S. Lal}}</ref> and also by [[Christian Missionaries]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Priolkar|first=Anand Kakba|title=The Goa Inquisition|year=1992|publisher=South Asia Books|pages=2–67, 184|author-link=Anant Priolkar|isbn=978-0-8364-2753-0}}</ref> In [[Goa]], the [[Goa Inquisition|1560 inquisition]] by [[Portuguese India|Portuguese colonists]] is also considered one of the most brutal [[Persecution of Hindus|persecutions of Hindus]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Souza|first=Teotonio R. De|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtf1eRE8FC8C&q=persecution|title=Discoveries, Missionary Expansion, and Asian Cultures|date=1994|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-497-6|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vtf1eRE8FC8C&q=persecution 80]|language=en}}</ref> The [[Colonial India|colonial period]] saw the emergence of various [[Hindu reform movements]] partly inspired by western movements, such as [[Unitarianism]] and [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]].{{sfn|Sharma|2002|p=27}} In the [[Kingdom of Nepal]], the [[Unification of Nepal]] by [[Shah dynasty]] was accompanied by the Hinduization of the [[Nepal|state]] and continued till the {{Circa|1950s}}.<ref name="Vir 1988 https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56">{{Cite book|last=Vir|first=Dharam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56|title=Education and Polity in Nepal: An Asian Experiment|date=1988|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-85119-39-7|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56]|language=en}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=June 2022}} [[Indian people|Indians]] were hired as plantation labourers in [[British colonial|British colonies]] such as [[Fiji]], [[Mauritius]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Younger |first1=Paul |title=New homelands: Hindu communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-539164-0 |pages=3–17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oI8DwAAQBAJ |access-date=4 June 2022}}</ref> The [[Partition of India]] in 1947 was along religious lines, with the [[India|Republic of India]] emerging with a Hindu majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Sharma|1y=2003|1pp=176–189|2a1=Thapar|2y=1993|2pp=239–241}} Between 200,000 and one million people, including both Muslims and Hindus, were killed during the [[Partition of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls and Casualty Statistics for Wars, Dictatorships and Genocides|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c300k.htm|access-date=5 March 2021|website=necrometrics.com}}</ref> During the 20th century, due to the [[Indian diaspora]], Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the [[Hinduism in the United States|United States]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The remarkable political influence of the Indian diaspora in the US|url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/remarkable-political-influence-indian-diaspora-us|access-date=17 March 2021|website=www.lowyinstitute.org}}</ref> and the [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 March 2006|title=UK Hindu population to be studied|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/uk-hindu-population-to-be-studied/story-QBEF77yew4tdgiEEICZgHM.html|access-date=17 March 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

Although religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial and debated subject in India, Nepal,{{sfn|Kim, Sebastian|2005|pp=1–29}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Masud|first=Muhammad Khalid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPzXAAAAMAAJ|title=Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-597911-4|pages=193–203|jstor=846021|jstor-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Barua|2015|loc=Ch. 2 and 8}} and in Indonesia,{{sfn|Ramstedt|2004|pp=93–108|loc=Robert Hefner. ''Hindu Reform in an Islamising Java: Pluralism and Peril''}}{{refn|group=note|According to Sharma, the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.<ref name="arvindmr">{{harvnb|Sharma|2011|pp=31–53}}</ref>}} in the 20th–21st century, many missionary organisations such as [[ISKCON]], [[Sathya Sai Organization]], [[Vedanta Society]] have been influential in spreading the core culture of Hinduism outside India.{{Refn||name=ty78|group=note}} Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the [[Arya Samaj]] launched ''[[Shuddhi (Hinduism)|Shuddhi]]'' movement to proselytise and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism,<ref name="csadcock">{{Cite book |last=Adcock |first=CS |title=The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom |url=https://archive.org/details/limitsoftoleranc0000adco |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-999544-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/limitsoftoleranc0000adco/page/n1 1]–35, 115–168}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold |title=Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-88706-572-9 |pages=49–60}}</ref> while those such as the [[Brahmo Samaj]] suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion.<ref name=arvindmr /> All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytisation activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.<ref name=arvindmr /><ref name=csadcock /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Viswanathan |first=Gauri |title=Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-691-05899-3 |pages=153–176}}</ref> There have also been an increase of [[Hindu identity]] in politics, mostly in [[India]], [[Nepal]] and [[Bangladesh]] in the form of [[Hindutva]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elst |first=Koenraad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_ltAAAAMAAJ |title=Decolonizing the Hindu Mind: Ideological Development of Hindu Revivalism |year=2001 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=978-81-7167-519-7 |author-link=Koenraad Elst}}</ref> The revivalist movement was mainly started and encouraged by many organisations like [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh|RSS]], [[BJP]] and other organisations of [[Sangh Parivar]] in India, while there are also many [[Hindu nationalist parties]] and organisations such as [[Shivsena Nepal]] and [[Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal|RPP]] in [[Nepal]], [[HINDRAF]] in [[Malaysia]], etc.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pradhan|first=K. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PP1yElRzIUC|title=Thapa Politics in Nepal: With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839|date=2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-813-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Vir 1988 https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56" />

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Hinduism by country}}
According to the 2020 population estimate by [[Pew Research Center]], 95% of the global Hindu population of 1,177,860,000 is concentrated in [[India]], the only country with a Hindu population exceeding one billion. Hindus constitute 14.9% of the [[world's population]]. Outside of India, the countries with the largest Hindu populations are [[Nepal]] (more than 20,000,000), [[Bangladesh]] (more than 10,000,000), and [[Pakistan]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Sri Lanka]]—each of which is home to between three to six million Hindus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/hindu-population-change/|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020: 5. Hindu population change|date=9 June 2025|access-date=11 February 2026|website=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> The majority of the Indonesian [[Tenggerese people]]{{sfnm|1a1=Hefner|1y=1989|1p=|2a1=Kinney|2a2=Klokke|2a3=Kieven |2y=2003|2p=}} in [[Java]] and the Vietnamese [[Cham people]] also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of the Chams in [[Ninh Thuận Province]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2002 |title=Vietnam |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35433.htm |access-date=17 June 2014 |website=State.gov}}</ref>[[File:2020+ Proportion of people in world religions.svg |thumb |Global percentage of adherents by religion. Hindus comprise about 14.9% of the world's population, comprising the third largest by percentage.<ref name=Pew_20250609>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Stonawski |first2=Marcin |last3=Tong |first3=Yunping |last4=Kramer |first4=Stephanie |last5=Shi |first5=Anne |last6=Fahmy |first6=Dalia |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260222070137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |archive-date=22 February 2026 |date=9 June 2025 |url-status=live |quote=Source: Pew Research Center estimates based on more than 2,700 censuses and surveys. "How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"}}</ref>]]

Demographically, Hinduism is the [[Major religious groups|world's third largest religion]], after [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2015 |title=The Future of World Religions |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506113049/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2015 |website=Pew Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwarz |first=John |title=What's Christianity All About? |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4982-2537-3 |page=176}}</ref> Hinduism is the [[Growth of religion|third fastest-growing religion]] in the world after Islam and Christianity, with a predicted growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wormald|first=Benjamin|date=2 April 2015|title=The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/|access-date=4 March 2021|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US}}</ref>

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:

{{div col start|colwidth=20em}}
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Nepal}}{{Spaced en dash}}81.19%<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Nepali Census data 2011 |date=2014 |title=Nepali Census data 2011 Go to page 56 to see Buddhist and Kirat percentages |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf |website=Population Monograph |access-date=2024-04-29 |archive-date=2023-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328111829/https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|India}}{{Spaced en dash}}79.8%<ref name="Census2011religion">{{cite web|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=C −1 Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=[[Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner]] |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Mauritius}}{{Spaced en dash}}47.9%<ref name="2011 Census Religion">{{cite web| url=https://statsmauritius.govmu.org/Documents/Census_and_Surveys/HPC/2011/HPC_TR_Vol2_Demography_Yr11.pdf| website=Statistics Mauritius| page=68| title=Resident population by religion and sex| access-date=19 November 2023| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221006195313/https://statsmauritius.govmu.org/Documents/Census_and_Surveys/HPC/2011/HPC_TR_Vol2_Demography_Yr11.pdf| archive-date = 6 October 2022}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Guyana}}{{Spaced en dash}}31%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?REGION=0&u=102c&u=100c&u=96c|title=National Profiles | World Religion|website=www.thearda.com}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Fiji}}{{Spaced en dash}}27.9%<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Fiji |access-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Trinidad and Tobago}}{{Spaced en dash}}24.3%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?REGION=0&u=224c&u=23r|title=National Profiles; World Religion|website=www.thearda.com}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bhutan}}{{Spaced en dash}}22.6%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhutan |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127364.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031858/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127364.htm |archive-date=30 November 2009 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Suriname}}{{Spaced en dash}}22.3%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suriname |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127405.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031911/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127405.htm |archive-date=30 November 2009 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Qatar}}{{Spaced en dash}}15.9%<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Qatar|date=1 May 2024}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Sri Lanka}}{{Spaced en dash}}12.6%<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |website=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211239/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bahrain}}{{Spaced en dash}}9.8%<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Marsh|2015|pp=67–94}}.</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bangladesh}}{{Spaced en dash}}7.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=SVRS 2010 |url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SVRS/SVRS-10.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113153533/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SVRS/SVRS-10.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2012 |access-date=2 September 2012 |publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics |page=176 (Table P–14)}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Réunion}}{{spaced en dash}}6.8%{{refn|group=note|[[Réunion]] is not a country, but an [[Overseas departments and regions of France|overseas department and region of France]].}}
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in the|United Arab Emirates}}{{Spaced en dash}}6.6%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90223.htm|title=United Arab Emirates|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Malaysia}}{{Spaced en dash}}6.3%<ref name="cia.gov">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Malaysia|access-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Kuwait}}{{Spaced en dash}}6%<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pew-Templeton: Global Religious Futures Project|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/|access-date=18 March 2021|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|archive-date=3 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503083508/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Oman}}{{Spaced en dash}}5.5%<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Oman|date= 22 September 2021}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Seychelles}}{{Spaced en dash}}5.4% <ref name=2022Census>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2024 |title=Seychelles Population and Housing Census 2022 |url=https://www.nbs.gov.sc/downloads/1555-seychelles-population-and-housing-census-2022 |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles |language=en-gb}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Singapore}}{{Spaced en dash}}5%<ref name="2010 census Full report">{{Cite web |last=Singapore Department of Statistics |date=12 January 2011 |title=Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion |url=http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303155259/http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2011 |access-date=16 January 2011}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Indonesia}}{{Spaced en dash}}3.9%<ref>{{cite web|date=2011|title=Indonesia: Religious Freedoms Report 2010|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168356.htm|access-date=4 March 2021|publisher=[[US State Department]]|quote=The Ministry of Religious Affairs estimates that 10 million Hindus live in the country and account for approximately 90 percent of the population in Bali. Hindu minorities also reside in Central and East Kalimantan, the city of Medan (North Sumatra), South and Central Sulawesi, and Lombok (West Nusa Tenggara). Hindu groups such as Hare Krishna and followers of the Indian spiritual leader Sai Baba are present in small numbers. Some indigenous religious groups, including the "Naurus" on Seram Island in Maluku Province, incorporate Hindu and animist beliefs, and many have also adopted some Protestant teachings.}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|New Zealand}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Table 26, 2018 Census Data – Tables |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |format=xlsx |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413185957/https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Australia}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.7%<ref>{{Cite web |author=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=18 January 2018 |title=Media Release – Census reveals Australia's religious diversity on World Religion Day |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/8497F7A8E7DB5BEFCA25821800203DA4?OpenDocument |access-date=4 June 2023 |website=www.abs.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Pakistan}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.2%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf|title=Wayback Machine|website=www.pbs.gov.pk}}</ref>
{{div col end}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, {{As of|2020|lc=y}})<ref name="preston" />{{Disputed inline|date=January 2024}}
|-
! cyrus="col" | Tradition
! scope="col" | Followers
! scope="col" | Follower dynamics
! scope="col" | World dynamics
|-
| align="center" | [[Vaishnavism]]
| align="center" | 399,526,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" | [[Shaivism]]
| align="center" | 385,423,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |[[Shaktism]]
| align="center" | 305,643,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |[[Neo-Vedanta|Neo-Hinduism]]
| align="center" | 20,300,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |[[Hindu reform movements|Reform Hinduism]]
| align="center" | 5,200,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
! Cumulative
! 1,116,092,000
! {{increase}} Growing
! {{increase}} Growing
|}

== See also ==
{{For outline|Outline of Hinduism}}
; Hinduism
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Hindu atheism]]
* [[Crypto-Hinduism]]
* [[Gautama Buddha in Hinduism]]
* [[Anti-Hindu sentiment]]
* [[Hindu eschatology]]
* [[Hinduism by country]]
* [[Indomania]]
* [[Jagran]]
* [[Lists of Hindus]]
* [[Encyclopedia of Hinduism]]
*[[Vegetarianism]]
* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]{{div col end}}

; Related systems and religions
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Adivasi religion]]
* [[Bathouism]]
* [[Donyi-Polo]]
* [[Dravidian folk religion]]
* [[Eastern religions]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Gurung shamanism]]
* [[Bon]]
* [[Hinduism and other religions]]
** [[Hinduism and Judaism]]
** [[Hinduism and Sikhism]]
** [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
** [[Hinduism and Theosophy]]
** [[Hinduism and other religions#Zoroastrianism|Hinduism and Zoroastrianism]]
* [[Indian religions]]
* [[Kalash people|Kalash religion]]
* [[Kiratism]]
* [[Sarna sthal]]
* [[Manichaeism]]
* [[Peterburgian Vedism]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]]
* [[Relationship between religion and science|Hinduism and science]]
* [[Sanamahism]]
* [[Sarnaism]]
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Tribal religions in India]]
* [[Zoroastrianism]]
* [[Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
* [[Ancient Iranian religion]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note|30em|refs=


{{refn|group=note|name="Brahmanism"|See:
* {{harvnb|Samuel|2008|p=194}}: "The Brahmanical pattern"
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative{{'"}}
* {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}: "Brahmanical synthesis"
According to {{harvnb|Heesterman|2005}}, Brahmanism developed out of the [[Historical Vedic religion]]; "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." According to {{harvnb|Witzel|1995}}, this development started around 1000 BCE in the [[Kuru kingdom]], with the Brahmins providing elaborate rituals to enhance the status of the Kuru kings.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="definition"|Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "way of life" {{harv|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}, etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in {{harvnb|Flood|2003|pp=1–17}}.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"|See also:
* {{harvnb|Ghurye|1980|pp=3–4}}: "He [J. H. Hutton, the Commissioner of the Census of 1931] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. 'The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism'."
* {{harvnb|Zimmer|1951|pp=218–219}}.
* {{harvnb|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}. Quote: [{{cite book|ref=none |last=Tyler |year=1973 |title=India: An Anthropological Perspective |page=68 }}]; "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."
* {{harvnb|Sjoberg|1990}}.
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}: "Contemporary Hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin [...] The many traditions which feed into contemporary Hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings: the tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. The tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative', transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time, and defining the conditions of orthopraxy, such as adherence to ''varnasramadharma''."
* {{harvnb|Nath|2001}}.
* {{harvnb|Werner|1998}}.
* {{harvnb|Werner|2005|pp=8–9}}.
* {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}.
* {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002}}.
* {{harvnb|Hopfe|Woodward|2008|p=79}}: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
* {{harvnb|Samuel|2010}}.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"|There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}} states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain, or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century."
* {{harvnb|Sharma|2002}} and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar [[Xuanzang]], whose 17-year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in the Chinese language, uses the transliterated term ''In-tu'' whose "connotation overflows in the religious".{{harv|Sharma|2002}} Xuanzang describes [[Hindu temple|Hindu Deva-temples]] of the early 7th century CE, worship of [[Surya|Sun]] deity and [[Shiva]], his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at [[Nalanda]]. See also {{harvnb|Gosch|Stearns|2007|pp=88–99}}, {{harvnb|Sharma|2011|pp=5–12}}, {{harvnb|Smith|Van De Mieroop|von Glahn|Lane|2012|pp=321–324}}.
* {{harvnb|Sharma|2002}} also mentions the use of the word ''Hindu'' in Islamic texts such as those relating to the 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text ''Tarikh Al-Hind'', and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term ''Hindu'' retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006}} states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, ''Futuhu's-Salatin'', composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".{{harv|Lorenzen|2006|p=33}}
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|pp=32–33}} also mentions other non-Persian texts such as ''Prithvíráj Ráso'' by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|p=15}} states that one of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"|Sanatāna Dharma:
* {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}: "In modern Indian usage, sanātana dharma is often equated with 'Hinduism' as a name, stressing the eternal foundation of it."
* {{harvnb|Knott|1998|p=5}}: "Many describe Hinduism as ''sanatana dharma'', the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history."
* {{harvnb|Knott|1998|p=117}}: " The phrase sanatana dharma, eternal tradition, used often by Hindus to describe their religion, implies antiquity, but its usage is modern."
* {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|p=3}}: "Some Indians object to having a foreign term for their religion, preferring the Sanskrit expression ''sanātana dharma'', "eternal law or truth," despite the fact that this expression was not applied to any religious system in ancient texts."}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"|{{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."}}


{{refn|group=note|name="oldest religion"|See:
* {{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=1}}: "probably the oldest religion in the world."
* {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=1}}: The "oldest living major religion" in the world.
* {{harvnb|Kurien|2006}}: "There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..."
* {{harvnb|Bakker|1997}}: "it [Hinduism] is the oldest religion".
* {{harvnb|Noble|1998}}: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."
{{harvnb|Smart|1993|p=1}}, on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much more recent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century." 
Animism has also been called "the oldest religion."({{harvnb|Sponsel|2012}}: "Animism is by far the oldest religion in the world. Its antiquity seems to go back at least as far as the period of the Neanderthals some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago.") 
Australian [[Linguistics|linguist]], [[R. M. W. Dixon]] discovered that [[Australian Aboriginal mythology|Aboriginal myths]] regarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago ({{harvnb|Dixon|1996}}). {{harvp|David|Mullett|Wright|Stephenson|2024}} found archaeological evidence that the mulla-mullung ritual, described in the 19th century, dates back at least 12,000 years. 
See also:
* [[Urreligion]], [[Shamanism#Hypotheses on origins|shamanism]], [[animism]], [[ancestor worship]] for some of the oldest forms of religion
* Indian tribal religions such as [[Sarnaism]], [[Sari Dharam]], [[Donyi-Polo]] and [[Sanamahism]], connected to the earliest migrations into India}}


{{refn|group=note|name="roots"|Among its roots are the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] of the late [[Vedic period]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans ({{harvnb|Samuel|2008|pp=48–53}}), but also the religions of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] ({{harvnb|Narayanan| 2009|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=xviii}}) the [[śramaṇa]] or renouncer traditions of [[Maurya Empire|northeastern India]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Gomez|2013|p=42}}), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture ({{harvnb|Bronkhorst|2007}}); and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]" ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence."{{harvnb|Doniger|2010|p=66}})}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Sweetman"|{{harvtxt|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":
* The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism", akin to the Protestant culture,{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
* The influence of [[Brahmin]]s on European conceptions of Hinduism.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
* [T]he identification of Vedanta, more specifically [[Advaita Vedanta]], as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|King|1999|p=128}}.) Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=13–14}}
** According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favoured because British feared French influence, especially the impact of the [[French Revolution]]; and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=13–14}}
** "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=14}}
* The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=14–16}} According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action. (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|Dirks|2001|p=xxvii}}.)
* "[T]he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity"{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=15}}
* Anti-colonial Hindus{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=15–16}} "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre-colonial, national identity".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=15}} (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|Viswanathan|2003|p=26}}.)}}
}}
{{Notelist|30em|refs=


{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"|There is [[Untranslatability|no single-word translation]] for ''dharma'' in Western languages ({{harvnb|Widgery|1930}}, {{harvnb|Rocher|2003}}). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 ''Dharma''], defines dharma as follows: "the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." See [[#Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics)|Dharma (righteousness, ethics)]]. 
'Hindu dharma' refers to the religious behaviours and attitudes of the various traditions collectively referred to as Hinduism:
* {{harvtxt|Flood|2003a|p=9}}: "V. D. Savarkar [...] in his highly influential book Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923) distinguishes between “Hindu Dharma,” the various traditions subsumed under the term “Hinduism,” and “Hindutva” or “Hinduness,” a sociopolitical force to unite all Hindus against “threatening Others”
* {{harvtxt|Thomas|2012|p=175}}: "Some 'Hindus' refer to this agglomeration of religious forms as 'Hindu dharma' (dharma here standing loosely for' religion'), but that is only to enable them to communicate to westerners some of their own religious attitudes."
* {{harvtxt|Bhattacharya|2006|p=1}}: "Dharma, therefore, is just not a belief but righteous living."}}
}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
For references on specific authors or topics, please see the relevant article.


=== Printed sources ===

{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |first=P. K. |last=Acharya |year=1927 |title=Indian Architecture according to the Manasara Shilpa Shastra |url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republ. by Motilal Banarsidass) |location=London |isbn=0-300-06217-6 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname1=Acri |editor-given1=Andrea |editor-surname2=Creese |editor-given2=Helen |editor-surname3=Griffiths |editor-given3=Arlo |year=2011 |title=From Lanka Eastwards: The Ramayaṇa in the Literature and Visual Arts of Indonesia |location=Leiden |publisher=KITLV Press}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Bakker |first=F.L. |year=1997 |title=Balinese Hinduism and the Indonesian State: Recent Developments |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=153 |issue=1 |pages=15–41 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003943 |jstor=27864809 |s2cid=162277591|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Barua |first=Ankur |url={{Google books|id=iZmsBwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Debating 'Conversion' in Hinduism and Christianity |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-138-84701-9 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname=Beck |editor-given=Guy L. |title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url={{Google books|id=0SJ73GHSCF8C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |location=Albany, NY |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6415-1 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhardwaj |first=Surinder Mohan |url={{Google books|id=D6XJFokSJzEC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography |publisher=University of California Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-520-04951-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhaskarananda |first=Swami |title=Essentials of Hinduism |publisher=Viveka Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-884852-02-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781884852022 }}
* {{cite book | last =Bhattacharya | first =A | year =2006 | title =Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology| publisher =iUniverse | isbn =978-0-595-38455-6}}
* {{Citation |title=Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last1=Bilimoria |editor-first1=Purushottama |editor-last2= Prabhu |editor-first2=Joseph |editor-last3= Sharma |editor-first3=Renuka |isbn=978-1-138-06269-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |author-link=John Bowker (theologian) |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |surname=Bhandarkar |given=R. G. |author-link=R. G. Bhandarkar |year=1913 |title=Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism and Minor Religious Systems |series=Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, 3.6 |publisher=Trübner |location=Strassburg |url=https://archive.org/details/VaishnavismShaivismAndOtherMinorReligiousSystemsR.G.Bhandarkar/page/n1/mode/1up?view=theater }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brodd |first=Jeffrey |title=World Religions |publisher=Saint Mary's Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-88489-725-5 |location=Winona, MN}}
* {{Citation |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India |year=2007 |publisher=Brill}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |title=Krishna: A Sourcebook |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |author-link=Edwin Bryant (author)}}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname1=Bryant |editor-given1=Edwin F. |editor-link1=Edwin Bryant (author) |editor-surname2=Ekstrand |editor-given2=Maria |url={{Google books |mBMxPdgrBhoC |page= |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-231-12256-X }}
* {{Cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2007}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=David |first1=Bruno |last2=Mullett |first2=Russell |last3=Wright |first3=Nathan |last4=Stephenson |first4=Birgitta |last5=Ash |first5=Jeremy |last6=Fresløv |first6=Joanna |last7=Delannoy |first7=Jean-Jacques |last8=McDowell |first8=Matthew C. |last9=Mialanes |first9=Jerome |last10=Petchey |first10=Fiona |last11=Arnold |first11=Lee J. |last12=Rogers |first12=Ashleigh J. |last13=Crouch |first13=Joe |last14=Green |first14=Helen |last15=Urwin |first15=Chris |last16=Matheson |first16=Carney D. |title=Archaeological evidence of an ethnographically documented Australian Aboriginal ritual dated to the last ice age |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=1 July 2024 |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=1481–1492 |doi=10.1038/s41562-024-01912-w |language=en |issn=2397-3374|doi-access=free |pmid=38951612 |pmc=11343701 }}
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{{refend}}
=== Web sources ===
{{Reflist|group=web|30em|refs=


<ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{Cite web |date=January 2015 |title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact |url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141543/http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=29 May 2015 |website=gordonconwell.edu}}</ref>


<ref name="pewforum_Hinduism" group="web">{{Cite web |date=18 December 2012 |title=The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism |url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx |access-date=31 March 2013 |website=A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups  |publisher=Pew Research Foundation |archive-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506104814/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>


}}

== Further reading ==

{{refbegin|30em}}
; Encyclopedias
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Dalal |given=Roshen |author-link=Roshen Dalal |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |year=2010b |url={{Google books|id=DH0vmD8ghdMC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |location=New Delhi |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2009–2015 |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism |editor-surname=Jacobsen |editor-given=Knut A. |editor-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |display-editors=etal |volume=1–6 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |url=https://brill.com/view/package/9789004271289?language=en&packages=about |isbn=978-9004271289 |url-access=registration |ref=none}}
** Vol. 1: ''Regions, Pilgrimage, Deities'' (2009).
** Vol. 2: ''Sacred Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts'' (2010).
** Vol. 3: ''Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies'' (2011).
** Vol. 4: ''Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues'' (2012).
** Vol. 5: ''Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers'' (2013).
** Vol. 6: ''Indices'' (2015).
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2018 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Pankaj |title=Hinduism and Tribal Religions |editor-link1=Pankaj Jain |editor2-last=Sherma |editor2-first=Rita |editor3-last=Khanna |editor3-first=Madhu |editor-link3=Madhu Khanna |entry=Hinduism and Tribal Religions |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions |location=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_541-1 |isbn=978-94-024-1036-5 |pages=1–6}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Johnson |given=W. J. |title=A Dictionary of Hinduism |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-19-861025-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Jones |given=Constance A. |surname2=Ryan |given2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=OgMmceadQ3gC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |year=2007 |location=New York |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions. [[J. Gordon Melton]], Series Editor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PR17 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1998 |surname=Klostermaier |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism |location=London |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-672-2 |url={{Google books|id=DB29DwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Potter |editor-given=Karl H. |editor-link=Karl Harrington Potter |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |location=Delhi |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1970–2019 |volume=1–25 |ref=none |archive-date=1 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201160007/https://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |url-status=dead}} Ongoing [[monographic series]] project.
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |surname=Sullivan |given=Bruce M. |title=The A to Z of Hinduism |edition=Rev. |place=Lanham, Md; London |publisher=Scarecrow Press |url=https://archive.org/details/atozofhinduism2001sull |url-access=registration |isbn=0-8108-4070-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Werner |given=Karel |author-link=Karel Werner |title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism |location=Surrey |publisher=Curzon Press |year=1997 |edition=Rev. |isbn=0-7007-1049-3 |url={{Google books|id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}

; Introductory
* {{cite book |surname=Flood |given=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood |year=1996 |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129185620/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C |archive-date=29 November 2016 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |ref=none |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |editor-surname=Flood |editor-given=Gavin |editor-link=Gavin Flood |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |year=2003 |place=Oxford |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing|Blackwell]] |isbn=0-631-21535-2 |url={{Google books|id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329144114/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C |archive-date=29 March 2024 |url-status=live |ref=none |access-date=29 May 2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |year=1997 |title=Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-60-8 |url={{Google books|id=RmGKHu20hA0C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}{{dead link|date=January 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}
* {{cite book |surname=Hiltebeitel |given=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |year=2002 |orig-year=1987 |chapter=Hinduism |editor-surname=Kitagawa |editor-given=Joseph M. |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture |place=London |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |pages=3–40 |chapter-url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=3|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |year=2007 |surname=Klostermaier |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-026-3 |url={{Google books|id=P0VCO1900dMC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174233/https://books.google.com/books?id=P0VCO1900dMC |url-status=live |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Knott |given=Kim |year=1998 |url={{Google books|id=p4kzNzII3zAC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-160645-8 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174324/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live |ref=none}}

; History
* {{cite book |editor-surname=Chattopadhyaya |editor-given=D. P. |editor-link=D. P. Chattopadhyaya |title=[[Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture|History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization]] |volume=1–15 |location=Delhi |publisher=[[Centre for Studies in Civilizations]] |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Basham |given=Arthur Llewellyn |author-link=Arthur Llewellyn Basham |title=[[The Wonder That was India|The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of the Muslims]] |location=London |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson |year=1954 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |author-link=Asko Parpola |title=The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-022693-0 |url={{Google books|id=DagXCgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |ref=none}}

; Philosophy and theology
* {{cite book |surname=Dasgupta |given=Surendranath |year=1922–1955 |author-link=Surendranath Dasgupta |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=1–5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/reports-proceedings/history-indian-philosophy-vol-i |ref=none}} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.96713 Vol. 1] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57593 Vol. 2] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57392 Vol. 3] | [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.231099 Vol. 4] | [https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfIndianPhilosophyVol5/page/n1/mode/2up Vol. 5.]
* {{cite book |year=1923–1927 |surname=Radhakrishnan |given=Sarvepalli |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |volume=1–2 |url=https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2 |ref=none}}

; Texts
* {{cite book |year=2010 |surname=Klostermaier |edition=3rd |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=A Survey of Hinduism |location=New York |publisher=SUNY Press |url={{Google books|id=8CVviRghVtIC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Richards |editor-first=Glyn |year=1985 |title=A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism |location=Surrey |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0173-5 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}


{{Hindudharma}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Subject bar|auto=1|d=Q9089|n=Category:Hinduism|s=Category:Hinduism|voy=Hinduism|Religion|Philosophy|Hinduism|Asia}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hinduism| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic religions in Asia]]
[[Category:Āstika]]
[[Category:Indian religions]]
[[Category:Polytheism]]

Sobha Singh (Sikh chieftain)

2026-04-30T06:16:25Z

Khorang: Put Up New Biography And Citations

{{Not to be confused with|Sobha Singh (painter)|Sobha Singh (builder)}}
{{one source|date=June 2012}}
[[File:INDIA, Independent States. Sikhs (Misls). temp. Lahina Singh, Sobha Singh, and Gujjar Singh Bhangi. VS 1822-1856 (AD 1765-1799) and VS 1844 (AD 1787) (794 2).jpg|thumb|INDIA, Independent States. Sikhs (Misls). temp. Lahina Singh, Sobha Singh, and Gujjar Singh Bhangi. VS 1822-1856 / AD 1765-1799. AR Rupee (24mm, 11.09 g, 9h). Dar al-Sultanat Lahore mint. Dated VS 1844 (AD 1787). VF.]]
'''Sobha Singh Kanhaiya''' of [[Thokar Niaz Baig|Niazbeg]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Teja |title=A short history of the Sikhs. Volume one, 1469-1765 |date=1999 |publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjabi University |others=Ganda Singh |isbn=978-81-7380-007-8 |edition=3rd |location=Patiala |page=177 |oclc=235973547}}</ref> his first name is alternatively spelt as '''Suba''' or '''Soba''', was one of the triumvirates who ruled over [[Lahore]], alongside ''[[sardar]]s'' [[Lehna Singh Bhangi|Lehna Singh Kahlon]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Bhagat |title=A History of the Sikh Misals |publisher=Publication Bureau, Patiala Punjabi University |year=1993 |pages=67}}</ref> and [[Gujjar Singh Banghi|Gujjar Singh]] of the [[Bhangi Misl]], prior to the leadership of [[Maharaja Ranjit Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheikh |first=Majid |date=2021-01-10 |title=Harking Back: Forgotten 30-year Sikh rule before Ranjit Singh |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1600703 |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=The encyclopaedia of Sikhism |date=1992–1998 |publisher=Punjabi University |others=Harbans Singh |isbn=0-8364-2883-8 |volume=2 |location=Patiala |pages=541–542 |oclc=29703420}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Chowdhry |first=Mohindra S. |title=Defence of Europe by Sikh soldiers in the World Wars |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-78901-098-5 |location=Kibworth Beauchamp |page=41 |oclc=1032183994}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sikka |first=Ajit Singh |title=The complete poetical works of Ajit Singh Sikka. |date=2003 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |isbn=81-269-0256-6 |location=New Delhi |pages=1137 |oclc=588497615}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Rishi |title=State Formation and the Establishment of Non-Muslim Hegemony : Post-Mughal 19th-century Punjab. |date=2015 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-93-5150-504-4 |location=New Delhi |oclc=1101028781 |quote=Abdali then wrote a letter to Lehna Singh with an offer of governorship of Lahore, which was refused. As soon as Abdali left Lahore, Lehna Singh, Gujar Singh and Sobha Singh returned to take over the administration of Lahore.}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Sobha Singh was from the [[Kanhaiya Misl]], a Sikh grouping with a distinct guerilla militia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheikh |first=Majid |date=2015-06-28 |title=HARKING BACK: Amazing genius of Gujjar Singh and his Lahore 'qila' |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1190931 |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> With its Governor of Punjab Lehna Singh Kahlon Installed by [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] King [[Amir]] [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]] 1747–1772 of Afghanistan [[Durrani]] first crossed the [[Indus River]] in 1748, the year after his ascension – his forces sacked and absorbed [[Lahore]] during that expedition. The following year (1749), the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] ruler was induced to cede [[Sindh]] [[Delhi]], [[Vrndavana]] [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] and [[Kashmir]] and all of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] including the vital trans [[Indus]] River to [[Afghans|Afghan]] [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] forces of the [[Durrani]] Empire.

On 17 April 1765, Sobha Singh Kanhaiya joined the joint capture of Lahore by Gujjar Singh and Lehna Singh Kahlon.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Dalbir |date=6 June 2019 |title=Suba of Lahore: A Victorious of the Sikhs |url=https://www.ijmra.us/project%20doc/2019/IJRSS_JUNE2019/IJRSSJune19DalbirGr.pdf |journal=International Journal of Research in Social Sciences |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=1414}}</ref>

For thirty long years Lehna Singh Kahlon{{NoteTag|Not to be confused with [[Lehna Singh Majithia]]}}, Gujjar Singh Banghi and Suba Singh ruled supreme and kept paying the Afghan [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]] 1747–1772 and his offspring [[Timur Shah]] 1772 – 1793 an annual sum as Taxes.

The [[Lahore Fort]] and the Walled [[Lahore]] City and its gates went to Lehna Singh Kahlon. He was, for formal purposes, the [[Governor]] of [[Lahore]], and was so recognized.

To Suba Singh went the area to the south of the Walled [[Lahore]] City, and he resided in the garden of Zubaida Begum in Nawankot, where he built a small fort for himself.

The area between [[Amritsar]] and [[Lahore]], or more correctly between the [[Shalamar]] Gardens and [[Lahore]], went to [[Gujjar Singh Banghi]].

[[Gujjar Singh Banghi]] erected that part of the city, then a jungle and invited people to settle there. He also dug wells to supply water. A mosque was also built for the Muslims in the area. He also built himself a small fort called [[Qila Gujar Singh]]. Today, a few walls of that old fort can be seen in a street between today's Nicholson Road and Empress Road, and the area is still called [[Qila Gujar Singh]].

On a final note, their rule of ended when [[Ranjit Singh]] besieged the Lahore Fort in 1799 and the three chieftains Lehna Singh Kahlon, [[Gujjar Singh Banghi]] and Suba Singh fled, leaving the city firmly in the hands of the young man from Gujranwala [[Ranjit Singh]].

== See also ==

* [[Kanhaiya Misl]]
* [[Bhangi Misl]]
* [[Sikh period in Lahore|Sikh period of Lahore]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
''A history of the Sikhs'' by Kushwant Singh

{{DEFAULTSORT:Majithia, Suba Singh}}
[[Category:Punjabi Sikhs]]
[[Category:People from Lahore]]

Ram Krishna Bhargava

2026-04-30T02:18:17Z

Khorang: made a entry - done

{{Short description|Member of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Ram Krishna Bhargava
| office = Member of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = March 2017
| term_end =
| constituency = [[Misrikh Lok Sabha constituency|Misrikh LokSabha]]
| predecessor = [[Ram Pal Rajwanshi]]
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1952|07|1}}
| birth_place = [[Sitapur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| occupation = [[Farmer]]
| profession = [[Politician]]
| father = Raghunandan Prasad
| spouse = Mithlesh Kumari
| children = 2
| alma_mater = RRD Inter College
| image = MachhrehtaWiki 04.jpg
| assembly = [[Misrikh Assembly constituency|Misrikh VidhanSabha]]
| education = Intermediate
}}

'''Shri Ramkrishna Bhargava''' (born 1 July 1952)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Members of Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly |url=https://uplegisassembly.gov.in/Members/main_members_en.aspx#/Data/18153/18 |access-date=2024-09-07 |website=uplegisassembly.gov.in}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly (UPLA): Member info |url=https://upvidhansabhaproceedings.gov.in/member?memberId=19888 |access-date=2024-09-07 |website=upvidhansabhaproceedings.gov.in}}</ref> is an Indian politician from the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), representing the [[Misrikh Assembly constituency|153-Misrikh constituency]] in Sitapur district, Uttar Pradesh. He has been elected multiple times as a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA)]] and has served in various capacities throughout his political career.

== Early life and education ==

Ramkrishna Bhargava was born on 1 July 1952 in Madhwapur village of [[Sitapur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], to Shri Raghunandan Prasad. He belongs to the Pasi community, which is recognized as a [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Caste]]. He completed his intermediate education before embarking on a career in agriculture and business.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== Personal life ==

Ramkrishna Bhargava married Smt. Mithlesh Kumari on 22 May 1974. His wife was born on 13 August 1961. The couple has two sons. Bhargava's primary residence is in Madhwapur village, under the [[Machhrehta]] block of [[Sitapur district]], while he maintains a temporary address at 110, New Block, Darulshafa, Lucknow.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== Political career ==
'''Ram Krishna Bhargava''' has been actively involved in politics from 1984.<ref name=":0" /><ref>https://hindi.news18.com/news/uttar-pradesh/sitapur-uttar-pradesh-assembly-misrikh-seat-result-live-update-win-loss-ramkrishna-bhargava-manoj-rajvanshi-subhash-rajvanshi-shyam-kishor-baburam-verma-nodnc-4045674.html</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-10 |title=Misrikh Election Result 2022 LIVE Updates: Ramkrishna Bhargava of BJP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/misrikh-election-result-2022-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-4851455.html |access-date=2024-09-07 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Political career'''
!'''Details'''
|-
|'''1984-1989'''
|Elected to the 9th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh for the first time.
|-
|'''1991-1993'''
|Re-elected to the 11th Legislative Assembly for the second term.
|-
|'''2002-2007'''
|Elected for the third time to the 14th Legislative Assembly.
|-
|'''2003-2005'''
|Served as Minister of State in the Mulayam Singh Yadav Cabinet.
|-
|'''March 2017'''
|Elected to the 17th Legislative Assembly for the fourth term.
|-
|'''2017-2019'''
|Member of the Joint Committee on Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Denotified Castes.
|-
|'''2019-2022'''
|Member of the Public Accounts Committee.
|-
|'''March 2022'''
|Elected to the 18th Legislative Assembly for the fifth time.
|}

== Other contributions ==
'''Ram Krishna Bhargava''' has been actively participating in other positions.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Other contributions'''
!'''Details'''
|-
|'''1980–present'''
|President of UP Desco, Lucknow.
|-
|'''2007–present'''
|Vice President of Sant Ram Savitri Devi Inter College, Gamabag Machhrehatta, Sitapur.
|}

== Allegations against BJP MLA's son ==
''"In May 2018, a significant controversy emerged involving the son of a Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) MLA from Uttar Pradesh. The son of the MLA was accused of murdering a Panchayat Samiti member, which sparked widespread outrage and media attention. According to reports, the incident occurred when the Panchayat Samiti member was fatally shot following a dispute. The case led to intense scrutiny and calls for action from opposition leaders, who demanded justice and accountability. Law enforcement agencies launched an investigation, and the case continues to be a matter of legal proceedings and public interest."''

'''(Source: [[ABP Live]])'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-06 |title=UP: BJP MLA, son accused of murdering Panchayat Samiti member |url=https://news.abplive.com/news/india/up-bjp-mla-son-accused-of-murdering-panchayat-samiti-member-693052 |access-date=2024-09-07 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly]]
* [[Misrikh Assembly constituency]]
* [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhargava, Ram Krishna}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian political people]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:People from Sitapur]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

St. Mary's Islands

2026-04-26T21:19:57Z

Khorang: Put Up Initial Entry More To Come

{{For|individual islands named after Saint Mary|St Mary's Island (disambiguation){{!}}St Mary's Island}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = St. Mary's Islands
| native_name = Thonsepar
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Island
| image_skyline = St. Mary's islands, Udupi 1767.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| nickname =
| pushpin_map = India Karnataka
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| coordinates = {{coord|13.3795|N|74.6730|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Udupi]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 10
| population_total = 0
| population_as_of =
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes = Four Islands -Coconut Island, the North Island, the Daryabahadurgarh Island and the South Island
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
}}

'''St. Mary's Islands''', also locally known as '''Thonsepar''' (literally "Coconut Islands"), a set of four small uninhabited touristy islands in the [[Arabian Sea]] off the coast of [[Malpe]] in [[Udupi district]] of [[Karnataka]] state in [[India]], known for their distinctive geological formation of [[Columnar jointing|columnar rhyolitic]] lava,<ref name="GSI">{{cite web|url=http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,529572&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&linkId=1068|title=Columnar Rhyolite|publisher=Geological Survey of India|access-date=2008-07-26|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721160132/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,529572&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&linkId=1068|archive-date=2011-07-21}}</ref> which are one of the four [[List of National Geological Monuments in India|National Geological Monuments of India]] located in Karnataka state out of total 34 such monuments in India proscribed by the [[Geological Survey of India]] for their protection, maintenance, promotion and enhancement of [[geotourism]].<ref name=gsi1>{{Cite web |url=http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,529542&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL |title=National Geological Monument, from Geological Survey of India website |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-date=12 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712055947/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,529542&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="gsi2">{{Cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=137573|title=Geo-Heritage Sites|date=2016-03-09|website=pib.nic.in|publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]]|access-date=2018-09-15}}</ref><ref name=gsi3>[http://naturalheritage.intach.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Geoheritage-Monograph.pdf national geo-heritage of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111120428/http://naturalheritage.intach.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Geoheritage-Monograph.pdf |date=11 January 2017 }}, [[Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage|INTACH]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=137573 | title=Geo-Heritage Sites}}</ref>

Scientific studies indicate that the basalt of the St. Mary's Islands was formed by [[subaerial|sub-aerial]] [[subvolcanic rock|subvolcanic]] activity, because at that time [[Madagascar]] was attached to India. The rifting of Madagascar took place around 88 million years ago.<ref name ="subbu">{{cite news|title= Relative fall in Sea level in parts of South Karnataka Coast by K.R.Subramanya |url= http://www.ias.ac.in/j_archive/currsci/75/7/727-730/viewpage.html |publisher= Current Science Volume 75 Pages 727-730 |access-date=25 January 2009}}</ref>

==History==

With the [[discovery of the sea route to India]] in 1498, [[Vasco da Gama]] landed at St Mary's Islands, at the end of the voyage from the [[Kingdom of Portugal]]. Da Gama fixed a cross and named one of these islands ''O Padrão de Santa Maria'' in [[Indo-Portuguese|Portuguese]], as a [[Dedication (ritual)|dedication]] to [[St Mary]], the virgin-mother of [[Jesus Christ]], before proceeding to [[Calicut (Kozhikode)]] in the
[[Malabar region]], the present-day [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/from-the-red-pandas-of-sikkim-to-the-barren-islands-of-andaman-15-natural-wonders-in-india-you-should-know-about/495239-79.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901203500/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/from-the-red-pandas-of-sikkim-to-the-barren-islands-of-andaman-15-natural-wonders-in-india-you-should-know-about/495239-79.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 September 2014|title= 15 natural wonders in India you should know about|access-date= 1 September 2014 |website=ibnlive.in.com/}}</ref><ref name="stm">{{cite news |first=Ganesh |last=Prabhu |title=A beach and an island to relax on |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/31/stories/2006033108730400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061213072228/http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/31/stories/2006033108730400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-12-13 |work= [[The Hindu]] |date=2006-03-31 |access-date=2008-10-28}}</ref>

==Geography ==

===Topography ===

Out of the four islands, the northernmost island has a basaltic rock formation in a hexagonal form, the only one of its type in India such as Malpe and others. The island covers an area which is about {{convert|500|m|ft|abbr=on|1}} in length with a width of {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on|1}}. It has prominent coconut trees, its cover reflecting an azure south sea colour, and hence the island is also called Coconut Island. There is no habitation on the islands.<ref>{{cite news|title=St Mary's Island |url=http://www.india9.com/i9show/St-Mary's-Island-34540.htm|access-date=2009-01-24}}</ref><ref name= "rocks">{{cite news |title=Where rocks tell a tale |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/life/2002/09/16/stories/2002091600170300.htm|work= [[The Hindu]] |date=2002-09-16 |access-date=2009-01-24}}</ref>

The north–south aligned islands form a non-continuous chain. The four largest islands are Coconut Island, North Island, Daryabahadurgarh Island and South Island.<ref name ="doctor">{{cite news |title=Petrology and palaeomagnetism of volcanic rocks of the St. Marry Islands|url=http://www.library.iitb.ac.in/~mnj/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---0PHD--00-1--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---8-------0-1l--11-zh-50---20-help---10-3-1-00-0011-1-0gbk-00&cl=CL1.15&d=HASHd4daddfb6cf6efc64eb0c0&x=1 |work= Indian Institute of Technology, Doctoral thesis by A. B. Valsangkar |access-date= 2009-01-25}}</ref>

The islands are generally aligned parallel to the coast line, which provide clues to the phenomenon of uplift of the west coast of India. The islands' terraces and elevated beach deposits along with the tide gauge data at the dead oyster beach in [[Suratkal]] (further south of the islands) have been deduced as proof of the reported fall in sea level of about 1 mm/per year.<ref name ="subbu"/>

The highest elevation at Coconut Island, which has generated interest among geologists and tourists, is about {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on|1}} above msl with surrounding areas in the form of platforms in the elevation range of +{{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on|1}}, +{{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on|1}}, +{{convert|1.5|m|ft|abbr=on|1}} and + 0 m which are stated to have been formed by wave action pointing to an "episodic sea level rise or fall of land".<ref name ="subbu"/>

===Geology===
[[File:Basaltic rock formation in St Mary's Island, Karnataka.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of basaltic rock formation in St. Mary's Island.]]

The columnar basaltic lava found in these Islands, which is very well developed in the basalts of [[Deccan Traps]], exhibit an imposing range of hexagonal shaped or multi-faced (polygonal) columns split into a horizontal mosaic. In geological terms these are called "[[Columnar jointing|columnar joints]]".<ref name="GSI"/> The lava rocks form regular five, six or seven-sided pillars, called "laminar lava", and are found in varying heights in all the islands; the tallest of the columns is about {{Convert|6|m|abbr=on}}. Considering the importance and rarity of such an occurrence, these islands were classified as a National Geological Monument in 2001 by the [[Geological Survey of India]].<ref name="stm"/><ref name= "rocks "/>

The Deccan Traps that formed during [[Cretaceous]]–[[Eocene]] time about {{Mya|60}} emerged from the vast deluge of hot molten basaltic lava in the western part of India which is now seen as flat topped hills and step like terraces.<ref name="GSI"/>
Scientific studies carried out at the [[Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay]] on the [[petrology]], [[palaeomagnetism]] and [[volcanic]]s of the rocks of the island has brought out the following facts.<ref name ="doctor"/>
* Islands comprise fully of [[igneous]] rocks. They have [[acid]] composition that consist of [[dacite]]s, [[rhyodacite]]s, [[rhyolite]]s and [[granophyre]]s and carry basic patches.
* The columnar jointing pattern is well developed on Coconut Island.
* Mineralogically, [[plagioclase]], K-[[feldspar]], [[quartz]], [[Orthopyroxene|ortho-]] and [[clinopyroxene]]s, [[olivine]], [[magnetite]], and [[ilmenite]] are recorded in the ground mass phases
* [[Magnetic]] granulometric studies (susceptibility and [[hysteresis]] at different temperatures) of island rock samples indicate the presence of a multi domain (MD) state of magnetite. It is inferred that: "the formation of MD could have affected the stability and consistency of magnetic directions in these rocks" and that "this igneous body has been either annealed or could be an intrusive."
An analysis of [[palaeomagnetic]] data from India and [[Madagascar]] hypothesizes a new India–Madagascar fit related to the Late Cretaceous, directly prior to and during the early phase of Madagascar–India separation. A scientific study paper on Late Cretaceous India–Madagascar fit and timing of break–up related magmatism by several scholars reported in the Wiley Inter Science Journal states:<ref>{{cite news|title=Late Cretaceous India–Madagascar fit and timing of break-up related magmatism |url= http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119046866/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|archive-url= https://archive.today/20130105105802/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119046866/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|url-status= dead|archive-date= 2013-01-05| publisher=Wiley Inter science, Terra Nova Volume 12, Issue 5, pages 220-224| date=2002-01-18 |access-date=2009-01-25}}</ref> "St. Mary [[magmatism]] is linked to the initial break–up between India and Madagascar, and [[magmatism]] probably resulted from rift related extensional processes initially induced by the [[Prince Edward Islands|Marion]] [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] underlying southern Madagascar during the [[Late Cretaceous]]."

===Geological age===

There are different theories on the age of the St. Mary's Islands rocks. In the analysis reported in the above section it has been further concluded that the multi domain (MD) state found in these rocks are uncommon in the [[Deccan Traps]] and non-existent in the [[Rajmahal Hills|Rajmahal Traps]]. Six selected samples from the islands were subject to whole rock K-Ar dating. This yielded a mean age of 93.1±2.4 (2σ) vis-à-vis the age of the Rajmahal Traps of about 105-100 [[Annum|Ma]] and about 66-35 Ma of the Deccan Traps. With this appreciation, the author has concluded that the igneous activity of St. Mary's Islands may represent [[Cretaceous]]-[[Tertiary period|Tertiary]] [[igneous]] activity.<ref name ="doctor"/>

In a further analysis of the age of the break-up of Greater India (India plus [[Seychelles]]) and Madagascar it has been inferred to have occurred in the Upper Cretaceous at 88 [[Annum|Ma]]. The strength of this inference is based on the approach that the [[Felsic]] [[volcanic]]s ([[rhyolites]] and [[Rhyodacite]]s) of the St. Mary's Islands (SMI), Southern India, were originally interpreted as a distant outlier of the 66 Ma Deccan volcanic province of west–central India, comprising dominantly flood basalts. Later studies had dated it at 93 Ma by the [[K-Ar dating]] technique. Since the technique used was a simple use of an average of five out of six widely varying dates and arbitrary data selectivity chosen, the results were not considered reliable. A method of 40Ar–39Ar ([[argon–argon dating]]) of the SMI volcanic yields is reportedly more reliable of the plateau and [[Isochron dating|isochron ages]]. The weighted mean isochron age is reported to be 85.6±0.9 Ma (2σ). The K–Ar ([[potassium-argon dating]]) technique adopted for the southern Indian [[Precambrian]] terrain, intruded by numerous mafic–doleritic [[dyke swarm]]s, the age from [[Proterozoic]] to the latest Cretaceous is reported as 69–66 Ma (Deccan-related). The two regional dykes (a leucograbbro and a felsite) from the [[Kerala]] region of southwestern India, which were also dated earlier, indicate the age as 85 Ma. Madagascar flood basalt province's 40Ar–39Ar ages of 89–85 Ma tallies with the SMI volcanic age. The conclusion drawn by the study is that the Madagascar flood basalt province, the SMI volcanics, and possibly the Kerala dykes may well represent volcanic activity associated with the break-up of Greater India and Madagascar, in the Upper Cretaceous at 88 Ma.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Pande | first1 = Kanchan
| last2 = Sheth | first2 = Hetu C.
| last3 = Bhutani | first3 = Rajneesh
| title = 40Ar–39Ar age of the St. Mary's Islands volcanics, southern India: record of India–Madagascar break-up on the Indian subcontinent
| journal = Earth and Planetary Science Letters | volume = 193 | issue = 1–2
| pages = 39–46
| url = http://www.geos.iitb.ac.in/sheth/pandeetal(epsl2001).pdf
|date= 2001-11-30 | access-date=2009-01-24
|bibcode = 2001E&PSL.193...39P |doi = 10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00495-2 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.501.3666
}}</ref>

Another scientific study on the biogeographic and tectonic history of India reported that:<ref>{{cite journal
| title=The biogeographic and tectonic history of India
| journal = Journal of Biogeography | last = Briggs | first = J.C.
| volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 381–388
| doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00809.x
|date=March 2003 | doi-access = free }}</ref> "Although real breaks among the lands were indicated by the physical data, faunal links were maintained by agile animals that were able to surmount minor marine barriers. India, during its northward journey, remained close to [[Africa]] and Madagascar even as it began to contact [[Eurasia]]."

==Ecology==
[[File:Highest point on the Island.jpg|thumb|The highest point on St. Mary's Islands.]]

A detailed description of the natural [[flora]] and [[fauna]] of the islands and the Deria Bahdur Ghur (the islands north of the port of Malpe, named after the cross set up by Vasco da Gama), have been compiled in a manual by John Sturrocks, the district collector of Mangalore in 1894.<ref>{{cite journal
| last1 = Madhyastha | first = M.N.
| last2 = Abdul Rahiman | first2 = M.
| last3 = Kaveriappa | first3 = K.M.
| title = A Brief History of Scientific Technology, Research and Educational Progress of South Kanara, Karnataka State
| journal = Indian Journal of History of Science | year = 1982 | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 260–267
| url = http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af6_260.pdf
| access-date = 24 January 2009
}}</ref>

===Flora===

The largely barren St. Mary's islands, due to coconut palm-fringed coast, is also called the "Coconut Island" (locally known as Thonsepar). The sparse inland vegetation is restricted to hardy shrubbery capable of growing in shallow, rocky soil and sandy terrain.<ref name=rg1/><ref>[https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/st-marys-island-coconut-island-is-near-akarwar-class-11-social-science-cbse-6011699e69aa375987d5af10 Flora of St. mary's Islands], vedantu, accessed 26 Apr 2026.</ref>

===Fauna===

; Birdlife: The island's rocky shores is a breeding site or stopover for various birds. Colonies of [[gulls]], [[Scolopacidae]] ([[sandpiper]]s) and a few [[crow]]s have been sighted on the Islands. On the approach to the Islands from the Malpe beach, [[brahminy kite]]s (''Haliastur indus''), [[great white egrets]], grey [[egrets]] (breeding plumage) and groups of large [[Asian green bee-eater]]s have been recorded.<ref name ="news">{{cite news|title=St.Mary's Island|url=https://ifornature.blogspot.com/2007/01/stmarys-island.html|date=2007-01-30 |access-date=27 January 2009}}</ref><ref name=rg1/>

; Coral: There is presence of corals in the surrounding waters.<ref name=rg1/>

; Marine wildlife: The western coasts of the St. Mary's islands are abundant [[beachcombing]] and [[seashell]] haven with seashells of various shapes and sizes littered along the coast.<ref name=mar1/> The columnar basaltic rock formations provide a unique, rocky habitat that supports seaweeds and small crustaceans. Its marine life is dominated by 52 taxa of [[macroalgae]] ([[seaweed]]s), including 16 [[Chlorophyceae]] (green algae), 19 [[Phaeophyceae]] (brown algae), and [[Rhodophyceae]] (red algae).<ref name=rg1>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354042543_Marine_Macro_Algal_Diversity_of_St_Mary's_Island_Karnataka_India Marine Macro Algal DIversity of St. Mary's Islands in Karnataka], ResearchGate, , accessed 26 Apr 2026.</ref>

==Tourism ==

St. Mary's Island are popular among tourist for their unique geology unique volcanic hexagonal columnar basalt rock formations, and small coral patches and rocky outcrops that support marine life such as clownfish and butterflyfish, making them suitable for snorkeling and scuba diving tours which can be booked from Malpe beach jetty.<ref>[https://karnatakatourism.org/en/experiences/scuba-at-malpe-beach Scuba at Malpe beach], karnatakatourism.org, accessed 27 Apr 2026.</ref> St. Mary's Islands is scattered with unique basaltic rock formations, specially in the north, southwest and south. The beach has security guards who ensure that visitors do not venture into danger zones of the islands.<ref name=mar1>{{cite web
| title = St Marys Island, Udippi, Karnataka
| url = http://www.mapsofindia.com/karnataka/tourism/st-marys-island.html
| publisher = Maps of India | date = July 2011 | access-date = February 9, 2012
}}</ref>

Though the islands are bereft of resident population, buildings, hotels, resorts, or no domestic animals, there are tourist facilities such as covered pavilions with park benches on the shore and further inland, day time souvinir and food shop, toilets, etc. Visitors must carry drinking water and sunscreen since the climate is usually hot. Since the last few yards of the approach to the island involves wading, it may be preferable to avoid wearing sneakers. Visitors can wander around freely and enjoy the natural hexagonal-shaped rock formations from vantage locations.<ref name ="news"/>

==Transport==

; Boats to St. Mary's Islands:
All transport links to the island are only through the mainland town of Malpe, which is a major fishing harbor 5 km west of [[Udupi]] town, the administrative headquarters for the Islands.<ref name=Mal2/> The only way of travelling to the St. Mary's islands is wo minutes ride by ferries and boats which depart regularly from Malpe Beach and the Tegma jetty, operating daily between roughly 9 am and 5:30 pm with an average frequency of 20 minutes, though they do not operate during the June-September monsoon season.<ref name="GSI"/>

Malpe too has tourist attractions such as the 13th century Vadabhandeshwara Temple and an image of [[Balarama]] consecrated by the saint [[Madhvacharya]], the founder of the [[Dvaita]] school of thought.<ref name=Mal2>{{cite news|title=St Mary's Islands|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/udupi/stmarysislands.htm |access-date=24 January 2009}}</ref>

; Airport:
[[Mangalore International Airport]] at [[Mangalore]], is {{convert|58|km|mi|abbr=on|1}} south of Malape. The famous religious town [[Udupi]], is about {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on|1}} west-northwest of Mangalore.

; Railway:

[[Udupi railway station]] (Station Code: UD) on the [[Konkan Railway]] (''map pictured''), {{convert|4|km|mi|abbr=on|1}} from Malape, connects to [[Indian Railways]] network including [[Kundapura]], [[Goa]], [[Ratnagiri]], [[Mumbai]], [[Kochi]], [[Kazhakoottam]], [[Kanjiramattom]], and [[Thrippunithura]].<ref name="GSI"/>

; Roads:

Malape, is connected 5 km road to Udupi city from where motorists can access the [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH66]] which runs the entire length of [[Kanara|Coastal Karnataka]] (called "Kanara"), [[National Highway 169A (India)|NH169A]] to eastern and central Karnataka via [[Shimoga]] (Shivamogga), and [[List of state highways in Karnataka|Karnataka State Highway 37]] to [[Sestern Gahats]] in southwest.

==Gallery==
{{Gallery|width=150|height=150|File:St Mary's Island.JPG|A beach on one of the St. Mary's Islands
|File:St Mary's Island rocks.JPG|Rocks at St. Mary's Islands
|File:St Mary's island.JPG|A view from Ferry towards St. Mary's Islands
|File:St. Mary's Islands, Columnar Basaltic Lava.jpg|Another view of the Island
}}
[[File:St. Mary's Islands, Malpe beach, Karnataka 04.jpg|right|thumb|608x608px|Panoramic view of palm trees at St. Mary Island]]

==See also==
{{portal|Islands}}

* [[National Geological Monuments of India]]
* [[List of places with columnar jointed volcanics]]
* [[Flores Island (Azores)|Azores]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]
* [[Devils Postpile National Monument]] or [[The Cove Palisades State Park]] in the United States
* [[Fingal's Cave]] in Scotland
* [[Giant's Causeway]] in [[Northern Ireland]]
* [[Adam's Bridge]] in [[India]]-[[Sri Lanka]] border

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|St. Mary's Islands}}
*[https://touristinindia.com/saint-marys-islands-banana-boat-ride/ Udupi: St Mary's Islands – Nature at its Resplendent Best]

{{Hydrology of Karnataka|state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:St. Mary's Islands, Karnataka}}
[[Category:Islands of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Beaches of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Geology of India]]
[[Category:Columnar basalts]]
[[Category:Geography of Udupi district]]
[[Category:National Geological Monuments in India]]
[[Category:Islands of India]]
[[Category:Uninhabited islands of India]]

Singanamala Assembly constituency

2026-04-26T07:52:54Z

Khorang: Put Up A Stub First Draft

{{Short description|Constituency of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Singanamala
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh (152-Singanamala highlighted).png
| map_caption = Location of Singanamala Assembly constituency within Andhra Pradesh
| state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| district = [[Anantapur district|Anantapur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Anantapur Lok Sabha constituency|Anantapur]]
| reservation = SC
| established = 1967
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 152
| mla = [[Bandaru Sravani Sree]]
| party = {{Party index link|Telugu Desam Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| electors = 235,064
}}
'''Singanamala''' is a [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Caste]] reserved constituency in [[Anantapur district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] that elects representatives to the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] in [[India]].<ref name=loksabha>{{cite book |chapter= TABLE B - Parliamentary Constituencies |url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title= Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|page=31}}</ref> It is one of the seven assembly segments of [[Anantapur Lok Sabha constituency]].

[[Bandaru Sravani Sree]] is the current [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] of the constituency, having won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] from [[Telugu Desam Party]]. As of 2019, there are a total of 235,064 electors in the constituency.{{update after|2024|6}} The constituency was established in 1967, as per the ''Delimitation Orders (1967)''.

== Mandals ==
{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
!Mandal
|-
| Garladinne
|-
| Singanamala
|-
| Putlur
|-
| Yellanur
|-
| Narpala
|-
| B.K. Samudram
|}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
| [[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| [[C. S. Kothuru]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| [[Tarimela Ranga Reddy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| [[B. Rukmani Devi]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| [[P. Gurumurthy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| [[Kothapalli Jayaram]]
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| [[P Samanthakamani]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
| rowspan=2 |Kothapalli Jayaram
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| rowspan=2 |[[Sake Sailajanath]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
|-
| [[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| [[B. Yamini Bala]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
| [[Jonnalagadda Padmavathy]]
| {{Full party name with color|YSR Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| [[Bandaru Sravani Sree]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|}

==Election results==
=== 2024 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Singanamala}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Bandaru Sravani Sree]]
|votes = 1,02,957
|percentage = 49.44
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = Mannepakula Veeranjaneyulu
|votes = 94,169
|percentage = 45.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sake Sailajanath]]
|votes = 3,469
|percentage = 1.67
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = NOTA
|candidate = None Of The Above
|votes = 1,906
|percentage = 0.92

|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 8,788
|percentage = 4.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 2,08,233
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = YSR Congress Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Singanamala<ref name=election2019>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11673-andhra-pradesh-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 14 September 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Jonnalagadda Padmavathy]]
|votes = 1,18,044
|percentage = 59.78%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Bandaru Sravani Sree]]|votes=71,802|percentage=36.36%|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=46,242|percentage=23.42%|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,97,366|percentage=83.96%|change=+0.082}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = YSR Congress Party
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Singanamala<ref name=election2014>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4055-andhra-pradesh-2014/ |title=Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election, 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 14 September 2020}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[B. Yamini Bala]]
|votes = 86,679
|percentage = 48.94
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=YSR Congress Party|candidate=[[Jonnalagadda Padmavathy]]|votes=82,095|percentage=46.35|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=4,584|percentage=2.59|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=177,123|percentage=83.88|change=+8.28}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = ysrcp
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Singanamala<ref name=election2009>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4054-andhra-pradesh-2009/ |title=Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election, 2009 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 14 September 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sake Sailajanath]]
|votes = 65,367
|percentage = 43.73
|change = -7.38
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Pamidi Shamanthakamani
|votes = 62,191
|percentage = 41.61
|change = -2.19
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Praja Rajyam Party
|candidate = Kothapalli Jayaram
|votes = 12,689
|percentage = 8.49
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 3,176
|percentage = 2.12
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 149,475
|percentage = 75.60
|change = +2.44
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2004 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Singanamala<ref name=election2004>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4053-andhra-pradesh-2004/ |title=Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election, 2004 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 18 May 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sake Sailajanath]]
|votes = 60,029
|percentage = 51.11
|change = +5.25
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Pamidi Samanthaka Mani
|votes = 51,443
|percentage = 43.80
|change = -6.63
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 8,586
|percentage = 7.31
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 117,456
|percentage = 73.16
|change = +12.65
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh}}

{{coord|14.80|77.72|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Anantapur district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]

Mahesh Tenginakai

2026-04-25T14:15:11Z

Khorang: Created Basic Info W/ Sources

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1971)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
'''Mahesh Tenginakai''' (born 2 January 1971) is an Indian politician from [[Karnataka]]. He is a member of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly from [[Hubli-Dharwad Central Assembly constituency|Hubli-Dharwad Central Assembly Constituency]] in [[Dharwad district|Dharwad District]]. He won the [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] representing [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] defeated former chief minister [[Jagadish Shettar]], who quit BJP after he was denied a ticket.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-13 |title=Congress wins over Kittur Karnataka, retains its hold over Kalyan Karnataka region |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/assembly-elections/karnataka/congress-wins-over-kittur-karnataka-retains-its-hold-over-kalyan-karnataka-region/articleshow/100213971.cms |access-date=2024-05-15 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref name="businesstoday.in">{{Cite web |date=2023-05-14 |title='Money power played key role,' says Jagadish Shettar after losing Hubli-Dharwad seat to BJP's Mahesh Tenginakai |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/politics/story/money-power-played-key-role-says-jagadish-shettar-after-losing-hubli-dharwad-seat-to-bjps-mahesh-tenginakai-381223-2023-05-14 |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-13 |title=Hubballi-Dharwad-Central Polls LIVE: BJP's Mahesh Tenginakai wins by huge margin |url=https://www.livemint.com/elections/assembly-elections/hubballidharwadcentral-karnataka-assembly-election-2023-result-jagadish-shettar-congress-bjp-live-new-11683932949453.html |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Tenginakai hails from the Lingayat community in [[Hubli]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Bhavsar |first=Karishma Pranav |date=2023-05-13 |title=Hubballi-Dharwad Central: BJP's Mahesh Tenginakai wins by a huge margin |url=https://www.livemint.com/elections/assembly-elections/hubballidharwadcentral-karnataka-assembly-election-2023-result-jagadish-shettar-congress-bjp-11683946052548.html |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref> He completed his intermediate, the pre-university course. He is a businessman.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahesh Tenginakai |url=https://prsindia.org/mlatrack/mahesh-tenginakai |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=PRS Legislative Research |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahesh Tenginakai |url=https://www.indialeader.com/ViewLeader/46850/Mahesh-_-Tenginakai |website=www.indialeader.com}}</ref>

== Career ==
Tenginakai was associated with the BJP for over two decades but made his debut in electoral politics only in 2023.<ref name=":1" /> He was elected as an MLA from [[Hubli-Dharwad Central Assembly constituency|Hubli-Dharwad Central Assembly Constituency]] winning the [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election]] by a huge margin. He defeated former chief minister [[Jagadish Shettar]], who contested on [[Indian National Congress Party]] ticket by a margin of 34,289 votes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Congress's Jagadish Shettar Loses To BJP's Mahesh Tenginakai By 34,289 Votes |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/congresss-jagadish-shettar-loses-to-bjps-mahesh-tenginakai-by-34-289-votes-4031930 |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-13 |title=Cong candidate Jagadish Shettar loses to BJP's Mahesh Tenginakai by 34,289 votes |url=https://theprint.in/india/cong-candidate-jagadish-shettar-loses-to-bjps-mahesh-tenginakai-by-34289-votes/1572682/ |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> Shettar, a six-time MLA, was denied a ticket by BJP and he shifted to Congress but lost the seat.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Athrady, DHNS |first=Ajith |title=Karnataka polls: BJP fields Mahesh Tenginakai from Hubballi-Dharwad Central |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/karnataka/karnataka-polls-bjp-fields-mahesh-tenginakai-from-hubballi-dharwad-central-1210618.html |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref name="businesstoday.in"/>

In February 2025, he criticised the allotment of land in Hubli-Dharwad for the construction of a district Congress party office at a concessional rate and questioned the financial priorities of the Congress government. The Karnataka cabinet approved the land, belonging to the Hubballi-Dharwad Municipal Corporation, worth Rs.5.6 crore for Rs.28 lakhs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-21 |title=BJP slams Karnataka’s Rs 5.67 crore land grant to Congress office for Rs 28 lakh |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/karnataka/story/karnataka-cabinet-allots-land-to-congress-to-build-office-at-a-low-price-bjp-slams-deal-2683311-2025-02-21 |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://kla.kar.nic.in/assembly/member/members.htm Karnataka Legislative Assembly]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tenginakai, Mahesh}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Hubli-Dharwad]]

Alochana Senapati

2026-04-21T11:30:29Z

Khorang: Put Up

{{Short description|Indian footballer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Alochana Senapati
| image =
| caption =
| fullname = Alochana Senapati
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1989|6|13|df=y}}<ref name="alsnp" />
| birth_place = [[Aali, Odisha|Aali]], [[Kendrapara]], [[Odisha]]
| height =
| position = [[Defender (association football)|Defender]]
| currentclub =
| years1 =
| clubs1 = Sports Hostel Bhubaneswar
| years2 =
| clubs2 = [[Odisha women's football team|Odisha]]
| nationalyears1 = 2005
| nationalteam1 = [[India women's national under-17 football team|India U17]]
| nationalcaps1 =
| nationalgoals1 =
| nationalyears2 = 2006–2007
| nationalteam2 = [[India women's national under-20 football team|India U19]]
| nationalcaps2 =
| nationalgoals2 =
| nationalyears3 = 2007–2012
| nationalteam3 = [[India women's national football team|India]]
| nationalcaps3 = ?
| nationalgoals3 = 1
}}
'''Alochana Senapati''' (born 13 June 1989) is an Indian former [[women's association football|footballer]] who played as a [[Defender (association football)|defender]].<ref name="AFC">{{Cite web|url=https://stats.the-afc.com/player/8227|title=ALOCHANA SENAPATI|website=AFC|accessdate=26 March 2022|archive-date=26 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326215159/https://stats.the-afc.com/player/8227|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="alsnp">{{cite web |title=Alochana Senapati |url=http://orisports.com/PersonDetails.aspx?pId=Mjcz |website=Orisports |access-date=26 March 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326215158/http://orisports.com/PersonDetails.aspx?pId=Mjcz |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=For these women, football has more kicks than marriage |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2018/jun/24/for-these-women-football-has-more-kicks-than-marriage-1832842.html |website=The New Indian Express |date=24 June 2018 |access-date=26 March 2022 |archive-date=25 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025221425/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2018/jun/24/for-these-women-football-has-more-kicks-than-marriage-1832842.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Career==
Senapati was born in [[Aali, Odisha|Aali]] in the [[Kendrapara]] district in [[Odisha]]. She represented the Sports Hostel Bhubaneswar in state and club tournaments and [[Odisha women's football team]].{{fact|date=October 2022}}

Senapati represented India at the [[2008 AFC Women's Asian Cup qualification]] and the [[Football at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's Asian Qualifiers#Group B|2012 Olympics Qualifiers]].<ref name="AFC" /> She was also a part of the national winning squads which played in the [[2010 SAFF Women's Championship|2010]] and [[2012 SAFF Women's Championship]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Women prove too hot for Bangladesh |url=https://wifa.in/indian-women-prove-too-hot-for-bangladesh/ |date=2012-09-10 |website=[[Western India Football Association]]}}</ref>

==International goals==
:''Scores and results list India's goal tally first.''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No. !! Date !! Venue !! Opponent !! Score !! Result !! Competition
|-
| 1. || 7 September 2012 || [[CR & FC Grounds]], [[Colombo]], [[Sri Lanka]] || {{fbw|BAN}} || align=center|'''3'''–0 || align=center| 3–0 || [[2012 SAFF Women's Championship]]
|}

==Honours==

'''India'''
* [[SAFF Championship]]: [[2010 SAFF Women's Championship|2010]], [[2012 SAFF Women's Championship|2012]]

'''Orissa'''
* [[Rajmata Jijabai Trophy]]: 2010–11,<ref>{{cite web |title=Orissa win maiden title in Senior Women NFC |url=http://orisports.com/NewsDetails.aspx?nId=MjcyOQ== |website=Orisports |date=18 May 2011 |access-date=22 November 2022 }}</ref> runner-up: 2007–08
* [[National Games of India|National Games]] Gold medal: [[2007 National Games of India|2007]]<ref name="alsnp" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Senapati, Alochana}}
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Kendrapara district]]
[[Category:Footballers from Odisha]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Odisha]]
[[Category:Indian women's footballers]]
[[Category:India women's international footballers]]
[[Category:India women's youth international footballers]]
[[Category:Women's association football defenders]]

{{India-women-footy-bio-stub}}
{{India-footy-defender-stub}}

S. Murasoli

2026-04-21T02:52:55Z

Khorang: made new data - done

{{Short description|DMK politician and Member of Indian Parliament}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = File:Mursoli.png
| name = S. Murasoli
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = [[Member of Parliament]]
| constituency = [[Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency|Thanjavur]]
| term_start = June 2024
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[S. S. Palanimanickam]]
| successor =
| party = [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]][[File:Flag DMK.svg|50px]]
| spouse = Porselvi
| children = M. Athavan (son)
| alma_mater = B. Sc. ([[Rajah Serfoji Government College]]), Thanjavur; L.L.B. (Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia College of Law, Bangaluru)
| website =
| footnotes =
| date = 5 June

|
| year = 2024

|
| source = https://sansad.in/ls/members/biographyM/5798?from=members
}}
'''S. Murasoli''' (in Tamil: ச. முரசொலி) is an [[Indian politician]] and [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]] of [[India]] from [[Tamil Nadu]]. He belongs to [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]].

==Early life and education==
Murasoli was born in [[Thennankudi]], [[Thanjavur district]], Tamil Nadu. His father is K. Shanmugasundaram Nattar and mother is Dharmasamvarthini. Shanmugasundaram worked as the President of Tennankudi Panchayat Council in the year 1971. Murasoli did his bachelor's degree from [[Rajah Serfoji Government College]], [[Thanjavur]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-elections/tamil-nadu/thanjavur/candidateshow/murasoli-s-8141|title=Murasoli S, Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam Representative for Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu - Candidate Overview | 2024 Lok Sabha Elections|website=The Times of India}}</ref> He also completed bachelor's degree in law from Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia College of Law, [[Bangalore|Bangaluru]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://myneta-info.translate.goog/LokSabha2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=1451&_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ta&_x_tr_hl=ta&_x_tr_pto=tc|title=Murasoli S(DMK):Constituency- THANJAVUR(TAMIL NADU) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|website=myneta-info.translate.goog}}</ref>

==Politics==
Murasoli is an active cadre of [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] and worked as the party secretary of Thanjavur DMK North Union. In the [[2024 Indian general election|2024 Indian General Election]] he contested in the [[Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency]] in the DMK ticket. He won the election by getting 502245 and became a member of the [[Lok Sabha]], [[Parliament of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vikatan.com/government-and-politics/info-about-thanjavur-dmk-candidate-murasoli|title=Thanjavur DMK Candidate: பழனிமாணிக்கத்தை வீழ்த்திய புதுமுகம் - யார் இந்த முரசொலி?|first=நமது நிருபர்,சே|last=பாலாஜி|date=21 March 2024|website=www.vikatan.com/}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency]]
* [[Rajah Serfoji Government College]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Thanjavur district]]
[[Category:Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Pitram Singh Kala

2026-04-20T08:30:46Z

Khorang: made a bio - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Pitram Singh Kala
| image =
| caption = Kala in 2024
| birth_place = [[Pilani]], [[Jhunjhunu district|Jhunjhunu]], [[Rajasthan]], [[India]]
| office = [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly|Member of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Pilani Assembly constituency|Pilani]]
| term_start = 3 December 2023
| term_end =
| predecessor = J.P. Chandelia
| successor =
| assembly = [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
| country = {{flag|India}}
| occupation =
| profession = [[Politician]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| website =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1964|01|01|df=y}}
| parents =
| spouse = Sushila Devi Kala
| children = 3
| education = [[Bachelor of Education|B.E.d.]] & [[Master of Arts|M.A.]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Rajasthan]] & [[Maharshi Dayanand Saraswati University]]
}}

'''Pitram Singh Kala''' (1 January 1964) is an Indian [[politician]] serving as member of [[16th Rajasthan Assembly|16th Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] from [[Pilani Assembly constituency|Pilani]]. He is a Member of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/rajasthan/constituency-show/pilani|title=Pilani Constituency Election Results 2023: Pilani Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/RoundwiseS2025.htm | title=Election Commission of India }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election-2023/rajasthan-pilani-constituency-25.html|title=Pilani Election Result 2023 Live, Pilani Elections Vote Counting, Rajasthan Results 2023 | ABP News|website=news.abplive.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/elections/pilani-election-result-2023-live-updates-and-highlights-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8687157.html|title=Pilani Election Result 2023 LIVE Updates and Highlights: Winner, Loser, Leading, Trailing, MLA, Margin|date=December 3, 2023|website=News18}}</ref>

==Political career==
Following the [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]] he was elected as an MLA from the Pilani Assembly constituency after defeating Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) candidate Shri.Rajesh Dahiya by a margin of 14,845 votes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/pilani-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2470633-2023-12-03|title=Pilani Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: INC retains Pilani seat, Pitram Singh Kala wins with 70905 votes|website=India Today|date=3 December 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/rajasthan-assembly-election/Pilani-25|title=Pilani Assembly Rajasthan Election 2023 Results Live: Rajasthan constituency Results, Winner list and vote share|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aajtak.in/elections/rajasthan/pilani-sc-assembly-result-20025|title=Pilani (SC) Assembly Election Results 2023: Pilani (SC) Election Candidates List, Chunav Results, Vote Share News in Hindi | पिलानी (एससी) विधानसभा चुनाव परिणाम 2023 - AajTak|website=Aaj Tak|language=hi}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kala, Pitram Singh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Rajasthan MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Jhunjhunu district]]
[[Category:1964 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Rajasthan]]

Dongargaon Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:25:13Z

Khorang: Starting info - done

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Chhattisgarh State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dongargaon
| mla = [[Daleshwar Sahu]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| preceded_by = Kheduram Sahu
| state = [[Chhattisgarh]]
| district = [[Rajnandgaon district|Rajnandgaon]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Rajnandgaon (Lok Sabha constituency)|Rajnandgaon]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:203009}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/mp-legislative-election-2023-statistical-report |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2023 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=26 January 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{update after|2029|1}}
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 76
| map_image = Dongargaon Assembly constituency map.svg
}}
'''Dongargaon''' is one of the 90 [[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Chhattisgarh]] state in [[India]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3931-delimitation-of-parliamentary-assembly-constituencies-order-2008/ |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies Order - 2008 |website=Election Commission of India |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name=ceomap>{{cite web |url=https://ceochhattisgarh.nic.in/en/new-maps-assembly-constituency |title=New Maps of Assembly Constituency |website=ceochhattisgarh.nic.in| access-date=1 September 2021}}</ref> It is in [[Rajnandgaon district|Rajnandgaon]] district and is a segment of [[Rajnandgaon (Lok Sabha constituency)|Rajnandgaon]] Lok Sabha seat. The seat used to be part of [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] when Chhattisgarh was part of MP.

