Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Payam Venkateswarlu

2026-05-08T03:51:52Z

KarmaConyers: creating

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =
| image =
| caption =
| order =
| office = Member of the [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = December 2023
| term_end =
| predecessor = Rega Kantha Rao
| term_start1 = 2014
| term_end1 = 2018
| predecessor1 = Rega Kantha Rao
| successor1 = Rega Kantha Rao
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|YYYY|MM|DD}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party =
| other_party =
| spouse =
| children =
| alma_mater =
| profession =
| signature =
| website =
}}
'''Payam Venkateswarlu''' (born 1974) is an Indian politician from [[Telangana State|Telangana state]]. He is an MLA from [[Pinapaka Assembly constituency]] which is reserved for ST community [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district|Bhadradri Kothagudem]] district. He represents [[Indian National Congress]] Party and won the [[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]] to become a two time MLA.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Pinapaka Constituency Election Results 2023: Pinapaka Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/telangana/constituency-show/pinapaka |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=english |title=Pinapaka Election Result 2023 Live, Pinapaka Elections Vote Counting, Telangana Results 2023 {{!}} ABP News |url=https://news.abplive.com/electionselections/telangana-assembly-election-2023/telangana-pinapaka-constituency-110.html |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Venkateswarlu is from [[Pinapaka mandal|Pinapaka]], [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district|Bhadradri Kothagudem]]. His late father Payam Kamaraju was a farmer. He completed intermediate in 1992 and joined the Government Junior College, [[Manuguru|Manuguru]] for graduation but discontinued his studies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Payam Venkateswarlu(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- PINAPAKA (ST)(BHADRADRI KOTHAGUDEM) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/Telangana2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=272 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Venkateswarlu won the [[Pinapaka Assembly constituency]] representing [[Indian National Congress]] in the [[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]. He polled 90,510 votes, and defeated his nearest rival Kantha Rao Rega of [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi]] by a margin of 34,506 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Pinapaka Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: INC's Payam Venkateswarlu wins Pinapaka with 90510 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/pinapaka-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2471023-2023-12-03 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Pinapaka Election Result 2023 LIVE Updates and Highlights: Winner, Loser, Leading, Trailing, MLA, Margin |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/pinapaka-election-result-2023-live-updates-and-highlights-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8688015.html |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> He lost the [[2018 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2018 Assembly election]] to the same rival, Kantha Rao Rega after switching to TRS.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-12-07 |title=Pinapaka Assembly Election: Payam Venkateswarlu switches from YSRC to TRS to contest in 2018 elections |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/telangana-election/article/pinapaka-assembly-constituency-election-2018-payam-venkateswarlu-ysrc-trs-trs-bjp-legislative-poll-kcr-kalvakuntla-chandrashekar-rao-tdp-telugu-desam/324072 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=www.timesnownews.com |language=en}}</ref> Earlier, he won the Pinapaka seat in the [[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] representing [[YSR Congress Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-05-07 |title=Jagan's lone MP in Telangana joins TRS |url=https://sundayguardianlive.com/news/4466-jagan-s-lone-mp-telangana-joins-trs |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=The Sunday Guardian Live |language=en-US}}</ref> He then defeated his nearest rival N. Shankar of [[Indian National Congress]] by a margin of 14,065 votes.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venkateswarlu, Payam}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1974 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]
[[Category:Telangana MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:Telangana MLAs 2014–2018]]
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]
[[Category:Bharat Rashtra Samithi politicians]]
[[Category:YSR Congress Party politicians]]

Rampurhat Assembly constituency

2026-05-07T06:18:16Z

KarmaConyers: stub...

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Rampurhat
| type= SLA
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Vidhan Sabha constituencies/West Bengal/Rampurhat.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Rampurhat Assembly Constituency
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Dhruba Saha]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| alliance =
| latest_election_year = [[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| district = [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Birbhum (Lok Sabha constituency)|Birbhum]]
| constituency_no = 291
| established = 1951
| electors = 201,049
| reservation = None
| abolished =
}}

'''Rampurhat Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Birbhum district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Overview==
As per orders of the Delimitation Commission, No. 291, Rampurhat Assembly constituency is composed of the following: [[Rampurhat]] municipality, [[Rampurhat I]] [[Community Development Block in India|CD Block]] and Bharkata, [[Gonpur]], Hinglow, Kapista, Rampur and Sekedda [[gram panchayat]]s of [[Mohammad Bazar (community development block)|Mohammad Bazar]] CD Block.<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web|url=http://ceowestbengal.nic.in/news_pdf/gazette123.pdf |title=Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 |access-date=2010-09-26 |publisher=Government of West Bengal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918130255/http://ceowestbengal.nic.in/news_pdf/gazette123.pdf |archive-date=2010-09-18 }}</ref>

Rampurhat Assembly constituency is part of No. 42 [[Birbhum (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name =delimitation/>
== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Name
! colspan=2|Party
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[1951 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1951]]
|Panchanan Let
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc|rowspan=2}}
|-
|Srikumar Bandopadhyay
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Gobardhan Das
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
|Durgapada Das
|{{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[1962 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Niharika Majumdar
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|rowspan="2"|Sasanka Sekhar Mongal
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
|[[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
|Braja Mohan Mukherjee
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Ananda Gopal Roy
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Tapas Kumar Mukhopadhyay
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|rowspan="3"|Sashanka Mondal
|{{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|-
|[[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
|[[1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|[[Mahammad Hannan]]
|-
|[[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|rowspan="5"|[[Asish Banerjee]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=5}}
|-
|[[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|-
|[[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|-
|[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
|-
|[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|-
|[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| Dhruba Saha
|{{Full party name with color |Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==

===2026===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Rampurhat}}

{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=Dhruba Saha |party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes= {{formatnum:111920}} |percentage=47.89 |change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Asish Banerjee |party=Trinamool Congress|votes= {{formatnum:87687}} |percentage=37.72 |change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Sanjib Mallick|party=Left Front (West Bengal)|votes= {{formatnum:22994}}|percentage=9.84 |change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Vivekananda Shaw|party=Indian National Congress |votes= {{formatnum:1830}} |percentage=0.78 |change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]|party=None of the above (India)|votes= {{formatnum:3163}} |percentage=1.35|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes= {{formatnum:24233}} |percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes={{formatnum:233723}} |percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Rampurhat}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Asish Banerjee
|votes = 103,276
|percentage = 48.30
|change = {{increase}}3.70
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Subhasis Choudhury
|votes = 94,804
|percentage = 44.30
|change = {{increase}}31.00
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Sanjib Barman
|votes = 11,707
|percentage = 5.50
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin
|title=[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Rampurhat}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Asish Banerjee
|votes = 85,435
|percentage = 44.60
|change = {{decrease}}1.20
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Syed Siraj Jimmi
|votes = 64,236
|percentage = 33.50
|change = {{increase}}33.50
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Dudh Kumar Mondal
|votes = 25,480
|percentage = 13.30
|change = {{increase}}2.43
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Forward Bloc
|candidate = [[Mahammad Hannan]]
|votes = 3,613
|percentage = 1.90
|change = {{decrease}}37.65
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===
In the 2011 elections, Asish Banerjee of [[Trinamool Congress]] defeated his nearest rival Rebati Bhattacharya of AIFB.

{{Election box begin | title=[[2011 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal assembly elections, 2011]]: Rampurhat<ref>{{cite web |url = http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS25291.htm |title = Rampurhat |work = Assembly Elections May 2011 Results |publisher = Election Commission of India |access-date = 2011-05-28 |archive-date = 16 May 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110516121334/http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS25291.htm |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=291| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120529222716/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=291| url-status = usurped| archive-date = 29 May 2012|title = West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work = Rampurhat| publisher =Empowering India |access-date = 2011-04-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ceowestbengal.nic.in/mis_pdf/election_2011/canddtl_2nd_phase.pdf |title = West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work = Rampurhat |publisher = Election Commission of India |access-date = 2011-04-20 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030419/http://www.ceowestbengal.nic.in/mis_pdf/election_2011/canddtl_2nd_phase.pdf |archive-date = 2011-09-12 }}</ref>}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Asish Banerjee]]
|votes = 75,066
|percentage = 45.8
|change = {{decrease}}7.06#
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Forward Bloc
|candidate = Rebati Bhattacharya
|votes = 64,828
|percentage = 39.55
|change = {{decrease}}2.04
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Subhasis Choudhury
|votes = 17,815
|percentage = 10.87
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Independent
|candidate = Mahesh Kisku
|votes = 3,769
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation
|candidate = Prodyot Mukherjee
|votes = 242
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 163,905
|percentage = 86.31
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing = -5.56#
}}
{{Election box end}}
.# Swing calculated on Congress+Trinamool Congress vote percentages taken together in 2006. For Trinamool Congress alone the swing was -0.02%.

===1977–2006===
In 2006 and 2001 state assembly elections, Asish Banerjee of [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] won the Rampurhat assembly constituency defeating Nirad Baran Mandal of [[All India Forward Bloc|Forward Bloc]] in 2006, and [[Mahammad Hannan]] of Forward Bloc in 2001. Contests in most years were multi cornered but only winners and runners are being mentioned. [[Mahammad Hannan]] of Forward Block defeated Satyendra Nath Das of [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] in 1996. Sashanka Mondal of Forward Bloc defeated Satyendra Nath Das of BJP in 1991, Asish Banerjee of Congress in 1987, Ananda Gopal Roy of Congress in 1982 and Tapas Kumar Mukhopadhyay of [[Janata Party]] in 1977.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/archive/ElectionAnalysis/AE/S25/Partycomp291.htm | title = 291 – Rampurhat Assembly Constituency | work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 | publisher = Election Commission of India| access-date = 2010-10-01 }}</ref>

===1951–1972===
Ananda Gopal Roy of Congress won in 1972. Braja Mohan Mukherjee of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] won in 1971. Sasanka Sekhar Mongal of Forward Bloc won in 1969 and 1967. Niharika Majumdar of Congress won in 1962. In 1957 and 1951 Rampurhat was a joint seat. Gobardhan Das of [[Communist Party of India|CPI]] and Durgapada Das, Independent, won in 1957. In independent India's first election in 1951 Panchanan Let and Srikumar Bandopadhyay, both of Forward Block, won.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/electionstatistics.asp | title = Statistical Reports of Assembly Elections | access-date = 2010-10-01 | work = General Election Results and Statistics | publisher = Election Commission of India | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp | archive-date = 2010-10-05 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Birbhum topics}}

{{Assembly constituencies of West Bengal}}
{{West Bengal elections}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Birbhum district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in West Bengal]]

List of programmes broadcast by ETV (Telugu)

2026-05-05T12:50:46Z

KarmaConyers:

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2022}}
This is a list consisting of current, upcoming, and former broadcasts by the Indian Telugu TV channel [[ETV (Telugu)|ETV]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ETV Telugu |url=https://www.etvwin.com/ |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=ETV Win}}</ref>

== Current programming ==
=== Serials ===
Sources:<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=ETV Serials |url=https://www.etvwin.com/serials |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=ETV Win}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ETV Telugu -Seria|url=https://www.etv.co.in/channels/trendingShows?channelId=1&fiction=fiction |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=Eenadu Television Pvt. Ltd}}</ref>

Data As of 5th May 2026 !!