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
! colspan=4|[[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|-
|[[1952 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Dhannalal Jain]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1957 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|-
|[[1962 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Ganeshmal Bhandari
|-
|[[1967 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Madan Tiwari
|{{Full party name with color|Samyukta Socialist Party}}
|-
|[[1972 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|S. Jairam Ayyar
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Vidya Bhushan Thakur
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="2" |Hiraram Verma
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1985 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[1990 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| rowspan="3" |Gita Devi Singh
|-
|[[1993 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|-
|[[1998 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|-
! colspan=4|[[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
|-
|[[2003 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|[[Pradeep Gandhi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|2004^
|[[Raman Singh]]
|-
|[[2008 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
|Kheduram Sahu
|-
|[[2013 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Daleshwar Sahu]]<ref name="election2018" />
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2018 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
|-
|[[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|}
^by-election

==Election results==

=== 2023 ===

{{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election]]: Dongargaon<ref name=election2023/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Daleshwar Sahu]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 81,479
|percentage = 47.49
|change = -4.88
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Bharat Lal Varma
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 78,690
|percentage = 45.86
|change = +5.31
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Chhattar Ram Chandrawanshi
|party = Hamar Raj Party
|votes = 5,178
|percentage = 3.02
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 2,258
|percentage = 1.32
|change = -0.08
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 2,789
|percentage = 1.63
|change = -10.19
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 171,570
|percentage = 84.51
|change = -0.92
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===

{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election]]: Dongargaon<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9643-statistical-data-of-general-election-to-chhatisgarh-assembly/ |title=State Election, 2018 to the Legislative Assembly Of Chhattisgarh |website=Election Commission of India |date= |accessdate= 1 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="elections.in2018">{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/chhattisgarh/assembly-constituencies/2018-election-results.html|website=elections.in|title=Chhattisgarh Assembly Election Results in 2018|accessdate=2020-06-26}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Daleshwar Sahu]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 84,581
|percentage = 52.37
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Madhusudan Yadav
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 65,498
|percentage = 40.55
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Vani Vilash Patel
|party = Independent politician
|votes = 1,863
|percentage = 1.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Rekchand Mandle
|party = Independent politician
|votes = 1,782
|percentage = 1.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Ashok Verma
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 1,482
|percentage = 0.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Chandramani Verma
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|votes = 1,474
|percentage = 0.91
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 2,257
|percentage = 1.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 19,083
|percentage = 11.82
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 160,841
|percentage = 85.43
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2004 Bypoll ===
* Dr. Raman Singh (BJP) : 42,115 votes<ref name="elections2003">{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/chhattisgarh/assembly-constituencies/2003-election-results.html|website=elections.in|title=Chhattisgarh Assembly Election Results in 2003|accessdate=2020-06-26}}</ref>
* Geeta Devi Singh (INC) : 32,004

===2003===
* Pradeep Gandhi (BJP) : 42,784 votes<ref name="elections2003">{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/chhattisgarh/assembly-constituencies/2003-election-results.html|website=elections.in|title=Chhattisgarh Assembly Election Results in 2003|accessdate=2020-06-26}}</ref>
* Geeta Devi Singh (INC) : 36,649

===1998===
* Smt. Gita Devi Singh (INC) : 25,125 votes<ref name="elections1998">{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/madhya-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/1998-election-results.html|website=elections.in|title=Madhya Pradesh Assembly Election Results in 1998|accessdate=2020-06-26}}</ref>
* Ashok Sharma (BJP) : 24,247

===1980===
* Hiraram Verma (INC-I) : 11,487 votes<ref name="elections1980">{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/madhya-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/1980-election-results.html|website=elections.in|title=Madhya Pradesh Assembly Election Results in 1980|accessdate=2020-06-26}}</ref>
* Vidyabhushan Thakur (JNP-SR) : 8,833

==See also==
*[[List of constituencies of the Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Rajnandgaon district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Chhattisgarh}}

[[Category:Rajnandgaon district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Politics of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
{{coord|20.97|80.85|display=title}}

Bhrahmapuram fire

2026-04-11T09:59:40Z

Khorang: Stub

{{Short description|Waste dumpyard fire in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}

In March 2023, a major fire broke out at the 110-acre [[Bhrahmapuram landfill]] site at Bhrahmapuram in [[Vadavucode|Vadavukot]]-[[Puthencruz|Puthankurish]] Panchayat, 17 km from [[Kochi|Kochi city]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=വരുത്തിവച്ച വിന: ശ്വാസംമുട്ടി കൊച്ചി; ബ്രഹ്മപുരത്ത് സംഭവിക്കുന്നത് എന്ത്? |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/editorial/2023/03/06/writeup-about-brahmapuram-fire.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> The fire began on 2 March 2023 at around three in the afternoon.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ബ്രഹ്മപുരം മാലിന്യ സംസ്കരണ പ്ലാന്റിൽ തീപിടിത്തം; അണയ്ക്കാനുള്ള ശ്രമം തുടരുന്നു |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2020/02/18/fire-at-kochi-brahmapuram-waste-plant.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> Smoke rising from Bhrahmapuram made life difficult for the people of [[Ernakulam]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ഡെസ്ക് |first=വെബ് |title=ബ്രഹ്മപുരം വിഷയത്തിൽ ദീർഘകാലാടിസ്ഥാനത്തിൽ പരിഹാരത്തിന് ശ്രമമെന്ന് കളക്ടർ;എട്ടാം ദിവസവും തീ അണയ്ക്കാനായില്ല |url=https://www.thefourthnews.in/news/keralam/kochi-mayor-m-anil-kumar-explains-about-brahmapuram-garbage-issue |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=The Fourth |language=ml |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314091511/https://www.thefourthnews.in/news/keralam/kochi-mayor-m-anil-kumar-explains-about-brahmapuram-garbage-issue |url-status=dead }}</ref> Due to the high level of air pollution after the fire in [[Ernakulam district]], many people experienced cough, difficulty in breathing, headache, dizziness, eye discomfort and itching. It took 12-13 days for the fire to be brought under control.<ref>{{Cite web |title=5 days in, Brahmapuram blaze continues to choke Kochi |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/5-days-in-brahmapuram-blaze-continues-to-choke-kochi-88084 |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=www.downtoearth.org.in |language=en}}</ref> Weeks after the devastating fire at the Brahmapuram landfill, another fire was reported on 26 March.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kochi's Brahmapuram waste dumping yard catches fire, again |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2023/mar/26/kochis-brahmapuram-waste-dumping-yard-catches-fire-again-2559741.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326131438/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2023/mar/26/kochis-brahmapuram-waste-dumping-yard-catches-fire-again-2559741.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

==Origin of fire==
The fire brigade received information about the fire at 3.30 pm on 2 March 2023. In the district collector's report, the time reported was 4.15 pm. By the time, the locals arrived at the place within half an hour. The fire originated at the sector one. There were pocklines and excavators but no manpower to operate them. Garbages on the road made it impossible for fire rescue vehicles to pass to the spot.<ref>{{Cite web |title=പുകമറയ്ക്ക് പിന്നിൽ |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/editorial/2023/03/10/political-controversies-related-to-the-brahmapuram-plant.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> This was the fifth time that the garbage dump caught fire at Bhrahmapuram, but this time the condition of this fire was serious. Areas miles away from Bhrahmapuram were engulfed in smoke. Many people suffered from suffocation and dizziness and had to seek medical help. Many people and medias alleged that the situation was made worse by the failure of the authorities who did not take care to clear the garbage or prepare fire fighting systems despite giving accurate warnings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ബ്രഹ്മപുരം നൽകുന്ന ആപൽസൂചന |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/editorial/2019/02/24/lp-leader-25-02.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref>

==Efforts to extinguish fire==
The 75-acre area where the fire broke out was divided into six zones and the fire fighting progressed. Fire units from [[Cochin Port|Kochi Port Trust]] were also brought and tried to douse the fire along with [[Kerala Fire And Rescue Services|Kerala Fire Force]]. They tried to put out the fire by pumping more water from Kadambarayar using pumps brought from [[Alappuzha]]. changing wind direction adversely affected firefighting efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=വിഷപ്പുകയില്‍ മുങ്ങി കൊച്ചി: മലിനവായു പാരമ്യത്തില്‍; തീപിടിത്തം 75 ഏക്കറിൽ |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2023/03/05/brahmapuram-waste-plant-fire-updates.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> Due to such strong winds, smoke was rising from the garbage heap. In the early days, efforts were made to stir up the waste by using earthmoving machines and dousing the fire with water. Water was also poured from the helicopter. During the night, 26 excavators and 8 JCBs were involved in digging the garbage. Water was pumped continuously. In the first days, 200 people of fire rescue service, 50 volunteers of civil defense, 35 corporation employees and police were engaged in smoke-extinguishing activities. Three ambulances were also camped. The district collector instructed that all excavators should be kept operational throughout the night. Night activities were coordinated by the sub collector and Deputy Collector camped at Bhrahmapuram.<ref>{{Cite web |title=പുകമറയ്ക്ക് പിന്നിൽ |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/editorial/2023/03/10/political-controversies-related-to-the-brahmapuram-plant.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref>

==Allegations on corruption==
Allegations of corruption of were raised regarding waste bio-mining contract at Bhrahmapuram waste plant. Demands were also raised for an independent probe into the scandal involving politicians, bureaucrats and the ''Sontra Infotech'' company.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ആവശ്യത്തിന് ആളും യന്ത്രങ്ങളുമുണ്ടായിട്ടും തീയണയ്ക്കാൻ െവെകുന്നതെന്ത് ? |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2023/03/11/high-court-on-brahmapuram-fire.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> In 2019, the [[List of chief ministers of Karnataka|Chief Minister of Karnataka]] had ordered a vigilance investigation against Sontra Infotech. In 2020, the same company was given the Bhrahmapuram contract. Opposition parties alleged that the Sontra Infratech got the contract after a special intervention from KSIDC. They also asked the [[Government of Kerala]] that where did the proposal to extend the contract to the company that did not complete even half of the work within the contract period come from.<ref>{{Cite web |title='സര്‍ക്കാരിന് ഒന്നും ചെയ്യാനാവുന്നില്ല; കൊച്ചിക്കാര്‍ അഗ്നിപര്‍വതത്തിനു മുകളില്‍: കേന്ദ്രം ഇടപെടണം' |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2023/03/10/k-surendran-seeks-central-intervention-in-brahmapuram-fire-incident.html |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> Allegations were raised that a huge corruption took place in the Kochi Corporation under the guise of a garbage disposal contract, and that the contract was awarded to the children and sons-in-law of the leaders of political parties and the people of Kochi were the ultimate sufferers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ലേഖിക |first=നിയമകാര്യ |title=ബ്രഹ്മപുരത്ത് നിരീക്ഷണ സമിതിയെ നിയോഗിച്ച് ഹൈക്കോടതി |url=https://www.thefourthnews.in/news/keralam/high-court-appoints-monitoring-committee-in-brahmapuram |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=The Fourth |language=ml |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314091510/https://www.thefourthnews.in/news/keralam/high-court-appoints-monitoring-committee-in-brahmapuram |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Kerala}}

[[Category:2023 health disasters]]
[[Category:March 2023 in India]]
[[Category:Health in Kerala]]
[[Category:Industrial fires and explosions in India]]
[[Category:Pollution events in 2023]]

Avinash Singh Chauhan

2026-04-04T03:34:11Z

Khorang: New

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Avinash Singh Chauhan
| father =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| birth_date =
| source =
| birth_place = Sheruaa, [[Kanpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| constituency = Kanpur-Fatehpur local authorities
| office = [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council|Member of Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
| term_start = 11 April 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = Dillip Singh
| office1 = State President of [[Bhartiya Janta Party]], [[Kanpur Dehat district|Kanpur Dehant]], Uttar Pradesh<ref name="BJP"/>
| term_start1 = 2020
| term_end1 =
| processor1 =
| successor1 =
| mother =
| image =
}}

'''Avinash Singh Chauhan''' is an Indian politician who has been serving as a member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]] since 12 April 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vidhanparishadproceedings.up.gov.in/members/viewprofile/?profileID=MjQy|title= Government Profile of MLC Avinash Singh Chauhan|publisher=vidhanparishadproceedings.up.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/fatehpur/bindki/news/avinash-singh-chauhan-became-mlc-from-fatehpur-bindki-mla-jai-kumar-jackie-congratulated-welcomed-129649482.html|title=फतेहपुर से एमएलसी बने अविनाश सिंह चौहान:बिंदकी विधायक जय कुमार जैकी ने दी बधाई,किया स्वागत|publisher=www.bhaskar.com}}</ref>

==Early life==
Chauhan originally hails from Sheruaa village in [[Kanpur]], Uttar Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttar-pradesh/kanpur/story-avinash-singh-became-mlc-drums-in-his-native-village-6246227.html|title=एमएलसी बने अविनाश सिंह चौहान, पैतृक गाँव में बजे ढ़ोल-नगड़े|publisher=[[The Hindustan Times]]|date= 12 April 2022}}</ref>

==Political career==
Chauhan has been serving as the State President of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], [[Kanpur Dehat district|Kanpur Dehat]], since 2020. He filed his nomination for the MLC elections in 2022 from the Kanpur-Fatehpur local authorities.<ref name=BJP >{{cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/kanpur-city-avinash-singh-chouhan-bjp-mlc-candidate-from-fatehpur-kanpur-for-vidhan-parishan-election2022-22559668.html|title=UP MLC Elections 2022: BJP MLC candidate Avinash Singh Chauhan filed nomination from Kanpur-Fatehpur constituency|publisher=[[Dainik Jagran]]|date=21 March 2022}}</ref>

In the 2022 Kanpur-Fatehpur MLC elections, the result was declared on 12 April 2022. Avinash Singh Chauhan defeated Dilip Singh, the candidate of the [[Samajwadi Party]], by a margin of 4,387 votes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/kanpur-city-up-mlc-chunav-election-result-2022-updates-bjp-avinash-singh-chauhan-win-kanpur-fatehpur-mlc-seat2022-22620871.html|title=Kanpur Fatehpur MLC Chunav Result 2022 : भाजपा के अविनाश ने दर्ज की बड़ी जीत, यहां पढ़ें राजनीतिक प्रोफाइल|publisher=[[Dainik Jagran]]|date=12 April 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:People from Kanpur Dehat district]]
[[Category:Members of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Sora language

2026-03-29T13:31:54Z

Khorang: fix references for consistency and fixed typos

{{Short description|Munda language spoken in eastern India}}
{{Redirect|Savara language||Savara language (Dravidian)}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Sora
| altname = Savara
| nativename = {{huge|{{lang|srb-Sora|𑃐𑃚𑃝}}}} {{lang|srb-Orya|ସଉରା}} , {{lang|srb-Telu|సఉరా}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|srb|ˈsɔura||Pronunciation of "Sora".wav}}(Sora) 
| region = [[India]]
| ethnicity = [[Sora people|Sora]]
| image = [[File:Sora language.png|250px]]
| imagecaption = 'Sora' in [[Sorang Sompeng]]
| speakers = 409,549, 61% of ethnic population
| date = 2011 census
| ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2018-07-07}}</ref>
| familycolor = Austroasiatic
| fam2= [[Munda languages|Munda]]
| fam3= South
| fam4= Sora-[[Gorum language|Gorum]]
| fam5= Sora-[[Juray language|Juray]]
| dia1= Lanjia
| dia2= Imani
| dia3= Kansid
| dia4 = Kampu
| dia5 = Tenkala
| dia6 = Sarda
| iso3 = srb
| glotto = sora1254
| glottorefname = Sora
| script = [[Sora Sompeng]] (''Native'') [[Odia alphabet|Odia]] [[Latin script|Latin]] [[Telugu script|Telugu]]
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapscale = 1.0
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Sora is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
}}

'''Sora''' ({{IPA|srb|ˈsoːra|pron|Pronunciation of "Sora".wav
}} or {{IPA|seb|soʔoːˈra|}}) is a south [[Munda languages|Munda]] language belonging to the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] family, spoken by the [[Sora people]], an ethnic group of eastern India, mainly in the states of [[Odisha]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Sora contains very little formal literature but has an abundance of folk tales and traditions. Most of the knowledge passed down from generation to generation is transmitted orally. Like many languages in eastern India, Sora is listed as 'vulnerable to extinction' by [[UNESCO]].<ref name="UNESCO">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/en/atlasmap/language-id-1205.html|title=Sora|website=UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|language=en|access-date=2018-03-18}}</ref> Sora speakers are concentrated in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The language is endangered according to the [[International Mother Language Institute]] (IMLI).<ref>{{cite news |last1=দেশোয়ারা |first1=মিন্টু |title=হারিয়ে যাচ্ছে সৌরা ভাষা |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/bangla/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE-317326 |access-date=21 February 2022 |work=The Daily Star Bangla |date=21 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

==Distribution==
Speakers are concentrated mainly in [[Ganjam District]], [[Gajapati District]] (including the central Gumma Hills region (Gumma Block),<ref name=":0">Anderson, Gregory D.S (ed). 2008. ''The Munda languages''. Routledge Language Family Series 3.New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-32890-X}}.</ref> and [[Rayagada District]], and are also found in adjacent areas such as [[Koraput District|Koraput]] and [[Phulbani District|Phulbani]] districts; other communities exist in northern [[Andhra Pradesh]] ([[Vizianagaram District]], Parvatipuram Manyam District and [[Srikakulam District]]).

== History ==
The Sora language has faced a wavelike pattern of usage—that is, the number of people who speak Sora climbed steadily for decades before crashing down. In fact, the number of people who spoke Sora went from 157 thousand in 1901 to 166 thousand in 1911.<ref name=Mahapatra1991>{{cite journal |last1=Mahapatra |first1=B.P. |title=Munda Languages in Census |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |date=1991 |volume=51/52 |pages=329–336 |jstor=42930411 }}</ref> In 1921, this number marginally rose to 168 thousand and kept climbing.<ref name=Mahapatra1991/> In 1931, speaker numbers jumped to 194 thousand but in 1951, a period of exponential growth occurred, with speaker numbers jumping to 256 thousand.<ref name=Mahapatra1991/> in 1961, numbers topped at 265 thousand speakers before crashing down in 1971 when speaker numbers dropped back down to 221 thousand.<ref name=Mahapatra1991/>

== Culture ==
[[File:OpenSpeaks-srb-Idital-Opino Gomango-Namad Dalbehera-Intro.webm|thumb|Indian [[Idital]] artist Namad Dalbehera speaking about the Idital painting in Sora language]]
Sora is spoken by the Sora people, who are a part of the [[Adivasi]], or tribal people, in India, making Sora an Adivasi language.<ref name=Chatterji1971>{{cite journal |last1=Chatterji |first1=Suniti Kumar |title='Adivasi' Literatures of India: The Uncultivated 'Adivasi' Languages |journal=Indian Literature |date=1971 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=5–42 |jstor=23329913 }}</ref> Sora is found in close proximity to Odia and Telugu speaking peoples so that many Sora people are bilingual.<ref name=Chatterji1971/> Sora had little literature except for a few songs and folk tales which are usually transmitted orally.<ref name=Chatterji1971/>

==Dialects==
Ota & Patel (2021) identify several Sora dialects, including Lanjia-Sora, Imani, Kansid, Kampu, Tenkala, Sarda, and [[Juray language|Juray]]-Sora. Zide (1982) characterizes [[Juray language|Juray]] as a divergent variety of Sora,<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:299)</ref> while later studies (e.g. Gomango & Anderson 2017) emphasize both sociolinguistic and structural differences between Juray and Sora. Recent study by Ota & Patel (2021) has brought focus on the geographic distribution and interrelations of Sora dialects, as well as the status of Juray as an separate language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bapuji|first1=Mendem|last2=Gamango|first2=Opino|last3=Krishna|first3=P. Phani|editor-last1=Dash|editor-first1=Niladri Sekhar Dash|editor-last2=Arulmozi|editor-first2=S.|editor-last3=Ramesh|editor-first3=N.|title=Handbook on Endangered South Asian and Southeast Asian Languages|chapter=Juray: An Endangered Variety of the Sora Group of Lects|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|date=2025|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-80752-7_9|pages=173–209|isbn=978-303-180-751-0 }}</ref>

==Phonology==

On a similar note, our understanding of Sora phonology is limited at best but there are some generalizations that can be made. Most syllables are of the Consonant, Vowel, Consonant form and morphemes usually contain one to three syllables.<ref name=Stampe1965>{{cite journal |last1=Stampe |first1=David L. |title=Recent Work in Munda Linguistics I |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |date=1965 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=332–341 |doi=10.1086/464864 |jstor=1264042 |s2cid=224807949 }}</ref> There are 18 identifiable consonants and they fall into most of the established origins of sound. Five consonants originate from the palate while only one consonant originates from the glottis. Although vowels may be pronounced differently, there exist only six vowels in Sora. There are no [[diacritic]]s and [[Aspiration (linguistics)|aspiration]] varies depending on the speaker. It is likely that the influence of English, Odia, and Telugu has also affected vowel pronunciation over the course of Sora's use.<ref name="Donegan & Stampe 2002">{{cite conference |last1=Donegan |first1=Patricia |first2=David |last2=Stampe |title=South-East Asian Features in the Munda Languages: Evidence for the Analytic-to-Synthetic Drift of Munda |conference=Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Tibeto-Burman and Southeast Asian Linguistics |year=2002 |pages=111–120 |url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/viewFile/1041/825 }}</ref> Pronunciations also change in prevocalic (occurring before a vowel) and non prevocalic environments.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Sora consonants<ref>{{cite book|last1=Horo|first1=Luke|last2=Priyankoo|first2=Sarmah|editor-last=Mohan|editor-first=Shailendra|chapter=Phonetic Comparison of Orissa Sora and Assam Sora|title=Advances in Munda Linguistics|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|date=2021|isbn=1527570479|pages=199–216}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" | 
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
![[Voicelessness|voiceless]]
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t̪|t}}
|
| {{IPA link|tʃ}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d̪|d}}
|
|{{IPA link|dʒ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
![[Voicelessness|voiceless]]
| 
| {{IPA link|s}}
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
| 
| {{IPA link|z}}
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
| 
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
| 
|{{IPA link|r}}
| {{IPA link|ɽ}}
|  
| 
| 
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| ({{IPA link|w}})
|
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
| 
| 
|-
|}

=== Vowels ===
Except schwa, all Sora vowels have long counterparts. They may be stressed or unstressed. According to Ramamurti (1986), vowels can be short, half-long, or long. Vowel length may denote expressive formations for certain stems, eg. ''sura'' ('big') and ''suːra'' ('really big'), but these require further studies.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|{{IPA link|ɨ}}
|{{IPA link|u}}
|-
![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʊ}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|{{IPA link|ə}}
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|a}}
|
|}
Horo & Sarmah (2015) reported {{IPA|/a, e, i, u, o, ə/}} for the Sora [[Assam]] dialect's vowel inventory.<ref>{{cite journal|surname1=Horo|given1=Luke|surname2=Sarmah|given2=Priyankoo|title=Acoustic analysis of vowels in Assam Sora|journal=North East Indian Linguistics|year=2015|volume=7|issue=|pages=69-88}}</ref>

== Morphophonology ==
Sora consonants and vowels can undergo a process of sound alternation at prosodic level based on stress-shifts and morphosyntactic conditioned during which the consonants and vowels assimilate to match with the sound of preceding or following stem, or the final nasal with the initial obstruent of the following word. By doing this, some suffixes will merge with its verb phonotactically and a word can have several allomorphs depending on morphological properties of morpheme initials and codas produced during a casual or rapid speech.<ref name=Sora>{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=Gregory D. S.|last2=Harrison|first2=K. David|title=The Munda Languages|chapter=Sora|place=New York|publisher=Routledge|date=2008|isbn=0-415-32890-X|pages=299–380}}</ref>

== Grammar ==
===Overview===
Sora is [[polysynthetic]] and noun-incorporating.<ref>{{cite journal|surname1=Horo|given1=Luke|surname2=Anderson|given2=Gregory D. S.|surname3=Singha|given3=Aman|surname4=Sonowal|given4=Ria Borah|surname5=Gomango|given5=Opino|title=Acoustic phonetic properties of p-words and g-words in Sora|journal=Proceedings of (Formal) Approaches to South Asian Linguistics 12|year=2023|volume=|issue=|pages=144-167|doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|surname1=Horo|given1=Luke|surname2=Anderson|given2=Gregory D. S.|title=Prosody and Morphosyntax in Sora: A Preliminary Study|journal=Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages|year=2021|volume=|issue=|pages=51–55|doi=10.21437/TAI.2021-11}}</ref> A single Sora word can convey the meaning of a whole sentence. However, while researchers consider Sora sentence-words to be single individual words, native Sora speakers perceive them as phrases and break them into sequences of iambic words with a rising contour.

For example:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|top={{lang|srb|ǝdmǝltijdariŋdae}}|ǝd- mǝl- tij -dar -iŋ -da -e|NEG- DES- give -rice -1.UND -AUX:TAM -3.ACT|'(he) does not want to give me rice'}}
The grammatically correct form in Sora however requires a subject:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|anin ǝd- mǝl- tij -dar -iŋ -da -e|he NEG- DES- give -rice -1.UND -AUX:TAM -3.ACT|'he does not want to give me rice'}}

A full sentence in Sora:
{{Interlinear|indent=3|top={{lang|srb|Ňen ǝdmǝljomjɛlyɔajtenay}}|Ňen ǝd- mǝl- jom -jɛl -yɔ -aj -t -en -ay|1SG NEG- DES- eat -meat -fish -all -NPST -INTR -1.SS|'I don't want to eat all the fish.'}}

Sora uses grammatical devices, including subject and object agreement, word order, and noun compounding to show case. It is seen as a predominantly [[nominative-accusative language]] and once again differs from most other languages with its lack of a passive structure.<ref name=Starosta1976>{{cite book |last1=Starosta |first1=Stanley |chapter=Case Forms and Case Relations in Sora |pages=1069–1107 |jstor=20019195 |oclc=6015240755 |editor1-last=Jenner |editor1-first=Philip N. |editor2-last=Thompson |editor2-first=Laurence C. |editor3-last=Starosta |editor3-first=Stanley |title=Austroasiatic Studies, Part 2 |series=Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications |date=1976 |publisher=University Press of Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-0280-6 }}</ref> However, just because Sora lacks a passive case does not mean other established forms of grammatical [[Grammatical case|case]] are also missing. Rather, Sora has some complex grammatical cases (In Nominal morphology).<ref name=Starosta1976/>

In addition, Sora, like many other Munda languages, uses relator nouns to link nouns with the other parts of the sentence in order to provide a more specific meaning, called compounding.<ref name="Donegan & Stampe 2002"/> These monosyllabic nouns that enhance meaning are called Semantic relator nouns and are used widely in Sora.<ref name=Starosta1976/> Sora also has a combining form for every noun in addition to the full form of the noun.<ref name=Zide1976>{{cite book |last1=Zide |first1=Arlene R. K. |title=Nominal Combining Forms in Sora and Gorum |series=Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications |date=1976 |pages=1259–1294 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |jstor=20019202 }}</ref> The combining form allows the noun to be attached to a verb root to create a more semantically complex word, similar to compounding in other languages.<ref name=Zide1976/> Sora contains prefixes, infixes, and suffixes to form its affixation but only uses its suffixes to change the possession of nouns.<ref name="Donegan & Stampe 2002"/> The combining form is the form seen when the noun is being used with a verb or another full formed noun.<ref name=Zide1976/> The full form is the form seen when the noun is standing alone or functioning not in tandem with other parts of speech.<ref name=Zide1976/> Some templates of Sora combinations between nouns and verbs are as follows:<ref name=Zide1976/>

Verb + Combined Form

Verb + Combined Form + Combined Form

Full Form + Combined Form

Full Form + Combined Form + Combined Form

An example of a Full Form noun shortened into the Combined Form is as follows: ''mənra,'' the Full Form of man, transform into the combined form word --''mər'' . The two—indicate that a Noun (Full or Combined) or Verb has to precede the Combined Form noun; that is the Combined Form Noun can not stand on its own.<ref name=Zide1976/> Although by no means conclusive, a few general guidelines about the Combined Form is that it depends on where the combination with the verb or other noun is to take place.<ref name=Zide1976/> If the combined form is to an infix, then its resulting form will be different from if it were to be combined as a prefix. Some examples of Full Form Nouns and their Combined Forms are as follows:<ref name=Zide1976/>

Full Form Combined Form English Translation

ədɘ'ŋ --dɘ'ŋ honeycomb

ərɘ'ŋ --rɘ'ŋ sour

bɘ'nra'j --bɘn flour

ba'ra' --bal gun barrel

kəṛíŋ—diŋ drum

===Nominal morphology===
====Number====
Plural in nouns and verbs is marked by enclitic/suffix ''-ji'' positions just right behind noun-suffix ''-ən.'' Animate nouns generally can attach (not obligatorily) the plural suffix, but inanimate nouns may often not.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:308)</ref>

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=NSFX:noun suffix|ətɛŋ kəndʊd-ən-ji|many frog-NSFX-PL|'many frogs'}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|si-leŋ|hand-1PL|'our hand(s)'}}

The plural suffix is not attached after countable numerals and finite numbers but it may trigger plural-verb agreement. Numerals can form compounds with nouns; in those cases, they are nominalized and become plural marking by themselves.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:319)</ref>

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=NSFX:noun suffix|bagu-mər-an-ji|two-person-NSFX-PL|'two people'}}

====Pronouns====
{| class="wikitable"
! !! singular !! plural
|-
! 1st person
| nen || anlen
|-
! 2nd person
| amən || ambeŋ
|-
! 3rd person
| anɪn || anɪnji
|}
Third person pronouns can be used as definite markers in noun phrases.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:316)</ref> A reflexive pronoun can be formed with the reflexive enclitic ''=dəm.'' For example, anɪnji + =dəm → ''anɪnji=dəm'' 'themselves'.

====Demonstratives====
Demonstratives in Sora listed by Starosta (1967).<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:317)</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! !! Proximal !! Distal
|-
! 'this/that'
| kəni/kun || -ənt/kun
|-
! 'like this/that'
| ɛʔne || ɛʔte
|-
! 'like this way/that way'
| ɛʔnegɔj || ɛʔtegɔj
|-
! ‘this/that little’
| dəkiyne || dəkiyte
|-
! ‘this/that big’
| dəkəʔne || dəkəʔte
|-
! ‘here/there’
| teʔne || teʔte
|-
! ‘around here’
| arɛʔne || -
|-
! ‘at that time’
| - || səlɛʔte
|}

====Cases====
[[Case marking]] in Sora is generally murky. There is no role marker to show [[Morphosyntactic alignment|syntactic alignments]] between subjects and objects, i.e. [[nominative-accusative]] nor [[ergative-absolutive]]. A number of grammatical constructions that may or may not be expressed morphologically into an animate primary object argument of the verb, eg. the oblique-dative marker -''dɔ[ʔɔ]ŋ''- can manifest in standalone morpheme as ''adɔŋ''.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:309–311)</ref>

* [[Absolutive case|Absolutive]]?–Nominal ''-n''
* [[Dative case|Dative]]–[[Oblique case|Oblique]] ''-dɔ[ʔɔ]ŋ-''
* [[Adessive case|Adessive]] ''maŋ-''
* [[Possessive]] ''a-'' and ''-a''
* [[Allative case|Allative]] ''-ban''
* [[Locative case|Locative]]–[[Inessive case|Inessive]]–[[Illative case|Illative]] ''-leŋ-ən'' and ''-leŋ''

{{Interlinear|indent=3|anɪnji-a-sîː|3PL-POSS:3-hand|'their hand(s)'}}

====Gender & Class====
Grammatical gender or class is not deeply encoded in Sora morphosyntax. To signal something masculine/feminine, Sora speakers utilize indigenous compound endings =mar (male, person) and =boj (female) while also use, albeit rarely, gender suffixes borrowed from Indo-Aryan like ''-a'' and ''-i''.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:315)</ref>

====Adjectives====
Whether adjectives constitute an independent [[lexical category]] in Sora is still a understudied subject. Many adjectival elements are found in compounds with the nominal elements that they modify. Eg. ''sənna-dud-ən'' "small-frog-NSFX". Other adjectives precede the nominal constituents of the phrase. They also may be used in predicative sentence with the copula (past) or without it (nonpast).<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:325)</ref> It appears that many adjectival lexemes in Sora cannot function as external modifiers in certain constructions, possibly because speakers perceive them as indistinguishable from nouns (e.g. "green" meaning "green one"). As a result, such uses may sound awkward to native speakers and are often rejected as ungrammatical.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:354)</ref>

Tester: [[Gregory Anderson (linguist)|Gregory Anderson]]. Participant: Oranchu Gomango, 50, native Sora speaker.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|ɲen suɽa ɲam-jaʔt-tɪ-n-ay|I big catch-snake-NPST-INTR/MID-1|'I am big snake catching.' (Accepted) ✓}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|ɲen suɽa ɲam-jaʔt-mar|I big catch-snake-man|'I am a big snake catcher.' ✓}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=NSFX:noun suffix|iɲen kuluʔ jaʔr-an nɛm-t-ay|I green snake-NSFX catch-NPST-1|'I am catching the green snake.' ✓}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|ɲen kuluʔ ɲam-jaʔt-tɪ-n-ay|I green catch-snake-NPST-INTR/MID-1|'I am green snake catching.' (Rejected) ✘}}

====Adpositions====

====Adverbs====
Adverbs are uninflected.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:326)</ref> Some Sora adverbs are: ''tiki'' 'after', ''tikki'' 'afterwards', ''mailen'' 'together', ''dɔ'' 'so', ''əntəpsɛlɛ'' 'therefore', ''biɲdɔ'' 'but', ''bɔibɔi'' 'very', ''annəŋ'' 'during', ''nam'' 'now', ''aŋaːn aŋaːn'' 'sometimes', ''moyed'' 'previous', ''moyed moyəd'' 'recently', etc.

===Verbal morphology===
Sora verbal morphology makes use of prefixes, infixes, and suffixes per grammatical categories. In typical Munda synthetic structure, the verb phrase in Sora is [[head-final]] subject-object-verb [[Subject–object–verb word order|SOV]]. However, Sora has developed an elaborate and productive noun incorporation system which appears to have originated from an earlier offshoot of [[proto-Munda]]. Its noun incorporation clearly distinguishes free form and incorporated forms of lexical nouns. In polysynthetic morphosyntax, Sora verb phrases display a strict [[head-first]] [[Subject–verb–object word order|SVO]] order like those typically seen in non-Munda [[Austroasiatic languages]]. The most intriguing aspect of Sora syntactic noun incorporation is ''transitive subject incorporation'', describes that the language allows [[transitive verb]] to incorporate (absorb) its transitive subject/agent with the verb stems remaining transitive and object indexing stays active even after being incorporated.<ref name="OUP TOHP 43">{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Gregory D. S.|author-link=Gregory Anderson (linguist)|editor-last1= Fortescue |editor-first1= Michael |editor-link1= Michael Fortescue |editor-link2=Marianne Mithun |editor-last2= Mithun |editor-first2= Marianne |editor-last3= Evans |editor-first3= Nicholas |editor-link3=Nicholas Evans (linguist)|title=The Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis|chapter=Polysynthesis in Sora (Munda) with Special Reference to Noun Incorporation|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=2017|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.50|pages=930–947}}</ref>

{{Interlinear|indent=3|sa:-bud-t-am|mangle-bear-NPST-2.OBJ|'Bear will mangle you'}}

Verb serialization and clause-chaining can be realized by forming compound of verb1-verb2-nonpast. It also works with pairs of incorporated nouns.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|mal-jum-pu-daː-tam-t-əm poʔŋ?|wish-eat-cake-AUX-mouth-NPST-2 Q|'Do you wish to eat cake?'}}

====Person indexation====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Agreement markers in Sora
|-
! Argument !! Subject !! Object
|-
| {{gcl|1SG}} || Σ-ay || Σ-iɲ
|-
| {{gcl|1DU}} || || Σ-aj
|-
| {{gcl|1PL}} || a/aʔ-Σ || Σ-lɛn
|-
| {{gcl|1PL}}.{{gcl|INCL}} || Σ-be/biy ||
|-
| {{gcl|1PL}}.{{gcl|EXCL}} || ə-Σ-aj ||
|-
| {{gcl|2SG}} || Σ-Ø/e(y)/am || Σ-əm
|-
| {{gcl|1}}>{{gcl|2}} || || Σ-am
|-
| {{gcl|2PL}} || ə-Σ-ɛ || Σ-bɛn
|-
| {{gcl|3SG}} || Σ-e(y) || Σ-e
|-
| {{gcl|3PL}} || Σ-ji || Σ-ji
|}

Object indexing is not obligatory in Sora. In some cases, the object may be omitted or suppressed.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:330)</ref>

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=CLOC:cislocative|iɛr:-ai-ɛn-a tiki aninji gudeŋ-le|go/come-1/3SG/CLOC-NMLZ-GEN after they call-PST|'After he came, he called them.'}}

Possessor of an incorporated direct object is marked by pronominal object markers, therefore Sora incorporation is not entirely a valency-reducing process like in many languages.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|lem-jeŋ-te-bɛn-ji|bow-foot-NPST-2-3|'They bow to your legs.'}}

====Orientation/Directionality====
In Sora, there are two types of [[Andative and venitive|deixis marking]] in verb: itive (translocative, away from the argument/speaker) suffixes ''-a/-ə/-e/-Ø'' and venitive (cislocative, motion towards the argument/speaker) suffixes ''-ai/-ay''.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:341)</ref> The cislocative markers sometimes also denote first person subject indexes.<ref>Anderson & Harrison (2008:342)</ref>

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=TLOC:translocative; NSFX:noun suffix|ʔamin bazar-ən yer-e|You market-NSFX go-2.NPST.TLOC|'You go to the market.'}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=CLOC:cislocative; NSFX:noun suffix|əntannəŋ kuni anin suɽa-dʊd-ən iɛr-ai-ted|then DEF he big-frog-NSFX come-CLOC-PST.3|'Then that one, him, the big-frog, came back.'}}

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=CLOC:cislocative|ɲem ɲam-kit-te-n-ai|I catch-tiger-NPST-INTR/MID-1.CLOC|'I will seize the tiger.'}}

==Syntax==
In Sora, the basic clausal constituent order is SOV.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=NSFX:noun suffix|anlen aman daʔa-n aʔ-tiy-t-am|We you water-NSFX 1PL.SUBJ-give-NPST-1>2SG.OBJ|'We give you water.'}}

== Vocabulary ==
Compared to other Munda languages such as [[Kharia language|Kharia]] whose vocabulary is reported as having 40 percent of words borrowed from Indo-Aryan, Sora has very few, if not negligible, number of foreign loan words. Sora also has zero foreign phonemes.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Donegan |first1=Patricia|first2=David|last2=Stampe|chapter=Rhythm and the Synthetic Drift of Munda|year=2004|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|editor-first=Rajendra|editor-last=Singh|title=The Yearbook of South Asian Languages and Linguistics|pages=3–36}}</ref> (Donegan & Stampe, 2004) Sora borrows words from surrounding languages like Telugu and Oriya.<ref name=Zide1976/> An example of a word borrowed from Oriya is ''kɘ'ra'ñja'<nowiki/>'' which is a tree name.<ref name=Zide1976/> From Telugu ''mu'nu''', which means black gram, is borrowed.<ref name=Zide1976/> [[Gidugu Venkata Ramamurthy|Ramamurti]] (1931) identified three Sora words that apparently were borrowed from [[Prakrit]] during ancient time: ''siŋger'' (green ginger, cf. [[Pali]] singi vera and [[Sanskrit]] sr͎inga veram), ''kaːrella'' (bitter melon, cf. Sanskrit kāravella), and ''keda'' (fragrant screwpine, cf. Sanskrit keta-ki). Moreover, within the Munda family itself most words appear to be mutually intelligible owing to minor differences in pronunciations and phonology. [[Kharia language|Kharia]] and [[Korku language|Korku]], two other Munda languages, share mutually intelligible words with Sora.<ref name=Starosta1976/> For example, the number 11 in Kharia is ''ghol moŋ,'' in Korku it is ''gel ḑo miya,'' and in Sora it is ''gelmuy.''<ref name=Starosta1976/> Each 11 in each language looks and sounds remarkably similar to the other 11's. This phenomenon is not just contained in numbers but rather a great deal of vocabulary is mutually intelligible among the Munda languages. Within the Austroasiatic language family more knowledge about Sora vocabulary can be found. The [[Austroasiatic languages|Mon-Khmer]] language family which encompasses the languages primarily spoken in Southeast Asia has lexical [[cognate]]s with the Munda family.<ref name="Donegan & Stampe 2002"/> That means that some words found in Sora are of direct proto-Austroasiatic origin and share similarities with other derived Austroasiatic language families.<ref name="Donegan & Stampe 2002"/> Words that relate to the body, family, home, field, as well as pronouns, demonstratives, and numerals are the ones with the most cognates.<ref name="Donegan & Stampe 2002"/>

=== Numerals ===
The Sora [[numeral system]] uses a base 12, which only a few other languages in the world do. [[Ekari language|Ekari]], for example, uses a base 60 system.<ref name=Mohan2012>{{cite journal |last1=Mohan |first1=Shailendra |title=Numeral Expressions in Kharia Korku, and Sora: A Comparative Account |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute |date=2012 |volume=72/73 |pages=367–374 |jstor=43610713 }}</ref> For example, 39 in Sora [[arithmetic]] would be thought of as (1 * 20) + 12 + 7. Here are the first 12 numerals in the Sora language :<ref name=Mohan2012/>

English: one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve

''Sora: aboy bago yagi unji monloy tudru gulji thamji tinji gelji gelmuy migel''

Similar to how English uses the suffix from the numeral ''ten'' after ''twelve'' (such as ''thirteen, fourteen,'' etc.), Sora also uses a suffix assignment to numerals after 12 and before 20. Thirteen in Sora is expressed as ''migelboy'' (12+1), fourteen as ''migelbagu'' (12+2), etc.<ref name=Mohan2012/> Between numerals 20 and 99, Sora adds the suffix ''kuri'' to the first constituent of the numeral. For example, 31 is expressed as ''bokuri gelmuy'' and 90 as ''unjikuri gelji''.<ref name=Mohan2012/>

The Sora number system was featured in a puzzle by [[Lera Boroditsky]], found in the More Resources section associated with her [https://www.ted.com/dubbing/lera_boroditsky_how_language_shapes_the_way_we_think "TED talk"].

== Writing systems ==
The Sora language is written using multiple systems. The [[Sora Sompeng]] script was developed in 1936 by Mangei Gomango as a native writing system created for the Sora language.

Sora is also written in the Latin script, in the [[Odia alphabet]] in Odisha, and in the [[Telugu script]] in Andhra Pradesh.

==Sample texts==
===Text 1: Article 1 of UN Human Rights Declaration ===
The following text is Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], written in Sora:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/sora.htm|title=Sora Alphabet and Language|website=Omniglot.com |access-date=16 February 2026}}</ref> 
==== Sora Sompeng Script ====
{{lang|srb-Sora|𑃦𑃨𑃙𑃑𑃣𑃙𑃢𑃐𑃢 𑃒𑃢𑃙𑃐𑃤𑃖𑃢𑃙𑃥𑃐𑃣𑃙𑃠𑃤 𑃖𑃢𑃚𑃢𑃖𑃢𑃚𑃢𑃜𑃒𑃣𑃙 𑃘𑃦𑃘𑃘𑃣𑃙𑃙𑃢𑃦 𑃣𑃑𑃑𑃣𑃘𑃢 𑃑𑃣𑃑𑃑𑃣 𑃦𑃨𑃑𑃑𑃢𑃤 𑃕𑃙𑃢𑃦𑃨𑃝𑃟𑃢𑃔𑃨𑃢𑃙𑃑𑃣𑃙𑃢 𑃖𑃢𑃙𑃐𑃤𑃖𑃢𑃙𑃥𑃐𑃣𑃙𑃠𑃤. 𑃦𑃨𑃙𑃑𑃣𑃙𑃠𑃤𑃑𑃣 𑃒𑃥𑃔𑃨𑃔𑃨𑃠𑃤 𑃣𑃑𑃑𑃣𑃘𑃢 𑃒𑃤𑃒𑃣𑃟 𑃦𑃨𑃝𑃤𑃔𑃨𑃢 𑃖𑃣𑃙𑃙𑃣. 𑃦𑃨𑃙𑃑𑃣𑃙𑃢𑃐𑃢 𑃦𑃨𑃙𑃑𑃣𑃙𑃠𑃤 𑃣𑃟𑃥𑃢𑃙 𑃒𑃤𑃒𑃤 𑃣𑃑𑃑𑃣𑃘𑃢 𑃖𑃙𑃑 𑃖𑃙𑃑 𑃖𑃣𑃙𑃙𑃣.}}
 

==== Odia Script ====
{{lang|srb-Orya|ଅନ୍ତେନ୍ଆସା ବାନ୍ସିମାନୁସେନ୍ଜି ମାୱାମାୱାୟବେନ୍ ଲୋଲ୍ଲେନ୍ନାଓ ଏତ୍ତେଲା ତେତ୍ତେ ଅତ୍ତାଇ ଗନାଅରକାଦାନ୍ତେନ୍ଆ ମାନ୍ସିମାନୁସେନ୍ଜି। ଅନ୍ତେନ୍ଜିତେ ବୁଦ୍ଧି ଏତ୍ତେଲା ବିବେକ ଅରିଦା ମେନ୍ନେ। ଅନ୍ତେନ୍ଆସା ଅନ୍ତେନ୍ଜି ଏକୁଆନ୍ ବଇବଇ ଏତ୍ତେଲା ମନ୍ତ ମନ୍ତ ମେନ୍ନେ।}}
 
==== Romanisation ====
Antenāsa bānsimānusengi māwāmāwāyaben lollennāo ettelā tett e attāi ganārakādāntenā mānsimānusengi. Antenjit e buddhi ettelā viveka aridā men ne. Antenāsa antenji ekuān baibai ettelā mant mant men ne.
 
==== English ====
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

===Text 2: Psalm 23, Sora Bible ===
The following text is from [[Psalm 23]] of the [[KJV]]-derived Sora Bible.

{{Interlinear|indent=3|abbreviations=NSFX:noun suffix|Gəmaŋtuŋən-na gupa(ː)mar-ɲen ɲen-ate er-asu-ige. Anin doʔoŋ-ɲen ledeŋgab-leŋ-ən ab-tabmu-t-in; Anin lagadnana daʔa-n ademadem-ban doʔoŋ-nen uruŋ-t-iɲ.|rich.god-EMPH shepherd:HUM-1SG 1SG-? NEG-be.ill-AUX:TAM 3SG OBL-1SG tender.green.grass-LOC-NSFX CAUS-lay.down-NPST-1SG.OBJ 3SG peaceful water-NSFX along-ALL OBL-1SG convey-NPST-1SG.OBJ|'The {{LORD}} is my shepherd; I shall not want (be ill). He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; He leadeth me beside the still waters.'}}

==Media coverage==
Sora was one of the subjects of [[Ironbound Films]]' 2008 American documentary film ''[[The Linguists]]'', in which two linguists attempted to [[Language documentation|document]] several [[moribund language]]s.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

==Further reading==
*Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). [http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sora1254 "Sora"]. ''[[Glottolog|Glottolog 2.7]]''. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
*Ramamurti, R. S. (1931). ''A Manual of the Sora (Savara) Language. Delhi: Mittal Publication.''
*Veṅkaṭarāmamūrti, G. (1986). ''Sora–English dictionary''. Delhi: Mittal Publication.
*Anderson, Gregory D.S (ed). 2008. ''The Munda languages''. Routledge Language Family Series 3.New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-32890-X}}.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite thesis |title= A morpho syntactic study of the saora language spoken in the Koraput district of Orissa |last=Nayak |first=Abhilas |publisher=[[Sambalpur University]] |date=1995 |type=PhD |hdl=10603/187215 |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/187215}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704112703/http://ling.lll.hawaii.edu/faculty/stampe/aa.html Austroasiatic Languages: Munda and Mon–Khmer]

{{incubator|srb}}
{{Languages of India}}
{{Munda languages|state=expanded}}
{{Austro-Asiatic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Munda languages]]
[[Category:Endangered languages of India]]

Tiruchirappalli district

2026-03-28T03:57:06Z

Khorang:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Tiruchirappalli district
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Tamil Nadu|District]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
|size = 250
|photo1a = Ranganathaswamy temple tiruchirappalli.jpg
|photo1b = Upper Anaicut.JPG
|photo2a = Mutharasanallur1.jpg
|photo2b = River kaveri in musiri,tamilnadu.jpg
|photo3a = My city Rockfort.5.jpg
}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Clockwise from top-left: [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy Temple]] in [[Srirangam]], [[Upper Anaicut]], [[Kaveri]] in [[Musiri]], view of [[Tiruchirappalli]] from [[Tiruchirappalli Rock Fort|Rockfort]], ponds in [[Mutharasanallur]]
| image_map = Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu (India).svg
| image_map1 = {{maplink |frame=yes
|frame-width=275 |frame-height=275 |frame-align=center
|text= '''Thiruchirappalli district'''
|type=shape |id=Q15201
|stroke-colour=#C60C30
|stroke-width=2
|title= Thiruchirappalli district of Tamil Nadu
|type2=line|id2=Q1445|stroke-width2=1|stroke-colour2=#0000ff|title2=Tamil Nadu
}}
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu
| coordinates = {{coord|10|47|N|78|41|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[File:TamilNadu Logo.svg|22px]] [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = Metro
| subdivision_name2 = 
| subdivision_type3 = Municipal corporations
| subdivision_name3 = [[Tiruchirappalli]]
| subdivision_type4 = Municipalities
| subdivision_name4 = [[Thuraiyur]], [[Manapparai]], [[Thuvakudi]], [[Lalgudi]], [[Musiri]]
| subdivision_type5 = Town panchayats<ref>{{cite web |title=List of Town Panchayats |url=https://www.tn.gov.in/dtp/townpanchayats.pdf |website=Commissionerate of Town Panchayats |publisher=National Informatics Centre |access-date=5 February 2022 |pages=12–13 }}</ref>
| subdivision_name5 = [[Balakrishnampatti]], [[Kallakudi]], [[Kattuputhur]], [[Koothappar]], [[Manachanallur]], [[Mettupalayam, Tiruchirappalli district|Mettupalayam]], [[Ponnampatti]], [[Poovalur]], [[Pullambadi]], [[South Kannanur]], [[Sirugamani]], [[Thathaiyangarpet]], [[Thottiyam]], [[Uppiliapuram]], [[Pettavaithalai]], [[Vairichettipalayam]]
| subdivision_type6 = [[Administrative divisions of India|divisions]]
| subdivision_name6 = [[Tiruchirappalli division]], [[Lalgudi division]], [[Musiri division]], [[Srirangam division]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| Named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts = [[Lalgudi taluk]], [[Manachanallur taluk]], [[Manapparai taluk]], [[Marungapuri taluk]], [[Musiri taluk]], [[Srirangam taluk]], [[Thiruverumbur taluk]], [[Thottiyam taluk]], [[Thuraiyur taluk]], [[Tiruchirappalli taluk|Tiruchirappalli West taluk]], [[Tiruchirappalli East taluk]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Tiruchirapalli]]
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| leader_title1 = Collector
| leader_name1 = V. Saravanan, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
| leader_title2 = Superintendent of Police
| leader_name2 = S. Selvanagarathinam, [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]
| leader_title3 = Assistant Collector
| leader_name3 = J. E. Padmaja, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tn.gov.in/contact_directory/district_administration/27|title=District Administration | Tamil Nadu Government Portal}}</ref>
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank = 10th
| area_total_km2 = 4403.83
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 88
| population_total = 2,722,290
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = 6th
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 620 xxx and 621 xxx
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 0431
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|]]
| registration_plate = TN-45, TN-48, TN-81<ref>[http://www.tn.gov.in/sta/a2.pdf www.tn.gov.in]</ref>
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[IUCN protected area categories|IUCN category]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 
| blank2_name_sec1 = Central location:
| blank2_info_sec1 = {{coord|10|47|N|78|41|E}}
| website = {{URL|https://tiruchirappalli.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
| official_name =
}}

'''Tiruchirappalli district''' is [[List of districts of Tamil Nadu|one of the 38 districts]], located along the [[Kaveri River]], in [[Tamil Nadu]], India. The headquarters of the district is the city of [[Tiruchirappalli]].

During the [[British Raj]], the district was referred to as [[Trichinopoly District (Madras Presidency)|Trichinopoly]], and was a district of the [[Madras Presidency]]; it was renamed upon India's declaration of independence in 1947. The district is spread over an area of {{Convert|4,404|km2}} and had a population of 2,722,290 in 2011.

==Geography==
[[File:Trichy11.jpg|thumb|left|Kaveri river and Rockfort at Tiruchirapalli]]

Tiruchirappalli district lies almost at the exact centre of Tamil Nadu. The district has an area of 4,404 square kilometres. It is bounded in the north by [[Salem district]], Northwest by [[Namakkal district]], in the Northeast by [[Perambalur District]], East by [[Ariyalur district]] and [[Thanjavur District]], in the southeast by [[Pudukkottai district]] and [[Sivagangai district]], in the south by [[Madurai district]], in the southwest by [[Dindigul district]] and, in the west by [[Karur district]]. The district shares its borders with 10 other districts, the highest for any district in the state. The [[Kaveri]] river flows through the length of the district and is the principal source of irrigation and drinking water.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

[[Kolli Hills]] form the boundary of Tiruchirapalli and [[Namakkal]] districts and [[Pachaimalai Hills]] form the Boundary of [[Salem district|Salem]] and [[Perambalur]] district with Tiruchirapalli district in the North and North East.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

The North most and South most parts of the district are hilly, central part of the district is [[Kaveri]] plains. Trichy district is diverse in landscape, mixture of Fertile, Delta, Valleys, Hilly areas, Semi Arid Zones. Central part of the district is fertile due to river [[Kaveri]] flowing through this district, by splitting the district into North and South. North Central and South Central part of the district is Semi arid and drought prone area, receives less rainfall. Evergreen [[Pachaimalai Hills]] and [[Kolli Hills]] form the Stunning and Enchanting Valley in between these two hills. Falls and Streams from these two hills fills up the lakes in valley areas and makes the land irrigated and Fertile.

[[Pachaimalai Hills]] receives high rain fall than average during both [[Northeast Monsoon]] as well as [[Southwest Monsoon]], which makes these hills Greener throughout the year and gives a cool climate.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

==Demographics==
{{historical populations|11=1901|12=8,07,320|13=1911|14=8,76,070|15=1921|16=9,12,177|17=1931|18=9,18,342|19=1941|20=10,35,927|21=1951|22=11,84,158|23=1961|24=13,04,039|25=1971|26=16,50,768|27=1981|28=19,00,566|29=1991|30=21,96,473|31=2001|32=24,18,366|33=2011|34=27,22,290|percentages=pagr|footnote=source:<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref>|align=none|cols=3}}

According to [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Tiruchirappalli district had a population of 2,722,290 with a sex-ratio of 1,013 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. 49.15% of the population lives in urban areas.<ref name="dashboard">{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusinfodashboard/index.html|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref> A total of 272,456 were under the age of six, constituting 139,946 males and 132,510 females. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] accounted for 17.14% and 0.67% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the district was 74.9%, compared to the national average of 72.99%.<ref name="dashboard"/> The district had a total of 698,404 households. There were a total of 1,213,979 workers, comprising 161,657 cultivators, 319,720 main agricultural labourers, 25,174 in house hold industries, 575,778 other workers, 131,650 marginal workers, 9,012 marginal cultivators, 59,062 marginal agricultural labourers, 5,212 marginal workers in household industries and 58,364 other marginal workers.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals - Tiruchirappalli district|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=689752|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref>
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Tiruchirappalli district (2011)<ref name="religion">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: Tamil Nadu |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11392/download/14505/DDW33C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Tamil Nadu|Hinduism]]|darkorange|83.73}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Tamil Nadu|Christianity]]|purple|9.04}}
{{bar percent|[[Tamil Muslim|Islam]]|green|7.01}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.22}}
}}
{{stack|{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Tiruchirappalli district (2011)<ref name="language"/>
|label1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] |value1 = 96.67 |color1 = royalblue
|label2 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]] |value2 = 2.08 |color2 = steelblue
|label3 = Others |value3 = 1.25 |color3 = gray
|thumb=right
}}}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 95.67% of the population spoke [[Tamil language|Tamil]], 2.08% [[Telugu language|Telugu]] .<ref name="language">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Tamil Nadu |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10222/download/13334/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-3300.XLSX |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

== Politics ==
{{transcluded section|source=16th Tamil Nadu Assembly}}
{{#section:16th Tamil Nadu Assembly|MLA Header}}
{{#section:16th Tamil Nadu Assembly|Tiruchirappalli district}}
|}

==Taluks==
[[File:Srirangam Temple Gopuram (767010404).jpg|thumb|Srirangam Temple Gopuram]]

In 2013, Tiruchirappalli district went from nine taluks to eleven taluks.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title=Residents question move to locate Marungapuri taluk office at Kallupatti|date=21 June 2013|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/residents-question-move-to-locate-marungapuri-taluk-office-at-kallupatti/article4836812.ece}}</ref>
*[[Thuraiyur taluk]]
*[[Manapparai taluk]]
*[[Marungapuri taluk]]
*[[Srirangam taluk]]
*[[Tiruchirappalli West taluk]]
*[[Tiruchirappalli East taluk]]
*[[Thiruverumbur taluk]]
*[[Lalgudi taluk]]
*[[Manachanallur taluk]]
*[[Musiri taluk]]
*[[Thottiyam taluk]]

== Urban centres ==
[[File:Tvkoil.JPG|thumb|[[Thiruvanaikaval]] Temple at Tiruchirapalli]]

Tiruchirappalli District consists of the following urban centres:
*[[Trichy]] City
[[File:Trichycorporation.jpg|thumb|left|Headquarters of Tiruchirappalli City
Municipal Corporation| alt=White three-story building]]
*[[Thuraiyur]] town
*[[Manapparai]] town
*[[Thuvakudi]] town
*[[Lalgudi]] town
*[[Musiri]] town

*[[Manachanallur]] town panchayat
*[[Thottiyam]] town panchayat
*[[Uppiliapuram]] Town panchayat
*[[Samayapuram|S. Kannanur (samayaburam)]] town Panchayat
*[[Tha. Pettai]] town Panchayat
*[[pullambadi]] town Panchayat
*[[kaatuputhur]] town Panchayat
*[[jiyaburam]] Panchayat
*[[pettavaithalai]] Panchayat
*[[Thandalaiputhur]] panchayat
*[[Navalurkottapattu|Navalurkuttapattu]] panchayat
*[[Mettupalayam, Tiruchirappalli district|Mettupalayam]] panchayat
*[[B.Mettur]] panchayat
*[[Balakrishnampatti]] panchayat
*[[Thataiyagarpettai]] panchayat
*[[mangalam]] panchayat

==Major industries==
*[[Bharat Heavy Electricals]] Limited (BHEL)
*[[High Energy Projectile Factory]] (HEPF)
*[[Golden Rock Railway Workshop]]
*[[Ordnance Factory Tiruchirappalli]]
*Light and heavy engineering
*Leather Tanneries
*Food Processing
*Sugar Mills
*(Traditional) Cigar Making (village) Industries
*Hosiery and garments (to a small extent)
*IT/BPO
*Manufacturing of Synthetic Stones for Jewelry

==Natural resources and water bodies==
[[File:Trichii02.JPG|thumb|Upper Anaicut or Mukkombu]]
The major rivers are the [[River Kaveri]] and the River Kollidam.
The important rivers across city is Koraiyar, Uyyakondan and Kudamuruti rivers.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

==Agriculture==
The district has a large cattle and poultry population with agriculture workers in the smaller villages like [[Kalpalayathanpatti]].

The rivers [[Kaveri]] and [[Kollidam]] start branching out to form the Kaveri delta irrigating vast tracts of land in the district. The major crops are rice (vast tracts); [[sugarcane]] (vast tracts); banana/plantain; [[coconut]]; [[cotton]] (small tracts); [[betel]]; [[maize]]; and [[Peanut|groundnut]].

Trichirapalli district is well known for all varieties of [[Banana]] Cultivation. Banana research centre is located in Tiruchirapalli Agricultural University. National Research Centre for [[Banana]], [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research|ICAR]] NRB is also located in Trichy.

Tiruchirapalli district is well known for [[Sugarcane]] Plantation also, Agriculture Research Centre for [[Sugarcane]] is located in
[[Sirugamani]].

[[Coffee]], Hill Jackfruit, [[Cassava]], mountain crops are grown in the [[Pachaimalai Hills]] of Tiruchirapalli district.

== Divya Desam Temples ==
The first five [[Divya Desam|divya desam]] temples are located in tiruchirappalli district.

# [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple]] (1st Divya Desam)
# [[Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple]] (2nd Divya Desam)
# [[Uthamar Kovil|Uthamar Kovil (3rd Divya Desam)]]
# [[Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple]] (4th Divya Desam)
# [[Sundararaja Perumal temple]] (5th Divya Desam)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Tiruchirappalli district}}
*[http://www.srirangaminfo.com Srirangam ]
*[https://tiruchirappalli.nic.in/ Tiruchirapalli District]

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Tiruchirappalli district
|North = [[Salem district]]
|Northeast = [[Perambalur district]] [[Ariyalur district]]
|East = [[Thanjavur District]]
|Southeast = [[Pudukkottai district]]
|South = [[Sivaganga district]]
|Southwest = [[Dindigul district]] [[Madurai district]]
|West = [[Karur district]]
|Northwest = [[Namakkal district]]
}}

{{Tamil Nadu}}
{{Tiruchirapalli district}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tiruchirapalli District}}
[[Category:Tiruchirappalli district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of Tamil Nadu]]

Madan Mohan Malaviya

2026-03-26T13:02:46Z

Khorang: quick add structure per standard format additionally and updated info

{{short description|Indian independence activist, scholar, educator, politician (1861–1946)}}
{{Redirect|Mahamana|the Indian Railways train|Mahamana Express}}
{{Redirect2|Malviya|Malaviya|the surname|Malviya (surname)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Madan Mohan Malaviya
| image = Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya ji Smiling.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1861|12|25}}
| birth_place = [[Allahabad]], [[North-Western Provinces]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day [[Prayagraj]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1946|11|12|1861|12|25}}
| death_place = Allahabad, [[United Provinces (1937-50)|United Provinces]], British India (present-day Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India)
| office = Vice-Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University
| order = 3rd
| term_start = 29 November 1919
| term_end = 20 August 1939
| predecessor = [[P. S. Sivaswami Iyer]]
| successor = [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]]
| office1 = [[President of the Indian National Congress]]
| predecessor1 = [[Rash Behari Ghosh]]
| successor1 = [[William Wedderburn]]
| predecessor2 = [[Annie Besant]]
| successor2 = [[Syed Hasan Imam]]
| predecessor3 = [[Vallabhbhai Patel]]
| successor3 = [[Nellie Sengupta]]
| term1 = 1909–1910
| term2 = 1918
| term3 = 1932–1933
| party = [[Congress Nationalist Party]] [[Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha]]
| otherparty = [[Indian National Congress]] (formerly)
| profession = {{hlist|[[Educationist]]|[[Politician]]|[[Journalist]]|[[Lawyer]]}}
| spouse = Kumari Kundan Devi Malaviya
| children = 6 (including [[Govind Malaviya]])
| awards = [[Bharat Ratna]] (2015) (posthumous)
| signature = Madan Mohan Malviya Sign.png
| signature_alt = Hindi & English signature of Mahamana
| education = [[University of Calcutta]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
}}

'''Madan Mohan Malaviya''' (25 December 1861 — 12 November 1946; {{IPA|hi|məd̪ən̪ moːɦən̪ maːlʋiːj(ə)|audio=Madan Mohan Malaviya.ogg}}) was an Indian scholar, educational reformer, and activist notable for his role in the [[Indian independence movement]]. He was president of the [[Indian National Congress]] four times and the founder of [[Hindu Mahasabha|Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha]]. He was addressed as ''[[Pandit]]'',<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sharma, Urmila |author2=Sharma, S.K. |title=Indian Political Thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BX3wIjJ9mvMC&pg=PA340|year=2001|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-678-5|page=340}}</ref> a title of respect. Malaviya is known as the founder of one of the most prestigious universities of India named [[Banaras Hindu University]].

Malaviya strove to promote modern education among Indians and founded the [[Banaras Hindu University]] (BHU) at [[Varanasi]] in 1916, which was created under the 1915 [[Banaras Hindu University Act|BHU Act]]. It is the largest residential university in [[Asia]] and one of the largest in the world,<ref name="BHU set to realise future goals">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/BHU-set-to-realise-future-goals/articleshow/4260839.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614053651/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-03-13/varanasi/28042346_1_rajiv-gandhi-south-campus-mahamana-madan-mohan-malviya-banaras-hindu-university|url-status=live|archive-date=14 June 2012|title=BHU set to realise future goals|last=Singh|first=Binay |date=13 March 2009|access-date=3 June 2011|work=[[The Times of India]]|location=VARANASI}}</ref> with over 40,000 students across arts, commerce, sciences, engineering, linguistic, ritual, medicine, agriculture, performing arts, law, management, and technology disciplines from all over the world. He was the [[Chancellor (education)|Vice Chancellor]] of the Banaras Hindu University from 1919 to 1938.<ref name=bc>{{cite web |title=History of BHU |url=http://www.bhu.ac.in/history1.htm |publisher=Banaras Hindu University website |access-date=8 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923184751/http://www.bhu.ac.in/history1.htm |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=University at Buffalo, BHU sign exchange programme |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/oct/04univ.htm|publisher=[[Rediff]] News |date=4 October 2007}}</ref>

Malaviya was one of the founders of the [[Bharat Scouts and Guides]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Our Leaders (Volume 9 of Remembering Our Leaders)|year=1989 |publisher=[[Children's Book Trust]] |isbn=978-81-7011-842-8|page=61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2NoVNSyopVcC&pg=PA61}}</ref> He founded a highly influential English newspaper, ''[[The Leader (Allahabad newspaper)|The Leader]],'' in 1919, published from [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]].<ref name=ch>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000507/spectrum/main2.htm#3|title=C. Y. Chintamani (10 April 1880 – 1 July, 1941)|date=7 May 2000|work=The Tribune}}</ref> He was also the chairman of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' from 1924 to 1946. His efforts resulted in the launch of its [[Hindi]] edition named ''[[Hindustan (newspaper)|Hindustan Dainik]]'' in 1936.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://homagetomahamana.wordpress.com|title=Homage to Mahamana Malaviya|website=Homage to Mahamana Malaviya}}</ref>

Malaviya was posthumously awarded the [[Bharat Ratna]], India's highest civilian distinction, on 24 December 2014, a day before what would have been his 153rd birthday.<ref name="pibnicin">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=114017|title=Press Information Bureau English Releases|publisher=pib.nic.in|date=24 December 2014}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Malaviya was born in [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]], India, on 25 December 1861,<ref>{{cite book |date=2009 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&pg=SL1-PA138|author=Bhattacherje, S. B.|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |pages=138–139 |isbn= 978-81-207-4074-7 }}</ref> in a [[Gaur Brahmin]] family<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhu.ac.in/mahamana.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011006165328/http://www.bhu.ac.in/mahamana.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 October 2001|title=Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya|work=Banaras Hindu University|date=9 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Daniyal|first=Shoaib|title=Madan Mohan Malviya: how a four-time Congress president became a BJP icon|url=http://scroll.in/article/697640/madan-mohan-malviya-how-a-four-time-congress-president-became-a-bjp-icon|access-date=2022-01-16|website=Scroll.in|date=30 December 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nayar |first=Sushila |url=https://archive.org/details/mahatmagandhiind05naya/page/668/mode/1up?q=%22gaur+brahmin%22 |title=Mahatma Gandhi, Volume 5 |date=1993 |publisher=Navajivan Trust |others=Public Resource |isbn=978-81-7229-048-1}}</ref> to Brijnath Malaviya and Moona Devi.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Madan-Mohan-Malaviya|title=Madan Mohan Malaviya|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> He was born in a locality known as Lal Diggi (now [[Malviya Nagar (Jaipur)|Malviya Nagar]]) in a small house of Sawal Das of Saryakund. His grandfather, Premdhar Prasad, was the son of Vishnu Prasad. Since they hailed from [[Malwa]] (Ujjain) in the present-day state of [[Madhya Pradesh]], they came to be known as 'Malaviya'. He married Kundan Devi from [[Mirzapur]] at sixteen. His ancestors were highly respected for their learning and knowledge of Hindu scriptures and [[Sanskrit]] scholarship. His father also was learned in Sanskrit scriptures and used to recite the ''[[Srimad Bhagavatam]]''.<ref name=gr>{{cite book |title=The Great Indian patriots, Volume 1 |last=Rao |first=P. Rajeswar |year=1991|publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-280-6 |pages=10–13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eTrs9MF9374C&pg=PA10 }}</ref>

Malaviya's education began at the age of five in Mahajani Pathsala. Later, he joined Hardeva's Dharma Gyanopadesh Pathshala, completed his primary education and joined a school run by Vidha Vardini Sabha. He then joined Allahabad Zila School (Allahabad District School), where he started writing poems under the pen name ''Makarand'' which were published in journals and magazines.<ref name=":0" />

Malaviya matriculated in 1879 from the [[Muir Central College]], now known as the [[University of Allahabad]]. Harrison College's principal provided a monthly scholarship to Malaviya, whose family had been facing financial hardships, and he was able to complete his B.A. at the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref name=":0" />

Malaviya desired to pursue an M.A. in [[Sanskrit]]. Still, family circumstances did not allow him to do so, and his father wanted him to pursue the family profession of Bhagavat recital instead. In July 1884, Madan Mohan Malaviya began his professional career as an assistant master at the Government High School in Allahabad.<ref name="India post">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Alpha/M/MADAN%20MOHAN%20MALAVIYA|title=MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA|work=Indian Post|date=25 December 1961}}</ref>

==Political career==
[[File:Mahatma Gandhi with Madan Mohan Malaviya.jpeg|thumb|Malaviya with Mahatma Gandhi.]]

Malaviya started his political career in 1886 with an address to the Indian National Congress session in Calcutta. Malaviya would go on to become one of the most powerful political leaders of his time, being elected Congress president on four occasions.<ref name=":0" />

In December 1886, Malaviya attended the second [[Indian National Congress]] session in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] under the chairmanship of [[Dadabhai Naoroji]], where he spoke on the issue of representation in Councils. His address not only impressed Dadabhai but also Raja Rampal Singh, ruler of Kalakankar estate near [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]], who had founded a Hindi weekly, ''Hindustan,'' but was still looking for a suitable editor to turn it into a daily. In July 1887, Malaviya resigned from the school and joined as editor of the nationalist weekly. He remained there for two and a half years, and then left for Allahabad to study for his [[Bachelor of Laws|L.L.B.]] In Allahabad, he was offered the co-editorship of ''The Indian Opinion'', an English daily. After finishing his law degree, he started practicing law at Allahabad District Court in 1891, and moved to [[Allahabad High Court]] by December 1893.<ref name=ou>{{cite book |title=Our Leaders (Volume 9 of Remembering Our Leaders): Madan Mohan Malaviya|year=1989 |publisher=[[Children's Book Trust]] |isbn=978-81-7011-842-8|pages=53–73 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2NoVNSyopVcC&pg=PA61 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnspecials.in/independenceday/indian_warriors1.asp|title=MsnSpecials|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060821181344/http://www.msnspecials.in/independenceday/indian_warriors1.asp|archive-date=21 August 2006}}</ref>

Malaviya became the president of the Indian National Congress in 1909, a position he held again in 1918. He was a moderate leader and opposed separate electorates for Muslims under the [[Lucknow Pact]] of 1916. The "Mahamana" title was conferred on him by [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shekhar|first=Shashi|date=2017-12-25|title='Mahamana': A forgotten visionary|url=https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/6EvL9afbnsGs183LaQVR0I/Mahamana-A-forgotten-visionary.html|access-date=2020-06-21|website=[[Mint (newspaper)|Livemint]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/remembering-madan-mohan-malaviya-the-moderate-hindu-mahamana-who-founded-bhu/168856/|title=Remembering Madan Mohan Malaviya, the moderate Hindu 'Mahamana' who founded BHU|date=December 25, 2018|work=[[ThePrint]]|access-date=July 23, 2020}}</ref>

Malaviya renounced his practice of law in 1911 to fulfil his resolve to serve the causes of education and social service. Despite this vow, on one occasion when 177 freedom fighters were convicted to be hanged in the [[Chauri Chaura incident|Chauri-Chaura case]], he appeared before the court and won the acquittal of 156 freedom fighters.<ref name="Vishwa Samvada Kendra">{{cite news |date=31 October 2010 |title=RSS Resolution 2: 150th Birth Anniversary of Mhamana Malviya ji |publisher=Vishwa Samvada Kendra |url=http://samvada.org/2010/news/150th-birth-anniversary-of-malviya-ji/ |access-date=31 October 2010 |archive-date=26 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226174534/http://samvada.org/2010/news/150th-birth-anniversary-of-malviya-ji/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> He followed the tradition of [[Sannyasa]] throughout his life, adhering to his avowed commitment to live on the support of society.
[[File:Madan Mohan Malaviya 1961 stamp of India.jpg|alt=A commemorative postage stamp on MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA (1861–1946) issued by Department of Posts, Government of India on 25 Dec 1961.|thumb|'''A commemorative postage stamp on''' MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA (1861–1946) issued by Department of Posts, Government of India on 25 Dec 1961.]]
He was a member of the [[Imperial Legislative Council]] from 1912 until 1919, when it was converted to the [[Central Legislative Assembly]], of which he remained a member until 1926.<ref name=as>{{cite web |title=Old Secetariat:Important Members of Imperial Legislative Council |url=http://delhiassembly.nic.in/history_assembly.htm|publisher=[[Legislative Assembly of Delhi]] website }}</ref> Malaviya was an important figure in the [[Non-cooperation movement (1919–22)|Non-cooperation movement]].<ref>{{cite news |title= Gandhi is Urged to Delay Break |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E03E0DC1E30EE3ABC4952DFB4668389639EDE |work=[[The New York Times]]|date= 11 February 1922}}</ref> He was opposed to the politics of appeasement and the participation of Congress in the [[Khilafat Movement|Khilafat movement]].

In 1928, he joined [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], and many others in protesting against the [[Simon Commission]], which had been set up by the [[British Raj|British]] to consider India's future. Just as the "Buy British" campaign was sweeping England, he issued a [[manifesto]] on 30 May 1932 urging concentration on the "Buy Indian" movement in India.<ref>{{cite news |title="Buy Indian" Move Gains|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0915FC385A13738DDDA90B94DD405B828FF1D3 |work=The New York Times|date=30 May 1932 }}</ref> Malaviya was a delegate at the [[Round Table Conferences (India)|Second Round Table Conference]] in 1931.

During the [[Salt March]], he was arrested on 25 April 1932 along with 450 other Congress volunteers in Delhi, only a few days after he was appointed as the president of Congress following the arrest of [[Sarojini Naidu]].<ref>{{cite news |title=450 Seized at Delhi for Defiance of Ban on Indian Congress |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0813FC3F5A13738DDDAC0A94DC405B828FF1D3 | work=[[The New York Times]]|date=25 April 1932 }}</ref> In 1933, at Calcutta, Malaviya was again appointed as the president of the Congress. Before independence, Malaviya was the only leader of the Indian National Congress to be appointed as its president for four terms.

On 24 September 1932, an agreement known as [[Poona Pact]] was signed between [[B. R. Ambedkar|Dr. B R Ambedkar]] (on behalf of the depressed classes among Hindus) and Mahatma Gandhi (on behalf of the other Hindus). The agreement guaranteed reserved seats for the depressed classes in the provisional legislatures within the general electorate, and not by creating a separate electorate. Because of the pact, the depressed class received 148 seats in the legislature, instead of the 71 as allocated in the [[Communal Award]] proposal of the British prime minister [[Ramsay MacDonald]]. After the pact, the [[Communal Award]] was modified to include the terms as per the pacts. The text uses the term "Depressed Classes" to denote Untouchables among Hindus who were later called Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under India Act 1935, and in the Indian Constitution of 1950.<ref name="sharma2007">{{cite book|author=Sharma, B.K.|title=Introduction to the Constitution of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC|date= 2007|publisher=Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-203-3246-1}}</ref>

In protest against the [[Communal Award]] to provide separate electorates for minorities, Malaviya and [[Madhav Shrihari Aney]] left the Congress and started the [[Congress Nationalist Party]]. The party contested the [[1934 Indian general election|1934 elections]] to the central legislature and won 12 seats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/fullscreen.html?object=110|title=-- Schwartzberg Atlas – Digital South Asia Library|website=dsal.uchicago.edu|access-date=20 February 2021|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107120130/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/fullscreen.html?object=110|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Journalistic career==
Malaviya started his journalistic career as editor of the Hindi daily ''Hindustan'' in 1887. Raja Rampal Singh of Kalakankar (Pratapgadh District), impressed by the speech and personality of Malaviya during the second Congress Session in Calcutta held in 1886, requested him to assume this position.<ref name="maha">{{cite web|url=http://www.mahamana.org/biography-.html|title=Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya – Biography|access-date=24 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227190207/http://www.mahamana.org/biography-.html|archive-date=27 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Madan Mohan Malaviya">{{cite web|url=http://topyaps.com/madan-mohan-malaviya|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103133249/http://topyaps.com/madan-mohan-malaviya|archive-date=3 January 2015|title=20 Things We Must Know About Madan Mohan Malaviya|work=TopYaps|date=2 January 2015}}</ref>

In 1889, he became the editor of the "Indian Opinion". After the incorporation of "Indian Opinion" with the "Advocate" of Lucknow, Malaviya started his own Hindi weekly "Abhyudaya"(1907–1909 under his editorship).<ref name="India post" />

Malaviya's poems (''sawaiyas'') were published sometime in 1883–84 under the pseudonym of 'Makrand' in ''Harischandra Chandrika'' magazine (published by [[Bharatendu Harishchandra]]). His articles on religious and contemporary subjects were published in 'Hindi Pradeepa'.<ref name="maha"/>

When the British government promulgated The Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act in 1908<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/development-of-indian-press-during-british-rule-in-india-1445315232-1|title=Development of Indian Press during British Rule in India|website=jagranjosh.com|date=16 February 2018 }}</ref> and the [[Indian Press Act, 1910]], Malaviya started a campaign against them and called for an All India Conference in Allahabad. He then realised the need of an English newspaper to make the campaign effective throughout the country. As a result, with the help of [[Motilal Nehru]], he started an English daily, the ''Leader'', in 1909, where he was Editor (1909–1911) and President (1911–1919).<ref name="maha"/>

In 1910, Malaviya started the Hindi paper ''Maryada''.<ref name="maha"/>

In 1924, Malaviya along with the help of national leaders [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], [[M. R. Jayakar]] and industrialist [[Ghanshyam Das Birla]], acquired ''[[The Hindustan Times]]'' and saved it from an untimely demise.<ref>TJS George, Lessons in Journalism, 2007, Viva Books, New Delhi.</ref> Malaviya raised Rs. 50,000 for the acquisition, with Birla paying most of it. Malaviya was the chairman of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' from 1924 to 1946. His efforts resulted in the launch of its Hindi edition 'Hindustan' in 1936. The paper is now owned by the [[Birla family]].

In 1933, Malaviya started ''Sanatana Dharma'' from BHU, a magazine dedicated to religious, dharmic interests.<ref name="maha"/>

==Legal career==
In 1891, Malaviya completed his LL.B. from [[Allahabad University]] and started practice in Allahabad District Court. He practised at the High Court from 1893. He earned significant respect as one of the most brilliant lawyers of the Allahabad High Court. He gave up his legal practice when at his pinnacle in 1911 on his 50th birthday so that he could serve the nation thereafter.

About his legal career, Sir [[Tej Bahadur Sapru]] regarded him ''...a brilliant Civil Lawyer'' and Sir [[Mirza Ismail]] said – ''I have heard a great lawyer say that if Mr. Malaviya had so willed it, he would have been an ornament to the legal profession''.<ref name=bhu>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhu.ac.in/mahamana.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011006165328/http://www.bhu.ac.in/mahamana.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 October 2001|title=PANDIT MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA. The Man, The Spirit, The Vision|publisher=Banaras Hindu University}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20130803042531/http://www.bhu.ac.in/mahamana.php Copy]</ref>

Malaviya only donned his lawyer's robe once more, in 1924 following the [[Chauri Chaura incident]] in which a police station was attacked and set on fire in February 1922, as a result of which Mahatma Gandhi called off the then launched [[Non-cooperation movement (1919–22)|Non-cooperation movement]]. The sessions court had sentenced 170 persons to the gallows for the attack. However, Malaviya defended them in the Allahabad High Court and was able to save 155 of them. The remaining 15 also were recommended for clemency by the High Court, whereafter their sentences were commuted from death to life imprisonment.<ref>No authentic source found</ref>{{citation needed|reason=Inconsistent with Chauri Chaura case as detailed in Bharatpedia itself|date=December 2015}}

==Banaras Hindu University==
{{Main|Banaras Hindu University}}
[[File:Mahamana Malviya ji Inaugurate Literacy Day.jpg|thumb|Mahamana inaugurate literacy day at Banaras Hindu University]]
In April 1911, [[Annie Besant]] met Malaviya and they decided to work for a common Hindu University in [[Varanasi]]. Besant and fellow trustees of the [[Central Hindu College]], which she had founded in 1898, also agreed to the Government of India's precondition that the college become a part of the new university. Thus [[Banaras Hindu University]] (BHU) was established in 1916, through a parliamentary legislation, the '[[Banaras Hindu University Act]] of 1915', and today it remains a prominent institution of learning in India.<ref name=bc/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/sep102005/899.pdf | title = Banaras hindu university | publisher = [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] | date =26 July 2005 | access-date = 19 April 2007 }}</ref> In 1939, he left the vice-chancellorship of BHU and was succeeded by [[S. Radhakrishnan]], who later became the [[president of India]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Radhakrishnan: his life and ideas |last=Murty |first=K. Satchidananda |author2=Ashok Vohra |year= 1990|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0343-3 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6FsaptULgAC&pg=PA90}}</ref>

Spread over {{cvt|16.5|sqkm|acre}} with a student population of about 30,000, BHU is the largest residential university in Asia.

Malaviya' son Pandit Govind Malaviya served as the vice-chancellor of BHU from 1948 to 1951. His grandson Justice [[Giridhar Malaviya]] was the chancellor of BHU from 2018 to 2024, till his demise.

==Social service ==
Malaviya founded [[Ganga Mahasabha]] to oppose the damming of the [[Ganges|Ganga]]. He compelled the British government to sign an agreement with [[Ganga Mahasabha]] and other Hindu religious leaders on uninterrupted flow of the Ganga in [[Haridwar]] and protection from any future obstruction. This agreement is known as '''Aviral Ganga Raksha Samjhuata 1916''' or the Agreement of 1916. Malaviya played an important part in the removal of untouchability and in giving direction to the [[Harijan]] movement. The [[Harijan Sevak Sangh]] was founded at a meeting in 1933 at which Pandit Malaviya presided.<ref name="India post" />

Malaviya asserted – ''if you admit internal purity of human soul, you or your religion can never get impure or defiled in any way by touch or association with any man.''<ref name="deo">{{cite web|url=http://www.elinepa.org/index.php/el/meli/23-meletes/194-contributions-of-mahamana-pt-madan-mohan-malaviya-to-indian-religion-and-society.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224173340/http://www.elinepa.org/index.php/el/meli/23-meletes/194-contributions-of-mahamana-pt-madan-mohan-malaviya-to-indian-religion-and-society.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-12-24|title=Contributions of Mahamana Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya to Indian Religion and Society|author=Chaube, Deo Brat |publisher=Indo-Hellenic Society for Culture and Development}}</ref>

To solve the problem of untouchability, Malaviya followed a Hindu method, of giving ''Mantradīkshā'' to untouchables. He said, "Mantras would be a certain means of their upliftment socially, politically and spiritually."<ref name="deo"/> He worked for the eradication of caste barriers in temples and other social barriers. Malaviya contributed significantly to ensuring the entry of the so-called untouchables into any Hindu temple. In March 1936, Hindu Dalit (Harijan) leader P. N. Rajbhoj along with a group of 200 Dalit people demanded entry at the [[Kalaram Temple]] on a [[Rath Yatra]] day.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|author=Krishan, Shri |title=Political Mobilization and Identity in Western India, 1934–47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LeLxV4W-CJcC|date=1 May 2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-3342-7}}</ref> Malaviya in the presence of priests of Kalaram Temple, gave [[diksha]] to the assembled people and facilitated their entry into the temple.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> They then also participated in the Rath Yatra of Kalaram Temple.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

He established [[Bharati Bhavan Library|Bharati Bhawan Library]] on 15 December 1889 with his friend Lala Brajmohan Jee Bhalla in [[Allahabad]]. In 1901 Malaviya established a boys' hostel named Hindu Hostel (Hindu Boarding House) in [[Allahabad]].<ref name=bhu/>

==Scouting==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2022}}
Scouting in India was initially introduced by [[Robert Baden Powell]], though only British, European and Anglo Indian students could join the organisation known as [[British Boy Scouts]]. Scouting for native Indians was started by Justice [[Vivian Bose]], after independence in 1947. Officials from Hindustan Scouts and Guides were hired by the Government of India when the country became independent to continue the functioning of British Boy Scouts, renamed as the [[The Bharat Scouts and Guides|Bharat Scouts and Guides]].

Newspaper reports of the resignation of Indian Railways officer Sri Ram Vajpei on grounds of racial discrimination despite being qualified in scouting with its highest degree LT, in England prompted the then president of Congress Malaviya to inform himself about the scouting movement. With the support of other members, [[Hridayanath Kunzru]], [[Girija Shankar Bajpai]], [[Annie Besant]] and [[George Arundale]], Malaviya started an organisation called the '''''All India Sewa Samiti''''' under Sewa Bharti unit to conduct scouting activities. While the British refused initially to recognise the scouting education imparted by the Samiti, Baden Powell himself advocated the recognition of Indian Scouting as co-curricular education in school, after a visit to India afforded him the opportunity to learn of the association's activities.

Thanks to Malaviya's efforts, scouting units from across the sub-continent came together to create the Hindustan Scouts Association. Later, the Guides association in India managed by Dr Besant also joined to form the Hindustan Scouts and Guides Association.

Malaviya also notably contributed the MAMOMA short code secret language in scouting, now widely used across the world. The name "MAMOMA" is derived from the initials of his name.<ref>{{cite news |title=Honouring the oath: The beginning|url= http://www.hindu.com/yw/2007/08/17/stories/2007081750750800.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070819071116/http://www.hindu.com/yw/2007/08/17/stories/2007081750750800.htm|url-status= dead|archive-date= 19 August 2007|work=[[The Hindu]] |date=17 August 2007 }}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Madan Mohan Malaviya 2011 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|Malaviya on a 2011 stamp of India|150px]]
The slogan "[[Satyameva Jayate]]" (Truth alone triumphs) is also a legacy of Malaviya. Presiding over the Indian National Congress session of 1918 at Delhi, he declared that this phrase from the [[Mundaka Upanishad]] should be the slogan for the nation.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/freedom/malaviya.htm | title = India's Freedom Struggle: Madan Mohan Malaviya | publisher = Kamat's Potpourri | date =22 December 2007 | access-date = 9 March 2008 | format = PDF}}</ref>

Malaviya started the tradition of ''[[Aarti]]'' at [[Har ki Pauri]] [[Haridwar]] to the sacred [[Ganga river]] which is performed even today. The '''''Malaviya Dwipa''''', a small island across the ghat, is named after him and a bust of his was erected on it. The Indian Post issued stamps in his honour in 1961 and 2011 to celebrate his 100th and 150th birth anniversaries, respectively.

The Malaviya Nagar neighbourhoods in [[Allahabad]], [[Lucknow]], [[Delhi]], [[Dehradun]], [[Bhopal]], [[Durg]] and [[Jaipur]] are named after him, as is a square in [[Jabalpur]] city, Malaviya Chowk. [[Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur|Malaviya National Institute of Technology]] (MNIT) at [[Jaipur]] is named after him, as is [[Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology]] in [[Gorakhpur]], UP. The Hostels of [[IIT Kharagpur]], [[IIT Roorkee]] Saharanpur Campus and [[BITS Pilani]], Pilani and Hyderabad campuses are also named Malaviya Bhawan after him. In memory of him, Shrigoud Vidya Mandir, Indore celebrates his birth anniversary as Mahamana Divas on every 25 December. They have also declared a fellowship programme for poor Sanatan Vipra boys on this day.
[[File:PM Modi pays tribute to Madan Mohan Malaviya, on his birth anniversary in 2014.jpg|thumb|[[Narendra Modi]] pays tribute to Madan Mohan Malaviya, on his birth anniversary in 2014]]
Malaviya's life size portrait was unveiled in the Central Hall of India's Parliament by the then president of India [[Dr. Rajendra Prasad]], and a life-size statue was unveiled in 1961 by the then president of India [[Dr. S. Radhakrishnan]] in front of the BHU main gate on the occasion of his birth centenary. A bust of Malaviya was inaugurated in front of the main gate leading to the Assembly Hall and outside the porch, by the former [[Lt. Governor of Delhi|Lt. governor of Delhi]], Dr. A.N. Jha, on 25 December 1971.<ref name=as/>

He is also remembered for his role in ending the [[Indian indenture system]], especially in the [[Caribbean]]. His efforts in helping the [[Indo-Caribbeans]] is compared to [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s efforts of helping [[Indian South Africans]].<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxFrQd6lVzA The Caribbean East Indians, Part 1 of 2]. YouTube (29 April 2015). Retrieved on 20 December 2018.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://lms.chanakyamandal.org/current-event/madan-mohan-malaviya/ | title=Madan Mohan Malaviya }}</ref>

On 25 December 2008, on his birth anniversary, the national memorial of Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya, "Malaviya Smriti Bhawan" was inaugurated by the then president of India [[A P J Abdul Kalam]] at 53, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Marg, in Delhi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Former President Kalam inaugurates BHU founder's memorial |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/former-president-kalam-inaugurates-bhu-found/403094/ |work= [[The Indian Express]]|date= 26 December 2008 }}</ref>

2011 was celebrated as his 150th birth centenary by the Government of India under the Chairmanship of India's prime minister [[Dr Manmohan Singh]], who announced the establishment of a Centre for Malaviya Studies at the Banaras Hindu University in addition to scholarships and education related awards in his memory, and UPA chairperson [[Sonia Gandhi]] released a biography of Madan Mohan Malaviya.

On 24 December 2014, Madan Mohan Malaviya was honored with [[Bharat Ratna]], India's highest civilian honour.<ref name="pibnicin" />

The [[Mahamana Express]] train (plying between New Delhi and Varanasi) was flagged off by Prime Minister of India [[Narendra Modi]] on 22 January 2016. The train is named after Malaviya and is equipped with modern facilities such as bio-toilets in every coach and air-conditioned compartments.

==Works==
* He created a non-governmental organisation named ''Shri Mathura Vrindavan Hasanand Gochar Bhoomi in Vrindavan for Welfare of Cows''.
* ''A criticism of Montagu-Chelmsford proposals of Indian constitutional reform''. Printed by C. Y. Chintamani, 1918.
* ''Speeches and writings of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya''. Publisher G.A. Natesan, 1919.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Biographies==
{{refbegin|2}}
* ''Malaviyaji, a brief life sketch of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya'', by B. J. Akkad. Pub. Vora, 1948.
* ''Malaviyana: a bibliography of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya'' by Sayaji Rao Gaekwad Library. Ed. Prithvi Nath Kaula. 1962.
* ''Role of Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya in our national life'', by Chandra Prakash Jha. Modern Publications, 1977.
* ''Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya: a socio-political study'', by Sundar Lal Gupta. Pub. Chugh Publications, 1978.
* ''Mahāmanā Madan Mohan Malaviya: An Historical Biography'', by Parmanand. Malaviya Adhyayan Sansthan, [[Banaras Hindu University]], 1985.
* ''Struggle for Independence: Madan Mohan Malaviya'' by Shri Ram Bakshi. Anmol Publications, 1989. {{ISBN|81-7041-142-4}}.
* ''Madan Mohan Malaviya: the man and his ideology'', by S. R. Bakshi. Anmol Publications, 1991. {{ISBN|81-7041-429-6}}.
* ''Madan Mohan Malaviya'', by [[Sitaram Chaturvedi]]. Publ. Division, [[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of I & B]], [[Govt. of India]], 1996. {{ISBN|81-230-0486-9}}.
* ''Visionary of Modern India- Madan Mohan Malaviya'', by S K Maini, K Chandramouli and Vishwanath Pandey. Mahamana MalaviyaJi Trust. 2009.
* "The Making of Malaviya " by Prof Rakesh Pandey, 2010, Kishore Vidya Niketan,{{ISBN|81-86101-61-6}}
* "Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya" Commemorative Volume (Celebrating 150th Birth Anniversary), Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India, Editor- Dr. Vishwanath Pandey (BHU), 2012, available from the Publication Cell, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India.
* "Vyaktitva, Krititwa Evam Vichar-Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya", Editor- Dr. Vishwanath Pandey (BHU), 2011, available from the Publication Cell, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India.
* "Mahamana Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya" The Noble Edifice of Indian Freedom, Editor-Dr. Vishwanath Pandey (BHU) 2013, available from the Publication Cell, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India.
* "Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya" and the Formative Years of Indian Nationalism by Dr. Vishwanath Pandey foreword by Prof. Mushirul Hasan, 2015, published by LG Publishers Distributors, Delhi-110091.
* "Madan Mohan Malaviya and the Indian Freedom Movement" by Prof. Jagannath Prasad Misra, 2016, Oxford University Press, India.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Madan Mohan Malaviya}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Madan Mohan Malaviya}}
* Chaube, Deo Brat, [https://elinepa.org/en/contributions-of-mahamana-pt-madan-mohan-malaviya-to-indian-religion-and-society/ Contributions of Mahamana Pt. Mohan Malaviya to Indian Religion and Society], ELINEPA, 2005

{{Bharat Ratna}}
{{Indian National Congress Presidents}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malaviya, Madan Mohan}}
[[Category:Madan Mohan Malaviya| ]]
[[Category:1861 births]]
[[Category:1946 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:Writers from Prayagraj]]
[[Category:University of Allahabad alumni]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Indian magazine editors]]
[[Category:People from Varanasi]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:University and college founders]]
[[Category:Scouting pioneers]]
[[Category:Scouting and Guiding in India]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Members of the Imperial Legislative Council of India]]
[[Category:Members of the Central Legislative Assembly of India]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:Indian newspaper founders]]
[[Category:Banaras Hindu University people]]
[[Category:Founders of Indian schools and colleges]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of British India]]
[[Category:Hindu revivalist writers]]
[[Category:Indian revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Bharat Ratna]]
[[Category:Indian male journalists]]
[[Category:Hindi-language poets]]
[[Category:Hindi-language Indian writers]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian journalists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Journalists from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian journalists]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:Scholars from Allahabad]]
[[Category:Politicians from Prayagraj]]
[[Category:Vice-chancellors of Banaras Hindu University]]
[[Category:Indian public speakers]]

Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act

2026-03-25T18:20:25Z

Khorang: minor edit

#REDIRECT [[Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999]]

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{{R from move}}
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Mumbai Port

2026-03-23T05:00:34Z

Khorang:

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox port
| name = Mumbai Port
| native_name = मुंबई बंदर
| native_name_lang= mr
| image = Thane_Creek_and_Elephanta_Island_03-2016_-_img02_Mumbai_Harbour.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = A section of Mumbai Port seen along the waterfront, with the city skyline in the backdrop.
| pushpin_map = India
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in India
| pushpin_map_geomask = yes
| country = [[India]]
| location = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]
| coordinates = {{coord|18|56|41.687|N|72|50|38.909|E|region:IN-MH}}
| coordinates_footnotes = <ref name=mbpt-profile/><ref name="MbPA-Features" />
|locode = INBOM
| opened = {{Start date and age|1873|06|26|df=y|p=y|br=y}}<ref name="Tides-History" />
| operated = Mumbai Port Authority<ref name="MbPA-Citizen-Charter" />{{rp|3}}
| owner = [[Government of India]]
| type =
| sizewater = {{convert|400|km2|sqmi}}<ref name="MbPA-Features" />
| sizeland =
| size =
| berths = 33<ref name="MbPA-Citizen-Charter" />{{rp|4}}
| wharfs = 5
| piers =
|draft_depth =
|length_of_approach_channel = {{convert|30.4|km|mi}}
| employees = 2,697 (2024–25)<ref name="MbPA-Admin-Report-2425">
{{cite report
|url=https://mumbaiport.gov.in/WriteReadData/RTF1984/1765289688.pdf
|title=Administration Report 2024–2025
|publisher=Mumbai Port Authority
|year=2025
|access-date=17 January 2026
}}
</ref>{{rp|9}}
| leadershiptitle = Chairperson
| leader = Dr. M Angamuthu, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]<ref name="MbPA-Admin-Report-2425"/>{{rp|2,3}}
| blankdetailstitle1 = Deputy Chairperson
| blankdetails1 = Adesh Titarmare, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]<ref name="MbPA-Admin-Report-2425"/>{{rp|4}}
| blankdetailstitle2 =
| blankdetails2 =
| blankdetailstitle3 =
| blankdetails3 =
| arrivals = 7,874 vessels (2024–25)<ref name="MbPA-Admin-Report-2425" />
| cargotonnage = 68.63 million [[tonne]]s (2024–25)<ref name="MbPA-Admin-Report-2425" />{{rp|2-3,6}}
| containervolume = 552 [[Twenty-foot equivalent unit|TEU]] (2024–25)<ref name="MbPA-Admin-Report-2425"/>{{rp|42}}
| cargovalue =
| passengertraffic = 264,643<ref name="MbPA-Admin-Report-2425"/>{{rp|2,3}}
| revenue =
| profit =
| blankstatstitle1 =
| blankstats1 =
| blankstatstitle2 =
| blankstats2 =
| blankstatstitle3 =
| blankstats3 =
| website = {{URL|https://mumbaiport.gov.in}}
}}

'''Mumbai Port''' (also known as the '''Bombay Port''') is a port which lies midway on the west coast of [[India]], on the natural deep-water [[Mumbai harbour]] in [[Maharashtra]]. The harbour spread over {{convert|400|km2|mi2}}<ref name="MbPA-Features">
{{cite web
|url=https://mumbaiport.gov.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=1&ls_id=1055&lid=54
|title=Location and salient Features |publisher=Mumbai Port Authority
|access-date=17 January 2026}}
</ref> is protected by the mainland of [[Konkan]] to its east and north and by the island city of [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) to its west.<ref name=mbpt-profile>
{{cite web
|url=http://mumbaiport.gov.in/newsite/portinfo/Portprofile.htm
|title=Port Profile
|publisher=Mumbai Port Trust
|accessdate=23 September 2011
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825080409/http://mumbaiport.gov.in/newsite/portinfo/Portprofile.htm
|archivedate=25 August 2011}}
</ref> The harbour opens to the south to the [[Arabian Sea]].

The port is administered by the '''Mumbai Port Authority''' (MbPA), an [[statutory body]] of the [[Government of India]]. Originally established as the '''Bombay Port Trust''' (BPT) in 1873,<ref name="Tides-History">{{cite book |last=Kamath |first=M. V. |title=Tides of Time: History of Mumbai Port |url=https://mumbaiport.gov.in/WriteReadData/RTF1984/1676444268.pdf |publisher=Mumbai Port Trust |year=2000 |page=238 |access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref>{{rp|238}} it was renamed the '''Mumbai Port Trust''' (MbPT) following the city's renaming, and finally transitioned to its current legal title on 31 January 2022 under the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021.<ref name="MbPA-Citizen-Charter">{{cite report |url=https://mumbaiport.gov.in/WriteReadData/RTF1984/1750685347.pdf |title=Citizen’s Charter 2025–26 |publisher=Mumbai Port Authority |date=April 2025 |access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref>{{rp|3}} The port is primarily used for bulk cargo, while most [[intermodal container|container]] traffic is directed to [[Nhava Sheva]] port across the harbour.

==History==
[[File:Mumbai Port 1999 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|left|A 1999 stamp dedicated to the 125th anniversary of Mumbai Port Trust]]
[[File:The Prince's Dock.jpg|left|thumb|The Prince's Dock of Bombay Harbour, c. 1906]]
[[Mumbai Harbour]] has been used by ships and boats for centuries. It was used by the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] Navy, as well as the British and Portuguese colonial navies. In 1652, the Surat Council of the East India Company, realising the geographical advantage of the Port, urged its purchase from the Portuguese. Their wish was gratified nine years later when, under the Marriage Treaty between Charles II of Great Britain and the Infant Catherine of Portugal, the ‘Port and Island of Bombay’ were transferred to the king of Great Britain
The first of the present-day docks of the Port were built in the 1870s.<ref name=mbpt-profile/> ''Bombay Port Trust'' (BPT) was established as a corporation on 26 June 1873.<ref name=ie-125>[http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19970626/17750073.html Mumbai Port Trust is 125]. ''Indian Express''. 26 June 1997. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609225308/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19970626/17750073.html |date=9 June 2009 }}</ref> BPT's founding chairman was Colonel [[Ballard (surname)|J.A. Ballard]].

Port development was undertaken by the civil engineering partnership Sir [[John Wolfe-Barry]] and Lt Col [[Arthur John Barry]] as Joint Consulting Engineers to the Bombay Port Trust at the end of the nineteenth century.<ref>Frederick Arthur Crisp (1906) [https://archive.org/details/visitationofengl14howa ''Visitation of England and Wales''], Volume 14, London.</ref>

From its establishment, the port has been the gateway to India, and was a primary factor in the emergence of Mumbai as the commercial capital of India. The port and the corporation took their present names in the 1990s.

Over the decades, the port underwent tremendous expansion, with the addition of berths and cargo handling capacities. However, Mumbai's expanding growth and population pressure constrained the growth of the port by the 1970s. This led to the establishment of the [[Nhava Sheva]] port across Mumbai Harbour in [[Navi Mumbai]] on the [[Konkan]] mainland. Nhava Sheva began operations in 1989, and most container traffic now flows through Nhava Sheva.
With a minimum draft of {{convert|6.9|m|ft}}. Victoria Dock, commissioned in 1891, had 14 berths as of 2008 with a minimum draft of {{convert|6.7|m|ft}}. Indira Dock, commissioned in 1914, had 21 berths, with a minimum draft of {{convert|7.0|m|ft}}. Prince's Dock and Victoria Dock are semi-tidal docks, with vessels docking and departing at high tide. Indira Dock has a [[lock (water transport)|lock]], enabling vessels to enter or depart at any time.<ref name=mbpt-layout>{{cite web|url=http://mumbaiport.gov.in/newsite/portinfo/Portprofile.htm#Port%20Layout|title=Port Layout|publisher=Mumbai Port Trust|accessdate=23 September 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825080409/http://mumbaiport.gov.in/newsite/portinfo/Portprofile.htm#Port%20Layout|archivedate=25 August 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Flag of the Trustees of the Port of Bombay.png|thumb|200px|Flag of the Trustees of the Port of Bombay during British Raj]]
The port has four jetties on ''Jawahar Dweep'', an island in the harbour, for handling [[Crude oil|crude]] and [[petroleum]] products. These jetties have a draft of {{convert|12.2|m|ft}}. Liquid chemicals are handled from a jetty on ''Pirpau''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Swati |date=16 January 2016 |title=Maha's biggest liquid chemical handling jetty doubles capacity |url=https://sundayguardianlive.com/business/2674-maha-s-biggest-liquid-chemical-handling-jetty-doubles-capacity |access-date=23 September 2024 |website=The Sunday Guardian Live |language=en-US}}</ref>

Ballard Pier Extension has a passenger terminal, including immigration clearance facilities for crews and passengers of cruise liners.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}

The port has a total of 69 anchorage points. A pilot is mandatory for all vessels of over 100 tonnes net weightage.<ref name=mbpt-facilities>[http://mumbaiport.gov.in/newsite/services/facility.htm Facilities]. mumbaiport.gov.in {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227075749/http://mumbaiport.gov.in/newsite/services/facility.htm |date=27 February 2009 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of ports in India]]
* [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport]]
* [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust|Nhava Sheva Port]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Mumbai_Port}}

* {{Official website|http://mumbaiport.gov.in}}

{{Islands of Mumbai harbour}}
{{Mumbai topics}}
{{Major ports in India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ports and harbours of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Estuaries of Mumbai]]
[[Category:Transport in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Economy of Mumbai]]
[[Category:Economy of Maharashtra]]

Vaali Mohan Das

2026-03-15T06:35:21Z

Khorang: Put Up New Biography Needs Work!

{{Short description|Indian Tamil-film director, writer and lyricist}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Vaali Mohan Das
| image =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name = Vaali Mohan Das Murugan
| birth_place = [[Pudukottai]])
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1990|08|09}}
| spouse = Vijayamalini
| alma mater = Dhanraj Baid Jain College
| occupation = [[Film director]], [[Screenwriter]], [[Lyricist]]
| years_active = 2023–present
| notable_works = [[Rangoli (2023 film)|Rangoli]]
| party =
}}

'''Vaali Mohan Das''' is an Indian film [[Film director|director]], [[screenwriter]] and [[lyricist]] who works in [[Tamil cinema]]. He made his directorial debut with ''[[Rangoli (2023 film)|Rangoli]]'' (2023).<ref>{{Cite web |last=மா.பாண்டியராஜன் |date=2024-01-24 |title=Madraskaaran: "ஷேன் நிகம் மெட்ராஸில் இருக்கிற வெளியூர்காரர்!" - இயக்குநர் வாலி மோகன் தாஸ் |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/madraskaaran-movie-director-vaali-mohan-dass-interview |access-date=2025-01-01 |website=www.vikatan.com/ |language=ta}}</ref>

== Career ==
Vaali Mohan Das started his career as an assistant director under [[Vasanth]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-02-15 |title=Director Vijay's nephew Hamaresh turns hero with ‘Rangoli’ |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/director-vijays-nephew-hamaresh-turns-hero-with-rangoli/articleshow/89589500.cms |access-date=2025-01-01 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=2023-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819155901/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/director-vijays-nephew-hamaresh-turns-hero-with-rangoli/articleshow/89589500.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> He made his directorial debut with the Tamil film ''[[Rangoli (2023 film)|Rangoli]]'' in 2023,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srikar |first=Ram Venkat |date=2022-02-16 |title=Rangoli to be a school-based drama |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/Feb/16/rangoli-to-be-a-school-based-drama-2419865.html |access-date=2025-01-01 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=2023-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904160921/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/feb/16/rangoli-to-be-a-school-based-drama-2419865.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The same year, he also directed the first episode of the web series ''Sshhh'', which premiered on [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]]. His next film, ''[[Madraskaaran]]'', starring [[Shane Nigam]], [[Niharika Konidela|Niharika]] and [[Kalaiyarasan]] is set to release on 10 January 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ஷேன் நிஹாம் நடிக்கும் 'மெட்ராஸ்காரன்' படத்தின் இரண்டாம் பாடல் வெளியீடு |url=https://www.virakesari.lk/article/200801 |access-date=2025-01-01 |website=Virakesari.lk |language=en}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{{pending films key}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Year
!Title
!Notes
! class="unsortable"|{{reference heading}}
|-
|2023
|''[[Rangoli (2023 film)|Rangoli]]''
|Debut Film
|
|-
|2024
| ''[[Sshhh]]''
|An Aha web series. Segment : ''Kaamathuppal''
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-01-19 |title=This four-story anthology centres around lust |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/this-four-story-anthology-centres-around-lust/articleshow/80334077.cms |access-date=2025-01-01 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|2025
|''[[Madraskaaran]]''
|
|
|}

===Lyricist===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Song(s)
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Rangoli (2023 film)|Rangoli]]'' || "Kaaliyamma's Love", "Bulb Song", "Pogatha Dhooram", "Bulb Song Remix"
|-
| 2025 || ''[[Madraskaaran]]'' || "Kaatrin Mozhi"
|-
|}

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==

* {{IMDb title|id=11477909}}

[[Category:Indian film directors]]
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Ratibhai Makwana

2026-03-15T04:05:39Z

Khorang: made details - done

{{Short description|Indian dalit industrialist from Gujarat}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ratibhai Makwana
| occupation = Industrialist, Entrepreneur
| known_for = Founder of Gujarat Pickers Industries
| awards = Business Excellence National Award (2015)
}}
'''Ratibhai Makwana''', also known as '''Ratilal Makwana''', is an Indian [[industrialist]] and entrepreneur from [[Gujarat]]. He is the founder and chairman of Gujarat Pickers, a company involved in the trade of polymers and petrochemicals. As a member of the [[Dalit]] community, he is noted for building a successful enterprise despite facing significant [[caste-based discrimination]]. His story was featured in the 2013 book ''Dalit Millionaires: 15 Inspiring Stories'' by Milind Khandekar and the 2014 book ''[[Defying the Odds: the Rise of Dalit Entrepreneurs|Defying the Odds: The Rise of Dalit Entrepreneurs]].''

== Career ==
Makwana's family was involved in business before him. His father, Gala Bhai, operated a tannery on land gifted by a local ruler in [[Bhavnagar]].<ref name="ForwardPress2015">{{cite web |date=October 14, 2015 |title=Fighting the Brahmin and Baniya raj |url=https://www.forwardpress.in/2015/10/fighting-the-brahmin-and-baniya-raj/ |website=Forward Press}}</ref> The family business later shifted to producing pickers, a component used in textile power looms, which were traditionally made from animal hides, a trade often associated with Dalit communities. Makwana joined his father in this business, overseeing production while his father handled sales across the country.<ref name="ForwardPress2015" /><ref name="w5502">{{cite book |last=Kapur |first=Devesh |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Defying_the_Odds/sSz_AwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Defying+the+Odds:+The+Rise+of+Dalit+Entrepreneurs+google+books&pg=PT207&printsec=frontcover |title=Defying the Odds: The Rise of Dalit Entrepreneurs |last2=Babu |first2=D. Shyam |last3=Prasad |first3=Chandra Bhan |date=July 18, 2014 |publisher=Random House India |isbn=978-81-8400-639-1 |page= |access-date=July 9, 2025}}</ref>

He later founded Gujarat Pickers Industries in 1962 as a partnership firm manufacturing pickers and other textile accessories.<ref name="ZeeNews2023">{{cite web |last=Sharma |first=Reema |date=August 25, 2023 |title=Breaking The Caste Barrier This Gujarati Industrialist Is Owner Of Rs 400 crore Business; Even Ratan Tata Salutes His incredible feat, Got Awarded By PM Modi |url=https://zeenews.india.com/companies/breaking-the-caste-barrier-this-gujarati-industrialist-is-owner-of-rs-400-crore-business-even-ratan-tata-salutes-his-incredible-feat-got-awarded-by-pm-modi-2653377.html |website=Zee News}}</ref> The business eventually diversified into distributing plastics, polymers, and petrochemicals. During his early years as an entrepreneur, Makwana faced severe social and economic boycotts from competitors due to his caste. Banks were unwilling to provide him with loans, and he experienced social ostracism, including being served tea from a distance and being expelled from a temple.<ref name="ZeeNews2023" /><ref name="Prabhasakshi2023">{{cite web |date=August 25, 2023 |title=जाति की बाधा को दूर कर इस उद्योगपति ने खड़ा किया 400 करोड़ रुपये का बिजनेस, PM Modi से लेकर Ratan Tata से लेकर भी कर चुके हैं सम्मान |trans-title=Overcoming the caste barrier, this industrialist built a business of Rs 400 crore, honored from PM Modi to Ratan Tata |url=https://www.prabhasakshi.com/business/industrialist-ratibhai-makwana-owner-of-rs-400-crore-got-honors-from-pm-modi-to-ratan-tata |website=Prabhasakshi}}</ref> According to one account, when he was offered an agency for the [[Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited]], the local plastics industry boycotted the inauguration ceremony.<ref name="Penguin">{{cite web |date=July 8, 2017 |title=Non Fiction Archives - Page 279 of 351 |url=https://www.penguin.co.in/book_category/non-fiction/page/279/ |access-date=2024-07-09 |website=Penguin Random House India}}</ref>

Gujarat Pickers eventually grew into a major enterprise, with reported annual turnovers ranging from {{INRConvert|200|c}} crore to {{INRConvert|750|c}} crore at different times.<ref name="Forbes2011">{{cite web |last=Bhasin |first=Shradha |date=June 13, 2011 |title=Dalit Entrepreneurs: From Job Seekers To Job Givers |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/breakpoint/dalit-entrepreneurs-from-job-seekers-to-job-givers/25772/1 |website=Forbes India}}</ref><ref name="ForwardPress2015" />

From 1983 to 1998, Makwana also served as a director on the board for the Gujarat circle of the [[State Bank of India]].<ref name="ZeeNews2023" />

== Recognition ==
Makwana's entrepreneurial journey has been cited as an example of Dalit empowerment. In 2011, his contributions to Indian industry were recognized by [[Ratan Tata]] at a trade fair organized by the [[Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry]] (DICCI).<ref name="ZeeNews2023" /> In 2015, he received the "Business Excellence National Award" from Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]].<ref name="ZeeNews2023" />

His story is one of several included in the book ''[[Defying the Odds: The Rise of Dalit Entrepreneurs|Defying the Odds]]'': ''[[Defying the Odds: The Rise of Dalit Entrepreneurs|The Rise of Dalit Entrepreneurs]] co-authored by'' [[Devesh Kapur]].<ref name="w5502" /><ref name="CASIUPenn">{{cite web |last=Mehra |first=Preeti |date=July 27, 2014 |title=Inspirational tales of economic mobility |url=https://casi.sas.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/Inspirational%20tales%20of%20economic%20mobility%20_%20Business%20Line.pdf |access-date=2024-07-09 |website=Center for the Advanced Study of India, University of Pennsylvania}}</ref> He was also featured in the 2013 book ''Dalit Millionaires: 15 Inspiring Stories'' by Milind Khandekar.<ref name="t370">{{cite book |last=Khandekar |first=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2ZBAgAAQBAJ |title=Dalit Millionaires: 15 Inspiring Stories |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-5118-583-3 |page= |language=en |chapter=3. RATILAL MAKWANA ''Beating the Boycott'' |access-date=July 10, 2025}}</ref> The chapter focusing on him is titled "Beating the Boycott," detailing his struggle against caste-based opposition in the business world.<ref name="Penguin" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Makwana, Ratibhai}}
[[Category:Dalit businesspeople]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian industrialists]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Nudity in India

2026-03-14T01:43:09Z

Khorang:

{{Short description|none}}
{{About|non-erotic nudity in India in general, for example in arts, cultural and religious practices, and the related political aspects.|a focus on religious aspects|Nudity in religion#Indian/Dharmic religions}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
[[Nudity]] in India has a multifaceted history, deeply rooted in the nation's religious, cultural, and social practices. While public nudity is generally frowned upon in modern urban areas, specific religious and traditional contexts have embraced forms of nudity as symbols of purity, renunciation, or spirituality. The depiction of nudity in Indian art doesn't support the claim that public nudity was acceptable/normal across ''all'' castes and regions in India. By contemporary standards, the unclothed female upper body is considered semi-nude or a sign of obscene nudity, however, historically some regions and classes/[[caste]]s of [[modern-day India]], have traditionally had this kind of public nudity/semi-nudity as the norm.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Sheth |first=Falguni A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIRSEAAAQBAJ&dq=nair+breast+cloth+brahmin&pg=PA91 |title=Unruly Women: Race, Neocolonialism, and the Hijab |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-754713-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crooke |first=W. |date=1919 |title=Nudity in India in Custom and Ritual. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2843441 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=49 |pages=237–251 |doi=10.2307/2843441 |jstor=2843441 |issn=0307-3114}}</ref>
[[File:Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg|alt=Image showing the Dancing girl of Mohenjo-Daro|thumb|''[[Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)|Dancing girl]]'' of [[Mohenjo-Daro]]]]

== History ==
The history of nudity in India is a tapestry of evolving cultural, religious, and social norms. Spanning over millennia, the perception and representation of nudity have undergone significant transformations, reflecting the broader shifts in Indian society.

=== Ancient Period ===
'''Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE)''': The artifacts from this period, particularly the terracotta figurines, display both male and female forms, sometimes in semi-nude states.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McIntosh |first=Jane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&q=dancing+girl |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |date=2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-57607-907-2 |pages=281, 407 |language=en}}</ref> These depictions highlight the civilization's possible comfort with the human form and its aesthetic appreciation. The [[Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)|Dancing Girl]] is a notable bronze statue from [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo-Daro]], one of the major sites of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley Civilization]]. This figurine depicts a young woman in a semi-nude state and is currently housed at the [[National Museum of India|National Museum]] in [[New Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=dancing+girl+harappa&pg=PA162 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |pages=162 |language=en}}</ref>

'''Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE)''': The [[Rigveda]], one of the oldest Indian scriptures, makes occasional references to nudity, especially in the context of ascetic practices.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanyal |first=Jagdiswar |title=Guide to Indian Philosophy |year=1999 |location=Kolkata}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hopkins |first=Edward Washburn |date=1893 |title=Problematic Passages in the Rig-Veda |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/592358 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=15 |pages=252–283 |doi=10.2307/592358 |jstor=592358 |issn=0003-0279|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nudity was seen as a form of renunciation from worldly attachments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vedantaprana |first=Pravrajika |title=Saptahik Bartaman |publisher=2015 |location=Kolkata |pages=Vol. 28, no. 23}}</ref>

=== Classical Period ===
'''Buddhism and Jainism (6th Century BCE onwards)''': Ascetic practices in both religions sometimes involved renouncing clothing. Particularly in Jainism, the [[Digambara]] sect (meaning "sky-clad") had monks who embraced nudity as a symbol of complete detachment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=The Jains |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-26605-5 |edition=2nd |series=Library of religious beliefs and practices |location=London New York |pages=2}}</ref>

'''Temple Art and Sculpture''': The temples from the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] and post-Gupta periods, like [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]], display intricate carvings of both divine and human figures in the erotic or non-erotic nude poses.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Daniélou |first=Alain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09qUXlCkyVIC&q=khajuraho |title=The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism |date=2001 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-0-89281-854-9 |pages=3, 11 |language=en}}</ref> These weren't viewed as profane but rather as symbolic representations of divine beauty, the cycle of life, and the interplay of the cosmic principles.<ref name=":1" /> Similar works have been found with reference to the [[Chola Empire|Chola empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dehejia |first=Vidya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FrqAAAAMAAJ&q=nude |title=Chola: Sacred Bronzes of Southern India |date=2006 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts |isbn=978-1-903973-84-4 |pages=29, 37, 153 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Medieval Period ===
'''[[Yogi]] practices''': Yogis have historically worn minimal clothing, and many were nude. This practice aligns with their belief in the importance of asceticism, the distancing from the material desires and attachments. In the biography of Saint Gorakhnath for example, we have references to nude male and female yogis who had visited the famous Amarnath Temple during medieval period of India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sankarnath |first=Roy |title=Bharater Sadhak [Saints of India] |year=1980 |location=Hare Street, Kolkata |pages=Vol. 7}}</ref> [[File:IN Khajuraho 0906 (28) (17254403552).jpg|alt=Image of nude non-erotic sculpture at Khajuraho, showing two naked men|thumb|Example of nude non-erotic sculpture at [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]]]]
'''Islamic Invasion (12th Century onwards)''': With the advent of Islamic rulers, there was a cultural shift. The new rulers brought with them more conservative views on nudity and representation of the human form, leading to a decline in the artistic representation of nudity in public spaces, as well as a decline in public nudity in general.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Medieval India: problems and possibilities: essays in honour of Professor A. R. Kulkarni |date=2006 |publisher=Rawat Publications |isbn=978-81-316-0015-3 |editor-last=Seshan |editor-first=Radhika |location=Jaipur |editor-last2=Kulkarni |editor-first2=Anant R.}}</ref>

'''Bhakti and Sufi Movements''': While the larger society became more conservative, the [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti]] and [[Sufism in India|Sufi]] poets often used the metaphor of nakedness to symbolize purity, innocence, and a soul stripped of worldly desires.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thaosen |first=Maduli |date=2017-04-02 |title=The Bhakti Movement and Roots of Indian Feminism |url=https://feminisminindia.com/2017/04/03/bhakti-movement-women/ |access-date=2023-11-01 |website=Feminism in India |language=en-GB}}</ref> In [[Odisha]], the [[Konark Sun Temple]] has nude artworks from the 13th century CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coomaraswamy |first=Ananda Kentish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Yp_QgAACAAJ |title=History of Indian and Indonesian Art |date=1985 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-25005-2 |language=en}}</ref> The Kashmiri saint [[Lalleshwari|Lalleswari]] is said to have discarded her clothes and danced naked.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |date=1992 |title=Rebels — Conformists? Women Saints in Medieval South India |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40462578 |journal=Anthropos |volume=87 |issue=1/3 |pages=133–146 |jstor=40462578 |issn=0257-9774}}</ref>
[[File:Konark_temple-1.jpg|alt=A sculpture on the temple wall|thumb|A sculpture on the temple wall in [[Konark Sun Temple]]]]

=== Modern/Colonial Era ===
'''British Colonial Rule (19th and 20th Centuries)''': Victorian morals and the British legal system further entrenched conservative views on nudity. The Indian Penal Code, introduced in 1860, criminalized public nudity. There was also a noticeable shift in the Indian art scene, with fewer depictions of the nude form as artists catered to the tastes of their colonial patrons.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Vishnu D. |last2=Wooldridge |first2=F. |date=1973 |title=The Law Relating to Obscene Publications in India |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/757659 |journal=The International and Comparative Law Quarterly |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=632–647 |doi=10.1093/iclqaj/22.4.632 |jstor=757659 |issn=0020-5893|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 19th century Travancore, baring of one's chest to higher status people was considered a sign of respect by both males and females. Thus, those of the lower status [[Caste system in India|castes]], such as the [[Nadar climber]]s, Even women of other dominant castes like the [[Nair]]s had to keep their breasts bare in the presence of [[Brahmin]] men. Nair women had no right to hide their breasts in front of them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Valsiner |first=Jaan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B_7sDwAAQBAJ&dq=nair+breast+cloth+brahmin&pg=PA49 |title=Sensuality in Human Living: The Cultural Psychology of Affect |date=2020-06-23 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41743-7 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Channar revolt]] was the Nadar climber women's fight for more than four decades, for the right to wear upper-body garments.

=== Post-Independence Era ===
After gaining independence in 1947, India saw a resurgence in interest in its classical arts, leading to a more liberal view of nudity in artistic contexts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boehmer |first1=Elleke |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufirAgAAQBAJ&dq=post+colonial+indian+nude+art+mf+husain&pg=PT74 |title=The Indian Postcolonial: A Critical Reader |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Rosinka |date=2010-10-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-81956-8 |language=en |chapter=see Chapter:2}}</ref> However, in the broader public sphere, nudity remained a taboo, influenced by centuries of changing norms and external influences. This has resulted in protests and attacks against modernist artists such as [[M. F. Husain|M. F. Hussain]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Grimes |first=William |date=2011-06-09 |title=Maqbool Fida Husain, India's Most Famous Painter, Dies at 95 |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/10/arts/design/maqbool-fida-husain-indias-most-famous-painter-dies-at-95.html |access-date=2023-11-02 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Group of Indian native children in the 1890s (2).jpg|Group of Indian native children in the 1890s. Nudity among children is considered [[Naturalism (philosophy)|natural]] in most of India.
File:Semi nude women with a king on the horse in the background- Deccani Painting.jpg|Semi nude women with a king on the horse in the background- [[Deccan painting|Deccani Painting]], 19th century
File:1910 Rodiya Ceylon Woman.png|Rodiya woman carrying water, Ceylon 1910
File:India, Mughal, 18th century - Lady after a Bath - 2009.317 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Lady After A Bath, [[Mughal painting|Mughal Art]], 18th century
</gallery>

== References ==

{{reflist}}
{{Nudity}}

[[Category:Nudity]]
[[Category:Culture of India]]

List of Indian Bengali films of 2022

2026-03-07T07:22:16Z

Khorang: Created Initial Bio First Draft...

{{Short description|none}}
{{about|the Bengali films of West Bengal|the Bangladeshi Bengali films|List of Bangladeshi films of 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
This is a list of Indian [[Bengali language]] films that were released in 2022.
{{Bengali films}}

==Box office collection==
The following is the [[List of highest-grossing Indian Bengali films|list of highest-grossing Bengali cinema films]] released in 2022. The rank of the films in the following table depends on the estimate of worldwide collections as reported by organizations classified as green by Wikipedia.{{efn|See [[WP:RSP]], [[WP:ICTFSOURCES]]}} There is no official tracking of [[List of highest-grossing films in India|domestic box office figures]] within India.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:auto; margin:auto;"
! Rank{{efn|name="ro"|Sorted based on the lowest value when figures are presented as a range, and for the same value, the older item is given a higher order.}}
! Title
! Production company
! Distributor
! Worldwide gross
! Ref.
|-
! style="text-align:center;" | 1
| ''[[Projapoti (2022 film)|Projapoti]]''
| Bengal Talkies Dev Entertainment Ventures
| SSR Cinemas
|{{INR|13-14}} crore
|<ref>{{cite web |title=ওটিটিতে উড়বে 'প্রজাপতি'!বক্স অফিসে দুর্দান্ত ব্যাটিংয়ের পর আবার চমক |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/video/watch-video-dev-and-mithun-chakraborty-starrer-projapoti-streams-on-ott-platform-dgtl/cid/1418615 |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |access-date=7 April 2023 |location=Kolkata |language=bn |date=31 March 2023 |archive-date=14 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414105833/https://www.anandabazar.com/video/watch-video-dev-and-mithun-chakraborty-starrer-projapoti-streams-on-ott-platform-dgtl/cid/1418615 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Samadder |first1=Tulika |title=উচ্চারণ নিয়ে কটাক্ষ! এদিকে টলিউডের সর্বোচ্চ আয়কারী সিনেমার তালিকায় দেবের ৫ ছবি |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tollywood-box-office-a-report-claims-dev-dominates-top-5-bengali-film-with-amazon-obhijaan-chander-pahar-projapoti-31696239561757.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250211063047/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tollywood-box-office-a-report-claims-dev-dominates-top-5-bengali-film-with-amazon-obhijaan-chander-pahar-projapoti-31696239561757.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 February 2025 |access-date=7 April 2025 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=2 October 2023 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
! style="text-align:center;" | 2
| ''[[Karnasubarner Guptodhon]]''
|colspan = "2"| [[Shree Venkatesh Films|SVF]]
|{{INR|9.8}} crore
|<ref name="at">{{cite news |title=Year Ender 2022- Bangla Films: ২০২২ সালে বক্স অফিসে সবচেয়ে বেশি সাড়া ফেলেছে এই ৫ বাংলা ছবি |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/tollywood-bengali-cinema/story/year-ender-2022-most-successful-tollywood-bangla-films-box-office-and-people-praised-bela-shuru-kishmish-aparajito-and-others-most-discussed-bangla-movies-year-soc-486234-2022-12-20 |access-date=22 November 2024 |work=[[Aaj Tak]] |date=20 December 2022 |language=bn}}</ref><ref name="toi">{{cite news |title=2022 Tollywood box office report card: Five highest-grossing films bring new hope for industry|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/2022-tollywood-box-office-report-card-five-highest-grossing-films-bring-new-hope-for-industry/photostory/96540890.cms|date=28 December 2022|work=Times of India|access-date=22 November 2024}}</ref>
|-
! style="text-align:center;" | 3
| ''[[Ballabhpurer Roopkotha]]''
|colspan = "2"| SVF
|{{INR|4.5}} crore
|<ref name="toi"></ref>
|-
! style="text-align:center;" | 4
| ''[[Belashuru]]''
|colspan = "2"| Windows Production
|{{INR|4.38}} crore
|<ref name="at"></ref><ref name="toi"></ref>
|-
! style="text-align:center;" | 5
| ''[[Aparajito (2022 film)|Aparajito]]''
| Friends Communication
| SSR Cinemas
|{{INR|2.94}} crore
|<ref name="at"></ref><ref name="toi"></ref>
|}

== January – March ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#b0e0e6; text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" style="width:6%;"| '''Opening'''
! style="width:20%;"|'''Title'''
! style="width:15%;"|'''Director'''
! style="width:25%;" | '''Cast'''
! style="width:20%;" | Production Company
! style="width:4%;" | '''{{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}'''
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#f7bf87; text color:#000;" |J A N U A R Y
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" | '''21'''
|''[[Swastik Sanket]]'' || [[Sayantan Ghosal]] ||[[Nusrat Jahan]], [[Gaurav Chakrabarty]], [[Saswata Chatterjee]] & [[Rudranil Ghosh]] ||[[Eskay Movies]] ||<ref>{{cite news |title=Nusrat Jahan’s 'Swastik Sanket' |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/lifestyle/nusrat-jahans-swastik-sanket-has-a-release-date/cid/1844157}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" | '''26'''
|''[[8/12 Binay Badal Dinesh]]'' || Arun Roy ||Kinjal Nanda, Arna Mukhopadhyay, Remo, [[Saswata Chatterjee]] ||KSS Productions and Entertainment ||<ref>{{cite news |title=‘8/12’ movie retelling of the legacy of Binay, Badal, Dinesh |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/people/film-8-12-retells-the-story-of-binay-badal-dinesh/cid/1849180}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#bf87f7" |F E B R U A R Y
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" | '''4'''
|''[[Baba Baby O]]''
|Aritra Mukherjee
|[[Jisshu Sengupta]], [[Solanki Roy]], [[Bidipta Chakraborty]]
|Windows Production
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/people/our-film-releases-are-like-carnivals-shiboprosad-mukhopadhyay/cid/1842006|title=Our film releases are like carnivals: Shiboprosad Mukhopadhyay|publisher=telegraphIndia.com|first=Arindam|last=Chatterjee|date=6 December 2021|accessdate=14 September 2022}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Kakababur Protyaborton]]''
|[[Srijit Mukherji]]
|[[Prosenjit Chatterjee]], [[Aryann Bhowmik]], [[Anirban Chakrabarti]]
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2021/nov/30/32332|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226212740/https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2021/nov/30/32332|url-status=live|archive-date=26 December 2021|title=Release of Srijit Mukherji's Kakababur Protyaborton shifted to 4 February 2022|date= 30 November 2021|publisher=cinemstaan.com}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" | '''18'''
|''[[Abar Bochhor Koori Pore]]'' || Srimanta Senguptta
| [[Abir Chatterjee]], [[Rudranil Ghosh]], [[Tanusree Chakraborty]], [[Arpita Pal|Arpita Chatterjee]]
| PSS Entertainments & Pramod Films||<ref>{{cite news |title=Abir and Arpita go down memory lane with 'Abar Bochhor Koori Pore' |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/lifestyle/abir-and-arpita-go-down-memory-lane-with-abar-bochhor-koori-pore/cid/1853576}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#87f7bf" |M A R C H
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''4'''
|''60 Er Pore'' ||Souvik Dey|| Amyth Sethi, [[Joy Sengupta]], [[Rupanjana Mitra]]|| M.S Films||
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''11'''
|''Aparajita: An Unspoken Relationship''|| Rohan Sen || [[Shantilal Mukherjee]], [[Tuhina Das]], Amrita De, Rana Basu Thakur || Kichukhan Entertainment ||
|-
|''Aami O Apu''|| Suman Maitra || Ananda S. Choudhuri, Prakriti Pujari, Partha Mukhopadhya, Amrita Halder || Chirosqro Films ||<ref>{{cite news |title=সাদা কালো পর্দায় ফিরছে 'আমি ও অপু', ১১ মার্চ সিনেমা হলে ছবি মুক্তি |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/aami-o-apu-back-to-white-and-black-screen-release-date-11-march-on-cinemas-31645342008392.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220114345/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/aami-o-apu-back-to-white-and-black-screen-release-date-11-march-on-cinemas-31645342008392.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 February 2022}}</ref>
|}

== April – June ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#b0e0e6; text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" style="width:6%;" | '''Opening'''
! style="width:20%;"|'''Title'''
! style="width:15%;"|'''Director'''
! style="width:25%;" | '''Cast'''
! style="width:20%;" | Production Company
! style="width:4%;" | '''{{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}'''
|-
! rowspan="6" style="text-align:center; background:#f7bf87; text color:#000;" |A P R I L
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''1'''
|''[[Abar Kanchanjungha|Abbar Kanchanjangha]]''
|Raajhorshee De
|[[Arpita Chatterjee]], [[Kaushik Sen]], [[Gaurav Chakrabarty]], [[Rahul Banerjee (actor)|Rahul]], Padmanabha Dasgupta, [[Saswata Chatterjee]], [[Bidipta Chakraborty]], [[Tanusree Chakraborty]], Debosree Ganguly
| Patel Universal Works Studio
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Abar Kanchanjangha Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/abbar-kanchanjangha/movie-review/90645208.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''8'''
|''[[Mahananda (film)|Mahananda]]''
|[[Arindam Sil]]
|[[Gargi Roychowdhury|Gargi Roychowdury]], [[Debshankar Haldar]], [[Ishaa Saha]], Arno Mukhopadhyay
|Friends Communication
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arindam Sil's next 'Mahananda' to release on April 8 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/arindam-sils-next-mahananda-to-release-on-april-8/articleshow/90226343.cms |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''14'''
|''[[The Eken]]''
|[[Joydip Mukherjee]]
|[[Anirban Chakrabarti]], [[Payel Sarkar]], Somak Ghosh, Suhatro Mukhopadhyay
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-28 |title=SVF announces - Films Slate to hit the Silver Screen with Back-to-Back Releases in 2022 |url=https://svf.in/press/svf-announces-films-slate-to-hit-the-silver-screen-with-back-to-back-releases-in-2022/ |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=SVF Entertainment |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Abhijaan (2022 film)|Abhijaan]]''
|[[Parambrata Chatterjee]]
|[[Jisshu Sengupta]], [[Rudranil Ghosh]], [[Soumitra Chatterjee]], [[Parambrata Chatterjee]]
|Roadshow Films
|<ref>{{Cite web |title='Abhijaan' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/previews/abhijaan/articleshow/90846030.cms |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''29'''
|''[[Kishmish]]''
|Rahool Mukherjee
|[[Dev (Bengali actor)|Dev]], [[Rukmini Maitra]]
|Dev Entertainment Ventures
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dev, Rukmini announce the release date of 'Kishmish', deets inside |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/dev-rukmini-announce-the-release-date-of-kishmish-deets-inside/articleshow/89014559.cms |website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Raavan (2022 film)|Raavan]]''
|MN Raj
|[[Jeet (actor)|Jeet]], [[Shataf Figar]], Lahoma Bhattacharya, [[Tanusree Chakraborty]]
|Jeetz Filmworks
|<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/10-bengali-films-to-look-forward-to-in-2022/articleshow/88637962.cms | title=10 Bengali films to look forward to in 2022 | website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#bf87f7" |M A Y
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" | '''6'''
| ''[[Mini (2022 film)|Mini]]'' || [[Mainak Bhaumik]] || [[Mimi Chakraborty]], Ayanna Chatterjee || Small Taalk Ideas||<ref>{{cite news |title=Mini Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/mini/movie-review/91396033.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kolkatar Harry]]'' || Rajdeep Ghosh || [[Soham Chakraborty]], [[Priyanka Sarkar]], Oishika Guhathakurata || Soham's Entertainment ||<ref>{{cite news |title=Kolkata’s own Harry Potter coming to big screens on May 6! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/kolkatas-own-harry-potter-coming-to-big-screens-on-may-6/articleshow/90321157.cms}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" | '''13'''
|''[[Aparajito (2022 film)|Aparajito]]''
|[[Anik Dutta]]
|[[Jeetu Kamal]], [[Saayoni Ghosh]]
|Friends Communication
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Anik Dutta’s 'Aparajito' |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/news/anik-duttas-aparajito-sweeps-west-bengal-film-journalists-association-wbfja-awards/cid/1908852}}</ref>
|-
|''Hridpindo''
|Shiladitya Moulik
|[[Arpita Pal|Arpita Chatterjee]], [[Saheb Chatterjee]]
|KSS Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Hridpindo Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/hridpindo/movie-review/91573687.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" | '''20'''
| ''[[Belashuru]]''|| [[Nandita Roy]], [[Shiboprosad Mukherjee]]|| [[Soumitra Chatterjee]], [[Swatilekha Sengupta]], [[Rituparna Sengupta]], [[Aparajita Auddy]], [[Kharaj Mukherjee]], [[Shankar Chakraborty]], [[Indrani Dutta]], [[Monami Ghosh]]|| Windows Production|| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/tollywood-bengali-cinema/story/bela-suru-haami-2-lokkhi-chhele-baba-baby-o-bengali-much-awaited-movies-windows-release-date-2022-know-list-soc-314345-2021-11-16|title=Bengali Movie Release 2022: 'বেলা শুরু' থেকে 'লক্ষ্মী ছেলে'! শেষমেশ ঘোষণা হল পাইপলাইনে থাকা ৪ ছবি মুক্তির তারিখ|date= 16 November 2021|publisher=bangla.aajtak.in}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" | '''27'''
| ''[[Tirandaj Shabor]]''|| [[Arindam Sil]]|| [[Saswata Chatterjee]], [[Subhrajit Dutta]], [[Nigel Akkara]]|| Camellia Productions
|<ref>{{Cite web |title='Tirandaj Shabor' release alert! This summer Saswata Chatterjee is returning as detective Shabor Dasgupta |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/tirandaj-shabor-release-alert-this-summer-saswata-chatterjee-is-returning-as-detective-shabor-dasgupta/articleshow/90561341.cms |access-date=2022-06-19 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''Bhoy Peona''
|Ayan Dey
|[[Srabanti Chatterjee]], [[Om (actor)|Om Sahani]]
|Big Screen Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Bhoy Peona: শ্রাবন্তী -ওম বলছেন 'ভয় পেও না'! প্রকাশ্যে টানটান ভয় ও রহস্য মোড়া ট্রেলার |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/tollywood-bengali-cinema/story/srabanti-chatterjee-om-sahani-bhoy-peona-officer-trailer-launches-new-horror-thriller-bangla-film-launch-may-2022-soc-371482-2022-05-07}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="13" style="text-align:center; background:#87f7bf" |J U N E
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''3'''
|''[[X=Prem]]''||[[Srijit Mukherji]]|| Shruti Das, Anindya Sengupta, [[Arjun Chakrabarty]], Madhurima Basak|| [[Shree Venkatesh Films]]||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-28 |title=SVF announces - Films Slate to hit the Silver Screen with Back-to-Back Releases in 2022 |url=https://svf.in/press/svf-announces-films-slate-to-hit-the-silver-screen-with-back-to-back-releases-in-2022/ |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=SVF Entertainment |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Habji Gabji]]''
|[[Raj Chakraborty]]
|[[Subhashree Ganguly]], [[Parambrata Chatterjee]], Samontak Dyuti Maitra, Osh Mallick
|Raj Chakraborty Entertainment
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Release alert: 'Habji Gabji' to release in June, 'Dharmajuddho' coming out in August |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/release-alert-habji-gabji-to-release-in-june-dharmajuddho-coming-out-in-august/articleshow/89318557.cms |access-date=2022-06-04 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''10'''
|''[[Cheene Badam]]''
|Sheiladitya Moulik
|[[Ena Saha]], [[Yash Dasgupta]]
|Jarek Entertainment
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=আনন্দ |first=ওয়েব ডেস্ক, এবিপি |date=2022-05-19 |title='আয় খুকু আয়', এক্স ইক্যুয়াল টু প্রেম'-এর পরে 'চিনেবাদাম', যশ-এনার ছবি মুক্তি পাচ্ছে ১০ জুন |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/cheene-badam-new-movie-cheene-badam-is-going-to-release-on-10-june-890032 |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=bengali.abplive.com |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|''Mrityupathojatri''
|Soumya Sengupta
|[[Rahul Banerjee (actor)|Rahul Banerjee]]
|KSS Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=‘Mrityupathojatri’ explores loneliness and agony of a convict |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/mrityupathojatri-explores-loneliness-and-agony-of-a-convict-awaiting-death-sentence/articleshow/91761802.cms}}</ref>
|-
|''Prapti''
|Anuraag Pati
|[[Samadarshi Dutta]], Devdut Ghosh, Pratyusha Roslin, Ananya Pal Bhattacharya
|Prantika Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Prapti |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/film-based-on-buddhadeb-guhas-story-prapti-to-release-on-june-10/articleshow/91619088.cms}}</ref>
|-
|''Tritiyo Purush''
|Raaj Mukherjee
|[[Soumitra Chatterjee]], [[Manoj Mitra]], [[Dipankar De]], [[Sreelekha Mitra]], [[Dolon Roy]]
|U D Entertainment
|<ref>{{cite news |title='বেলাশুরু'র পর মুক্তির পথে সৌমিত্র চট্টোপাধ্যায় অভিনীত 'তৃতীয় পুরুষ' |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/bengali/west-bengal/entertainment/movie/soumitra-chatterjee-starrer-film-tritiyo-purush-will-release-in-june/wb20220531105547473473340}}</ref>
|-
|''Panchabhuj''
|Rana Banerjee
|[[Abhishek Chatterjee]], Soma Banerjee, [[Koneenica Banerjee]]
|
|<ref>{{cite news |title=অভিষেকের শেষ ছবি 'পঞ্চভূজ'! |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/tollywood-bengali-cinema/story/abhisekh-chatterjee-last-film-panchabhuj-synopsis-details-song-and-poster-launch-soon-soc-362005-2022-04-08}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''17'''
|''[[Aay Khuku Aay]]''||Sauvik Kundu||[[Prosenjit Chatterjee]], [[Ditipriya Roy]]
| Jeetz Filmworks||<ref>{{Cite web |last=ananda |first=abp |date=2022-06-06 |title=চলতি মাসে যে যে বাংলা ছবি মুক্তি পাবে, দেখে নিন একনজরে |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/upcoming-bangla-movies-release-list-june-2022-cheene-baadaam-prapti-aay-khuku-aay-know-details-894506 |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=bengali.abplive.com |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Jaalbandi]]''|| [[Pijush Saha]] || Prince Prachurya, [[Payel Sarkar]], [[Darshana Banik]] || Prince Entertainment P4 ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 May 2022 |title=Pijush Saha's next ''Jaalbandi'' deals with existential crisis in a decaying society |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/pijush-sahas-next-jaalbandi-deals-with-existential-crisis-in-a-decaying-society/articleshow/91280238.cms |access-date=3 May 2022 |website=Times of India}}</ref>
|-
|''Iskabon''
|Mandip Saha
|[[Sourav Das (actor)|Sourav Das]], Anamika Chakraborty, Sanju Sk
|SMD Entertainment
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Iskabon Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/iskabon/movie-review/92341482.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''24'''
|''Jhorapalok''
|Sayantan Mukherjee
|[[Bratya Basu]], [[Jaya Ahsan]], [[Kaushik Sen]]
|Ava Films
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Jhora Palok |url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/nominations-out-for-the-joy-filmfare-awards-bangla-2022_-57292.html}}</ref>
|-
|''Rishi''
|Preetam Mukherjee
|[[Sourav Das (actor)|Sourav Das]], [[Darshana Banik]], [[Chandrayee Ghosh]], Rumki Chatterjee
|Thinktank Entertainment
|
|-
|''Haluaman''
|Abhimanyu Mukherjee
|Soumyadipta Saha, Udita Munshi, Bilash Dey, [[Soham Chakraborty]], Mimi Dutta, [[Paran Bandopadhyay]]
|Artage and Pandemonium Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Haluaman Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/haluaman/movie-review/92474936.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|}

== July – September ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#b0e0e6; text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" style="width:6%;" | '''Opening'''
! style="width:20%;"|'''Title'''
! style="width:15%;"|'''Director'''
! style="width:25%;" | '''Cast'''
! style="width:20%;" | Production Company
! style="width:4%;" | '''{{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}'''
|-
! rowspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#f7bf87; text color:#000;" |J U L
Y
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''8'''
|''[[Shrimati (film)|Shrimati]]''
|[[Arjunn Dutta]]
|[[Swastika Mukherjee]], [[Soham Chakraborty]]
|KSS Productions
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Swastika turns an upper middle-class housewife in 'Shrimati', film to release this July |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/swastika-turns-an-upper-middle-class-housewife-in-shrimati-film-to-release-this-july/articleshow/90952242.cms |access-date=2022-06-12 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''Pratham Barer Pratham Dekha''
|Aakash Malakar
|Arya Dasgupta, [[Rittika Sen]]
|SB Films & Entertainment
|
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''15'''
|''[[Kuler Achaar]]''
|Sudeep Das
|[[Madhumita Sarcar]], [[Vikram Chatterjee]], [[Indrani Haldar]], [[Sujan Mukhopadhyay]]
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=আনন্দ |first=ওয়েব ডেস্ক, এবিপি |date=2022-06-05 |title=বিয়ের পর নিজের পদবী পরিবর্তনে নারাজ মধুমিতা, বিরক্ত 'শ্বশুর-শাশুড়ি'! |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/kuler-aachar-film-kuler-aachar-official-poster-released-know-in-details-894248 |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=bengali.abplive.com |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|''Ananta''
|Abhinandan Dutta
|[[Ritwick Chakraborty]], [[Sohini Sarkar]]
|Roll Camera Action
|<ref>{{cite news |title=8 new Bengali movies you can binge watch on ZEE5 |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/from-savings-account-to-mini-8-new-bengali-movies-you-can-binge-watch-on-zee5/cid/1903796}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''22'''
|''[[Achena Uttam]]''
|Atanu Bose
|[[Saswata Chatterjee]], [[Rituparna Sengupta]], [[Srabanti Chatterjee]], [[Ditipriya Roy]]
|Alaknanda Arts, Shank Entertainment
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Achena Uttam Movie Review : A cold, hard look into an actor’s life and legacy |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/achena-uttam/movie-review/93072752.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
|''Draupadi The Horror Night''
|Narugopal Mandal, Sukumar Das
|[[Rittika Sen]], Mustaq Khan, Narugopal Mandal, [[Biswajit Chakraborty]]
|N.R. Production
|
|-
|''Sahobashe''
|Anjan Kanjilal
|[[Ishaa Saha]], Anubhav Kanjilal
|Mojotale Entertainments
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Sahobashe |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/anubhav-ishaas-relationship-tale-sahobashe-to-release-in-july/articleshow/92486612.cms}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''29'''
|''Antarjaal''
|Prarjun Majumder
|[[Bonny Sengupta]], [[Koushani Mukherjee]]
|Pandey Motion Pictures
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Bonny Koushani New Film Antarjal |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/bengali/west-bengal/entertainment/movie/shooting-for-new-film-antarjal-has-started/wb20220401121324869}}</ref>
|-
|''Kulpi''
|Barshali Chatterjee
|[[Payel Sarkar]], [[Rajatava Dutta]], [[Chumki Chowdhury]], Protyay Ghosh
|BD Film Production
|<ref>{{cite news |title=ছকে বাঁধা প্রেমের ছবি নয়, মানবিক সম্পর্কের কথাই বলে ‘কুলপি’ |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/film-review/review-of-bengali-movie-kulpi/}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="8" style="text-align:center; background:#bf87f7" |A U G U S T
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" | '''5'''
|''[[Akash Ongshoto Meghla]]'' || Joydip Mukherjee ||[[Rudranil Ghosh]], [[Rahul Banerjee (actor)|Rahul Banerjee]], [[Basabdatta Chatterjee]], Ankita Chakraborty ||Handwoven Films ||<ref>{{cite news |title=কারখানা বন্ধই যত কাল! ৫ অগস্ট মুক্তি পাচ্ছে রাহুল-রুদ্রনীলের 'আকাশ অংশত মেঘলা' |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/exclusive-akash-ongshoto-meghla-new-bengali-film-all-set-to-release-on-5-august-starred-by-rudranil-ghosh-rahul-banerjee-31659434394608.html}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" |'''11'''
|''[[Dharmajuddha]]''
|[[Raj Chakraborty]]
|[[Swatilekha Sengupta]], [[Subhashree Ganguly]], [[Ritwick Chakraborty]], [[Soham Chakraborty]], [[Parno Mittra]]
|Raj Chakraborty Entertainment
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=ananda |first=abp |date=2022-07-01 |title=ফের বদলে গেল 'ধর্মযুদ্ধ'-র মুক্তির দিন, কবে প্রেক্ষাগৃহে আসবে মাল্টিস্টারার এই ছবি? |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/tollywood-actress-subhashree-ganguly-shares-her-upcoming-film-dharmajuddha-s-new-release-date-know-in-details-899654 |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=bengali.abplive.com |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|''Bhotbhoti''
|[[Tathagata Mukherjee]]
|Rishav Basu, Bibriti Chatterjee, [[Debolina Dutta]], [[Rajatava Dutta]], [[Anirban Chakrabarti]], [[Dipankar De]], [[Mamata Shankar]], [[Tathagata Mukherjee]]
|Pramod Films, PSS Entertainment
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tathagata's much-awaited film 'Bhotbhoti' set to release this August |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/tathagatas-much-awaited-film-bhotbhoti-set-to-release-this-august/articleshow/91633092.cms |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''Byomkesh Hotyamancha''
|[[Arindam Sil]]
|[[Abir Chatterjee]], [[Sohini Sarkar]], Suhatro Mukhopadhyay, [[Paoli Dam]], Arno Mukhopadhyay, Kinjal Nanda, Anusha Viswanathan
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films]], Camellia Productions
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-28 |title=SVF announces - Films Slate to hit the Silver Screen with Back-to-Back Releases in 2022 |url=https://svf.in/press/svf-announces-films-slate-to-hit-the-silver-screen-with-back-to-back-releases-in-2022/ |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=SVF Entertainment |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7 " |'''19'''
|''[[Bismillah (film)|Bismillah]]''
|[[Indraadip Dasgupta]]
|[[Riddhi Sen]], [[Subhashree Ganguly]], [[Kaushik Ganguly]], [[Bidipta Chakraborty]], [[Aparajita Auddy]], [[Gaurav Chakrabarty]], [[Surangana Bandyopadhyay]]
|Kaleidoscope Entertainment
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=আনন্দ |first=ওয়েব ডেস্ক, এবিপি |date=2022-06-27 |title=১৯ অগাস্ট ঋদ্ধি-শুভশ্রীর জুটি নিয়ে আসছে 'বিসমিল্লা' |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/bismillah-subhasree-ganguly-and-riddhi-sen-s-bismillah-is-going-to-be-released-on-19-august-898648 |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=bengali.abplive.com |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Kalkokkho]]''
|Rajdeep Paul, Sarmistha Maiti
|Tannistha Biswas, Janardan Ghosh, [[Sreelekha Mukherji]], Amit Saha, Ahana Karmakar, Deep Sarkar
|Aurora Film Corporation
|<ref>{{cite news |title=করোনা আবহ এবং বাঙালি পরিবারের সংকটের কাহিনি, কেমন হল ‘কালকক্ষ’? |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/film-review/kalkokkho-review-a-bengali-existential-horror-around-covid-19/}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7 " |'''25'''
|''[[Kolkata Chalantika]]''
|[[Pavel (film director)|Pavel]]
|[[Sourav Das (actor)|Sourav Das]], [[Ishaa Saha]], [[Rajatava Dutta]], [[Kharaj Mukherjee]], [[Anirban Chakrabarti]], [[Aparajita Auddy]], [[Anamika Saha]], [[Ditipriya Roy]], Satabdi Chakraborty, Kiran Dutta
|Baba Bhootnath Entertainment
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=সংবাদদাতা |first=নিজস্ব |title=Tollywood: সৌরভের জন্মদিনে এককাট্টা টিম 'কলকাতা চলন্তিকা', ছবি-মুক্তি মাদার টেরেসার জন্মদিনে? |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/on-sourav-gangulys-50th-birthday-pavel-revealed-his-next-movie-kolkata-chalantikas-poster-dgtl/cid/1355337 |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=www.anandabazar.com |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7 " |'''26'''
|''[[Lokkhi Chele]]''
|[[Kaushik Ganguly]]
|[[Ujaan Ganguly]], Ritwika Pal, Purab Seal Acharya, [[Indrasish Roy]], Pradip Bhattacharya, [[Ambarish Bhattacharya]], [[Churni Ganguly]]
|Windows Production
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=বাবা কৌশিক গঙ্গোপাধ্যায়ের পরিচালনায় নায়ক উজান, কবে মুক্তি পাচ্ছে 'লক্ষ্মী ছেলে'? |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/cinema/know-the-release-date-kaushik-ganguly-directed-ujaan-ganguly-starrer-film-lokkhi-chhele/ |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=sangbadpratidin |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#87f7bf" |S E P T E M B E R
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" |'''2'''
|''Paka Dekha''
|Premendu Bikash Chaki
|[[Soham Chakraborty]], Susmita Chatterjee
|Soham's Entertainment
|<ref>{{cite news |title=দুই পরিবারের মিষ্টি গল্প 'পাকা দেখা', মুক্তি আগামী সপ্তাহে |url=https://eisamay.com/photo-gallery/entertainment/bengali-movie-paka-dekha-of-soham-susmita-will-release-soon/photoshow/93739951.cms}}</ref>
|-
|''Shimanto''
|Suman Maitra
|[[Saheb Bhattacharya]], [[Payel Sarkar]], Ranajay Bishnu
|SSR Cinemas, Chirosqro Films
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Shimanto: a crime thriller dealing with trafficking on borders |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/shimanto-crime-thriller-dealing-trafficking-borders-1503104044.html}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''16'''
|''Ajker Shortcut''
|Subir Mondal
|[[Parambrata Chatterjee]], [[Gaurav Chakrabarty]], [[Apu Biswas]], [[Nachiketa Chakraborty]]
|Karmondal
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ajker Shortcut: বেকার সমস্যা নিয়ে নচিকেতার গল্প, পর্দায় আনছেন পরমব্রত-অপু বিশ্বাস-গৌরব |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/subir-mandals-film-ajker-shortcut-is-based-on-a-story-by-nachiketa-chakraborty-dgtl/cid/1359529 |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=Anandabazar Patrika |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" | '''30'''
|''[[Kacher Manush]]''
|Pathikrit Basu
|[[Dev (Bengali actor)|Dev]], [[Prosenjit Chatterjee]], [[Ishaa Saha]]
|Dev Entertainment Ventures
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dev announces 'Kacher Manush' release date, film to come out on Prosenjit's birthday |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/dev-announces-kacher-manush-release-date-film-to-come-out-on-prosenjits-birthday/articleshow/92057075.cms |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Karnasubarner Guptodhon]]''
|Dhrubo Banerjee
|[[Abir Chatterjee]], [[Arjun Chakrabarty]], [[Ishaa Saha]], [[Sourav Das (actor)|Sourav Das]]
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-28 |title=SVF announces - Films Slate to hit the Silver Screen with Back-to-Back Releases in 2022 |url=https://svf.in/press/svf-announces-films-slate-to-hit-the-silver-screen-with-back-to-back-releases-in-2022/ |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=SVF Entertainment |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''Boudi Canteen''
|[[Parambrata Chatterjee]]
|[[Subhashree Ganguly]], [[Soham Chakraborty]], [[Anashua Majumdar]], [[Parambrata Chatterjee]]
|Roadshow Films, Shadow Films
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-12 |title=প্রকাশ্য়ে পরমব্রত-শুভশ্রীর 'বৌদি ক্যান্টিন'! কবে মুক্তি পাবে ছবিখানা? |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/first-look-of-parambrata-chatterjee-subhashree-ganguly-sohom-chakraborty-s-movie-boudi-canteen-is-out-now-movie-will-release-puja-2022-31655035787353.html |access-date=2022-06-13 |website=Hindustantimes Bangla |language=bn}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
|''Mission Everest''
|Debaditya Bandopadhyay
|[[Chandrayee Ghosh]]
|Camellia Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=A list of Bengali films releasing on this Durga Puja |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/a-list-of-bengali-films-releasing-on-this-durga-puja-to-add-up-your-festivity-1503112191.html}}</ref>
|}

== October – December ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#b0e0e6; text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" style="width:6%;"| '''Opening'''
! style="width:20%;"|'''Title'''
! style="width:15%;"|'''Director'''
! style="width:25%;" | '''Cast'''
! style="width:20%;" | Production Company
! style="width:4%;" | '''{{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}'''
|-
! rowspan="5" style="text-align:center; background:#f7bf87; text color:#000;" |O C T O B E R
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''14'''
|''Bijoya Dashami''
|Souvik Dey
|[[Rajatava Dutta]], Aryann Bhowmick
|Drishti Entertainment
|
|-
|''Agantuk''
|[[Indraadip Dasgupta]]
|[[Abir Chatterjee]], [[Sohini Sarkar]]
|[[ZEE5]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Agantuk Teaser Released |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/agantuk-teaser-promises-a-humane-story-with-a-twist/articleshow/74438867.cms}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#f7dfc7" |'''21'''
|''[[Ballabhpurer Roopkotha]]''
|[[Anirban Bhattacharya]]
|Satyam Bhattacharya, Debraj Bhattacharya, [[Surangana Bandyopadhyay]]
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Ballabhpurer Roopkotha Movie Review : Comedy of horrors done right |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/ballabhpurer-roopkotha/movie-review/95119432.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
|''Hirokgorer Hire''
|[[Sayantan Ghosal]]
|[[Bonny Sengupta]], [[Soham Chakraborty]], [[Koushani Mukherjee]]
|[[ZEE5]]
|
|-
|''[[Jotugriho]]''
|[[Saptaswa Basu]]
|[[Bonny Sengupta]], [[Parambrata Chatterjee]], [[Payel Sarkar]]
|Nexgen Ventures
|<ref>{{cite news |title='Jotugriho': Parambrata turns elderly priest in horror flick |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/jotugriho-parambrata-turns-elderly-priest-in-horror-flick-bonny-shines-in-official-trailer/articleshow/94346277.cms}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="10" style="text-align:center; background:#bf87f7" |N O V E M B E R 
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" |'''4'''
|''Amrapali''
|[[Raja Chanda]]
|[[Ayoshi Talukdar]], [[Bonny Sengupta]], [[Anirban Chakrabarti]]
|[[ZEE5]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Amrapali |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/ayoshi-talukdar-on-her-new-film-amrapali/cid/1896316}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" |'''11'''
|''[[Jhilli]]''
|[[Ishaan Ghosh]]
|Aranya Gupta, Bitan Biswas, Sombhunath De, Sayandeep Guha, Sourav Nayak
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Jhilli Movie Review : Almost too close to the bone |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/jhilli/movie-review/95475278.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Dostojee]]''
|Prasun Chatterjee
|Arif Shaikh, Asif Shaikh
|Kathak Talkies
|<ref>{{cite news |title=4 best Bengali films of the year and some that made a mark |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/tollywood-2022-4-best-bengali-films-of-the-year-the-worst-and-some-that-made-a-mark/cid/1906620}}</ref>
|-
|''Savings Account''
|[[Raja Chanda]]
|[[Ankush Hazra]], [[Sayantika Banerjee]]
|[[ZEE5]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=SAVINGS ACCOUNT REVIEW : ANKUSH IS THE SAVING GRACE IN THIS DISMAL DRAMA |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/savings-account/ottmoviereview/95572526.cms}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" |'''18'''
|''[[Ogo Bideshini]]''
|Anshuman Pratyush
|[[Ankush Hazra]], Alexandra Talyor, Rajnandini Paul
|[[Eskay Movies]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Ankush’s next ‘Ogo Bideshini’ to release on November 18 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/ankushs-next-ogo-bideshini-to-release-on-november-18/articleshow/95255294.cms}}</ref>
|-
|''Kothamrito''
|Jiit Chakraborty
|[[Kaushik Ganguly]], [[Aparajita Auddy]]
|Jalan Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Friday film Kothamrito underlines the importance of communication |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/friday-film-kothamrito-underlines-the-importance-of-communication/cid/1898703}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#dfc7f7" |'''25'''
|''Prosenjit Weds Rituparna''
|Samrat Sharma
|Ipsita Mukherjee, Risav Basu, [[Prosenjit Chatterjee]], [[Rituparna Sengupta]]
|Onelife Studios Pvt Ltd
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Prosenjit Weds Rituparna Movie Review : A pop culture homage that could have been more |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/prosenjit-weds-rituparna/movie-review/95788882.cms?from=mdr}}</ref>
|-
|''Toke Chhara Banchbo Na''
|[[Sujit Mondal]]
|[[Yash Dasgupta]], [[Priyanka Sarkar]]
|[[Surinder Films]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=‘Toke Chhara Banchbo Na’ set for TV Premiere |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/yash-dasgupta-priyanka-sarkar-starrer-toke-chhara-banchbo-na-set-for-tv-premiere/articleshow/96456280.cms}}</ref>
|-
|''Haar Mana Haar''
|[[Raja Chanda]]
|[[Ayoshi Talukdar]], [[Soham Chakraborty]], [[Payel Sarkar]], Sudipta Chakraborty, Silvia Dey
|[[ZEE5]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Haar Mana Haar: মেয়ের জন্য ফের বিয়ের সিদ্ধান্ত সোহমের! পাত্রী পায়েল না আয়োষী? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/tollywood-bengali-cinema/story/haar-mana-haar-new-bangla-movie-raja-chanda-starring-soham-chakraborty-paayel-sarkar-ayoshi-talukdar-movie-focuses-very-delicate-dealings-parenthood-soc-440632-2022-08-27}}</ref>
|-
|''Clown''
|Rick Chatterjee
|[[Om Sahani]], Devlina Kumar
|
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Clown |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/clown-om-devlinas-psychological-thriller-holds-a-mirror-up-to-society/articleshow/95676641.cms}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#87f7bf" |D E C E M B E R
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" |'''2'''
|''Khela Jawkhon''
|[[Arindam Sil]]
|[[Mimi Chakraborty]], [[Arjun Chakrabarty]], Susmita Chatterjee
|[[Shree Venkatesh Films|SVF]], Camellia Productions
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Khela Jawkhon |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-on-the-thriller-khela-jawkhon/cid/1900998}}</ref>
|-
|''Subho Bijoya''
|Rohan Sen
|[[Kaushik Ganguly]], [[Bonny Sengupta]], [[Koushani Mukherjee]], [[Kharaj Mukherjee]], [[Churni Ganguly]]
|Kichukhan Entertainment
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Bengali family drama Shubho Bijoya to release soon |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/cinema/2022/Jul/07/bengali-family-drama-shubho-bijoya-to-release-soon-42171.html}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" |'''23'''
|''[[Projapoti (2022 film)|Projapati]]''
|[[Avijit Sen]]
|[[Dev (Bengali actor)|Dev]], [[Mithun Chakraborty]], [[Mamata Shankar]], [[Shweta Bhattacharya]]
|Dev Entertainment Ventures & Bengal Talkies
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=আনন্দ |first=ওয়েব ডেস্ক, এবিপি |title=Mithun and Dev : এক ছবিতে মিঠুন-দেব, সল্টলেকে শুরু 'প্রজাপতি'-র শ্যুটিং |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/videos/entertainment/mithun-chakraborty-and-dev-in-same-film-shooting-of-prajapati-started-at-saltlake-900665 |access-date=2022-07-16 |website=ABP Bengali |date=5 July 2022 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Hatyapuri (film)|Hatyapuri]]''
|[[Sandip Ray]]
|[[Indraneil Sengupta]], [[Abhijit Guha (director)|Abhijit Guha]], Ayush Das
|Ghosal Media and Entertainment, Shadow Films
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Camera starts rolling for new Feluda film 'Hatyapuri', details inside |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/camera-starts-rolling-for-new-feluda-film-hatyapuri-details-inside/articleshow/92176235.cms |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Haami 2]]''
|[[Shiboprosad Mukherjee]] & [[Nandita Roy]]
|[[Gargi Roychowdhury]], [[Shiboprosad Mukherjee]]
|Windows Production
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Haami 2: কচিকাঁচাদের নিয়ে উড়ল 'হামি ২ কাইট'! বড়দিনে ফের চমক দিতে আসছে লাল্টু- মিতালীরা |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/tollywood-bengali-cinema/story/haami-2-gargee-roychowdhury-shiboprosad-mukherjee-film-release-december-2022-team-organized-movie-theme-haami-2-kite-after-introducing-3-newcomer-child-actors-soc-448127-2022-09-17}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#c7f7df" |'''30'''
|''Uttwaran''
|[[Indraadip Dasgupta]]
|[[Ankush Hazra]], [[Kaushik Ganguly]], [[Saayoni Ghosh]], [[Rwitobroto Mukherjee]]
|Sunday Entertainment, [[ZEE5|ZEE 5]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Uttwaraan movie Review: লকডাউনের স্মৃতি ফেরাল অঙ্কুশ-সায়নী-কৌশিকদের ‘উত্তরণ’ |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/film-review/review-of-zee5-original-movie-uttwaran-starring-ankush-kaushik-saayoni-rwitobroto/}}</ref>
|}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/upcoming-movies/upcoming-bengali-movies Upcoming Bengali Films]

{{Cinema of West Bengal}}
{{2022 films}}
{{Indian film list}}

[[Category:2022 in Indian cinema|Bengali]]
[[Category:Lists of Bengali films by year|2022]]
[[Category:2022 Bengali-language films|*]]
[[Category:Lists of 2022 films by language|Bengali]]
[[Category:2020s Indian films|*]]

Jalamsham

2026-03-03T20:41:41Z

Khorang: put up the info w/ infobox

{{Short description|2014 Indian-Malayalam language film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Jalamsham
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[M. P. Sukumaran Nair]]
| writer = M. P. Sukumaran Nair
| producer = M. P. Sukumaran Nair
| starring = {{ubl|[[Jagadish]]|[[Manju Pillai]]}}
| cinematography = [[K. G. Jayan (cinematographer)|K. G. Jayan]]
| editing = [[B. Ajithkumar]]
| music = Gemini Unnikrishnan
| studio = Rachana Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2014|12|15|df=y}} ([[International Film Festival of Kerala|IFFK]])
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Jalamsham''''' ({{Translation|Water essence}}), also spelled as '''''Jalamsam''''' is a 2014 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama]] film written, produced and directed by [[M. P. Sukumaran Nair]]. The film stars [[Jagadish]], [[Manju Pillai]], Parvathy Ghosh, [[Indrans]], [[Alencier Ley Lopez]] and [[Suraj Venjaramoodu]]. [[K. G. Jayan (cinematographer)|K. G. Jayan]] handles the cinematography and [[B. Ajithkumar]] edits the film. Gemini Unnikrishnan composed the songs and [[background score]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sudhish |first=Navamy |date=March 27, 2014 |title=Jalamsham: Of Organic Bonds |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2014/Mar/27/jalamsham-of-organic-bonds-591403.html |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=M. |first=Athira |date=September 18, 2014 |title=Turning over a new leaf |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/turning-over-a-new-leaf/article6419204.ece |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129170550/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/turning-over-a-new-leaf/article6419204.ece |archive-date=2014-11-29 |access-date=2025-10-07 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=January 19, 2014 |title=Jagadish and Manju Pillai to act in Jalamsham |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/jagadish-and-manju-pillai-to-act-in-jalamsham/articleshow/29047785.cms |access-date=2025-10-07 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

''Jalamsham'' was officially premiered at [[International Film Festival of Kerala]] on 15 December 2014 under the category ''Malayalam Cinema Today''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IFFK 2014 - 19th International Film Festival of Kerala |url=https://specials.manoramaonline.com/Movie/2014/IFFK-2014/Festival-Movies.html |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=[[Malayala Manorama]]}}</ref>

==Plot==
The film explores the socio-political changes in [[Kerala]] over a period of time. Kunjukunju, is a farmer and father of three girls. He cultivates on leased land, but is caught in the political turmoil of the time and ends up as a murderer. The film also explores his relationships with three women – Soshakutty, his wife, Savithri, his landlord, and Karumbi, a resilient peasant.

==Cast==
* [[Jagadish]] as Kunjukunju
* [[Manju Pillai]] as Soshakutty
* Parvathy Ghosh as Savithri
* Reshmi as Karumbi
* [[Indrans]]
* [[Alencier Ley Lopez]]
* [[Suraj Venjaramoodu]]
* [[Krishna Prabha]]
* Avantika
* Professor Aliyar

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Jalamsham
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Gemini Unnikrishnan
| released =
| studio = Dhwani Wave Station, [[Trivandrum]]
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|07:25}}
| label =
}}
The soundtrack album of the film was composed by Gemini Unnikrishnan.
{{Track listing
| headline =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 07:25
| title1 = Deho Tho Ri
| extra1 = Sreekanth Hariharan
| lyrics1 = Arpon Das
| length1 = 01:53
| title2 = Ulakam Vayalakki
| extra2 = Jayachandran Kadambanad, Anishya John, Nithin Raj, Unnikrishnan, Jayahari P. S., Gopika J. Nath
| lyrics2 = [[Anwar Ali (poet)|Anwar Ali]]
| length2 = 05:32
}}

==Release==
''Jalamsham'' was censored on 25 August 2014<ref>{{Cite web |title=CBFC - Jalamsam |url=https://www.cbfcindia.gov.in/cbfcAdmin/search-result.php?recid=RElMLTc1LTIwMTQtMTUtVEhJ |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=[[Central Board of Film Certification|CBFC]]}}</ref> and had its premiere at [[International Film Festival of Kerala]] on 15 December 2014 under the category ''Malayalam Cinema Today''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=S. |first=Anil |date=November 19, 2014 |title=Malayalam Films to Reach Global Viewers |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2014/Nov/19/malayalam-films-to-reach-global-viewers-684297.html |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 12, 2014 |title=Seven Films to Premiere at the Fest |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2014/Dec/12/seven-films-to-premiere-at-the-fest-693357.html |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=January 10, 2015 |title=The 19th International Film Festival of Kerala - A Curtain Raiser |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/archive/19th-international-film-festival-kerala-curtain-raiser-20490 |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref> The film was also screened at the Malabar Movie Festival on 15 March 2015<ref>{{Cite news |date=March 11, 2015 |title=Malabar movie fete from tomorrow |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/malabar-movie-fete-from-tomorrow/article6984624.ece |access-date=2025-10-07 |work=[[The Hindu]] |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> and Filca International Film Festival on 30 April 2015.<ref>{{Cite news |date=April 30, 2015 |title=Filca film festival concludes |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/filca-film-festival-concludes/article7160981.ece |access-date=2025-10-07 |work=The Hindu |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|7822578}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2014 Indian films]]
[[Category:2014 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]

2015 South India floods

2026-02-26T04:18:57Z

Khorang: Adding article - done

{{short description|2015 Disastrous Floods}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox flood
| name = 2015 South India floods
| image =Indian Air Force Relief and Rescue Op during Tamil Nadu Flood December 2015.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =Submerged bridges in [[Chennai]]
| date = 8 November 2015 – {{end date|df=y|2015|12|14}}
| damages ={{INRConvert|199|b|0}} – over {{INRConvert|1000|b|0}} (unofficial estimates)<ref name="floodlosses"/><ref name="floods_washed"/> Tamil Nadu: ₹14,602 crore-₹50,000+ crore (US$2.2 billion-US$7.5+ billion, unofficial estimates)<ref name="floodlosses"/><ref name="restoration"/> Andhra Pradesh: {{INRConvert|4960|c|0}}<ref name="revised"/> Pondicherry: {{INRConvert|333|c|0}}<ref name="floods_washed">{{Cite news|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/business/news/Chennai-Floods-in-November-Washed-Away-Over-Rs-14000-crore/2016/03/31/article3355588.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403015510/http://www.newindianexpress.com/business/news/Chennai-Floods-in-November-Washed-Away-Over-Rs-14000-crore/2016/03/31/article3355588.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 April 2016 |title=Chennai Floods in November Washed Away Over Rs. 14,000 Crore|work=The New Indian Express |date=31 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="UnionTerritory"/>
| fatalities = 500+<ref name="claimed_lives"/><ref name="lives_lost"/><ref name="TNrain"/><ref name="struggles"/><ref name="APHomeMin" /> Tamil Nadu: 422 (official, likely more)<ref name="claimed_lives"/><ref name="lives_lost"/><ref name="TNrain"/><ref name="struggles"/><ref name="express">{{Cite news|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Rains-Floods-Kill-269-in-Tamil-Nadu-54-in-Andhra/2015/12/03/article3159074.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208070309/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Rains-Floods-Kill-269-in-Tamil-Nadu-54-in-Andhra/2015/12/03/article3159074.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 December 2015 |title=Rains, Floods kills 269 in Tamil Nadu, 54 in Andhra Pradesh|work=The New Indian Express |date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Andhra Pradesh: 81<ref name="APHomeMin"/> Puducherry: 3
| affected = [[South India]] ([[Tamil Nadu]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], [[Andhra Pradesh]])
}}

The '''2015 South India floods''' resulted from heavy rainfall generated by the annual [[northeast monsoon]] in November–December 2015. They affected the [[Coromandel Coast]] region of the [[South India]]n states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name="sunkmonday" /> More than 500 people were killed<ref name="claimed_lives"/><ref name="lives_lost"/><ref name="TNrain">{{Cite news|title=347 dead in rain-related incidents since Oct 1 in TN|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/347-dead-in-rainrelated-incidents-since-oct-1-in-tn/article7969839.ece|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=10 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="struggles">{{Cite news|last=Janardhanan|first=Arun|title=Now Chennai struggles to lay its dead to rest |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/now-chennai-struggles-to-lay-its-dead-to-rest/|access-date=9 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=10 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="APHomeMin" /> and over 1.8 million (18 lakh) people were displaced.<ref name="reunite" /> With estimates of damages and losses ranging from nearly {{INRConvert|200|b|0}} to over {{INRConvert|1|t|0}},<ref name="floodlosses" /><ref name="floods_washed"/><ref name="dna015" /><ref name="assistance" /><ref name="centre" /><ref name="industries" /> the floods were the costliest to have occurred in 2015, and were among the costliest natural disasters of the year.<ref name="costliest">{{Cite news|last=Narasimhan|first=T.E.|title=Chennai floods are world's 8th most expensive natural disaster in 2015|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/chennai-floods-are-world-s-8th-most-expensive-natural-disaster-in-2015-115121100487_1.html|access-date=12 December 2015|work=Business Standard|date=11 December 2015}}</ref>

Though the unusually heavy rainfall in southern India during the winter of 2015 has been attributed to the [[2014–16 El Niño event]], in July 2018 the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) categorised the flooding across Tamil Nadu as a "man-made disaster", and held the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] responsible for the scale of the catastrophe, which the latter had termed a ''[[natural disaster]]''.<ref name="Hindu_CAGClaim">{{Cite news
| last = Kumar
| first = B. Aravind
| title = CAG terms 2015 Chennai floods a man-made disaster, holds T.N. govt. responsible for the catastrophe
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 10 July 2018
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/2015-floods-a-man-made-disaster-cag/article24374953.ece
| access-date = 15 July 2018}}</ref>

==Background==

===Geographical and meteorological explanation===
From October to December each year, a very large area of south India, including Tamil Nadu, the coastal regions of the Andhra Pradesh and the union territory of Puducherry, receives up to 60 percent of its annual rainfall from the [[northeast monsoon]] (or winter monsoon). The northeast monsoon is the result of the annual gradual retreat of monsoonal rains from [[northeastern India]]. Unlike during the regular monsoon, rainfall during the northeast monsoon is sporadic, but typically far exceeds the amount produced by the regular monsoon by up to 90 percent. This excessive rainfall can be exacerbated by an El Niño of order of the magnitude which has since been evaluated to every year, such as 2015.<ref name="underwater">{{Cite news|last1=Sinha|first1= Janardhanan|last2=Amitabh|first2= Arun|title=Extra rain and poor urban planning: Why Chennai went under water|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/extra-rain-poor-urban-planning-why-chennai-went-under-water/|access-date=9 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=19 November 2015}}</ref>

The coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh usually bear the brunt of heavy rains that occur during the northeast monsoon; with numerous river systems and wetlands, Puducherry and eastern Tamil Nadu are prone to flooding.<ref name="underwater"/> The city of Chennai alone experienced five major floods between 1943 and 2005, with the 1943, 1978 and 2005 floods causing particularly severe damage.<ref>{{Cite news|title=When cities went under water|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/floods-in-tamil-nadu-cities/article7965264.ece|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=10 December 2015}}</ref> In addition, unplanned and often illegal urban development has led to many wetlands and natural sinks being built over; this, along with ageing civic infrastructure and poorly designed drainage systems, has resulted in an increased frequency of severe flooding.<ref name="underwater"/>

===Weather systems===
On 8 November 2015, during the [[2015 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|annual Cyclone season]], a [[low-pressure area]] consolidated into a depression and slowly intensified into a deep depression before crossing the coast of [[Tamil Nadu]] near [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] the next day. Because of land interaction and high vertical wind shear, the system weakened into a well-marked low-pressure area over north Tamil Nadu on 10 November.<ref name="havoc"/> The system brought very heavy rainfall over the coastal and the north interior districts of Tamil Nadu. On 13 November, [[Kanchipuram]] recorded 340 mm of rain and several low-lying areas were inundated and Vembakkam close to [[Kanchipuram]] recorded 470 mm. On 15 November, a well-marked low-pressure area moved northwards along the Tamil Nadu coast, dropping huge amounts of rainfall over coastal Tamil Nadu and [[Andhra Pradesh]] with 24‑hour totals peaking at 370 mm in [[Ponneri]]. [[Chennai International Airport]] recorded 266 mm of rainfall in 24 hours. On 28–29 November, another system developed and arrived over Tamil Nadu on 30 November, bringing additional rain and flooding. The system dropped 490 mm of rainfall at [[Tambaram]] in 24 hours starting 8:30 am on 1 December. Very heavy rains led to flooding across the entire stretch of coast from Chennai to [[Cuddalore]]. A study from [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]] shows that on 1 December, clouds were stationary over Chennai.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Role of Eastern Ghats Orography and Cold Pool in an Extreme Rainfall Event over Chennai on 1 December 2015|author=Jayesh Phadtare|journal=Monthly Weather Review|volume=146|issue=4|pages=943–965|publisher=American Meteorological Society.|doi=10.1175/MWR-D-16-0473.1|year=2018|bibcode=2018MWRv..146..943P |doi-access=free}}</ref> This study showed that the mountains of Eastern Ghats blocked clouds that came from the Bay of Bengal from moving further inland. The mechanism is referred to as 'upstream blocking'. Therefore, they were stationary over Chennai throughout the day. These clouds gave continuous rainfall over Chennai that caused massive flooding.