{| class="wikitable"
!style="background:Orange;" |Serial name
!style="background:Orange;" |No. of episodes
|-
|''Jai Ganesha''
|850+
|-
|''Aaro Pranam''
|290+
|-
|''Sandhya Ragam''
|290+
|-
|''Rangula Ratnam''
|1395+
|-
|''Vasundhara''
|290+
|-
|''Merupu Kalalu''
|290+
|-
|''Veyi Subhamulu Kalugu Neeku''
|290+
|-
|''Yashoda''
|160+
|-
|''Jeevana Tarangaalu''
|285+
|-
|''Janaki Parinayam''
|80+
|-
|''Andhala Rakshasi''
|260+

|-
|''Jhansi''
|400+
|-
|''Ammoru''
|65+
|-
|''Bommarillu''
|465+
|-
|''Manasantha Nuvve''
|1340+
|-
|''Veera Parashuram''
|20+
|}

=== Reality shows ===
Sources:<ref>{{Cite web |title=ETV Telugu - Shows |url=https://www.etv.co.in/channels/trendingShows?channelId=1&fiction=nonfiction |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Eenadu Television Pvt. Ltd.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=ETV Win - Shows |url=https://www.etvwin.com/shows |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=ETV Win}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!style="background:Orange;" |Show
!style="background:Orange;" |No. of episodes
|-
|''[[Padutha Theeyaga]] Season 26''
|27+
|-
|''[[Suma Adda]]''
|146+
|-
|''[[Dhee (TV series)]] Season 20''
|45+
|-
|''[[Jabardasth (TV series)|Jabardasth]]''
|735+
|-
|''[[Extra Jabardasth]]''
|481 Final
|-
|''Sridevi Drama Company''
|250+
|-
|''Swarabhishekam - Season 14''
| Abruptly stopped
|-
|''Family Stars''
|70+
|-
|''Taggedhe Le''
|100+
|-
|''Aadavallu Meeku Joharlu''
|859 Final
|-
|''Aaradhana''
|5000+
|-
|''Annadatha''
|5000+
|}
ETV News

== Programme guide ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! style="background:Orange;" |Programe
! style="background:Orange;" |Year
! style="background:Orange;" |Notes
! style="background:Orange;" |Episodes / time
|-
|''[[Abhishekam (TV series)|Abhishekam]]''
|2008-2022
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=27 August 2020 |title=ETV rejoices 25 years of successful operations, wishes pour in |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/english/national/bharat/bharat-news/etv-rejoices-25-years-of-successful-operations-wishes-pour-in/na20200827231944445 |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=ETV Bharat News}}</ref>
|4000 Final
|-
|''[[Aadade Aadharam]]''
|2009-2020
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=7 September 2018 |title=More Spellbinding Soap Gathas |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/more-spellbinding-soap-gathas/300602 |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Reddy |first=Navya |date=16 April 2021 |title=Telugu Serials: మూడువేల ఎపిసోడ్‌లు పూర్తి చేసుకున్న సీరియల్స్ ఇవే! |url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/telugu-most-popular-serials-which-completed-more-than-3000-episodes-nr-838672.html |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=News18 |language=te}}</ref>
|3329 Final
|-
|''Akasa Ganga''
|2010-2012
|
|420+
|-
|''Amma''
|2020-2021
|<ref name=":2" />
|302 Final
|-
|''Anu Pallavi''
|Oct 2022-March 2024
|
|454 Final
|-