==Floods in Tamil Nadu==

===Chennai===
[[File:Chennai Airport submerged during December 2015 Tamil Nadu flood.jpg|thumb|200px|Aerial view of submerged [[Chennai International Airport]]]]

Between 9 and 10 November 2015, [[Neyveli]] received {{convert|483|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rainfall; rains continued to lash [[Cuddalore]], [[Chidambaram]], [[Tiruvallur]], [[Kanchipuram]] and [[Chennai]].<ref name="havoc">{{Cite news|last=Lakshmi|first=K|title=Rain wreaks havoc in coastal districts|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/rain-wreaks-havoc-in-coastal-districts/article7863341.ece|access-date=16 November 2015|work=The Hindu|date=10 November 2015}}</ref> Several low-lying areas in [[Kanchipuram]], including major thoroughfare Gandhi Road, were inundated as the city and its neighbourhood received a heavy precipitation of 340mm during the 24-hours that ended with 8.30 a.m. on 13 November 2015. The Manjalneer Kalvai, primarily a flood drain channel for the city, overflowed after the Netteri lake breached on the Kancheepuram-Vellore Road in the wee hours of Friday, flooding the entire stretch of Gandhi Road and Munusamy Mudaliyar Avenue and forcing the police to close for traffic the prime junction Moongil Mandapam where the Gandhi Road joins with Vallal Pachaiyappan Salai. Kanchipuram Collector R.Gajalakshmi told reporters later that a total of 7,294 persons were rescued from inundated areas and accommodated in 26 shelters opened by the civic body. Boats were used to rescue the people from inundated areas in Pillayarpalayam, the Collector said. And also Vembakkam close to [[Kanchipuram]] recorded 470mm of rain on 13 November 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2015ലെ പ്രളയത്തിൽ മരിച്ചത് 289 പേർ, അതിനേക്കാൾ വെള്ളത്തിൽ ചെന്നൈ; വെള്ളംകുടിച്ച് 'പെരുങ്കുടി' |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/environment/environment-news/2023/12/05/chennai-submerged-cyclone-michaung-shatters-rain-records-brings-catastrophe.html |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=www.manoramaonline.com |language=ml}}</ref> Continuing rains led to low-lying parts of Chennai becoming inundated by 13 November, resulting in the evacuation of over 1000 people from their homes.<ref name="sunkmonday"/> The flooding in Chennai city was worsened by years of illegal development and inadequate levels of flood preparedness.<ref>{{Cite news|title=More rain sinks Chennai; inept corporation, illegal sites exposed|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/More-rain-sinks-Chennai-inept-corporation-illegal-sites-exposed/articleshow/49796287.cms?|access-date=17 November 2015|work=The Times of India|date=16 November 2015}}</ref> Much of the city remained flooded on 17 November, though rainfall had largely ceased.<ref>{{Cite news|title=In pics: Tamil Nadu sees sunshine, but roads still waterlogged |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/in-pics-tamil-nadu-sees-sunshine-but-roads-still-waterlogged/story-16MOD3Xomim2M9mdUkJIXM.html|access-date=18 November 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=17 November 2015}}</ref> Chennai received {{convert|1049|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rainfall in November, the highest recorded since November 1918 when {{convert|1088|mm|in|abbr=on}} in of rainfall was recorded. [[Kancheepuram]] district registered the heaviest rainfall—183% higher at 181.5 cm as against average rainfall of 64 cm in October–December period and [[Tiruvallur]] district recorded 146 cm compared to average 59 cm of rain.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai misses new rain record by a whisker|date=1 December 2015|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chennai-misses-new-rain-record-by-a-whisker/article7936508.ece|work=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai receives highest rainfall in Tamil Nadu|first=S. V. Krishna|last=Chaitanya|date=13 November 2015|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/151114/nation-current-affairs/article/chennai-receives-highest-rainfall-tamil-nadu|work=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> The flooding in Chennai city was described as the [[100-year flood|worst in a century]].<ref name="zone"/> The continued rains led to schools and colleges remaining closed across [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] and [[Chennai]], [[Kancheepuram]] and [[Tiruvallur]] districts in Tamil Nadu, and fishermen were warned against sailing because of high waters and rough seas.<ref name="Skymet2015">{{Cite news|title=Rain wreaks havoc in coastal districts|url=http://www.skymetweather.com/content/weather-news-and-analysis/tamil-nadu-and-chennai-weather-update/|access-date=16 November 2015|agency=Skymet Weather|publisher=Skymet|date=16 November 2015}}</ref>

[[File:2015 South Indian flood Chennai taken by Indian Air Force helicopters.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of flood-hit areas of Chennai]]

Though rainfall from the earlier low-pressure system ended on 24 November, another system developed on 29 November, bringing additional rain and the [[India Meteorological Department]] predicted heavy rainfall over [[Tamil Nadu]] until the end of the week.<ref name="threat">{{Cite news|title=Rain threat in TN due to fresh low pressure|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/514405/rain-threat-tn-due-fresh.html|access-date=28 November 2015|work=Deccan Herald|date=28 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="rains">{{Cite news|title=Chennai rains: IMD predicts heavy rains in TN, Puducherry for next 4 days|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/tamil-nadu-heavy-rains-lash-chennai-to-continue-for-two-more-days/article7936729.ece|access-date=1 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=1 December 2015}}</ref> On 1 December, heavy rains led to inundation in many areas of [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rain-batters-Chennai-parts-of-Tamil-Nadu-Normal-life-hit-flights-and-trains-delayed/articleshow/49995842.cms| title=Rain batters Chennai|date=1 December 2015|work=The Times of India}}</ref> By afternoon, power supplies were suspended to 60% of the city while several city hospitals stopped functioning.<ref name="drowns"/> The same day, [[Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu]] [[Jayalalithaa]] announced that, because of the continued flooding and rains, half-yearly school examinations originally scheduled for 7 December would be postponed until the first week in January.<ref name="examinations">{{Cite news|title=Jayalalithaa announces relief measures, half-yearly examinations postponed|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/jayalalithaa-announces-relief-measures-halfyearly-examinations-postponed/article7937054.ece|access-date=1 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=1 December 2015}}</ref> For the first time since its founding in 1878, the major newspaper ''[[The Hindu]]'' did not publish a print edition on 2 December, as workers were unable to reach the press building.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods: The Hindu not published for first time since 1878|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34981328|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=BBC News|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> The [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railways]] cancelled major train services and [[Chennai International Airport]] was closed until 6 December.<ref name="drowns">{{Cite news|last=Janardhanan|first=Arun|title=Chennai drowns in deluge of water; flight services suspended|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/heavy-rains-lash-parts-of-tamil-nadu-puducherry-normal-life-hit/|access-date=2 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=2 December 2015}}</ref>

Chennai was officially declared a [[disaster area]] on the evening of 2 December.<ref name="zone">{{Cite news|title=Tamil Nadu floods LIVE: Chennai officially declared disaster zone; PM Modi takes stock of situation|url=http://zeenews.india.com/live-updates/tamil-nadu-chennai-rains-live-updates-1829037|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=ZeeNews|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> At the MIOT Hospital, 14 patients died after power and oxygen supplies failed. With a letup in rainfall, floodwaters gradually began to recede in Chennai on 4 December, though 40 percent of the city's districts remained submerged and safe food and drinking water remained in short supply.<ref name="INExpressLIVE"/> Though relief efforts were well underway across most of the area by 3 December, the lack of any coordinated relief response in North Chennai forced thousands of its residents to evacuate on their own.<ref name="flee">{{Cite news|last=Yamunan|first=Sruthisagar|title=Thousands of residents flee north Chennai|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/chennai-floods-latest-updates-relief-rescue-operation-underway-imd-predicts-more-rains/article7944477.ece|access-date=4 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> As intermittent rains returned, thousands of displaced residents from Chennai, Kancheepuram and Tiruvallur districts attempted to flee the stricken region by bus or train and travel to their family homes.<ref name="menacing">{{Cite news|title=As sky turns menacing again, rescue efforts intensified|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chennai-rains-as-sky-turns-menacing-again-rescue-efforts-intensified/article7949621.ece?ref=relatedNews|access-date=4 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> Chennai International Airport was partly reopened for cargo flights on 5 December, with passenger flights scheduled to resume from the following morning.<ref name="exgratia"/> By 6 December, rescue efforts had largely concluded and relief efforts intensified, with the Chennai Corporation beginning to disburse relief packages.<ref name="rainhit"/> Mobile, banking and power services were gradually restored; fuel and food supplies were reaching their destinations, the airport had fully reopened and rail services slowly resumed. Many city neighbourhoods, however, remained flooded with some lacking basic necessities due to the uncoordinated distribution of relief materials. With the city slowly beginning to recover, state and national health officials remained watchful against disease outbreaks, warning that conditions were right for epidemics of water-borne illnesses to occur.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kannan|first=Ramyan|title=Displaced families count their losses|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chennai-floods-aftermath-displaced-families-count-their-losses/article7958695.ece?ref=sliderNews|access-date=8 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> Chennai Corporation officials reported at least 57,000 homes in the city had suffered structural damage, mostly those of working class. State housing boards said they would conduct safety inspections of both public and residential buildings.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lopez|first=Aloysius Xavier|title=Chennai floods: Over 50,000 houses of low income group damaged|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/over-50000-houses-of-low-income-group-damaged/article7959676.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=8 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> After being closed for the past month, schools and colleges across the affected districts began to reopen from 14 December.<ref>{{Cite news|title=As life limps back to normalcy in flood-hit Tamil Nadu, schools and colleges reopen|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/as-life-limps-back-to-normalcy-in-flood-hit-tamil-nadu-schools-and-colleges-reopen/|access-date=21 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=14 December 2015}}</ref> Relief operations were largely wound up by 19 December.<ref name="corpn"/>

South of Chennai, heavy rains and flooding persisted into the second week of December. In Kancheepuram district, Chengalpattu, kanchipuram, Nandivaram- Guduvanchery, Perungalathur, Tambaram, Mudichur and Anakaputhur were inundated in floodwaters up to 7 metres deep by 5 December, which washed away roads and severed rail links; 98 people from the district were reported to have died.<ref name="limps">{{Cite news|title=Kancheepuram limps back to normalcy|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Kancheepuram-Limps-Back-to-Normalcy/2015/12/05/article3161077.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207211552/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Kancheepuram-Limps-Back-to-Normalcy/2015/12/05/article3161077.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 December 2015|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> During 4–5 December, parts of Villupuram and Tiruvarur districts received up to 10 centimetres of rain, while some towns in Cuddalore district saw up to nine centimetres.<ref name="record"/> Flood alerts were broadcast to 12 villages in the neighbourhood of the Tirumurthy dam in Tirupur district on 7 December, as the dam was likely to reach capacity within two days; the residents of those villages were urged to evacuate.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Water Being Released from Thirumurthy Dam, Flood Alert Sounded in 12 Villages|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Water-Being-Released-from-Thirumurthy-Dam-Flood-Alert-Sounded-in-12-Villages/2015/12/07/article3165591.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210025633/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Water-Being-Released-from-Thirumurthy-Dam-Flood-Alert-Sounded-in-12-Villages/2015/12/07/article3165591.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 December 2015|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> Due to rainfall in Tirunelveli district, all of its dams had reached or were approaching full capacity by 7 December, forcing local authorities to discharge thousands of cusecs of water from reservoirs and causing the [[Thamirabarani River]] to reach flood stage.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tamirabharani in spate once again|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamirabharani-in-spate-once-again/article7960266.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=8 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> Torrential rains inundated hundreds of acres of paddy fields in Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and Nagapattinam districts, and caused residential areas to flood by 8 December. Large parts of [[Thanjavur]] city were marooned by rising waters, while several houses collapsed under the brunt of rainfall in [[Kumbakonam]] and Veppathoor.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Renganathan|first=L.|title=No sign of let-up in the downpour|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/no-sign-of-letup-in-the-downpour/article7963264.ece|access-date=9 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=9 December 2015}}</ref>

After Chennai district, Cuddalore district was among those most severely affected by the flooding. Six of the district's 13 blocks suffered extensive damage during the floods in November.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Prasad|first=S.|title=Normalcy returning to rain-ravaged Cuddalore district|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/normalcy-returning-to-rainravaged-cuddalore-district/article7871231.ece|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=13 November 2015}}</ref> The resumption of heavy rainfall from 1 December again inundated the Cuddalore municipality and the district, displacing tens of thousands of people.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Thousands Rescued From Flood-hit Areas in Cuddalore|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Thousands-Rescued-From-Flood-hit-Areas-in-Cuddalore/2015/12/03/article3158570.ece1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206020707/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Thousands-Rescued-From-Flood-hit-Areas-in-Cuddalore/2015/12/03/article3158570.ece1|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 December 2015|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Rains continued through 9 December.<ref name="unrelenting">{{Cite news|last=Prasad|first=S.|title=Rain unrelenting in Cuddalore|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/rain-unrelenting-in-cuddalore/article7956414.ece?ref=relatedNews|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Despite the state government and individuals sending rescue teams and tonnes of relief materials to the district, thousands of those affected continued to lack basic supplies due to inadequate distribution efforts; this resulted in several relief lorries being stopped and looted by survivors.<ref name="unrelenting"/><ref name="snatch">{{Cite news|last=Yamunan|first=Sruthisagar|title=In Cuddalore, desperate crowds snatch relief materials from trucks|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/in-cuddalore-desperate-crowds-snatch-relief-material-from-trucks/article7958703.ece?ref=relatedNews|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> Large swaths of [[Cuddalore]] city and the district remained inundated as of 10 December, with thousands of residents marooned by floodwaters and over 60,000 hectares of farmland inundated; over 30,000 people had been evacuated to relief camps.<ref name="unrelenting"/><ref>{{Cite news|last2=Sivaraman|first2=Sruthisagar|first1=R.|last1=Yamunan|title=Cuddalore still under water, thousands cut off|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-floods-cuddalore-still-under-water-thousands-cut-off/article7962573.ece?ref=relatedNews|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=10 December 2015}}</ref>

The state government reported preliminary flood damages of {{INRConvert|84.81|b|0}}, and requested {{INRConvert|20|b|0}} for immediate relief efforts.<ref name="dna015">{{Cite web | title=Tamil Nadu government pegs flood damage at Rs 8,481 crore, CM Jayalalithaa writes to PM Modi | website=dna | date=23 November 2015 | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-tamil-nadu-government-pegs-flood-damage-at-rs-8481-crore-cm-jayalalithaa-writes-to-pm-modi-2148012 | access-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> On 5 December, a senior state revenue official said the state's official estimates of flood-related losses in November alone exceeded {{INRConvert|98|b|0}}; he added the catastrophic flooding thus far in December could escalate total losses to well over {{INRConvert|1000|b|0}}.<ref name="floodlosses">{{Cite news|last=Kotteswaran|first=C.S.|title=Tamil Nadu: Chennai floods cause a loss of Rs 50,000-cr|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/151206/nation-current-affairs/article/chennai-floods-caused-loss-50-thousand-crore|access-date=9 December 2015|work=Deccan Chronicle|date=6 December 2015}}</ref> On 9 December, Chief Minister Jayalalithaa wrote to Prime Minister Modi, requesting him to immediately declare the "unprecedented, catastrophic and cataclysmic" flooding as a "national calamity."<ref name="calamity">{{Cite news|last=Janardhanan|first=Arun|title=Declare Chennai floods national calamity, Jayalalithaa urges PM Modi|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/jayalalithaa-urges-pm-modi-to-declare-chennai-floods-as-national-calamity/ |access-date=9 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=9 December 2015}}</ref> Aon Benfield, a major UK-based reinsurance broker, classified the floods as the costliest to have occurred in 2015, and the eight-costliest natural disaster of the year.<ref name="costliest"/>

On 13 December, the state government requested the central government to release a total of ₹102.50 billion (US$1.53 billion) towards relief and rehabilitation efforts, including {{INRConvert|50|b|0}} for a housing project to accommodate 50,000 displaced people, {{INRConvert|7.5|b|0}} to rehouse another 50,000 people who had formerly lived in huts destroyed by the floods and {{INRConvert|45|b|0}} to rebuild damaged roads, drains, tap water pipes and sewers in urban localities.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Jayalalithaa Seeks Rs 10,250 Crore for Flood Victims |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Jayalalithaa-Seeks-Rs-10250-Crore-for-Flood-Victims/2015/12/13/article3175952.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222131939/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Jayalalithaa-Seeks-Rs-10250-Crore-for-Flood-Victims/2015/12/13/article3175952.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 |access-date=20 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=13 December 2015}}</ref> On 22 December, the government further revised its estimates, requesting ₹174315.1 million (US$2.63 billion) in addition to the ₹84.81 billion previously requested for the flood damage sustained in November, for a total of ₹259125.1 million (US$3.91 billion).<ref name="restoration">{{Cite news|title=TN Floods: CM Jaya Seeks Rs 25,912 Crore for Restoration Work |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/TN-Floods-CM-Jaya-Seeks-Rs-25912-Crore-for-Restoration-Work/2015/12/22/article3190817.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222233213/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/TN-Floods-CM-Jaya-Seeks-Rs-25912-Crore-for-Restoration-Work/2015/12/22/article3190817.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 |access-date=22 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=22 December 2015}}</ref>

In January 2016, the state government issued a detailed final statement which said 421 people in Tamil Nadu had died of flood-related causes between 28 October, when the first monsoonal rains had arrived in earnest, through 31 December;<ref name="northeast" group="note">Not including 49 people who had died between 1–28 October as a result of the monsoon.</ref><ref name="claimed_lives">{{Cite news|title=Northeast monsoon claimed 470 lives in Tamil Nadu: Jayalalithaa |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/northeast-monsoon-claimed-470-lives-in-tamil-nadu-jayalalithaa/article8064661.ece |access-date=22 January 2016|work=Business Line|date=4 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="TNrain"/><ref name="struggles"/><ref name="express"/><ref name="rains"/><ref name="lead">{{Cite news|last=Janardhanan|first=Arun|title=Chennai floods: Students to homemakers, citizens take lead in relief operations|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/chennai-floods-students-to-homemakers-citizens-take-lead-in-relief-ops/ |access-date=8 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=8 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="climbs">{{Cite news|title=Rains continue in Tamil Nadu; toll climbs past 170|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/rains-continue-in-tamil-nadu-toll-climbs-past-170/article7916090.ece |access-date=26 November 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=25 November 2015}}</ref> however, relief workers alone had reported hundreds more who were missing, and various police reports had placed the death toll in the Chennai region alone at over 500 as of mid-December. Chennai-area morgues and crematoria were reported to have been "piled up" with bodies as floodwaters began receding in the second week of December, while all of the still-functioning area cemeteries had recorded over three times the usual number of burials, up from a normal 25–30 burials per week.<ref name="lives_lost">{{Cite news|title=How Many Lives Have Been Lost in Tamil Nadu Floods?|url=http://www.thequint.com/hot-wire/2015/12/12/how-many-lives-have-been-lost-in-tamil-nadu-floods|access-date=22 January 2016|publisher=The Quint|date=12 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="lead"/> According to the Tamil Nadu government, 3042,000 (3.042 million) families had suffered total or partial damage to their dwellings. 3,8276.8 million hectares of crops had been lost due to flooding, including over 347,000 hectares of agricultural crops and 35,471 hectares of horticultural crops; roughly 98,000 livestock animals and poultry had died.<ref name="claimed_lives"/> On 25 April 2018, the skeleton of a man reported missing during the floods was discovered in the Chennai neighbourhood of Peerkankaranai near Tambaram, though a definitive identification could not be made immediately.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Skeleton found in Chennai may be of December 2015 flood victim|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/skeleton-found-in-tamil-nadu-may-be-of-december-2015-flood-victim/articleshow/63918322.cms|access-date=13 May 2018|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=26 April 2018}}</ref>

===Puducherry===
Puducherry sustained relatively minor damage in November as the depression largely remained offshore; some trees were downed and several banana and sugarcane plantations at Kuttchipalayam were severely damaged.<ref name="battered">{{Cite news|title=Comparatively Mild, but Puducherry Battered |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Comparatively-Mild-but-Puducherry-Battered/2015/11/10/article3121969.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126042542/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Comparatively-Mild-but-Puducherry-Battered/2015/11/10/article3121969.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 November 2015|access-date=19 November 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=10 November 2015}}</ref> Puducherry reported receiving 55.7 mm of rainfall over the 24-hour period from 14 to 15 November. Water entered several houses in low-lying areas, while three houses collapsed in Uppalam. Mudaliarpet, parts of Rainbow Nagar, Muthialpet, Krishna Nagar and Lawspet Main Road were inundated, along with portions of roadways near Karuvadikkuppam and the Shivaji statue on the ECR, causing traffic problems. Several roads were badly damaged, hindering motorists, while some members of the public took the initiative to begin clearing areas of water without directions from the government. Chief Minister [[N. Rangasamy|N Rangasamy]] stated the official machinery had been readied in preparation for any flooding, while local administration officials closed all schools and colleges in Puducherry and Karaikal districts on 16 November, anticipating further rainfall.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Low-lying Areas Inundated, Puducherry Wades Through|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Low-lying-Areas-Inundated-Puducherry-Wades-Through/2015/11/16/article3130502.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119203256/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Low-lying-Areas-Inundated-Puducherry-Wades-Through/2015/11/16/article3130502.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 November 2015|access-date=18 November 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=17 November 2015}}</ref>

On 24 November, it was reported over 4800 hectares of farmland had been flooded, though it remained too early to determine the extent of crop damage.<ref name="inundated">{{Cite news|title=More than 4800 hectares of farm land estimated to be inundated|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/more-than-4800-hectares-of-farm-land-esimated-to-be-inundated-115112401139_1.html|access-date=25 November 2015|work=Business Standard|date=24 November 2015}}</ref> On 26 November, the union territorial government submitted a preliminary estimate of damages to the central government, requesting it to release an initial {{INRConvert|1.82|b|0}} for relief; based on preliminary estimates, Chief Minister Rangasamy reported losses as follows: public works ({{INRConvert|120.89|c|0}}), municipal administration ({{INRConvert|487|m|0}}), agriculture ({{INRConvert|72|m|0}}),
power ({{INRConvert|31.4|m|0}}), revenue ({{INRConvert|24.8|m|0}}) and animal husbandry ({{INRConvert|719000|0}}).<ref name="assistance">{{Cite news|title=Puducherry seeks Rs 182.45 crore immediate flood relief assistance|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Puducherry-seeks-Rs-182-45-crore-immediate-flood-relief-assistance/articleshow/49938116.cms|access-date=26 November 2015|work=The Times of India|date=26 November 2015}}</ref> On 1 December, Rangasamy requested an additional {{INRConvert|1|b|0}} for "immediate interim relief".<ref>{{Cite news|title=N Rangasamy seeks interim financial assistance of Rs 100 crore from govt|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/n-rangasamy-seeks-interim-financial-assistance-of-rs-100-crore-from-govt/articleshow/49997961.cms|access-date=1 December 2015|work=The Economic Times|date=1 December 2015}}</ref> At the start of December, Puducherry reported receiving 83.4 centimetres of rain during November alone, as opposed to a normal average of 76.7 centimetres during the entire north-east monsoonal period from October to December.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Puducherry Pounded by 83.4 centimeter Rainfall in November Alone|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Puducherry-Pounded-by-83.4-Centimeter-Rainfall-in-November-Alone/2015/12/03/article3158035.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208073454/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Puducherry-Pounded-by-83.4-Centimeter-Rainfall-in-November-Alone/2015/12/03/article3158035.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 December 2015|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Since rain-related damage had continued even after the submission of a report on the earlier flooding in November, and also after the recent visit of a central government survey team, on 4 December the Puducherry government said it would submit a supplementary report assessing additional damages and requesting {{INRConvert|1.5|b|0}} for a total relief-fund requirement of {{INRConvert|3.33|b|0}}.<ref name="UnionTerritory"/>

From 1 December, torrential rains again inundated portions of the union territory. Puducherry recorded 22 cm of rainfall over a 24-hour period, making it the wettest December day ever. Heavy rain beginning on the evening of 4 December flooded parts of Puducherry, continuing through the following morning. According to the Regional Meteorological Centre, Chennai, Puducherry received nine centimetres of rain during this period. Puducherry District Collector D.Manikandan, said the rainfall had been "unprecedented in Puducherry, and the volume has been the highest [since] 1975." The administration said that 618 houses had been damaged thus far and over 2,000 people evacuated to safe places. On 5 December, the Karaikal region recorded 110 centimetres of rainfall since the start of the north-east monsoon.<ref name="record">{{Cite news|title=Marakkanam, Nannilam receive record rainfall|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/marakkanam-nannilam-receive-record-rainfall/article7954946.ece|access-date=6 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=6 December 2015}}</ref> In Karaikal, an enclave of Puducherry, nearly 50 houses were damaged due to heavy rain and flooding.<ref name="record"/>

On 5 December, the territorial government announced that nearly 9,000 hectares of paddy fields had been damaged by torrential rainfall, including 4,420 hectares of paddy fields in Puducherry,4,248.34 hectares in Karaikal and 287.15 hectares in Yanam. The government also reported 1,544 hectares of sugarcane fields under cultivation had been damaged, along with 297.73 hectares of plantains, 231.9 hectares of tapioca and related tubers, 168.10 hectares of vegetable fields and eight hectares under betel-leaf cultivation. Proposed compensation rates would be as follows: {{INRConvert|50|k|0}} per hectare for betel-leaf losses, {{INRConvert|35|k|0}} per hectare for plantains, {{INRConvert|20|k|0}} per hectare for paddy fields and {{INRConvert|15|k|0}} per hectare for losses of vegetables, tapioca, tubers and sugercane. Compensation scales had also been set for losses of cotton, lentils and flowers.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Puducherry: Over 8,900 hectare area under paddy lost in rain|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/puducherry-over-8900-hectare-area-under-paddy-lost-in-rain/article7951890.ece|access-date=10 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=5 December 2015}}</ref>

G. Sundaramurthy, a 62-year-old man in [[Ariyankuppam]], was killed on 9 November when a mud wall collapsed, while Anandan, a 53-year-old man in Ouppalam, was subsequently reported to have died because of the rain.<ref name="battered"/><ref name="flays">{{Cite news|title=Anbazhagan Flays Rangasamy Over Rain Relief Failure|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Anbazhagan-Flays-Rangasamy-Over-Rain-Relief-Failure/2015/11/16/article3130196.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119205011/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Anbazhagan-Flays-Rangasamy-Over-Rain-Relief-Failure/2015/11/16/article3130196.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 November 2015|access-date=18 November 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=16 November 2015}}</ref> On 17 November, S. Chellammal, a 72-year-old woman in Karayamputhur, was killed by the collapse of a rain-weakened mud wall.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Wall Collapse Kills 70-year-old Woman in Karayamputhur|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Wall-Collapse-Kills-70-year-old-Woman-in-Karayamputhur/2015/11/18/article3133565.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214021201/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/Wall-Collapse-Kills-70-year-old-Woman-in-Karayamputhur/2015/11/18/article3133565.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 December 2015|access-date=12 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=18 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="lakh">{{Cite news|title=CM hands over Rs. 4 lakh each to kin of victims|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/cm-hands-over-rs-4-lakh-each-to-kin-of-victims/article7974124.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=12 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=12 December 2015}}</ref>

===Andhra Pradesh===
The season began on 9 November, with a Depression hitting Tamil Nadu. Rainfall begin pour in the places of Nellore and Chittoor district. Tirumala getting a heavy rainfall of 309mm along with Tirupathi with 148mm in 24 hours triggered a flood situation in Chittoor District. Coastal places of Tada recorded 114mm of rainfall on the same day. There were 3–4 good spells of rain between 9th and 15th. As rainfall began in [[Andhra Pradesh]] on 16 November, local authorities closed schools in [[Nellore district]]. Heavy rain of about 27 cm pounded the temple town of Tirupathi. Thousands of lakes and ponds across the district overflowed, with breaches reported in some areas. At Sri Kalahasti, a pilgrimage centre in the region, the [[Swarnamukhi]] River was reported to be rising. Three people were swept away by floodwaters in Chittoor district, and water entered some houses. Roads were damaged in many parts of [[Nellore district]], disrupting transport services. Andhra Pradesh chief minister [[Chandrababu Naidu]] held a teleconference with the [[district collector]]s of affected districts and asked disaster response personnel to be on alert.<ref name="rainrelief"/>

Heavy rainfall in Nellore, Chittoor and Kadapa districts flooded villages and disrupted transport networks. It was estimated by 18 November that at least 500 km of roads had been damaged by flooding, with the Chennai–Kolkata highway damaged the previous day and stranding hundreds of vehicles and motorists; officials said it would take days to restore the link. As in Tamil Nadu, the [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]] diverted or cancelled numerous trains.<ref>{{Cite news|title=As rains relent in Tamil Nadu, incessant downpour batters Andhra|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/as-rains-relent-in-tamil-nadu-incessant-downpour-batters-andhra/story-6lAwKUwgbaruuq8fjYin3L.html|access-date=18 November 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=18 November 2015}}</ref> Over 10,000 lorry drivers were stranded on the Tada-Kavali national highway in Nellore district; district officers established 61 relief camps in the flood-affected areas and deputed senior IAS officers to oversee the relief operations in Gudur, Naidupet and Atmakur divisions, respectively. Up to 500 tanks were breached as rivers overflowed, forcing the administration to suspend rescue operations in marooned villages, though administrators supplied 10,000 food and water packets through the rail network, which managed to operate some trains, while the APSRTC continued to run bus services to less-flooded areas such as Atmakuru, Udayagiri, Marripadu and Seetharampuram.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Rain Batters Nellore, Relief Operations Hit|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/Rain-Batters-Nellore-Relief-Operations-Hit/2015/11/19/article3135851.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119112000/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/Rain-Batters-Nellore-Relief-Operations-Hit/2015/11/19/article3135851.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 November 2015|access-date=19 November 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=19 November 2015}}</ref>

In Kadapa district, the rains tapered off by 18 November; preliminary estimates were that the district had sustained about {{INRConvert|290|m|0}} of agricultural losses. Horticulture farms at Pendlimerry, Chintakommadinne, Siddhavatam and Khajipet mandals were also destroyed by the rain. Other heavy agricultural losses were reported in Rayalaseema, Nellore, Prakasam, East and West Godavari districts; the chief minister asked agriculture department officials to drain fields at the earliest in order to save crops.<ref>{{Cite news|title=More Rescue Teams Sent to Nellore Dist|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/More-Rescue-Teams-Sent-to-Nellore-Dist/2015/11/19/article3135865.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119175458/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/More-Rescue-Teams-Sent-to-Nellore-Dist/2015/11/19/article3135865.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 November 2015|access-date=19 November 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=19 November 2015}}</ref>

In a letter to Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] on 19 November, Chief Minister Naidu reported preliminary estimates of flood-related damage in Andhra Pradesh included {{INRConvert|12.5|b|0}} worth of agricultural-related damages and {{INRConvert|10.25|b|0}} of damage to infrastructure; he requested central authorities to release {{INRConvert|10|b|0}} for immediate relief efforts.<ref name="centre">{{Cite news|title=AP CM asks Centre to release Rs 1,000 cr for relief operations|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/ap-cm-asks-centre-to-release-rs-1-000-cr-for-relief-operations-115111901079_1.html|access-date=20 November 2015|work=Business Standard|date=19 November 2015}}</ref> According to Naidu, Nellore district was the most seriously affected, reporting an estimated {{INRConvert|13.95|b|0}} worth of losses, followed by Chittoor district, which reported losses of {{INRConvert|8.18|b|0}}. Kadapa district was also seriously affected, with extensive crop damage reported in East and West Godavari districts and a lesser scale of damage in Anantapur, Prakasam and Krishna districts.<ref name="centre"/> The [[aquaculture]] industry in Nellore district was catastrophically affected, with over 8000 hectares of fish and prawn ponds destroyed, at an estimated loss of {{INRConvert|2.5|b|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rajulapudi|first=Srinivas|title=Floods in Nellore may hit seafood exports this year|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/floods-in-nellore-may-hit-seafood-exports-this-year/article7918457.ece|access-date=1 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=24 November 2015}}</ref> On 2 December, Thota Narasimham, an MP from the [[Telugu Desam Party]], reported in the Lok Sabha that preliminary losses in the state roughly totalled {{INRConvert|38.19|b|0}}.<ref name="batter">{{Cite news|last=Rishi Kumar|first=V.|title=Rains batter AP; loss put at ₹3,819 crore|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/rains-batter-ap-loss-put-at-3819-crore/article7941837.ece|access-date=3 December 2015|work=Business Line|date=3 December 2015}}</ref>

Heavy rains resumed on 2 December, adding to the devastation in Nellore and Chittoor districts, with more rains forecast over the ensuing days; Chittoor district received between 50 and 160 mm of rainfall. Chief Minister Naidu directed district officials and health, water and sanitation officers to organise water purification and set up medical relief camps.<ref>{{Cite news|title=High alert in AP as Nellore, Chittoor flooded|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vijayawada/High-alert-in-AP-as-Nellore-Chittoor-flooded/articleshow/50027745.cms|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Times of India|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> On 4 December, Andhra Pradesh Home Minister [[Nimmakayala Chinarajappa]] reported heavy infrastructural losses in Nellore and Chittoor districts, with heavy agricultural losses in Godavari district; he added that over {{formatnum:500000}} acres of standing crops had been destroyed, and that the state government had requested {{INRConvert|37.5|b|0}} in immediate relief funds from the central government.<ref name="APHomeMin">{{Cite news|title=81 killed in rains so far, says Home Minister|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/81-killed-in-rains-so-far-says-home-minister/article7946764.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> At the start of December, Chittoor district recorded 65.1 cm of rain over the monsoonal season thus far, as opposed to a normal 16.1 cm of rainfall. 2,429 hectares of crops in the district were damaged, including 1,790 hectares of paddy that had been submerged. A further 3,039 hectares of horticultural crops were also damaged.<ref name="NCCTirupati"/> After a central government survey team completed an assessment of the flood-hit districts on 12 December, the state government submitted a final revised estimate of damages from the November and December floods; the memorandum stated that the flooding had caused {{INRConvert|49.6|b|0}} worth of damages and losses.<ref name="revised">{{Cite news|title=Rain loss: govt. to submit revised memo to Centre|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/rain-loss-govt-to-submit-revised-memo-to-centre/article8019711.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=28 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=23 December 2015}}</ref>

As of 4 December 81 people were reported to have been killed by flooding in the state,<ref name="APHomeMin"/><ref name="express"/><ref name="centre"/> while over 14,000 people had been evacuated to relief camps in Nellore and Chittoor districts.<ref name="wall">{{Cite news|title=Andhra Pradesh: 4 children killed as wall collapses due to rains |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/andhra-pradesh-4-children-killed-as-wall-collapses-due-to-rains/story-VeqGq5pxYEXJeM3tCbH13M.html|access-date=18 November 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=18 November 2015}}</ref>

== Consequences of flooding ==
Supplies of basic necessities, including milk, water, and vegetables, were affected due to logistical difficulties. During the December floods in Chennai and the adjoining areas, milk packets sold for {{INRConvert|100}}, five times more than their usual cost. Water bottles and cans were sold at prices between {{INRConvert|100}} to {{INRConvert|150}}. Vegetables were sold at ₹6 to ₹10 over and above their normal average cost at the wholesale level.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Residents stock up for the rainy day|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/residents-stock-up-for-the-rainy-day/article7951811.ece?css=print|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Hindu|issue=5 December 2015|location=Chennai}}</ref>

Apart from basic necessities, fuel supplies, and travel were greatly affected, especially in Chennai.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai fuel crisis: Fuel supply disrupted in Tamil Nadu's rain-hit capital|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/india-news/chennai-fuel-crisis-fuel-supply-disrupted-in-tamil-nadus-chennai-floods/174366/|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Financial Express|agency=Press Trust of India|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> Numerous accounts of price-gouging were reported; airfares to and from for most parts of South India peaked to almost 10 times over their normal price. A round trip fare from Mumbai or New Delhi to Bangalore, Karnataka (the nearest accessible city to Chennai, Tamil Nadu) was sold by airlines like [[Jet Airways]] at rates of almost {{INRConvert|100000}}, a trip which would have ordinarily cost between {{INRConvert|10|k}} to {{INRConvert|20|K}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=With Chennai airport shut |work=DNA India|date=5 December 2015|location=Chennai}}</ref> Apart from airfares in South India, airfares also increased for other connections within the country, due to disruptions in rail services.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Airfares up as rail disruptions push people to fly|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Airfares-up-as-rail-disruptions-push-people-to-fly/articleshow/49838831.cms|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Times of India|date=19 November 2015|location=Chennai}}</ref> In response, the [[Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)|Ministry of Civil Aviation]] warned companies against taking advantage of the situation to overcharge and that it would intervene if any of the passenger flight carriers did so. On its own, the civil aviation ministry also operated flights from the Rajali naval airbase in Arakonam, Chennai with a fixed price of {{INRConvert|2|k}} per passenger for travel to the northern states and {{INRConvert|1|k}} per passenger for travel to the southern states.<ref>{{Cite news|author1=Mihir Mishra|title=Chennai rains: Aviation ministry warns airlines not to flood their coffers with extra money|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/chennai-rains-aviation-ministry-warns-airlines-not-to-flood-their-coffers-with-extra-money/articleshow/50034791.cms|access-date=6 December 2015|date=4 December 2015|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

In Chennai, over 150,000 (150,000) street vendors sustained losses of over {{INRConvert|3|b|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Over 1.5 lakh street vendors affected|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/over-15-lakh-street-vendors-affected/article8023454.ece|access-date=24 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=24 December 2015}}</ref> The persistent rainfall and flooding forced several major automakers in the region, including [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[Renault]], [[Nissan]] and [[Daimler AG]], to temporarily halt production, resulting in estimated losses of up to {{INRConvert|10|b|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lakshmana|first=K.V.|title=Chennai rains may have sunk businesses worth thousands of crores |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/business/chennai-rains-may-have-sunk-businesses-worth-thousands-of-crores/story-dCUi5GHoQPmdddpRk2rLQM.html|access-date=8 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> Industry analysts estimated total industrial losses as a result of the floods to be in the range of ₹128 billion to ₹150 billion (US$1.52 billion to US$2.27 billion).<ref name="industries"/> All of the major auto- and truck-makers in the Oragadam and Sriperumbudur manufacturing belts resumed operations by 8 December, despite ongoing damage assessments; some employees were forced to continue working from their homes.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Balachandar|first=G.|title=Vehicle makers sans Ford resume production at Chennai factories|url=http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/tamil-nadu-floods-vehicle-makers-sans-ford-resume-production-at-chennai-factories/article7958524.ece |access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Many major information technology companies, including [[Infosys]] and Tata Consultancy Services, closed their offices and had their employees work from their homes, or transferred operations to other locations in cities including Pune and Bengaluru.<ref>{{Cite news|title=When Chennai was logged out and how|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/151203/nation-current-affairs/article/when-chennai-was-logged-out-and-how|access-date=9 December 2015|work=Deccan Chronicle|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Prices of vegetables and fruits significantly increased, as over 50% of supplies were affected after numerous lorries were stranded.<ref name="industries">{{Cite news|title=Tamil Nadu's deadly rains hit industries hard |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/514696/tamil-nadus-deadly-rains-hit.html|access-date=1 December 2015|work=Deccan Herald|date=30 November 2015}}</ref> The [[Indian Oil Corporation]] was forced to close its large Manali refinery in Chennai because of the floods.<ref name="LIVEChennaiFloods"/> Popular television networks, namely [[Puthiya Thalaimurai]], [[Jaya TV]] and [[Mega TV (Tamil)|Mega TV]] halted services following flood-related technical difficulties. Motorcycle producer [[Royal Enfield (India)|Royal Enfield]] shut its Chennai offices on 1 December, as well as its plants in [[Thiruvotriyur]] and [[Oragadam]], which had already lost the production of 4,000 motorcycles in November.<ref name=Enfield>{{Cite news|author1=|title=Production at Royal Enfield's Chennai plant hit by floods|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/production-at-royal-enfields-chennai-plant-hit-by-floods/article7945318.ece|access-date=4 December 2015|work=[[Business Line]]|agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]]|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> The Chennai real estate market sustained an estimated loss of nearly {{INRConvert|300|b}},<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai realty market faces Rs 30,000 crore loss post floods|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-chennai-realty-market-faces-rs-30000-crore-loss-post-floods-2160122|access-date=28 December 2015|publisher=DNA|date=28 December 2015}}</ref> while over 20,000 small and medium industrial units across Tamil Nadu reported total losses of over {{INRConvert|140|b}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Flood-hit Industrial Belts Clamour for Aid |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Flood-hit-Industrial-Belts-Clamour-for-Aid/2015/12/27/article3198021.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304224231/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Flood-hit-Industrial-Belts-Clamour-for-Aid/2015/12/27/article3198021.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=28 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=28 December 2015}}</ref>

Insurers in India estimated they would receive claims totalling over {{INRConvert|10|b}} for losses to property, cargo and inventory, mostly from auto companies.<ref>{{Cite news|author1=Shilpy Sinha|title=Chennai floods: Insurance companies likely to face claims worth Rs 1,000 crore|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/chennai-floods-insurance-companies-likely-to-face-claims-worth-rs-1000-crore/articleshow/50035351.cms|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Economic Times|date=4 December 2015|location=Mumbai}}</ref> During the first period of floods, claims worth about {{INRConvert|5|b}} were settled by various general insurance companies in India, largely from shopkeepers and vehicle owners. According to the [[General Insurance Corporation of India]], another large amount of claims was expected to be reported by automobile companies based in South India.<ref name=Insurance1>{{Cite web|author=Accord Fintech|title= Insurance companies likely to face claims worth Rs 1,000 crore|url=http://money.livemint.com/news/insurance/news/insurance-companies-likely-to-face-claims-worth-rs-1-000-crore--413982.aspx|publisher=LiveMint|access-date=5 December 2015|location=Mumbai|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> The General Insurance giant of India, the [[New India Assurance]] alone received claims amounting about {{INRConvert|4.25|b}} from about 1,700 claims submissions till mid December.<ref>{{Cite news|title=TN rains: New India Assurance pegs flood claims at Rs 500 crore|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/wealth/news/tn-rains-new-india-assurance-pegs-flood-claims-at-rs-500-crore/articleshowsp/50142526.cms|access-date=18 December 2015|work=The Economic Times|agency=Press Trust of India|date=11 December 2015}}</ref> By late January 2016, various insurers reported they had received roughly 50,000 damage claims totalling {{INRConvert|48|b}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods: Insurance cos get Rs 4,800 cr claims|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/chennai-floods-insurance-cos-get-rs-4800-cr-claims/|access-date=22 January 2016|work=The Indian Express|date=23 January 2016}}</ref>

Several Indian IT giants like [[Tata Consultancy Services]] and [[Wipro]] also informed their stakeholders about an expected material impact on its third-quarter earnings due to the floods and then to the low volume revenue during Christmas and New Year holidays in the west.<ref>{{Cite news|title=After TCS, Wipro issues Q3 revenue warning over Chennai floods|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/industry/companies/after-tcs-wipro-issues-q3-revenue-warning-over-chennai-floods/179424/|access-date=18 December 2015|work=The Financial Express|date=16 December 2015}}</ref> Car makers were also hugely affected due to shut down of plants, thus leading to lower production volume. German automaker [[BMW]] expected to resume production only from January 2016 while the American automaker [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] started its plant only in late December 2015. The estimated production loss cost of BMW was about {{INRConvert|2.5|b}} and Ford's was about {{INRConvert|6|b}}.<ref>{{Cite news|author1=Ketan Thakkar|title=Chennai floods: Carmakers like Ford and BMW struggle to restart work after screeching halt|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/auto/news/passenger-vehicle/cars/chennai-floods-carmakers-like-ford-and-bmw-struggle-to-restart-work-after-screeching-halt/articleshow/50178816.cms|access-date=18 December 2015|work=The Economic Times|date=15 December 2015}}</ref>

==Relief efforts==

===Tamil Nadu===
[[File:Indian Navy relief efforts during the 2015 floods in Chennai (04).jpg|thumb|right|Relief efforts by the Indian Navy in Chennai]]

Tamil Nadu Chief Minister [[Jayalalithaa]] announced an initial allocation of {{INRConvert|5|b|0}} for relief and rehousing, with {{INRConvert|400000|0}} for each family who had lost relatives in the floods. 12 cyclone shelters were built in [[Nagapattinam district]], while 11 teams of the [[National Disaster Response Force]] (NDRF) were dispatched to Tamil Nadu. Over 10,000 people had been rescued by 14 to 27 November and dozens of relief camps established . The [[Indian Air Force]] deployed four helicopters to airlift flood victims from inundated parts of Chennai city. Over 5,300 people had been rescued by 16 November and dozens of relief camps established.<ref name="rainrelief">{{Cite news|title=Rain batters TN: Jaya announces Rs 500cr relief, IAF in action|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/rain-batters-tn-jaya-announces-rs-500cr-relief-iaf-in-action/story-RQIQUQzbTUIk7QTcVYRuEN.html|access-date=16 November 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=16 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Eleven NDRF teams rushed to Tamil Nadu |url=http://or-politics.com/u-s-world/eleven-ndrf-teams-rushed-to-tamil-nadu/155298/ |access-date=16 November 2015 |publisher=Or-politics |date=16 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032738/http://or-politics.com/u-s-world/eleven-ndrf-teams-rushed-to-tamil-nadu/155298/ |archive-date=17 November 2015 }}</ref> Political parties in Tamil Nadu demanded swift action and the allocation of central government relief funds. Opposition party [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK) donated {{INRConvert|10|m|0}} to the state government on behalf of the party. DMK leader [[Karunanidhi]] however criticised the government's disbursement of {{INRConvert|5|b|0}} as insufficient considering the amount of damage resulting from the floods. He and local [[Communist Party of India]] state secretary R Mutharasan urged efforts to obtain large amounts of federal disaster relief funding; Karunanidhi further suggested soliciting funds "from the rich in Tamil Nadu for disaster relief and the establishment of party monitoring committees to ensure a speedy disbursal of relief without any discrimination". [[Anbumani Ramadoss]], [[Lok Sabha]] MP from the [[Pattali Makkal Katchi]] demanded an immediate {{INRConvert|5000|0}} be disbursed to families that had lost their livelihoods because of the flooding.<ref name="mild"/>

[[File:Indian Navy relief efforts during the 2015 floods in Chennai (02).jpg|thumb|left|Indian Navy officers distribute drinking water in Chennai.]]

The [[Indian Coast Guard]] and the three other branches of the [[Indian Armed Forces]] conducted rescue operations across Tamil Nadu, with the Indian Army and Air Force rescuing people in Kancheepuram district.<ref name="mild">{{Cite news|title=Tamil Nadu rains: Mild showers expected in Chennai; death toll touches 79|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-tamil-nadu-rains-mild-showers-expected-in-chennai-death-toll-touches-79-2146199|access-date=17 November 2015|work=Daily News and Analysis|date=17 November 2015}}</ref> The IAF conducted 25 sorties in Tamil Nadu and in Andhra Pradesh, air-dropping 5000 kg of supplies and rescuing 25 stranded people before ceasing operations on 20 November.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Indian Air Force (IAF) Winds up Relief and Rescue Operations in Flood Hit Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/government-press-release/indian-air-force-iaf-winds-up-relief-and-rescue-operations-in-115112001064_1.html|access-date=20 November 2015|work=Business Standard|date=20 November 2015}}</ref> Uninterrupted power supply had been restored in 671 of the 683 [[village panchayat]]s in Cuddalore district, with the remaining panchayats supplied with drinking water through tanker lorries. 40 medical camps and 121 special camps for cattle stock had been constructed and 70 relief camps had distributed 58,000 food packets. Upwards of 5,335 people living in low-lying areas had been evacuated and over 90,000 food packets distributed in 101 relief camps. In Tiruvallur district, 18,501 food packets were distributed through 57 relief camps and 2,958 people had been given shelter. In Kancheepuram district, people in low-lying areas had been moved to safety and 16,000 food packets distributed.<ref name="sunkmonday"/> It was reported on 18 November that 55,000 people across Tamil Nadu had been screened for water- and vector-borne diseases in medical camps, while a further 402 mobile medical units were operating.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Steps afoot to prevent disease outbreak in Tamil Nadu; 55,000 people screened|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/steps-afoot-to-prevent-disease-outbreak-in-tamil-nadu-55000-people-screened/articleshow/49831313.cms|access-date=18 November 2015|work=The Economic Times|date=18 November 2015}}</ref> On 22 November, the central government released an initial {{INRConvert|9396|m|0}} for immediate relief efforts in the state,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Jaya wants Rs 2,000-cr immediate flood aid, gets Rs 940 cr for now |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/jaya-wants-rs-2-000-cr-immediate-flood-aid-gets-rs-940-cr-for-now/story-Lkk4AJ0sh90HYhEmXt6KAJ.html|access-date=23 November 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=23 November 2015}}</ref> sanctioning a further {{INRConvert|10|b|0}} on 3 December.<ref name="LIVEChennaiFloods">{{Cite news|title=Modi announces Rs. 1,000 cr for Tamil Nadu flood relief|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/chennai-floods-latest-updates-relief-rescue-operation-underway-imd-predicts-more-rains/article7944526.ece|access-date=3 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Over 1.1 million (1,100,000) people were rescued in the Chennai region by the time rainfall ceased.<ref name="express"/><ref name="sunkmonday">{{Cite news|title=The Day Chennai Drowned: City Experiences 'Sunk Monday' |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/The-Day-Chennai-Drowned-City-Experiences-Sunk-Monday/2015/11/17/article3131878.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118153224/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/The-Day-Chennai-Drowned-City-Experiences-Sunk-Monday/2015/11/17/article3131878.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 November 2015|access-date=17 November 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=17 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="stop">{{Cite news|title=Chennai: Rains stop, but residents continue to be in distress|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-chennai-rains-stop-but-residents-continue-to-be-in-distress-2146746|access-date=23 November 2015|work=Daily News and Analysis|date=19 November 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Indian Air Force Cheetah helicopters rescue op 2015 Chennai Flood.jpg|right|thumb|Indian Air Force Cheetah helicopters carrying out winching operations to rescue stranded people in Chennai and its suburbs]]

With the return of flooding and rains on 30 November, [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Narendra Modi]] assured all possible help to [[Tamil Nadu]] on 1 December. The NDRF, the Coast Guard and the three other branches of the [[Indian Armed Forces]] resumed the evacuation of stranded people.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/tamil-nadu-news/flights-trains-hit-road-caves-in-as-chennai-faces-worst-rain-in-nearly-100-years-1249869?pfrom=home-lateststories|title=PM Modi Assures All Help as Century's Worst Rain Cripples Chennai|publisher=NDTV|date=1 December 2015}}</ref> In Chennai, the Chennai Corporation established 80 relief centres to accommodate around 10,845 people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chennaicorporation.gov.in/about-chennai-corporation/Relief_centre.pdf|title=Relief Centers|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=Chennai Corporation}}</ref> The [[Chennai City Police]] mobilised over 10,000 police officers and trained swimmers, deploying drones across the city to locate upwards of 200 people, who were all rescued.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Indian troops battle deadly flooding in Chennai|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34981246|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=BBC News|date=2 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai rains: Police used drones to locate stranded people|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chennai-rains-police-used-drones-to-locate-stranded-people/article7957968.ece?homepage=true|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> The NDRF had deployed 22 rescue teams to Tamil Nadu by the night of 2 December, and had rescued over 500 people.<ref name="zone"/> By the evening of 2 December, over 4,500 people had been evacuated to 24 relief camps in Chennai district, with a further 23,000 people in 99 relief camps in Kancheepuram district and nearly 2,000 others in 25 camps in Tiruvallur district.<ref>{{Cite news|title=As 35 lakes breach their banks, Chennai goes under again|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/complete-breakdown-of-essential-services/article7938789.ece|access-date=2 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> By the afternoon of 3 December, the NDRF said it had rescued over 5,000 people; 11 army columns were in position by the evening.<ref name="LIVEChennaiFloods"/> Over 1,500 stranded passengers were evacuated from Chennai International by the evening of 2 December.<ref>{{Cite news|title=1,500 stranded passengers being evacuated from Chennai airport|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/1500-stranded-passengers-being-evacuated-from-chennai-airport/article7940891.ece|access-date=2 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=2 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Poorvaja|first=S.|title=Exodus Part II: residents flee inundated neighborhoods|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> By 4 December, the IAF had established [[Airbridge (logistics)|air bridges]] from [[Meenambakkam Airport]] to [[INS Rajali|Arakonnam]] and between Arakonnam and [[Tambaram Air Base]], nearly 30 km from Chennai; it had rescued over 200 people from both locations. The NDRF deployed over 20 more teams in the Chennai area, and had rescued over 10,000 people in all by the afternoon.<ref name="INExpressLIVE"/> In Kancheepuram district, over 55,000 people had taken refuge in 237 relief camps by 5 December.<ref name="limps"/>

The Indian Navy orchestrated a disaster relief operation under the command of Rear Admiral Alok Bhatnagar, the Flag Officer Commanding Tamil Nadu, Puducherry Naval Area (TNNA). The [[Eastern Naval Command]] of the Indian Navy rushed an [[amphibious warfare]] vessel, the ''[[INS Airavat (L24)|INS Airavat]]'', to Chennai on 2 December, with a complement of 20 divers, five Gemini boats, four landing craft and two boats. Three naval flood relief teams, comprising 86 trained swimmers and divers and three officers, were rushed to Tamil Nadu, along with several hundred food packets. The [[INS Rajali]] naval air station at [[Arakkonam]] functioned as a makeshift airport for transporting relief materials and evacuating stranded people.<ref name="navy">{{Cite news|title=Navy rushes amphibious ship to Chennai for relief ops|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/navy-rushes-amphibious-ship-to-chennai-for-relief-ops/article7942001.ece|access-date=4 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=3 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/cheat-sheet/chennai-lakes-at-dangerous-levels-rescue-stepped-up-10-developments-1250458?pfrom=home-lateststories|title=PM Modi in Rain-Hit Chennai, Announces Immediate Relief of Rs. 1000 Crore|date=2 December 2015|publisher=NDTV}}</ref> On 3 December, the Eastern Naval Command despatched the [[fleet tanker]] {{INS|Shakti|A57|6}} and the stealth [[guided missile frigate]] {{INS|Sahyadri|F49|6}} to Tamil Nadu; the ships brought 105 additional divers, 200 tents, 3000 towels, 1000 blankets, 10 field kitchens and food, milk powder, medicines, 5000 litres of bottled water and 700 tonnes of fresh water.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Navy sends two more ships to Chennai|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/navy-sends-two-more-ships-to-chennai/article7946780.ece|access-date=4 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> General Dalbir Singh Suhag, the Chief of the Army Staff, flew to Chennai on 4 December to supervise the Army's rescue efforts; he and the General Officer Commanding, Dakshin Bharat Area, conducted an aerial reconnaissance. An additional 15 NDRF teams were planned to arrive in a day or two.<ref name="menacing"/> With rainfall gradually becoming less intense, the pace of relief efforts intensified by 5 December. By then, more than 1.1 million (1,100,000) people had been evacuated to safer places and thousands more temporarily housed in relief camps across the city and adjoining districts. People in many localities began draining stagnant water, while government relief efforts were supplemented by thousands of NGO volunteers and individuals with food packets, drinking water, clothes, blankets and medicines. 92 mobile medical teams were deployed across Chennai on 4 December to tend to the needy, while 200 special medical camps became operational on 5 December, in addition to more than 210 camps already operating.<ref name="exgratia"/> Indian physician Edmond Fernandes lead a post disaster [[Epidemiological method|epidemiological]] research which found 87.9% depressed due to flooding and also provided a policy analysis to integrate work between the city corporation, public work department, slum clearance board, housing boards and development authority in-order to respond efficiently.{{cn|date=March 2024}}

[[Ravi Shankar Prasad]], the Union [[Minister of Telecommunications & Information Technology|Minister of Telecommunications]] said [[BSNL]] would provide free services through the week.<ref name="zone"/> The National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC), chaired by Cabinet Secretary P.K. Sinha, sent 5000 litres of milk, 100,000 bottles of water, 7 tonnes of biscuits and 10 tonnes of instant noodles to Tamil Nadu on 4 December; the committee also decided to augment the nine army columns (roughly 675 troops, or 75 per column) operating in the state with an additional five columns (roughly 375 troops).<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods: Centre sends 17 tonnes of snacks, 5,000 litres milk to Tamil Nadu|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/chennai-floods-centre-sends-17-tonnes-of-snacks-5000-litres-milk-to-tamil-nadu/|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> In [[Madurai district]], state officials distributed {{INRConvert|1393000|0}} to 412 people whose houses had been partly or completely damaged because of flooding; 111 people in the first category each received {{INRConvert|5|k|0}}, while each of the others received {{INRConvert|4.1|k|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Relief given to flood victims|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/relief-given-to-flood-victims/article7943250.ece|access-date=3 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Nine shipments of bedding, carpets, biscuits, rice and fresh water packets totalling {{INRConvert|35|m|0}} were despatched by lorry to [[Tiruvallur district]] on 5 December by state Environment Minister Thoppu N Venkatachalam.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Rs 3.50 cr worth flood relief measures sent to Tiruvallur dist.|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/rs-350-cr-worth-flood-relief-measures-sent-to-tiruvallur-dist/article7952449.ece|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> On 4 December, the Coimbatore City Corporation sent {{INRConvert|500000|0}} of relief supplies to Chennai, including 2,000 blankets, 1,000 towels, 2,000 baby napkins, 2,000 sanitary napkins, 4,000 candles, 2,000 matches, 21,000 biscuit packets, 6,000 health drink bottles, 6,000 toothpaste and brush sets and a few other items. The corporation also sent 165 men, including 150 conservancy workers, in buses and lorries with equipment to carry out relief operations.<ref name="CoimbatoreRelief">{{Cite news|title=Relief materials pouring in|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/relief-materials-pouring-in/article7950761.ece|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> In [[Kanyakumari district]], residents had by 8 December contributed {{INRConvert|2211000|0}} to the Chief Minister's Relief Fund along with {{INRConvert|3.5|m|0}} worth of relief materials; two shipments of relief materials had been sent to Kanchipuram and Cuddalore districts.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Donations, relief materials pour in|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/donations-relief-materials-pour-in/article7960446.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=8 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=8 December 2015}}</ref>

As of 10 December, the Tamil Nadu state government said roughly {{formatnum:1716000}} (1716,000) people had been temporarily housed in 6,605 flood relief camps erected across the state, most of which were in Chennai, Cuddalore, Thiruvallur and Kanchipuram districts;<ref name="calamity"/><ref name="reliefpackage"/> 600 boats had been mobilised, roughly {{formatnum:12294470}} (12 million) food packets distributed, 26,270 medical camps conducted and {{formatnum:2565000}} (2565,000) persons treated in those camps.<ref name="calamity"/> In addition, up to 49,329 people had been screened through 222 medical camps and 97 mobile medical units on 9 December alone.<ref name="calamity"/> An immediate relief of {{INRConvert|675|m|0}} had been disbursed to {{formatnum:111278}} families, and a total of 80,120 people belonging to the army, navy, air force, NDRF, fire service, Coast Guard, police and other official groups had been involved in rescue efforts in the state.<ref>{{Cite news|title=WhatsApp message false, no alarm by NASA regarding 'hurricane', 'high rainfall' in Chennai|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/tamil-nadu/whatsapp-message-false-no-alarm-by-nasa-regarding-hurricane-high-rainfall-in-chennai_1831634.html|access-date=7 December 2015|agency=Zee Media|date=7 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods: Amma announces Rs 10,000, 10 kg of rice, a sari and dhoti for victims|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/chennai-floods-amma-announces-rs-10000-10-kg-of-rice-a-sari-and-dhoti-for-victims_1831604.html#comments|access-date=7 December 2015|agency=Zee Media|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> The Chennai Corporation, which began distributing relief materials in the city from 6 December, reported it had received nearly 1.3 million (1.3 million) of relief materials to that point, including 58,156 bedsheets, 702,000 water packets, 33,000 packets of powdered milk, 52,000 packets of bread, 16,000 bags of rice, 56,000 packets of biscuits, 3500 mats and 2200 saris and dhotis.<ref name="rainhit">{{Cite news|title=Rain-hit claim they have been denied relief material|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/rainhit-claim-they-have-been-denied-relief-material/article7957364.ece?topicpage=true&topicId=2063|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> In Chennai city, over {{formatnum:100000}} (100,000) tonnes of flood debris and sludge was slowly being cleared away, while stagnant water had been pumped from 787 of 859 waterlogged neighbourhoods.<ref name="calamity"/> Relief operations in Chennai were largely concluded by 19 December, by which time 12.8 million (12.8 million) food packets had been distributed, 186,000 (186,000) tonnes of garbage collected and 1679,000 (1.679 million) people screened at 10,833 medical camps.<ref name="corpn">{{Cite news|title=Corpn. to spend Rs. 110 crore on road restoration |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chennai-rains-chennai-corporation-to-spend-rs-110-crores-on-road-restoration/article8044455.ece|access-date=26 January 2016|work=The Hindu|date=30 December 2015}}</ref>

On 5 December, Prime Minister Modi announced ''ex gratia'' payments of {{INRConvert|200000|0}} to the next of kin of those who had lost their lives in the floods, and {{INRConvert|50|k|0}} each to those seriously injured.<ref name="exgratia">{{Cite news|last=Lakshmana|first=K.V.|title=Ex-gratia for Tamil Nadu flood victims; focus shifts to relief work |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/ex-gratia-relief-for-tamil-nadu-floods-victims-receding-water-brings-trouble/story-8o9qDsfxZL21760lpu2jfN.html|access-date=5 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> On 7 December, the Tamil Nadu state government announced a comprehensive relief package for those affected by the floods. According to a statement made by Chief Minister Jayalalithaa, people living in huts who had lost them in the floods would be compensated with a permanent house, {{INRConvert|10|k|0}}, 10 kilos of rice, a sari and a dhoti; those affected by flooding and who lived in substantial houses would receive the same clothes and amount of rice along with {{INRConvert|5|k|0}} in compensation. 10,000 permanent houses would be allotted in Chennai and new houses constructed for those previously in huts. The relief assistance would be deposited in the bank accounts of beneficiaries, while aid-in-kind, including rice, dhotis and saris would be distributed through PDS outlets, said Jayalalithaa; she further stated that she had ordered an immediate enumeration of affected families, and that the aid would be disbursed in a few days after a listing was complete. For those living along the banks of the Adyar, Cooum River and the Buckingham Canal and who had lost homes, the Chief Minister ordered an immediate allocation of 10,000 tenements in Okkiyam Thoraipakkam and Perumbakkam, which had been built by the Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board. Livestock losses would be compensated with {{INRConvert|10|k|0}} (for losses of cows and buffaloes) and {{INRConvert|3|k|0}} (for losses of goats and pigs); poultry would be compensated at a rate of {{INRConvert|100||0}}. Agricultural damage would be compensated at a rate of {{INRConvert|13.5|k|0}} per hectare if 33 percent or more of paddy crops had been lost, and at a rate of {{INRConvert|18|k|0}} per hectare for long-term (perennial) crops. Finally, special camps for two weeks, beginning from 14 December would be held to issue duplicate land title deeds, educational certificates, cooking gas connection cards, voter identity and Aadhaar cards and bank passbooks, all free of cost.<ref name="reliefpackage">{{Cite news|title=TN govt. announces Rs. 10,000 for flood victims|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tn-govt-announces-rs10000-for-flood-victims/article7958436.ece|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref>
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi reviews the flood situation in Chennai with the Governor of Tamil Nadu, Dr. K. Rosaiah and the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, Ms. J. Jayalalithaa, on December 03, 2015.jpg|thumb|right|Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi|Modi]] reviews the flood situation with Chief Minister [[Jayalalithaa]]]]
In addition, on 9 December Chief Minister Jayalalithaa requested Modi to develop a credit and soft loan programme through the Finance Ministry to aid families who had lost personal belongings and household appliances; this was as the state's existing compensation plan was inadequate for effectively compensating affected people for those losses.<ref name="calamity"/> It was reported by ''[[The Hindu]]'' that an average flood-affected person would require a minimum of {{INRConvert|30|k|0}} to be adequately compensated for losses.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kandeval|first=Sangeetha|title=The prohibitive cost of rebuilding one's life|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-prohibitive-cost-of-rebuilding-ones-life/article7983125.ece?homepage=true|access-date=13 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=13 December 2015}}</ref> As of February 2016, the Chief Minister's Public Relief Fund had received a total of {{INRConvert|3.39|b|0}} in donations.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tamil Nadu floods: Chief Ministers Relief Fund receives Rs 338.77 crore|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Tamil-Nadu-floods-Chief-Ministers-Relief-Fund-receives-Rs-338-77-crore/articleshow/50849579.cms|access-date=4 February 2016|work=The Times of India|date=4 February 2016}}</ref>

===Andhra Pradesh===
In [[Andhra Pradesh]], the state government announced an initial ''ex gratia'' payment of {{INRConvert|500000|0}} to the relatives of flood victims, while 140 relief camps were established in Nellore district, the worst affected. {{INRConvert|20|m|0}} of relief supplies were distributed to fishermen, weavers and local communities in the district; other organisations helped to distribute food packets and blankets.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Death toll put at 12|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/death-toll-put-at-12/article7897952.ece|access-date=20 November 2015|work=The Hindu|date=20 November 2015}}</ref> On 24 November, the central government stated it had released an initial {{INRConvert|10.3|b|0}} towards relief efforts, with further funds possible following an assessment.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Centre allocates Rs. 1,030 cr. to flood-hit AP|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/centre-allocates-rs-1030-cr-to-floodhit-ap/article7914224.ece|access-date=25 November 2015|work=The Hindu|date=25 November 2015}}</ref> In Chittoor district, 8,455 affected households were given a total of {{INRConvert|42.9|m}} in compensation, while 10,797 people were sheltering in rehabilitation camps. {{INRConvert|4714000|0}} was sanctioned to compensate for livestock and poultry losses.<ref name="NCCTirupati">{{Cite news|title=NCC Tirupati unit sends food packets to Chennai|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ncc-tirupati-unit-sends-food-packets-to-chennai/article7950549.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> On 3 December, Chief Minister Chandrababu Naidu offered support to Tamil Nadu, which had likewise been severely affected by the floods.<ref name="LIVEChennaiFloods"/>

===Puducherry===
During the floods in December, the administration in Puducherry evacuated over 1,000 people to relief centres and distributed over 200,000 food packets to affected citizens.<ref name="LIVEChennaiFloods"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=North T.N. bears the brunt of unrelenting rain|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/north-tn-bears-the-brunt-of-unrelenting-rain/article7938269.ece?ref=relatedNews|access-date=3 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> The NDRF deployed two teams in Puducherry; several voluntary organisations launched relief efforts, distributing blankets, food and water.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Rescue Works Continue in Rain-Battered Puducherry|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Rescue-Works-Continue-in-Rain-Battered-Puducherry/2015/12/03/article3159260.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208061831/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Rescue-Works-Continue-in-Rain-Battered-Puducherry/2015/12/03/article3159260.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 December 2015|access-date=3 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=3 December 2015}}</ref>

On 5 December, district collector Manikandan said 173 relief centres had been opened in Puducherry and that those evacuated from low-lying areas had been moved to 22 relief centres. They were given food thrice a day, with children given milk; blankets were also provided. In the past week, {{formatnum:525475}} food packets had been distributed. Special medical camps were conducted and medicines and sanitary napkins were distributed. The administration opened 66 relief centres in Karaikal to accommodate rain affected persons.<ref name="record"/>

On 4 December, Chief Minister Rangasamy said the union territorial administration would immediately disburse {{INRConvert|1.5|b|0}} in relief to farmers, hut-dwellers, homeowners and cattle owners in the Puducherry, Karaikal and Yanam regions. He expressed pain at witnessing the "unprecedented havoc the rains had caused in Puducherry and Karaikal regions during the last twenty days, damaging standing crops, horticultural crops and also [damaging] houses and huts, besides cattle owners". The administration further decided to provide financial relief of {{INRConvert|1.24|b|0}} to {{formatnum:310000}} families covered under the public distribution system (PDS), or {{INRConvert|4|k|0}} to each family. "All families holding ration cards would be handed relief, and each of 310,000 families would be handed {{INRConvert|4|k|0}}" and it would cost more to the exchequer the Honorable Chief Minister Rangasamy said.<ref name="UnionTerritory">{{Cite news|title=Puducherry CM Rangasamy announces Rs 150 crore relief package for rain-hit Union Territory|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/151204/nation-current-affairs/article/puducherry-cm-rangasamy-announces-rs-150-crore-relief-package|access-date=4 December 2015|work=Deccan Herald|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> On 11 December, the Chief Minister gave {{INRConvert|400000|0}} to each of the families of the victims.<ref name="lakh"/>

On 18 April 2016, the central government approved {{INRConvert|351|m|0}} of additional financial assistance for Puducherry.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Centre approves Rs 842 cr funds for Karnataka, Puducherry and Arunachal Pradesh |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/centre-approves-rs-842-cr-funds-for-karnataka-puducherry-arunachal-pradesh-drought-floods-2765552/|access-date=8 May 2016|work=The Indian Express|date=22 April 2016}}</ref>

==Response==

===National===
Coverage of the flooding in national media outlets was muted, leading to widespread anger on social media.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Rao |first1=Kavita |title=How the Chennai 2015 flood was made |url=https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/features/how-the-chennai-2015-flood-was-made-1564736261550.html |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=Live Mint |date=2 Aug 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Moorthy |first1=Swati |title=Flood of opportunism |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/know/flood-of-opportunism/article21308897.ece1 |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=Business Line |date=11 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first2=Sruthisagar|last2=Sivaraman|first1=R. |last1=Yamunan |title=Following the Flood |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/sruthisagar-yamunan-on-the-humanity-and-apathy-during-the-chennai-floods/article7976471.ece |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=The Hindu |date=12 December 2015}}</ref>

President [[Pranab Mukherjee]] said he was "saddened by the loss of human lives and serious damage to infrastructure in Chennai", stating his "prayers and good wishes are with the people of Tamil Nadu during this difficult time".<ref name="INExpressLIVE"/> On 2 December, Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] discussed the ongoing flood situation with Home Minister [[Rajnath Singh]] and Finance Minister [[Arun Jaitley]]. In the Lok Sabha, Parliamentary Affairs Minister [[M. Venkaiah Naidu|M Venkaiah Naidu]] said that Singh would chair a high-level meeting to deliver relief to the people of Tamil Nadu. He said the ministers were "trying to coordinate with various agencies on relief operations", and that he had alerted the Civil Aviation Ministry to send food to the relief camps. "Since the runway[s] [are] full of water, we have to send food and other basic amenities to the people stranded [at Chennai airport]", Naidu said, adding that he was moved by the "plight of ordinary people [in Tamil Nadu]". He concluded that it was "time for Parliament to convey to [the] people that [they should] be confident".<ref>{{Cite news|title=PM discusses TN flood situation with Singh, Jaitley, Naidu|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pm-discusses-tn-flood-situation-with-singh-jaitley-naidu/article7941452.ece|access-date=2 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> As the extent of the disaster became clear, the Prime Minister flew to Chennai on the afternoon of 3 December to personally review the relief efforts; he met with Chief Minister Jayalalithaa and conducted an aerial survey of flood-stricken areas in the city. In a brief statement which he began in Tamil, upon arriving at Adyar naval base, Modi expressed support and later tweeted "The Government of India stands shoulder to shoulder with the people of Tamil Nadu in this hour of need."<ref name="LIVEChennaiFloods"/>

On 18 November, [[Amit Shah]], the national president of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], stated the party would donate {{INRConvert|10|m|0}} towards flood-relief efforts in Tamil Nadu and also established a three-person commission to visit the state and report on the progress of the relief efforts with the delegation headed by Union minister [[Nirmala Sitharaman]], accompanied by Union minister [[Pon Radhakrishnan]] and MP [[Gopal Chinayya Shetty]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=BJP to donate Rs 1 crore for flood victims in Tamil Nadu|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/bjp-to-donate-rs-1-crore-for-flood-victims-in-tamil-nadu/articleshow/49837918.cms|access-date=18 November 2015|work=The Economic Times|date=19 November 2015}}</ref> [[Sonia Gandhi]], the president of the [[Indian National Congress]] expressed her distress urging central and state government authorities to spare no effort in their relief works, and that Congress party workers were prepared to aid in the crisis.<ref>{{Cite news|title=TN rains: Sonia urges Centre, state govt to spare no effort in relief work|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/TN-rains-Sonia-urges-Centre-state-govt-to-spare-no-effort-in-relief-work/articleshow/49806499.cms|access-date=16 November 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=16 November 2015}}</ref> On 2 December, [[Rahul Gandhi]], vice-president of the INC, expressed his concern via Twitter, stating his thoughts were with the people of Tamil Nadu, and urging Congress party workers in the affected regions to "extend all possible assistance".<ref name="zone"/>

[[Rajya Sabha]] and [[Lok Sabha]] members made urgent requests for all possible assistance on behalf of the flood-stricken areas. T G Venkatesh Babu, Lok Sabha MP from the AIADMK, thanked the central government and Modi for their efforts and requested further aid for Tamil Nadu from the National Disaster Response Fund; he insisted the flood situation in the state should be declared a "national calamity".<ref>{{Cite news|title=LS MPs seek urgent relief to TN for rains, floods|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ls-mps-seek-urgent-relief-to-tn-ap-for-rains-floods/article7940883.ece?homepage=true|access-date=2 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> In the Rajya Sabha on 2 December, leaders of major parties from both sides of the house, including the INC and the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], agreed to donate funds from the Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS); the specific amount was to be decided upon.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tamil Nadu floods: RS members offer to spend MPLADS funds|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-floods-rs-members-offer-to-spend-mplads-funds_1829527.html|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=ZeeNews|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> On 3 December, Home Minister Rajnath Singh stated in Parliament that the flood situation was "alarming", and that Chennai had "turned into an island". Singh reiterated the central government would provide all necessary assistance to Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite news|title=269 dead in Tamil Nadu; 54 in Andhra Pradesh|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-floods-269-dead-in-tamil-nadu-54-in-andhra-pradesh/article7945491.ece?homepage=true|access-date=3 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=3 December 2015}}</ref>

The Karnataka state government announced on 2 December that it would donate {{INRConvert|50|m|0}} in relief funds to Tamil Nadu,<ref name="INExpressLIVE">{{Cite news|title=LIVE Chennai floods|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/live-chennai-hit-by-heaviest-rains-in-a-century-normal-life-thrown-out-of-gear/|access-date=2 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> and said it was also ready to donate 100 tonnes of powdered milk worth {{INRConvert|15|m|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Karnataka govt ready with 100 tonnes of milk powder for Chennai|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Karnataka-govt-ready-with-100-tonnes-of-milk-powder-forChennai/articleshow/50027594.cms|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Times of India|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> [[Chief Minister of Odisha]] [[Naveen Patnaik]] expressed his concern over the flooding in Tamil Nadu to his counterpart Jayalalithaa; on 4 December, the Odisha state government donated {{INRConvert|50|m|0}} to Tamil Nadu.<ref name="zone"/><ref>{{Cite news|title=Odisha sends ₹5 cr to rain-ravaged Tamil Nadu|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/odisha-sends-5-cr-to-rainravaged-tamil-nadu/article7948927.ece?homepage=true|access-date=4 December 2015|work=Business Line|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> In a letter to Jayalalithaa, [[Chief Minister of Delhi]] [[Arvind Kejriwal]] said he was "deeply saddened to learn about the havoc [caused] by incessant rains in Chennai and other parts of Tamil Nadu" and conveyed "deepest sympathies for the loss of life and property ... on behalf of the people of Delhi", and pledged "fullest support and all resources at my disposal towards any cooperation required".<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods: Arvind Kejriwal offers assistance to Tamil Nadu CM Jayalalithaa|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/chennai-floods-arvind-kejriwal-offers-assistance-to-tamil-nadu-cm-jayalalithaa/|access-date=2 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> On 3 December, the Bihar state government announced it would donate a further {{INRConvert|50|m|0}} to Tamil Nadu.<ref name="LIVEChennaiFloods"/> [[Chief Minister of Bihar]] [[Nitish Kumar]] attributed the heavy flooding in Tamil Nadu to the effects of [[climate change]] and expressed concern: "Where earlier there used to be less rain, it is now witnessing excessive rain, we all are bothered about this ... [the feelings of] the people of Bihar are with [the] citizens of Tamil Nadu in this hour of crisis." His [[Deputy Chief Minister of Bihar|deputy]], [[Tejashwi Yadav]], said he would donate his first month's salary to victims of the flooding in Tamil Nadu, and encouraged local legislators to likewise donate generously.<ref name="Nitish">{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods: Nitish Kumar expresses concern, Tejaswi to donate first pay|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/chennai-floods-nitish-kumar-expresses-concern-tejaswi-to-donate-first-pay/|access-date=2 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=2 December 2015}}</ref>

The Kerala state government said it would send 10,000 kilos of disinfecting bleach and 10,000 pairs of medical gloves to Tamil Nadu, at the request of its government; it had earlier sent 1.5 lakh charities to the state. The state government added it was further prepared to rush medical teams and medicines to Tamil Nadu if requested.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Philip|first=Shaju|title=Kerala government extends help to flood-hit Chennai|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/kerala-government-extends-help-to-flood-hit-chennai/|access-date=6 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=6 December 2015}}</ref> Haryana contributed {{INRConvert|10|m|0}} to Tamil Nadu from its disaster relief fund; Chief Minister [[Manohar Lal Khattar]] said the state would also donate {{INRConvert|2.1|m|0}} worth of blankets and bedding, and urged Haryana citizens to donate funds to Tamil Nadu through the state relief fund.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Haryana CM flags off relief trucks for rain-hit TN|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/haryana-cm-flags-off-relief-trucks-for-rainhit-tn/article7955050.ece|access-date=7 December 2015|work=Business Line|date=6 December 2015}}</ref> [[Chief Minister of Maharashtra]] [[Devendra Fadnavis]] said on 3 December that [[Maharashtra]] would extend its complete support to Tamil Nadu in regards to the floods ravaging the state. "We stand with the people of Tamil Nadu during [this] time of [its] worst floods, one of the worst times ever [for the state]", Fadnavis said.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Maharashtra stands with Tamil Nadu: Fadnavis |url=http://www.ptinews.com/news/6812401_Maharashtra-stands-with-Tamil-Nadu--Fadnavis.html |access-date=7 December 2015 |agency=Press Trust of India |date=3 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203162903/http://ptinews.com/news/6812401_Maharashtra-stands-with-Tamil-Nadu--Fadnavis.html |archive-date=3 December 2015 }}</ref> On 8 December, Gujarat said it would also donate {{INRConvert|50|m|0}} in relief funds to Tamil Nadu; via Twitter, Chief Minister [[Anandiben Patel]] said the "devastation caused by [the] incessant rains in Tamil Nadu has grieved the entire nation. Gujarat firmly stands with the people of Tamil Nadu during these testing times."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Langa|first=Mahesh Prabhudan|title=Gujarat CM announces Rs. 5-crore aid|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/gujarat-cm-announces-rs-5crore-aid/article7959870.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=8 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> On 10 December, the Andhra Pradesh government sanctioned a donation of {{INRConvert|100|m|0}} towards flood relief in Tamil Nadu;<ref>{{Cite news|title=CM announces Rs. 10 cr. aid for Chennai flood victims|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/cm-announces-rs10-cr-aid-for-chennai-flood-victims/article7969032.ece|access-date=23 January 2016|work=The Hindu|date=10 December 2015}}</ref> the [[Tripura]] state government donated {{INRConvert|10|m|0}} towards flood relief on 15 December.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tripura government to donate Rs. 1 crore for Chennai flood victims|url=http://thenortheasttoday.com/tripura-government-to-donate-rs-1-crore-for-chennai-flood-victims/|access-date=21 December 2015|publisher=The Northeast Today|date=15 December 2015|archive-date=21 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221081237/http://thenortheasttoday.com/tripura-government-to-donate-rs-1-crore-for-chennai-flood-victims/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===International===
On 30 November, the [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] (IFRC) released 295,550 [[Swiss franc|CHF]] ({{INRConvert|20.3805|m|0}}) through the [[Indian Red Cross]] to assist 17,500 of those affected by the floods with disease prevention and relief efforts. It subsequently announced it would expand its relief efforts to cover an additional 20,000 people in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.<ref name="reunite">{{Cite news|last1=Raha|last2= North|first2=Ashirbad|first1= Rosemarie|title=Indian Red Cross helps reunite families separated by worst flooding in decades|url=http://www.ifrc.org/en/news-and-media/news-stories/asia-pacific/india/indian-red-cross-helps-reunite-families-separated-by-worst-flooding-in-decades-70769/|access-date=17 December 2015|agency=IFRC|date=17 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Bangladesh}} – The [[government of Bangladesh]] expressed firm solidarity with India. In a letter to Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]], Prime Minister [[Sheikh Hasina]] offered her condolences. "We pray for the salvation and eternal peace of the departed souls. As a close friend and neighbour, we stand firmly by you at this difficult hour", Hasina said.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Bangladesh stands by the flood-stricken in India, Hasina tells Modi|url=http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/12/04/bangladesh-stands-by-the-flood-stricken-in-india-hasina-tells-modi|access-date=4 December 2015|publisher=Bdnews24|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Canada}} – The Canadian government and the Canadian Red Cross contributed towards relief efforts.<ref name="reunite"/>
* {{flagu|China}} – [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] [[Li Keqiang]] forwarded a message of consolation to Prime Minister Modi, and expressed condolences to flood survivors and to the families of those killed in the floods. In a message to External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj, Chinese Foreign Minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] also expressed his condolences, saying, "It is a friendly tradition for the governments and peoples of China and India to help each other when disaster falls. [The] Chinese people feel the suffering of the Indian people and stand together with them. We believe the disaster-affected people will be able to overcome the difficulties and get back to normal life soon." The Chinese embassy in India contributed {{INRConvert|500000|0}} towards relief efforts, while the Chinese Red Cross contributed a further {{INRConvert|3349000|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=China Offered Aid for Tamil Nadu Flood Victims |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/China-Offered-Aid-for-Tamil-Nadu-Flood-Victims/2015/12/17/article3182389.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222091540/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil_nadu/China-Offered-Aid-for-Tamil-Nadu-Flood-Victims/2015/12/17/article3182389.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 December 2015|access-date=17 December 2015|work=The New Indian Express|date=17 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flagu|France}} – While presiding over the [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in Paris, Foreign Minister [[Laurent Fabius]] issued a statement: "Flooding in India's Chennai region has taken a tragic toll. I want to express France's solidarity with all those affected by this tragedy. The unprecedented magnitude of the flooding confirms yet again that we no longer have time. We must take concrete and urgent action against climate disruption."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods an alarm to act against climate disruption: France|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/chennai-floods-an-alarm-to-act-against-climate-disruption-france/story-I8AOsVjrKpkBZhxyFKjiIJ.html|access-date=4 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=4 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Sinha|first=Amitabh|title=Ripples in Paris after devastating floods in Chennai|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/chennai-flood-ripples-in-paris/|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Iran}} – Iran's Red Crescent Society (IRCS) voiced readiness to assist with relief and rescue operations in the flood-stricken regions. Ali Asghar Ahmadi, the Director General of the IRCS, extended condolences to India over the deadly floods in Chennai. He said Iran was prepared to dispatch relief and rescue teams to the affected areas at the request of Indian officials, and that the IRCS was ready to send shipments of relief supplies, including food, tents and heaters.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Iran Ready for Relief Missions in India's Flood-Hit Areas|url=http://www.tasnimnews.com/en/news/2015/12/06/935536/iran-ready-for-relief-missions-in-india-s-flood-hit-areas|access-date=6 December 2015|agency=Tasnim|date=6 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Japan}} – On 11 December, during an official visit, Prime Minister [[Shinzo Abe]] conveyed his condolences and support to the flood victims in Chennai.<ref>{{Cite news|title=PRIME MINISTER OF JAPAN CALLS ON PRESIDENT|url=http://presidentofindia.nic.in/press-release-detail.htm|access-date=12 December 2015|publisher=The President of India: Press Release|date=12 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Malaysia}} – The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Malaysia)|Malaysian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] said the [[Government of Malaysia|Malaysian Government]] expressed its condolences and sympathies to the Indian Government and its people, especially to those affected by the floods.<ref>{{Cite news|title=40 Malaysian students stranded by flood at Menakshi Dental College|url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/1628643|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Sun Daily|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Malaysia I-Medik India Chapter had opened a natural disaster fund to all Malaysians. Through their I-Medik organisation volunteer, funds were distributed to flood victims in Chennai. Most of the volunteers who went during relief distribution are Malaysian students who are studying at Saveetha Dental College and Sri Ramachandra Dental College.
* {{flag|Maldives}} – In a message to Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]], President [[Abdulla Yameen]] said he was deeply saddened to learn of the severe flooding. "I wish the recovery efforts every success, and commend the tenacity of the people of India during this challenging time", Yameen said. "Please also convey our sincere condolences to the members of the bereaved families, and our solidarity with the residents of the hardest hit regions."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Naafiz|first=Ali|title=Maldives pres 'saddened' by flood damage in India|url=http://www.haveeru.com.mv/news/64499|access-date=3 December 2015|publisher=HaveeruOnline|date=3 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208105830/http://www.haveeru.com.mv/news/64499|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flag|Mauritius}} – During a state visit to India, President [[Ameenah Gurib-Fakim]] conveyed her condolences to those suffering from the flooding in Chennai.<ref>{{Cite news|title=PRESIDENT OF MAURITIUS CALLS ON PRESIDENT|url=http://presidentofindia.nic.in/press-release-detail.htm|access-date=7 December 2015|publisher=The President of India: Press Release|date=7 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Mexico}} – The Mexican government released a statement through the [[Secretariat of Foreign Affairs (Mexico)|Secretariat of Foreign Affairs]] expressing its condolences. "The Government of Mexico, through the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs (SRE), expresses its condolences and its solidarity with the Government and the people of the Republic of India over the lamentable loss of human lives following the floods registered this week in the city of Chennai, the regional capital of the southeastern state of Tamil Nadu, and in the adjoining districts."<ref>{{Cite news|title=México expresa condolencias por las víctimas de las inundaciones en Chennai, India|url=http://www.gob.mx/sre/prensa/mexico-expresa-condolencias-por-las-victimas-de-las-inundaciones-en-chennai-india?hootPostID=cfa171c5e0dcf712990dfcdc52a9887c|access-date=8 December 2015|agency=Government of Mexico: Secretariat of Foreign Affairs|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Nepal}} –The Nepalese government expressed its sympathy and solidarity with the Indian people and its government. In a statement, the Nepalese Ministry of Foreign Affairs said, "The Government of Nepal is profoundly grieved over the loss of lives and property caused by the recent floods in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, and expresses deepest condolences and sympathy to the bereaved families. Its thoughts are with those who are still suffering extreme difficulties in their day-to-day life."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nepal expresses condolence over loss of lives, property caused by recent floods in Chennai|url=http://nepalforeignaffairs.com/nepal-expresses-condolence-over-loss-of-lives-property-caused-by-recent-floods-in-chennai/|access-date=5 December 2015|publisher=NepalForeignAffairs|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Singapore}} – The government of Singapore said it would contribute [[S$]]104,835 ({{INRConvert|50.2341|l|0}}) through the [[Singapore Red Cross]] towards flood relief in Tamil Nadu. In a letter to Tamil Nadu Chief Minister Jayalalithaa, [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Singapore)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] Dr. [[Vivian Balakrishnan]] said he was "saddened by the hundreds of lives lost and disrupted due to the severe flooding in Chennai and other parts of Tamil Nadu. Like many Singaporeans, I hope that the floods will recede soon. I am confident that normalcy will return to your state in the near future under your leadership", he wrote. Balakrishnan added that he hoped Singapore's contributions would "be of some assistance to those affected by the floods and demonstrate Singapore's solidarity with the people of Tamil Nadu during this difficult period."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Flood-hit Chennai to get USD 75,000 assistance from Singapore|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/flood-hit-chennai-to-get-usd-75000-assistance-from-singapore/|access-date=5 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> Stating it would donate a further [[S$]]209,670 ({{INRConvert|10|m|0}}), the Singapore Red Cross also launched a public appeal for donations and placed a team of volunteers on standby to travel to India; SRC Secretary General and CEO Benjamin William said, "We are closely monitoring the flood situation, and remain in close contact with our counterparts, the Indian Red Cross Society and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), to explore how we can further support the relief efforts."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Singapore Red Cross launches public appeal for funds to aid South India flood survivors|url=http://news.asiaone.com/news/singapore/singapore-red-cross-launches-public-appeal-funds-aid-south-india-flood-survivors|access-date=5 December 2015|publisher=AsiaOne.com|date=5 December 2015|archive-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208160601/http://news.asiaone.com/news/singapore/singapore-red-cross-launches-public-appeal-funds-aid-south-india-flood-survivors|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Spain}} – The Spanish [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (Spain)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation]] issued a statement expressing its deepest condolences and solidarity with those killed or displaced by the floods. "Spain is dismayed by the news of the floods that are affecting the state of Tamil Nadu in the south-east of India, with dramatic consequences of deaths, missing persons and serious damage to infrastructure. The Government of Spain sends to those affected, and to the people and the authorities of India, its profound condolences for the loss of human lives and sentiments of solidarity and closeness to all of those affected by this terrible catastrophe."<ref>{{Cite news|title=COMUNICADO 351: Inundaciones en la India|url=http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Portal/es/SalaDePrensa/Comunicados/Paginas/2015_COMUNICADOS/20151203_COMU351.aspx|access-date=7 December 2015|agency=Government of Spain: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation|date=4 December 2015|archive-date=18 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918215326/http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Portal/es/SalaDePrensa/Comunicados/Paginas/2015_COMUNICADOS/20151203_COMU351.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flag|Sri Lanka}} – President [[Maithripala Sirisena]] expressed his "deepest condolences" to the people affected by the floods in Chennai. "My heart goes out to our neighbours in Chennai as they make it through this difficult time", Sirisena said in a Twitter message.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Sri Lankan President expresses condolences to Chennai flood victims|url=http://www.colombopage.com/archive_15B/Dec04_1449216091CH.php|access-date=4 December 2015|publisher=Colombo Page|date=4 December 2015|archive-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208080613/http://www.colombopage.com/archive_15B/Dec04_1449216091CH.php|url-status=usurped}}</ref>
* {{flagu|United States}} – [[United States Department of State]] Deputy Spokesman [[Mark Toner]] said, "The US stands ready to assist the people of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, as well as the Government of India as they face the worst flooding in decades. We express our deepest condolences to the families of the people who have perished in these floods, and our thoughts are with those families who are still trapped and whose livelihoods are affected", Toner said. "The US is in touch with the Government of India to discuss ways that we can provide any assistance at this difficult time. Certainly, India is a very developed government with its own domestic services or capabilities to provide emergency assistance. That said, it's something we normally do especially in the cases of strong partners like India, where we offer whatever assistance we can in the aftermath of natural disasters."<ref name="offers">{{Cite news|title=US offers assistance for Chennai flood victims|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/us-offers-assistance-for-chennai-flood-victims/|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> He advised US citizens to divert all travel to the affected areas, while those in the region were advised to shelter in place and monitor updates from the US consulate general.<ref name="offers"/>
* {{flag|Vatican}} – At his Sunday Mass on 20 December, [[Pope Francis]] prayed for the flood victims and led prayers for those affected, saying "My thoughts turn in this moment to the dear populations of India, recently stricken by a great flood. Let us pray for these brothers and sisters, who are suffering as a result of this great calamity, and let us entrust the souls of the dead to the mercy of God."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Pope Francis: prayers for India flood victims|url=http://en.radiovaticana.va/news/2015/12/20/pope_francis_prayers_for_india_flood_victims/1195775|access-date=24 December 2015|agency=Vatican Radio|date=20 December 2015}}</ref>

===Religious and spiritual===
The [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]], who had recently visited Chennai, expressed sadness at the unprecedented destruction and the disruption of normal life, and expressed his sympathy with the thousands of people displaced by the flooding in Tamil Nadu. In a letter to Tamil Nadu Chief Minister Jayalalithaa on 4 December, he said, "Chennai was one of the Indian cities I visited when I first came to India in 1956 for the Buddha Jayanthi celebrations. Over the years I have visited this beautiful city several times, most recently three weeks ago as these rains began." He said he was directing the Dalai Lama Trust to make a donation of {{INRConvert|1.5|m|0}} towards ongoing relief and rescue operations, as a token of his concern for those who had suffered from the catastrophe.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Choesang|first=Yeshe|title=Tibet's [s]piritual leader expresses sympathy for Chennai flood victims |url=http://thetibetpost.com/en/news/exile/4819-tibets-piritual-leader-expresses-sympathy-for-chennai-flood-victims|access-date=6 December 2015|work=The Tibet Post|date=5 December 2015}}</ref>

The [[Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai]] and [[Ramakrishna Mission]] expressed their solidarity and did relief work across Chennai, distributing food and clothes, building and renovating homes to the needy; providing flood relief for leprosy afflicted people, and sanitising flood areas.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ramakrishna Math provides relief in rain-hit areas |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/chennai-floods-ramakrishna-math-provides-relief-in-rain-hit-areas_1831209.html|access-date=13 December 2015|publisher=Zee News|date=6 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.belurmath.org/news_archives/ |title=News of Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission |publisher=Belurmath.org |access-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120025114/http://www.belurmath.org/news_archives/ |archive-date=20 January 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The Muslim community stepped up holistically to perform relief works. Mosques around the affected parts of the city were opened for camping and shelter.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Yamunan|first=Sruthisagar|date=2015-12-12|title=Following the flood|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/sruthisagar-yamunan-on-the-humanity-and-apathy-during-the-chennai-floods/article7976471.ece|access-date=2020-06-06|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The community also cleaned temples, burying all religious distinctions.<ref name=":0" />

The [[Catholic Church]], through the aid arm of the [[Catholic Bishops' Conference of India]], Caritas India, sent {{INRConvert|2.5|m|0}} to Tamil Nadu. Amrit Sangma, Caritas India communication officer, said the organisation would provide food, wash kits and clothes to affected people with the support of four local partners. "Based on [our] general understanding in such situations, our effort will be to bring these basic support[s] to [the] neediest families who may be sheltered in school buildings and other government managed camps", Executive Director Fr. Frederick D’Souza said. Relief work was initially intended to be mostly concentrated in the three districts of Kanchipuram, Villupuram and Thiruvallur, with efforts to widen following further assessments.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite news|title=India: Caritas rushes emergency aid to flood-ravaged Tamil Nadu|url=http://en.radiovaticana.va/news/2015/12/03/caritas_rushes_emergency_aid_to_flood-ravaged_tamil_nadu/1191677 |access-date=6 December 2015|agency=Vatican Radio|date=3 December 2015}}</ref>

===Individuals and organisations===
Despite criticism of the Tamil Nadu government's mishandling of the crisis, many notable personalities and other people helped those affected by floods.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Freaked Out After Losing Home for First Time: Actor Siddharth to NDTV|url=http://www.ndtv.com/tamil-nadu-news/freaked-out-after-losing-home-for-first-time-actor-sidharth-to-ndtv-1252098|access-date=8 December 2015|publisher=NDTV|date=8 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Huffington Post: People Form Human Chain To Save Drowning Man In India|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/human-chain-rescues-drowning-man-in-india_us_565f3d95e4b079b2818cda6d|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=Huffington Post|date=2 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Stories of Resilience and Kindness During Chennai Floods|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Stories-of-Resilience-and-Kindness-During-Chennai-Floods/2015/12/05/article3160832.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206014204/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Stories-of-Resilience-and-Kindness-During-Chennai-Floods/2015/12/05/article3160832.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 December 2015|access-date=5 December 2015|work=Indian Express|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> In Chennai, people across the city offered aid, shelter and food through [[social media]] channels like Twitter, [[WhatsApp]], and Facebook. Social media sites were also used extensively to relay information about flooded areas, rescue agencies and food and relief centers. Chennai residents set up a temporary website to crowd source information about people needing help and about those who were ready to help. Celebrities such as [[RJ Balaji]], actor [[Siddharth (actor)|Siddharth]] and [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]] actively participated in the relief process by using social media to co-ordinate aid and gather information.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.catchnews.com/tech-news/chennairains-website-chennairains-org-heping-with-crowdsourced-list-of-people-places-offering-shelter-1449045555.html|title=Chennai rains website helping with crowd sourced list|publisher=catchnews.org|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> Union Minister Venkaiah Naidu visited and distributed relief materials to the flood victims at Tambaram.<ref>Nakheeran [http://nakkheeran.in/users/frmNews.aspx?N=156873] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916001019/http://nakkheeran.in/users/frmNews.aspx?N=156873|date=16 September 2016}} "Venkaiah Naidu in RSS relief camp" 12 December 2015</ref>

A pilot of the Crisis Response Volunteers (CRV) program was kicked of by the [[Tamil Nadu State Disaster Management Authority|State Disaster Management Agency]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai, Soon to Have 1,000 Certified Crisis Response Volunteers |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2016/jan/26/chennai-soon-to-have-1000-certified-crisis-response-volunteers-873518.html |access-date=2023-06-16|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> Disaster management experts from Survival Instincts organized Chennai into grids that are capable of response, rescue and relief operations, independently.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-01-17 |title=Chennaiites look to pick up crisis management skills |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/Chennaiites-look-to-pick-up-crisis-management-skills/article14005037.ece |access-date=2023-06-16 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> College students and corporate members were scheduled into a training regimen that consisted of survival skills, aquatic rescue, emergency medical response, relief warehousing, and essential-material transportation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Survival Skills 101: Chennai, You Ready? |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2016/jan/05/survival-skills-101-chennai-you-ready-864899.html |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=The New Indian Express|date=5 January 2016 }}</ref>

[[Skype]] announced that it would offer free international calls to landlines and mobiles in Tamil Nadu for "the next few days", starting 3 December 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.skype.com/2015/12/03/international-calls-to-landlines-and-mobiles-in-to-tamil-nadu-india/|title=International calls to landlines and mobiles in Tamil Nadu, India|work=Skype Blogs}}</ref><ref name="intoday.in">{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/technology/news/story/chennai-floods-skype-offers-free-international-calls-into-tamil-nadu-275620-2015-12-04|title=Chennai floods: Skype offers free international calls into Tamil Nadu |date=4 December 2015 }}</ref> Facebook activated its "safety check" feature to allow Chennai residents to let friends know they were safe, while Google posted a link on its homepage called "Resources for the Chennai Floods", providing details about relief camps and updates on the situation in the city; it also enabled its Crisis Response tool.<ref name="intoday.in" /><ref name="safety">{{Cite news|title=Facebook activates 'Safety' button for Chennai floods|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/facebook-activates-safety-button-for-chennai-floods/article7945099.ece?homepage=true|access-date=3 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Several Twitter hashtags including #ChennaiFloods, #ChennaiRains and #PrayForChennai were among the top trending hashtags across Twitter in India.<ref name="safety" /> Telecom major [[Airtel India|Airtel]] announced loan credit of {{INRConvert|30}} and free benefits of calls and 50 MB of data. Other telecom operators including [[Vodafone India|Vodafone]], [[Aircel]], and [[Reliance Communications]] also offered free benefits to customers. Indian real estate portal [[Commonfloor.com]] created links on its company website for people who need shelter or want to offer shelter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.realtynmore.com/commonfloor-initiative-for-flood-victims-in-chennai/|title=CommonFloor initiative for flood victims in Chennai|date=4 December 2015 }}</ref> Mobile healthcare startup DocsApp provided free consultation with specialist doctors via mobile.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Mobile-app-offers-free-medical-consultation-for-Chennai-residents/articleshow/50033277.cms/ |title=Mobile app offers free medical consultation for Chennai residents |work=The Times of India |date=4 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204105627/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Mobile-app-offers-free-medical-consultation-for-Chennai-residents/articleshow/50033277.cms |archive-date=4 December 2015 }}</ref>

People helped create online spreadsheets documenting possible shelters and a crowd-sourced map on 27–28 November to document inundated neighbourhoods and streets in Chennai.<ref name="pours">{{Cite news|last1=Sripathi|last2=Joseph|first1=Apoorva|first2=Raveena|title=Help pours in via social media|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/chennai-floods-help-pours-in-via-social-media/article7945550.ece|access-date=4 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> Outside India, many members of the Indian and [[Tamil diaspora]] sent non-perishable food, clothes, bedding and relief funds from countries including Malaysia, Singapore, the [[UAE]], Mexico and the United States.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Funds, relief pour in from Tamil diaspora|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Funds-relief-pour-in-from-Tamil-diaspora/articleshow/50069315.cms|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Times of India|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Tamil and Indian communities across the United States organised dozens of relief and fundraising drives in over 50 cities, raising roughly {{INRConvert|650|m|0}} in donations by the second week of December.<ref>{{Cite news|title=For Chennai, with love: diaspora raises millions in relief|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/for-chennai-with-love-diaspora-raises-millions-in-relief/article8011169.ece|access-date=21 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=20 December 2015}}</ref>

Many NGOs sent tonnes of food, bedding, clothing and relief materials.<ref>{{Cite news|title=NGOs step in to provide relief in rain-ravaged areas|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/ngos-step-in-to-provide-relief-in-rainravaged-areas/article7956403.ece?topicpage=true&topicId=2063&ref=tpnews|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Companies including [[Ola Cabs]], [[Paytm]], Practo and [[Zomato]] also aided in the relief efforts.<ref name="intoday.in" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://gadgets.ndtv.com/telecom/news/airtel-offers-free-calls-data-to-subscribers-in-flood-hit-chennai-772719|title=Chennai Floods: Telcos Offer Free Calls, Mobile Data to Subscribers|publisher=NDTV|date=2 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/chennai-floods-bsnl-airtel-vodafone-rcom-aircel-and-paytm-offer-free-talktime/|title=Chennai Floods: BSNL, Airtel, Vodafone, RCom, Aircel and Paytm offer free talktime|work=The Indian Express|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> [[Nestlé]], [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[PepsiCo]], [[ITC (company)|ITC]], [[MTR]], [[Britannia]] and [[Parle Products|Parle]] contributed thousands of instant meals, boxes of biscuits and 1-litre water bottles, along with tonnes of milk products and coffee; other major corporations, including [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]] and [[Hindustan Unilever]], donated vehicles and hundreds of thousands of food and medicine packets and actively aided with rescue efforts across the state.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nestle India supplies Maggi noodles to rain-ravaged Chennai |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/nestle-india-supplies-maggi-noodles-to-rain-ravaged-chennai/story-1hvm92Ap7w9JL41z1jmxcM.html|access-date=6 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=6 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Corporates chip in to provide succour to the needy|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/corporates-chip-in-to-provide-succour-to-the-needy/article7957370.ece?topicpage=true&topicId=2063|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Hyundai India donated {{INRConvert|20|m|0}} to the Tamil Nadu Chief Minister's Relief fund; U.S. information technology multinational [[Cognizant]] made a direct donation of {{INRConvert|650|m|0}} to the relief fund and various Chennai-based NGOs, while contributing a further {{INRConvert|1.95|b|0}} towards the long-term recovery efforts of staff and business partners.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Cognizant to give $40 mn for relief|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/cognizant-to-give-40-mn-for-relief-115120800300_1.html|access-date=8 December 2015|work=Business Standard|date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Hyundai India contributes Rs 2 crore towards Chennai floods|url=http://overdrive.in/news/hyundai-india-contributes-rs-2-crore-towards-chennai-floods/|access-date=8 December 2015|publisher=Overdrive|date=8 December 2015}}</ref>

Several notable actors donated towards relief efforts, including: [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]] ({{INRConvert|50|m|0}}), [[Rajinikanth]] ({{INRConvert|1|m|0}}), [[Raghava Lawrence]] ({{INRConvert|10|m|0}}), [[Ajith Kumar]] ({{INRConvert|6|m|0}}), [[Shah Rukh Khan]] ({{INRConvert|10|m|0}}).,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Shah Rukh Khan donates Rs. 1 crore for Chennai flood victims|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/shah-rukh-khan-donates-rs-1-crore-for-chennai-flood-victims/article7958480.ece|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> [[Allu Arjun]] ({{INRConvert|2.5|m|0}}), [[Suriya]] and [[Karthi]] ({{INRConvert|2.5|m|0}}), [[Vishal Krishna Reddy|Vishal]] ({{INRConvert|1|m|0}}), [[Dhanush]] ({{INRConvert|500000|0}}), [[Varun Tej]] ({{INRConvert|300000|0}}) and [[Sai Dharam Tej]] ({{INRConvert|300000|0}}, in food and medicines).<ref>{{Cite news|title=Rajinikanth donates Rs. 10 lakh for rain-hit Tamil Nadu|url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/regional/rajinikanth-donates-rs-10-lakh-for-rain-hit-tamil-nadu_1829240.html|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=ZeeNews|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> Telugu actors, including [[Ravi Teja]], [[N. T. Rama Rao Jr.]], [[Mahesh Babu]], [[Pawan Kalyan]], [[Prabhas]], and [[Rana Daggubati]] donated a further {{INRConvert|3|m|0}},<ref>{{Cite news|title=Telugu actors announce aid for flood victims|url=http://www.newkerala.com/news/2015/fullnews-157460.html|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=NewKerala|date=2 December 2015}}</ref> Actress [[Shriya Saran]] donated medical supplies to the affected regions in [[Chennai]] while also giving means for anyone to contribute supplies through her foundation Shree Spandana.<ref>{{Cite tweet |author=Shriya Saran |user=shriya1109 |number=674048054215970817 |date=7 December 2015 |title=Sending medicines for #ChenaiRainsHelp #ChennaiFloods from #Mumbai inbox me or tweet me if Mumbaikars wnt to contribute }}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet |author=Hrishikesh Kanna |user=HrishiKay |number=674451624971104256 |date=8 December 2015 |title=Beauty with a purpose @shriya1109 s #ShreeSpandanaFoundation is collecting medicines for #Chennai now @943RadioOne}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shriya Saran Bathroom Selfie Dominates her Charity for Chennai Floods|url=https://indread.com/20358/shriya-saran-bathroom-selfie-dominates-her-charity-for-chennai-floods|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211051433/http://indread.com/20358/shriya-saran-bathroom-selfie-dominates-her-charity-for-chennai-floods|url-status=usurped|archive-date=11 December 2015|access-date=9 December 2015|publisher=Indread|date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Shriya's Bathroom Pics Dominated Her Charity|url=http://www.gulte.com/movienews/44878/Shriyas-Bathroom-Pics-Dominated-Her-Charity|access-date=9 December 2015|publisher=Gulte|date=9 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Vijay donated 5 crore rupees to Chennai flood relief fund|url=http://www.onlookersmedia.in/latestnews/vijay-donated-5-crore-rupees-to-chennai-flood-relief-fund|access-date=2 December 2015|publisher=OnLookersMedia|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>

[[Saina Nehwal]] and [[Dipika Pallikal]] announced a donation of {{INRConvert|200000|0}} each for the flood victims.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Saina Nehwal to donate Rs 2 lakh for Tamil Nadu flood victims|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/saina-nehwal-to-donate-rs-2-lakh-for-tamil-nadu-flood-victims/story-A00d0u873pNwMyX55MoIlM.html|access-date=4 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=4 December 2015}}</ref> Retired Sri Lankan cricketers [[Kumar Sangakkara]] and [[Muttiah Muralitharan]] donated {{INRConvert |6.698|l|0}} and {{INRConvert |1|c|0}} respectively while Indian cricketer [[M.S. Dhoni]] donated {{INRConvert|7.5|m|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Cricketers Come in a Big Way For Chennai|url=http://www.gulte.com/sports/44770/Cricketers-Come-In-A-Big-Way-For-Chennai|access-date=6 December 2015|publisher=Gulte.com|date=5 December 2015}}</ref> Sex workers in the [[Ahmednagar district]] of Maharashtra donated {{INRConvert|100000}} towards flood relief efforts by using their savings and eating just one meal a day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/trending/this-is-serious/maharashtra-sex-workers-donate-rs-1-lakh-for-chennai-flood-aid/|title=Maharashtra sex workers donate Rs 1 lakh for Chennai flood aid|date=8 December 2015|work=The Indian Express|access-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> A group of Carnatic musicians including vocalists K.N. Shashikiran, [[Aruna Sairam]], [[P. Unnikrishnan]], [[Nirmala Rajasekar]], P. Ganesh and Thanjavur Murugaboopathi distributed food and supplies to families.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kolappan|first=B.|title=Musicians join hands|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/musicians-join-hands/article7956404.ece?topicpage=true&topicId=2063&ref=tpnews|access-date=7 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Film composer [[Anirudh Ravichander]] announced that proceeds from his ''Anirudh Live'' concert in [[Toronto]] would go to relief efforts in Chennai.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/Anirudh-Ravichander-dedicates-concert-to-Chennai-flood-victims/articleshow/50120912.cms |title=Anirudh Ravichander dedicates concert to Chennai flood victims |work=The Times of India |date=10 December 2015 |access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref> Amongst several tribute songs, actor [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] produced and directed a song titled "[[Spirit of Chennai]]" featuring several South Indian film actors and singers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/spirit-of-chennai-abhishek-bachchan-vikram-and-suriya-come-together-for-a-musical-tribute-to-the-city-302863-2016-01-08 |title=Spirit of Chennai: Abhishek Bachchan, Vikram and Suriya come together for a musical tribute to the city : Regional cinema, News |work=India Today |date=8 January 2016 |access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref>

==Aftermath==

By the end of December 2015, most hospitals in Chennai had wholly or partially restored services.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hamid|first=Zubeida|title=Medical services are back on track|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/medical-services-are-back-on-track/article8035849.ece?ref=tpnews|access-date=19 February 2016|work=The Hindu|date=28 December 2015}}</ref> State health authorities in Tamil Nadu reported post-flooding sanitation efforts had been successful, and that there had not been any flood-related outbreaks of disease.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hamid|first=Zubeida|title=No disease outbreak after floods, claim health officials |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/no-disease-outbreak-after-floods-claim-health-officials/article8127846.ece|access-date=19 February 2016|work=The Hindu|date=20 January 2016}}</ref> While floodwaters had largely receded by 19 December, areas of stagnant water covered parts of Tamil Nadu into January 2016, notably around Cuddalore and Tuticorin. Central government survey teams conducted studies on the extent on the flooding in early January.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Central team visits flood-hit areas of Tuticorin|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/central-team-visits-floodhit-areas-of-tuticorin/article8075266.ece|access-date=19 February 2016|work=The Hindu|date=7 January 2016}}</ref>

From 29 December 2015, the Tamil Nadu state government began a massive [[Slum clearance in India|slum clearance]] programme, demolishing dozens of illegally constructed dwellings in the [[Saidapet]] area of Chennai. Located along the banks of the [[Adyar River]], the area had been among those worst affected by the floods. The residents were rehoused in government housing being built in Okkiyam [[Thoraipakkam]] and [[Perumbakkam]]. The government further announced that the rehoused residents would receive an allowance of {{INRConvert|30|k|0}} a year to help them resettle. Medical care would be arranged, children would be enrolled in schools and vocational training would be provided for job-seekers.<ref name="removal">{{Cite news|title=Removal of huts along Adyar river begins |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/removal-of-huts-along-adyar-river-begins/article8043536.ece?ref=relatedNews|access-date=26 January 2016|work=The Hindu|date=30 December 2015}}</ref> Despite voicing concern over their ability to find new jobs, many of those resettled expressed satisfaction with the new flats.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Poorvaja|first=S.|title=The challenges of a fresh start |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-challenges-of-a-fresh-start/article8047091.ece?ref=relatedNews|access-date=26 January 2016|work=The Hindu|date=31 December 2015}}</ref> By March 2016, 4,100 families who had lived in the area had been resettled, and the city corporation had cleared away hundreds of illegally encroaching constructions, widening the Adyar River in Saidapet to 220 metres from its previous 50-metre width.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lopez|first=Aloysius|title=Encroachments cleared |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/encroachments-cleared/article8320214.ece|access-date=26 March 2016|work=The Hindu|date=6 March 2016}}</ref>

The Chennai Corporation said civic construction projects totalling {{INRConvert|4|b|0}} and halted by the floods would resume in earnest, and would be completed by 29 February 2016. The corporation also announced that damaged roads would quickly be re-paved and previously shelved storm drain projects would resume.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods aftermath: Work on civic projects on overdrive |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/work-on-civic-projects-on-an-overdrive/article8052318.ece|access-date=26 January 2016|work=The Hindu|date=1 January 2016}}</ref> By February 2016, repair work on the damaged boundary walls at Chennai International Airport had largely been completed. Based on the findings of a preliminary report submitted by an IIT-Madras research team, the [[Airports Authority of India]] (AAI) announced plans to conduct a full study of the causes of excessive flooding at the airport, along with plans to implement a comprehensive flood-management system; the study was expected to be completed by the end of 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sekhar|first=Sunitha|title=Study to analyse airport flooding in the pipeline|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/study-to-analyse-airport-flooding-in-the-pipeline/article8250442.ece|access-date=26 March 2016|work=The Hindu|date=18 February 2016}}</ref> In March 2016, Chennai's Water Resources Department began work to revitalise and repair reservoirs in Poondi, Cholavaram, Red Hills and Chembarambakkam. The project would include work to strengthen bunds, install flood warning systems and repair sluice gates; it was scheduled to be completed by the end of 2016, at a cost of {{INRConvert|130|m|0}}. Local NGOs and hydrology experts emphasised the continued need for a comprehensive action plan to protect urban water bodies, however.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lakshmi|first=K.|title=Work on sprucing up reservoirs starts |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/work-on-sprucing-up-reservoirs-starts/article8395155.ece|access-date=26 March 2016|work=The Hindu|date=25 March 2016}}</ref>

In [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|state legislative assembly elections]] in May 2016, the AIADMK was returned to power in Tamil Nadu, albeit with a reduced majority. The party lost eight seats to the opposing DMK in Chennai district and a further eight seats elsewhere; its losses were attributed to its perceived failure to properly address the flood crisis.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Did the floods drown AIADMK?|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/aiadmk-wins-just-six-seats-in-chennai/article8623878.ece|access-date=15 June 2016|work=The Hindu|date=20 May 2016}}</ref> On 16 June, K. Rosaiah, the governor of Tamil Nadu, announced the state government would soon develop comprehensive flood protection plans for Chennai and its surrounding coastal districts; he said the emphasis would be on providing better roads, storm water drains, solid waste management, sewerage management and street lights. The initiatives would be synergised with the Smart Cities Programme and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation scheme. Funding had also been obtained from the World Bank and from the Asian Development Bank for climate-change impact reduction initiatives, as well as for the restoration of water bodies and tanks.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Flood protection plan soon: Governor|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/flood-protection-plan-soon-says-tamil-nadu-governor/article8737817.ece|access-date=18 June 2016|work=The Hindu|date=16 June 2016}}</ref> As of July 2016, however, local citizens' groups said no constructive work had been done to rejuvenate local water bodies and that the effects of a similar north-east monsoon would have an equally destructive impact.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Will this monsoon be worse than Dec. 2015 floods?|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Will-this-monsoon-be-worse-than-Dec-2015-floods/2016/07/11/article3522838.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712123740/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Will-this-monsoon-be-worse-than-Dec-2015-floods/2016/07/11/article3522838.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 July 2016|access-date=15 July 2016|work=The New Indian Express|date=11 July 2016}}</ref>

In August 2016, a parliamentary panel recommended an immediate special relief and rehabilitation package for Tamil Nadu, in "consonance with the demand of the state." Observing a monetary estimate for flood-related damages in the state could total "thousands of crores", the panel's recommendations included a crackdown on criminals involved in illegal construction, a swift removal of illegal encroachments from flood channels and riverbeds, the preparation of a calamity map of all important cities and including "standard vulnerability indices", and a continued level of high vigilance by central and state authorities, notably by the Home Affairs Ministry and the National Disaster Management Authority.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Parliamentary panel bats for immediate relief for flood-hit TN|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Parliamentary-panel-bats-for-immediate-relief-for-flood-hit-TN/2016/08/13/article3577386.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814192151/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Parliamentary-panel-bats-for-immediate-relief-for-flood-hit-TN/2016/08/13/article3577386.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 August 2016|access-date=12 August 2016|work=The New Indian Express|date=12 August 2016}}</ref>

In response to harsh criticism of a severe lack of transparency and co-ordination during the crisis, the Tamil Nadu government developed a comprehensive disaster response plan, which was successfully implemented when [[Cyclone Vardah]] struck the state in December 2016; the plan effectively coordinated local, state and national relief efforts during and after the cyclone.<ref>{{Cite news|title=How Chennai took on cyclone Vardah|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/vardah-cyclone-tamil-nadu-chennai-how-chennai-took-on-vardah-4434202/|access-date=26 December 2016|work=The Indian Express|date=19 December 2016}}</ref> In February 2017, the Tamil Nadu government announced plans to desilt 12 waterbodies in Chennai at a cost of {{INRConvert|140|m|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=12 waterbodies in Chennai to be desilted|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/12-waterbodies-in-chennai-to-be-desilted/article17384096.ece|access-date=4 May 2017|work=The Hindu|date=1 March 2017}}</ref> In April, the Chennai city corporation began the process of mechanically desilting the city's canals and drains using imported recyclers and robotic excavators.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Corporation goes high-tech to clean up city's canals|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/corporation-goes-high-tech-to-clean-up-citys-canals/article18198317.ece|access-date=4 May 2017|work=The Hindu|date=24 April 2017}}</ref> Elsewhere in Tamil Nadu, 49 projects in Kancheepuram district to reclaim, revive and strengthen bunds and waterbodies were reported to be nearing completion, at a cost of {{INRConvert|47.65|m|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Waterbodies being revived at a cost of ₹476.5 lakh|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/waterbodies-being-revived-at-a-cost-of-4765-lakh/article18350614.ece|access-date=4 May 2017|work=The Hindu|date=2 May 2017}}</ref> In May 2017, the Tamil Nadu government inaugurated several flood protection and dam construction and rebuilding projects in Cuddalore district, which had been one of the worst-affected districts during the floods; the projects were estimated to cost {{INRConvert|1.4|b|0}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Foundation stone laid for five flood protection schemes in Cuddalore|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/foundation-stone-laid-for-five-flood-protection-schemes-in-cuddalore/articleshow/58573395.cms|access-date=4 June 2017|work=The Times of India|date=8 May 2017}}</ref> In June, representatives of the Chennai Water Resources Department said the department was developing an eight-year, {{INRConvert|12|b|0}} "master plan" to restore 18 major waterbodies in the Chennai metropolitan area.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Project to beef up lakes, prevent flooding|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/project-to-beef-up-lakes-prevent-flooding/article19158918.ece|access-date=19 July 2017|work=The Hindu|date=28 June 2017}}</ref>

==Analysis of causes==

===Unregulated urban planning and illegal construction===
Union Minister for Environment and Forests [[Prakash Javadekar]] termed the Chennai floods a "natural disaster of unappreciated scale", and said it provided lessons to improve urban planning and improve city governance. "Chennai gives a lesson, and we must learn from this lesson and improve our urban planning and improve city governance, which is very essential." He also criticised the Chennai Corporation for not having done enough "to remove all encroachments. Unless you allow the drains to flow freely to the sea, water will be clogged and that is what has unfortunately happened."<ref name="javadekar">{{Cite news|title=Chennai rains a 'natural disaster of unprecedented scale': Javadekar|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/prakash-javadekar-says-chennai-rains-are-a-natural-disaster-of-unprecedented-scale/article7949452.ece|access-date=4 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>

[[Sunita Narain]], the director of the [[Centre for Science and Environment]] (CSE) [[think tank]], said the unprecedented floods in the Chennai metropolitan region were the direct result of unregulated urbanisation. According to Narain, "our [[urban sprawl]]s such as Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Srinagar, etc., have not paid adequate attention to the natural water bodies that exist in them. In Chennai, each of its lakes has a natural flood discharge channel which drains the spillover. But we have built over many of these water bodies, blocking the smooth flow of water. We have forgotten the art of drainage. We only see land for buildings, not for water."<ref name="unregulated">{{Cite news|last=Vasudeva|first=Vikas|title=Unregulated urbanisation to blame for Chennai flooding: CSE experts|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/unregulated-urbanisation-to-blame-for-chennai-flooding-cse-experts/article7945813.ece|access-date=3 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=3 December 2015}}</ref> According to research conducted by CSE, Chennai had over 600 lakes in the 1980s, but a master plan published in 2008 showed only a fraction of them to be in a healthy condition. State records have shown the total area of 19 major lakes shrank from 1,130 hectares in the 1980s to around 645 hectares in the early 2000s, reducing their storage capacity.<ref name="unregulated"/>

===Improper design and maintenance of drainage systems===
Media reports stated the [[Chennai Corporation]] had ignored September warnings of above-average monsoonal rains issued by the [[India Meteorological Department]], and that extensive and costly projects begun in 2013 to desilt city storm drains had been ineffectively conducted. The drains themselves were reported to have been shoddily built and improperly designed.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Highest rainfall in 10 years washes away Chennai's expensive drainage, desilting projects|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/highest-rainfall-in-10-years-washes-away-chennais-expensive-drainage-desilting-projects/|access-date=18 November 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=17 November 2015}}</ref> Drains carrying surplus water from tanks to other wetlands had also been encroached upon, while city storm water drains were clogged and required immediate desilting. Chennai has only 855 km of stormwater drains against 2,847 km of urban roads, resulting in flooding after even a marginally heavy downpour.<ref name="unregulated"/> A 2015 [[Comptroller and Auditor General of India|CAG]] report revealed that a diversion channel from the [[Buckingham canal]] near Okkiyum Maduvu to the sea (a drain project under the JNNURM scheme) could have saved South Chennai from flooding; the government, however, dropped the ₹1 billion scheme, which, had it been completed, would have drained floodwater from southern neighbourhood at a rate of 3,500 cubic feet per second. The 2015 CAG report said the defective planning of flood control projects caused delays and increased costs, defeating the objective of the scheme. "The fact is that alleviation of inundation of flood water in Chennai city remains largely unachieved", it said.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Flood: Chennai corpn learned little from CAG advice|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Flood-Chennai-corpn-learned-little-from-CAG-advice/articleshow/49852204.cms|access-date=25 November 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=20 November 2015}}</ref>

===Climate-change related===
Union [[Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change|Environment and Forests Minister]] [[Prakash Javadekar|Javadekar]] said the exact causes of the flooding – whether the result of climate change or stemming from other causes – remained in "a grey area" as experts had differing opinions. Regarding the current floods, he said the United Nations would not deem the evidence conclusive enough to be able to reach a judgment. "One thing is sure, climate change brings such disasters more frequently. So [the] frequency, [the] ferocity of untimely rains increases, [along with] erratic monsoons, droughts and floods; all these are caused [by climate change]." he said.<ref name="javadekar"/> He subsequently clarified his position on the Tamil Nadu floods in a written statement addressed to the [[Rajya Sabha]]. According to Javadekar, the recent extreme rainfall across the region was "highly localised" and could not be definitively attributed to the effects of climate-change. "[The] extreme rainfall that occurred over [the] coastal districts of Tamil Nadu is part of the natural variability of the Indian monsoon system. Although some studies have reported an increase in frequency and intensity of extremes in rainfall during the past 40–50 years, their attribution to global warming is not established." Javadekar said the [[Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) and local assessments have indicated that extreme rainfall events will likely increase in frequency by the end of the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tamil Nadu rain 'highly localised' event, no link with global warming: Javadekar tells RS|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-rain-highly-localised-event-no-link-with-global-warming/article8014383.ece|access-date=21 December 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=21 December 2015}}</ref>

In 2006, a study by the [[Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology]] (IITM) in Pune showed extreme precipitation events had increased in frequency and intensity in India over the period from 1950 to the 2000s; while CSE's climate change experts recommend detailed attribution studies to establish more links between the Chennai floods and climate change, they did state that existing scientific studies establish a possible connection.<ref name="unregulated"/>

==Controversies==

===Inadequate response of authorities===
Many flood victims across Chennai and Tamil Nadu protested ineffectual response and the lack of help from authorities. In the chief minister's state assembly constituency of [[Radhakrishnan Nagar Assembly constituency|Radhakrishnan Nagar]], flood victims heckled senior ministers Natham Viswanathan, Sellur Raju and Gokul Indira following their visit on 4 December, forcing them to make a hasty retreat. At a subsequent press conference, Tamil Nadu Power Minister Natham Viswanathan and chief secretary Gnanadesikan claimed that relief and rescue work were in full swing and "extraordinary". Viswanathan deflected opposition criticism of relief efforts as politically motivated, in light of upcoming assembly elections. He claimed people in even the worst-affected localities had refused to leave their homes and had accepted only food relief from official agencies.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Jaya photo on relief packages, Bahubali reference irk Chennaites |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/jaya-photo-on-relief-packages-bahubali-reference-irk-chennaites/story-uuUv65tmvnqnxtbCj4iRVN.html|access-date=5 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=5 December 2015}}</ref>

Following a statement by Chief Minister Jayalalithaa that the flooding had been the result of exceptional rainfall, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) issued a strong criticism on 16 November, stating that the flooding in Chennai could have been averted if local and state officials had taken strong precautions. The state BJP president, [[Tamilisai Soundararajan]], said: "Even if it was six months of rain on a single day, the administration should have been ready to tackle it." Tamilisai mentioned the cleaning and de-silting of the [[Cooum]] River would allow it to divert large amounts of runoff during the monsoons.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Govt. did not take precautions: BJP |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/govt-did-not-take-precautions-bjp/article7885641.ece|access-date=18 November 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 November 2015}}</ref>

In North Chennai area, residents staged protests and criticised the government for its lack of any rescue response in their locality.<ref name="flee"/> In Puducherry, AIADMK legislator A Anbazhagan said that the government was not providing relief to affected people and had not taken any precautions, contrary to the government's assurances; he added the administration failed to promptly mobilise various essential departments and urged the territorial administration to carefully prepare a report to ensure delivery of relief to those affected.<ref name="flays"/> Jet Skis and SUV vehicles were used in places like Anna Nagar to aid the people in mobility due to the high water level. Following numerous complaints regarding the Tamil Nadu state government's lack of relief effort co-ordination, a [[public-interest litigation]] petition was filed in the [[Madras High Court]]; on 11 December, Chief Justice S.K. Kaul and Justice Puspha Sathyanarayana heard the petition and converted it to ''[[suo moto]]'' proceedings. The justices directed the state government to report its relief-effort co-ordination measures to the court by 16 December.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Sureshkumar|title=HC seeks details of coordination in flood relief work by December 16|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-floods-madras-high-court-seeks-details-of-coordination-in-relief-work-by-december-16/article7977992.ece|access-date=13 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=12 December 2015}}</ref>

After the Tamil Nadu government announced a flood-relief package on 7 December, many flood survivors criticised it as meagre and "insulting." DMK leader [[M.K. Stalin]] said the state's financial assistance of {{INRConvert|5|k|0}} for each displaced family "would not be of much help to the people."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Flood-hit people call Jaya's Rs 5,000–10,000 financial aid an 'insult' |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/jaya-s-flood-relief-package-is-an-insult-chennai-residents/story-bFw1G3kRlhFN1u3Sr5qT8N.html |access-date=8 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> A survey conducted in the worst-affected districts of Chennai by a group of volunteer organisations between 15 and 30 December found that most families had lost their sources of livelihood, and that the amount of financial assistance was insufficient. Lacking ration cards, migrant workers were the worst off, as they were ineligible for any assistance. Many residents in those areas complained the authorities had insufficiently taken measures to prepare for the floods.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Flood-hit people need more relief|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/floodhit-people-need-more-relief/article8104337.ece|access-date=19 February 2016|work=The Hindu|date=14 January 2016}}</ref>

The [[National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights]] (NCDHR) and the Social Awareness Society for Youths (SASY) surveyed 8,400 [[Dalit]] and non-Dalit families in 20 villages in the [[Cuddalore]] region in December 2015 and found that around 90 percent of the houses, livestock and crops destroyed in the floods belonged to Dalit families, who made up the majority of flood-displaced people. The final report alleged dominant [[caste]] people blocked access to clean water, medicines; official relief measures were concentrated in more accessible upper-caste neighbourhoods. On average, a majority of Dalit settlements were located only 1.5 km from rivers, canals and the sea and most primary health centres were located in dominant caste neighbourhoods and were, on average, three km from Dalit settlements.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Dalits suffered more than others in flood-hit Cuddalore: Report |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/dalits-suffered-more-than-others-in-flood-hit-cuddalore-report/story-TQfazyjyzWfD2tUjZ6qJyM.html|access-date=7 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=7 December 2015}}</ref>

===Criticism of AIADMK===
The [[AIADMK]] received heavy public criticism following reports of party workers pasting photographs of party leader and Tamil Nadu chief minister [[Jayalalithaa]] on relief materials, erecting banners and posters praising her, allegedly halting relief shipments en route to Chennai to paste her photos on relief packages and threatening volunteers. These incidents were reported mostly in Chennai and Cuddalore.<ref>{{Cite web|author=dna Web Team |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-chennai-floods-relief-materials-allegedly-being-allowed-only-after-carrying-jayalalithaa-stickers-2152334 |title=Chennai floods: AIADMK denies allegations of relief materials being allowed only after carrying Jayalalithaa stickers & Updates at Daily News & Analysis |work=Daily News and Analysis |date=5 December 2015 |access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=As Chennai battles floods, 'Amma' Jayalalithaa makes appearance as Sivagami of Bahubali|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/tamil-nadu/jayalalithaas-bahubali-like-poster-emerges-amid-heavy-flooding-in-chennai-see-pic_1830317.html|access-date=5 December 2015|work=Zee News|date=4 December 2015|location=Chennai}}</ref> In one incident caught on video and widely broadcast on Tamil television, an AIADMK functionary mouthing expletives and accompanied by henchmen was seen intimidating volunteers from Bengaluru who were preparing food in Anna Nagar for distribution to flood-affected people; the cadre demanded 2,000 relief packets so he could be seen distributing them.<ref name="cadre">{{Cite news|last=Naig|first=Udhav|title=AIADMK cadre confronts volunteers distributing relief |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/aiadmk-cadre-confront-volunteers-distributing-relief/article7959682.ece|access-date=9 December 2015|work=The Hindu|date=8 December 2015}}</ref> The party also released a poem on social media praising Jayalalithaa despite near-universal condemnation of government relief efforts.<ref name="paen">{{Cite news|title=AIADMK sings paeans to Amma, rivals slam timing |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/AIADMK-sings-paeans-to-Amma-rivals-slam-timing/articleshow/50069312.cms|access-date=9 December 2015|work=The Times of India|date=7 December 2015}}</ref>

In response to the mounting criticism, an AIADMK party official said the media was distorting events and attempting to smear the party before the upcoming assembly elections; however, he promised the party would take strict action against those obstructing relief work.<ref name="cadre"/> CPI (Marxist) leader U Vasuki said, "The whole state is in crisis. This is not the right time to shower praise. Moreover, the state [government] has not done anything commendable to [merit] praise [of its] relief efforts. The timing of such propaganda is shocking."<ref name="paen"/>

===Media controversies===
In Tamil Nadu, partisan television channels associated with the ruling [[AIADMK]] and the opposing [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] political parties were criticised for using the disaster for their own political purposes. Also, several claimed that the political parties obstructed the flood relief efforts of the volunteers for their own gains.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tamil Nadu floods: Parties score points through TV reports |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/tamil-nadu-floods-parties-score-points-through-tv-reports/story-lCQcZwo3NXQS8XCTPUc74J.html|access-date=18 November 2015|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=18 November 2015}}</ref> National media outlets were widely criticised on social media for failing to adequately report on the flood crisis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/chennaifloods-social-media-users-slam-news-media-poor-flood-coverage-657747 |title=#ChennaiFloods: Social media users slam news media for poor flood coverage |publisher=Ibtimes.co.in |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref> On 2 December, the government Press Information Bureau (PIB) released an edited photo showing the Prime Minister looking down from an aircraft window which was removed after criticism.<ref name="mockery">{{Cite news|title=Chennai floods: Edited Modi photo sparks online mockery|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34991822|access-date=4 December 2015|publisher=BBC News|date=4 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=PIB 'regrets' modifying PM Modi's Chennai aerial survey photo|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/pib-regrets-manipulating-pm-s-chennai-aerial-survey-photo/story-wxzy28bYKXllOIK3mtueBL.html|access-date=4 December 2015|work=Hindustan Times|date=4 December 2015}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.fatalflawlit.com/essay-pieces/before-you-know-it Essay - Before You Know It ]

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{{Disasters in India in 2015}}
{{Major Cities of Andhra Pradesh}}

{{Chennai topics}}
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List of villages in Siwan district

2026-02-25T11:17:31Z

Khorang: revised

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2022}}

[[Siwan district]] of [[Bihar]], [[India]] comprises only one sub-division, Siwan, which is divided into 19 Blocks and has a total of 1,530 villages. There are 95 uninhabited villages (out of 1,530 total villages) in the district of Siwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Census handbook of Siwan district |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/1016_PART_B_DCHB_SIWAN.pdf |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=15 February 2022 }}</ref>

This is list of villages of [[Siwan district]] according to respective blocks.<ref>{{cite web |title=Census of India Website: Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Listofvillagesandtowns.aspx |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=14 February 2022}}</ref>
{{Horizontal TOC}}

== Andar ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Ailashgarh Khas
# Amnaura
# Andar
# Arakpur
# Arazi Barwa
# Asaon
# Balia
# Bangra
# Belahi
# Bhaurajpur
# Bhitauli
# Bikrampur Diara
# Chandauli
# Chhajwa
# Chitaur
# Dehunra
# Deuriya
# Dharamkhor
# Diara Ailashgarh Naubarar
# Diara Maniara Tukra 1
# Doaen
# Fatehpur
# Fazilpur
# Fazilpur Deuriya
# Gahilapur
# Gaura
# Ghataila
# Hakma Hata
# Hujhujipur
# Jaijor
# Jamalpur
# Kanhpakar
# Katwar
# Khardara
# Khartari urf Hariram chak
# Kherhai
# Khodai chak
# Kismat Barwa
# Kodaila
# Mahaji Gondauni
# Mahammadpur
# Manpur Pateji
# Masudaha
# Mirpur
# Modassilpur
# Moglanipur
# Nahuni
# Pachokhar
# Pandapali
# Parari Lachchhiram
# Pareji
# Patar
# Pateji
# Pipra
# Pirari Khemraj
# Rakauli
# Rakauli Khap
# Sadalpur
# Sahsaraon
# Salahpur
# Sanchipur
# Siuri
# Sonkara Auwal
# Sonkara sani
# Sultanpur
# Tiae
# Utarwar
{{div col end}}

== Barharia ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Ahirni
# Alampur
# Alapur
# Asapur
# Athkhambha
# Aurai
# Babhan Bara
# Babu Hata
# Babu Hata
# Badarzamin
# Bahadurpur
# Bahuara qadir
# Balapur
# Bangra
# Bangra Buzurg
# Barahpur
# Barharia
# Barsara
# Bhabhopali
# Bhaday
# Bhagwanpur
# Bhalua
# Bhalui
# Bhaluwara
# Bhelpur
# Bhimpur
# Bhopatpur
# Bishambharpur
# Bishunpura
# Chain Chhapra
# Chainpur Alinagar
# Chak Pararauna
# Chandan Chhapra
# Chanri
# Chap Kanhauli
# Chaukihasan Chauki Makhdum
# Chhaka Tola
# Chhatisi
# Daniayl-pur
# Dhanaon
# Dharajpur
# Dumri
# Enaetchhapra
# Fakhrudinpur
# Gambhir Hata
# GhausiAhata
# Girddharpur
# Gopalpur
# Habibpur
# Hardiya
# Hardo Bara
# Hariharpur Lalgarh
# Harpur
# Hathgain
# Indauli Khas
# Indauli Siraj
# Jagarnathpur
# Jagatpur
# Jagdishpur
# Jiadi Tola
# Jogapur
# Kail
# Kaluchhapra
# Kanahar
# Kanhauli
# Khanpur
# Khizar Chak
# Khori Pakar Jaddi
# Khori Pakar Nilami
# Koiri Tola
# Kuahi
# Kurwa
# Kurwa
# Kutub Chhapra
# Lachhmi Chak
# Lakri
# Lakri Dargah
# Lala Hata
# Lauan
# [[Madhopur, Siwan | Madhaupur]]
# Mahal
# Mahamadpur
# Mahammadpur
# Mahbub Chhapra
# Mahmudpur
# Mananpura
# Mansahata
# Mathia Patarhatha
# Mathurapur
# Mira Chhapra
# Narharpur
# Nasir Chhapra
# Nasopur Saraia
# Nawalpur
# Nirkhi Chhapra
# Paharpur
# Paintalis
# Pakri
# Pakri Sultan
# Pakwalya
# Paltu Hata
# Panrwa
# Paranpur
# Pararauna
# Patarhatha
# Patti Bhalua
# Piprahi
# Puraina
# Qismat Surwalia
# Rachho Pali
# Raghunathpur
# Rampur
# Ranipur
# Rasulpur
# Rohara
# Rudar Hata
# Sadarpur
# Sahba Chak
# Salahpur
# Sanwalhata
# Sauna
# Shampur
# Shekhpura
# Siari
# Siari Khurd
# Sikandarpur
# Siswa
# Siurajpur
# Siurajpur
# Sundarpur
# Surahia
# Surahia
# Surwalia
# Tetahli
# Tilbhiriya Kalam
# Tilbhiriya Khurd
# Tilsandi
# Tilsandi
# Usri
# Usuri Indauli
# Wasilpur
{{div col end}}

== Basantpur ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Babhnauli
# Bagaha
# Bagahi
# Balthara
# Barhoga Khurd
# Barwa Kalan
# Barwa Khurd
# Basantpur
# Basaon
# Bishunpura
# Dhanaua
# Haraypur
# Hari Aman
# Hussepur
# Jankinagar
# Kanhauli
# Karahi Kalan
# Karahi Khurd
# Karahi Mathia
# Khori Pakar
# Kukumpur
# Laheji
# Mathia
# Molnapur
# Murwar
# Nagauli
# Rajapur
# Rampur
# Sahar Kola
# Sahilpatti
# Sarea Sirikant
# Sekhpura
# Semardah
# Seria
# Shampur
# Shampur Khap
# Sipah
# Sonurukha
# Surajpura
# Usri
# Usuri
{{div col end}}

== Bhagwanpur Hat ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Aiman Shankarpur
# Arazi Balaha
# Arazi Nagwa
# Aruan
# Badarzamin
# Bagahi
# Bahadurpur
# Bakhtauli
# Balaha
# Bankajua
# Bankat
# Banpura
# Bansohi
# Baramh Asthan
# Barka Gaon
# Bhagwanpur Hat
# Bherwanian
# Bhikhampur
# Bhikhampur
# Bilaspur
# Bira Bankat
# Birt Bagahi
# Bithuna
# Chainpur
# Chaiyan Pali
# Chakbirdi
# Chakia
# Chakia tola
# Chaurasi
# Chokmunda
# Chorauli
# Chorauli Banwe
# Chorman
# Dehri
# Dharamraj
# Dhonrhpur
# Dilshadpur
# Gaziapur
# Gobinapur
# [[Goiyanar | Goiya Nar]]
# Gopalpur
# Hasanpura
# Hilsanr
# Hilsanr tola
# Hulsara
# Jagdishpur
# Jalpurwa
# Juaphar
# Juaphar tola
# Junedpur
# Kauriya
# Khapkat
# Kherhwa
# Konrar
# Korigawan
# Machhagra
# Madar Khurd
# Maghri
# Mahammadpur
# Mahna
# Mairi Dalip
# Mairi Makhsuspur
# Mairi Sudama
# Makhdumpur
# Manan Patti
# Manrar Kalan
# Matanpura
# Mira Hata
# Mirjumla
# Mirzapur Bahiyara
# Mohamda
# Morakhap
# Morakhas
# Mundipur
# Munra
# Naduwa
# Nagwa
# Nauwa tola
# Paniya Dih
# Piprahia
# Rajapur
# Rampur
# Rampur
# Rampur Digar
# Rampur Digar
# Rampur Khas
# Rampur Khas
# Rampur Lauwa
# Rasulpur
# Ratan Panrauli
# Ratan Panrauli
# Ratauli
# [[Sadiha]]
# Saghar Sultanpur
# Sahsa
# Sahsaraon
# Sajot
# Salempur
# Salempur
# Sani Bagahi
# Sankri
# Sarahri
# Saray Panrauli
# Sarea
# Saripatti
# Shankarpur
# Singhauli
# Sipar
# Sonbarsa
# Sonhani
# Sughri
# Suhpur
# Sultanpur
# Tarwar
{{div col end}}

== Darauli ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Agsara
# Amarpur
# Babhnauli
# Balahu
# Bali punak
# Balia
# Bandhai
# Barheya punak
# Basuapur
# Bauna
# Belaon
# Belsui
# Bharsanda
# Bhitauli
# Bhothia
# Bilak
# Biswania
# Chakri
# Chandaur
# Daraili
# [[Darauli]]
# Diara Harnatanr
# Diara Darauli
# Diara Maniar Tukra II
# Diara Maniar Tukra I
# Diara Mohazi Kashidatta
# Diara Nauabad
# Diara kashidat
# Diyara Keotalia
# Diyara Mauza Amarpur
# Dobhia
# Don Buzurg
# Don Khurd
# Duba
# Dumarahar Buzurg
# Dumarahar Khurd
# Dumarahar Khurd Diara
# Dumrahar Diara
# Extension of Bilak Diara
# Gangpalia
# Garden
# [[Gauri, Siwan | Gauri]]
# [[Gauri, Siwan | Gauri]]
# Gopalpur
# Gosopali
# Gumawar
# Harnatanr
# Harnatanra
# Hathauri
# Indrak Chak
# Kanaila
# Kanhauli
# Karanpura
# Karmaha
# Karmaul
# Karnai
# Karom
# Kasihari
# Kasila pachbenian
# Kewtalia
# Khairati Udho
# Khairati Dalip
# Khap punak Buzurg
# Khap Pataua
# Khap Punak Buzurg
# Khor
# Kishunpali
# Kumhti
# Lachhuman chak
# Lenja
# Loharpura
# Lokaichhapra
# Mahpalwa
# Mahuja
# Majhaulia
# Marera
# Mathia
# Mathia Punak Buzurg
# Misraulia
# Munjwania
# Munra
# Mura Khap
# Murakaramwar
# Narauli
# Narayanpur
# Nepura
# Netwar
# Oini
# Parasia
# Parmanandpur
# Pataua Buzurg
# Paterha
# Patkhauli
# Pihuli
# Piprahia
# Punak Buzurg
# Rahtawa
# Ram Punak
# Ramnagar Kakaria Dih
# Rampur
# Rampur
# Rampurudho
# Repura
# Sahjaniya
# Saraharwa
# Sarea
# Sarna
# Sham Bodi
# Sobhan Chak
# Sonbarsa
# Tanrwa
# Tariwan
# Tariwani
# Tiar
# Ukrenri
{{div col end}}

== Daraundha ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Abhui
# Bagaura
# Bahgra
# Baidapur
# Baldih
# Baluhi
# Bangali Bharauli
# Bela
# Beldari tola
# Bhadia
# Bhikhaban
# Bhusi
# Birti tola
# Bishunpura
# Chakri
# Chherahi
# Chintamanpur
# Dahkani
# Daunchhapra
# Dhebar
# Dibi
# Dipni
# Dumri
# Duraundha
# Fatehpur
# Gobindapur
# Harsa toli
# Harsar
# Hathopur
# Inda
# Jagdishpur
# Jalalpur
# Jhajhawa
# Kamsara
# Karsaut
# Katwar
# Khamhoura
# Kharsara
# Kolhua
# Korari Kalan
# Korari Khurd
# Koror
# Kothuasaranpur
# Machhauta
# Machhauti
# Madari Chak
# Mahachawar
# Manchha
# Marsara
# Mathia
# Mathia
# Milki Madhwapur
# Mirachak
# Mundaram Chhapra
# Nanda tola
# Pachhwari Harsar
# Pakwalia
# Panrepur
# Pasiwarh
# Pawat
# Phalpura
# Pipra
# Pirarthu Kalan
# Pirarthu Khurd
# Raini
# Rajapur
# Ramgarha
# Ramsapur
# Rangrauli
# Ranibari
# Rasulpur
# Rukundipur
# Sadhpur
# Sahdauli
# Satjora
# Sherpur
# Sirsaon
# Siwan Bigrah
# Talkhiro
# Terha
# Ujaen
# Usti
{{div col end}}

== Goriakothi ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Ageyan
# Bahadurpur
# Bahopur
# Barari
# Bardaha
# Barhoga Gangaram
# Barhoga Jaddu
# Barhoga Parsotim
# Bazidpur
# Bhalui
# Bhithi
# Bindwal
# Birti tola
# Chainpur
# Chanauli
# [[Chachopali | Chanchopali]]
# Chandpur
# Chhitauli Kalan
# Chhitauli Khurd
# Chithai
# Dagri Mathia
# Dichhitpur
# Dudhra
# Dumra
# Gobindapur
# Gohuan
# Gopalpur
# Gopalpur
# Gorea Kothi
# [[Goriakothi | Goria Kothi]]
# Hariharpur Kalan
# Hariharpur Khurd
# Harpur
# Hetimpur
# Heyatpur
# Jagarnathpur
# Jagdishpur
# Jagdishpur
# Jalalpur
# Jamo
# Jangal belas
# Kaleanpur
# Karanpura
# Karpalia
# Khagni
# Khulasa
# Laka tola
# Laka tola
# Lala Hata
# Lilaru Aurangabad
# Lilaru Habib
# Mahammadpur
# Mahammadpur
# Majhaulia
# Mathia
# Meghwar
# Mirzapur
# Mustafabad
# Nautan
# Pachpakaria Padumpatti
# Pachpakaria Tulsi
# Pachpatia
# Pahlejpur
# Pipra
# Purandarpur
# Rampur
# Sadipur
# Saidpura
# [[Sani Basantpur]]
# Sarari
# Sarea
# Sathwar
# Satwar
# Sauna
# Shekhpura
# Sherpur
# Shiurajpur
# Sisai
# Sultanpur Kalan
# Sultanpur Khurd
# Tola Jalalpur
{{div col end}}

== Guthani ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Arazi Ekbari
# Arazi Ekwari
# Arazi Inglish
# Arazi Inglish
# Bahelia
# Bahelia
# [[Bakulari]]
# Balua
# Bangra
# Barpalia
# Basuhari
# Bauri
# Belaur
# Belauri
# Bhagwanpur
# Bhalua
# Bhalui
# Bharauli
# Bhathahi
# Bhulauli
# Bihari Buzurg
# Bihari Khurd
# Bishunpura
# Biswar
# Chain Chhapra
# Chakia
# Chaumukha Kalan
# Chaumukha Khurd
# Chilamarwa
# Chiraua
# Chit Bisraon
# Chitakhal
# Chorbharia
# Damodra
# Danraila
# Darzi Chak
# Deuria
# Dhanauti
# Dharampur
# Dhaula
# Ekwari
# Gareria
# Geyaspur
# Goharua
# Gothini
# Harpur
# Jamuaon
# [[Jataur]]
# Jhajhaur
# Kaleyani
# Karamdaha
# Kareji
# Kelharua
# Khap Jataur
# Khap Lebhri
# Khap Misraulia
# Kharaunti
# Kharkharia
# Khilwa
# Khirauli
# Kishunpura
# Kunresar
# Kurmauli
# Kurmha
# Lachhmipur
# Mairitanr
# Mairitanr Diara
# Majhawalia
# Malchaur
# Mamaur
# Mian Gondi
# Misir Chhapara
# Misrauli
# Nainijor
# Odikhor
# Olia
# Pachnerua
# Pachnerui
# Pachnerui
# Panre Gondi
# Panrepar
# Parari
# Pataua Khurd
# Pataua Lakhraj
# Piparpanti
# Rewasi
# Rimafat Chhapra
# Samatanr
# Sarea
# Sarphora
# Selaur
# Sirkarpur
# Sohagra
# Sohrai
# Sonahula
# Surwar Gondi
# Tali Buzurg
# Tali Khurd
# Talidal Chand
# Tanrwa Khurd
# Tanrwa Tiwari
# Tarka
# Tekania
# Tendua
# Thegwalia
{{div col end}}

== Hasanpura ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Aranda
# Arjal
# Banri Sarai
# Basantnagar
# Bhekhpurwa
# Bishambharpur
# Chak Damri
# Chakiya
# Chandparsa
# Deipur
# Dhanauti
# [[Dibi, Siwan|Dibi]]
# Gay Ghat
# Hamid Chak
# Harpur
# Harpur Kotwa
# Hasanpura
# Jalalpur
# Jalalpur
# Jalalpur
# Jhaua
# Kabilpura
# Kabiruddin Chak
# Karmansi
# Khajepur Kalan
# Khajepur Khurd
# Kohrauta
# [[Laheji, Siwan|Laheji]]
# Laram Chak
# Madhwapur
# Madhwapur
# Mahual
# Malahidih
# Mandrapali
# Mandrauli
# Mathia Bachangir
# [[Merahi]]
# Mitwar
# Mohmudpur
# Nizampur
# [[Pakari Bihar|Pakari]]
# Parari
# Parauli
# Parsa Harnatanr
# Pasiwarh
# Phalpura
# Piaur
# Pipra
# Puraina
# Rafipur
# Rajanpura
# Rasulpur
# Rukni Urf Manchha Khap
# Sahuli
# Semri
# Shahabaz Chak
# Shekhpura
# Shekhpurwa
# Suraiya
# Tanrila
# Tanrwa
# Telkathu
# Ujraha
# Usri Buzurg
# Usri Khurd
{{div col end}}

== Hussainganj ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Baghauni
# Bali
# Bararam
# Bindwal
# Chak Hazi
# Chanp
# Chhapiya Buzurg
# Chhapiya Khurd
# Chhata
# Darweshpur
# Dhankhar
# [[Faridpur Village | Faridpur]]
# Fazilpur
# Gopalpur
# Gosopali
# Habibnagar
# Harihans
# Hasanpurwa
# [[Hathaura Siwan | Hathaura]]
# Hathauri
# Jurkan
# Karhanu
# Khajrauni
# [[Khanpur Khairanti]]
# Kharsara
#khodai Bari
# Machakna
# Mahpur
# Mahual
# Markan
# Nathpur
# Nawalpur
# Paighambarpur
# Pakaulia
# Partappur
# Rashid Chak
# Rasulpur
# Renua
# Salonepur
# Sarea
# Shahbazpur
# Sidhaul
# Singarpatti
# Sonahula
# Surapur
# Tetaria
# Tikri

{{div col end}}

== Lakri Nabiganj ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Adharpur
# Babnauli
# Bahgra
# Bajarmara
# Bala
# Baldiha
# Barwa Dumri
# Basauli
# Bazidpur
# Bhada Khurd
# Bhopatpur Bharthia
# Dabchhu
# Dumra
# Gopalpur
# Imadpur
# Indauli
# Jagatpur
# Jalalpur
# Kapripur
# Khawaspur
# Khusal Dumri
# Kishunpura
# Lakhanaura
# Lakri
# Madarpur
# Marachi
# Munsepur
# Musahari
# Narharpur
# Pakri
# Parauli
# Saidpur
# Sikatia
# Siktia Khap
# Talimapur
# Talimapur
# Talimapur Birt
# Taya Dumri
# Telia
# Ujjaina
{{div col end}}

== Maharajganj ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Aphrad
# Bagauchha
# Bagauchha Khurd
# Bajrahia
# Balau
# Balia
# Baliapatti
# Bangra
# Bangra
# Barahia tola
# Bhajua
# Bishunpur Mahuari
# Bishunpura
# Chak Mahmuda
# Chandpur
# Chhotka Teghra
# Dalpatpur
# Dareji
# Deuriya
# Dhanchhuha
# Dhanpura
# Dhobwalia
# Gaur
# Gaur
# Gaur Kathak
# Gaur Rauza
# Gohpur
# Hahwa
# Hajipurwa
# Harkeshpur
# Higauli
# Itahari
# Jagdishpur
# Jagdishpur
# Jalalpur
# Jigrawn
# Kalyanpur
# Kas Deura
# Khamhauri
# Khapura Khanpur
# Kheduchhapra
# Lerua
# Madhopur
# Madhopur
# [[Maharajganj, Siwan | Maharajganj (NP)]]
# Manpur
# Mardanpur
# Misraulia
# Nautan
# Pakaulia
# Paterha
# Phalpura
# Pipra Kalan
# Pipra Khurd
# Pokhra
# Rahia
# Ratanpura
# Risaura
# Sarangpur
# Sarea
# Shahganj
# Shahpur
# Shakra
# Shiude
# Sikandarpur
# Siktia
# Sonbarsa
# Surbir
# Takipur
# Teghra
# Teotha
# Ushuri
{{div col end}}

== Mairwa ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Arazi Inglish
# Atwa
# Babhnauli
# Bhalua
# Baraso
# Bargaon
# Barka Manjha
# Bedauli
# [[Bilaspur, Bihar | Belaspur]]
# Bhopatpura
# Bishunpura
# Chakri
# Chakia
# Chitmath
# Chup Chupwa
# Dhamaur
# Dharahra
# Dharni Chhapra
# Dhusa
# Domdih
# Dumar Chhapra
# English
# Ghansham Mathia
# Gopal Chak
# Harnathpur
# Kabirpur
# Kabita
# Kaithaulia
# Karjania
# Khap Siswa
# Kolhuwa Dargah
# Kuldipa
# Labhri
# Lachhimipur
# Lashkari Chhapra
# [[Mairwa | Mairwa (NP)]]
# Mathia
# Muriyari
# Narahiya
# Nawada
# Parasia
# Parasia Khurd
# Patkhauli
# Pharchhua
# Pharchhuhi
# Pipra
# Semra
# Seni Chhapra
# Sewtapur
# [[Sirisiya | Sirsia]]
# Siswa Buzurg
# Siswa Khurd
# Sitalpura
# Sumeri Chhapra
# Surad Sahi
# Ugarsen Chhapra
{{div col end}}

== Nautan ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Agaunta
# Balua
# Balwa
# Bara Shikuara
# Baraipatti
# Basdewa
# Bishambharpur
# Bishunpura
# Dewan Chak
# Galimapur
# Gamhirpur
# Gandharpa
# Gobardhana
# Harpur
# Hathaunji
# Jagdishpur
# Khalwa
# Khap Bankat
# Khap Misrauli
# Kilpur
# Kilpur
# [[Kurmauta]]
# Marachhi
# Mathia
# Misir Chak
# Misrauli khas
# Murarpatti
# Narayanpur
# Narayanpur
# Narkatia
# [[Nautan]]
# Partappur
# Pipra
# Qadir Chak
# Rahimpur
# Ramgarh
# Rampur
# Sagra
# Semaria
# Semra Buzurg
# Semra Khurd
# Shahpur
# Shahpur Misrauli
# Shikuara
# Siswa
# Tali
# Tirmanpur
{{div col end}}

== Pachrukhi ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Akopur
# Alapur
# Atarsua
# Babhnauli
# Baisakhi
# Bangra Sirikant
# Banjariya
# Barahani
# Barkagaon
# Bartawalia
# Baryarpur
# Benusar Buzurg
# Bharathpura
# Bhatwalia
# Bhatwalia
# Bijehata
# Budhu Chhapra
# Chak Pasram
# Chandpur
# Chaumukha
# Daroga Hata
# Dihiya
# Dinapatti
# Gamharia
# Garibganj
# Gharthaulia
# Ghorgahiya
# Gopalpur
# Gopipatti
# Gosain Chhapra
# Gotharo
# Hakkam
# Hakma
# Hamdipur
# Hardia
# Hata
# Itwa
# Jasauli Kharag
# Jasauli Pakauli
# Jhunapur
# Kaithi
# Kaleanpur
# Kodai
# Korakhap
# Korar
# Madhwapur
# Mahpur
# Mahuari
# Majhaulia
# Makhnupur
# Malupur
# Matuk Chhapra
# Mithanpura
# Mohammadpur
# Nainpura
# Narayanpur
# Narhat
# Nathanpura
# Nauranga
# Nizampur
# Nuruddinpur
# [[Panchrukhi | Pachrukhi]]
# Pagar Kothi
# Pakhrera
# Pakri Bangali
# Papaur
# Pengwara
# Pipra
# Rampur
# Rasulpur
# [[Sadikpur, Siwan | Saddikpur]]
# Sahlaur
# Samopur
# Saraia
# Sarauti
# Siswa
# Sonapipar
# Sota
# Supauli
# Surwala
# [[Tarwara]]
# Ukhai purbaripatti
# Ukhaipachhiaripatti
# Walipur
{{div col end}}

== Raghunathpur ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Abhimanwan
# Adampur
# Aima Sukhatpali
# Amhara
# Amwari
# Anwar
# Bahelia
# Bangra
# Bankat Main Chak
# Baraipur
# Baruna
# Basantpur
# Basantpur
# Basantpur Diara
# Basarh
# Belaura Dih
# Belwar
# Bhagwanpur
# Bhanti
# Bharthipatti
# Bhulli Chakri
# Bishundas Chak
# Bishunpura
# Bishunpura
# Chak Daula
# Chak Makhdum Alam
# Chakia
# Chakra
# Chakri
# Chaksultanpur
# Chauri Kalan
# Chhitni Dumri
# Daulatpur
# Deopur
# Dhorhaha
# Diara Bhaw Singh
# Dighwaliya
# Dilawarpur
# Domanpura
# Edilpur
# Elahi Chak
# Firozpur
# Gabhirar
# Gobhirar Diara
# Gonaria
# Gopalpur
# Haibatpur
# Harnathpur
# Harpalpur
# Harpur
# Harpur Diara
# Hasopur
# Jaijori
# Jawanpura
# Jorapur
# Kajrasan
# Kakuliyat
# Kandhauli
# Kanhradhari Haltamah
# Kanrsar
# Kaunsar Diara
# Kausar
# Khap Dhanauti
# Khujwa
# Konhara Dhari Nizamat Diara
# Konhradhari Nizamat
# Kusahra
# Lachhipur
# Lachhuman Dumari
# Lagusa
# Lahladpur
# Lohbara
# Mahazi Diara Kakarghatta
# Mahazi Gondauli
# Mahendar Buzurg
# Mahrauli
# Marwatia
# Mauzachakki Diara Sultanpur
# Mianchandi
# Miran Chak
# Mirpur
# Mirzapur
# Mirzapur
# Mirzapur
# Majilsha
# Moti Chak
# Nadiaon
# Narhan
# Narhan Diara
# Navadih
# Nawada
# Nawada Diara
# Newari
# Nigja
# Nikhti Kalan
# Nikhti Khurd
# Nima Dih
# Odakpur
# Pachbarwa
# Padartha
# Panjwar
# Parahia
# Parasram Dumri
# Parasrampur
# Patiaon
# Patiaon Gopi
# Phulwaria
# Pipra
# Raghunath Lahar
# [[Raghunathpur, Siwan | Raghunathpur]]
# Raiti Chandi
# Rajpur
# Rampur Lattha
# Sadhpur
# Sahimpur
# Saichani
# Saidpur
# Salempur
# Santhi
# Saran Dumri
# Shahpur
# Sitalpur
# Sonbarsa
# Sultanpur
# Surajbalia
# Tallahar
# Tanri
# Ungo
{{div col end}}

== Siswan ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Alakh Diyara
# Ansar
# Arjanipur
# Baghauna
# Baishistnagar
# Bakhri
# Bangra
# Bangra
# Barauna
# Bawan Dih
# Bhadaur
# Bhagar
# Bhagwanpur
# Bhaisaurha
# Bharwalia
# Bhikhpur
# Bhikhpur Bhagwanpur
# Birti
# Birti Lakheraj
# Chainpur Mobarakpur
# Chak Haibat
# Chandpur
# Chandpur
# Chatar
# Chatea
# Chatea Diara
# Chaturbhujpur
# Chhitauli
# Chungulpura
# Dhorhahi
# Gangapur
# Gayaspur
# Gayaspur Diyara
# Ghurghat
# Gobindpur
# Gopalpur
# Gudi Dih
# Haibatpur
# Harihar Chhapra
# Husena
# Ijra
# Ismail Chak
# Jagdishpur
# Jhotpur
# Kachnar
# Kasarh
# Kathtal
# Kauli Chhapra
# Kishunwari
# Kolhua
# Madhopur
# Madhwapur
# Mahanagar
# Majharia
# Makhnupur
# Manara
# Mathia
# [[Menhdar]]
# Misroulia
# Morwan
# Mura Parsotim
# Nagai
# Nagai
# Nagai Khas
# Nanda Mura
# Nawada
# Nawada
# Nawalpur
# Naya Gaon
# Nirmal Nagai
# Noniapatti
# Pachamuwa
# Pachbhinda
# Parari
# Pipra
# [[Ramgarh, Siwan|Ramgarh]]
# Rampur
# Rampur
# Sainpur
# Sainpur Diara
# Sarahra
# Saraut
# Siswa Khurd
# [[Siswan]]
# Siswan Kalan
# Sonbarsa
# Suahi
# Tarenawa
# Tilauta
# Ubdhi
{{div col end}}

== Siwan ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Adli
# Adlichak
# Aghaila
# Akhainiyam
# Amlori
# Baghra
# Balchandhata
# Baletha
# Bansopali
# Barhan
# Barhea
# Batrauli
# Benusar
# [[Bhada Kalan]]
# Bhada Khurd
# Bhadaura
# Bhanta Pokhar
# Bharthui
# Bhatwalia
# Bishambharpur
# Bishunpur
# Bishunpurwa
# Chakra
# Chanaur
# Chhotpur
# Dewapali
# Dhanauti
# Dharam Makariar
# Gopalpur
# Hari Balmha
# Hasanpurwa
# Hasanpurwa
# Jafra
# Jamsikri
# Jiaen
# Kaira Tal
# Kalinjra
# Karanpura
# Kararua
# Khagaura
# [[Khalispur, Siwan | Khalispur]]
# Khudra
# Lakri Makariar
# Lohsi Kalan
# Lohsi Khurd
# Mahuari
# Majahida(Majahidpur)
# Majhaulia
# Majhwa
# Makariar
# Mardapur
# Mirapur
# Mohammadpur
# Mohiuddinpur
# Molnapur
# Mura
# Nathuchhap
# Naupali
# Orma Makund
# Pachaura
# Pachlakhi
# Paighambarpur
# Pakri Makariar or Badli
# Pararia
# Phulwaria
# Pithauri
# Puraina
# Ramapali
# Rampur
# Salempur
# Sarabe
# Sarsa
# Sarsar
# Shampur
# Siari
# Sirishtapur
# [[Siwan, Bihar | Siwan]]
# [[Siwan, Bihar | Siwan (Nagar Parishad)]]
# Sujaon
# Tahira
# Tanrwa
# Thakur Pachlakhi
{{div col end}}

== Ziradei ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em|rules=yes}}
# Akolhi
# Baikunthpur
# Balaipur
# Bangra
# Banthu Salona
# Banthu Sriram
# Bardahan
# Barheya
# Barhulia
# Baroha
# Belwasa
# Berhea
# Bhaisakhal
# Bhalua Makund
# Bhaluwahi
# Bharauli
# Bharthua
# Bharthui
# Bhatkan khem
# Bhikpur
# Bijaipur
# Bikaur
# Bishunpura
# Chandauli Gangauli
# Chandpali
# Chhaprapal
# Chhitanpur
# Chhotka Manjha
# Dharampur
# Fajulhi
# Gangauli
# Garar
# Garar
# Gaziapur Bedaulia
# Gobrahi
# Gonthi
# Hardopatti
# Harpur
# Harpur Madanpur
# Hasanpurwa
# Hasua
# Hir Makriar
# Jamapur
# [[Ziradei | Jiradei]]
# Kakarghatti
# Khargi Rampur
# Kishunpur Misrauli
# Mahamudpur
# Mahmudpur
# Majhwalia
# Makundpur
# Manian
# Misrauli Lakheraj
# Miyan Ke Bhathkan
# Muian
# Munra
# Nandpali
# Narayanpur
# Narindpur
# Pakaulia
# Parasurampur
# Pathardei
# Phulwaria
# Piprahia
# Pokhrera
# Raichanda
# Repura
# Ruia
# Sajna
# Salrapur
# Sanjalpur
# Santhu
# Shakra
# Shankarpur
# Sikia
# Singahi
# Sisahani
# Surujpura
# Surwal
# Thepaha Raja Ram
# Titara
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Lists of villages in Bihar|Siwan district]]
[[Category:Villages in Siwan district|*]]

Martur

2026-02-21T03:47:01Z

Khorang: Enhanced content and organization

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Martur మార్టూరు
| other_name = Marturu
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|15.9862446|N|80.1040948|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bapatla district|Bapatla ]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of mandals in Andhra Pradesh|Mandal]]
| subdivision_name3 = Martur
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type =
| parts =
| government_type = state government(AP)
| governing_body = CM
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 21,434
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 523301
| registration_plate = AP
| website =
| footnotes =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Martur''', also known as '''Marturu,''' is a village in [[Bapatla district]] of the [[India]]n state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It is the mandal headquarters of Martur mandal in [[Bapatla revenue division]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Prakasam District Mandals |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/maps/atlas/28part32.pdf|publisher=Census of India |accessdate=19 June 2015|pages=124, 172|format=PDF}}</ref> As of [[2011 Census of India]], Martur had a population of 21,437 with average literacy rate of 67.48%. Martur is famous for granite polishing industries, vegetable market and also an educational hub for surrounding villages.

== Geography ==
Martur is located at {{coord|15.98615|N|80.10405|E|}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/02/Maruturu.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Maruturu]</ref> It has an average elevation of 30 meters (101 feet).

==Assembly constituency==

Martur was an assembly constituency in Andhra Pradesh since 1952 to 2004 except few years in between. The Assembly constituency was abolished in the year 2009 due to delimitation of Assembly and parliamentary constituencies.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Prakasam district]]
[[Category:Mandal headquarters in Prakasam district]]

{{Prakasam-geo-stub}}

Animism

2026-02-18T19:09:01Z

Khorang: basic enhance article based on references and fixed typos for clarity

{{Short description|Class of religious beliefs}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
'''Animism''' (from {{Langx|la|anima}} meaning '[[breath]], [[Soul|spirit]], [[life]]'){{sfn|EB|1878}}<ref>{{harvnb|Segal|2004|p=14}}.</ref> is the [[belief]] that places, objects, and creatures all possess a distinct [[Spirituality|spiritual]] essence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.religionandnature.com/ern/sample/Chidester--Animism.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.religionandnature.com/ern/sample/Chidester--Animism.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Religion and Nature}}</ref><ref name=stringer>{{cite journal|last=Stringer |first=Martin D. |title=Rethinking Animism: Thoughts from the Infancy of our Discipline |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute]] |year=1999 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=541–56 |doi=10.2307/2661147 |jstor=2661147}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hornborg |first=Alf |s2cid=143991508 |title=Animism, fetishism, and objectivism as strategies for knowing (or not knowing) the world |journal=[[Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology]] |year=2006 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=21–32 |doi=10.1080/00141840600603129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=What Is Religion? An Introduction |last=Haught |first=John F. |page=19 |publisher=Paulist Press}}</ref> Animism perceives all things—[[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, [[Rock (geology)|rocks]], [[river]]s, [[Weather|weather systems]], human handiwork, and in some cases [[word]]s—as being animated, having agency and free will.<ref>{{cite journal| first=Hans|last=Van Eyghen |title=Animism and Science |journal=Religions | volume=14 | issue=5| date=2023 |page=653 |doi=10.3390/rel14050653|doi-access=free }}</ref> Animism is used in [[anthropology of religion]] as a term for the [[Belief|belief system]] of many [[indigenous peoples]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Ritual and Belief: Readings in the Anthropology of Religion |first=David |last=Hicks |publisher=[[Roman Altamira]] |edition=3 |year=2010 |page=359 |quote=Tylor's notion of animism—for him the first religion—included the assumption that early ''Homo sapiens'' had invested animals and plants with souls ...}}</ref> in contrast to the relatively more recent development of [[organized religion]]s.<ref>{{cite web|author=Helen James|title=Animism |publisher=ELMAR Project (University of Cumbria) |date=1998–1999 |others=Coordinated by Elliott Shaw with assistance from Ian Favell |url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/seasia/animism.html}}</ref> Animism is a [[metaphysics|metaphysical belief]] which focuses on the [[Supernatural|supernatural universe]]: specifically, on the concept of the immaterial [[soul]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://animismkv.weebly.com/interesting-facts.html |title=Interesting facts}}</ref>

Although each culture has its own mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' "spiritual" or "supernatural" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so widely held and inherent to most indigenous peoples that they often do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism" (or even "religion").<ref>{{cite web|title=Native American Religious and Cultural Freedom: An Introductory Essay|work=The Pluralism Project|publisher=President and Fellows of Harvard College and Diana Eck|year=2005|url=http://www.pluralism.org/reports/view/176|access-date=4 October 2013|archive-date=23 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223045117/http://www.pluralism.org/reports/view/176|url-status=dead}}</ref> The term "animism" is an [[Emic and etic|anthropological construct]].

Largely due to such [[ethnolinguistic]] and [[Culture|cultural]] discrepancies, opinions differ on whether animism refers to an ancestral mode of experience common to indigenous peoples around the world or to a full-fledged religion in its own right. The currently accepted definition of animism was developed only in the late 19th century (1871) by [[Edward Burnett Tylor|Edward Tylor]]. It is "one of [[anthropology]]'s earliest concepts, if not the first".{{sfn|Bird-David|1999|p=S67}}

Animism encompasses beliefs that all material phenomena have agency, that there exists no categorical distinction between the [[Spirituality|spiritual]] and physical world, and that [[Soul (spirit)|soul]], spirit, or [[sentience]] exists not only in humans but also in other animals, plants, rocks, geographic features (such as mountains and rivers), and other entities of the natural environment. Examples include [[List of water deities|water sprites]], [[Vegetation deity|vegetation deities]], and [[List of tree deities|tree spirits]], among others. Animism may further attribute a life force to abstract concepts such as words, [[true name]]s, or metaphors in [[mythology]]. Some members of the non-tribal world also consider themselves animists, such as author [[Daniel Quinn]], sculptor [[Lawson Oyekan]], and many [[Modern paganism|neopagans]].<ref name="Harvey">{{cite book |title=Animism: Respecting the Living World |last=Harvey |first=Graham |page=9 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q2np2LCDmIMC |isbn=978-0-231-13700-3}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
English anthropologist Sir [[Edward Burnett Tylor|Edward Tylor]] initially wanted to describe the phenomenon as spiritualism, but he realized that it would cause confusion with the modern religion of [[Spiritualism (movement)|spiritualism]], which was then prevalent across Western nations.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=7}} He adopted the term animism from the writings of German scientist [[Georg Ernst Stahl]],{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=5}} who had developed the term ''{{lang|la|animismus}}'' in 1708 as a [[biology|biological]] theory that souls formed the [[vital principle]], and that the normal phenomena of life and the abnormal phenomena of disease could be traced to spiritual causes.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=3–4}}

The origin of the word comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|anima}}, which means ''life'' or ''soul.''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Animism - Definition, Meaning & Synonyms |url=https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/animism |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=Vocabulary.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

The first known usage in English appeared in 1819.{{sfn|Bird-David|1999|pp=S67–S68}}

== "Old animism" definitions ==
Earlier anthropological perspectives, which have since been termed the old animism, were concerned with knowledge on what is alive and what factors make something alive.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xi}} The old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between [[persons]] and [[object (philosophy)|things]].{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xiv}} Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving "colonialist and dualistic worldviews and rhetoric".{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xii}}

=== Edward Tylor's definition ===

[[File:Edward Burnett Tylor.jpg|thumb|[[Edward Tylor]] developed animism as an anthropological theory.]]
The idea of animism was developed by [[anthropology|anthropologist]] Sir [[Edward Burnett Tylor|Edward Tylor]] through his 1871 book ''[[Primitive Culture (book)|Primitive culture]]'',{{sfn|EB|1878}} in which he defined it as "the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings in general". According to Tylor, animism often includes "an idea of pervading life and will in nature;"<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward Burnett |last=Tylor |author-link=Edward Burnett Tylor |title=Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AucLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA260 |year=1871 |publisher=J. Murray |page=260}}</ref> a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by [[Auguste Comte]] as "[[fetishism]]",<ref name="Kuper 2005 85">{{cite book |last=Kuper |first=Adam |url=https://archive.org/details/reinventionprimi00kupe |title=Reinvention of Primitive Society: Transformations of a Myth |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2005 |edition=2nd |location=Florence, KY, US |page=[https://archive.org/details/reinventionprimi00kupe/page/n97 85] |url-access=limited}}</ref> but the terms now have distinct meanings.

For Tylor, animism represented the earliest form of religion, being situated within an evolutionary framework of religion that has developed in stages and which will ultimately lead to humanity rejecting religion altogether in favor of scientific rationality.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=6}} Thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religions grew.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=6}} He did not believe that animism was inherently illogical, but he suggested that it arose from early humans' dreams and visions and thus was a rational system. However, it was based on erroneous, unscientific observations about the nature of reality.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=8}} Stringer notes that his reading of ''Primitive Culture'' led him to believe that Tylor was far more sympathetic in regard to "primitive" populations than many of his contemporaries and that Tylor expressed no belief that there was any difference between the intellectual capabilities of "savage" people and Westerners.<ref name=stringer/>

The idea that there had once been "one universal form of primitive religion" (whether labelled ''animism'', ''totemism'', or ''shamanism'') has been dismissed as "unsophisticated" and "erroneous" by archaeologist [[Timothy Insoll]], who stated that "it removes complexity, a precondition of religion now, in ''all'' its variants."{{sfn|Insoll|2004|p=29}}

=== Social evolutionist conceptions ===
Tylor's definition of animism was part of a growing international debate on the nature of "[[Urgesellschaft|primitive society]]" by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science: ''[[anthropology]]''. By the end of the 19th century, an orthodoxy on "primitive society" had emerged, but few anthropologists still would accept that definition. The "19th-century armchair anthropologists" argued that "primitive society" (an evolutionary category) was ordered by kinship and divided into exogamous [[kinship|descent groups]] related by a series of marriage exchanges. Their religion was animism, the belief that natural species and objects had souls.

With the development of private property, the descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of "developed" religions. According to Tylor, as society became more scientifically advanced, fewer members of that society would believe in animism. However, any remnant ideologies of souls or spirits, to Tylor, represented "survivals" of the original animism of early humanity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuper |first=Adam |title=The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an illusion |year=1988 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |location=London |pages=6–7}}</ref>

{{quote box
| quote = The term ["animism"] clearly began as an expression of a nest of insulting approaches to indigenous peoples and the earliest putatively religious humans. It was, and sometimes remains, a colonialist slur.
| source = —[[Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|Graham Harvey]], 2005.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xiii}}
| align = left
| width = 25em
}}

=== Confounding animism with totemism ===
In 1869 (three years after Tylor proposed his definition of animism), Edinburgh lawyer [[John Ferguson McLennan]], argued that the animistic thinking evident in [[fetishism]] gave rise to a religion he named ''[[totemism]]''. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended from the same species as their totemic animal.<ref name="Kuper 2005 85"/> Subsequent debate by the "armchair anthropologists" (including [[Johann Jakob Bachofen|J. J. Bachofen]], [[Émile Durkheim]], and [[Sigmund Freud]]) remained focused on [[totemism]] rather than animism, with few directly challenging Tylor's definition. Anthropologists "have commonly avoided the issue of animism and even the term itself, rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich [[ethnographies]]."<ref name="Bird-David 1999 S68">{{harvnb|Bird-David|1999|p=S68}}</ref>

According to anthropologist [[Tim Ingold]], animism shares similarities with totemism but differs in its focus on individual spirit beings which help to perpetuate life, whereas totemism more typically holds that there is a primary source, such as the land itself or the ancestors, who provide the basis to life. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the [[Australian Aboriginals|Aboriginal Australians]] are more typically totemic in their worldview, whereas others like the [[Inuit]] are more typically animistic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ingold |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Ingold |date=2000 |chapter=Totemism, Animism, and the Depiction of Animals |title=The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling, and Skill |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=112–113}}</ref>

=="New animism" definitions ==
Many anthropologists ceased using the term ''animism'', deeming it to be too close to early anthropological theory and religious [[polemic]].{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xii}} However, the term had also been claimed by religious groups—namely, Indigenous communities and [[nature worship]]pers—who felt that it aptly described their own beliefs, and who in some cases actively identified as "animists."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=xii, 3}} It was thus readopted by various scholars, who began using the term in a different way,{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xii}} placing the focus on knowing how to behave toward other beings, some of whom are not human.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xi}} As religious studies scholar Graham Harvey stated, while the "old animist" definition had been problematic, the term ''animism'' was nevertheless "of considerable value as a critical, academic term for a style of religious and cultural relating to the world."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xv}}

=== Hallowell and the Ojibwe ===
[[File:Hombres ojibwe.jpg|thumb|Five [[Ojibwe]] chiefs in the 19th century. It was anthropological studies of Ojibwe religion that resulted in the development of the "new animism".|upright=1.2]]
The ''new animism'' emerged largely from the publications of anthropologist [[Alfred Irving Hallowell|Irving Hallowell]], produced on the basis of his ethnographic research among the [[Ojibwe]] communities of [[Canada]] in the mid-20th century.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=17}} For the Ojibwe encountered by Hallowell, ''[[personhood]]'' did not require human-likeness, but rather humans were perceived as being like other persons, who for instance included rock persons and bear persons.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=18}} For the Ojibwe, these persons were each willful beings, who gained meaning and power through their interactions with others; through respectfully interacting with other persons, they themselves learned to "act as a person".{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=18}}

Hallowell's approach to the understanding of Ojibwe personhood differed strongly from prior anthropological concepts of animism.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=19}} He emphasized the need to challenge the modernist, Western perspectives of what a person is, by entering into a dialogue with different worldwide views.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=18}} Hallowell's approach influenced the work of anthropologist [[Nurit Bird-David]], who produced a [[Academic journal#Scholarly articles|scholarly article]] reassessing the idea of animism in 1999.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=20}} Seven comments from other academics were provided in the journal, debating Bird-David's ideas.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=21}}

=== Postmodern anthropology ===
More recently, postmodern anthropologists are increasingly engaging with the concept of animism. [[Modernism]] is characterized by a [[Cartesianism|Cartesian]] [[Cartesian dualism|subject-object dualism]] that divides the subjective from the objective, and culture from nature. In the modernist view, animism is the inverse of [[scientism]], and hence, is deemed inherently invalid by some anthropologists. Drawing on the work of [[Bruno Latour]], some anthropologists question modernist assumptions and theorize that all societies continue to "animate" the world around them. In contrast to Tylor's reasoning, however, this "animism" is considered to be more than just a remnant of primitive thought. More specifically, the "animism" of modernity is characterized by humanity's "professional subcultures", as in the ability to treat the world as a detached entity within a delimited sphere of activity.

Human beings continue to create personal relationships with elements of the aforementioned objective world, such as pets, cars, or teddy bears, which are recognized as subjects. As such, these entities are "approached as communicative subjects rather than the inert objects perceived by modernists."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hornborg |first=Alf |s2cid=143991508 |title=Animism, fetishism, and objectivism as strategies for knowing (or not knowing) the world |journal=Ethnos |year=2006 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=22–4 |doi=10.1080/00141840600603129}}</ref> These approaches aim to avoid the modernist assumption that the environment consists of a physical world distinct from the world of humans, as well as the modernist conception of the person being composed dualistically of a body and a soul.<ref name="Bird-David 1999 S68"/>

[[Nurit Bird-David]] argues that:<ref name="Bird-David 1999 S68" />

{{Blockquote|text=Positivistic ideas about the meaning of 'nature', 'life', and 'personhood' misdirected these previous attempts to understand the local concepts. Classical theoreticians (it is argued) attributed their own modernist ideas of self to 'primitive peoples' while asserting that the 'primitive peoples' read their idea of self into others!}}

She explains that animism is a "relational [[epistemology]]" rather than a failure of primitive reasoning. That is, self-identity among animists is based on their relationships with others, rather than any distinctive features of the "self". Instead of focusing on the essentialized, modernist self (the "individual"), persons are viewed as bundles of social relationships ("dividuals"), some of which include "superpersons" (i.e. non-humans).

[[File:Autel animiste. Village Bozo, Mopti, Bandiagara, Mali. Date du cliché 25-12-1972.jpg|thumb|left|Animist altar, [[Bozo people|Bozo]] village, [[Mopti]], [[Bandiagara]], Mali, in 1972|upright=1.2]]
Stewart Guthrie expressed criticism of Bird-David's attitude towards animism, believing that it promulgated the view that "the world is in large measure whatever our local imagination makes it." This, he felt, would result in anthropology abandoning "the scientific project."{{sfn|Guthrie|2000|p=107}}

Like Bird-David, [[Tim Ingold]] argues that animists do not see themselves as separate from their environment:<ref>{{cite book|last=Ingold |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Ingold |url=https://archive.org/details/perceptionenviro00ingo |title=The Perception of the Environment: Essays in livelihood, dwelling, and skill |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2000 |place=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/perceptionenviro00ingo/page/n56 42] |url-access=limited}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Hunter-gatherers do not, as a rule, approach their environment as an external world of nature that has to be 'grasped' intellectually ... indeed the separation of mind and nature has no place in their thought and practice.}}

[[Rane Willerslev]] extends the argument by noting that animists reject this Cartesian dualism and that the animist self identifies with the world, "feeling at once ''within'' and ''apart'' from it so that the two glide ceaselessly in and out of each other in a sealed circuit".{{sfn|Willerslev|2007|p=[https://archive.org/details/soulhuntershunti00will/page/n40 24]}} The animist hunter is thus aware of himself as a human hunter, but, through mimicry, is able to assume the viewpoint, senses, and sensibilities of his prey, to be one with it.{{sfn|Willerslev|2007|p=[https://archive.org/details/soulhuntershunti00will/page/n43 27]}} [[Shamanism]], in this view, is an everyday attempt to influence spirits of ancestors and animals, by mirroring their behaviors, as the hunter does its prey.