|''Attarintiki Daredi''
|Nov 2014-July 2022
|<ref name=":1" />
|2344 Final
|-
|''Bharyamani''
|2009-2014
|
|1741 Final
|-
|ETV News
|January 26 2004
|
|7 AM 9 PM
|-7 AM 9 PM
|'' Guvva Gorinka''
|Dec 2022-Nov 2024
|
|600 Final
|-
|''Gangothri''
|2022-2023
|
|179 Final
|-
|''Geetha Govindam''
|2022-2023
|
|375 Final
|-
|''Gokulamlo Seetha''
|June 2015 - May 2017
|
|601 Final
|-
|''Kalisundham Raa''
|Dec 2023 - Jan 2026
|
|657 Final
|-
|''Kumkuma Rekha''
|2011-2013
|
|570 Final
|-
|''Lahiri Lahiri Lahiri Lo''
|2018-2020
|
|486 Final
|-
|''Maa Attha Bangaram''
|Feb 2023-Oct 2024
|
|511 Final
|-
|''Mouna Poratam''
|April 2022 - May 2025
|
|976 Final
|-
|''[[Manasu Mamata]]''
|2011-2021
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
|3305 Final
|-
|''Naa Peru Meenakshi''
|2015-2022
|<ref name=":1" />
|1997 Final
|-
|''Nenu Sailaja''
|June 2024 - April 2025
|
|268 Final
|-
|''Nalugu Sthambhalata''
|Jan 2019 - June 2020
|
|368 Final
|-
|''Okariki Okaru''
|2017-2018
|
|297 Final
|-
|''Puttadi Bomma''
|2010-2014
|
|1356 Final
|-
|''Prema Nagar''
|2019-2020
|
|219 Final
|-
|''Ravoyi Chandamama''
|April 2021 - Jan 2025
|
|1170 Final
|-
|''Radha Manoharam''
|April 2024 - May 2025
|
|331 Final
|-
|''Ruthugeetham''
|Oct 2017 - Sep 2018
|
|303 Final
|-
|''Real Detectives''
|2015-2016
|
|34
|-
|''Subhakankshalu''
|May 2025 - June 2025
| Abruptly Stopped
|30 Closed
|-
|''Shatamanam Bhavati''
|April 2021 - June 2025
|
|1308 Final
|-
|''Savithri''
|2015-2019
|
|1333 Final
|-
|''Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu''
|2015-2022
|<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
|2152 Final
|-
|''Sikharam''
|2012-2015
|
|851 Final
|-
|''Swarna Khadgam''
|2018-2019
|
|112 Final
|-
|''Srimanthudu''
|2021-2022
|
|576 Final
|-
|''Srimathi''
|2020-2021
|<ref name=":2" />
|202 Final
|-
|''[[Swathi Chinukulu (TV series)|Swathi Chinukulu]]''
|2013-2020
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2018 |title=ETV Telugu re-enters across genre list |url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/television/tv-channels/viewership/etv-telugu-re-enters-across-genre-list-180209 |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=Indiantelevision.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chelluri |first=Sriram |date=6 June 2018 |title='Swathi Chinukulu' to complete 1500 episodes soon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/swathi-chinukulu-to-complete-1500-episodes-soon/articleshow/64369489.cms |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
|2126 Final
|-
|''Teenemanasulu''
|2017-2018
|
|161 Final
|-
|''Thoorpu Velle Railu''
|2008-2011
|
|750 Final
|-
|''Thoorppu Padamara''
|2009-2011
|
|510+
|-
|''Vasantha Kokila''
|July 2024 - May 2025
|
|277 Final
|-
|''[[Yamaleela Aa Taruvatha|Yamaleela - Aa Taruvatha]]''
|2020-2022
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 April 2020 |title=New daily soap 'Yamaleela.. Aa Tarvata' to premiere soon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/new-daily-soap-yamaleela-aa-tarvata-to-premiere-soon/articleshow/75093928.cms |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 September 2020 |title=బుల్లితెరపై ఓ మేజిక్‌... యమలీల ..ఆ తర్వాత |url=https://www.eenadu.net/cinema/latestnews/s-v-krishna-reddy-special-interview-about-yamaleela-telugu-daily-serial-on-ETV/0206/120106377 |access-date=17 October 2022 |website= |publisher=[[Eenadu]] |language=te}}</ref>
|480 Final
|-
|''Gowaramma''
|2021
|
|222 Final
|-
|''Kanchana Maala''
|2019
|
|72 Final
|-
! style="background:Orange;"| ''1995 - 2010''
! style="background:Orange;"| ''(Old Serials)''
! style="background:Orange;"|
! style="background:Orange;"|
|-
|''Antharangalu''
|1997-2001
|<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":2" />
|-
|''[[Aloukika]]''
|2004-2006
|<ref name=":3">{{cite web |title=Ilyas Ahmed Profile |url=http://www.writers.net/writers/50816 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050336/http://www.writers.net/writers/50816 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |accessdate=17 October 2022 |website=WritersNet |publisher=}}</ref>
|341 Final
|-
|''[[Anveshitha]]''
|1997-1999
|<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />
|
|-
|''Aadapilla''
|2006-2008
|Abruptly Stopped
|
|-
|''Anubandham''
|1999-2001
|
|93 Final
|-
|''Aadhithaalam''
|1995-1996
|
|
|-
|''Abadhala Pellelu''
|1995
|
|
|-
|''Akka Chellelu''
|2001-2002
|
|-
|''Annayya''
|2002-2003
|
|
|-
|''Agnikundam''
|2005-2006
|
|-
|''Akshara''
|2009
|
|
|-
|''Aalumagalu''
|1998
|
|-
|''Ammayigaru''
|2009
|
|
|-
|''Agnipravesam''
|2002-2003
|
|
|-
|''Aparna''
|2000-2001
|
|-
|''Anoohya''
|2001-2002
|
|-
|''Agnisakshi''
|2002-2003
|
|-
|''Bharya Bharthalu''
|2000
|
|
|-
|''Bethala Kathalu''
|1995-1996
|
|
|-
|''Nee Perena Prema''
|
|
|
|-
|''Srimathi Sri Subhramanyam''
|2009
|Abruptly Stopped
|
|-
|''Sravanameghalu''
|2007
|Abruptly Stopped
|
|-
|''Godavari''
|2008-2009
|
|
|-
|''Manasu Chooda Tharama''
|2007-2008
|
|340 Final
|-
|''Maya''
|2009
|Abruptly Stopped
|
|-
|''Manasaveena''
|2000
|
|
|-
|''Sravanameghalu''
|2007
|
|
|-
|''Eenati Ramayanam''
|2001-2002
|
|
|-
|''Thalambralu''
|2003-2004
|
|
|-
|''Kalikaalam''