=== Ethical and ecological understanding ===
Cultural ecologist and philosopher [[David Abram]] proposed an ethical and ecological understanding of animism, grounded in the [[Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenology]] of sensory experience. In his books ''The Spell of the Sensuous'' and ''Becoming Animal,'' Abram suggests that material things are never entirely passive in our direct perceptual experience, holding rather that perceived things actively "solicit our attention" or "call our focus", coaxing the perceiving body into an ongoing participation with those things.{{sfn|Abram|1996}}{{sfn|Abram|2010}}

In the absence of intervening technologies, he suggests that [[sensory experience]] is inherently animistic in that it discloses a material field that is animate and self-organizing from the beginning. [[David Abram]] used contemporary [[Cognitive science|cognitive]] and [[natural science]], as well as the perspectival worldviews of diverse indigenous oral cultures, to propose a richly [[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralist]] and story-based cosmology in which matter is alive. He suggested that such a relational [[ontology]] is in close accord with humanity's spontaneous perceptual experience by drawing attention to the senses, and to the primacy of sensuous terrain, enjoining a more respectful and ethical relation to the more-than-human community of animals, plants, soils, mountains, waters, and weather-patterns that materially sustains humanity.{{sfn|Abram|1996}}{{sfn|Abram|2010}}

In contrast to a long-standing tendency in the Western social sciences, which commonly provide rational explanations of animistic experience, Abram develops an animistic account of reason itself. He holds that civilised reason is sustained only by intensely animistic participation between human beings and their own written signs. For instance, as soon as someone reads letters on a page or screen, they can "see what it says"—the letters speak as much as nature spoke to pre-literate peoples. Reading can usefully be understood as an intensely concentrated form of animism, one that effectively eclipses all of the other, older, more spontaneous forms of animistic participation in which humans were once engaged.

{{blockquote|To tell the story in this manner—to provide an animistic account of reason, rather than the other way around—is to imply that animism is the wider and more inclusive term and that oral, mimetic modes of experience still underlie, and support, all our literate and technological modes of reflection. When reflection's rootedness in such bodily, participatory modes of experience is entirely unacknowledged or unconscious, reflective reason becomes dysfunctional, unintentionally destroying the corporeal, sensuous world that sustains it.{{sfn|Abram|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0/page/303 303]}} }}

=== Relation to the concept of 'I-thou' ===
Religious studies scholar [[Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|Graham Harvey]] defined ''animism'' as the belief "that the world is full of persons, only some of whom are human, and that life is always lived in relationship with others."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xi}} He added that it is therefore "concerned with learning how to be a good person in respectful relationships with other persons."{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xi}}

In his ''Handbook of Contemporary Animism'' (2013), Harvey identifies the animist perspective in line with [[Martin Buber]]'s "[[I and Thou|I-thou]]" as opposed to "I-it". In such, Harvey says, the animist takes an I-thou approach to relating to the world, whereby objects and animals are treated as a "thou", rather than as an "it".<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Graham |title=The Handbook of Contemporary Animism |year=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |place=London, UK}}</ref>

== Religion ==
[[File:Shaman tableau.png|thumb|A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "[[shaman]]" in the literature|upright=1.2]]

There is ongoing disagreement (and no general consensus) as to whether animism is merely a singular, broadly encompassing religious belief<ref>{{cite book|first1=David A. |last1=Leeming |first2=Kathryn |last2=Madden |first3=Stanton |last3=Marlan |title=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0QQtlJSyOEC&pg=PA42 |date=6 November 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-71801-9 |page=42}}</ref> or a worldview in and of itself, comprising many diverse mythologies found worldwide in many diverse cultures.<ref>Harvey (2006), p. 6.</ref><ref name="Ishmael.org">{{cite web|first=Daniel |last=Quinn |title=Q and A #400 |work=Ishmael.org |year=2012 |url=http://www.ishmael.org/Interaction/QandA/Detail.CFM?Record=400 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923002600/http://www.ishmael.org/Interaction/QandA/Detail.CFM?Record=400 |archive-date=23 September 2011}}</ref> This also raises a controversy regarding the ethical claims animism may or may not make: whether animism ignores questions of [[ethics]] altogether;<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward Burnett |last=Tylor |author-link=Edward Burnett Tylor |title=Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art, and custom |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5tOAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA360 |year=1920 |publisher=J. Murray |page=360}}</ref> or, by endowing various non-human elements of nature with spirituality or personhood,<ref>[[Peter B. Clarke|Clarke, Peter B.]], and Peter Beyer, eds. 2009. ''The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations.'' London: Routledge. p. 15.</ref> it in fact promotes a complex [[Environmental ethics|ecological ethics]].<ref>{{cite book|year=2011 |publisher=Polity |location=Cambridge |title=Ecological Ethics |edition=2 |first=Patrick |last=Curry |pages=142–3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVvFTKoOV7EC&q=ecological+ethics |isbn=978-0-7456-5126-2}}</ref>

In his 1992 book entitled ''Columbus and Other Cannibals'', American historian [[Jack D. Forbes]] wrote that the animism of native and folk religious beliefs of Africa, Asia and the Americas was synonymous with "life-ism", and that "perhaps that is what we need, '[[lifeism]]', more respect for life, more respect for the living, more respect for ''all'' forms of life."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Jack D. |title=Columbus and Other Cannibals |date=1992 |publisher=[[D–Q University]] Press |location=USA |page=178 |isbn=978-1-58322-982-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-BrEuAutGwC&dq=%22lifeism%22&pg=PA178 |access-date=13 June 2025}}</ref> In the 2012 book ''The Routledge Companion to Religion and Science'' it is noted that "the European tradition of referring to Native world-views as forms of animism is quite correct, if understood non-reductively, since the term "animism" can literally be understood as "life-ism."<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Haag|editor1-first=James W.|editor2-last=Peterson|editor2-first=Gregory R.|editor3-last=Spezio|editor3-first=Michael L.|title=The Routledge Companion to Religion and Science |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |location=UK |page=44 |isbn=978-1-136-63416-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RbyoAgAAQBAJ |access-date=25 July 2025}}</ref>

=== Concepts ===

==== Distinction from pantheism ====
Animism is not the same as [[pantheism]], although the two are sometimes confused. Moreover, some religions are both pantheistic and animistic. One of the main differences is that while animists believe everything to be spiritual in nature, they do not necessarily see the spiritual nature of everything in existence as being united ([[monism]]) the way pantheists do. As a result, animism puts more emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual soul. In pantheism, everything shares the same spiritual essence, rather than having distinct spirits or souls.<ref>[[Paul Harrison (pantheist)|Harrison, Paul A.]] 2004. ''Elements of Pantheism''. p. 11.</ref><ref>McColman, Carl. 2002. ''When Someone You Love Is Wiccan: A Guide to Witchcraft and Paganism for Concerned Friends, Nervous parents, and Curious Co-Workers''. p. 97.</ref> For example, [[Giordano Bruno]] equated the world soul with God and espoused a pantheistic animism.<ref name="Kearns 1982 p. 24">{{cite book | last=Kearns | first=E.J. | title=Ideas in Seventeenth-century France: The Most Important Thinkers and the Climate of Ideas in which They Worked | publisher=Manchester University Press | year=1982 | isbn=978-0-7190-0907-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-P_oAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA24 | access-date=2023-06-01 | page=24}}</ref><ref name="Orr 2012 p. 87">{{cite book | last=Orr | first=E.R. | title=The Wakeful World: Animism, Mind and the Self in Nature | publisher=John Hunt Publishing | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-78099-408-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQPtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT87 | access-date=2023-06-01 | page=87}}</ref>

==== Fetishism / totemism ====
{{Main|Fetishism|Totemism}}

In many animistic world views, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with other animals, plants, and natural forces.{{sfn|Fernandez-Armesto|2003|p=138}}

=== African indigenous religions ===
[[Traditional African religions]]: most religious traditions of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] are basically a complex form of animism with polytheistic and shamanistic elements and [[ancestor worship]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Vontress |first=Clemmont E. |article=Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa |year=2005 |url=https://sk.sagepub.com/books/integrating-traditional-healing-practices-into-counseling-and-psychotherapy/n11.xml |title=Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy |pages=124–137 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]], Inc. |doi=10.4135/9781452231648 |isbn=9780761930471 |access-date=2019-11-01}}</ref>

In [[West Africa]], the [[Serer religion|Serer religious (A ƭat Roog)]] encompasses ancestor veneration (not worship) via the [[Pangool]]. The Pangool are the [[Serer people|Serer]] ancestral spirits and interceders between the living and the Divine, [[Roog]].<ref>[[Henry Gravrand|Gravrand, Henry]], "La Civilisation Sereer : Pangool". vol.2, Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal, (1990), p. 278, {{ISBN|2-7236-1055-1}}</ref><ref>Galvan, Dennis Charles, "The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal." Berkeley, University of California Press (2004), p. 53, {{ISBN|0520235916}}</ref>

In East Africa the [[Kerma culture]] display Animistic elements similar to other [[Traditional African religions]]. In contrast to the later [[polytheistic]] Napatan and Meroitic periods, the [[Kerma culture]] with displays of animals in Amulets and the esteemed antiques of Lions, appear to be an Animistic culture rather than a polytheistic culture. The Kermans likely treated [[Jebel Barkal]] as a special sacred site, and passed it on to the Kushites and Egyptians who venerated the [[mesa]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Emberling |first1=Geoff |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/41909/chapter-abstract/354773064 |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume III: Volume III: From the Hyksos to the Late Second Millennium BC |last2=Minor |first2=Elizabeth |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9780197601204 |chapter=Early Kush: The Kingdom of Kerma |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190687601.003.0025}}</ref>

In [[North Africa]], the [[traditional Berber religion]] includes the traditional polytheistic, animist, and in some rare cases, shamanistic, religions of the Berber people.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

=== Asian origin religions ===
[[File:Ingrown oval sculpture of human head in a tree trunk in Laos (1).jpg|thumb|upright|Ingrown sculpture of human head in a tree trunk in Laos]]

==== Indian-origin religions ====
{{anchor | Indic | Indian | Hindu | Hinduism | Buddhist | Buddhism | Jain | Jainism | Sikh | Sikhism | Indian religion | Indian-origin religion | Indian religions | Indian-origin religions}}

In the [[Indian religions|Indian-origin religions]], namely [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]], the animistic aspects of nature worship and ecological conservation are part of the core belief system.

[[Matsya Purana]], a [[Hindu text]], has a [[Sanskrit]] language [[shloka]] (hymn), which explains the importance of reverence of ecology. It states: "A pond equals ten [[water well|wells]], a reservoir equals ten ponds, while a son equals ten reservoirs, and a tree equals ten sons."<ref name=pur1>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/chandigarh-news/haryana-mulls-giving-marks-to-class-12-students-for-planting-trees-101627242568655.html "Haryana mulls giving marks to class 12 students for planting trees"], ''Hindustan Times'', 26 July 2021.</ref> Indian religions [[Trees in mythology|worship trees]] such as the [[Bodhi Tree]] and numerous [[List of Banyan trees in India|superlative banyan trees]], conserve the [[sacred groves of India]], revere the [[River#Sacred|rivers as sacred]], and [[Sacred mountains#India|worship the mountains and their ecology.]]

[[Sacred tree#Panchavati|Panchavati]] are the [[sacred trees]] in Indic religions, which are sacred groves containing five type of trees, usually chosen from among the Vata (''[[Ficus benghalensis]]'', Banyan), Ashvattha (''[[Ficus religiosa]]'', Peepal), Bilva (''[[Aegle marmelos]]'', Bengal Quince), Amalaki (''[[Phyllanthus emblica]]'', Indian Gooseberry, Amla), Ashoka (''[[Saraca asoca]]'', Ashok), Udumbara (''[[Ficus racemosa]]'', Cluster Fig, Gular), Nimba (''[[Azadirachta indica]]'', Neem) and Shami (''[[Prosopis spicigera]]'', Indian Mesquite).<ref name=vati1>[https://greenmesg.org/nature/trees/sacred/panchavati_trees.php "Panchvati trees"], greenmesg.org, accessed 26 July 2021.</ref><ref name=gr1>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/peepal-for-east-amla-for-west-193-villages-set-to-get-panchvati-trees/articleshow/84741664.cms "Peepal for east amla for west"], ''Times of India'', 26 July 2021.</ref>

[[File:Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden - Howrah 2011-01-08 9728.JPG|thumb|[[Thimmamma Marrimanu]] – the Great Banyan tree revered by the people of [[Indian religions|Indian-origin religions]] such as [[Hinduism]] (including [[Vedic]], [[Shaivism]], [[Dravidian folk religion|Dravidian Hinduism]]), [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]]|upright=1.2]][[File:Vat Purnima image by Raju Kasambe DSCN6393 07.jpg|thumb|During [[Vat Purnima]] festival, married women tie threads around a banyan tree in India.|left|upright=1.2]]

The [[banyan]] is considered holy in several religious traditions of India. The ''[[Ficus benghalensis]]'' is the [[national tree]] of India.<ref name="National Symbols of India">{{cite web |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php/national_symbols.php?id=5 |title=National Tree |publisher=[[Government of India]] |access-date=2012-01-16}}</ref> [[Vat Purnima]] is a [[List of Hindu festivals|Hindu festival]] related to the banyan tree, and is observed by married women in [[North India]] and in the Western Indian states of [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]], [[Gujarat]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kerkar |first=Rajendra P. |date=7 Jun 2009 |title=Vat-Pournima: Worship of the banyan tree |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Vat-Pournima-Worship-of-the-banyan-tree/articleshow/4625988.cms |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> For three days of the month of [[Jyeshtha (month)|Jyeshtha]] in the [[Hindu calendar]] (which falls in May–June in the [[Gregorian calendar]]) married women observe a fast, tie threads around a banyan tree, and pray for the well-being of their husbands.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2 June 2015 |title=Mumbai: Women celebrate Vat Purnima at Jogeshwari station |work=Mid Day |url=https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai/mumbai-news/article/Mumbai--Women-celebrate-Vat-Purnima-at-Jogeshwari-station-16259170 |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> [[Thimmamma Marrimanu]], sacred to Indian religions, has branches spread over five acres and was listed as the world's largest banyan tree in the Guinness World Records in 1989.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.backpacker-backgammon.com/news_banyan_trees.html |title=Backpacker Backgammon Boards - Banyan Trees |access-date=2015-01-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710100822/http://www.backpacker-backgammon.com/news_banyan_trees.html |archive-date=2012-07-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anantapur.com/travel/thimmamma.html |title=Thimmamma Marrimanu – Anantapur |website=Anantapur.com |access-date=19 March 2019}}</ref>

In Hinduism, the leaf of the banyan tree is said to be the resting place for the god [[Krishna]]. In the [[Bhagavat Gita]], Krishna said, "There is a banyan tree which has its roots upward and its branches down, and the Vedic hymns are its leaves. One who knows this tree is the knower of the Vedas." (Bg 15.1)

In Buddhism's [[Pali canon]], the banyan (Pali: ''nigrodha'')<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |publisher=[[Pali Text Society]] |location=Chipstead, London |date=1921–1925 |editor1-last=Rhys Davids |editor1-first=T. W. |editor-link1=T. W. Rhys Davids |editor2-last=Stede |editor2-first=William |dictionary=The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary |url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:96.pali |page=355 |title=Nigrodha |access-date=22 November 2008}}</ref> is referenced numerous times.<ref>See, for instance, the automated search of the SLTP ed. of the Pali Canon for the root "nigrodh" which results in 243 matches {{cite web |url=http://www.bodhgayanews.net/pitakaresults.php?title=&start=0&to=10&searchstring=Nigrodh |title=Search term 'Nigrodh' found in 243 pages in all documents |website=Bodhgayanews.net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202012916/http://www.bodhgayanews.net/pitakaresults.php?title=&start=0&to=10&searchstring=Nigrodh |archive-date=2 December 2008 |access-date=22 November 2008}}</ref> Typical metaphors allude to the banyan's [[Epiphyte|epiphytic]] nature, likening the banyan's supplanting of a host tree as comparable to the way sensual desire (''[[kāma]]'') overcomes humans.<ref>See, e.g., [[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 46.39, "Trees [Discourse]", trans. by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000), ''Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya'' (Boston: Wisdom Publications), pp. 1593, 1906 n. 81; and, [[Sutta Nipata|Sn]] 2.5 v. 271 or 272 ([[Viggo Fausböll|Fausböll]], 1881, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/sbe10/sbe1034.htm p. 46]).</ref>

[[Mun (religion)|Mun]] (also known as Munism or Bongthingism) is the traditional [[polytheism|polytheistic]], animist, [[shamanism|shamanistic]], and [[syncretism|syncretic]] religion of the [[Lepcha people]].<ref name="Bareh">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sikkim |year=2001 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of North-East India |editor-last=Bareh |editor-first=Hamlet |volume=7 |pages=284–86 |isbn=81-7099-787-9 |publisher=Mittal Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrr7HPr8NAQC}}</ref><ref name="Ferrari">{{cite book |first=Davide |last=Torri |year=2010 |chapter=10. In the Shadow of the Devil: Traditional patterns of Lepcha culture reinterpreted |title=Health and Religious Rituals in South Asia |pages=149–156 |editor-last=Ferrari |editor-first=Fabrizio |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-136-84629-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OyKFM2qrNUEC}}</ref><ref name="West">{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |page=462 |series=Facts on File Library of World History |editor-last=West |editor-first=Barbara A. |publisher=Infobase |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC}}</ref>

[[Sanamahism]] is an [[ethnic religion]] of the [[Meitei people]] of {{langnf|mni|[[Kangleipak]]|[[Manipur]]}} in [[Northeast India]]. It is a polytheistic and animist religion and is named after [[Lainingthou Sanamahi]], one of the most important deities of the Meitei faith.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gourchandra |first=M. |date=1982 |title=Sanamahi Laihui |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465618}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Revivalism of Sanamahism |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.The_Revivalism_of_Sanamahism |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nilabir |first=Sairem |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465239 |title=Laiyingthou Sanamahi Amasung Sanamahi Laining Hinggat Ihou |date=2002}}</ref>

==== Chinese religions ====
[[Chinese folk religion|Shendao]] ({{Lang-zh|c=神道|p=shéndào|l=the Way of the Gods}}) is a term originated by Chinese folk religions influenced by, [[Mohism|Mohist]], [[Confucianism|Confucian]] and [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosophy, referring to the divine order of nature or the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wuxing]].

The [[Religion of the Shang dynasty|Shang dynasty's state religion]] was practiced from 1600 BCE to 1046 BCE, and was built on the idea of spiritualizing natural phenomena.

==== Japan and Shinto ====
{{expand section|date=July 2021}}
{{Shinto}}
[[Shinto]] is the traditional Japanese folk religion and has many animist aspects. The {{Nihongo|2=神|3=[[kami]]}}, a class of [[Spirit (supernatural entity)|supernatural beings]], are central to Shinto. All things, including natural forces and well-known geographical locations, are thought to be home to the kami. The kami are worshipped at kamidana household shrines, family shrines, and jinja public shrines.

The [[Ryukyuan religion]] of the [[Ryukyu Islands]] is distinct from Shinto, but shares similar characteristics.

==== Kalash people ====
{{expand section|date=July 2021}}

[[Kalash people]] of Northern Pakistan follow an ancient animistic religion identified with an ancient form of Hinduism.<ref>Zeb, Alam, ''et al''. (2019). "Identifying local actors of deforestation and [[forest degradation]] in the Kalasha valleys of Pakistan." ''Forest Policy and Economics'' '''104''': 56–64.</ref>

The [[Kalash people|Kalash]] (Kalasha: {{Lang|kls|کالؕاشؕا}}, romanised: {{Lang|kls-latn|Kaḷaṣa}}, [[Devanagari]]: {{Lang|kls|कळष}}), or Kalasha, are an [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]]<ref name=West-2010-b>{{cite book |last=West |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA357 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date=19 May 2010 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=9781438119137 |page=357 |language=en}}</ref> [[indigenous people]] residing in the [[Chitral District]] of the [[Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]] province of [[Pakistan]].

They are considered unique among the people of Pakistan.<ref name="www2.unitar.org">{{cite web |title=The Kalash – Protection and Conservation of an Endangered Minority in the Hindukush Mountain Belt of Chitral, Northern Pakistan |url=http://www2.unitar.org/hiroshima/programmes/whs07/materials/Country%20Presentations/Pakistan.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707041729/http://www.unitar.org/hiroshima/programmes/whs07/materials/Country%20Presentations/Pakistan.pdf|archive-date=7 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="The kalaṣa of kalaṣüm">{{Cite web |title=Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: The Kalasha of Kalashüm |url=http://www.nuristan.info/Nuristani/Kalasha/kalasha.html |access-date=31 December 2022 |website=www.nuristan.info}}</ref><ref>Augusto S. Cacopardo. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DVgrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28 ''Pagan Christmas: Winter Feasts of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush'']. p.28.</ref> They are also considered to be Pakistan's smallest [[ethnoreligious group]],<ref name="The Express Tribune">{{cite news |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/988585/earthquake-was-allahs-wrath-for-kalash-communitys-immoral-ways/ |title='Earthquake was Allah's wrath for Kalash community's immoral ways' |work=[[The Express Tribune]] |date=10 November 2015 |access-date=11 November 2015}}</ref> and traditionally practice what authors characterise as a form of animism.<ref name="atalayar.com">{{Cite web |title=The Kalash: Pakistan's last animist tribe |url=https://atalayar.com/en/content/kalash-pakistans-last-animist-tribe |access-date=31 December 2022 |website=Atalayar |date=29 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=Searle-2013>{{cite book |author=Searle, Mike |title=Colliding Continents: A geological exploration of the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Tibet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-BLJuEo8lT0C|date=28 March 2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-165249-3}}</ref><ref name=Camerapix-1998>{{cite book |author=Camerapix |title=Spectrum Guide to Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlwOAQAAMAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Interlink Books |isbn=978-1-56656-240-9}}</ref>{{efn|Nowhere is this more evident than among the pagan Kalash, a non-Islamic community living in the isolated valleys of Chitral whose faith is founded on animism.<ref name=Camerapix-1998/>}}<ref name=Sheehan-1993>{{cite book |author=Sheehan, Sean |date=October 1993 |title=Pakistan |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-1-85435-583-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/pakistan00shee_0 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{efn|The Kalash people are small in number, hardly exceeding 3,000, but ... as well as having their own language and costume, they practice animism (the worship of spirits in nature) ...<ref name=Sheehan-1993/>}} During the mid-20th century an attempt was made to force a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan to convert to Islam, but the people fought the conversion and, once official pressure was removed, the vast majority resumed the practice of their own religion.<ref name="The kalaṣa of kalaṣüm" /> Nevertheless, some Kalasha have since converted to Islam, despite being shunned afterward by their community for having done so.<ref>{{cite web|date=1 March 2021|title=Tribe of Kalash: The Last Kafir|url=http://www.ghrd.org/2021/03/01/tribe-of-kalash-the-last-kafir/|access-date=11 April 2021|website=Global Human Rights Defence|language=en-US|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422022929/https://www.ghrd.org/2021/03/01/tribe-of-kalash-the-last-kafir/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The term is used to refer to many distinct people including the Väi, the Čima-nišei, the Vântä, plus the [[Ashkun]]- and [[Tregami]]-speakers.<ref name="The kalaṣa of kalaṣüm"/> The Kalash are considered to be an indigenous people of Asia, with their ancestors migrating to [[Chitral Valley]] from another location possibly further south,<ref name="www2.unitar.org"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cd0rAAAAMAAJ&q=kalash+tsiyam|title=Folk: dansk etnografisk tidsskrift|last1=Nicolaisen|first1=Johannes|last2=Yde|first2=Jens|date=1963|publisher=Dansk etnografisk forening.|language=en}}</ref> which the Kalash call "Tsiyam" in their folk songs and epics.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-dXlAAAAMAAJ&q=kalash+tsiyam|title=East and West|date=1992|publisher=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|language=en}}</ref>

They claim to descend from the armies of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] who were left behind from his armed campaign, though no evidence exists for him to have passed the area.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shah |first=Danial |date=29 September 2012 |title=In the land of infidels |url=https://www.dawn.com/2012/09/29/in-the-land-of-infidels/ |access-date=16 March 2023 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Strand-nuristan-kalaṣa">{{cite web |author=Strand, R. |author-link=Richard |title=The kalaṣa of kalaṣüm Strand |website=nuristan.info |url=http://www.nuristan.info/Nuristani/Kalasha/kalasha.html}}</ref>

The neighbouring [[Nuristani people]] of the adjacent [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]] (historically known as [[Kafiristan]]) province of [[Afghanistan]] once had the same culture and practised a faith very similar to that of the Kalash, differing in a few minor particulars.<ref name="saxena">{{cite book|last=Saxena|first=Anju|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTgv1ZYGZdoC&q=kalash+nuristani+religion&pg=PA72|title=Himalayan Languages: Past and Present|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|language=en|page=72|isbn=9783110898873|date=12 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="folklore">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&q=kalash+nuristani+religion&pg=PA318|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|language=en|page=318|isbn=9780415939195|year=2003}}</ref>

The first historically recorded Islamic invasions of their lands were by the [[Ghaznavids]] in the 11th century<ref name="Caocopardo">[https://books.google.com/books?id=DVgrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 Pagan Christmas: Winter Feasts of the Kalasha of the Hindu Kush], By Augusto S. Cacopardo</ref> while they themselves are first attested in 1339 during [[Timur]]'s invasions.<ref name="Ludwig">{{cite book |editor-link=Ludwig W. Adamec |editor=Adamec, L.W. |year=1985 |title=Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan |volume=6 |publisher=Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt Graz |page=349 |quote=He identifies them more particularly with the Gandhari, that is to say, the former inhabitants of what is now known as the Mohmand country.}}</ref> Nuristan had been forcibly converted to Islam in 1895–96, although some evidence has shown the people continued to practice their customs.<ref name="Iranica">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Klimberg |first=Max |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|title=NURISTAN |url= http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nuristan|edition= Online|date=1 October 2004 |publisher= [[Columbia University]]|location= United States}}</ref> The Kalash of Chitral have maintained their own separate cultural traditions.<ref name="Newby, Eric 2008">Newby, Eric. A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush. 2008. {{ISBN|1741795281}}</ref>

==== Korea ====
{{expand section|date=July 2021}}

[[Korean shamanism|Muism]], the native Korean belief, has many animist aspects.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Peter H.|title=Sources of Korean tradition|last2=De Bary|first2=Wm. Theodore|date=1996|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-10566-5|location=New York|oclc=34553561}}</ref> The various deities, called ''kwisin,'' are capable of interacting with humans and causing problems if they are not honoured appropriately. [[File:A Tinguian making an offering to the guardian stones. Wellcome M0005692.jpg|thumb|A 1922 photograph of an [[Itneg people|Itneg]] [[babaylan|priestess]] in the [[Philippines]] making an offering to an ''apdel'', a guardian ''[[anito]]'' spirit of her village that reside in the water-worn stones known as ''pinaing''<ref name="cole">{{cite journal |first1=Fay-Cooper |last1=Cole |first2=Albert |last2=Gale |year=1922 |title=The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe |journal=Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=235–493 |url=https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole}}</ref>|upright=1.2]]

==== Philippines indigenous religions ====
In the [[indigenous Philippine folk religions]], [[Religion in pre-colonial Philippines|pre-colonial religions of Philippines]] and [[Philippine mythology]], animism is part of their core beliefs as demonstrated by the belief in [[Anito]], [[Diwata (disambiguation)|Diwata]] and [[Bathala]] as well as their conservation and veneration of [[Indigenous Philippine shrines and sacred grounds|sacred Indigenous Philippine shrines, forests, mountains and sacred grounds]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |title=Barangay: sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society |date=1994 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |isbn=978-971-550-135-4 |location=Quezon City, Manila, Philippines}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Crawfurd |first=John |title=History of the Indian Archipelago. 2 |date=2013 |series=Cambridge library collection. Perspectives from the Royal Asiatic Society |edition=Reprint |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-05615-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zialcita |first=Fernando N. |date=2020 |title=Gilda Cordero-Fernando: 1932–2020 |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/phs.2020.0040 |journal=Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints |volume=68 |issue=3–4 |pages=541–547 |doi=10.1353/phs.2020.0040 |issn=2244-1638|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
In ancient Philippine animism, Diwata or Diwatas in plural is a broad, gender-neutral term for supernatural beings, including gods, goddesses, fairies, nature spirits, and celestial entities. Rooted in Hindu-Buddhist influences, the word originally meant "celestial being" or "descent" in Sanskrit word devata (deity).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daniélou |first=Alain |title=The myths and gods of India: the classic work on Hindu polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen series |date=1991 |publisher=Inner Traditions International; Distributed to the book trade in the U.S. by American International Distribution Corp |isbn=978-0-89281-354-4 |location=Rochester, Vt. : [s.l.]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |title=Barangay: sixteenth century Philippine culture and society |date=2004 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila Univ. Pr |isbn=978-971-550-135-4 |edition=5. pr |location=Manila}}</ref> In modern Filipino culture, Diwata is often interpreted and linked to fairies, muses, nymphs, or even dryads.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Andrews |first=Roy Chapman |url=https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.147302 |title=[Mammal field catalog] |date=1916 |publisher=[s.n.]|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.147302 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=The Peshat is One, Because the Truth is One |date=2019-01-23 |work=The Dual Truth, Volumes I & II |pages=132–148 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1zjgb1f.10 |access-date=2025-03-21 |publisher=Academic Studies Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1zjgb1f.10 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Owen |first=Norman G. |date=February 1998 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Philippines. By Artemio R. Guillermo and May Kyi Win . Lanham, Md.: The Scarecrow Press, 1997. xi, 363 pp. $62.00. |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2659094 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=273–275 |doi=10.2307/2659094 |jstor=2659094 |issn=0021-9118|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Anito and Diwata|Anito]] are the wooden statues and ancestor spirits in the various indigenous shamanistic [[folk religion]]s of the [[Philippines]], led by female or feminized male shamans known as ''[[Philippine shamans|babaylan]]''. It includes belief in a spirit world existing alongside and interacting with the material world, as well as the belief that everything has a spirit, from rocks and trees to animals and humans to natural phenomena.<ref name="Scott1994">{{cite book |author=Scott, William Henry |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |year=1994 |title=Barangay: Sixteenth century Philippine culture and society |url=https://archive.org/details/BarangaySixteenthCenturyPhilippineCultureAndSociety |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |place=Quezon City |isbn=978-9715501354}}</ref><ref name="SoulBook1991">{{cite book |last1=Demetrio |first1=Francisco R. |last2=Cordero-Fernando |first2=Gilda |author2-link=Gilda Cordero-Fernando |first3=Roberto B. |last3=Nakpil-Zialcita |first4=Fernando |last4=Feleo |year=1991 |title=The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine pagan religion |publisher=GCF Books |place=Quezon City |asin=B007FR4S8G}}</ref>

In indigenous Filipino belief, the Bathala is the omnipotent deity which was derived from [[Sanskrit]] word for the Hindu supreme deity ''[[Batara Guru|bhattara]]'',<ref>R. Ghose (1966), ''Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period'', The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 16, 123, 494–495, 550–552</ref><ref>Scott, William Henry (1994). ''Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society''. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. {{ISBN|971-550-135-4}}. p. 234.</ref> as one of the ten [[avatar]]s of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]].<ref>de los Reyes y Florentino, Isabelo (2014). ''History of Ilocos'', Volume 1. University of the Philippines Press, 2014. {{ISBN|9715427294}}, 9789715427296. p. 83.</ref><ref>John Crawfurd (2013). ''History of the Indian Archipelago: Containing an Account of the Manners, Art, Languages, Religions, Institutions, and Commerce of Its Inhabitants''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–220. {{ISBN|978-1-108-05615-1}}.</ref> The omnipotent Bathala also presides over the spirits of ancestors called Anito.<ref name="Marsden, William 1784">Marsden, William (1784). ''The History of Sumatra: Containing an Account of the Government, Laws, Customs and Manners of the Native Inhabitants''. Good Press, 2019.</ref><ref name="Marsden, William 1784 Page 255">Marsden, William (1784). ''The History of Sumatra: Containing an Account of the Government, Laws, Customs and Manners of the Native Inhabitants, with a Description of the Natural Productions, and a Relation of the Ancient Political State of that Island''. p. 255.</ref><ref>Silliman, Robert Benton (1964). ''Religious Beliefs and Life at the Beginning of the Spanish Regime in the Philippines: Readings''. College of Theology, Silliman University, 1964. p. 46</ref><ref>Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander. ''The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898'', Volume 40 (of 55): 1690–1691. Chapter XV, p. 106.</ref> Anitos serve as intermediaries between mortals and the divine, such as [[Agni]] (Hindu) who holds the access to divine realms; for this reason they are invoked first and are the first to receive offerings, regardless of the deity the worshipper wants to pray to.<ref>Talbott, Rick F. (2005). ''Sacred Sacrifice: Ritual Paradigms in Vedic Religion and Early Christianity''. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2005. {{ISBN|1597523402|9781597523400}}. p. 82</ref><ref>Pomey, François & Tooke, Andrew (1793). ''The Pantheon: Representing the Fabulous Histories of the Heathen Gods, and the Most Illustrious Heroes of Antiquity, in a Short, Plain, and Familiar Method, by Way of Dialogue, for the Use of Schools''. Silvester Doig, 1793. p. 151</ref>

==== Abrahamic religions ====
Animism also has influences in [[Yahwism|Abrahamic religions]].

The [[Old Testament]] and the [[Wisdom literature]] preach the [[omnipresence]] of God (Jeremiah 23:24; Proverbs 15:3; 1 Kings 8:27), and God is bodily present in the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]] of his Son, [[Jesus Christ]]. (Gospel of John 1:14, Colossians 2:9).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wallace |first=Mark I. |chapter=Christian Animism, Green Spirit Theology, and the Global Crisis today |title=Interdisciplinary and Religio-Cultural Discourses on a Spirit-Filled World |year=2013 |pages=197–211 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |doi=10.1057/9781137268990_15 |isbn=9781137268990 }}</ref> Animism is not peripheral to Christian identity but is its nurturing home ground, its [[axis mundi]]. In addition to the conceptual work the term ''animism'' performs, it provides insight into the relational character and common personhood of material existence.<ref name=":2" />

The Christian [[spiritual mapping]] movement is based upon a similar worldview to that of animism. It involves researching and mapping the spiritual and social history of an area in order to determine the demon ([[territorial spirit]]) controlling an area and preventing [[evangelism]], so that the demon can be defeated through [[spiritual warfare]] prayer and rituals. Both posit that an invisible spirit world is active and that it can be interacted with or controlled, with the Christian belief that such power to control the spirit world comes from God rather than being inherent to objects or places. "The animist believes that rituals and objects ''contain'' spiritual power, whereas a Christian believes that rituals and objects may ''convey'' power. Animists seek to ''manipulate'' power, whereas Christians seek to ''submit'' to God and to learn to work with his power."<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Holvast |first=René |title=Spiritual Mapping: The Turbulent Career of a Contested American Missionary Paradigm, 1989–2005 |date=2008 |degree=PhD |access-date=September 15, 2024 |publisher=[[Utrecht University]] |isbn=978-90-393-4829-1 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/29340/holvast.pdf |pages=24–25}}</ref>

With rising awareness of ecological preservation, recently theologians like [[Mark I. Wallace]] argue for animistic Christianity with a [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentric]] approach that understands God being present in all earthly objects, such as animals, trees, and rocks.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-15 |title=Theologian Mark Wallace Explores Christian Animism in Recent Book |url=https://www.swarthmore.edu/news-events/theologian-mark-wallace-explores-christian-animism-recent-book |access-date=2020-12-08 |website=www.swarthmore.edu |language=en}}</ref>

==== Pre-Islamic Arab religion ====
{{expand section|date=July 2021}}

[[Pre-Islamic Arab religion]] can refer to the traditional polytheistic, animist, and in some rare cases, shamanistic, religions of the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula. The belief in [[jinn]], invisible entities akin to spirits in the Western sense dominant in the Arab religious systems, hardly fit the description of Animism in a strict sense. The jinn are considered to be analogous to the human soul by living lives like that of humans, but they are not exactly like human souls neither are they spirits of the dead.<ref name="MagicAndDivination-2021">Magic and Divination in Early Islam. (2021). Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.</ref>{{rp|p=49}} It is unclear if belief in jinn derived from nomadic or sedentary populations.<ref name="MagicAndDivination-2021"/>{{rp|p=51}}

=== Paganism ===
Animism has been identified as a foundational element in the development of many ancient and [[modern pagan]] religious traditions. As one of the earliest spiritual worldviews, animism is characterized by the belief that elements of the natural world—including animals, plants, geographical features, and weather systems—possess spirit or agency. Scholars have noted that this perspective influenced the cosmologies of numerous pre-modern societies and contributed to the development of polytheistic and nature-based religious systems that are now categorized as Pagan traditions.

==== Ancient paganism with animist roots ====
In various ancient cultures, such as those of the Celts, Norse, Greeks, Romans, and Slavs, religious beliefs often incorporated elements now associated with animism. Natural features were frequently regarded as sacred or inhabited by spiritual beings. Deities were often linked to specific rivers, trees, mountains, or celestial bodies. According to historian Ronald Hutton, nature in these contexts was not only revered but considered to be "alive and participatory" in religious life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=The triumph of the moon: a history of modern pagan witchcraft |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-820744-3 |location=Oxford; New York}}</ref>

While these societies developed organized pantheons and mythological systems, many retained a view of the natural world that reflected animistic thought. Practices such as offering rituals at springs, maintaining sacred groves, or acknowledging local land spirits illustrate the integration of animistic concepts within broader polytheistic frameworks.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=Graham |title=Animism: Respecting the Living World |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0231137010}}</ref>

==== Continuity in folk religion ====
Following the spread of monotheistic religions, especially Christianity, across much of Europe, many animistic and Pagan practices were suppressed or reinterpreted. Nevertheless, aspects of animistic belief persisted through folk religion, particularly in rural communities. Customs such as venerating household spirits, seasonal festivals tied to agricultural cycles, and the personification of natural phenomena continued in modified forms. For example, certain wells and springs that were originally associated with local deities came to be associated with Christian saints, suggesting a degree of continuity between animistic and Christian devotional practices.<ref name="Harcourt, Brace">{{Cite book |last1=Eliade |first1=Mircea |title=The sacred and the profane: the nature of religion; [the groundbreaking work by one of the greatest authorities on myth, symbol, and ritual] |last2=Eliade |first2=Mircea |date=1987 |publisher=Harcourt, Brace |isbn=978-0-15-679201-1 |series=A Harvest Book |location=San Diego |translator-last=Trask |translator-first=Willard R.}}</ref>

These continuities were often preserved through oral traditions, local rituals, and folk customs, contributing to the survival of animistic perspectives beyond their original religious contexts.

==== Revival and modern pagan movements ====
The 19th and 20th centuries saw renewed interest in pre-Christian religions and folklore, influenced by Romanticism, antiquarian studies, and the emergence of national identities. This cultural movement laid the groundwork for contemporary Pagan traditions, such as Wicca, Druidry, and Heathenry, which often draw upon animistic concepts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rountree |first=Kathryn |date=2012-05-01 |title=Neo-Paganism, Animism, and Kinship with Nature |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2012.675746 |journal=Journal of Contemporary Religion |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=305–320 |doi=10.1080/13537903.2012.675746 |issn=1353-7903|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Some scholars and practitioners of modern Paganism incorporate animism into their religious frameworks. Graham Harvey has noted that contemporary Pagan worldviews frequently emphasize relationality and agency within the natural world, viewing humans as part of a larger network of sentient beings.<ref name="Harcourt, Brace"/> In Wiccan and other Pagan rituals, for example, elements such as earth, air, fire, and water are invoked not only symbolically but as active, spiritually significant forces. This approach reflects an animistic orientation toward the environment.

==== Contemporary interpretations ====
In recent decades, animism has been reimagined in both academic and spiritual circles. Rather than viewing it simply as a set of beliefs, many modern interpretations understand animism as a ''relational ontology''—a way of being that centers on relationships and mutual respect between humans and non-human entities. This approach presents animism as a legitimate and coherent worldview, one that offers an alternative to Cartesian dualism and materialist perspectives by emphasizing connection over separation.

Emma Restall Orr, a British author and Druidic practitioner, has argued that animism provides a philosophical basis for environmental ethics and personal spirituality within contemporary Paganism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Orr |first=Emma Restall |title=The Wakeful World: Animism, Mind and the Self in Nature |publisher=Moon Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-1780994079}}</ref> Similarly, Sabina Magliocco has documented the presence of animistic themes in American Neo-Pagan practices, including rituals, festivals, and magical systems.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Magliocco |first=Sabina |title=Witching culture: folklore and neo-paganism in America |date=2004 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3803-7 |series=Contemporary ethnography |location=Philadelphia, Pa}}</ref>

Contemporary expressions of animism often align with ecological values, highlighting themes like sustainability, interdependence, and a deep respect for the natural world. Within this context, animism is no longer seen as outdated or primitive, but as a meaningful way for people to engage with both their environment and the spiritual forces they perceive within it. The [[New Age]] movement, for instance, often incorporates animistic elements, such as beliefs in nature spirits and energetic connections with the Earth.<ref>[[Wouter Hanegraaff|Hanegraaff, Wouter J.]] 1998. ''New Age Religion and Western Culture''. p. 199.</ref>

In recent years, animism has also found a place within emerging spiritual paths. Many neopagan groups—including Eco-pagans—identify as animists, expressing reverence for the web of life and the unseen presences they believe share the world and cosmos with humanity.<ref>Pizza, Murphy, and [[James R. Lewis (scholar)|James R. Lewis]]. 2008. ''Handbook of Contemporary Paganism''. pp. 408–09.</ref>

=== Shamanism ===
{{Main|Shamanism}}

A shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of [[Evocation|benevolent and malevolent spirits]], who typically enters into a [[trance]] state during a [[ritual]], and practices [[divination]] and [[healing]].<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20200311005110/https://www.lexico.com/definition/shaman Shaman]." ''[[Lexico]]''. [[Oxford University Press]] and [[Dictionary.com]]. Retrieved 25 July 2020.</ref>

According to [[Mircea Eliade]], shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters [[otherworld|supernatural realms]] or [[Plane (esotericism)|dimensions]] to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.<ref name="Eli72">{{cite book|author-link=Mircea Eliade |last=Eliadem |first=Mircea |date=1972 |title=[[Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy]] |series=Bollingen Series LXXVI. |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=3–7}}</ref>

Abram, however, articulates a less supernatural and much more ecological understanding of the shaman's role than that propounded by Eliade. Drawing upon his own field research in Indonesia, Nepal, and the Americas, Abram suggests that in animistic cultures, the shaman functions primarily as an intermediary between the human community and the more-than-human community of active agencies—the local animals, plants, and landforms (mountains, rivers, forests, winds, and weather patterns, all of which are felt to have their own specific [[sentience]]). Hence, the shaman's ability to heal individual instances of disease (or imbalance) within the human community is a byproduct of their more continual practice of balancing the reciprocity between the human community and the wider collective of animate beings in which that community is embedded.{{sfn|Abram|1996|pp=[https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0/page/3 3–29]}}

== Animist life ==

=== Non-human animals ===
Animism entails the belief that all living things have a soul, and thus, a central concern of animist thought surrounds how animals can be eaten, or otherwise used for humans' subsistence needs.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=99}} The actions of non-human animals are viewed as "intentional, planned and purposive",{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=101}} and they are understood to be persons, as they are both alive, and communicate with others.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=100}}

In animist worldviews, non-human animals are understood to participate in [[kinship]] systems and ceremonies with humans, as well as having their own kinship systems and ceremonies.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=102}} [[Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|Graham Harvey]] cited an example of an animist understanding of animal behavior that occurred at a [[Pow wow|powwow]] held by the [[Conne River]] [[Miꞌkmaq|Mi'kmaq]] in 1996; an eagle flew over the proceedings, circling over the central drum group. The assembled participants called out {{Lang|mic|kitpu}} ('eagle'), conveying welcome to the bird and expressing pleasure at its beauty, and they later articulated the view that the eagle's actions reflected its approval of the event, and the Mi'kmaq's return to traditional spiritual practices.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=102–103}}

In animism, rituals are performed to maintain relationships between humans and spirits. Indigenous peoples often perform these rituals to appease the spirits and request their assistance during activities such as hunting and healing. In the [[Arctic]] region, certain rituals are common before the hunt as a means to show respect for the spirits of animals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Koto |first=Koray |date=2023-04-05 |title=Animism in Anthropological and Psychological Contexts |url=https://ulukayin.org/animism-in-anthropological-and-psychological-contexts/ |access-date=2023-04-08 |website=ULUKAYIN English |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Flora ===
Some animists also view plant and fungi life as persons and interact with them accordingly.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=104}} The most common encounter between humans and these plant and fungi persons is with the former's collection of the latter for food, and for animists, this interaction typically has to be carried out respectfully.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=106}} Harvey cited the example of Māori communities in New Zealand, who often offer ''[[karakia]]'' invocations to [[sweet potatoes]] as they dig up the latter. While doing so, there is an awareness of a kinship relationship between the Māori and the sweet potatoes, with both understood as having arrived in [[Aotearoa]] together in the same canoes.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=106}}

In other instances, animists believe that interaction with plant and fungi persons can result in the communication of things unknown or even otherwise unknowable.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=104}} Among some modern Pagans, for instance, relationships are cultivated with specific trees, who are understood to bestow knowledge or physical gifts, such as flowers, sap, or wood that can be used as firewood or to fashion into a [[wand]]; in return, these Pagans give offerings to the tree itself, which can come in the form of [[libation]]s of mead or ale, a drop of blood from a finger, or a strand of wool.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=104–105}}

=== The elements ===
Various animistic cultures also comprehend stones as persons.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=106–107}} Discussing ethnographic work conducted among the Ojibwe, Harvey noted that their society generally conceived of stones as being inanimate, but with two notable exceptions: the stones of the [[Bell Rocks]] and those stones which are situated beneath trees struck by lightning, which were understood to have become Thunderers themselves.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=107}} The Ojibwe conceived of weather as being capable of having personhood, with storms being conceived of as persons known as 'Thunderers' whose sounds conveyed communications and who engaged in seasonal conflict over the lakes and forests, throwing lightning at lake monsters.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=107}} Wind, similarly, can be conceived as a person in animistic thought.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|pp=108–109}}

The importance of place is also a recurring element of animism, with some places being understood to be persons in their own right.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=109}}

=== Spirits ===
Animism can also entail relationships being established with non-corporeal spirit entities.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=122}}

== Other usage ==

=== Psychology ===

From his studies into child development, [[Jean Piaget]] suggested that children were born with an innate animist worldview in which they [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphized]] inanimate objects and that it was only later that they grew out of this belief.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=14}} Conversely, from her ethnographic research, [[Margaret Mead]] argued the opposite, believing that children were not born with an animist worldview but that they became acculturated to such beliefs as they were educated by their society.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=14}}

[[Stewart Guthrie]] saw animism—or "attribution" as he preferred it—as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that both humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=15}} His suggested explanation, however, did not deal with the question of why such a belief became central to the religion.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=16}} In 2000, Guthrie suggested that the "most widespread" concept of animism was that it was the "attribution of spirits to natural phenomena such as stones and trees."{{sfn|Guthrie|2000|p=106}}

=== Attempts to reconcile with science ===
In the early 20th century, [[William McDougall (psychologist)|William McDougall]] defended a form of animism in his book ''Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism'' (1911).

Physicist [[Nick Herbert (physicist)|Nick Herbert]] has argued for "quantum animism" in which the mind permeates the world at every level:

{{blockquote|The quantum consciousness assumption, which amounts to a kind of "quantum animism" likewise asserts that consciousness is an integral part of the physical world, not an emergent property of special biological or computational systems. Since everything in the world is on some level a quantum system, this assumption requires that everything be conscious on that level. If the world is truly quantum animated, then there is an immense amount of invisible inner experience going on all around us that is presently inaccessible to humans, because our own inner lives are imprisoned inside a small quantum system, isolated deep in the meat of an animal brain.<ref>{{cite web|first=Nick |last=Herbert |author-link=Nick Herbert (physicist) |title=Holistic Physics – or – An Introduction to Quantum Tantra |date=2002 |access-date=2014-05-01 |url=http://www.southerncrossreview.org/16/herbert.essay.htm |publisher=southerncrossreview.org}}</ref>}}

[[Werner Krieglstein]] wrote regarding his ''quantum animism'':

{{blockquote|Herbert's quantum Animism differs from traditional Animism in that it avoids assuming a dualistic model of mind and matter. Traditional dualism assumes that some kind of spirit inhabits a body and makes it move, a ghost in the machine. Herbert's quantum Animism presents the idea that every natural system has an inner life, a conscious center, from which it directs and observes its action.<ref>Werner J. Krieglstein ''Compassion: A New Philosophy of the Other'' 2002, p. 118</ref>}}

In ''Error and Loss: A Licence to Enchantment'' (2018) by [[Ashley Curtis]]{{sfn|Curtis|2018}} it's argued that the Cartesian idea of an experiencing subject facing off with an inert physical world is incoherent at its very foundation and that this incoherence is consistent with rather than belied by [[Darwinism]]. Human reason (and its rigorous extension in the natural sciences) fits an evolutionary niche just as [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]] does for bats and [[Infrared sensing in snakes|infrared vision]] does for pit vipers, and is epistemologically on a par with, rather than superior to, such capabilities. The meaning or aliveness of the "objects" we encounter, rocks, trees, rivers, and other animals, thus depends for its validity not on a detached cognitive judgment, but purely on the quality of our experience. The animist experience, or the wolf's or raven's experience, thus become licensed as equally valid worldviews to the modern western scientific one; they are indeed more valid, since they are not plagued with the incoherence that inevitably arises when "objective existence" is separated from "subjective experience."

=== Socio-political impact ===
Harvey opined that animism's views on personhood represented a radical challenge to the dominant perspectives of [[modernity]], because it accords "intelligence, rationality, consciousness, volition, agency, intentionality, language, and desire" to non-humans.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xviii}} Similarly, it challenges the view of human uniqueness that is prevalent in both [[Abrahamic religion]]s and Western [[rationalism]].{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xix}}

=== Art and literature ===
Animist beliefs can also be expressed through artwork.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=50}} For instance, among the [[Māori people|Māori]] communities of New Zealand, there is an acknowledgement that creating art through carving wood or stone entails violence against the wood or stone person and that the persons who are damaged therefore have to be placated and respected during the process; any excess or waste from the creation of the artwork is returned to the land, while the artwork itself is treated with particular respect.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=55}} Harvey, therefore, argued that the creation of art among the Māori was not about creating an inanimate object for display, but rather a transformation of different persons within a relationship.{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=64}}

Harvey expressed the view that animist worldviews were present in various works of literature, citing such examples as the writings of [[Alan Garner]], [[Leslie Silko]], [[Barbara Kingsolver]], [[Alice Walker]], [[Daniel Quinn]], [[Linda Hogan (writer)|Linda Hogan]], [[David Abram]], [[Patricia Grace]], [[Chinua Achebe]], [[Ursula Le Guin]], [[Louise Erdrich]], and [[Marge Piercy]].{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=xxiii}}

Animist worldviews have also been identified in the animated films of [[Hayao Miyazaki]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/spirits-gods-and-pastel-paints-the-weird-world-of-master-animator-hayao-miyazaki-1880974.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/spirits-gods-and-pastel-paints-the-weird-world-of-master-animator-hayao-miyazaki-1880974.html |archive-date=7 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Spirits, gods and pastel paints: The weird world of master animator Hayao Miyazaki |first=Robert |last=Epstein |date=31 January 2010 |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |access-date=1 June 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kyotojournal.org/the-journal/culture-arts/musings-on-miyazaki-early-and-late-2/ |title=Musings on Miyazaki |first=David A. |last=Ross |date=19 April 2011 |publisher=[[Kyoto Journal]] |access-date=1 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609083409/http://www.kyotojournal.org/the-journal/culture-arts/musings-on-miyazaki-early-and-late-2/ |archive-date=9 June 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ogihara-Schuck |first=Eriko |date=16 October 2014 |title=Miyazaki's Animism Abroad: The Reception of Japanese Religious Themes by American and German Audiences |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0786472628}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52raDbtNpa4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009134931/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52raDbtNpa4&gl=US&hl=en |archive-date=2015-10-09 |title=Hayao Miyazaki - The Essence of Humanity |first=Lewis |last=Bond |publisher=Channel Criswell |website=YouTube.com |date=6 October 2015 |access-date=1 June 2018}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Anecdotal cognitivism]]
* [[Animatism]]
* [[Anima mundi]]
*[[Indigenous Philippine folk religions|Dayawism]]
* [[Ecotheology]]
* [[Hylozoism]]
* [[Mana (Oceanian mythology)|Mana]]
* [[Mauri (life force)]]
* [[Kaitiaki]]
* [[Panpsychism]]
* [[Religion and environmentalism]]
* [[Sacred trees]]
* [[Shamanism]]
* [[Wildlife totemization]]
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|25em}}

=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |last=Abram |first=David |author-link=David Abram |title=The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World |url=https://archive.org/details/spellofsensuousp00abra_0 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[Pantheon Books]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-679-43819-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Abram |first=David |year=2010 |title=Becoming Animal: An Earthly Cosmology |place=New York |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=978-0-375-42171-6}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bird-David |first=Nurit |title="Animism" Revisited: Personhood, Environment, and Relational Epistemology |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |volume=41 |number=S1 |year=1999 |pages=67–91 |doi=10.1086/200061 |bibcode=1999CurrA..40S..67B |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Ashley |title=Error and Loss: A Licence to Enchantment |location=Zürich |publisher=Kommode Verlag |year=2018}}
* {{cite book |last=Fernandez-Armesto |first=Felipe |title=Ideas that Changed the World |publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]] |year=2003}}
* {{cite journal |last=Guthrie |first=Stewart |title=On Animism |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=41 |issue=1 |year=2000 |pages=106–107 |jstor=10.1086/300107 |doi=10.1086/300107 |pmid=10593728 |s2cid=224796411}}
* {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Graham |author-link=Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar) |title=Animism: Respecting the Living World |year=2005 |publisher=Hurst & Co |location=London |isbn=978-0-231-13701-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Insoll |first=Timothy |title=Archaeology, Ritual, Religion |year=2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-25312-3}}
* {{cite EB9 |last=Lonie |first=Alexander Charles Oughter |wstitle=Animism |volume=2 |ref={{harvid|EB|1878}} |pages=55–57}}
* {{cite book |last=Segal |first=Robert |year=2004 |title=Myth: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Willerslev |first=Rane |title=Soul Hunters: Hunting, animism, and personhood among the Siberian Yukaghirs |url=https://archive.org/details/soulhuntershunti00will |url-access=limited |year=2007 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |place=Berkeley |isbn=9780520252172}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Adler |first=Margot |author-link=Margot Adler |year=2006 |orig-date=1979 |title=Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers and Other Pagans in America |edition=Revised |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-303819-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/drawingdownmoonw00adle_2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |title=A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam |publisher=Ballantine Books |year=1994 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Dean |first=Bartholomew |year=2009 |title=Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia |location=Gainesville |publisher=[[University Press of Florida]] |isbn= 978-0-8130-3378-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |chapter=Lamphun's Little-Known Animal Shrines (Animist traditions in Thailand) |last1=Forbes |first1=Andrew |last2= Henley |first2=David |title=Ancient Chiang Mai |volume= 1 |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Cognoscenti Books |year=2012 |ref=none}}
* [[Alfred Irving Hallowell|Hallowell, Alfred Irving]]. 1960. "Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view." In ''Culture in History'', edited by [[Stanley Diamond|S. Diamond]]. (New York: Columbia University Press).
** '''Reprint''': 2002. Pp. 17–49 in ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'', edited by G. Harvey. London: Continuum.
* [[Tim Ingold|Ingold, Tim]]. 2006. "Rethinking the animate, re-animating thought." ''[[Ethos (magazine)|Ethnos]]'' 71(1):9–20.
* Käser, Lothar. 2004. ''Animismus. Eine Einführung in die begrifflichen Grundlagen des Welt- und Menschenbildes traditionaler (ethnischer) Gesellschaften für Entwicklungshelfer und kirchliche Mitarbeiter in Übersee''. Bad Liebenzell: Liebenzeller Mission. {{ISBN|3-921113-61-X}}.
** mit dem verkürzten Untertitel ''Einführung in seine begrifflichen Grundlagen'' auch bei: Erlanger Verlag für Mission und Okumene, Neuendettelsau 2004, {{ISBN|3-87214-609-2}}
* [[Daniel Quinn|Quinn, Daniel]]. [1996] 1997. ''[[The Story of B|The Story of B: An Adventure of the Mind and Spirit]]''. New York: [[Bantam Books]], and the essay "Our Religions: Are They the Religions of Humanity Itself?", usually available at Ishmael.org
* [[Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt|Wundt, Wilhelm]]. 1906. ''Mythus und Religion'', Teil II. Leipzig 1906 (''Völkerpsychologie'' II)

== External links ==
*{{wiktionary inline}}
*{{commons category-inline}}

{{Theism}}
{{witchcraft}}
{{Paganism}}
{{philosophy of religion}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Animism| ]]
[[Category:Anthropology of religion]]
[[Category:Indigenous spirituality]]
[[Category:Metaphysical theories]]
[[Category:Panentheism]]
[[Category:Philosophy of religion]]
[[Category:Polytheism]]
[[Category:Schools of thought]]
[[Category:Transtheism]]

A. C. Murali Mohan

2026-02-10T01:25:57Z

Khorang: Stub

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| image = A. C. Murali Mohan.jpeg
| caption =
| birth_name = Murali Mohan
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1960|6|1}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinnathirai.co.in/actorview.php?menu%3Dactor%26%26artistid%3D1 |title=Chinnathirai Cinema |accessdate=2015-03-09 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402131051/http://www.chinnathirai.co.in/actorview.php?menu=actor&&artistid=1 |archivedate=2015-04-02 }}</ref>
| birth_place =
| occupation = Actor
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2014|06|25|1960|6|1}}<ref name="death">{{cite news|title=Tamil actor Bala Murali Mohan commits suicide|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Tamil-actor-Bala-Murali-Mohan-commits-suicide/articleshow/37246550.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|date=26 June 2014 |accessdate=24 December 2014}}</ref>
| death_place= Purasawalkam, [[Chennai]], India
| parents =
| spouse = Sumathi
| children = 1
| years_active = 1991-2014
}}

'''A. C. Murali Mohan''' (1960-25 June 2014) was an Indian actor who appeared in Tamil-language films and television. He acted in movies as well as appearing for several advertisements. He is notable for a popular commercial for [[Horlicks]] and was popularly called Horlicks Mama and also for his role as Laxman in the Popular serial [[Thendral]].<ref name="death"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Tamil actor Bala Murali Mohan found dead at his residence|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140626/entertainment-kollywood/article/tamil-actor-bala-murali-mohan-found-dead-his-residence|website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|access-date=24 December 2014}}</ref>

In the early 1990s he started in a character and comedy based roles in Tamil films. He has acted in several serials and appeared in several advertisements.

==Partial filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Film
!Role
!class=unsortable|Notes
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Hey Ram]]'' || Parthasarathy || Bilingual film
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2001 || ''[[Minnale]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thavasi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Alli Thandha Vaanam]]'' || Television host ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2003 || ''[[Boys (2003 film)|Boys]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Knock Knock, I'm Looking to Marry]]'' || Nithya's father ||English film
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Rendu]]'' || ||
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Sivaji (film)|Sivaji]]'' || Doctor ||
|-
|2008|| ''[[Kuruvi]]''|| Doctor || Uncredited
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Mayanginen Thayanginen]]'' || ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Kantha (film)|Kantha]]'' || ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Malini 22 Palayamkottai]]'' || Lalitha's husband ||
|-
| 2018 || ''Moonavathu Kann'' || ||
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:90%"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Year
! Series/Show
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 2010-12 ||''[[Thendral]]''|| Laxman ||Sun TV Serial
|-
|2013-14
|[[Vamsam (TV series)|''Vamsam'']]
|Sendhil Raja
|Sun TV Serial
|}

==Death==
He committed suicide by hanging himself from the roof on the night of 25 June 2014. He is survived by his wife Seetha Rani, and son Uma Shankar.<ref name="death" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Murali Mohan, A.C.}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:2014 deaths]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Suicides by hanging in India]]

Sehra (headdress)

2026-02-07T11:14:50Z

Khorang: small fix

{{short description|Headdress worn by the groom during weddings in Indian subcontinent}}
{{For|1963, [[V. Shantaram]] film|Sehra (film)}}
[[File:Sehragroom.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Indian groom in traditional attire, with Sherwani and Sehra]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}

A '''sehra''' ({{langx|bn|শেহরি}}, [[Hindi]]: सेहरा, {{Langx|pnb|ਸੇਹਰਾ}}, {{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|سہرا}}}}), '''sehro''' ([[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]: સેહરો), '''sevrau''' ([[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]: सेवरौ), '''mundavalya'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Untracht |first=Oppi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1ZQAAAAMAAJ&q=Mundavalya |title=Traditional Jewelry of India |date=February 1997 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |isbn=978-0-8109-3886-1 |language=en}}</ref> ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]: मुण्डावळ्या), '''morrah''' ([[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]: مُوڻ ), or '''basikam'''<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=Charles Philip |date=1903 |title=A Telugu-English Dictionary. New ed., thoroughly rev. and brought up to date...2nd ed |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/brown_query.py?searchhws=yes&qs=%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81 |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=dsal.uchicago.edu}}</ref> ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]: బాసికం) is a forehead garland/nuptial crown<ref name=":1" /> worn by the bridegroom (or even bride in some cases) during weddings in [[Indian subcontinent]]. This decorative groom’s veil can be made either out of flowers or beads and is tied to the groom’s turban or ''[[Pagri (turban)|Pagdi]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.utsavpedia.com/attires/sehra/|title=Sehra: Traditional Headdress For Indian Groom|date=18 June 2014|website=Utsavpedia}}</ref>

The sehra has 2 main purposes:

They are intended to ward off the [[evil eye]]. Secondly, the bride and groom are not supposed to see each other before their wedding ceremony.

Therefore, a sehra solved the purpose of hiding the groom’s face, whereas the bride covered her face with a ''ghunghat'' or ''pallu''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.desiblitz.com/content/8-sehra-designs-perfect-for-a-grooms-turban|title=8 Sehra Designs Perfect for a Groom's Turban|date=6 August 2019|website=DESIblitz}}</ref> They are more prominently worn in North India than in other parts of the country.

== Etymology ==

The word ''sehra'' is derived from [[Sanskrit]] word ''Śīrṣahāra'' (शीर्षहार)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Dasa |first=Syamasundara |date=1965–1975 |title=Hindi sabdasagara |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/dasa-hindi_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE&searchhws=yes |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=dsal.uchicago.edu}}</ref> meaning garland for decorating head. The word ''sehra'' is mentioned in [[Braj Bhasha|Braj]] poetry of the [[Hindus|Hindu]] [[Bhakti]] saint [[Surdas|Suradāsa]].<ref name=":0" />

== Sehrabandi ==

The act of tying the sehra around the groom's head right before he leaves for the bride's house is called ''sehra bandi''. Typically the groom's sisters, female cousins, ''Bhabhi'' or sister-in-law are the essential performers of ''sehra bandi''. In the case of multiple sisters or female relatives, each woman takes a turn to perform the ritual one by one. While carrying out this whole custom, all the women sing traditional wedding songs. Usually, women in the family perform the ritual in a hierarchical order based on the relation with the groom. For example, it begins with the groom's mother, the oldest sister, younger sister, oldest sister-in-law and so on.<ref name="c2595"/>

== Types of sehra ==

Usually sehras are of two main types. The traditional sehra was made of flowers however nowadays beaded sehras are equally popular. A fresh floral sehra is the traditional sehra which is made up of flowers.<ref name="c2595"/> A bejewelled sehra is made up of fancy jewels, stones and pearls.<ref name="c2595"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="c2595">{{Cite web|url=https://www.weddingwire.in/wedding-tips/sehra-bandi--c2595|title=From Tradition to Fashion! Know All About the "What" "Who" and "How" of Sehra Bandi Tradition and Sport Your Head Dress|website=www.weddingwire.in}}</ref>
}}

{{Indian wedding}}
{{Bengali wedding}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}

[[Category:Bangladeshi clothing]]
[[Category:Indian clothing]]
[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]
[[Category:Marriage in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indian wedding clothing]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi wedding]]

Mohania Assembly constituency

2026-01-27T02:28:48Z

Khorang: expand citations per standard format and added references

{{Short description|Assembly constituency in Bihar}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Mohania Assembly constituency
|type= SLA
| map_image = 204-Mohania constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|mla = [[Sangita Kumari (politician)|Sangita Kumari]] 
|party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|alliance = [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|region =
|state = [[Bihar]]
|district = [[Kaimur district|Kaimur]]
|division =
| loksabha_cons =
|constituency_no = [[List of constituencies of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|204]]
|established = 1957
| electors = 277,850
|abolished = 
}}
'''Mohania''' is one of 243 constituencies of [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly of Bihar]]. It comes under [[Sasaram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sasaram]] Lok Sabha constituency.<ref name="election2017">{{cite web | url=http://www.elections.in/bihar/parliamentary-constituencies/sasaram.html | title=Sasaram Parliamentary Constituencies | publisher=elections.in | access-date=30 December 2017}}</ref>

==Overview==
Mohania comprises [[Community development block in India|Community Blocks]] of [[Kudra]] & [[Mohania]].<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2017-12-30 }}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Mohania Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/bihar/assembly-constituencies/mohania.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1957 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Badri Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Praja Socialist Party}}
|-
|[[1962 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Mangal Charan Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1967 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Ramkrishna Ram
|-
|[[1969 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Bhagwat Prasad
|{{Full party name with color|Praja Socialist Party}}
|-
|[[1972 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Suresh Kumar
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Ram Krishna Ram
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="2" |Mahavir Paswan
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|Shiwadhar Paswan
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
| rowspan="3" |Suresh Pasi
| {{Full party name with color|Bahujan Samaj Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
|-
|[[February 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Chhedi Paswan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|dab=y|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2010 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2010]]
|-
|2014^
| rowspan="2" |Niranjan Ram
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
|-
|[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Sangita Kumari (politician)|Sangita Kumari]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|}

^by-election

== Election results ==
=== 2025 ===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Mohania<ref name="2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Mohania">{{cite news |title=2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Mohania |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04204.htm |access-date=5 December 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=14 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251205070554/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04204.htm |archive-date=5 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Sangita Kumari (politician)|Sangita Kumari]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:76290}}
|percentage = 39.98
|change = {{increase}}9.59
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ravi Shankar Paswan
|votes = {{formatnum:57538}}
|percentage = 30.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Om Prakash Narayan
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:32263}}
|percentage = 16.91
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Gita Devi
|party = Jan Suraaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:14128}}
|percentage = 7.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Nitu Kumari
|votes = {{formatnum:2205}}
|percentage = 1.16
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2952}}
|percentage = 1.55
|change = {{decrease}}0.84
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:18752}}
|percentage = 9.83
|change = {{increase}}2.38
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:190815}}
|percentage = 68.68
|change = {{increase}}8.79
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = Bhartiya Janta Party
|loser =
|swing = Rashtriya Janta Dal
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2020 ===
{{Election box begin|
|title=[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|Bihar Assembly election, 2020]]: Mohania<ref name="election2020">{{Cite web |date=2021-01-13 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2020 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/12787-bihar-legislative-election-2020/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Sangita Kumari (politician)|Sangita Kumari]]
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = {{formatnum:61235}}
|percentage = 37.84
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Niranjan Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:49181}}
|percentage = 30.39
|change = -12.93
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Lok Samta Party
|candidate = Suman Devi
|votes = {{formatnum:39855}}
|percentage = 24.63
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtrawadi Janlok Party (Satya)
|candidate = Indrajit Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:1603}}
|percentage = 0.99
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3871}}
|percentage = 2.39
|change = +0.67
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:12054}}
|percentage = 7.45
|change = +2.06
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:161836}}
|percentage = 59.89
|change = +3.3
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|loser = BJP
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2015 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Mohania<ref name="Mohania Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025">{{cite news |title=Mohania Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/mohania |access-date=5 December 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=14 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251205070621/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/mohania |archive-date=5 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Niranjan Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:60911}}
|percentage = 43.32
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Sanjay Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:53330}}
|percentage = 37.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Ram Raj Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:9921}}
|percentage = 7.06
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Chandra Shekhar Paswan
|votes = {{formatnum:4530}}
|percentage = 3.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation
|candidate = Munna Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:2466}}
|percentage = 1.75
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2419}}
|percentage = 1.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:7581}}
|percentage = 5.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:140595}}
|percentage = 56.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Bihar Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/68-bihar/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}

[[Category:Politics of Kaimur district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Constituencies established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Bihar]]

Speaker of the House of Representatives (Nepal)

2026-01-20T12:42:59Z

Khorang:

{{short description|Presiding member of the lower house of the Parliament of Nepal}}
{{Infobox political post
| body = [[Pratinidhi Sabha]]
| post = Speaker
| insignia = Emblem of Nepal (alternative).svg
| insigniasize = 150px
| flag = Flag of Nepal.svg
| flagsize = 100px
| flagcaption = [[Flag of Nepal]]
| insigniacaption = [[Emblem of Nepal]]
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| incumbent = Vacant
| incumbentsince =
| style = [[The Right Honourable]]
| appointer = Members of [[Pratinidhi Sabha]]
| termlength = 5 years
| inaugural = [[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]
| deputy = [[Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives (Nepal)|Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives]]
| salary = [[Nepalese Rupees|रू]] 67,320
}}

The '''[[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] of the [[House of Representatives (Nepal)|House of Representatives]]''' in [[Nepal]] is the presiding officer in the Nepal's lower house of parliament, the [[House of Representatives (Nepal)|House of Representatives]]. The position of Speaker holds significant importance in the legislative process, presiding over the proceedings, maintaining order, and ensuring fair debate and discussion.

== Removal ==
The post of Speaker is vacated:-

(a) if he or she ceases to be a member of the House of Representatives, Provided that, in the event of dissolution of the House of
Representatives, the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House
of Representatives holding their respective offices shall continue in
office until the previous day of the filing of nominations for another
election to the House of Representatives,

(b) if he or she tenders resignation in writing,

(c) if a resolution is passed by a majority of two-thirds of the total
number of the then members of the House of Representatives that his
or her conduct is not compatible with his or her office.

== List of Speakers ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Speakers of the House of Representatives<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=पूर्व पदाधिकारीहरू |url=https://hr.parliament.gov.np/np/former-authorities |access-date=2022-11-27 |website=hr.parliament.gov.np}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Name
!Party
!Assumed office
!Left office
!Term
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Nepali Congress}}" |
|[[Krishna Prasad Bhattarai]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Remembering KP Bhattarai |url=https://kathmandupost.com/opinion/2014/03/04/remembering-kp-bhattarai |access-date=11 December 2020 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=English}}</ref>
|[[Nepali Congress]]
|3 July 1959
|15 December 1960
|[[List of MPs elected in the 1959 Nepalese legislative election|1st House of Representatives]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Nepali Congress}}" |
|[[Daman Nath Dhungana]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dhungana makes a comeback to politics after 23 years |url=https://kathmandupost.com/miscellaneous/2017/11/03/dhungana-makes-a-comeback-to-politics-after-23-years |access-date=8 December 2020 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=English}}</ref><ref name="formerspeakers">{{Cite web |last=Subedi |first=Ishwari |title=Bill for privileges to ex-VVIPs getting fast-tracked |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/24941/ |access-date=8 December 2020 |website=My Republica |language=en}}</ref>
|[[Nepali Congress]]
|23 June 1991
|1 October 1994
|[[List of MPs elected in the 1991 Nepalese legislative election|2nd House of Representatives]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Nepali Congress}}" |
|[[Ram Chandra Poudel]]<ref name="formerspeakers" />
|[[Nepali Congress]]
|18 December 1994
|23 March 1999
|[[List of MPs elected in the 1994 Nepalese legislative election|3rd House of Representatives]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Nepali Congress}}" |
|[[Taranath Ranabhat]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Subedi |first=Ishwari |title=Bill for privileges to ex-VVIPs getting fast-tracked |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/24941/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=My Republica |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nepal king dissolves parliament |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1394997/Nepal-king-dissolves-parliament.html |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref>
|[[Nepali Congress]]
|23 June 1999
|28 April 2006
|[[List of MPs elected in the 1999 Nepalese legislative election|4th House of Representatives]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist)}}" |
|[[Subaschandra Nemwang|Subas Chandra Nembang]]
|[[CPN (UML)]]
|13 May 2006
|15 January 2007
|[[Interim legislature of Nepal|Interim Legislature]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)}}"|
|[[Onsari Gharti Magar]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Onsari Gharti Magar elected first woman Speaker|url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2015/10/16/onsari-elected-first-woman-speaker|access-date=2020-12-20|website=kathmandupost.com|language=English}}</ref>
|[[CPN (Maoist Centre)]]
|16 October 2015
|15 October 2017
|[[List of members elected in the 2013 Nepalese Constituent Assembly election|Legislature Parliament]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)}}" |
|[[Krishna Bahadur Mahara]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Krishna Bahadur Mahara elected Nepal parliament's Speaker |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2018/mar/09/krishna-bahadur-mahara-elected-nepal-parliaments-speaker-1784563.html |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sharma |first=Bhadra |date=2019-10-01 |title=Parliament Speaker in Nepal Resigns After Rape Accusation |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/01/world/asia/nepal-parliament-speaker-resign.html |access-date=2023-01-19 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
|[[CPN (Maoist Centre)]]
|10 February 2018
|1 October 2019
| rowspan="2" |[[1st Federal Parliament of Nepal#Members of the House of Representatives|5th House of Representatives]]
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)}}" |
|[[Agni Prasad Sapkota]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sapkota becomes Speaker amid concerns from conflict victims and rights watchdogs |url=https://kathmandupost.com/politics/2020/01/26/agni-sapkota-becomes-new-speaker-amid-concerns-by-rights-defenders-conflict-victims-and-global-rights-watchdogs |access-date=26 January 2020 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=en}}</ref>
|[[CPN (Maoist Centre)]]
|26 January 2020
|18 September 2022
|-
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist)}}" |
|[[Dev Raj Ghimire]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=प्रतिनिधिसभाको सभामुखमा देवराज घिमिरे निर्वाचित |url=https://ekantipur.com/news/2023/01/19/167411928348857272.html |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=ekantipur.com |language=ne}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Setopati |first=सेतोपाटी संवाददाता |title=देवराज घिमिरे सभामुख निर्वाचित |url=https://www.setopati.com/politics/292563/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=Setopati |language=en-US}}</ref>
|[[CPN (UML)]]
|19 January 2023
|19 January 2026
|[[2nd Federal Parliament of Nepal#Members of the House of Representatives|6th House of Representatives]]
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Parliament of Nepal]]
[[Category:Government of Nepal]]
[[Category:Legislative speakers in Nepal]]

Survivor (Tamil TV series) season 1

2026-01-09T22:29:08Z

Khorang: Put Up New Page Needs Work!

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox television season
| season_number = 1
| image = SurvivorTamil1.png
| bgcolour = #AC1836
| caption = '''Slogan''': ''Survive to become a survivor''
| module1 = {{Infobox reality competition season
| presenter = [[Arjun Sarja]]
| num_days = 91
| num_survivors = 18
| winner = [[Vijayalakshmi Feroz]]
| runner_up = [[Saran Shakthi]]
| location = [[Zanzibar]], [[Tanzania]]
| label1 =
| data1 =
}}
| num_episodes = 91
| network = [[Zee Tamil]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2021|9|12}}
| last_aired = {{End date|df=yes|2021|12|12}}
| film_start = 1 June
| film_end = 4 September 2021
| next_season =
| episode_list = #Episodes
}}
'''''Survivor 1''''' is the first season of the popular [[Tamil Language|Tamil-language]] reality show ''[[Survivor (Tamil TV series)|Survivor Tamil]]''. The show is hosted by actor [[Arjun Sarja]].<ref>{{Cite news |title= to host the Tamil version of Survivor|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2021/aug/13/arjun-to-host-the-tamil-version-of-survivor-26042.html |website=Cinema Express |access-date=2021-09-02}}</ref> The show was shot in a remote island in [[Zanzibar]] in the country of [[Tanzania]] east of [[Africa]], with 18 celebrity contestants known as "castaways". The show was premiered on 12 September 2021 on [[Zee Tamil]] and uncut episodes were uploaded on [[Zee5]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Arjun-hosted Survivor to premiere on September 12, watch promo|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/arjun-hosted-survivor-to-premiere-on-september-12-watch-promo/articleshow/85531429.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title= Zee Tamil announces launch of reality show 'Survivor'|url=https://www.exchange4media.com/industry-briefing-news/zee-tamil-announces-launch-of-reality-show-survivor-114883.html |website=exchange4media.com |access-date=2021-09-02}}</ref> The season also featured interviews with the eliminated contestants on [[Zee5]]. The show ran for 91 days. The prize money for the winner was ₹1 crore (US$1,34,000).

The elimination process of the show was similar to most other international versions of format, where contestants had to vote each other out. The show followed a similar format to what was shown on the [[United States|American]] season called ''[[Survivor: Redemption Island]]'', where once the castaway is voted out by the other contestants, they will be sent to a separate island called ''Moondram Ulagam'' where they will be asked to compete in a challenge. If they lose the challenge, they will be eliminated from the game. If they win the challenge, they will stay in the game. On the final day, the eliminated jury members will vote for the winner out of the top three finalists. After winning a narrow vote of 4–3–0, [[Vijayalakshmi Feroz]] became the winner of the first season while [[Saran Shakthi]] was announced as the runner up and [[Vanessa Cruez]] emerged as the 2nd runner up respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vijayalakshmi wins Survivor, pens a thank-you note to contestants and fans|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/reality-tv/story/vijayalakshmi-wins-survivor-pens-a-thank-you-note-to-contestants-and-fans-1887090-2021-12-13|access-date=2021-12-13|website=[[India Today]]|date=13 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Vijayalakshmi wins 'Survivor Tamil'; here's a look at the journey of the supermom|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/vijayalakshmi-wins-survivor-tamil-heres-a-look-at-the-journey-of-the-supermom/photostory/88256127.cms|access-date=2021-12-14|website=[[Times Of India]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Popular Tamil actress wins the Survivor title|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/survivor-show-title-winner-vijayalakshmi-arjun-zee-television-survivor-winner-prize-amount-tamil-news-302987|access-date=2021-12-14|website=www.indiaglitz.com|date=13 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Vijayalakshmi wins first edition of Survivor Tamil|url=https://english.newstracklive.com/news/vijayalakshmi-wins-first-edition-of-survivor-tamil-ta303-1198221-1.html|access-date=2021-12-14|website=english.newstracklive.com|date=13 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

''Survivor'' received mixed to positive reviews from critics and fans who praised the season's crew members and makers for giving out challenging tasks and blindsiding twists to the contestants.

==Contestants==
[[File:Vijayalakshmi Agathiyan at Chennai 600028 – 2 Press Meet.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vijayalakshmi Feroz]]]]
[[File: Actor Nandha at the Athithi Audio Launch.jpg |thumb|right|[[Nandha Durairaj]]]]
[[File:Vikranth.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vikranth]]]]
[[File: Srushti Dange.jpg|thumb|right|[[Srushti Dange]]]]
[[File: Veeraiyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Inigo Prabhakaran]]]]
[[File: Gayathri Reddy.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gayathri Reddy]]]]
Before the show started [[Zee Tamil]] revealed 8 out of the 16 contestants, some of the notable celebrities joining the show as contestants such as Narayan Lucky, [[Vijayalakshmi Feroz]], [[Nandha Durairaj]], [[Vikranth]], [[Besant Ravi]], V. J. Parvathy, [[Gayathri Reddy]], [[Umapathy Ramaiah]], [[Srushti Dange]] and [[Lady Kash]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Vijayalakshmi Ahathian to Nandaa: Here are the confirmed contestants of Arjun hosted reality show 'Survivor'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/vijayalakshmi-ahathian-to-nandaa-here-are-the-confirmed-contestants-of-arjun-hosted-reality-show-survivor/photostory/85533050.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-02}}</ref> While [[Inigo Prabhakaran]] and [[Vanessa Cruez]] joined as wildcard contestants on Day 19, Vijayalakshmi and Amzath re–entered the game on Day 50 as wildcard contestants. Overall 18 contestants appeared in the season as castaways.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil: Actors Vanessa Cruez and Inigo Prabhakaran to join the show as new contestants|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-actors-vanessa-cruez-and-inigo-prabhakaran-to-join-the-show-as-new-contestants/articleshow/86672013.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-01}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center"
|+List of '''Survivor Tamil 1''' contestants
|-
!width="140"| Contestant
!width="90"| {{nowrap|Joined}}
!width="90"| {{nowrap|Original tribe}}
!width="90"| {{nowrap|Switched tribe}}
!width="80"| {{nowrap|Outcast twist}}
!width="100"|{{nowrap|Merged tribe}}
!width="120"| Main game{{efn|group="Note"|Elimination order is based on when the contestant was voted out at Tribal Council.}}
!width="120"|Moondram Ulagam
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Srushti Dange]]''' 29, Actress
|Day 1
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| rowspan="5" style="background:darkgrey;" |
| rowspan="7" style="text-align:middle; background:#FF8B24;color:black" |{{nowrap|Moondram Ulagam}} {{efn|Upon being voted out of the game from a respective tribal leaders, Indraja and Shrusthi were taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}{{efn|Upon being voted out of the game, Indraja and Shrusthi, and then Gayathri, who was faced tribal council elimination were also taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}{{efn|Upon being voted out of the game, Gayathri and Indraja and then Parvathy, who was faced tribal council elimination were taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}{{efn|Upon being voted out of the game, Gayathri and Parvathy and then Ram, who was faced tribal council elimination were taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}{{efn|Upon being voted out of the game, Initially, Saran was eliminated from the tribe by his tribemates. But he was saved by gold pearl crystals. So he selected Vijayalakshmi to eliminate from the tribe. Gayathri and Parvathy, and then Viji were also taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}{{efn|Upon being voted out of the game, Gayathri and Vijayalakshmi, and then Ravi, who was faced tribal council elimination were also taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}{{efn|Upon being voted out of the game, Gayathri and Viji and then Amzath, who was faced tribal council elimination were taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}{{efn|Initially, Saran and Lakshmi Priyaa were eliminated from the tribe by their tribemates. But he was saved by black stone. Upon being voted out of the game, Amzath and Viji, and then Lakshmi Priyaa were also taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.}}
| rowspan="7" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|{{sort|01|1st voted out Day 5}}
|Lost duel 1 Day 8{{efn|name=Failed challenge 1|Gayathri, Indraja and Srushti were given a chance to return to the game; however, Srushti failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Indraja Shankar]]''' 19, Actress
|Day 1
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|{{sort|01|2nd voted out Day 5}}
||Lost duel 2 Day 15{{efn|name=Failed challenge 2|Gayathri, Indraja and Parvathy were given a chance to return to the game; however, Indraja failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Gayathri Reddy]]''' 26, Model / Actress
|Day 1
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|{{sort|01|3rd voted out Day 8}}
||Lost duel 6 Day 43{{efn|name=Failed challenge 6|Amzath, Vijayalakshmi and Gayathri and were given a chance to return to the game; however, Gayathri failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''Parvathy Saran''' 27, [[YouTuber]] / Actress
|Day 1
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|{{sort|01|4th voted out Day 14}}
||Lost duel 4 Day 29{{efn|name=Failed challenge 4|Gayathri, Parvathy and Vijayalakshmi were given a chance to return to the game; however, Parvathy failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Ram. C]]''' 38, Model / Actor
|Day 1
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|{{sort|01|5th voted out Day 21}}
||Lost duel 3 Day 22 {{efn|name=Failed challenge 3|Gayathri, Parvathy and Ram were given a chance to return to the game; however, Ram failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Besant Ravi]]''' 51, Stunt Choreographer / Actor
|Day 1
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|{{sort|01|7th voted out Day 35}}
||Lost duel 5 Day 36{{efn|name=Failed challenge 5|Gayathri, Vijayalakshmi and Ravi were given a chance to return to the game; however, Ravi failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli]]''' 37, Cricketer / Actress / Social activist
|Day 1
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|{{sort|01|9th voted out Day 49}}
|Lost duel 7 Day 50{{efn|name=Failed challenge 7|Amzath, Vijayalakshmi and Lakshmi Priyaa were given a chance to return to the game; however, Lakshmi Priyaa failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Lady Kash]]''' 31, Rapper
|Day 1
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:darkgrey;" |
|rowspan="11" style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kombarkal}}
|colspan=2"|{{sort|01|Quit Day 71}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Nandha Durairaj]]''' 43, Actor
|Day 1
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|rowspan="2" style="text-align:middle; background:#FF8B24;color:black" |{{nowrap|Moondram Ulagam}}
|{{sort|01|Lost Challenge Day 63 1st jury member}}
|Lost duel 8 Day 78{{efn|name=Failed challenge 8|Saran and Nandha were given a chance to return to the game; however, Nandha failed in a challenge and was permanently eliminated from survivor}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Amzath Khan]]''' 35, Actor 
|Day 1
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|{{sort|01|10th voted out Day 84 2nd jury member}}
| rowspan="10" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Inigo Prabhakaran]]''' 36, Actor
|Day 19{{efn|Inigo joined the game on day 19 as wildcard contestant.}}
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| style="background:darkgrey;" |
|{{sort|01|Lost Immunity Challenge Day 86 3rd jury member}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Vikranth|Vikranth Santhosh]]''' 37, Actor
|Day 1
| style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
| style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
| style="background:darkgrey;" |
|{{sort|01|Lost Immunity Challenge Day 86 4th jury member}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Aishwarya Krishnan]]''' 29, Fitness Trainer / Sportsperson 
|Day 1
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| style="background:#FF8B24;color:black" |{{nowrap|Moondram Ulagam}}
|{{sort|01|11th voted out Day 88 5th jury member}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Narayan Lucky]]''' 33, Actor
|Day 1
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
| rowspan="2" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|{{sort|01|Lost Immunity Day 89 6th jury member}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Umapathy Ramaiah]]''' 30, Actor
|Day 1
| style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
| style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|{{sort|01|Lost Immunity Day 90 7th jury member}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Vanessa Cruez]]''' 25, Malaysian Model
|Day 19 {{efn|Vanessa joined the game on day 19 as wildcard contestant.}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
| style="background:darkgrey;" |
|2nd runner-up Day 91
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Saran Shakthi]]''' 23, Actor
|Day 1
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="text-align:middle; background:#FF8B24;color:black" |{{nowrap|Moondram Ulagam}}
|Runner-up Day 91
|-
| style="text-align:left" |'''[[Vijayalakshmi Feroz]]''' 38, Actress 
|Day 1
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="text-align:middle; background:#FF8B24;color:black" |{{nowrap|Moondram Ulagam}}
|Sole Survivor Day 91
|-
|}

The '''Total Votes''' is the number of votes a castaway has received during Tribal Councils where the castaway is eligible to be voted out of the game. It does not include the votes received during the final Tribal Council.