|2004
|
|
|-
|''Swathi Muthyam''
|2003-2004
|
|
|-
|''Sangharshana''
|1999-2000
|
|
|-
|''Janani''
|2000-2001
|
|
|-
|''Mathrudevatha''
|2001
|
|
|-
|''Chadarangam''
|2001-2002
|
|
|-
|''Sandhyaragam''
|2007
|
|
|-
|''Vidhi''
|2000-2002
|<ref name=":2" />
|
|-
|''Jwala''
|1999
|
|
|-
|''Illalu''
|2002-2003
|
|
|-
|''Priyanka''
|2003-2006
|
|
|-
|''Agninakshathram''
|2007-2008
|
|
|-
|''Hrudayam''
|2012
|
|
|-
|''Sambhavi''
|2011
|
|
|-
|''Nageswari''
|2006
|
|
|-
|''Nagastram''
|2003-2006
|
|
|-
|''Pelli Pandiri''
|1997
|
|
|-
|''Manasu Geesina Bomma''
|1998
|
|
|-
|''Nandini''
|1998
|
|
|-
|''Idhi Kadha Kaadu''
|1998-2000
|
|
|-
|''Manoyagnam''
|2001-2002
|
|220 Final
|-
|''Sukha Dukhalu''
|2001-2003
|
|
|-
|''Ramudu Manchi Baludu''
|2002
|
|
|-
|''Gruhapravesam''
|2002-2003
|
|
|-
|''[[Lady Detective (TV series)|Lady Detective]]''
|1995-1996
|<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Reddy |first=Navya |date=3 August 2021 |title=Tv Actresses: ఈ సీరియల్ నటులు మీకు గుర్తున్నారా.. ఇప్పుడు ఏం చేస్తున్నారో తెలుసా? |url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/vintage-tv-serial-actress-present-personal-life-full-details-are-here-nr-980648.html |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=News18 |language=te}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=29 May 2021 |title=Popular actresses who disappeared from TV despite a successful stint |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/popular-actresses-who-disappeared-from-tv-despite-a-successful-stint/photostory/83059568.cms |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|
|-
|[[Sneha (TV series)|''Sneha'']]
|1995-?
|<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Shanti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abPsWgqrmMMC&dq=Eenadu&pg=PA11 |title=Gandhi Meets Primetime: Globalization and Nationalism in Indian Television |date=2010-10-01 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-09166-7 |pages=10 |language=en}}</ref>
|
|-
|''Narasarajeeyam''
|1995
|
|
|-
|''Vasundhara''
|1995-2006
|
|
|-
|''[[Popula Pette]]''
|1997-1997
|<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Nelki Naresh Kumar |date=28 May 2024 |title=Popula Pette Serial: సీనియర్ నరేష్, జంధ్యాల కాంబోలో వచ్చిన క్లీన్ కామెడీ సీరియల్ - ఈటీవీ విన్ ఓటీటీలో రీ టెలికాస్ట్‌ |trans-title=Popula Pette: Clean Comedy Serial by Senior Naresh and Jandhyala Now Streaming on ETV Win OTT |url=https://telugu.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/senior-naresh-jandhyala-popula-pette-telugu-serial-re-telecasted-on-etv-win-ott-121716876172179.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614065658/https://telugu.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/senior-naresh-jandhyala-popula-pette-telugu-serial-re-telecasted-on-etv-win-ott-121716876172179.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 June 2024 |access-date=2024-12-17 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=te}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.etvwin.com/serials/popula-pette |title=Popula Pette Episodes |language= |publisher=[[ETV Network|ETV Win]] |access-date=2024-12-17}}</ref>
|
|-
|''Mounaragaalu''
|2001-2002
|
|
|-
|''Priyamaina Sathruvu''
|2002-2003
|
|-
|''Sivaleelalu''
|2000-2001
|
|-
|''Bangaru Bomma''
|2000-2001
|
|-
|''Illalu''
|2002-2003
|
|-
|''Nippulanti Nijam''
|2001-2002
|
|-
|''Meera''
|2002
|
|-
|''Padmavyuham''
|2003-2007
|<ref name=":2" />
|-
|''Kaveri''
|1996
|
|-
|''Subhalekha''
|2007-2008
|Abruptly Stopped
|-
|''Durga''
|2004-2005
|
|-
|''Jayam''
|2003-2005
|
|-
|[[Santhi Nivasam (TV series)|''Santhi Nivasam'']]
|2000-2001
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 December 2015 |title=When Rajamouli had a clash with actor Ranganath |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2015-12-21/When-Rajamouli-had-a-clash-with-actor-Ranganath/194699 |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=[[The Hans India]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 2014 |title=Rajamouli to promote Meghamala TV serial |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/rajamouli-to-promote-meghamala-tv-serial/articleshow/31211436.cms |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''Santhinikethan''
|1995-1996
|
|-
|''Nathicharami''
|2005-2007
|
|-
|''Geethanjali''
|2006-2007
|
|-
|''Bandhavyalu''
|2008
|
|-
|''Wonder Boy''
|1995
|
|-
|''University''
|1998
|
|-
|''Tarangini''
|2007
|215 Final
|-
|''Jeevitham''
|2007
|Abruptly Stopped
|-
|''Mahalakshmi''
|2006-2008
|Abruptly Stopped
|-
|''Bandham''
|2006-2007
|Abruptly Stopped
|
|-
|''Pelli Chesukundam''
|2003-2004
|
|-
|''Bujji Bujjibabu''
|2007
|
|-
|''Chakra Theertham''
|2007
|
|-
|''Endamavulu''
|2001-2006
|
|-
|''Vadina''
|2002-2003
|
|-
|''Kadha Sudha''
|1995
|
|-
|''Naa Mogudu Naaku Sontham''
|2003-2004
|
|-
|''Kurukshethram''
|2005-2006
|
|-
|''Santhosham''
|2004-2005
|
|-
|''Velugu Needalu''
|1998-1999
|
|-
|''Inti Intiko Katha''
|2007-2008
|
|-
|''Eetharam Katha''
|1999-2000
|
|-
|''Gharshana''
|2007
|
|-
|''Sirisha''
|2007
|
|-
|''Sreebhagavatham''
|2003-2007
|
|-
|''Vikramarka''
|2006-2007
|
|}
News bulletin 2004|.
ETV News | January 2004

=== Dubbed fiction ===

* ''Ananda Bhavan'' (2002)
* ''Ananda Kutumbam'' (1996)
* ''Bharyamani Udyogam'' (1997)
* ''[[Run (Indian TV series)|Run]]'' (2021)
* ''Devimahathmyam'' (2011-2012)
* ''[[Jai Hanuman (1997 TV series)|Jai Hanuman]]'' (2017)
* ''Sathi Leelavathi''
* ''FIR'' (1997)
* ''Lakshyam''
* ''Puttadi Bomma'' (1997-1998)
* ''[[Shubharambh|Subhalagnam]]'' (2021-2022)
* ''[[Ishk Par Zor Nahi|Manoharam]]'' (2022)
* ''[[Jhansi Ki Rani (2019 TV series)|Jhansi Rani]]'' (2021-2022)
* ''[[The Sword of Tipu Sultan|Tipu Sulthan]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Marmadesam|Rahasyam]]'' (1996-1997)
* ''[[Marmadesam|Mayavruksham]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Aarthi (TV series)|Harathi]]'' (2005-2007)
* ''[[Silsila Badalte Rishton Ka|Panchani Samsaram]]'' (2022)
* ''[[Kadhal Pagadai|Premedaivam]]'' (1996-1998)
* ''Jeevana Sandhya'' (1999-2000)
* ''Nanna Kosam'' (2002)
* ''Guppedu Manasu'' (1995-1996)
* ''[[Penn (1991 TV series)|Vasundhara]]'' (1995)
* ''Premalu Pellelu''
* ''Bharathi'' (2007)
* ''[[Malgudi Days (TV series)|Malgudi Kathalu]]'' (1995-1996)
* ''Rathri'' (1995-1996)
* ''Jeevana Sandhya'' (1999-2000)
* ''Needa'' (1995-1996)
* ''Na Bharya Katha'' (1996)
* ''Dr. Dharani'' (1996)
* ''Kshana Kshanam'' (1999-2000)
* ''Bommarillu'' (2021)
* ''Kutra'' (2000-2001)
* ''Theerpu'' (1995-1996)
* ''Stone Boy'' (1996)
* ''Sumangali'' (2024-2025) Abtruply Stopped (460 Episodes Final)
* ''Prema Mandiram'' (2007-2012)
* ''Sri Krishna Leelalu'' (2014)
* ''O Chinnadana'' (2021)
* ''[[Udaan (2014 TV series)|Vasantham]]'' (2015-2020)
* ''Kavya'' (Oct 2024 - Aug 2025)
* '' Ra Ra Krishnayya '' (April 2024 - Aug 2025)
* ''[[Mere Sai – Shraddha Aur Saburi|Sadhguru Sai]]'' (July 2020 - Aug 2025)
* ''Jagadheeswari'' (2010-2012)
* ''[[Bepannah|Vichithra Bandham]]'' (2022)
* ''[[Mahabharat (1988 TV series)|Mahabharatham]]'' (2010-2011)
* ''Merupu Kalalu'' (2007-2008)

=== Non-fiction ===

* ''[[Alitho Saradaga]]'' (2016–2022)
* ''Aadavallu Meeku Joharlu'' (2022-2025)
* ''Dial Your Star'' (1995-1996)
* ''Cinema Quiz'' (1995-1996)<ref name=":6" />
* ''Cinemasala'' (1995)<ref name=":6" />
* ''Countdown'' (1995-1996)<ref name=":6" />
* ''Andhravani''<ref name=":6" />
* ''Sarigamalu<ref name=":6" />''
* ''Manasuna Manasai'' (1996-1997)<ref name=":2" />
* ''Sunday Sandhadi''
* ''Superior Home Minister'' (2007)
* ''Koyela'' (2007)
* ''Jeevana Jyothi'' (2011-2014)
* ''Star To Sardhaga'' (2007)
* ''Sumanoharalu'' (2006-2008)
* ''ATM'' (2011)
* ''Pelli Sandadi'' (2011)
* ''Indradhanassu'' (1995-1998)
* ''Jeevana Jyothi'' (2011)
* ''Love Love Love'' (1995-1996)
* ''Priyaragalu''
* ''Andhame Aanandham'' (1995-1999)
* ''Narthanasala'' (2012-2013)
* ''Get Ready'' (2012-2014)
* ''Nuvvu Ready Nenu Ready'' (2020-2021)
* ''Panduga Chesko'' (2019-2020)
* ''Manam'' (2018-2020)
* ''Smile Rani Smile'' (2007)
* ''Funtastic'' (2007)
* ''Raga'' (2007)
* ''Cine Maruti'' (2007)
* ''[[Star Mahila]]'' (2008-2020)<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 December 2015 |title=Star Mahila acts as laughing therapy for Suma |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/star-mahila-acts-as-laughing-therapy-for-suma/articleshow/50043805.cms |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2015 |title=Suma Kanakala on cloud nine |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/suma-kanakala-on-cloud-nine/articleshow/45990964.cms |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2019 |title=Watch: TV host Suma Kanakala turns emotional bidding farewell to Star Mahila after 12 years |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/watch-tv-host-suma-kanakala-turns-emotional-bidding-farewell-to-star-mahila-after-12-years/articleshow/67690500.cms |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=The Times of India}}</ref>
* ''Abhiruchi''
* ''Pushpakavimanam'' (2017-2018)
* ''Kudirite Cup-pu Coffee'' (2011-2012)
* ''Hats Off'' (1995)<ref name=":6" />
* ''Horlicks Hrudayanjali'' (1995-1997)
* ''Manoranjini'' (1995-1996)
* ''Madhurimalu'' (1995)
* ''Chithramalika'' (1995-1996)
* ''Mahilalu Maharanulu'' (2007)
* ''Soundaryalahari'' (2014-2015)<ref name=":2" />
* ''Sithara'' (1995)
* ''Studio Roundup'' (1995)<ref name=":6" />
* ''Comic Tonic'' (1995-1999)<ref name=":6" />
* ''Guinness Book'' (1995-1997)
* ''Sadhana'' (1995-1996)
* ''Prathibha'' (1995)
* ''Pragathi'' (1996)
* ''Gunshot'' (1998-1999)
* ''Movie Mirchi'' (2007)
* ''Bharathi'' (1996-1997)
* ''Animuthyalu'' (1995)
* ''Masterminds'' (1995)<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6" />
* ''Janthuprapancham'' (1995-1996)
* ''Medha'' (1995)
* ''Coca-Cola Hungama'' (1997)
* ''Super Duper'' (2007)
* ''Bid 2 Win'' (2007)
* ''Prathidhwani'' (1995)
* ''Sirimuvvalu'' (1996)
* ''Nihari'' (1995)
* ''Alitho Jollygaa'' (2015-2016)
* ''Sye Sye Sayyare'' (2017-2018)
* ''Lekhavari'' (1996)
* ''Dear ETV'' (1996)
* ''Telefilms'' (1998-2007)
* ''Maha Maha Mass''
* ''Yahoo'' (2003-2008)
* ''Champion'' (2016-2017)
* ''Aapatha Madhuralu'' (1996-1998)
* ''Cash 2.0'' (2016–2022)