{{notelist}}

==Castaways status==


{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:center; font-size:85%; line-height:25px; width:auto;"
! scope="col" |Sr
! scope="col" |Castaways name
! scope="col" |Day arrived on main island
! scope="col" |Day exited island
! scope="col" |Status of the castaways
|-
| 1
| Vijaylakshmi Feroz
| Day 1
| Day 91
|{{won|Sole Survivor}}
|-
| 2
| Saran Shakthi
| Day 1
| Day 91
|style="background:#D1E8EF;"|{{nowrap|1st Runner Up}}
|-
| 3
| Vanessa
| Day 19
| Day 91
|style="background:#7FFFD4;"|{{nowrap|2nd Runner Up}}
|-
| 4
|Umapathy
| Day 1
| Day 90
|rowspan="7"{{Eliminated|Jury Members (Eliminated)}}
|-
| 5
| Narayanan
| Day 1
| Day 89
|-
| 6
|Aishwarya
| Day 1
| Day 88
|-
| 7
| Inigo
| Day 19
| Day 87
|-
| 8
| Vikranth
| Day 1
| Day 87
|-
| 9
| Amzath
| Day 1
| Day 84
|-
| 10
| Nandha
| Day 1
| Day 78
|-
| 11
| Lady Kash
| Day 1
| Day 63
|style="background:#fcf;"|Quit
|-
| 12
| Lakshmi
| Day 1
| Day 50
| rowspan="13"{{Eliminated}}
|-
| 13
| Gayathri
| Day 1
| Day 43
|-
| 14
| Ravi
| Day 1
| Day 36
|-
| 15
| Parvathy
| Day 1
| Day 29
|-
| 16
| Ram
| Day 1
| Day 22
|-
| 17
| Indraja
| Day 1
| Day 15
|-
| 18
| Srushti
| Day 1
| Day 8
|}

==Castaways sent to Moondram Ulagam==

{{Quote box
| quote = I feel very proud of myself... I have proved it and done it and i think i deserve the name, Queen of Third Island.
| source = [[Gayathri Reddy]]
| width = 40%
| style="text-align:right"
}}

{{Quote box
| quote = I played fair, I played well, I am very happy...
| source = [[Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli|Lakshmi Priya]]
| width = 40%
| style="text-align:right"
}}

After a castaway is voted out of tribal council they are sent to '''Moondram Ulagam''' also known as '''Third Island'''. each castaway there will need to win a challenge each week until 1 castaway is eventually sent to '''merger''' and resume their game in the main island. If a castaway loses a challenge they will be '''OUT''' of the island and game permanently. On Day 50 the Moondram Ulagam finally shut down and the remaining castaways merged into the main game castaways again. On Day 56 the Moondram Ulagam was opened again.
* The castaways names are all in order from who got out of the island.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; line-height:20px; width:auto;"
! scope="col" |Castaways sent to Moondram Ulagam
! scope="col" |Status
! scope="col" |Days spent in island
|-
|Srushti
|rowspan="7" style="background:salmon" |OUT
| 3 Days
|-
|Indraja
| 10 Days
|-
|Ram
| 1 Day
|-
|Parvathy
| 15 Days
|-
|Ravi
| 1 Day
|-
|Gayathri
| 37 Days
|-
|Lakshmi
|1 Day
|-
| Vijayalakshmi
|rowspan="2" style="background:limegreen;"|{{nowrap|Re-entered}} {{nowrap|main game}}
|22 Days
|-
|Amzath
|8 Days
|-
|colspan="3" style="background:#B2BEB5"|'''Moondram Ulagam Closed Temporarily @ (Day 50)'''
|-
|colspan="3" style="background:#B2BEB5"|'''Moondram Ulagam Opened Again @ (Day 56)'''
|-
|Aishwarya
|rowspan=2 style="background:limegreen;"|{{nowrap|Re-entered}} {{nowrap|main game}}
|15 Days
|-
|Saran
|22 Days
|-
|Nandha
|style="background:salmon"|OUT (Jury)
|15 Days
|-
|colspan="3" style="background:#B2BEB5"|'''Moondram Ulagam Closed Permanently @ (Day 78)'''
|}

==Format changes==

Although the main format is the same, this season introduced several notable differences from [[Survivor (American TV series)|the American version of ''Survivor'']]:

*Filming length: This season is filmed over 90 days, compared to the 39-day length of most American seasons.
*Airing format: This season airs daily with a focus on a task or tribal council. The American version largely produces one episode for every 1 day, culminating in an elimination; This season has 100 episodes. The first episode of the week features the Leader selection for the tribes, Reward and Immunity challenges, while the second featured Island of the Dead (Moondram Ulagam), battle and Tribal Council.
*Island of the Dead (Moondram Ulagam): A secluded area where voted out contestants competed against each other in duels to remain in the game. When only three contestants remained in the main game, the winner of the final Island of the Dead duel returned to the game. This twist has been used in other international versions of ''Survivor'', and later appeared in the [[Survivor (American TV series)|American version]] as [[Survivor: Redemption Island#Redemption Island|Redemption Island]].

== ''Survivor Uncut'' ==
Daily after the airing of the episode on television, [[Zee5]] releases '''''Survivor Uncut''''', which provides the unseen events or footage taken place that wasn't aired on television, which has a longer episode running time. Usually the uncut versions are 2 hr long rather than 45 mins on TV.

== ''Survivor – Ennadhan Nadakkuthu Kaattukulla'' ==
'''''Survivor – Ennadhan Nadakkuthu Kaattukulla''''' is an Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil-language]] television talk show about the reality television series ''[[Survivor (Tamil TV series)|Survivor Tamil]]''. The host [[Jagan (actor)|Jagan]] conducts the talk show with the weeks summary every Sunday.

== Season summary ==
Sixteen castaways embarked on the journey of a lifetime in the pristine yet treacherous island in Zanzibar in the country of Tanzania. The contestants were divided into two tribes, Kaadargal, which was represented by the color yellow, and Vedarkal, which was represented by the color red. Eventually as the game goes on the remaining castaways will unite as one tribe. In first week, Gayathri from Kaadarkal and Lakshmi from Vedarkal are tribe leaders after facing challenges. Kaadarkal's first inaugural victory in the reward challenge caused them to underestimate their opposing tribe's mettle. On Day 5, Indraja and Srushti were eliminated from each of their tribes by each of their tribe leaders votes for being as a weak contestant of their tribe. However, both of them were later sent to an unknown island called Moondram Ulagam, which is an outcast twist tribe. When they arrived on the island they received a note saying "The Game Is Not Over Yet", which indicated that both Indraja and Srushti are not eliminated from the game; however on an unknown exile island away from their co contestants and original tribes. Here, the first immunity challenge was won by Vedarkal, which was a massive comeback of that tribe. At the first tribal council faced by the Kaadarkal tribe, Gayathri was blindsided by her fellow mates and was voted off. After the tribal council ended with Gayathri receiving the highest number of votes to be voted out, There was another twist. After Gayathri being voted out by her tribe she was sent to the island Moondram Ulagam. In Moondram Ulagam Indraja and Srushti, now Gayathri competed in a challenge but the contestant out of the three who loses the challenge will be permanently eliminated from the game. However, Srushti failed the challenge and was eliminated from the show. In second week, Vijayalakshmi from Kaadarkal and Amzath from Vedarkal are the tribe leaders. Again Vedarkal tribe won the successive challenges gaining consecutive rewards. Each tribe members were thought that skill to protect and defend themselves from any danger in the future of the game. Later each tribe members were compete and to expose their skills and hidden talents. Finally, Kaadarkal won the advantage for their upcoming immunity challenge. With a great comeback the Kaadarkal tribe won the successive challenges gaining their first immunity, which resulted in elimination of the Vedarkal tribe. During tribal council Parvathy received the highest number of votes to be eliminated and was eliminated; however, she also joined Moondram Ulagam and was not permanently eliminated. In Moondram Ulagam Indraja and Gayathri, now Parvathy competed in a challenge; however, Indraja failed the challenge and was permanently eliminated from the show. In third week, Umapathy from Kaadarkal and Nandha from Vedarkal are the tribe leaders.

==Tribes==
The two initial tribes were Kaadargal, represented by a [[Sheep|Ram]] and the color yellow, and Vedarkal, represented by a [[Bull]] and the color red. However the first 12 people voted out in tribal council will be sent to a mysterious dead island called Moondram Ulagam where they formed a new tribe, competing for a chance to return to the game. The final eleven players merged into the Kombarkal tribe, represented by an [[elephant]] and the color blue.

==The game==
{|class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:left"
!rowspan="2"|Day
!rowspan="2"|Episode
!rowspan="2"|Air date
!colspan="2"|Challenges
!rowspan="2"|Eliminated
!rowspan="2"|Vote
!rowspan="2"|Result
|-
! Reward
! Immunity
|-
|'''1'''
|'''[[#Episode 2 (13 September 2021)|2]]'''
|13 September 2021
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|rowspan="2"|None
|rowspan="2"|No Vote out
|rowspan="2"|None
|Kaadargal won the Reward Challenge and got flint and then Vedarkal got map
|-
|'''3'''
|'''[[#Episode 4 (15 September 2021)|4]]'''
|15 September 2021
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|Vedarkal won the Reward Challenge
|-
|'''6, 7'''
|'''[[#Episode 7 (18 September 2021)|7]]''' & '''[[#Episode 8 (19 September 2021)|8]]'''
|18 & 19 September 2021
|rowspan="2" |None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|<s>Gayathri</s>}}
|<s>4-2-1</s>
|Vedarkal won the Immunity Challenge and Kaadargal faced Tribal Council and Elimination. Gayathri is {{sort|01|Safe and Sent to Moondram Ulagam}} along with Indraja and Srusthi
|-
|'''8'''
|'''[[#Episode 9 (20 September 2021)|9]]'''
|20 September 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Srushti}}
|rowspan="2"|None
|Srushti was permanently eliminated by challenge (Day 8), Gayathri won the challenge and Indraja saved by black immunity rock
|-
|'''10'''
|'''[[#Episode 11 (22 September 2021)|11]]'''
|22 September 2021
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|No Vote out
| Vedarkal won the Reward Challenge
|-
|'''13, 14'''
|'''[[#Episode 14 (25 September 2021)|14]]''' & '''[[#Episode 15 (26 September 2021)|15]]'''
|25 & 26 September 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|<s>Parvathy</s>}}
|<s>6-1</s>
|Kaadarkal won the Immunity Challenge and Vedarkal faced Tribal Council and Elimination. Parvathy is {{sort|01|Safe and Sent to Moondram Ulagam}} along with Indraja and Gayathri
|-
|'''15'''
|'''[[#Episode 16 (27 September 2021)|16]]'''
|27 September 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Indraja}}
|rowspan="2"|None
|Indraja was permanently eliminated by challenge (Day 15), Gayathri yet again won the challenge and Parvathy saved by black immunity rock
|-
|'''17'''
|'''[[#Episode 18 (29 September 2021)|18]]'''
|29 September 2021
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|No Vote out
|Kaadargal won the Reward Challenge
|-
|'''20, 21'''
|'''[[#Episode 21 (2 October 2021)|21]]''' & '''[[#Episode 22 3 October 2021)|22]]'''
|2 & 3 October 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|<s>Ram</s>}}
|<s>6-1</s>
|Vedarkal won the Immunity Challenge and Kaadargal faced their 2nd Tribal Council and Elimination. Ram is {{sort|01|Safe and Sent to Moondram Ulagam}} along with Gayathri and Parvathy
|-
|'''22'''
|'''[[#Episode 23 (4 October 2021)|23]]'''
|4 October 2021
|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Ram}}
|rowspan="2"|None
|Ram was permanently eliminated by challenge (Day 22), Parvathy won the challenge and Gayathri had won 2 challenges, so she was saved
|-
|'''24'''
|'''[[#Episode 25 (6 October 2021)|25]]'''
|6 October 2021
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|None
|No Vote out
| Kaadargal won the Reward Challenge
|-
|colspan="11" style="background:#00bfff"|'''Switched Tribe (Day 25)'''
|-
|rowspan="2"| '''27, 28'''
|rowspan="2"| '''[[#Episode 28 (9 October 2021)|28]]''' & '''[[#Episode 29 (10 October 2021)|29]]'''
|rowspan="2"| 9 & 10 October 2021
|rowspan="3"| None
|rowspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|<s>Saran</s>}}
|<s>5-2</s>
|After team swapped, Kaadarkal won the Immunity Challenge and Vedarkal faced Tribal Council and Elimination. Initially, Saran was eliminated from the tribe by his tribemates. But he was saved by gold pearl crystals.
|-
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|<s>Vijayalakshmi</s>}}
|<s>Voted out by Saran</s>
|Saran voted against Vijayalakshmi to eliminate from the tribe. Later, Viji is {{sort|01|Safe and Sent to Moondram Ulagam}} along with Gayathri and Parvathy
|-
|'''29'''
|'''[[#Episode 30 (11 October 2021)|30]]'''
|11 October 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Parvathy}}
|rowspan="2"|None
|Parvathy was permanently eliminated by challenge (Day 29), Gayathri won the challenge and Vijayalakshmi was saved
|-
|'''31'''
|'''[[#Episode 32 (13 October 2021)|32]]'''
|13 October 2021
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|No Vote out
|Kaadargal won the Reward Challenge
|-
|'''34, 35'''
|'''[[#Episode 35 (16 October 2021)|35]]''' & '''[[#Episode 36 (17 October 2021)|36]]'''
|16 & 17 October 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|<s>Ravi</s>}}
|<s>4-1-1</s>
|Kaadargal won the Immunity Challenge. Vedarkal faced Tribal Council and Elimination. They choose Ravi to eliminate from the tribe. Later, he is {{sort|01|Safe and Sent to Moondram Ulagam}} along with Gayathri and Viji.
|-
|'''36'''
|'''[[#Episode 37 (18 October 2021)|37]]'''
|18 October 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Ravi}}
|rowspan="2"|None
|Ravi was permanently eliminated by challenge (Day 36), Viji won the challenge and Gayathri was saved
|-
|'''38'''
|'''[[#Episode 39 (20 October 2021)|39]]'''
|20 October 2021
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Kaadargal}}
| No Vote out
|Kaadargal won the Reward Challenge and Got a BBQ set.
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''41, 42'''
|rowspan="2"|'''[[#Episode 42 (23 October 2021)|42]]''' & '''[[#Episode 43 (24 October 2021)|43]]'''
|rowspan="2"|23 & 24 October 2021
|rowspan="3"|None
|rowspan="2" style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|<s>Lakshmi Priya</s>}}
|<s>(3)-2-2</s>
|Vedarkal won the Immunity Challenge. Kaadargal faced Tribal Council and Elimination. Kash used her secret scroll and cased double vote, Lakshmi Priya got immunity idol and votes cast against her turned invalid.
|-
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|<s>Amzath</s>}}
|<s>3-1</s>
|Number votes secured by Amzath and Vanessa got tied. Finally, they decided for re-voting. For re-voting process, except Amzath and Vanessa cast their votes. They choose Amzath to eliminate from the tribe. Later, he is {{sort|01|Safe and Sent to Moondram Ulagam}} along with Gayathri and Viji.
|-
|'''43'''
|'''[[#Episode 44 (25 October 2021)|44]]'''
|25 October 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |{{nowrap|Gayathri}}
|rowspan="2"|None
| Gayathri was permanently eliminated by challenge (Day 43), Amzath won the challenge and Viji was saved
|-
|'''45'''
|'''[[#Episode 46 (27 October 2021)|46]]'''
|27 October 2021
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |{{nowrap|Vedarkal}}
|No Vote out
|Vedarkal won the Reward Challenge
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''48, 49'''
|rowspan="2"|'''[[#Episode 49 (30 October 2021)|49]]''' & '''[[#Episode 50 31 October 2021)|50]]'''
|rowspan="2"|30 & 31 October 2021
|rowspan="3"|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |Nandha
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>Saran</s>
|rowspan="2"|<s>3-2</s>
|rowspan="2"|Vikranth and Nandha won immunity in a pair challenge. Both Kaadargal and Vedarkal faced Tribal Council and Elimination. They choose Saran and Lakshmi Priya to eliminate from the tribe. Later, However, Saran received a black stone and was safe while Lakshmi Priya received a white stone and sent to Moondram Ulagam along with Amzath and Vijayalakshmi.
|-
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |Vikranth
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>Lakshmi Priya</s>
|-
|'''50'''
|'''[[#Episode 51 (1 November 2021)|51]]'''
|1 November 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |Lakshmi Priya
|rowspan="1"|None
|Lakshmi Priya was permanently eliminated from the game (Day 50)
|-
|colspan="11" style="background:#00bfff"|'''Merged into Kombarkal (Day 51)'''
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''53'''
|rowspan="2"|'''[[#Episode 54 (5 November 2021)|54]]'''
|rowspan="2"|4 November 2021
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Umapathy
|rowspan="2"|None
|rowspan="2"|None
|rowspan="2"|None
|rowspan="2"|Umapathy and Saran won the Individual Reward Challenge.
|-
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''55, 56'''
|rowspan="2"|'''[[#Episode 56 (6 November 2021)|56]]''' & '''[[#Episode 57 7 November 2021)|57]]'''
|rowspan="2"|6 & 7 November 2021
|rowspan="2"|None
|rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Nandha
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>Aishwarya</s>
|<s>4(6)-4(3)-2</s>
|rowspan="2"|Nandha won the individual immunity challenge. Number votes secured by Saran and Aishwarya got tied. Finally, they decided for re-voting. For re-voting process, except Saran and Aishwarya cast their votes. They choose Aishwarya and Saran to eliminate from the tribe. Later, they are {{sort|01|Safe and Sent to Moondram Ulagam}}
|-
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>Saran</s>
|<s>8-2</s>
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''59'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 60 (5 November 2021)|60]]'''
|rowspan="1"|10 November 2021
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Nandha, Narayan, Umapathy and Vannesa
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|Nandha, Narayan, Umapathy and Vannesa won the Team Reward Challenge
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''71'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 72|72]]'''
|rowspan="1"|29 November 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Kash (quit)
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"| Kash quit the game due to some personal issues.
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''78'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 79|79]]'''
|rowspan="1"|2 December 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Nandha
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"| Nandha was eliminated from tribal council
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''84'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 85|85]]'''
|rowspan="1"|6 December 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Amzath
|rowspan="1"|4-3
|rowspan="1"| Amzath was eliminated from tribal council
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''86'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 86|86]]'''
|rowspan="1"|8 December 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Vikranth Inigo
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"| Vikranth and Inigo was eliminated after losing the knock out challenge
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''88'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 89|89]]'''
|rowspan="1"|9 December 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Vanessa
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|rowspan="1"|5-1
|rowspan="1"| Aishwarya was eliminated from tribal council
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''89'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 90|90]]'''
|rowspan="1"|10 December 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Vijayalakshmi
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Narayan
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|Narayan was eliminated after losing the knock out challenge
|-
|rowspan="1"|'''90'''
|rowspan="1"|'''[[#Episode 91|91]]'''
|rowspan="1"|12 December 2021
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Umapathy
|rowspan="1"|None
|rowspan="1"|(Umapathy) was eliminated after losing the knock out challenge
|-
|rowspan=3|'''91'''
|rowspan=3|'''[[#Episode 91|91]]'''
|rowspan=3 |12 December 2021
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|Jury Vote
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Vanessa
|rowspan=3|4-3-0
|2nd runner up
|-
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|Runner up
|-
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Vijayalakshmi
|Sole survivor
|-
|}

== Episodes ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:left; font-size:100%; line-height:28px; width:auto;"
|-
!Day
!Episode
!Challenge
!Description
|-
|0
|'''[[#Episode 1 (12 September 2021)|1]]'''
|'''Introduction'''
|Arjun Sarja, the host of Survivor Tamil, welcomes 16 competitors who are to be marooned for 90 days in the exotic yet dangerous Zanzibar islands in Tanzania, without food, drinking water, shelter, technology and civilization. The competitors must salvage food and shelter and survive the island and each other. The 16 competitors are divided into two tribes of eight, celebrities against ordinary people, and they will reside in two separate islands. The Catan tribe named Kaadargal (காடர்கள்), with the yellow bandana, consists of Vikranth, Viji, Saran, Gayathri, Indraja, Umapathy, Kash and Ram. The Tayak tribe named Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்), with the red bandana, consists of Lakshmi, Nandha, Amzath, Shrusthi, Lucky, Parvathy, Ravi and Aishwarya.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Kaadargal:''' Gayathri, Indraja, Kash, Ram, Saran, Umapathy, Vikranth and Viji.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Vedarkal:''' Aishwarya, Amzath, Lakshmi, Nandha, Shrusthi, Lucky, Parvathy and Ravi.
|-
|1
|'''[[#Episode 2 (13 September 2021)|2]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|The tribes were given their first task to take whatever food they need from a boat in the middle of the ocean, during the task Vikranth needed medical help and attention after finding difficulty to breathe in the ocean.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 13, episode 2 update: Vikranth fails in the task; seeks medical help with difficulty in breathing
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-13-episode-2-update-vikranth-fails-in-the-task-seeks-medical-help-with-difficulty-in-breathing/articleshow/86191582.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-14}}</ref>
After each tribe got back they had to dig around a circle to find a map that would lead them to the good island (which provides food and basic needs) or a flint for fire (which offers them heat and for cooking meals). Once the Vedarkal tribe reached their good island they found a mystery box that had a knife to cut vegetables up for food and rice to cook for their meal. Each tribe needs to select a tribe member to be a tribe leader by voting for them; however, the top 2 highest voted tribe members from each tribe will compete in a challenge in the upcoming days and the winner of the challenge will be selected as the tribes leaders for each tribe. '''Reward:''' a knife to cut vegetables up for food and rice to cook for their meal.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|2
|'''[[#Episode 3 (14 September 2021)|3]]'''
|'''Tribe Leader Selection'''
|Each tribe had to choose vote for a tribe member among themselves to be nominated as a tribe leader however from Kaadargal Viji, Gayathri, Indraja and Kash were nominated for tribe leader. However, there was a re voting system where Kash and Gayathri received the highest number of votes to participate in the leadership task. The task was each opposing candidate from the same tribe needs to knock out glasses from the other candidate who is running for leadership. In the task Gayathri saved 14 glasses while Kash saved only 8, Gayathri was elected leader of the Kaadargal tribe. In the Vedarkal tribe Amzath, Aishwarya, Lucky and Lakshmi where nominated with Lakshmi and Aishwarya received the highest votes to be in the challenge. Lakshmi saved most glasses compared to Aishwarya and was elected leader for the Vedarkal tribe.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 14, episode 3 update: Lakshmi Priyaa Chandramouli and Gayathri Reddy win the task, emerge as tribe leaders|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-14-episode-3-update-lakshmi-priyaa-chandramouli-and-gayathri-reddy-win-the-task-emerge-as-tribe-leaders/articleshow/86222158.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-15}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Leader:''' Gayathri Reddy
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" |'''Leader:''' Lakshmi Priya
|-
|3
|'''[[#Episode 4 (15 September 2021)|4]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|Both tribes needed to participate in the reward challenge. In the reward challenge both tribes needed to push a massive wooden stand across in order to collect wood from one side to the other, after the wood is transferred across the tribes need to make a fire to burn the rope on top in order to win the reward challenge. The '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe completed the challenge and won the reward challenge. '''Reward:''' The reward was a chair, swing, bed and a bed cover.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil: Besant Ravi's idea helps Vedargal tribe win the reward challenge, Team Kadargal ends their starvation|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-besant-ravis-idea-helps-vedargal-tribe-win-the-reward-challenge-team-kadargal-ends-their-starvation/articleshow/86254020.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-18}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Vedarkal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Kaadargal
|-
|4
|'''[[#Episode 5 (16 September 2021)|5]]'''
|'''Daily Challenge'''
|Each tribe members were given a task to talk about their personal lives.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil: Tribe leader Gayathri Reddy walking away midway leaves Vikranth Santhosh and others offended|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-tribe-leader-gayathri-reddy-walking-away-midway-leaves-vikranth-santhosh-and-others-offended/articleshow/86287262.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-14}}</ref>
|-
|5
|'''[[#Episode 6 (17 September 2021)|6]]'''
|'''Tribal Voting'''
|Each tribe had to vote their weakest tribe member out of the game, Ram and Indraja were nominated for elimination from '''Kaadargal''' '''(காடர்கள்)''' Tribe. Srushti and Parvathi were nominated for elimination from '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' Tribe. Ram and Parvathy got maximum number of votes meanwhile Indraja and Srushti got minimum number of votes. Eventually the host [[Arjun Sarja]] revealed a massive twist saying that only the tribe leaders from each tribe's votes will determine the first elimination from both tribes. However, from the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe leader Gayathri voted Indraja and from the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe leader Lakshmi voted Srushti considering both of them the least active and weakest contestants in each tribe. Indraja and Srushti were eliminated from each of their tribes by each of their tribe leaders votes and the Decision made by Tribal Leader was final. Eventually Indraja and Srushti leave the game but later finding themselves in a brand new island and getting a note saying "The Game is not Over" declares that Indraja and Srushti have not been eliminated. Upon being voted out of the game, Indraja and Shrusthi were taken to the Moondram Ulagam tribe for a chance to return to the game.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 17, highlights: Indraja Shankar and Srushti Dange get a big surprise|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-17-highlights-indraja-shankar-and-srushti-dange-get-a-big-surprise/articleshow/86314535.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-19}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal vote out:''' Indraja and Shrusthi [Voted by Tribal Leaders]
|-
|6
|'''[[#Episode 7 (18 September 2021)|7]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Both tribes needed to participate in the very first immunity challenge of the season. Both tribes need to pass a thin log from one side to another while balancing on their co tribe members to get to the end. The '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe manage to finish the challenge before the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe won the immunity challenge, safe from tribal council and elimination. However, the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe lost the immunity, faced tribal council and elimination.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 18, highlights: Vedargal tribe win the immunity challenge, Besant Ravi turns emotional over wedding anniversary messages|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-18-highlights-vedargal-tribe-win-the-immunity-challenge-besant-ravi-turns-emotional-over-wedding-anniversary-messages/articleshow/86340528.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-19}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Vedarkal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Kaadargal
|-
|7
|'''[[#Episode 8 (19 September 2021)|8]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|Members from the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe faced tribal council after losing the immunity challenge. In the tribal council [[Arjun Sarja]] questioned everyone about their opinion on Gayathri as their tribe leader, members of the tribe gave mixed reviews about her leadership skills calling her selfish, arrogant and carefree from her duties. Eventually each members were told to vote out a member from their tribe out of the game, Vijayalakshmi, Umapathy, Vikranth and Saran voted for Gayathri. While Gayathri and Kash voted Ram and Ram voted Umapathy overall Gayathri got 4 votes, Ram 2 and Umapathy 1, while the remaining contestants received 0. At the end of the voting process and counting [[Arjun Sarja]] confirmed that Gayathri was the first contestant voted out from game. However, Gayathri also was sent to ''Moondram Ulagam'' and not permanently eliminated.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 19, highlights: Gayathri Reddy gets eliminated from her tribe|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-19-highlights-gayathri-reddy-gets-eliminated-from-her-tribe/articleshow/86361906.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-20}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Ram [2 Votes] and Umapathy [1 Vote]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal Vote Out:''' Gayathri [4 Votes]
|-
|8
|'''[[#Episode 9 (20 September 2021)|9]]'''
|'''Elimination Challenge'''
|Gayathri, Indraja and Srushti arrived at the challenge location; however, [[Arjun Sarja]] said only two contestants will participate in the challenge while the remaining one will directly return to the game and is safe. [[Arjun Sarja]] later drew out rocks if the contestant picks out a black immunity rock it means they are directly in the game again without competing in the challenge but if the contestant picks out a white rock it means that they will have to participate in the challenge. Indraja picked out the black immunity rock and was directly safe where else Gayathri and Srushti picked out white rocks. Later Gayathri and Srushti participated in the challenge and Gayathri passed the challenge and returned to survivor elsewhere Srushti failed to complete it in time and was permanently eliminated from survivor.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 20, highlights: Srushti Dange gets eliminated|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-20-highlights-srushti-dange-gets-eliminated/articleshow/86389646.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-21}}</ref> Members who were sent to the ''Moondram Ulagam'' tribe (who are in the table below) needed to compete in a challenge, if they pass the challenge they return to the game but if they fail they permanently get eliminated from survivor.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Indraja
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Passed:''' Gayathri
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Failed:''' Srushti
|-
|9
|'''[[#Episode 10 (21 September 2021)|10]]'''
|'''Tribe Leader Selection'''
|Each tribe had to choose vote for a tribe member among themselves to be nominated as a tribe leader however from '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' Vijayalakshmi, Kash and Saran were nominated for tribe leader. However, there was a re voting system where Vijayalakshmi and Kash received the highest number of votes to participate in the leadership task. The task was each opposing candidate from the same tribe needs to knock out a [[skull]] on a small stand from their opponents hands five times in order to win leadership. Vijayalakshmi knocked out Kash's skull five times where else Kash knocked out Vijayalakshmi's skull two times. Vijayalakshmi was elected leader of the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe. In the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe Amzath, Ravi and Parvathy where nominated however Amzath and Ravi received the highest votes to be in the challenge. Amzath knocked out Ravi's skull five times where else Ravi knocked out Amzath's skull two times. Amzath was elected leader of the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" | '''Leader:''' Vijayalakshmi
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Leader:''' Amzath
|-
|10
|'''[[#Episode 11 (22 September 2021)|11]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|The concept of the reward challenge is each tribe members need to pass through a rope cage, and they will need to run to a platform next too the cage, only one person needs to climb the rope next to the bell and ring the bell, all of the members need to climb the hanging anni, and after that they need to cross a slim wooden path, and they need to untie knots on ropes at the end of the wooden path, after untying the rope they can get a big metal rod and open up the wooden path to make it easier to cross, eventually they need to solve a massive puzzle and they will win reward. At the end of the challenge the '''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe won reward.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 22, highlights: Vedargal tribe wins the reward challenge|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-22-highlights-vedargal-tribe-wins-the-reward-challenge/articleshow/86448945.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-23}}</ref> '''Reward:''' The reward was [[Spice]] to add in their meals, and [[juice]] for the leader of the tribe Amzath and he choose Lakshmi to share his drink with.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Vedarkal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Kaadargal
|-
|11
|'''[[#Episode 12 (23 September 2021)|12]]'''
|'''Punishment'''
|After the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe losing their reward challenge the tribe needed to blend and create [[Spices]] for '''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe who won reward, as punishment for losing reward challenge.
|-
|12
|'''[[#Episode 13 (24 September 2021)|13]]'''
|'''Reward for Immunity Challenge'''
|All the members from each tribe were trained [[archery]] by the native people of the land of [[Zanzibar]], They were thought that skill to protect and defend themselves from any danger in the future of the game. Kaadarkal won that advantage for their upcoming immunity challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Vedarkal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Kaadargal
|-
|13
|'''[[#Episode 14 (25 September 2021)|14]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Each tribe had to participate in the immunity challenge, the concept of the immunity challenge was two people from each tribes needed to be laid down in box, eventually members from their opposing tribe climbs a zig zag trail with a water bucket to fill up their box with water until they give up, the last person in each tribe still competing will win immunity for their tribe and will be safe from tribal council. The '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe won the immunity challenge and their very first victory challenge. While the '''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe has to face tribal council and vote out a member from their tribe to send to ''Moondram Ulagam''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 25, highlights: Kadargal tribe register their first victory in the underwater challenge|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-25-highlights-kadargal-tribe-register-their-first-victory-in-the-underwater-challenge/articleshow/86527716.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-27}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|14
|'''[[#Episode 15 (26 September 2021)|15]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|'''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe attended tribal council after losing their recent immunity challenge, host [[Arjun Sarja]] asked every member about their defeat in the immunity challenge. Every member were told to vote out a member from their tribe, everyone expect Parvathy voted out Parvathy while Parvathy voted Ravi. Overall Parvathy received 6 votes while Besant received 1. At the end of the voting process [[Arjun Sarja]] announced that Parvathy was the next person eliminated from the game.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 26, highlights: VJ Parvathy is voted out of the Vedargal tribe|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-26-highlights-vj-parvathy-is-voted-out-of-the-vedargal-tribe/articleshow/86550832.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-27}}</ref> However, Parvathy also was sent to ''Moondram Ulagam'' and not permanently eliminated.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Ravi [1 Vote]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal vote out:''' Parvathy [6 Votes]
|-
|15
|'''[[#Episode 16 (27 September 2021)|16]]'''
|'''Elimination Challenge'''
|Gayathri, Indraja and Parvathy arrived at the challenge location; however, [[Arjun Sarja]] said only two contestants will participate in the challenge while the remaining one will directly return to the game and is safe. [[Arjun Sarja]] later drew out rocks if the contestant picks out a black immunity rock it means they are directly in the game again without competing in the challenge but if the contestant picks out a white rock it means that they will have to participate in the challenge. Parvathy picked out the black immunity rock and was directly safe where else Gayathri and Indraja picked out white rocks. Later Gayathri and Indraja participated in the challenge and Gayathri passed the challenge and returned to survivor elsewhere Indraja failed to complete it in time and was permanently eliminated from survivor.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 27, highlights: Indraja Shankar gets evicted from the show|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-27-highlights-indraja-shankar-gets-evicted-from-the-show/articleshow/86577905.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-01}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Parvathy
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Passed:''' Gayathri
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Failed:''' Indraja
|-
|16
|'''[[#Episode 17 (28 September 2021)|17]]'''
|'''Tribe Leader Selection'''
|Each tribe had to choose vote for a tribe member among themselves to be nominated as a tribe leader however from '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' everyone from the tribe were nominated for tribe leader. However, there was a re voting system where Umapathy and Ram received the highest number of votes to participate in the leadership task. The task was each opposing candidate from the same tribe needs to compete with the other candidate who is running for leadership. In the task Umapathy carried weights for a longer time compared to Ram who gave up, Umapathy was elected leader of the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe. In the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe everyone where nominated however Aishwarya and Nandha received the highest votes to be in the challenge. Nandha carried weights for a longer time compared to Aishwarya who gave up, and Nandha was elected leader for the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, September 28, highlights: Nandaa and Umapathy become the leaders of their tribes|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-september-28-highlights-nandaa-and-umapathy-become-the-leaders-of-their-tribes/articleshow/86607097.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-09-30}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center"| '''Leader:''' Umapathy
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Leader:''' Nandha
|-
|17
|'''[[#Episode 18 (29 September 2021)|18]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge & Celebration'''
|Each tribe needed to participate in an obstacle course to win reward. The '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' won reward challenge while the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe lost their reward. But Lakshmi used her secret advantage, which is steal a reward from the opposing tribe, and she stole eggs. '''Reward:''' Chicken breast, eggs, spices. '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe got an option to pick a member from the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe to cook a meal for. And the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe choose Nandha.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|18
|'''[[#Episode 19 (30 September 2021)|18]]'''
|'''Entry of Wildcard Contestants'''
|The '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' Tribe got in a heated argument with their co member Ram. New contestants Inigo and Vanessa joined the main game as wildcard contestants.
|-
|19
|'''[[#Episode 20 (1 October 2021)|20]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge (Moondram Ulagam)'''
|Parvathy and Gayathri were given a reward task in Moondram Ulagam, they participated in the challenge and passed the challenge. '''Reward:''' Their reward was food and a hut.
|-
|20
|'''[[#Episode 21 (2 October 2021)|21]]'''
|'''Wild Card Entry & Immunity Challenge'''
|Vaneesa Cruz and Inigo Prabhakaran had a challenge to choose their tribes. They had to stand in needle bed. Both won the challenge. Vaneesa Cruz - '''Kaadargal''' '''(காடர்கள்)''' and Inigo Prabhakaran - '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)'''. Both tribes needed to push a massive ball using the help of three members from their tribe to help them score a goal in the goal net. Overall there were three rounds and the tribe with the most victory rounds will win immunity. '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe won the first and second round. The '''Kaadargal''' '''(காடர்கள்)''' used the advantage and they asked for re-match. In the re-match '''Vedarkal''' won the round. Finally, The '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe won immunity and the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe had to face tribal council and vote out a member from their tribe.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center"| '''New Contestant:''' Vanessa
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''New Contestant:''' Inigo
|-
|21
|'''[[#Episode 22 (3 October 2021)|22]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|'''Kaadargal''' '''(காடர்கள்)''' tribe attended tribal council after losing their recent immunity challenge, host [[Arjun Sarja]] asked all the tribe members about the recent heated argument between everyone vs Ram. After the discussion each members were told to vote, at the end of the voting Ram received 7 votes from everyone else expect him while Kash received 1 vote from Ram. However, Ram also was sent to ''Moondram Ulagam'' and not permanently eliminated.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Kash [1 Vote]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal vote out:''' Ram [6 Votes]
|-
|22
|'''[[#Episode 23 (4 October 2021)|23]]'''
|'''Elimination Challenge'''
|Gayathri, Ram and Parvathy arrived at the challenge location; however, [[Arjun Sarja]] said only two contestants will participate in the challenge while the remaining one will directly return to the game and is safe. Gayathri won 2 challenges and she was saved. Parvathy and Ram participated in the challenge and Parvathy passed the challenge and returned to survivor elsewhere Ram failed to complete it in time and was permanently eliminated from survivor.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Gayathri
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Passed:''' Parvathy
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Failed:''' Ram
|-
|23
|'''[[#Episode 24 (5 October 2021)|24]]'''
|'''Tribe Leader Selection'''
|Each tribe members needed to participate in the game challenge. The format of the challenge was to skip on one leg and carry a bean bag and throw it in a square similar to the game [[tic tac toe]]. The first member who gets the bean bag in a row wins the challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" | '''Leader:''' Vikranth
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Leader:''' Aishwarya
|-
|24
|'''[[#Episode 25 (6 October 2021)|25]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|The concept of the reward challenge is each tribe members need to climb a wooden wall with a rope and get over the wall, after getting pass the wall each of the members need to break their way though a wooden tunnel and reach the other side, after that the members need to climb up another wall and eventually walk on small support steps, after that three members from each tribe needs to bring down a wooden blocking wall in order for the remaining to contestants to aim at the signs and knock them out. The '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe won reward challenge. '''Reward:''' [[Pancakes]] and [[chocolate syrup]].
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|25
|'''[[#Episode 26 (7 October 2021)|26]]'''
|'''Quiz Competition'''
|Each tribe were given a task about questions. Two members from each tribe needed to answer to given questions, for example questions given where "In the two people which member would you give the sole survivor title too" and the opposite person needs to compromise and agree to a final answer.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#00bfff" text-align:"left"|'''Switched Tribe (Day 26)'''
|-
|26
|'''[[#Episode 27 (8 October 2021)|27]]'''
|'''Team Members Swapping Challenge'''
|[[Arjun Sarja|Arjun]] interrogates Aishwarya, Who fails to abide by the rules of the game. Arjun informs the teams about a quiz challenge. Later the teammates swap their places as mentioned below
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" | '''Retained:''' Lady Kash, Umapathy, Vanessa and Vikranth
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Swapped:''' Amzath, Lakshmi
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Retained:''' Aishwarya, Besant Ravi, Inigo, Narayan and Nandha
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Swapped:''' Vijayalakshmi and Saran
|-
|27
|'''[[#Episode 28 (9 October 2021)|28]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Both tribes needed to untangle a ball of wool and throw it across until it lands on a steady cone, after that the contestants need to walk on an unstable wooden plank while using the rope as a support, after that all the members need to untangle knots on the wooden planks across, once undoing the knots, two members from each tribe needs to fit the wooden planks on a wall and eventually making they're way fixing it to the top, once everything is fixed all the members from the tribe needs to make they're way to the top and place they're tribal flag on top and win immunity. The '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe won immunity while the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe lost and had to attend tribal council.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|28
|'''[[#Episode 29 (10 October 2021)|29]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|'''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe attended tribal council after losing their immunity challenge, host [[Arjun Sarja]] asked every member about their defeat in the immunity challenge. Every member were told to vote out a member from their tribe, Except Aishwarya and Saran, others voted Saran to vote out because of doing some unwanted things, while Aishwarya and Saran voted Vijayalakshmi. Overall Saran received 5 votes while Viji received 2. At the end of the voting process [[Arjun Sarja]] announced that Saran was the next person eliminated from the game. But he was saved by gold pearl crystals. So he was saved. Instead of him, he selected Vijayalakshmi to eliminate from the tribe. However, Viji also was sent to ''Moondram Ulagam'' and not permanently eliminated.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Saran [5 Votes (Gold Pearl)]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal vote out:''' Vijayalakshmi [2 Votes]
|-
|29
|'''[[#Episode 30 (11 October 2021)|29]]'''
|'''Elimination Challenge'''
|Gayathri, Parvathy and later Vijayalakshmi arrived at the challenge location; however, [[Arjun Sarja]] said only two contestants will participate in the challenge while the remaining one will directly return to the game and is safe. Vijayalakshmi was saved by black immunity rock. Meanwhile, gayathri and parvathy participated in the challenge and gayathri passed the challenge and returned to survivor elsewhere parvathy failed to complete it in time and was permanently eliminated from survivor.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, October 11, highlights: Vijayalakshmi questions the show's format; VJ Parvathy gets evicted| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-october-11-highlights-vijayalakshmi-questions-the-shows-format-vj-parvathy-gets-evicted/articleshow/86962860.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-13}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Vijayalakshmi
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Passed:''' Gayathri
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Failed:''' Parvathy
|-
|30
|'''[[#Episode 31 (12 October 2021)|31]]'''
|'''Tribe Leader Selection'''
|Two Members from each tribe had to stand in a stick with numbers are marked in a board. The Contestant had to remove the stick as per host's instruction and They had to move according to odd or even number position. The contestant who fails to remove the sticks or falls in between the challenge are disqualified.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Leader:''' Vanessa
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Leader:''' Narayan
|-
|31
|'''[[#Episode 32 (13 October 2021)|32]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|The concept of the reward challenge is each tribe members need to climb a wooden wall, after getting pass the wall each of the members need to get up using a slippery pole, after getting up all the members need to jump off and one member needs to swim across to untie the rope attached to the puzzle, once the puzzle is untied only two members from each tribe can complete the puzzle. The '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe won reward challenge. '''Reward:''' Survivor coins and [[Briyani]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, October 13, highlights: Kadargal tribe wins the reward challenge|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-october-13-highlights-kadargal-tribe-wins-the-reward-challenge/articleshow/87017958.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-17}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|32
|'''[[#Episode 33 (14 October 2021)|33]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge (Moondram Ulagam)'''
|Gayathri and Vijayalakshmi were given a reward challenge in Moondram Ulagam, both of them had to swim to the middle of the ocean and find a bag in bottom of the ocean. Gayathri eventually found the bag and they're reward was a flint, rice and dhal.
|-
|33
|'''[[#Episode 34 (15 October 2021)|34]]'''
|'''Survivor Auction'''
|Each member from each tribe was given a certain number of survivor coins as a gift since it was the festival of [[Vijayadashami]]. Each member could bet on a certain item such as food, shower was and shampoo or a mattress and pillow, and a letter from their family.
|-
|34
|'''[[#Episode 35 (16 October 2021)|35]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Both tribes needed to get up a wooden wall and eventually get down the other side, after all the members on the opposite side, both tribes needed to dig through a massive sand pit and find a knife; after finding the knife one member who has the knife needs to cut the ropes that are carrying [[coconuts]]; after that they will need to throw coconuts into a basketball net until it gets heavy, after that they will need to untangle the wooden planks and start fixing them on a staircase formed way, after that one members needs to go to the top and place their tribe flag and collect immunity. The '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe won immunity again while the '''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe had to yet again attend tribal council.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|35
|'''[[#Episode 36 (17 October 2021)|36]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|'''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe attended tribal council after losing their immunity challenge, host [[Arjun Sarja]] asked every member about their defeat in the immunity challenge.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, October 17, highlights: Besant Ravi voted out of his Vedargal tribe|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-october-17-highlights-besant-ravi-voted-out-of-his-vedargal-tribe/articleshow/87105177.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-21}}</ref> Finally, Ravi is voted out in tribal panchayat; however he moved to Moondram Ulagam along with Gayatri and Viji.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Narayan and Saran [1 Vote Each]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal vote out:''' Ravi [4 Votes]
|-
|36
|'''[[#Episode 37 (18 October 2021)|37]]'''
|'''Elimination Challenge'''
|Gayathri, Vijayalakshmi and later Ravi arrived at the challenge location; however, [[Arjun Sarja]] said only two contestants will participate in the challenge while the remaining one will directly return to the game and is safe. Gayathri was saved by black immunity rock. Meanwhile, Vijayalakshmi and Ravi participated in the challenge and Vijayalakshmi passed the challenge and returned to survivor elsewhere Ravi failed to complete it in time and was permanently eliminated from survivor.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, October 18, highlights: Besant Ravi gets evicted from the show|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-october-18-highlights-besant-ravi-gets-evicted-from-the-show/articleshow/87133137.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-21}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Gayathri
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Passed:''' Vijayalakshmi
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Failed:''' Ravi
|-
|37
|'''[[#Episode 38 (19 October 2021)|38]]'''
|'''Tribe Leader Selection'''
|Two Contestants each on either side had to pull the rope. Contestants had to pull rope one side with force and to rang the bell is the winner. It will be continued till the Contestant win 3 rounds. one who fail to ring the bell is loser of the particular round.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center" |Leader: Lady Kash
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" |Leader: Saran Shakthi<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, October 19, highlights: Lady Kash and Saran Shakthi become tribe leaders|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-october-19-highlights-lady-kash-and-saran-shakthi-become-tribe-leaders/articleshow/87156451.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-21}}</ref>
|-
|38
|'''[[#Episode 39 (20 October 2021)|39]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|The concept of the reward challenge was one member from each tribe needs to sit on a wooden stand while the remaining members need to hold a rope attached to the wooden stand, every 5 mins a member will have to stop holding the rope, the last person holding the rope will need to hold the person sitting and try not to drop them in the ocean. The last person holding the person wins reward challenge. '''Reward:''' [[BBQ]] set.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Kaadargal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vedarkal
|-
|39
|'''[[#Episode 40 (21 October 2021)|40]]'''
|'''Celebration:'''
|Inigo Prabhakaran was invited to the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe for a meal since they won the reward challenge. However, the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe received a scroll saying that there is an immunity idol in the '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' island and Inigo has the privilege to know where the idol is located in the island since he is the invited guest.
|-
|40
|'''[[#Episode 41 (22 October 2021)|41]]'''
|'''Advantage Task'''
|Both tribes received a scroll saying that both tribes will have an advantage in the upcoming immunity challenge, each tribe was given a box for their opposing tribe, the tribe who has the box of the opposing tribe needs to hide their box in a certain location of their choice and two members from the opposing tribe will arrive at their opposing island and search for the box. At the end both of the tribes managed to find both the boxes in the opposite islands and also received a special advantage for immunity.
|-
|41
|'''[[#Episode 42 (23 October 2021)|42]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Both tribes needed to participate in the immunity challenge. The immunity challenge is another major obstacle coarse. For the first time again the '''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe won immunity while the '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe had to face tribal council.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Vedarkal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Kaadargal
|-
|42
|'''[[#Episode 43 (24 October 2021)|43]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|'''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)''' tribe attended tribal council after losing their immunity challenge, host [[Arjun Sarja]] asked every member about their defeat in the immunity challenge. Amzath is voted out in tribal panchayat; however, he moved to Moondram Ulagam along with Gayathri and Viji.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Lakshmi [3 Votes (Secret Idol)] and Vanessa [2:1 Votes]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal voted out:''' Amzath [2:3 Votes]
|-
|43
|'''[[#Episode 44 (25 October 2021)|44]]'''
|'''Elimination Challenge'''
|Gayathri, Vijayalakshmi and later Amzath arrived at the challenge location; however, [[Arjun Sarja]] said only two contestants will participate in the challenge while the remaining one will directly return to the game and is safe. Vijayalakshmi was saved by black immunity rock. Meanwhile, Gayathri and Amzath participated in the challenge and Amzath passed the challenge and returned to survivor elsewhere Gayathri finally failed to complete it in time and was permanently eliminated from survivor.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Vijayalakshmi
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Passed:''' Amzath
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Failed:''' Gayathri
|-
|44
|'''[[#Episode 45 (26 October 2021)|45]]'''
|'''Tribe Leader Selection'''
|The Contestants had to revolve around the table with carry the load bag on their back. The contestant who catches the other is winner of that round. Who won maximum number of rounds will be selected as leader of the tribe.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#FFE105;color:black;text-align:center"| '''Leader:''' Vikranth
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E62020;color:white;text-align:center" | '''Leader:''' Aishwarya
|-
|45
|'''[[#Episode 46 (27 October 2021)|46]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|The concept of the reward challenge four members had to carry two blocks every four times, after collecting two blocks the members will need to balance it on a wooden bridge and the blocks shouldn't touch the ground if not they will have to restart. After bringing all the blocks only two members will need to use a wooden stick to push few more blocks, which are on a net above. After that each tribe will need to make a tower using the blocks, the tribe whose tower stands up without falling for five seconds win reward challenge. The '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe won reward after completing the challenge.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, October 27, highlights: Vedargal tribe wins the reward challenge|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-october-27-highlights-vedargal-tribe-wins-the-reward-challenge/articleshow/87332241.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-29}}</ref> '''Reward:''' Food feast and survivor coins
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Vedarkal
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Kaadargal
|-
|46
|'''[[#Episode 47 (28 October 2021)|47]]'''
|'''Celebration'''
|The '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)''' tribe had a full feast meal after winning their recent reward challenge.
|-
|47
|'''[[#Episode 48 (29 October 2021)|48]]'''
|'''Individual Challenge'''
|Each tribes were given an individual challenge, Each members from each tribes were said to do a challenge in the island and if they manage to complete the challenge without failing the will win a special reward for themselves.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Aishwarya, Inigo, Lakshmi, Nandha, Narayan, Saran, Umapathy, Vanessa and Vikranth
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Kash
|-

|48
|'''[[#Episode 49 (30 October 2021)|49]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Both tribes attended the immunity challenge; however, there was a major twist. All members will need to pair up with another member from the opposing tribe, and both members will need to use they legs to hold up a circle plate, if they lose balance and drop the plate they will lose immunity. '''Nandha''' and '''Vikranth''' won immunity as a pair and both of them can't be voted out in tribal council. The final pair who is still competing will win immunity and they will be safe from tribal council.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Nandha and Vikranth
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Aishwarya, Inigo, Kash, Lakshmi, Narayan, Saran, Umapathy and Vanessa
|-
|49
|'''[[#Episode 50 (31 October 2021)|50]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|'''Vedarkal (வேடர்கள்)''' tribe attended tribal council after losing their immunity challenge, host [[Arjun Sarja]] asked every member about their defeat in the immunity challenge. Finally, Saran was saved by black immunity stone. Lakshmi was voted out in tribal council; however, she moved to Moondram Ulagam along with Amzath and Vijayalakshmi.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Inigo [2 Votes (Secret Idol)], Saran [3 Votes (Black Stone)] and Vannesa [2 Votes]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal vote out:''' Lakshmi [3 Votes]
|-
|50
|'''[[#Episode 51 (1 November 2021)|51]]'''
|'''Return from Moondram Ulagam'''
|Vijayalakshmi, Amzath and Lakshmi who were sent to moondram ulagam also known as dead island, have returned to the main island. However, out of the three members only two of them can return to the main game and the remaining member will be eliminated from the game. Amzath got maximum number of votes from both tribes. Vijayalakshmi and Lakshmi faced the challenge, The contestants had to prevent the disk from falling and they put back the disk in the starting position. Every 2 minutes a disk will be added. Finally Vijayalakshmi won the challenge. Lakshmi Priya was permanently eliminated from the show. Moondram Ulagam was closed.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, October 31: Lakshmi Priyaa gets eliminated; Saran Shakthi enjoys a narrow escape|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-october-31-lakshmi-priyaa-gets-eliminated-saran-shakthi-enjoys-a-narrow-escape/articleshow/87462573.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, November 1: Lakshmi Priyaa gets eliminated, Vijayalakshmi and Amzath Khan return to their tribes|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-november-1-lakshmi-priyaa-gets-eliminated-vijayalakshmi-and-amzath-khan-return-to-their-tribes/articleshow/87485494.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-11-04}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Returned:''': Vijayalakshmi and Amzath
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" | '''Eliminated:''' Lakshmi Priya
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#00bfff" style="text-align:left"|'''Merged into Kombarkal tribe (Day 51)'''
|-
|51
|'''[[#Episode 52 (2 November 2021)|52]]'''
|'''Tribe leader selection'''
|After both of the tribes, '''Kaadargal''' and '''Vedarkal''' merged into one tribe called '''Kombarkal''', a tribal leader selection happened. In that selection Vikranth, Vijayalakshmi, Aishwarya and Narayan self nominated into the tribe leader challenge. In that challenge Vikranth won the challenge and become the leader for the new merged '''Kombarkal''' tribe.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:skyblue;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Leader:''' Vikranth
|-
|52
|'''[[#Episode 53 (3 September 2021)|53]]'''
|'''[[Deepavali]] Celebration'''
|Every castaway gets a relief and stress state of mind during the occasion of [[Deepavali]], every member gets new clothes and gets a massive feast of food to celebrate the special occasion.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, November 4, highlights: Host Arjun serves food to the contestants on Diwali; Saran Shakthi and Umapathy Ramaiah win the reward challenge|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-november-4-highlights-host-arjun-serves-food-to-the-contestants-on-diwali-saran-shakthi-and-umapathy-ramaiah-win-the-reward-challenge/articleshow/87538566.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-11-07}}</ref>
|-
|53
|'''[[#Episode 54 (4 November 2021)|54]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|Everyone will be paired with another tribemate, the concept of the challenge is the first person needs to hold on to a wooden rope, the other partner will need to connect sticks to it in the shortest time possible. '''Saran''' and '''Umapathy''' won the reward challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Saran and Umapathy
|-
|54
|'''[[#Episode 55 (5 November 2021)|55]]'''
|'''Celebration'''
|The reward challenge winners Umapathy and Saran were given a spa treat as their reward. They were also welcomed to invite 2 more members to share their treat with, They both picked Nandha and Vijayalakshmi.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil, November 5, highlights: Saran Shakthi, Umapathy Ramaiah, Vijayalakshmi and Nandaa enjoy a luxury spa
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/survivor-tamil-november-5-highlights-saran-shakthi-umapathy-ramaiah-vijayalakshmi-and-nandaa-enjoy-a-luxury-spa/articleshow/87552593.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-11-09}}</ref>
|-
|55
|'''[[#Episode 56 (6 November 2021)|56]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|All of the members got ready for their individual immunity challenge. In the reward challenge everyone needs to balance on a rope and hold it for a long period of time. The last person standing wins the immunity challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Nandha
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Narayan, Aishwarya, Saran, Vanessa, Inigo, Vijayalakshmi, Amzath, Lady Kash and Vikranth
|-
|56
|'''[[#Episode 57 (7 November 2021)|57]]'''
|'''Tribal council'''
|All members from the tribe attended tribal council after losing their individual immunity challenge, host [[Arjun Sarja]] asked every member about their defeat in the immunity challenge. Vikranth used his secret power against Aishwarya (i.e.) She cannot cast her vote in the tribal council. Aishwarya and Saran are voted out in tribal panchayat; however, they moved to Moondram Ulagam.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Saved:''' Lady Kash [1:1 Vote]
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Tribal voted out:''' Aishwarya [4:6 Votes] and Saran [4:3:8 Votes]
|-
|57
|'''[[#Episode 58 (8 November 2021)|58]]'''
|'''Moondram Ulagam (Main Challenge 1)'''
|Contestant had to roll the balls on the wooden spoon with 5 holes. They need to put the ball in the hole and balance the spoon. Finally Aishwarya won the challenge. Saran lost the challenge and cannot proceed to further Main Challenges, But he can participate in Second Re-entry Challenge.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Survivor Tamil Elimination: Double Elimination Update – Aishu Voted Out in Tribal Panchayat
|url=https://thenewscrunch.com/survivor-tamil-elimination-double-elimination-update-aishu-voted-out-in-tribal-panchayat/39839/ |website=thenewscrunch.com |access-date=2021-11-09}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Advanced to Further Challenges:''' Aishwarya
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Saran
|-
|58
|'''[[#Episode 59 (9 November 2021)|59]]'''
|'''Tribe leader selection'''
|Nominated into the tribe leader challenge. In that challenge Inigo won the challenge and become the leader for the new merged '''Kombarkal''' tribe.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:skyblue;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Leader:'''Inigo
|-
|59
|'''[[#Episode 60(10 November 2021)|60]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|Everyone will be paired with another tribemate, the concept of the challenge is the row up on ocean and collect the puzzle cubes.And need to solve the puzzle on unstable wooden stand '''Vannesa''', '''Narayan''', '''Nandha''' and '''Umapathy''' won the reward challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Vannesa, Nandha, Narayan and Umapathy
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vikranth, Inigo, Vijayalakshmi, Kash, Amzath
|-
|62
|'''[[#Episode 62(10 November 2021)|61]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Everyone will be paired with another tribemate, the concept of the challenge is the standing on unstable bottle and balancing 10 kg bag the '''Inigo''' won the immunity challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' Inigo
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vikranth, Vanessa, Vijayalakshmi, Amzath, Umapathy, Nandha, Narayan, Kash
|-
|65
|'''[[#Episode 65(10 November 2021)|64]]'''
|'''Reward Challenge'''
|Everyone will be paired with another tribemate, the concept of the challenge is the Remembering 14 aqua marine and reset all in the wooden table '''Umapathy''' & '''Kash''' won the reward challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' '''Kash''' '''Umapathy'''
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vikranth, Vanessa, Vijayalakshmi, Amzath, Narayan, Kash, Inigo
|-
|70
|'''[[#Episode 70(10 November 2021)|69]]'''
|'''Immunity Challenge'''
|Everyone will be paired with another tribemate, the concept of the challenge is the standing on the unstable spring see-saw and rearrange the 10 blocks '''Vanessa''' won the immunity challenge.
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#BFFF00;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Won:''' '''Vanessa'''
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:salmon;color:black;text-align:center" |'''Lost:''' Vikranth, Umapathy, Vijayalakshmi, Amzath, Narayan, Kash, Inigo
|-
|}

==Tribe leaders==
Each week, tribe leaders are selected for each tribe.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:center; font-size:85%; line-height:28px; width:auto;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Week
!colspan="3" style="background:#FFE105;color:black"|Kaadargal
!colspan="3" style="background:#E62020;color:white"|Vedarkal
|-
! Nominated Members
! Highest Vote
! Leader
! Nominated Members
! Highest Vote
! Leader
|-
|1
|Gayathri, Indraja, Kash and Vijayalakshmi
|Gayathri and Kash
|'''Gayathri'''
|Aishwarya, Amzath, Lakshmi and Narayan
|Aishwarya and Lakshmi Priya
|'''Lakshmi Priya'''
|-
|2
|Kash, Shakthi and Vijayalakshmi
|Kash and Vijayalakshmi
|'''Vijayalakshmi'''
|Amzath, Parvathy and Ravi
|Amzath and Ravi
|'''Amzath'''
|-
|3
| rowspan="5" |Everyone
|Umapathy, Ram
|'''Umapathy'''
| rowspan="5" |Everyone
|Aishwarya, Nandha
|'''Nandha'''
|-
|4
|Vikranth, Shakthi
|'''Vikranth'''
|Aishwarya, Narayan
|'''Aishwarya'''
|-
|5
|Kash and Vanessa
|'''Vanessa'''
|Inigo and Narayan
|'''Narayan'''
|-
|6
|Kash and Vanessa
|'''Kash'''
|Saran and Aishwarya
|'''Saran'''
|-
|7
|Vanessa and Vikranth
|'''Vikranth'''
|Aishwarya and Narayan
|'''Aishwarya'''
|-
|colspan="7" style="background:#B2BEB5"|'''Both tribes dissolved (Day 51)'''
|}
{{Color box|#FFE105|border=darkgray}} '''Kaadargal (காடர்கள்)'''
{{Color box|#E62020|border=darkgray}} '''Vedarkal''' '''(வேடர்கள்)'''

{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:center; font-size:85%; line-height:28px; width:auto;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Week
!colspan="2" style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Kombarkal
|-
! Nominated Members
! Leader
|-
|8
|Aishwarya, Vijayalakshmi, Narayan and Vikranth
|'''Vikranth'''
|-
|9
|Amzath, Inigo, Umapathy, Vijayalakshmi
|'''Inigo'''
|-
|10
|Vanessa, Narayan, Kash, Vikranth
|'''Kash'''
|-
|11
|Everyone
|'''Inigo'''
|-
|12
|Aishwarya and Vijayalakshmi
|'''Vijayalakshmi'''
|-
|}

{{Color box|#00bfff|border=darkgray}} '''Kombarkal''' '''(கொம்பர்கள்)'''

== Moondram Ulagam task history ==
In Moondram Ulagam there were some tasks that offer rewards for the castaways in the island if they manage to win the task.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; line-height:20px; width:auto;"
! scope="col" |Castaways in Moondram Ulagam
! scope="col" |Reward
! scope="col" |Result
|-
| style="background:orange" |Indraja and Gayathri
|Reward unknown
|style="background:salmon" |Failed Challenge
|-
| style="background:orange" |Parvathy and Gayathri
|[[Rice]] and [[Chicken]]
|style="background:lightgreen" |Won Challenge
|-
| style="background:orange" |Vijayalakshmi and Gayathri
|[[Salt]] and [[Spices]]
|style="background:lightgreen" |Won Challenge
|-
| style="background:orange" |Vijayalakshmi and Gayathri
|[[Hamburgers]] and [[Juice]]
|style="background:lightgreen" |Won Challenge
|-
|style="background:orange" |Aishwarya, Nandha and Saran
|[[Salt]] and [[Spices]] and [[Noodles]]
|style="background:lightgreen" |Won Challenge
|-
|style="background:orange" | Nandha and Saran
|Video message from their Family
|style="background:lightgreen" |Won Challenge
|}

== Immunity idol ==
In Survivor, anyone can find an immunity idol with the help of scroll or various different hidden clues around the island. Immunity idols help to safe a castaway from getting them voted out of the game if the idol is with them.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; line-height:20px; width:auto;"
! scope="col" |Day used
! scope="col" |Castaway with idol
! scope="col" |Status on idol
|-
| Day 42
|Lakshmi Priya
|style="background:salmon" |Used on herself
|-
|Day 49
|Inigo
|style="background:salmon" |Used on himself
|-
|Day 63
|Umapathy
|style="background:salmon" |Used on Kash
|-
|Day 69
|Vikranth
|style="background:black" |{{Font colour|white |Immunity Idol timed out}}
|-
|Day 81
|Amzath
|style="background:salmon" |Used on Aishwarya
|}

== Jury members ==
On the 71st episode [[Arjun Sarja]] made an announcement saying that the next seven contestants to be eliminated from the game will immediately become jury members and eventually vote for the "Sole Survivor" at the end of the show.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; line-height:20px; width:auto;"
! scope="col" |Juror number
! scope="col" |Jury Members
|-
|#1
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|'''Umapathy'''}}
|-
|#2
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|'''Narayan'''}}
|-
|#3
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|'''Aishwarya'''}}
|-
|#4
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|'''Inigo'''}}
|-
|#5
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|'''Vikranth'''}}
|-
|#6
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|'''Amzath'''}}
|-
|#7
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|'''Nandha'''}}
|}

==Twists==
* On '''Day 5''', Indraja and Srushti were eliminated from each of their tribes by each of their tribe leaders votes. However, Indraja and Srushti were later sent to an unknown island called ''Moondram Ulagam'', which is an outcast twist tribe. When Indraja and Srushti arrived on the island they received a note saying "The Game Is Not Over Yet", which indicated that Indraja and Srushti are not eliminated from the game; however, on an unknown exile island away from their co contestants and original tribes.
* On '''Day 7''', After the tribal council ended with Gayathri receiving the highest number of votes to be voted out, There was another twist. After Gayathri being voted out by her tribe she was sent to the island ''Moondram Ulagam''.
* On '''Day 8''' In ''Moondram Ulagam'' Indraja, Srushti and Gayathri competed in a challenge but the contestant out of the three who loses the challenge will be permanently eliminated from the game. However, Srushti failed the challenge and was eliminated from the show.
* On '''Day 14''', After the tribal council ended with Parvathy receiving the highest number of votes to be voted out, There was another twist. After Parvathy being voted out by her tribe she was sent to the island ''Moondram Ulagam''.
* On '''Day 15''' In ''Moondram Ulagam'' Indraja, Gayathri and Parvathy competed in a challenge but the contestant out of the three who loses the challenge will be permanently eliminated from the game. However, Indraja failed the challenge and was eliminated from the show.
* On '''Day 19''' two new contestants joined the game as wild card contestants, one of them was actor Inigo Prabhakaran and the other was model Vanessa Cruez.
* On '''Day 21''', After the tribal council ended with Ram receiving the highest number of votes to be voted out, There was another twist. After Ram being voted out by his tribe he was sent to the island ''Moondram Ulagam''.
* On '''Day 22''' In ''Moondram Ulagam'' Gayathri, Parvathy and Ram competed in a challenge but the contestant out of the three who loses the challenge will be permanently eliminated from the game. However, Ram failed the challenge and was eliminated from the show.
* On '''Day 28''', After the tribal council ended with Saran receiving the highest number of votes to be voted out, but he was saved by gold pearl crystals. There was another twist. Instead of him, he selected Vijayalakshmi to eliminate from the tribe. So, she was sent to the island ''Moondram Ulagam''.
* On '''Day 29''' In ''Moondram Ulagam'' Gayathri, Parvathy and Viji competed in a challenge but the contestant out of the three who loses the challenge will be permanently eliminated from the game. However, Parvathy failed the challenge and was eliminated from the show.
* On '''Day 39''' Inigo Prabhakaran went to the Kaadargal tribe as a special guest; however, the Kaadargal tribe received a scroll that said that the special guest coming from the opposing tribe gets a special advantage to know where the hidden immunity idol is located in their island.
* On '''Day 42''' Lakshmi Priya used her immunity idol in the tribal council the safe herself from being voted out of the game.
* On '''Day 48''' The host [[Arjun Sarja]] announced that both tribes will not be playing as a team for the immunity challenge; however, they all will be playing the challenge as pairs. But each member will need to select a member from the opposing tribe and pair up with them, and the only pair who survives the challenge till the end will win immunity and be safe from tribal council.
* On '''Day 49''' Host [[Arjun Sarja]] announced that since both of the tribes are in tribal council each tribe will need to vote out a member from the game. However, Saran and Lakshmi where voted out but Arjun gave a chance for one member to be safe again, if the member receives a black stone they will be safe but if they receive a white stone they will be eliminated. Saran received the black stone while Lakshmi received the white stone.
* On '''Day 50''' the Moondram Ulagam concept finally came to an end, and the remaining members in the island merged with the main game castaways yet again.
* On '''Day 51''' Both tribes Kaadargal and Vedarkal were dissolved and everyone merged into a new tribe called '''Kombarkal'''.
* On '''Day 71''' Lady Kash quit the game permanently due to personal issues.
* On '''Day 78''' Moondram Ulagam was permanently shut.
* On '''Day 86''' Inigo and Vikranth lost the first finale knock out challenge and was eliminated from the game and became jury members.
* On '''Day 89''' Narayan lost the knock out challenge and was eliminated from the game and became a jury member.
* On '''Day 89''' Vijayalakshmi won the knock out challenge and became the first finalist.
* On '''Day 90''' Umapathy lost the final knock out challenge and was eliminated from the game and became a jury member.
* On '''Day 90''' Vijayalakshmi had the option to select one contestant and make them a finalist, she picked Vanessa and Vanessa later became the 2nd finalist of the season
* On '''Day 90''' Saran won the final finale knock out challenge and became the third and last finalist of the season.

==Voting history==
Tribal councils only happens once a week.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; white-space:nowrap; width:100%"
|-
!colspan="3"|
!colspan="6"|Original tribes
!colspan="10"|Switched tribes
!colspan="17" |Merged tribe
|-
!rowspan="2" colspan="3"|Week
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|1
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|2
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|3
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|4
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|5
!rowspan="2" colspan="3"|6
!rowspan="2" colspan="3"|7
!rowspan="2" colspan="4"|8
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|9
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|10
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|11
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|12
!colspan="5"|13 Finale week
|-
! style="width:5%"colspan="1"|EP# 87
! style"width:5%"colspan="2"| EP# 89
! style"width:5%"colspan="2"| EP# 90
! style"width:10%"colspan="10"| EP# 91 (part 1)
! style"width:10%"colspan="10"| EP# 91 (part 2)
|-
!colspan=3 rowspan=2 |Tribe Leader(s)
|colspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Gayathri'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Vijayalakshmi'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Umapathy'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Vikranth'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Vanessa'''
|colspan=3 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Kash'''
|colspan=3 style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Vikranth'''
|rowspan=2 colspan=4 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Vikranth'''
| rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Inigo'''
| rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Kash'''
| rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Inigo'''
| rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Vijayalakshmi'''
| rowspan="2" colspan=5 style="background:#ccc;color:black" |'''None'''
|-
|colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Lakshmi'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Amzath'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Nandha'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Aishwarya'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Narayan'''
|colspan=3 style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Saran'''
|colspan=3 style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Aishwarya'''
|-
!colspan=3|Nominated for Voting
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |Gayathri Ram Umapathy
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |Parvathy Ravi
|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |Kash Ram
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |Saran Vijayalakshmi
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |Narayan Ravi
|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |Amzath Lakshmi Vannesa
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |Amzath Vaneesa
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |Inigo Saran
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |Lakshmi Vannesa
|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya Kash Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Kash Saran
|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Amzath Kash Nandha Vannesa
|None
|colspan=2 rowspan=3 style="background:#ccc;color:black" |'''None'''
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Inigo
|rowspan=3|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya Amazath Narayan
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Amazath Narayan
|rowspan="3"|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya Saran
|rowspan="3"|None
|colspan=2 rowspan="3"|None
|-
!colspan=3|Eliminated by tribemates
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>Gayathri</s>
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Srushti'''
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>Parvathy</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Indraja'''
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>Ram</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Ram'''
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>Vijayalakshmi</s>
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Parvathy'''
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>Ravi</s>
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |'''Ravi'''
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>Lakshmi</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>Amzath</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Gayathri'''
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>Saran</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>Lakshmi</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |'''Lakshmi'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>Aishwarya</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>Saran</s>
|rowspan="2" |None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>Nandha</s>
|rowspan="2" |None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>Inigo</s>
|colspan="2" style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Amzath
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|-
!colspan=3|Votes
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>4-2-1</s>
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>6-1</s>
|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>6-1</s>
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>5-2</s>
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>4-1-1</s>
|None
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>(3)-2-2</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>3-1</s>
|None
|style="background:#E62020;color:white" |<s>3-2</s>
|style="background:#FFE105;color:black" |<s>3-2</s>
|None
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>4-4-2</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>6-3</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>8-2</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>4-2-2-(1)</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>5-0</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>2-2[3]-(3)</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |4-3
| style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |5-1
|-
!colspan=3|Voted out by
|colspan=6 |None
|{{stribe|tayak|<s>Saran</s>}}
|colspan="26" |None
|-
!rowspan="2" colspan=3|Permanently Eliminated
|rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white"|'''Srushti'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black"|'''Indraja'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#FFE105;color:black"|'''Ram'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white"|'''Parvathy'''
|rowspan="2"colspan=2 style="background:#E62020;color:white"|'''Ravi'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=3 style="background:#FFE105;color:black"|'''Gayathri'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=3 style="background:#FFE105;color:black"|'''Lakshmi'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=6 style="background:#ccc;color:black" |'''None'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#ccc;color:black" |'''Elimination cancelled'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Nandha'''
|rowspan="2" colspan=2 style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Amzath'''
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Vikranth'''
|rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Aishwarya'''
|rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Narayan'''
|rowspan="2" style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Umapathy'''
|colspan=2 rowspan="2"|None
|-
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |'''Inigo'''
|-
!colspan=3|Quit Permanently
|colspan=22 style="background:#ccc;color:black" |'''None'''
|colspan=2 style="background:#fcf;color:black" |'''Kash'''
|colspan=9 style="background:#ccc;color:black" |'''None'''
|-
!colspan=3|Voter
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Re-vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Re-vote
!2nd Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Challenge
!Vote
!Re-vote
!Knock out
!Vote
!Knock out
!Knock out
!WIN
|-
|colspan="36" style="background:black" |
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Vijayalakshmi'''}}
|{{stribe|catan|Gayathri}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}}{{efn|name=Saved|Immunity}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}}{{efn|name=Saved|Immunity}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}}{{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Nandha
|—
|—
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Inigo
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|<s>Aishwarya</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Amzath
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Aishwarya
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#73FB76;" |'''Sole Survivor'''
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Saran'''}}
|{{stribe|catan|Gayathri}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Vijayalakshmi}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Ravi}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Inigo}}
|—
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Kash
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Kash
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Passed|Lost}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Not Eligible''}}{{efn|name=Not Eligible|Not playing the challenge because lost previous challenge}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Passed|Lost}}
|—
|{{stribe|David|''Passed''}}{{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|<s>Narayan</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Narayan
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Aishwarya
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#D1E8EF;"|'''{{nowrap|1st Runner Up}}'''
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Vanessa'''}}
|colspan="4" style="background:beige;" |Not in game yet {{efn|name=Wildcard|Inigo and Vanessa joined the game on day 19 as new wildcard contestants}}
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Lakshmi}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Lakshmi}}
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Nandha
|—
|colspan="3" style="background:#fcf;color:black"|Sick Day
|style="background:beige;" |Re-joined
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|<s>Aishwarya</s>
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Amzath
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Aishwarya
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#7FFFD4;"|'''{{nowrap|2nd Runner Up}}'''
|-
|-
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Umapathy'''}}
|{{stribe|catan|Gayathri}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Lakshmi}}
|{{stribe|catan|Amzath}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Vannesa}}
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Amzath
|—
|colspan="3" style="background:#fcf;color:black"|Sick Day
| style="background:beige;" |Re-joined
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Narayan
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Narayan
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Aishwarya
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:salmon;color:black" |Failed
|colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Narayan'''}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Parvathy}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Ravi}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Vannesa
|—
|—
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Inigo
|—
|colspan="2" style="background:black;color:white" |Vote Blocked
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Aishwarya
|style="background:salmon;color:black" |Failed
|colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Aishwarya'''}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Parvathy}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|Tayak|Vijayalakshmi}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Ravi}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Inigo}}
|—
|—
|colspan="3" style="background:black;color:white" |Vote Blocked {{efn|name=Vote Blocked|Vikranth used his secret power and blocked Aishwarya's vote in tribal council.}}
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Inigo
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Narayan
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Narayan
|{{stribe|immune|''Saved''}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Saran
|colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Vikranth'''}}
|{{stribe|catan|Gayathri}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Lakshmi}}
|{{stribe|catan|Amzath}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Lakshmi}}
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Amzath
|—
|colspan="3" style="background:#fcf;color:black"|Sick Day
|style="background:beige;" |Re-joined
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Amzath
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Amzath
|style="background:salmon;color:black" |Failed
|colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Inigo'''}}
|colspan="4" style="background:beige;" |Not in game yet {{efn|name=Wildcard|Inigo and Vanessa joined the game on day 19 as new wildcard contestants}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Nandha
|—
|—
|—
|style="background:black;color:white" |Vote Blocked
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Amzath
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Amzath
|style="background:salmon;color:black" |Failed
|colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Amzath'''}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Parvathy}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Vanessa}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}} {{efn|name=Voting|Re-entered}}
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Vanessa
|—
|—
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|Inigo²
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black"|<s>Aishwarya</s>
|—
|colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Nandha'''}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Parvathy}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Narayan}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Kash
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Kash
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |<s>Kash</s>
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}} {{efn|name=Passed|Lost}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Jury|Lost}}
|colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|luvu|'''Kash'''}}
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Amzath²}}
|{{stribe|catan|Amzath}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Lakshmi}}
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Aishwarya
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Saran
|—
|style="background:#00bfff;color:black" |Nandha
|—
| colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|{{stribe|catan|'''Lakshmi'''}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Parvathy}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Vanessa}}
|{{stribe|catan|Vanessa}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Vanessa}}
|{{stribe|none|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Lost|Eliminated}}
| colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|colspan=2 style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|catan|'''Gayathri'''}}
|{{stribe|catan|Ram}}
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}}{{efn|name=Saved|Immunity}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}}{{efn|name=Saved|Immunity}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Lost|Eliminated}}
| colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|{{stribe|tayak|'''Ravi'''}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Parvathy}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Saran}}
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Himself}}
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Lost|Eliminated}}
| colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|colspan=2 style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|tayak|'''Parvathy'''}}
|—
|—
|{{stribe|tayak|Ravi}}
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}}{{efn|name=Saved|Immunity}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Passed''}} {{efn|name=Won|Saved}}
|—
|{{stribe|none|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Lost|Eliminated}}
| colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|colspan=2 style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|catan|'''Ram'''}}
|{{stribe|catan|Umapathy}}
|—
|—
|—
|{{stribe|catan|Kash}}
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Lost|Eliminated}}
| colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|catan|}}
|colspan=2 style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|catan|'''Indraja'''}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Saved''}}{{efn|name=Saved|Immunity}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Lost|Eliminated}}
| colspan="40" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|{{stribe|tayak|}}
|colspan=2 style="text-align:middle" {{stribe|tayak|'''Srushti'''}}
|—
|{{stribe|david|''Failed''}}{{efn|name=Lost|Eliminated}}
| colspan="50" style="background:darkgrey;" |
|-
|}
{|class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%"
! colspan="4"|Jury vote
|-
! Episode #
| colspan="3"|91
|-
! Day #
| colspan="3"|91
|-
! Finalist
| {{stribe|luvu|Vijayalakshmi}}
| {{stribe|luvu|Vanessa}}
| {{stribe|luvu|Saran}}
|-
! Votes
| colspan="3" {{stribe|luvu|4-3-0}}
|-
! colspan="5" style="background:black;"|
|-
! Juror
! colspan="4"|Vote
|-
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|Umapathy}}
|
|
| {{stribe|luvu|Saran}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|Narayan}}
| {{stribe|luvu|Vijayalakshmi}}
|
|
|-
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|Aishwarya}}
|
|
| {{stribe|luvu|Saran}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|Inigo}}
| {{stribe|luvu|Vijayalakshmi}}
|
|
|-
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|Vikranth}}
| {{stribe|luvu|Vijayalakshmi}}
|
|
|-
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|Amzath}}
|
|
| {{stribe|luvu|Saran}}
|-
| style="text-align:left" {{stribe|luvu|Nandha}}
| {{stribe|luvu|Vijayalakshmi}}
|
|
|-
|}
{{notelist}}

== Ratings, reception and viewership ==

''Survivor Tamil'' managed to garner a TRP of 5.02 on its opening and an average of 4.06 for its first week, leaving behind debuts of some of India's popular reality shows such as ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil TV series)|Bigg Boss]]'', ''[[Cooku with Comali]]'', ''[[MasterChef India - Tamil]]'' and ''[[Vijay TV's Super Singer (TV series)|Super Singer]]''. The show generally received positive reviews both from the media and the audience after its launch.

==Controversies==

===Safety negligence controversy===

On 6 October 2021, Lady Kash made a three-minute statement on YouTube, talking about the production team not giving enough care about the health of the contestants participating. Lady Kash also said the team were making her go through sexual harassment and mental harassment. Kash also said the behaviours of the team members were inhumane and they were lacking on humanity. Kash also said that she exited the show in an injustice way on 28 September 2021 during the final days of the filming of the show. She also stated that three participants in the show were feeling unwell and were tested for COVID-19, and the results came out positive and everyone on set were feeling unwell but without any safety precaution the filming still took place.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Shocking! Survivor contestant Lady Kash speaks up on injustice happened in the show|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/zee-tamil-survivor-lady-kash-latest-video-injustice-arjun-tamil-news-296230 |website=Indiaglitz.com |access-date=2021-10-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Lady Kash steps out of Survivor Tamil, accuses the show of safety negligence and harassment |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2021/oct/06/lady-kash-steps-out-of-survivor-tamil-accuses-the-show-of-safety-negligence-and-harassment-27121.html |website=Cinema Express |access-date=2021-10-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Lady Kash quits Survivor; alleges makers didn't care she had COVID symptoms|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/lady-kash-quits-survivor-alleges-makers-didnt-care-she-had-covid-symptoms/articleshow/86809496.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2021-10-07}}</ref>

===Phone use controversy===
Saran Shakthi was accused and proven guilty of using a mobile phone from which he borrowed from a crew member in the island to connect to his girlfriend who is overseas. However, he wasn't disqualified from the show and still competed, which created unfairness towards the co-contestants. He also accused fellow contestant Vijayalakshmi of using a mobile phone too, which is yet to be questioned.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb episodes|15195094|Survivor Tamil - Season 1}}

{{Survivor|SURVINT}}

[[Category:2021 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:2021 Tamil-language television seasons]]
[[Category:Zee Tamil original programming]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:2021 Tamil-language television series endings]]
[[Category:Television shows filmed in Tanzania]]

Muhammad Mansuruddin

2026-01-03T18:19:02Z

Khorang: quick update

{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox writer 
| name=Muhammad Mansuruddin
| image =
| caption = A portrait of Muhammad Mansuruddin
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1904|1|31}}
| birth_place = Muraripur Village, [[Sujanagar Upazila|Sujanagar thana]], [[Pabna District]], [[Bengal Presidency]], British India
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1987|9|19|1904|1|31}}
| death_place = [[Dhaka]], Bangladesh
| nationality = [[Bangladeshi]]
| occupation = Teacher, writer, folklorist
| genre = [[folklore]], novel, short story, essay, biography, [[lexicography]]
| notableworks = [[Haramoni]]
| period = [[Bengal Renaissance]]
| signature =
| awards = [[Ekushey Padak]] [[Independence Day Award]]
}}

'''Muhammad Mansuruddin''' (31 January 1904 – 19 September 1987) was a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] author, literary critic, essayist, lexicographer and biographer from [[Bangladesh]].<ref name=bpedia>{{cite web |author=Wakil Ahmed |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Mansuruddin,_Muhammad |title=Mansuruddin, Muhammad |access-date=15 June 2015 |website=[[Banglapedia]]}}</ref> He was an authority on folklore and was famous for a huge collection of age-old folk songs, mostly anthologised in thirteen volumes under the title [[Haramoni]]. In recognition of his lifelong contribution to folklore collection and research, the [[Rabindra Bharati University]] awarded him [[D.Litt.]] degree in 1987.

==Early life and education==
On 31 January 1904 Mansuruddin was born to Muhammad Jaider Ali (father) and Jiarun Nisa (mother) in the Muraripur village under [[Sujanagar Upazila|Sujanagar thana]] of Pabna district of [[East Bengal]] of the [[British India]], now in Bangladesh. His education started in a rural school called Madhabchandra Nandi Pathshala. He matriculated from the Khalilpur High School in 1921. He did ISc from the [[Pabna Edward College]] in 1923 and then IA from the [[Rajshahi College]] in 1924, both IA and ISc being equivalent to [[Higher Secondary (School) Certificate|HSC]]. He obtained his bachelor's degree (BA) from Rajshahi College in 1926. He studied in the department of Indian Vernacular of the [[Calcutta University]], from where he secured an M. A. (Master of Arts) with a First Class in 1928.<ref name=bpedia/> While a student of the Rajshahi College, he was married to Sharifun Nisa in 1925. They had six sons and six daughters.

==Teaching career==
In 1929, he joined government service as a school sub-inspector. While posted in Naogaon, he came to meet with [[Annadashankar Roy]], who was then the sub-divisional officer (SDO). His career as a teacher commenced in 1932 when he joined the [[Dhaka Islamic Intermediate College]] to teach English language and literature. From 1935 to 1938, he taught at the Howrah Intermediate College, [[Calcutta]]. From 1938 to 1941, he taught Bengali language and literature in the [[Chittagong College]]. Then he joined the Rajshahi College and taught from 1941 to 1943. He was a professor of Bengali language and literature at the Murray Chand College in Sylhet from 1948 to 1952. Mansuruddin taught at the [[Dhaka College]] since 1952 from where he retired in 1959. During the same time, he taught in the Bengali Department of the [[Dhaka University]] as a part-time faculty-member. Also, he served for some time as an instructor at the [[Police Academy, Sardah]]. As a teacher he was very interesting and attractive to his pupils.

==Literary career==
Mansuruddin started to write at a very early stage. Although the collection of folklore remains his greatest legacy, he wrote literary essays and fiction all through his life. His most notable literary contribution is, however, the collection of over six thousand folk songs from different rural areas of Bengal. In 1952, he worked as editor of monthly literary [[Mah-e Now]] for about six months (on deputation from government service).

He spent fifty to sixty years collecting [[Baul]] songs and other rural songs. He transcribed without caring for lexical accuracy. He took down as he heard from the mouth of the singers. He collected a huge number of folklore poems and songs, many of which were collected in thirteen volumes during his lifetime. He also collected songs of [[Lalon Fakir]] and wrote on him. Also, in 1974, he translated some songs of Lalon Fakir for the international audience.<ref>{{cite news |title=The long tradition of Bengal mysticism |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-79564 |work=The Daily Star |date=14 March 2009}}</ref> He often encouraged younger folklorists to research following internationally recognised scientific conventions. At the same time, he advised folklore researchers to travel to the rural sources of the folklore items to discover the life behind it.

==Important works==
Apart from Haramoni ('হারামণি'), his notable collection was Lalon Fakir-er Gaan ('লালন ফকিরের গান' : Songs of Lalan Fakir), published in 1948. ''Lalan Geetika'' ('লালন গীতিকা') was published subsequently. Folksongs of Lalan Shah in English rendering was published in 1974. Introductions to different volumes of Haramoni are revealing and educative. In the Introduction of Volume V of Haramoni, he wrote, "No contemporary poet was to be compared with Lalon. The song of Lalon Shah bears the quaking of life and delightful reason why the rural indigent people preserve it. This song quenches the spiritual musical thirst, in fact, though Lalon is illiterate but his songs are full of refulgent. The language of Shah is more glorious than Dasharoti Ray, Modhu Kanan even than the language of [[Ramprasad Sen|Ram Prasad]]-No other his contemporary Muslim poet can be compared with him, even the poem of great litterateur [[Mir Mosharraf Hossain|Meer Mosharraf Hossain]] is worse than that of Lalon".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bangladeshmoves.com/literature.html |author=Abu Ishahoq Hossain |title=Lalon Shah: Great Scholar of Bangladesh |access-date=2 August 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822122143/http://www.bangladeshmoves.com/literature.html |archive-date=22 August 2009}}</ref> A collection of Vaishnab Kabita was published in 1942. He wrote two novels, which were ''First July'' ('পহেলা জুলাই') (1932) and ''Satashey March'' ('সাতাশে মার্চ') (1958). He produced three volumes of folktales, namely, ''Shirni'' (1932), ''Agar baati'' (1935) and ''Shiropa'' (1938). He published a translation of Aurangzeb in 1940. His essays were published in several volumes. These included ''Dhaner Manjari'' (1933) and ''Kabya Samput'' (1948). His notable work, ''Muslim Contribution in Bengali Literature'', was published in 3 volumes between 1960 and 1981. Other prose works are ''Conflict between the Hindus and the Mussalmans'' (1981) and ''Vaishnab Kabita by Muslim composers'' (1942). Muhammad Monsooruddin, another prominent folklorist of Bangladesh, took up the task of collecting Baul songs, which had been started by Tagore. After the publication of the first volume (1939) with preface from [[Rabindranath Tagore]], in 1942, [[University of Calcutta|Calcutta University]] published his second volume of Hara-Mani (Lost Gems), which included a few hundred songs. Since then, 12 additional volumes of his collections have been published in Dacca. [[Jasimuddin|Jassim Uddin]], who started his career as a collections of folksongs and folktales. He was, however, most famous for his use of folklore themes in dramas and in poetry. His published folksong collections include Rangila Nayer Majhi (The Boatman of the Green Boat) in 1938. His collection of humorous folktales, published in Bengali as Bangalir Hashir Galpa (1960) appeared along with English translation. He also published Jarigan (1968) and many other publications. Special mention should be made of Late [[Abbasuddin Ahmed|Abbas Uddin]], a scholar, accomplished singer, and collector of folksongs. His influence in the contemporary folklore movement of our country is immense. Hundreds of his genuine folksong records pressed by commercial recording companies sold like hot cakes. Popularly known as the father of Bengali Folk-songs, Abbas Uddin has made folksongs popular and has created a school of folksingers in Bangladesh. These three scholars, Muhammad Monsooruddin, Jassim Uddin and Abbas Uddin, represented the country at Folklore Conferences held in London, at Indian a university in Bloomington and the Germany, in past years.