=== Animated series ===

* ''Disney Sandhya'' (1999–?)<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 1999 |title=Buena Vista Television to launch Disney cartoons in Telugu |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/story/19990607-buena-vista-television-to-launch-disney-cartoons-in-telegu-781067-1999-06-06 |access-date=17 October 2022 |website=[[India Today]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-03-24 |title=Mickey Mouse may speak Kannada soon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/mickey-mouse-may-speak-kannada-soon/articleshow/4715216.cms |access-date=2024-12-09 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1999-06-02 |title=World Briefs |url=https://variety.com/1999/biz/news/world-briefs-103-1117502658/ |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ''[[Panchatantram]]'' (2003–2007)<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 August 2003 |title=ETV starts telecasting Panchatantra series |work=[[The Economic Times]] |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/etv-starts-telecasting-panchatantra-series/articleshow/142382.cms?from=mdr |access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref>
* ''Vadina Enti Sangathi'' (2007)
* ''[[Denver, the Last Dinosaur|Bhale Denver]]'' (1995–1996)
* ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (TV series)|Sabash Tin-Tin]]'' (1996)<ref name=":6" />
* ''[[Dennis the Menace (1986 TV series)|Baboi Dennis]]<ref name=":6" />''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Lists of television programs by genre}}
{{programs}}

[[Category:Lists of Indian television series|ETV (Telugu)]]
[[Category:Lists of television series by network|ETV (Telugu)]]

Mumbai CSMT–Mangaluru Junction Superfast Express

2026-05-02T13:19:51Z

KarmaConyers: Put up new data!

{{Short description|Express train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox rail service
| color = D24E01
| name = Mumbai CSMT – Mangaluru Junction ''Superfast Express (Rocket Express)''
| image = Mumbai CST Mangluru Jn Express Nameboard.jpg
| image_width =
| caption = Nameboard of Mumbai CSMT–Mangalore Jn. SF Express
| type = [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast Express]]
| status = Running
| locale = Mangaluru
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2009|11|23}}
| operator = [[Central Railway zone|Central Railway]]
| ridership =
| start = {{stnlnk|Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus}} (CSMT)
| stops = 12
| end = {{stnlnk|Mangaluru Junction}} (MAJN)
| distance = {{convert|1124|km|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 14 hours 30 minutes
| frequency = Daily{{efn|Runs daily for every direction.}}
| class = AC 2 tier, AC 3 tier, Sleeper class, General Unreserved
| seating = No
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack = Upp
| catering = No
| observation = Large windows
| entertainment = No
| baggage = Below the seats
| otherfacilities =
| stock = LHB Coaches
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm}}
| el = Fully Electrified
| trainnumber = 12133/12134
| speed = {{cvt|82|km/h}}
| map =
| map_state =
}}

[[File:Coachboard of Mumbai Mangaluru Express.jpg|thumb|Coachboard of Mumbai Mangalore Express]]

'''The 12133 / 12134 Mangaluru Super Fast Express''' is the fastest [[Express trains in India|Superfast Express]] train of the Indian Railways and runs between [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus railway station|Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus Mumbai]] in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Mangalore Junction railway station|Mangaluru Junction]] of [[Karnataka]]. It is served daily with 12133/12134 trains.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/ac-coach-augmented-on-cstm-express/article18169755.ece|title=AC coach augmented on CSTM Express|website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/Train-services-resume-on-Konkan-Railway-network/article14628329.ece | title=Train services resume on Konkan Railway network | date=8 September 2016 | newspaper=The Hindu | accessdate=21 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>[http://konkanrailway.com/press/details/551 RESCEDULING OF TRAINS DUE TO DERAILMENT]</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/Trains-delayed-owing-to-mishap/article14493369.ece | title=Trains delayed owing to mishap | date=17 July 2016 | website=[[The Hindu]] | access-date=21 February 2019 }}</ref>

== History ==
In 2009 it was run as Mumbai–Karwar Tri-weekly Superfast Express. On 14 August 2010 Union minister of State for Railways K. H. Muniyappa flagged off Mumbai CST–Karwar Tri-weekly Superfast Express Train, the service of then extended to the city from {{stnlnk|Mangalore Junction}}. Its frequency increased from tri weekly to daily.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=83356|website=daljiworld.com|date=14 August 2010|title=Mumbai-Karwar Super Fast Express Train Begins Service From City}}</ref> On 1 March 2025 it began running with LHB coaches.