He wrote several biography books including ''Iraner Kobi'' (1968), a biography of [[Muhammad]] titled ''Hazrat Muhammader Jiboni O Sadhona'', ''[[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi|Hazrat Shah Waliullah]]'' and ''[[Harun al-Rashid|Harun Rashid]]''. His books for children included ''Bokami'' (1952), ''Thokami'' (1958) and ''Mushkil Ahsan'' (1958). He compiled a dictionary of [[Bengali language|Bengali]] idioms under the title ''Hashir Ovidhan'' in 1957.

He is one of the pioneers of Bengali folklore collection and research. Owing to rural origin, he was aware of folklore ballads and songs of oral tradition. He was impressed by the richness of Bengali folk music and decided to collect them before they are fully lost into oblivion. Starting from 1920s, he travelled from place to place and met people to collect folk songs that spread through oral medium. For Haramoni, he visited hundreds of villages of [[Rajshahi]], [[Pabna]], [[Nadia district|Nadia]], [[Murshidabad]], [[Mymensingh]], [[Faridpur District|Faridpur]], [[Barisal]], [[Noakhali]] and Dhaka. He was encouraged by the works of [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Kshitimohan Sen]], Pallikobi [[Jasimuddin]], singer [[Abbas Uddin]] and painter [[Zainul Abedin]]. He was inspired when his collection of a song of Lalon Fakir sung by Premdasa Bairagi was published in the Haramoni section of the monthly literary magazine [[Probashi]]. It is quoted below.

===Haramoni===
''Haramoni'' was the name of a regular section of monthly literary magazine Probashi that was dedicated to publishing folk songs collected from rural areas. Mansoor uddin picked up this name for publishing his collection of folklore. The first volume of Haramoni (''Lost Jewels'' in English translation), essentially an anthology of Baul songs, was published in 1931. Mansuruddin himself published this volume, which was printed by Karim Box Brothers. Nobel Laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote the preface of the book when its first volume was published. In 1942, the second volume was published by the Calcutta University. In 1948, Mansuruddin took initiative to publish the third volume of Haramoni. The [[University of Dhaka]] published the fourth volume in 1959. The manuscript contained 400 songs, and as many as 300 of them got lost. The fourth volume contained many songs of [[Pagla Kanai]]. The fifth volume was edited by [[Muhammad Abdul Hye]] and published by the Department of Bengali, Dhaka University, in 1961. It contained many songs by Lalon Fakir and Pagla Kanai. Again it is Mansoor uddin who at his own initiative published the sixth volume of Haramoni in 1967. However, by then, the [[Bangla Academy (Bangladesh)|Bangla Academy]] had published the seventh volume in 1964. The sixth volume contained nearly two hundred songs of Lalon Fakir. The seventh contained about seven hundred songs, many of which were collected from Sylhet area. Also, there was some of Panjeri Shah or Panju Shah. Mansuruddin added an 84 pages long introduction to this volume that focused on the lives of Hason Raja, Panju Shah, Shitalansha Shah, Arkum Shah, Monomhon, Radharaman, Dwija Das, Sheikh Bhanu, Qurban, Abdul Jabber, Madan Ganbi, Shah Mohammad Yasin, Ram Gopal, Kala Chand Pagla, Ananta Goshai and Abdul Wahed, among others. The eighth volume contained more than eight hundred songs collected from Kushtia, Faridpur, Pabna and Dhaka. It was published in 1976. It is the Bangla Academy that published the ninth volume in 1988. However, the tenth volume was already published in 1984. The 13th volume was published in 1984 by the Bangladesh Folklore Parishad. As many as eight more volumes remain to be published by the Bangla Academy, Dhaka.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} Apart from Baul songs, Haramoni contains a huge number of rural songs of different categories like ''Meyeli gaan'', ''Baro maishya'' and ''Deha Tatwa''.<ref>{{cite news |title=A lyricist of mystic heart |work=The New Nation |date=24 July 2009 |quote="Another eighteenth century Baul singer-poet Osman Gani ... (Collected folk-songs: Haramoni by Prof. Monsuruddin ...)"}}</ref>
* Shirni (1931)
* Dhaner Mavjari (1933)
* Agarbati (1938)
* Bangla Sahitye Muslim Sadhana (1960–1966)
* Iraner Kavi (1968)

==Awards==
In 1987 Rabindra Bharati University, [[Kolkata]], India awarded him D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) ''honoris causa'' for his lifelong contribution to folklore collection and research. He received many other awards during his lifetime including the following:
* Sir [[Ashutosh Mukherjee]] Award, Calcutta University, (1926)
* [[Bangla Academy Literary Award]] (1965)
* Muktodhara Sahitya Puroshker (1982)
* Alokto Sahitya Puroshker (1983)
* [[Independence Day Award]] (1984)
* Khoda Boks Puroshker
* Kalu Shah Puroshker (1986)
* Sher-e-Bangla National Award and Gold Medal (1980)
* [[Ekushey Padak]] (1983)
* Nasiruddin Gold Medal (1983)

==Important notes==
* Annadashankar Roy dedicated his ''Lalan and His Songs'' (1978) to Muhammad Mansuruddin.
* Also Sanatkumer Mitra dedicated his ''Lalan Faquir, Kobi and Kabya'' (1979) to Mansuruddin.

==Bibliography==
* Tofael Ahmed: ''Bangladesher Atmaar Sondhaney Sahitya Acharjya''('আত্মার সন্ধানে সাহিত্য আচার্য্য'), Dhaka, 1983.
* Momen Chowdhury: ''Muhammad Mansururddin'' ('মুহম্মদ মনসুরউদ্দীন'), Dhaka, 1988.
* Lekhak Ovidhan ('লেখক অভিধান'), Bangla Academy, 1999.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mansuruddin, Muhammad}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]
[[Category:Bengali-language writers]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi male novelists]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Calcutta]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Dhaka]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Dhaka College]]
[[Category:Indian folklore]]
[[Category:Bengali folklore]]
[[Category:Bengali writers]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi folklorists]]
[[Category:20th-century Bangladeshi novelists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Independence Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Ekushey Padak]]
[[Category:20th-century Bangladeshi male writers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Bangla Academy Award]]
[[Category:People from Sujanagar Upazila]]

Tripti Nadakar

2025-12-29T05:21:07Z

Khorang: Put Up Some Data Needs Work!

{{Short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Tripti Nadakar
| occupation = [[Actress]]
| years active = 1983–2009
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1969|01|02}}<ref name=nepaliactress>{{Cite web | url=http://nepaliactress.com/nepali-actress-tripti-nadkar/ | title=Tripti Nadkar, Biography of a talented actress| date=15 April 2013}}</ref>
| birth_name = Tripti Nadakar
| birth_place = [[Darjeeling]], India
| website =
| height = {{height|m=1.69|precision=0}}
}}

'''Tripti Nadakar''' ({{langx|ne|तृप्ती नाडकर}}; born January 2, 1969) is an Indian actress who worked in [[Cinema of Nepal|Nepali cinema]]. She was born to a Marathi father and a Nepalese mother from Darjeeling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nepaliactress.com/nepali-actress-tripti-nadkar|title = Tripti Nadkar, Biography of a talented actress|date = 15 April 2013}}</ref> She has performed in more than a dozen Nepali films. Her hit movies were ''[[Samjhana]]'', ''[[Kusume Rumal]]'', ''[[Saino]]'' and ''[[Lahure (film)|Lahure]]''.<ref name=nepalimovie>{{Cite web|url = http://nepalimovie.net/tripti-nadakar/|title = Tripti Nadakar back to movie again|date = 2 October 2010|access-date = 10 March 2011|archive-date = 21 March 2012|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120321061424/http://nepalimovie.net/tripti-nadakar/|url-status = dead}}</ref> She and [[Bhuwan K.C.]] were dubbed the first golden couple of Nepali film industry.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.cinesansar.com/2010/01/nepali-cinema-golden-era-history-part-ii.html | title=EduNepal | access-date=10 March 2011 | archive-date=21 March 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321061518/http://www.cinesansar.com/2010/01/nepali-cinema-golden-era-history-part-ii.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Nadakar was paid Rs. 150,000 to act in ''Saino''.<ref name=nepaliactress />

==Filmography==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Starring
|-
| 1983
| ''[[Samjhana]]''
| [[Bhuwan K.C.]], Tripti Nadakar
|-
| 1985
| ''[[Kusume Rumal]]''
| [[Bhuwan K.C.]], Tripti Nadakar, [[Udit Narayan]]
|-
| 1988
| ''[[Saino]]''
| [[Danny Denzongpa]], [[Bhuwan K.C.]], Rakshya Mark
|-
| 1989
| ''[[Lahure (film)|Lahure]]''
| [[Shrawan Ghimire]], Tripti Nadakar, [[Tulsi Ghimire]]
|-
| 1992
| ''Koseli''
| [[Shrawan Ghimire]], Krishna Malla
|-
| 2004
| ''Aama Ko Kakh''
|[[Rajesh Hamal]], Tripti Nadakar, [[Nikhil Upreti]]
|-
| 2006
| ''Duniya''
| [[Bhuwan K.C.]], Tripti Nadakar, [[Nikhil Upreti]], [[Niruta Singh]]
|-
| | 2009
| ''[[Kusume Rumal 2]]''
| Tripti Nadakar, Niraj Baral, [[Usha Rajak]], Rubi Bhattarai
|-
|}

==Awards==
* 2007, Best Supporting Actress, Nepali Film Award 2064, Aama Ko Kakh

==See also ==
*[[saino]]
*[[Kusume Rumal]]
*[[laure (film)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nadakar, Tripti}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Actresses from Darjeeling]]
[[Category:Indian Gorkhas]]
[[Category:Marathi actresses]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Nepali cinema]]
[[Category:Indian expatriate actresses in Nepal]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
{{Film-actor-stub}}

Delhi P. Sunder Rajan

2025-12-17T17:44:50Z

Khorang: typo fix

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{multiple issues|
{{BLP sources|date=August 2011}}
{{notability|Music|date=September 2014}}
}}

{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Delhi P. Sunder Rajan
| image =
| caption = Delhi P. Sunder Rajan (right) in 1991
| origin = [[New Delhi]], [[India]]
| instrument = [[violin]], [[viola]], [[vocals]]
| genre = [[Carnatic Music]] [[World Music]] [[Indian Classical Music]]
| alias = "DPS"
| label = Cauvery Records
| website = [http://www.sunderrajan.com www.sunderrajan.com]
}}

'''Delhi P. Sunder Rajan''' is a [[violin]]ist-[[vocalist]] of [[India]] performing South Indian Classical music ([[Carnatic music]]) .<ref name="Arnold2000">{{cite book|last=Arnold|first=Alison|title=South Asia: the Indian subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC&pg=PA1023|accessdate=11 August 2011|year=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1|pages=1023–}}</ref> He is known for his improvisations and style of playing.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130614234102/http://delhisunderrajan.com/ Sunder Rajan]. Official Website.
* [http://www.soundclick.com/delhisunderrajan Concert recording]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajan, Delhi P. Sunder}}
[[Category:Tamil musicians]]
[[Category:Musicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Carnatic violinists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian violinists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

P. Jyotshna

2025-12-16T02:21:45Z

Khorang: Improved wording and formatting

{{Short description|Indian badminton player (born 1988)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox badminton player
| name = P. Jyotshna
| image =
| size =
| caption =
| nickname =
| birth_name = Jyotshna Polavarapu
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1988|12|22}}
| birth_place = [[India]]
| death_place =
| height =
| weight =
| country = {{IND}}
| years_active =
| handedness = Right
| coach =
| event = Women's & mixed doubles
| highest_ranking = 80 (WD 21 January 2010) 111 (XD 13 September 2012)
| date_of_highest_ranking =
| current_ranking =
| date_of_current_ranking =
| played =
| titles =
| medal_templates =
| bwfbadminton_id = 99026
| bwf_id = 1FDB55CB-E25B-4E41-8682-5682D638C5AA
}}

'''Jyotshna Polavarapu''' (born 22 December 1988) is an Indian badminton player. She plays both doubles and mixed doubles. She partnered [[Pradnya Gadre]] earlier for women's doubles events.<ref>{{cite web |title=Players: P. Jyotshna |url=http://bwfbadminton.com/player/99026/p-jyotshna |publisher=[[Badminton World Federation]] |accessdate=21 February 2018}}</ref> She was trained at the [[Gopichand Badminton Academy]], and reached the women's doubles number 3 in the national ranking.<ref>{{cite web |title=Player - Personal Information: Jyotsna Polavarapu |url=http://www.pgba.in/jyot_pro.html |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130218023313/http://www.pgba.in/jyot_pro.html |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Gopichand Badminton Academy]] |archivedate=18 February 2013 |accessdate=21 February 2018 }}</ref> She was the runners-up at the [[Indian National Badminton Championships|national championships]] in the mixed doubles event in 2006/07, and in the women's doubles in 2010/11.<ref>{{cite news |title=Arvind, Aditi win National championship |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/badminton/Arvind-Aditi-win-National-championship/articleshow/7254417.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |accessdate=21 February 2018}}</ref>

== Achievements ==
===BWF International Challenge/Series===
''Women's doubles''
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;"
! Year
! Tournament
! Partner
! Opponent
! Score
! Result
|- style="background:#D5D5D5"
| align="center" | 2008
| align="left" | [[Nepal International]]
| align="left" | {{flagicon|IND}} [[Anjali Kalita]]
| align="left" | {{flagicon|IND}} [[Jwala Gutta]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Shruti Kurien]]
| align="left" | 6–21, 8–21
| style="text-align:left; background:white" | {{silver2}} '''Runner-up'''
|-
|- style="background:#D8CEF6"
| align="center" | 2007
| align="left" | [[Tata Open India International Challenge|India International]]
| align="left" | {{flagicon|IND}} [[Aparna Balan]]
| align="left" | {{flagicon|IND}} [[Jwala Gutta]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Shruti Kurien]]
| align="left" | 11–21, 8–21
| style="text-align:left; background:white" | {{silver2}} '''Runner-up'''
|}
:{{Color box|#D8CEF6|border=darkgray}} [[BWF International Challenge]] tournament
:{{Color box|#D5D5D5|border=darkgray}} [[BWF International Series]] tournament

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{sports links}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jyotshna, P.}}
[[Category:Indian female badminton players]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women]]

{{India-badminton-bio-stub}}

Kori rotti

2025-12-15T11:40:09Z

Khorang: expand citations further for consistency

{{Short description|Spicy dish from India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox food
| variations =
| region = [[Tulunadu]], [[India]]
| name_lang =
| image = Kori rotti(with chicken ghasi).jpg
| main_ingredient =
| country = [[Tulunadu]]
| course = Main
| alternate_name = Kori rutti
}}
'''Kori rotti''' is a spicy dish of the [[Tulu people|Tulu]] [[Udupi cuisine |Udupi]]-Mangalorean cuisine of India.
It is an authentic dish of Tuluvas from [[Tulunadu]]. Kori rotti is a compulsory dish on Sundays and special occasions in Tulunadu homes. It is a combination of red chili and coconut milk-based [[chicken curry]] and crisp, dry wafers made from boiled rice.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/features/following-the-trail-of-the-ghee-roast-in-mangaluru-1554009932612.html| title=Following the trail of the ghee roast in Mangaluru| author=Shirin Mehrotra| date=2019-03-31| work=Livemint}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://indianexpress.com/photos/lifestyle-gallery/cherry-blossom-season-japan-see-pics-2757842/| title=Have you had these seven iconic Mangalore dishes?| date=2016-04-18| work=The Indian Express}}</ref> ''Kori'' means chicken in [[Tulu language|Tulu]].

== See also ==
* [[List of chicken dishes]]
* [[Udupi cuisine]]

==External links==
*[http://food.sulekha.com/kori-rotti.htm How to make kori rotti ]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Chicken dishes}}

[[Category:Indian rice dishes]]
[[Category:Karnataka cuisine]]
[[Category:Mangalorean cuisine]]
[[Category:Indian chicken dishes]]

{{India-cuisine-stub}}

Balwant Gargi

2025-12-02T20:35:52Z

Khorang: minor update

{{Short description|Indian dramatist and theatre director (1916 – 2003)}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Balwant Gargi
| image = Balwant Gargi.Amritsar.May1958.by Gopal Singh Chandan.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Gargi, Amritsar. 1958.
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date |df=yes|1916|12|4}}
| birth_place = [[Sehna, Barnala]] ([[Punjab (India)|Punjab]])
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2003|04|21|1916|12|04}}
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], India
| nationality =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| years_active =
| employer =
| organization =
| known_for =
| occupation = Writer, Theatre Director
| awards = Sahitya Akademi Award (1962)
Padma Shri (1972)
Sangeet Natan Akademi Award (1998)
}}

'''Balwant Gargi''' (4 December 1916 – 21 April 2003)<ref>{{cite web |last1= |first1= |title=Balwant Gargi - Library of Congress |url=https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/n50081729 |website=id.loc.gov |publisher= |access-date=29 December 2023 |language= |date=}}</ref> was an Indian [[Punjabi language]] dramatist, theatre director, novelist, short story writer, and academic.<ref name=tri/>

==Early life==
On 4 December 1916, in Canal House in [[Sehna, Barnala]] ([[Punjab (India)|Punjab]]), Balwant Gargi was born in a house near the Sirhind Canal, famous for being the spot where [[Razia Sultana]] was imprisoned. The second son in the family of Shiv Chand Garg, a head clerk in the Irrigation Department, he would go on create history in the world of Indian and Punjabi literature.

Gargi studied at [[Government College Lahore]], and completed his M.A.(English) and M.A.(Political Science) from [[FC College]] in [[Lahore]].<ref name=tri>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030423/main6.htm Balwant Gargi dead] ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'', 23 April 2003.</ref> He also studied theatre with [[Norah Richards]] at her school in [[Kangra Valley]].

==Plays==
Gargi wrote several plays, including ''Loha Kutt'', ''Kesro'', ''Kanak Di Balli'', ''Sohni Mahiwal'', ''Sultan Razia'', ''Soukan'', ''Mirza Sahiba'' and ''Dhooni di Agg'' and short stories ''Mircha Wala Sadh'', ''Pattan di Berhi'' and ''Kuari Disi''. His plays were translated into 12 languages, and have been performed around the world, including [[Moscow]], [[London]], [[New Delhi]] and around the [[United States]].

Gargi's first play, ''Loha kutt'' (English: ''Blacksmith'') in 1944 became controversial for its stark picture of the Punjab countryside. At that juncture, he focused on poverty, [[illiteracy]], ignorance, and [[superstition]] marking rural life, which continued in ''Saelpathar'' (English: ''Petrified Stone'') in 1949, ''Navan mudh'' (English: ''New Beginning'') in 1950, and ''Ghugi'' (English: ''Dove'') in 1950. In the 1950 edition of Loha kutt, he resorted to drawing poetic and dramatic elements from [[J. M. Synge]] and [[Garcia Lorca]]. In subsequent works like ''Kanak di balli'' (English: ''Stalk of Wheat'') in 1968 and ''Dhuni di agg'' (English: ''Fire in the Furnace'') in 1977, these became his chief vehicles. For all the specificity of native locale, the former deflected as much towards Lorca's ''[[Blood Wedding (play)|Blood Wedding]]'' as the latter reminded one of Yerma. In ''Mirza-Sahiban'' in 1976, customs and conventions came in for bitter censure. Gradually, Gargi's preoccupation with sex, violence, and death became almost an obsession. [[Antonin Artaud]]`s theatre of cruelty grew into his [[categorical imperative]]. This required his [[dramaturgy]] to proceed through mythopoeia, which turns explicit in his last plays.
[[File:Balwant Gargi. Dramatist. New Delhi. 1992.jpg|left|thumb|Balwant Gargi. New Delhi. 1992]]
In ''Saunkan'' (English: ''Rival Women'') in 1979, the paradigm of [[Yama]]-[[Yami]], the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god of death and his twin sister, becomes an occasion to glorify sexual union. Altogether dispensing with socio-political discourse, he turned to his new theme with a vengeance in ''Abhisarka'' (English: ''Lover'') in 1990. Gargi's penchant for the unexpected grew all-powerful.

For subject matter Gargi moved freely over social milieu, mythology, history, and folklore. For form and technique he relied as much upon [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] classics as on Lorca's poetic drama, [[Berthold Brecht|Brecht's]] [[epic theatre]], or Artaud's [[theatre of cruelty]]. In the composition and performance of his dozen full-length plays and five collections of one-act drama, he traveled from the realistic to the mythopoeic mode.

==Books and novels==

In addition to this dramatic corpus, Gargi's short stories began to be published in English. A book, ''Folk Theatre of India'', published in [[New York City]] and two semi-autobiographical novels in English and Punjabi, ''The Naked Triangle'' (''Nangi Dhup'') and ''The Purple Moonlight (Kashni Vehra)'' brought him to the forefront of cosmopolitan attention.<ref name="thehinduretailplus">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehinduretailplus.com/thehindu/mp/2003/05/26/stories/2003052600910200.htm |title=The Hindu : Scent of the soil, vision of the stars |publisher=thehinduretailplus.com |accessdate=6 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219111613/http://www.thehinduretailplus.com/thehindu/mp/2003/05/26/stories/2003052600910200.htm |archivedate=19 February 2012 }}</ref>

Balwant Gargi was among the pioneers of playwriting in Punjabi and the production and telecast of his plays like ''Sanjha Chulha'' on [[Doordarshan]] received countrywide appreciation

==Awards==
Gargi was awarded the [[Sahitya Akademi award]], the highest Indian literary award, in 1962 for his book ''Rang Manch''.<ref>{{cite book | url=http://jsks.biz/rang-manch-balwant-gargi | title=Rang Manch | publisher=Navyug Publishers}}</ref> This was followed by the [[Padma Shri]]<ref>[http://india.gov.in/myindia/padmashri_awards_list1.php?start=1380 Padma Shri Awards] ''Govt. of India'' website.</ref> (1972), and the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] in Punjabi Playwriting in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sangeetnatak.org/sna/awardeeslist.htm |title=SNA: List of Akademi Awardees |publisher=[[Sangeet Natak Akademi]] Official website |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217185616/http://www.sangeetnatak.org/sna/awardeeslist.htm |archivedate=17 February 2012 }}</ref> Gargi is one of the few artists to win both the Sahitya Akademi and Sangeet Natak Akademi awards.

==Theatre and teaching==
Balwant Gargi taught for two years (1966–67) at the [[University of Washington]], where he met Jeanne Henry, who later became his wife. This period was the basis of his [[autobiography]] ''The Naked Triangle''.

Balwant Gargi was the founder-director of the Indian Theatre Department, [[Panjab University]], [[Chandigarh]]. The open-air theatre at the department is named after him. His students include [[Anupam Kher]], [[Kiron Kher]], [[Satish Kaushik]], [[Poonam Dhillon]], and many other current [[Bollywood]] stars.

Over the years, Gargi lectured and taught as a distinguished visiting professor at [[Harvard University]], [[Vassar College]], [[Mount Holyoke College]], [[Trinity College (Connecticut)|Trinity College]], the [[University of Hawaii at Manoa|University of Hawai'i]], [[Yale University]], and many other renowned international institutions.

His children, Manu Gargi and Jannat Gargi, are settled in the United States. They are both producers of films in [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]].

==See also==
*[[Chaman Lal Chaman]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://indiantheatre.puchd.ac.in/ Theatre Deptt., PU, Chandigarh]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gargi, Balwant}}
[[Category:Indian male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian theatre directors]]
[[Category:Indian drama teachers]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language writers]]
[[Category:Punjabi Hindus]]
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:Government College University, Lahore alumni]]
[[Category:Forman Christian College alumni]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Punjab, India]]
[[Category:People from Bathinda]]
[[Category:Harvard University staff]]
[[Category:University of Washington faculty]]
[[Category:Vassar College faculty]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Punjabi]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]

Chintala

2025-11-19T11:16:08Z

Khorang: Starting info - done

'''Chintala''' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]: చింతల) or '''Chinthala''' is a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] surname. Notable people with the surname include:

* [[Chintala Ramachandra Reddy]] (born 1952), Indian politician
* [[Chintala Ramachandra Reddy (born 1964)|Chintala Ramachandra Reddy]] (born 1964), Indian politician
* [[Chintala Venkat Reddy]] (born 1950), Indian organic farmer
{{surname}}
[[Category:Telugu-language surnames]]

Anupama Chandrasekhar

2025-10-16T15:56:33Z

Khorang: Put Up

{{Short description|Indian playwright}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
'''Anupama Chandrasekhar ''' is an Indian [[playwright]] born and based in Chennai. She is known for her play ''[[The Father and the Assassin]]'', which earned her a nomination for the [[Evening Standard Theatre Awards]] for Best Play and was a finalist for the [[Susan Smith Blackburn Prize]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/theatre/66th-evening-standard-theatre-awards-shortlist-best-play-best-actor-best-musical-b1032690.html|title=The 66th Evening Standard Theatre Awards shortlist is here - and it's a tribute to London's incredible talent|journal=Evening Standard|date=1 November 2022|accessdate=29 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url= https://theatreweekly.com/2023-finalists-announced-for-the-susan-smith-blackburn-prize/|title=Finalists announced for the Susan Smith Blackburn Prize|journal=Theatre Weekly|date=8 February 2023|accessdate=29 March 2023}}</ref>

==Career==

Chandrasekhar's plays have been staged at leading venues in India, Europe, Canada, and the US. She was the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]], London's first international playwright-in-residence from 2016 to 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestage.co.uk/news/national-theatre-appoints-anupama-chandrasekhar-as-first-international-writer-in-residence|title=National Theatre appoints Anupama Chandrasekhar as first international writer-in-residence|last=Snow|first=Georgia|date=22 September 2016|work=The Stage|accessdate=7 April 2023}}</ref>

Her play ''Free Outgoing'', directed by [[Indhu Rubasingham]] premiered at the [[Royal Court Theatre]] in London in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.royalcourttheatre.com/whats-on/free-outgoing/?tab=4|title = Free Outgoing}}</ref> It was revived at the Royal Court's main theatre in Summer 2008 and travelled to the Traverse Theatre for the Edinburgh Fringe Festival the same year.<ref name="Macmillan">{{Cite web |date=2008-08-11 |title=Fringe reviews: It's still a man's world |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/fringe-reviews-it-s-still-a-man-s-world-1-1084748 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026075611/http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/fringe-reviews-it-s-still-a-man-s-world-1-1084748 |archive-date=2016-10-26}}</ref>

Chandrasekhar was a runner up for the [[Evening Standard Theatre Award]]’s Charles Wintour Prize for Most Promising Playwright in 2008.<ref name="Standard">{{Cite web |last=Correspondent |first=Louise Jury, Chief Arts |date=2012-04-13 |title=Donmar dominates the London stage at ES Theatre Awards |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/hp/front/donmar-dominates-the-london-stage-at-es-theatre-awards-6872624.html |access-date=2024-06-11 |website=Evening Standard |language=en}}</ref> She was also shortlisted for the [[John Whiting Award]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nickhernbooks.co.uk/Contributor/2024/Anupama-Chandrasekhar.html|title = Nick Hern Books | About Anupama Chandrasekhar}}</ref> and the [[Susan Smith Blackburn Prize]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackburnprize.org/finalists%202009.htm |title=Finalists 2009 |accessdate=2013-10-26 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029200222/http://www.blackburnprize.org/finalists%202009.htm |archivedate=2013-10-29 }}</ref> for ''Free Outgoing''. The play has also been staged by the [[Nightwood Theatre]] in Toronto.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nightwoodtheatre.net/index.php/blog/an_interview_with_anupama_chandrasekhar |title=AN INTERVIEW WITH ANUPAMA CHANDRASEKHAR - Nightwood Theatre |website=www.nightwoodtheatre.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306080653/http://www.nightwoodtheatre.net/index.php/blog/an_interview_with_anupama_chandrasekhar |archive-date=2014-03-06}}</ref> The play was staged in India by Crea-Shakti and directed by [[Mahesh Dattani]] in 2015 <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/mahesh-dattani-tells-about-the-introspective-nature-of-his-theatre-and-his-latest-project-in-chennai-free-outgoing/article6824015.ece|title = A peep into your soul|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 26 January 2015|last1 = Zachariah|first1 = Preeti}}</ref> and had its American premiere, directed by Snehal Desai and produced by Boom Arts, in Portland, Oregon in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oregonlive.com/art/index.ssf/2016/02/sex_lies_and_india.html|title = Sex, lies and India: Play pits technology against tradition|date = 25 February 2016}}</ref>

Her next play, ''Disconnect'', directed by Indhu Rubasingham, also premiered at the Royal Court Theatre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genesisfoundation.org.uk/content/anupama-chandrasekhars-latest-play-disconnect-receives-great-reviews-uk-press |title=Anupama Chandrasekhar's latest play Disconnect receives great reviews in the UK press. | Genesis Foundation |accessdate=2013-10-26 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029203705/http://www.genesisfoundation.org.uk/content/anupama-chandrasekhars-latest-play-disconnect-receives-great-reviews-uk-press |archivedate=2013-10-29 }}</ref> ''Disconnect'' has been translated and staged in German and Czech languages and had its American and West Coast premieres in 2013 at Chicago's [[Victory Gardens Theater]] and the [[San Jose Repertory Theatre]] respectively.

Her play for children, ''[[The Snow Queen]]'', an Indian adaptation of the [[Hans Christian Andersen]] story, written under commission to the [[Unicorn Theatre]] in London, opened for Christmas in December 2011. The play, directed by Rosamunde Hutt, was a tremendous box office success.<ref name="Muthalaly">{{Cite news |date=2012-08-01 |title=50 shows and still going strong |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/50-shows-and-still-going-strong/article3711858.ece |access-date=2024-06-11 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> A remount of the production, produced by the [[Trestle Theatre]], UK, opened the Chennai Metroplus Theatre Festival in 2012 and has toured several cities in India and the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-04-09 |title=Trestle Theatre. The Snow Queen National Tour |url=http://www.trestle.org.uk/the-snow-queen-national-tour |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102010908/http://www.trestle.org.uk/the-snow-queen-national-tour/ |archive-date=2013-11-02}}</ref>

Her subsequent play, ''When the Crows Visit'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/theatre/when-the-crows-visit-review-kiln-theatre-a4274031.html|title=When the Crows Visit review: Triumphant and intense|date=30 October 2019}}</ref> inspired by [[Ibsen]]'s ''[[Ghosts (play)|Ghosts]]'' and tackling the issue of sexual violence and patriarchy in India, opened at the [[Kiln Theatre]] in Autumn 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kilntheatre.com/whats-on/when-the-crows-visit/|title=WHEN THE CROWS VISIT | Kiln Theatre|website=kilntheatre.com}}</ref> Directed by [[Indhu Rubasingham]], the play was a response to India's horrific [[2012 Delhi gang rape]] and other crimes against women.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2019/oct/28/anupama-chandrasekhar-interview-playwright-shocking-india-Ibsen |title=Sex tapes and acid attacks: Anupama Chandrasekhar, the playwright shocking India {{!}} Stage {{!}} The Guardian |website=www.theguardian.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028165115/https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2019/oct/28/anupama-chandrasekhar-interview-playwright-shocking-india-ibsen |archive-date=2019-10-28}}</ref>

In June 2021, the National Theatre announced that it would stage Chandrasekher's new work ''[[The Father and the Assassin]]'' in its Olivier Theatre in May 2022, a work about the radicalised, devout follower of Gandhi who eventually became his killer.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

Her other plays include Acid, originally produced by QTP, Mumbai and later by the Madras Players in 2007 (which she directed), and Closer Apart, produced by Theatre Nisha – Chennai.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

Her screenplay adaptation of Free Outgoing was a finalist for the Sundance International Screenwriters’ Lab, Utah. She is the screenplay writer for a short film Kitchen Tales directed by Jane Moriarty and completed in 2020-21.{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

Her short story Wings of Vedanthangal was the Asia winner of the Commonwealth Short Story Prize in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cba.org.uk/events/awards/commonwealth-short-story-competition/2006-commonwealth-short-story-competition/|title = 2006 Short Story Competition|date = 19 October 2011}}</ref> She won a Charles Wallace Trust of India (CWIT) fellowship to the Royal Court Theatre's International Playwrights Programme in 2000. She was the CWIT Writing Fellow at the University of Chichester in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interview With Anupama Chandrashekar Interview : www.MumbaiTheatreGuide.com |url=https://www.mumbaitheatreguide.com/dramas/interviews/anupama-chandrashekar-interview.asp |access-date=2024-06-11 |website=www.mumbaitheatreguide.com}}</ref>

== Selected plays==
#''The Father and the Assassin''
#''When the Crows Visit''
# ''The Snow Queen''
#''Disconnect''
#''Free Outgoing''
#''Acid''

==References==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chandrasekhar, Anupama}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian women dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian women journalists]]
[[Category:English-language Indian writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Chennai]]
[[Category:Women writers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:The Hindu journalists]]
[[Category:Journalists from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Tamil Nadu]]

Abhilash Pandey

2025-09-22T20:30:58Z

Khorang: Done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Jabalpur North Assembly constituency|Jabalpur North]]
| term_start = 2023
| term_end =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1985|07|26}}
| spouse =
| children =
| father = Kamta Prasad Pandey
| mother = Usha Pandey
| education = [[B.Sc]], Master In Journalism, LLB, PhD
| profession = Politician
| predecessor = [[Vinay Saxena]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}
'''Dr Abhilash Pandey''' is an Indian politician from Madhya Pradesh. He is a [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Member of the Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]], representing [[Jabalpur North Assembly constituency]] as a Member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jabalpur North assembly election results 2023: Jabalpur North Winning Candidates List and Vote Share |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/madhya-pradesh/jabalpur-north-assembly-result-12098 |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Jabalpur North Madhya Pradesh Assembly Constituency Election 2023: Date of Result, Voting, Counting; Candidates |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/jabalpurnorth-madhya-pradesh-constituency-election-2023-candidates-list-election-voting-election-result-date-winner-runner-up-details/3281987/ |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref>

== Positions held ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Office
!Tenure
|-
|Vice President Madhya Pradesh [[BJYM]]
|2009-2012
|-
|General Secretary Madhya Pradesh [[BJYM]]
|2012-2016
|-
|President Madhya Pradesh [[BJYM]]
|2016-2022
|-
|Member of [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]], Jabalpur North
|2023-
|}

== See also ==
* [[List of chief ministers of Madhya Pradesh]]
* [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pandey, Abhilash}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:1985 births]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Broken But Beautiful

2025-09-21T02:21:46Z

Khorang: Starting new post - done

{{short description|2018 Hindi romantic web series created by Ekta Kapoor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Broken_But_Beautiful_3_Poster.jpeg
| caption =
| genre = {{ubl|[[Web series]] | [[Romance film|Romance]]}}
| creator = [[Ekta Kapoor]]
| based_on =
| developer = [[Ekta Kapoor]]
| writer = {{ubl|Reshu Nath | (seasons 1&2)|Rajat Arora| (season 3)}}
| director = {{ubl|Santosh Singh | (season 1) | Harsh Dedhia | (season 2) | Priyanka Ghose | (season 3)}}
| creative_director = {{ubl|Sanjay Kumar Daryani|Bhavna Rawail|Baljit Singh Chaddha|Aakaash Berry|Insiya Burmawala|Rohit Mondal}}
| starring = [[#Cast|see below]]
| open_theme = ''Ye Kya Hua''
| end_theme =
| music = [[#Soundtrack|see below]]
| country = India
| language = {{ubl|Hindi|English}}
| num_seasons = 3
| num_episodes = 31
| executive_producer = Yukti Anand
| producer = {{ubl|Sarita A Tanwar | (seasons 1, 2 & 3)|Muraj Khetani| (seasons 1 & 2)|Ashwin Varde| (seasons 1 & 2)|Niraj Kishore Kothari| (seasons 1, 2 & 3)}}
| cinematography = {{ubl|Jitan Harmeet Singh| Anik Ram Verma}}
| editor = {{ubl|Unnikrishnan Payoor Parameshwaran |Honey Thakur| Kamlesh Parui}}
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = 18-34 minutes
| company = {{ubl|Roaring River Productions|Cine 1 Studios|Inglorious Films| (seasons 1 & 2)| 11:11 productions| (season 3)}}
| network = {{ubl|[[ALTBalaji]] | [[MX Player]] | [[ZEE5]]}}
| first_aired = {{Start date|2018|11|27}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2021|05|29}}
| list_episodes = Broken But Beautiful#Episodes
}}

'''''Broken But Beautiful''''', abbreviated as '''''BBB''''' is a 2018 [[Hindi]] [[Romance film|romance]] [[web series]], created by [[Ekta Kapoor]], and available on [[video on demand]] platforms and [[ALTBalaji]]/[[MX Player]].<ref>{{cite web|date=6 April 2018|title=Shooting for ALTBalaji web series Broken commences|url=https://www.thedigitalhash.com/shooting-altbalaji-web-series-broken-commences/|website=The Digital Hash|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-date=17 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022152/https://www.thedigitalhash.com/shooting-altbalaji-web-series-broken-commences/|url-status=usurped}}</ref> The series revolves around love, heartbreaks and never ending romance between two individuals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/vikrant-massey-can-associate-with-heartbreak/19288157|title=Vikrant Massey Can associate with heartbreak|date=6 April 2018|website=Mid-day}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/bollywood+galiyara+english-epaper-bolgalie/broken+is+about+love+that+heal+the+heart+says+ekta+kapoor-newsid-101339504|title=Broken is About Love That Heal The Heart Says Ekta Kapoor - Bollywood Galiyara English|website=Dailyhunt}}</ref> First two seasons are about the story of Veer and Sameera played by [[Vikrant Massey]] and [[Harleen Sethi]] respectively.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rajesh|first=Srividya|date=27 February 2018|title=Vikrant Massey to play lead in ALTBalaji's web-series, 'Broken'|url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/digital/news-digital/vikrant-massey-play-lead-altbalajis-web-series-broken/2018/02/27|website=IWMBuzz}}</ref> The third season introduces a new story of Agastya and Rumi played by [[Sidharth Shukla]] and Sonia Rathee respectively.<ref name="BBB3">{{Cite web|date=4 December 2020|title= Sidharth Shukla and Sonia Rathee to star in Ekta Kapoor's Broken But Beautiful 3 |url= https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/sidharth-shukla-and-sonia-rathee-to-star-in-broken-but-beautiful-3-7085507/ |website= The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

==Plot==
===Season 1===
Veer lost his wife Alina in a road accident 3 years ago but still hasn't been able to cope. Veer begins to hallucinate Alina and talks to her in his imagination. Alina's sister, Ishanvi and her husband Adil are motivating him to move on in his life and try to spend time with him. Due to unavoidable circumstances, Veer has to buy his cousin Kartik's house. Kartik broke up with his girlfriend Sameera 8 months ago and moved on to date Ananya. Sameera has been unable to forget Kartik and stalks him everywhere, unable to move on. Since the house belonged to Kartik and Sameera, Veer needs Sameera's signatures on the sale papers. When she signs the papers, Veer promises her to let her speak to Kartik one last time.

Veer and Sameera come up with a plan and pretend they are together to make Kartik jealous. The show then revolves around the budding relationship between Sameera and Veer.

===Season 2===
Veer meets Debbie and Sameera meets Ahan. Veer and Sameera decide to marry Debbie and Ahan respectively. Then the show revolves around the realization of love for both Veer and Sameera towards each other.
As Veer and Sameera separate, Veer meets Debbie and start dating, while Sameera meets her classmate, Ahan who had a crush on her formerly. In the hope of bonding with her once again, Ahan asks Sameera out and she reluctantly agrees. They soon become great friends but Sameera's past experiences stop her from being in a relationship. Meanwhile, Veer and Sameera meet once again and become friends, deciding to move on from their past experiences. Sameera gets to know that Debbie is pregnant with Veer's child and that Veer has completely turned into the Sameera she was before and has now decided to marry Debbie. Feeling insecure, she starts seeing Ahan who is madly in love with her. Soon, Veer and Sameera talk about their feelings and become intimate in a drunken state. When they finally wake up the next morning, they realize their folly and decide to tell their respective partners. In mean time, Debbie realizes that she is not pregnant and tells it to Veer who panics and Ishanvi accidentally blurts out the truth and they break up. Sameera also tells Ahan who tells her to choose between him and the one she cheated on him with. Sameera chooses Ahan out of guilt and Ahan acts as a very supportive partner. Veer, on the other hand, confesses his love to Sameera who tells him about her former choice. Thus, they part ways yet again and this time Veer has a lot of difficulty in moving on. But fate has other plans of bringing them before each other as Sameera and Ahan decide to get married in Veer's resort. And the rest of the story revolves on how these two find their way back to each other.

===Season 3===

Broken But Beautiful exhibits a determined and courageous Agastya Rao who is a struggling theatre writer-director with principles and truckloads of attitude who believes the mediocre world doesn't deserve someone as talented as him and a feisty Rumi Desai who come from a different strata of society. Rumi comes from a rich family, a spill-over of her mother's second marriage. She hates her stepsister who always manages to overshadow her. But when they meet, Agastya sees the talent and intensity in Rumi. They start an intense fling. Rumi is in love with Ishaan ([[Ehan Bhat]]) her rich and suave childhood friend and tells Agastya that they can't have a future together, but Agastya has fallen in love. He falls into a trap of drunkenness and depression and Rumi gets married. After a few years, Rumi divorces Ishaan and realises he never loved her like Agastya did.

==Cast==


===Main===
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Actor
! rowspan="2" | Role(s)
! rowspan="2" | Description
! colspan="3" | Appearances
|-
! Season 1
! Season 2
! Season 3
|-
| [[Vikrant Massey]]
| Veer Shekhavat
| Sameera's Lover
| colspan=2 {{CMain|Main}}
| {{CGuest|Guest|}}
|-
| [[Harleen Sethi]]
| Sameera Joshi
| Veer's Lover
| colspan=2 {{CMain|Main}}
| {{CGuest|Guest|}}
|-
| [[Sidharth Shukla]]
| Agastya Rao
| Rumi's Love Interest
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CMain|Main}}
|-
| [[Sonia Rathee]]
| Rumi Desai
| Agastya's Love Interest
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CMain|Main}}
|}

===Recurring===
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Actor
! rowspan="2" | Role(s)
! rowspan="2" | Description
! colspan="3" | Appearances
|-
! Season 1
! Season 2
! Season 3
|-
| [[Sheetal Thakur]]
| Alina
| Veer's dead wife
| colspan=2 {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| Poppy Jabbal
| Ishanvi
| Alina's sister and Veer's sister-in-law
| colspan=2 {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| Nikhil Sabhrawal
| Adil
| Ishanvi's husband
| colspan=2 {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| Pooja Bhamrah
| Porno
| Sameera's friend
| colspan=2 {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| Akriti Singh
| Agni
| Sameera's friend
| colspan=2 {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| [[Meherzan Mazda]]
| Parth
| Agni's husband
| colspan=2 {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| [[M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story|Jitin Gulati]]
| Kartik
| Veer's cousin and Sameera's ex
| colspan=2 {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| [[Simran Kaur Mundi]]
| Ananya
| Kartik's girlfriend
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
|-
| [[Gaurav Arora]]
| Ahan Chaterji
|Sameera's ex-boyfriend
| {{N/A|}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| Anuja Joshi
| Debbie
| Veer's ex-girlfriend
| {{N/A|}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| [[Ivan Sylvester Rodrigues]]
| Mr. Chaterji
| Ahan's Dad
| {{N/A|}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
| Sameer Roy
| Neil
| Debbie's brother
| {{N/A|}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{N/A|}}
|-
|[[Ehan Bhat]]
|Ishan Rana
|Rumi's love-interest
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Jahnavi Dhanrajgir
|Sakshi
|Agastya's colleague
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Manvir singh
|Rishabh
|Agastya's colleague
|colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Taniya Kalra
|Farah
|Agastya's friend and PR manager
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Saloni khanna
|Maira
|Rumi's younger sister
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Bishakha Thapa
|Gul
| Rumi's friend
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Bijay Anand
|Dilip Desai
| Rumi's step-father
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Nandini sen
|Vasundhara Desai
| Rumi's mother
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Pratik Parihar
|Amit
| Agastya's lead actor
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Tanvi Shinde
|Vinny
| Rumi's friend
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}
|-
|Karan Taneja
|Navin
| Agastya's Brother
| colspan=2 {{N/A|}}
| {{CRecurring|Recurring}}

|}

== Episodes ==
===Series overview===
{{Series overview
| color1 = #CCCCFF
| link1 = #Season 1 (2018)
| episodes1 = 11
| released1 = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}

| color2 = #FBCEB1
| link2 = #Season 2 (2019)
| episodes2 = 10
| released2 = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}

| color3 = #702963
| link3 = #Season 3 (2021)
| episodes3 = 10
| released3 = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
}}

=== Season 1 (2018) ===
{{Episode table |EpisodeNumber =5 | EpisodeNumber2 =5 |title=22 |director=20|writer=20 |airdate=18 |airdateR=|country=In |episodes=
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|EpisodeNumber2 = 1
|Title = Bleeding Memories of the Happily Ever after.
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|EpisodeNumber2 = 2
|Title = Haunting Of the Heart.
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|EpisodeNumber2 = 3
|Title = Broken Damaged Deranged
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|EpisodeNumber2 = 4
|Title = Scared and Alone
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|EpisodeNumber2 = 5
|Title = Found A Doppelganger Soul
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|EpisodeNumber2 = 6
|Title = To Make Me Whole
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 7
|EpisodeNumber2 = 7
|Title = To Mend My Heart
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 8
|EpisodeNumber2 = 8
|Title = And Drown the Pain
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 9
|EpisodeNumber2 = 9
|Title = So I Breathe Again
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 10
|EpisodeNumber2 = 10
|Title = Closure
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 11
|EpisodeNumber2 = 11
|Title = If I Said I Love You
|DirectedBy = Santosh Singh
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2018|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor =
}}
}}

=== Season 2 (2019) ===
{{Episode table |background=#FBCEB1 |EpisodeNumber =5 | EpisodeNumber2 =5 |title=22 |director=20|writer=20 |airdate=18 |airdateR=|country=In |episodes=
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 12
|EpisodeNumber2 = 1
|Title = I Made You Up Inside My Head
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 13
|EpisodeNumber2 = 2
|Title = Happily Ever After
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 14
|EpisodeNumber2 = 3
|Title = Puppy Love
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 15
|EpisodeNumber2 = 4
|Title = The Penny Drops
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 16
|EpisodeNumber2 = 5
|Title = Little Death
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 17
|EpisodeNumber2 = 6
|Title = Loves Me, Loves Me Not
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 18
|EpisodeNumber2 = 7
|Title = Addicted To Love
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 19
|EpisodeNumber2 = 8
|Title = Walk Away
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 20
|EpisodeNumber2 = 9
|Title = The Perfect Mistake
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 21
|EpisodeNumber2 = 10
|Title = Broken But Beautiful
|DirectedBy = Harsh Dedhia
|WrittenBy = Reshu Nath
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2019|11|27|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #D38233
}}
}}

=== Season 3 (2021) ===
{{Episode table |background=#702963|EpisodeNumber =5 | EpisodeNumber2 =5 |title=22 |director=20|writer=20 |airdate=18 |airdateR=|country=In |episodes=
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 22
|EpisodeNumber2 = 1
|Title = It Happened That Night
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 23
|EpisodeNumber2 = 2
|Title = Love and all other drugs
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 24
|EpisodeNumber2 = 3
|Title = You, Me, Him and Her
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 25
|EpisodeNumber2 = 4
|Title = La La La Land
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 26
|EpisodeNumber2 = 5
|Title = Crazy, Stupid, Foolish Love
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 27
|EpisodeNumber2 = 6
|Title = This Could Be Us
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 28
|EpisodeNumber2 = 7
|Title = A Sense Of The Ending
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 29
|EpisodeNumber2 = 8
|Title = Eternal Sunshine of the Helpless Mind
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 30
|EpisodeNumber2 = 9
|Title = The Fault in Their Stars
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 31
|EpisodeNumber2 = 10
|Title = And so, begin again
|DirectedBy = Priyanka Ghose
|WrittenBy = Rajat Arora
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2021|05|29|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = #FF52AF
}}
}}

== Soundtrack ==
===Season 1===
{{Infobox album
| name = Broken But Beautiful
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Rana Mazumder]] and [[Yash Narvekar]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|2018|11|16|df=yes}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre =
| length =
| label = [[Sony Music India]]
| producer = Ekta Kapoor Shobha Kapoor
Broken But Beautiful S-4* = Manish Singh
}}

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 8:21
| title1 = Ye Kya Hua
| extra1 = [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Dev Negi]]
| length1 = 4:12
| music1 = [[Rana Mazumder]]
| lyrics1 = [[Amitabh Bhattacharya]]
| title2 = Laute Nahi
| extra2 = [[Papon (Assamese singer)|Papon]]
| length2 = 4:09
| music2 = Yash Narvekar
| lyrics2 = [[Yash Narvekar]]
}}

===Season 2===
{{Infobox album
| name = Broken But Beautiful - Season 2
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Amaal Mallik]], [[Akhil Sachdeva]], [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]] and Sandman
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|2020|05|30|df=yes}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre =
| length =
| label = [[Zee Music Company]]
| producer = Ekta Kapoor Shobha Kapoor
}}

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 14:25
| title1 = Teri Hogaiyaan
| extra1 = Vishal Mishra
| music1 = Vishal Mishra
| lyrics1 = [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]]
| length1 = 2:55
| title2 = O Saajna
| extra2 = Akhil Sachdeva
| music2 = Akhil Sachdeva
| lyrics2 = [[Akhil Sachdeva]]
| length2 = 4:44
| title4= Boureya
| extra4 = [[Anusha Mani]]
| music4 = Sandman
| lyrics4 = Akshay Shinde
| length4 = 3:33
| title3 = Shaamein
| extra3 = [[Armaan Malik]]
| music3 = [[Amaal Mallik]]
| lyrics3 = [[Manoj Muntashir]]
| length3 = 3:13
}}

===Season 3===
{{Infobox album
| name = Broken But Beautiful - Season 3
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Amaal Mallik]], [[Akhil Sachdeva]], [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]] and Sandman
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|2021|05|28|df=yes}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre =
| length = 22:23
| label = [[Zee Music Company]]
| producer = Ekta Kapoor Shobha Kapoor
}}

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 22:23
| title1 = Mere Liye
| extra1 = Akhil Sachdeva
| music1 = Akhil Sachdeva
| lyrics1 = [[Akhil Sachdeva]]
| length1 = 4:54
| title2 = Tere Naal
| extra2 = Akhil Sachdeva
| music2 = Akhil Sachdeva
| lyrics2 = Akhil Sachdeva
| length2 = 4:17
| title3 = Kya Kiya Hain Tune
| extra3 = [[Armaan Malik]], [[Palak Muchhal]]
| music3 = [[Amaal Malik]]
| lyrics3 = [[Rashmi Virag]]
| length3 = 3:11
| title4 = Teri Hogaiyaan 2
| extra4 = Vishal Mishra
| music4 = Vishal Mishra
| lyrics4 = [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]], Kaushal Kishore
| length4 = 3:36
| title5 = Hun Jaavaan
| extra5 = Romy, [[Anusha Mani]]
| music5 = Sandman
| lyrics5 = Ginny Diwan
| length5 = 6:25
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.altbalaji.com/show/broken-but-beautiful-season-1/243 ''Broken But Beautiful''] on [https://www.altbalaji.com/ ALTBalaji]
*''[https://www.altbalaji.com/show/broken-but-beautiful-season-2/314 Broken But Beautiful 2]'' on [[ALTBalaji]]
*''[https://www.altbalaji.com/show/broken-but-beautiful-season-3/353 Broken But Beautiful 3]'' on [[ALTBalaji]]
*[https://www.zee5.com/zee5originals/details/broken-but-beautiful-season-2/0-6-2211 ''Broken But Beautiful''] on [[ZEE5]] (season 2)
* {{IMDb title|tt8317568}}

{{ALT Balaji Shows}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Broken But Beautiful}}
[[Category:2018 web series debuts]]
[[Category:Hindi-language web series]]
[[Category:ALTBalaji original programming]]
[[Category:Indian drama web series]]

Herbert Cyril Thacker

2025-09-12T03:18:27Z

Khorang: enhance section after review and fixed typos to improve readability

{{Short description|Canadian general (1870–1953)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Herbert Cyril Thacker
| image = File:Major-General H.C. Thacker (fragment).jpg
| caption =
| rank = [[Major general#Canada|Major General]]
| branch = [[Canadian Militia]]
| commands = [[Commander of the Canadian Army|Chief of the General Staff]]
| battles = [[Second Boer War]] [[Russo-Japanese War]] [[World War I]]
| family =
| unit = [[Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery|Royal Canadian Artillery]]
| nickname =
| allegiance = [[Canada]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1870|09|16|df=y}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1953|06|02|1870|09|16|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Poona]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_place = [[Victoria, British Columbia]], Canada
| placeofburial =
| serviceyears = 1891–1929
| laterwork =
| awards = [[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] [[Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George]] [[Distinguished Service Order]]<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=30716|page=6461|date=31 May 1918|supp=y}}</ref> [[Order of the Sacred Treasure|Order of the Sacred Treasure, Third Class]] [[Military Medals of Honor (Japan)|Japanese War medal]]
}}
[[Major general#Canada|Major General]] '''Herbert Cyril Thacker''' {{Post-nominals|country=CAN|size=100%|sep=,|CB|CMG|DSO}} (16 September 1870 – 2 June 1953) was a Canadian soldier and [[Commander of the Canadian Army|Chief of the General Staff]], the head of the [[Canadian Militia]] (later the [[Canadian Army]]) from 1927 until 1929.

==Military career==
Thacker was born the son of Major-General J. Thacker of the [[Bombay Staff Corps]] in 1870 in [[Pune|Poona]], [[British Raj|India]]. He attended [[Upper Canada College]] in [[Toronto]] and, in 1887, he graduated from the [[Royal Military College of Canada]].<ref name="ppmp193">[https://archive.org/stream/prominentpeopleo00stjouoft/prominentpeopleo00stjouoft_djvu.txt (1922). ''Prominent People of the Maritime Provinces,'' p. 193.]</ref> Commissioned in the [[Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery|Royal Canadian Artillery]] in 1891, he conducted survey work in western Canada for the Canadian Pacific Railway. He was promoted to [[Lieutenant]] in 1893.<ref name="ppmp193"/>

His service in the [[Second Boer War]] of 1900 in the Canadian Field Artillery<ref name="ppmp193"/> led to the award of the Queen's medal with three clasps.<ref name="trident1">[[Elizabeth Pacey|Pacey, Elizabeth]]. [http://www.tridentnews.ca/PDFArchives/Oct18_2004.pdf "Commander's residence at Royal Artillery park,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124090710/http://www.tridentnews.ca/PDFArchives/Oct18_2004.pdf |date=2005-11-24 }} ''Trident.'' 38:20, 7. 18 October 2004.</ref>

From 1904 to 1905 he had the unique Canadian assignment as a military attaché with the Japanese Army during the [[Russo-Japanese War]]<ref name="ppmp193"/> but he was joined by other colonials.<ref>Hitsman, J. Mackay and Desmond Morton. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1983479 "Canada's First Military Attache: Capt. H. C. Thacker in the Russo-Japanese War,"] ''Military Affairs'', Vol. 34, No. 3 (Oct., 1970), pp. 82–84; [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/rep-rap/doc/cfhq/cfhq014.pdf "Report No. 14,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803024013/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/rep-rap/doc/cfhq/cfhq014.pdf |date=2016-08-03 }}, Directorate of History, Canadian Forces Headquarters, 8 September 1967; ''compare'' Australian Dictionary of Biography: [https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/hoad-sir-john-charles-6686 John Hoad at ADB]</ref> Along with other Western military attachés, Thacker had two complementary missions – to assist the Japanese and to observe the Japanese forces in the field during the Russo-Japanese War.<ref>Chapman, John and [[Ian Nish]]. (2004). [http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/is/IS475.pdf "On the Periphery of the Russo-Japanese War," Part I, p. 53 n42], Paper No. IS/2004/475. Suntory Toyota International Centre for Economics and Related Disciplines (STICERD), [[London School of Economics and Political Science]] (LSE).</ref>

[[File:Major-General A.C. MacDonell and staff officers, 1st Canadian Infantry Division.jpg|thumb|left|Major-General [[Archibald Cameron Macdonell|A. C. MacDonell]] and staff officers, 1st Canadian Division, sometime in 1918. (Front row, from left to right): Lieutenant-Colonel J. L. R. Parsons, Brigadier-General '''H. C. Thacker''', Major-General A. C. Macdonnell, Lieutenant-Colonel [[James Sutherland Brown|J. Sutherland Brown]], Colonel H. P. Wright. (Back row, from left to right): Lieutenant-Colonel [[Halfdan Hertzberg|H. F. H. Hertzberg]], Hon. Lieutenant-Colonel [[Frederick George Scott|F. G. Scott]], Lieutenant [[James Macdonnell (Canadian politician)|J. M. Macdonnell]].]]

In 1907, his appointment as Director of Artillery at Ottawa accompanied a promotion as [[Commanding Officer]] of the Royal Canadian Garrison Artillery (RCGA),<ref name="ppmp193"/> and he became one of the 65 to live in the Commanding Officers’ Residence at Royal Artillery Park in Halifax.<ref name="trident1"/> In 1911 he became Inspector of Coast Defense Artillery.<ref name="ppmp193"/>

At the outbreak of [[World War I]], Thacker joined the Canadian Expeditionary Forces (CEF), sailing for Europe with the [[1st Canadian Division]]. Thacker went on to command the 2nd Canadian Divisional Artillery from 1914 to 1915. After General Sir [[Henry Edward Burstall|Henry E. Burstall]] was promoted, Thacker, promoted to temporary brigadier general in June 1915,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=29305|page=9395|date=21 September 1915|supp=y}}</ref> commanded the 1st Canadian Divisional Artillery from September 1915 through the end of World War and the CEF return to Canada.{{fact|date=July 2025}}

After the war, Thacker was appointed the District Officer Commanding Military District 6,<ref name="ppmp193"/> returning with his family to live at Royal Artillery Park.<ref name="trident1"/> His career was capped with service as [[Commander of the Canadian Army|Chief of the General Staff]] from 1927 to 1929.<ref name="ppmp193"/>

Thacker retired from military service in 1929. He died in [[Victoria, British Columbia]], in June 1953.{{fact|date=July 2025}}

==Honors==
For his service in the Boer War, Thacker was awarded the Queen's Medal with three clasps (1900).<ref name="ppmp193"/>

He was awarded the [[Order of the Sacred Treasure|Order of the Sacred Treasure, Third Class]] by the Japanese government for his services during the Russo-Japanese War.<ref>[http://www.editions-harmattan.fr/index.asp?navig=catalogue&obj=article&no=8245 L'Harmattan web site (in French)]</ref> He also received the [[Military Medals of Honor (Japan)|Japanese War medal]] for service during that campaign.<ref name="ppmp193"/>

For service in World War I, he was made a Companion of the [[Order of Saint Michael and Saint George]] (CMG) in 1916. Thacker was appointed to the [[Distinguished Service Order]] (DSO) in 1918. He was created a Companion of the [[Order of the Bath]] (CB) in 1919.<ref name="ppmp193"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* Library and Archives Canada: [https://archive.today/20130101035244/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/archivianet/cef/001042-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=274264 CEF Attestation paper]

==References==
* Hitsman, J. Mackay and Desmond Morton. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1983479 "Canada's First Military Attache: Capt. H. C. Thacker in the Russo-Japanese War,"] ''Military Affairs'', Vol. 34, No. 3 (Oct., 1970), pp. 82–84; [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/rep-rap/doc/cfhq/cfhq014.pdf "Report No. 14,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803024013/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/rep-rap/doc/cfhq/cfhq014.pdf |date=2016-08-03 }}, Directorate of History, Canadian Forces Headquarters, 8 September 1967.
* Armstrong, Captain J.G., "A Gunner in Manchuria: Canada Observes the Russo-Japanese War," ''Canadian Defence Quarterly'', Vol. 12, No.4 (Spring 1983), 37–44.

==External links==
* {{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/prominentpeopleo00stjouoft|title=Prominent people of the Maritime Provinces (in business and professional life)|work=[[Internet Archive]]|year=1922}}
* [http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0007934 Herbert Cyril Thacker] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518181359/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0007934 |date=2011-05-18 }} at [[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{succession box|title=[[Commander of the Canadian Army|Chief of the General Staff]]|
before=[[James Howden MacBrien|Sir James MacBrien]]|
after=[[Andrew McNaughton]]|
years=1927–1929}}
{{s-end}}

{{Commander of the Canadian Army}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thacker, Herbert Cyril}}
[[Category:1870 births]]
[[Category:1953 deaths]]
[[Category:Canadian generals of World War I]]
[[Category:Canadian Companions of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Canadian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Canadian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure]]
[[Category:People of the Russo-Japanese War]]
[[Category:Royal Military College of Canada alumni]]
[[Category:Canadian military personnel of the Second Boer War]]
[[Category:Military personnel of British India]]
[[Category:Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery officers]]
[[Category:Canadian Militia officers]]
[[Category:Military attachés]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Pune]]

Sir Francis Workman-Macnaghten, 1st Baronet

2025-09-06T12:27:46Z

Khorang: Put Up First Details With Sources

[[File:Francis Macnaghten Kirkwood.jpg|thumb|Sir Francis Workman-Macnaghten, 1st Baronet]]
'''Sir Francis Workman-Macnaghten, 1st Baronet''' (1763–1843) was an [[Anglo-Irish]] judge in India.<ref>{{cite DIB|title=Macnaghten, Sir Francis Workman, Baronet}}</ref>

==Early life==
He was the son of Edmund MacNaghten of Beardiville, [[Co. Antrim]], and his second wife Hannah Johnstone of Belfast, and younger brother of [[Edmond Alexander MacNaghten]], Member of Parliament for [[County Antrim (UK Parliament constituency)|County Antrim]] and [[Orford (UK Parliament constituency)|Orford]].<ref name="HoP">{{cite web |title=MacNaghten, Edmond Alexander (1762-1832), of Beardiville, co. Antrim and Duke Street, St. James's, Mdx., History of Parliament Online |url=https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1820-1832/member/macnaghten-edmond-1762-1832 |website=www.historyofparliamentonline.org}}</ref><ref name="Collen">{{cite book |last1=Collen |first1=G. W. |title=The Baronetage of England. revised, corrected and continued by G.W. Collen |date=1840 |pages=306–307 |url=https://archive.org/details/baronetageengla00debrgoog/page/364/mode/1up |language=English}}</ref> He was also a [[first cousin]] of [[Half Hung MacNaghten]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lunney |first1=Linde |title=MacNaghten, John |url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/macnaghten-john-a5272 |website=www.dib.ie}}</ref>

Macnaghten was admitted to [[Lincoln's Inn]] in 1784.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lincoln's Inn |title=Admissions|volume=I 1420-1799 |date=1896 |publisher=Lincoln's Inn |page=511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ehw1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA511 |language=en}}</ref>

==In India==
Macnaghten sailed to India in 1791 on the ''[[Lord Camden (1783 EIC ship)|Lord Camden]]'' with his wife and two small children.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Spencer |editor-first1=Alfred |title=Memoirs Of William Hickey| volume=IV |date=1923 |page=33 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41514/page/n49/mode/1up}}</ref> He was appointed a barrister of the [[Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William]] that year.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Bengal and Agra Annual Guide and Gazetteer |date=1841 |publisher=W. Rushton and Co. |page=238 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Va740KpQX0C&pg=RA2-PA238 |language=en}}</ref> [[William Hickey (memoirist)|William Hickey]], who knew him socially, wrote

<blockquote>[Macnaghten] was a fine, high-spirited, honourable young man: by nature of a violent temper, but he possessed sufficient resolution not only to curb, but in great measure to correct the infirmity [...]<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Spencer |editor-first1=Alfred |title=Memoirs Of William Hickey| volume=IV |date=1923 |page=44 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41514/page/n60/mode/1up}}</ref></blockquote>

Macnaghten became Sheriff of Fort William in 1797, and took on Hickey as his deputy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Charles |title=The Sheriffs of Fort William From 1775 To 1926 |date=1926 |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Co. |location=Calcutta |page=502 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84345/page/n603/mode/1up}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Spencer |editor-first1=Alfred |title=Memoirs Of William Hickey| volume=IV |date=1923 |page=152 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41514/page/n168/mode/1up}}</ref> At this period, Hickey resolved a quarrel between Macnaghten and [[Sir William Burroughs, 1st Baronet|William Burroughs]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Charles |title=The Sheriffs of Fort William From 1775 To 1926 |date=1926 |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Co. |location=Calcutta |page=502 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84345/page/n603/mode/1up}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Spencer |editor-first1=Alfred |title=Memoirs Of William Hickey| volume=IV |date=1923 |pages=174–177 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41514/page/n190/mode/1up}}</ref>

Dissatisfied with Calcutta,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Spencer |editor-first1=Alfred |title=Memoirs Of William Hickey| volume=IV |date=1923 |page=273 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41514/page/n289/mode/1up}}</ref> Macnaghten and his family returned to the United Kingdom on the ''[[Charlton (1798 EIC ship)|Charlton]]'', leaving at the end of 1803.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Spencer |editor-first1=Alfred |title=Memoirs Of William Hickey| volume=IV |date=1923 |page=281 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41514/page/n297/mode/1up}}</ref> In 1809 he was appointed a justice of the [[Supreme Court of Madras]], and was knighted.<ref name="Collen"/>

Macnaghten changed his name in 1823, adding Workman to his surname, after a cousin Caroline Workman who died unmarried;<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=17903 |date=11 March 1823 |page=394}}</ref> This change was a condition placed on a legacy, the estate of Mahan, [[Co. Armagh]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Macnaghten |first1=Angus Derek Iain Jacques |title=The chiefs of clan Macnachtan and their descendants |date=1951 |publisher=Windsor, for the Author |page=103 |url=https://archive.org/details/chiefsofclanmacn00macn/page/106/mode/1up}}</ref> He retired from the Indian Bench in 1825.<ref name="Collen"/> It came after his seniority had been disregarded in the appointment as [[Chief Justice of Calcutta]] of [[Charles Edward Grey]].<ref>{{cite ODNB|id=11528|first=Katherine|last=Prior|title=Grey, Sir Charles Edward (1785–1865)}}</ref>

==Later life==
Returning to Ireland, Workman-Macnaghten initially resided at [[Roe Park]].<ref name="AR1827">{{cite book |title=The Annual Register |date=1827 |page=207 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WeNGAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA207 |language=en}}</ref> He had a castellated house built at Dunderave, near [[Bushmills, County Antrim]], c.1837. The 2nd Baronet demolished it and in 1847 had an Italianate house built, [[Dundarave House]] designed by [[Charles Lanyon]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bence-Jones |first1=Mark|authorlink=Mark Bence-Jones |title=A Guide to Irish Country Houses |date=1990 |publisher=Constable |isbn=978-0-09-469990-8 |page=114 |language=en}}</ref>

Workman-Macnaghten built schools at Bushmills and Ballyworkan, Drumcree ([[County Armagh]]) and a courthouse at Bushmills.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Samuel |title=A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland: Comprising the Several Counties, Cities, Boroughs Corporate, Market, and Post Towns, Parishes and Villages |date=1840 |publisher=Lewis |pages=235 and 514 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MQ_AAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA235 |language=en}}</ref> Adding also a hotel, twice-weekly market and corn store, he is considered to have launched the economic growth of Bushmills in the 1820s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Alex F. |title=Old Portrush, Bushmills and the Giant's Causeway |date=2002 |publisher=Stenlake Publishing |isbn=978-1-84033-189-9 |page=3 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Bushmills, Old Courthouse - geograph.org.uk - 5838278.jpg|thumb|Old Courthouse, Bushmills, 2018 photograph]]
[[File:Plaque, Bushmills Courthouse - geograph.org.uk - 3977227.jpg|thumb|Plaque, Old Courthouse, Bushmills]]

==Works==
* ''Considerations on the Hindoo Law, as it is Current in Bengal'' (1824).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Macnaghten |first1=Sir Francis Workman |title=Considerations on the Hindoo Law, as it is Current in Bengal |date=1824 |publisher=Mission Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sJVeAAAAcAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Its Preface was critical of [[Jagannath Tarka Panchanan]] and his work for [[Sir William Jones]] in compiling ''Vivadabhangarnava''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Neeladri |title=The Great Agrarian Conquest: The Colonial Reshaping of a Rural World |date=1 September 2019 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-7741-1 |pages=193–194 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rq2uDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 |language=en}}</ref> [[Thomas Babington Macaulay]] in an 1833 speech used Macnaghten as an authority: "Sir Francis Macnaghten tells us, that it is a delusion to fancy that there is any known and fixed law under which the Hindoo people live; that texts may be produced on any side of any question; that expositors equal in authority perpetually contradict each other: that the obsolete law is perpetually confounded with the law actually in force; and that the first lesson to be impressed on a functionary who has to administer Hindoo law is that it is vain to think of extracting certainty from the books of the jurist."<ref>[[s:Government of India]]</ref> [[J. Duncan M. Derrett]] criticised both Workman-Macnaghten and his son's works, and that of [[Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange]] on the same area, as "too brief"; and in particular considered the former "vitiated by the Bengal school of thought".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Derrett |first1=John Duncan Martin |title=Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law: Current problems and the legacy of the past |date=1978 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-05753-1 |page=171 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IEeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171 |language=en}}</ref> Where Macnaghten emphasised the usefulness of "factum valet" (the Latin tag ''quod fieri non debet factum valet'' or the fact cannot be altered despite circumstances), Derrett argues that Macnaghten erred in that this attitude may have been significant in the Bengal school of interpretation of Sanskrit legal authorities, but other schools of Hindu law took opposing views.<ref>{{cite book |title=Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law: Volume 3: Anglo-Hindu Legal Problems |date=17 April 2023 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-64390-1 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8uP7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |language=en}}</ref>
* ''A View of the Catholic Question as it Relates to Ireland'' (1828), a pamphlet in favour of [[Catholic relief]], at a time when his politician brother Edmond opposed it.<ref name="HoP"/>
* ''Poor Laws—Ireland: Observations Upon the Report of George Nicholls'' (1838)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Macnaghten |first1=Sir Francis Workman |title=Poor Laws - Ireland: Observations Upon the Report of George Nicholls |date=1838 |publisher=Longman and Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kisMAQAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

==Family==
Macnaghten married Letitia Dunkin, daughter of [[William Dunkin (judge)|William Dunkin]] and Eliza Blacker; they had six sons and 11 daughters.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=John |title=A genealogical and heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1835 |publisher=Colburn |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0I9AAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA51 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Burke">{{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=John |title=A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland, Enjoying Territorial Possessions Or High Official Rank: But Uninvested with Heritable Honours |date=1835 |publisher=Henry Colburn |page=307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJFIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA307 |language=en}}</ref> The two eldest children returned from Bengal, sailing at the end of 1795 with Letitia's widowed sister Rachel Elliot.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hickey |first1=William |title=Memoirs of William Hickey|volume=4 |date=1925 |publisher=Hurst & Blackett |location=London |page=128 |language=en}}</ref> Of the children:

* Their daughter Caroline married in 1824 Alfred Chapman, fifth son of Abel Chapman of [[Whitby]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=John |last2=Burke |first2=Bernard |title=A genealogical and heraldic dictionary of the landed gentry of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1849 |publisher=Henry Colburn, Publisher|location=Great Marlborough Street, London |page=62 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVI4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA62 |language=en}}</ref> They met on board the ''[[Woodford (1819 ship)|Woodford]]'' of which Chapman, a sea captain, was the master, on a voyage.<ref>{{cite web |title=The ship WOODFORD, Captain Alfred Chapman, on the 11 February 1824, on her Passage from Madras to England |url=https://collections.sea.museum/objects/147029/the-ship-woodford-captain-alfred-chapman-on-the-11-februar |website=collections.sea.museum}}</ref>
* Eliza Serena, married in 1813 Major-General Robert Sewell and was mother of [[Francis Hill Sewell]].<ref name="Burke"/><ref>{{cite book |title=The Gentleman's Magazine |date=1863 |publisher=F. Jefferies |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0lDAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA119 |language=en}}</ref>
* Maria (died 1881), sixth daughter, married in 1822 Thomas Robarts Thellusson, son of [[Charles Thellusson]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Peerage and Baronetage, the Privy Council, Knightage, and Companionage |date=1934 |page=1587 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InoHD0N_Jp0C&pg=PA1587 |language=en}}</ref>
* Alicia (died 1864) married in 1826 Captain George Probyn, of the [[Bombay Marine]]. [[Dighton Probyn]] VC was their son.<ref name="AR1827"/><ref>{{cite ODNB|id=46661|first=James|last=Lunt|title=Probyn, Sir Dighton Macnaghten (1833–1924)}}</ref>
* The eldest son [[Edmund Workman-Macnaghten|Edmund Charles Workman-Macnachten]] (1790–1876) was Member of Parliament for [[Antrim (UK Parliament constituency)|Antrim]].<ref name="MED">{{cite book |last1=Boase |first1=Frederic |title=Modern English Biography |date=1897 |publisher=Netherton and Worth, For the author |page=665|volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IVmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA665 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[William Hay Macnaghten]] (1793–1841), second son, was born at Fort William. He worked as a court official and diplomat, writing on Hindu law as his father had, and was killed in the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]].<ref>{{cite ODNB|first=Katherine|last=Prior|title=Macnaghten, Sir William Hay, baronet (1793–1841)|year=2004|id=17705}}</ref>
* [[Elliot Macnaghten]] (1807–1888), fourth son, was chairman of the [[East India Company]] in 1855.<ref name="MED"/>

==Legacy==
His unmarried brother Edmond put the position of [[clan chief]] of [[Clan MacNaghten]] on a legal basis with a patent in 1818. On his death in 1832, Workman-Macnaghten became chief, and it became hereditary in the baronetcy.<ref name="HoP"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macnaghten, Francis}}
[[Category:1763 births]]
[[Category:1843 deaths]]
[[Category:Irish barristers]]
[[Category:Irish legal writers]]
[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:People from County Antrim]]
[[Category:Ulster Scots people]]
[[Category:Expatriate judges from Ireland]]

Rakesh Sharma (civil servant)

2025-07-14T20:31:49Z

Khorang: made bio

{{More citations needed|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rakesh Sharma
| honorific_suffix =Politician, Social Worker, Former IAS Officer
| image =Rakesh Kumar (IAS).jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1955|10|11}}
| birth_place = [[New Delhi]]
}}

'''Rakesh Sharma''' (11 October 1955) is a retired Indian civil servant and politician who has served as Chief Secretary of [[Government of Uttarakhand]]. Sharma is a 1982 batch [[Uttar Pradesh]]/[[Uttarakhand]] (Since 2001) cadre [[Indian Administrative Service]] officer.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-10-28 |title=Speculations over Rakesh Sharma joining BJP irks party members |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/speculations-over-rakesh-sharma-joining-bjp-irks-party-members/articleshow/55100796.cms |access-date=2025-06-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Sharma was born on 11 October 1955 in [[New Delhi]]. He did his schooling in New Delhi and passed the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]] [[Test (assessment)|examinations]] in 1972 as a topper in the Humanities Group. He did his graduation in BA (honours) in economics at [[Shri Ram College of Commerce]] (SRCC) which is affiliated with [[University of Delhi|Delhi University]] in 1975. He received academic prizes for all the three years. He completed his [[Master of Arts]] in economics from [[Delhi School of Economics]] in 1977. Later, after working a s a lecturer at SRCC, he received a Master of Science degree from [[London School of Economics]] in economics of Less Developed Countries and [[Labour economics|Labour Economics]] in 1996,

== Career ==
Sharma joined the [[Indian Railways]] in 1980 and join the Indian Administrative Service in 1981. He commenced his training at [[Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration|Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy Of Administration]] in [[Mussoorie]] from 1981 to 1983.

In 1983, he was posted as the SDM at [[Saharanpur]], [[Roorkee|Rorkee]] and served for two years before becoming the Chief Development Officer at [[Agra]] from 1985 to 1987. Later, he worked as the General Manager, UP Export Corporation, Kanpur till 1990, District Magistrate and collector of Saharanpur till 1991, and DM at Pithoragarh till 1993. Then he served as an Additional Chief Executive, [[Noida]] from 1993 to 1995.

He took leave and completed his MSc at the London School of Economics in 1996. He came back and worked as Additional Director, UP Academy of Administration, [[Nainital]]; Vice Chairman, Center for Development Studies UPAA, Nainital till 2000.

In 2000, he became the Secretary, Home, Personnel, Estates and was involved in setting up of infrastructure of newly carved out state at [[Dehradun]] till 2001. Later, he became [[Commissioner]], [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]] and Director, Uttarakhand Academy of Administration and chairman, Centre for Development Studies (UAA), Nainital for seven years till 2007. He was also the chairman of the Lake development authority, Nainital during that stint. Later, for two years till 2009, he served as Secretary, Sport & Youth Welfare in [[Dehradun]] for [[Government of Uttarakhand|Government Of Uttarakhand]]. From 2009 to 2011, he was the Secretary, Tourism and Culture, Sports and Youth Welfare, before becoming the Principal Secretary for Technical Education in 2011. He served for two years before becoming the [[List of chief secretaries of Uttarakhand|Chief Secretary of Uttarakhand]] in 2013. He was also the Chief [[Resident Commissioner]] and Chief Investment Commissioner till 2016. He also served as chairman, Board of Revenue, Uttarakhand, also in Dehradun.

In October 2018, government appointed him as the managing director (MD) and chief executive officer (CEO) of IDBI Bank for six months.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-05 |title=Government appoints Rakesh Sharma as MD and CEO of IDBI Bank - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/finance/government-appoints-rakesh-sharma-as-md-and-ceo-of-idbi-bank-1016281.htm |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref> In November 2015, he was appointed on contract for a year as the chief principal secretary to the chief minister.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rakesh Sharma is Chief Prl Secretary to Uttarakhand CM |url=https://www.indianmandarins.com/news/rakesh-sharma-is-chief-prl-secretary-to-uttarakhand-cm/1969 |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=IndianMandarins |language=en}}</ref>

After retirement, he reportedly tried his hand at politics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ex-Chief Secy seeking career in politics |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/community/ex-chief-secy-seeking-career-in-politics-315305/ |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=The Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-10-28 |title=Speculations over Rakesh Sharma joining BJP irks party members |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/speculations-over-rakesh-sharma-joining-bjp-irks-party-members/articleshow/55100796.cms |access-date=2025-06-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> There was speculation that he would join the BJP and contest from Kichha Assembly constituency for the 2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election but the BJP field Rajesh Shukla, who won the seat.<ref>{{Cite news |last=end |date=2016-10-26 |title=Rakesh Sharma planning entry into politics with BJP ticket from Kiccha |url=http://www.enewsdesk.in/2016/10/26/ukhand-bjp-leaders-oppose-former-chief-secretary-rakesh-sharmas-entry/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219202907/http://www.enewsdesk.in/2016/10/26/ukhand-bjp-leaders-oppose-former-chief-secretary-rakesh-sharmas-entry/ |archive-date=2020-02-19 |access-date=2025-06-25 |work=eNewsDesk |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=DNA Web |title=19 newly-elected Uttarakhand MLAs have criminal background |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-19-newly-elected-uttarakhand-mlas-have-criminal-background-1661083 |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharma, Rakesh}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:Uttarakhand cadre civil servants]]

Osho Monsoon Festival

2025-07-02T01:01:05Z

Khorang: made new post - done

{{Short description|International festival of music and meditation held in Pune, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox music festival
| name = OSHO Monsoon Festival
| image =
| caption =
| genre = [[Music]], [[Meditation]], [[Food]]<ref name="Y">{{cite news |title=Monsoon Festival at Osho Ashram begins today |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/monsoon-festival-at-osho-ashram-begins-today-5301405/ |accessdate=12 August 2018 |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |location=[[Pune]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812150431/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/monsoon-festival-at-osho-ashram-begins-today-5301405/ |archive-date=2018-08-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| dates = 11–15 August
| location = [[Pune]], India
| years_active = 2010–present
| founders =
| attendance = 2500<ref name="A"/>
| capacity =
| website = {{URL|www.osho.com}}
}}
'''Osho Monsoon meditation and music festival''', popularly known as '''Osho Monsoon festival''', is an international festival of music and meditation held in [[Pune]], [[India]]. It is organised by Osho International Meditation Resort, a facility for followers of [[Osho]] (a spiritual leader more widely known as Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh). It is a 5-day annual event starting from 11 August till 15 August.<ref>{{cite news |title=Osho festival on August 11 |url=http://www.uniindia.com/osho-festival-on-august-11/other/news/950533.html |accessdate=10 August 2018 |publisher=[[United News of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812153903/http://www.uniindia.com/osho-festival-on-august-11/other/news/950533.html |archive-date=2018-08-12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="A">{{cite news |script-title=hi:11 से 15 अगस्त के बीच मानसून उत्सव में हिस्सा लेने पुणे आएंगे ओशो प्रेमी |url=https://www.bhaskar.com:443/maharashtra/mumbai/news/osho-music-meditation-monsoon-festival-2018-5934716.html |access-date=10 August 2018 |publisher=[[Dainik Bhaskar]] |language=Hindi |quote=Osho Lovers flocks to participate in monsoon festival between 11 - 15 Aug in Pune |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810110812/https://www.bhaskar.com/maharashtra/mumbai/news/osho-music-meditation-monsoon-festival-2018-5934716.html |archive-date=2018-08-10 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Famous festivals and tourist destinations to visit in India in the month of August 2015 |url=http://rendezvouswithtravel.com/famous-festivals-and-tourist-destinations-to-visit-in-india-in-the-month-of-august-2015/ |accessdate=12 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827044123/http://rendezvouswithtravel.com/famous-festivals-and-tourist-destinations-to-visit-in-india-in-the-month-of-august-2015/ |archive-date=2018-08-27 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="¢">{{cite news |script-title=mr:ओशो मॉनसून फेस्टिवल ची पर्वणी |url=http://epaperlokmat.in/articlenew.php?articleid=LOK_PCNX_20180810_2_2 |accessdate=12 August 2018 |publisher=[[Lokmat]] |language=Marathi |quote=Festive time of osho monsoon festival |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812150506/http://epaperlokmat.in/articlenew.php?articleid=LOK_PCNX_20180810_2_2 |archive-date=2018-08-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The festival hosts variety of Osho Meditations and International food festival throughout the day.<ref name="Y"/> During the night the Meditation Resort is filled with musical events.<ref name="Y"/> A total of approximately 71 different events are organised during the festival with participation of 2,500 participants across 152 cities and 17 states of [[India]].<ref name="A"/>

== Performances ==

The 5-day festival has most prominent musicians of India and abroad performing in the events throughout the day.

===2013 festival===

* Flute renditions by Bikramjit Singh
* Odissi performance by Asha Nambiar<ref>{{cite news |title=Monsoon magic |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/monsoon-magic/ |accessdate=10 August 2018 |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812151348/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/monsoon-magic/ |archive-date=2018-08-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2015 festival===

* [[Sufi]] and [[Odissi]] dance performance by Zia Nath and troupe<ref>{{cite web |title=Tweet by Zia Nath |url=https://twitter.com/realmsofdance/status/631766242441822208 |accessdate=10 August 2018}}</ref><ref name ="u"/>
* Ojas Adhiya's band Samarpan performs<ref>{{cite web |title=Tweet by Ojas|url=https://twitter.com/ojastabla/status/632860802597257217?lang=en}}</ref><ref name ="u"/>
* Fusion band by Ravi aiyyar and Sanyass Celebration.<ref name ="u"/>
* Poetry recital by popular Indian poet, lyricist, musician, composer and film director [[Gulzar]], performance by [[Vishal Bhardwaj]] and [[Rekha Bhardwaj]].<ref name ="u"/>
* Meditators Got talent.<ref name="u">{{cite news |title=Osho Monsoon festival 2015 |url=https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/oshonewsletter/oshonewsletter/russian/sep15/Russian_Osho_Monsoon_festival.pdf |accessdate=12 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812151016/https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/oshonewsletter/oshonewsletter/russian/sep15/Russian_Osho_Monsoon_festival.pdf |archive-date=2018-08-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2018 festival===

* Festival kickstarted with performances by flautist Bikramjit Singh and Mahesh Vinayakram(son of [[Grammy]] Award winner [[Vikku Vinayakram]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Profile of Mahesh Vinayakram |url=http://www.maheshvinayakram.com/profile/ |accessdate=12 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128185404/http://www.maheshvinayakram.com/profile/ |archive-date=2018-01-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> with Aparna Gandhi, a renowned Odissi dancer with Varda Vaishampayan & Priyasha Deochake.<ref name="Y"/><ref name="P">{{cite web |title=OSHO MONSOON MUSIC AND MEDITATION FESTIVAL INVITATION 2018 |url=http://www.osho.com/visit/events/festival |website=www.osho.com |accessdate=13 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114182405/http://www.osho.com/visit/events/festival |archive-date=2018-01-14 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Indian idol Season 4 participant Bhavya Pandit performed on 12 August.<ref name="Y"/>
* 13 August, a silent sitting with Milind Date and his band Fusion Ensemble and Mumbai-based band Aankh Micholi performed<ref name="Y"/>
* Violinist Avinash Jagtap performed during a silent sitting meditation.<ref name="Y"/>
* Rekha Bhardwaj and Vishal Bhardwaj also performed at the festival, and performance by Urja, led by sitarist Chintan Katti.<ref name="Y"/>
* Meditators got talent<ref name="¢"/>

===2022 festival===

After two years of pause the festival was held again in 2022. Total 71 different programs were held during the festival. Programs included Tai chi, Chi Gong, Active Meditation and Live music.<ref name="J">{{cite news |last1=Nath |first1=Dipanita |title=Osho Monsoon Festival brings together spirituality and celebration |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/osho-monsoon-festival-brings-together-spirituality-and-celebration-8085402/}}</ref>

* Hindi poets [[Surendra Sharma]], Ambar Kharbanda, [[Varun Grover (writer)|Varun Grover]] and Ashkaran Atal with Bollywood Director and Composer Vishal Bharadwaj performed on 12 August.
* Manipur-based flautist Bikramjit Singh and his band performed on the third day at the event Celebrating "Neo Sanyass"
* Playback singer Rekha Bharadwaj, with her band ''Azizon ki toli'' also performed at the festival.
* Meditators got talent.<ref name="J"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Music festivals in India]]

Lapasari

2025-06-09T08:29:04Z

Khorang: updated details

{{More citations needed|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Lapasari
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Gujarat, India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Rajkot
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 360002
| registration_plate = GJ-3
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = Rajkot
| website = {{URL|gujaratindia.com}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Lapasari''' Village is near [[Rajkot]] city in [[Rajkot district]] in [[Gujarat]] [[States of India|State]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2011 |title=Primary Census Abstract Data Tables – India: Final Population Totals |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711042331/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=27 April 2025 |website=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India}}</ref>

==Lapasari (Rotary Mid Town Check Dam)==
This is a small check dam constructed on river Bhakharwadi near village Lapasari 8 km away from Rajkot city. About 50 McFt water from this Check Dam will be diverted to Aji river in every monsoon. This dam is constructed with a financial-aid from "Rotary International Club".

== References ==
{{reflist}}{{coord missing|Gujarat}}

{{Rajkot district}}
[[Category:Villages in Rajkot district]]

{{Rajkot-geo-stub}}

Pana Sankranti

2025-05-19T22:39:32Z

Khorang: small changes

#REDIRECT [[Maha Bishuba Sankranti]]

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