== Service ==

The 12133/ Mumbai CSMT–Mangaluru Junction Superfast Express is the fastest Daily Superfast Express train connecting Mangaluru to Mumbai in Konkan Railway. The 12133/ Mumbai CSMT–Mangaluru Junction SF Express has an average speed of 82 km/h and covers 1164 km, 12134/Mangaluru Junction–Mumbai CSMT SF Express has an average speed of 82 km/h and max speed of 120 kmph. As this train runs on railway route (track) operated and maintained by Konkan Railway Corporation Limited ([[Konkan Railway Corporation|KRCL]]) along West coast (Konkan) of India., It has two timetable of running.One during summer and winter seasons and another during rainy(monsoon) season which is usually from 10 June to 20 October of every calendar year.

== Route and halts ==
The important halts are:

* [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus|Mumbai CSMT]]
* {{stnlnk|Thane}}
* {{stnlnk|Panvel}}
* {{stnlnk|Ratnagiri}}
* {{stnlnk|Kankavli}}
* {{stnlnk|Karmali}}
* {{stnlnk|Madgaon Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Karwar}}
* {{stnlnk|Kumta}}
* {{stnlnk|Bhatkal}}
* {{stnlnk|Mookambika Road Byndoor}}
* {{stnlnk|Kundapura}}
* {{stnlnk|Udupi}}
* {{stnlnk|Surathkal}}
* {{stnlnk|Mangalore Junction}}

== Coach composition ==

This train has standard LHB rakes with max speed 130 Kmph. It has new LHB coaches as of 1 March 2025 and carries 17 coaches.

Coach Composition

* 4 - General class (unreserved)
* 5 - Sleeper class
* 2 - AC 2 Tier coaches
* 3 - AC 3 Tier coaches
* 2 - General coach Divyangjan Friendly
* 1 - Generator car

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders unsortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:red;"| Loco
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:violet;"| 1
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:orange;"| 2
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:orange;"| 3
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 4
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 5
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 6
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 7
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:pink;"| 8
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightblue;"| 9
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightblue;"| 10
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightblue;"| 11
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 12
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:yellow;"| 13
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:orange;"| 14
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:orange;"| 15
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:violet;"| 16
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:grey;"| 17
|-

|[[File:BSicon LDER.svg|25px]]||SLR||UR||UR||S1||S2||S3||S4||S5||B1||B2||B3||A2||A1||UR||UR||SLR||EOG
|}

== Traction ==

It is hauled by a [[Loco Shed, Kalyan|Kalyan Loco Shed]] based [[WAP-7]] electric locomotive.

== See also ==

* [[Konkan Railway]]
* [[Matsyagandha Express]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== External links ==

* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/364 12133/Mumbai CST–Mangaluru Junction SF Express] India Rail Info
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/mangaluru-junction-mumbai-cst-sf-express-12134/8627/2931/1620 12134/Mangaluru Junction–Mumbai CST SF Express] India Rail Info

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mumbai CST-Mangaluru Junction Superfast Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Mangalore]]
[[Category:Transport in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Superfast Express trains]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Goa]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2009]]
[[Category:Konkan Railway]]

Malhari Martand

2026-04-30T11:55:48Z

KarmaConyers: Put up new post!

{{notability|1=Books|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Dinkar D. Patil]]
| writer = Dinkar D. Patil
| screenplay =
| story =
| producer = Ram Devtale
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Jayshree Gadkar]]
*[[Suryakant Mandhare]]
*[[Uma Bhende]]
*[[Dada Salvi]]
*[[Ganpat Patil]]
}}
| cinematography = E. Muhammad
| editing = Gangaram Mathphod
| music = Vasant Pawar
| studio = Vilas Chitra
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1965|03|25}}
| runtime = 135 minutes
| country = India
| language = Marathi
}}
'''''Malhari Martand''''' is a 1965 Indian [[Marathi language|Marathi]]- language [[family drama]] directed by [[Dinkar D. Patil]] and produced by Vilas Chitra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abrams |first=Tevia |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=5n1DF9X3MTkC&q=sangte+aika&redir_esc=y |title=Tamasha: People's Theatre of Maharashtra State, India |date=1974 |publisher=Michigan State University. Department of Theatre |language=en}}</ref> The film stars [[Jayshree Gadkar]], [[Suryakant Mandhare]], [[Dada Salvi]], [[Uma Bhende]], [[Ganpat Patil]], Indira Chitnis, and Shanta Tambe in lead roles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narwekar |first=Sanjit |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=nORkAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=Marathi Cinema: In Retrospect |date=1995 |publisher=Maharashtra Film, Stage & Cultural Development Corporation |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mujawar |first=Isak |title=Gatha Marathi Cinemachi |publisher=Pratik Prakashan |year=2014 |location=Pune |language=Marathi |trans-title=Marathi}}</ref> The film also won [[Maharashtra State Film Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] in [[Maharashtra State Film Awards|5th Maharashtra State Film Awards]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=सुधीर वासुदेव नांदगावकर |first=चैतन्य कुंटे |url=https://archive.org/details/20190823_20190823_0935 |title=शिल्पकार चरित्रकोश खंड ७ – चित्रपट, संगीत |date=2014}}</ref> This film has many popular songs sung by [[Sulochana Chavan]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=फड सांभाळ तुर्‍याला ग {{!}} Phad Sambhal Turyala {{!}} आठवणीतली गाणी {{!}} Aathavanitli Gani {{!}} Marathi songs lyrics online |url=https://www.aathavanitli-gani.com/Song/Phad_Sambhal_Turyala_Ga |access-date= |website=आठवणीतली गाणी {{!}} Aathavanitli Gani}}</ref>

==Plot==
Gulab ([[Jayshree Gadkar]]), the son of a wealthy landowner from the village of [[Devgaon]] in [[Maharashtra]], wishes to marry a woman who is lively and free-spirited. He falls in love with Bakula ([[Jayshree Gadkar]]), a smart and talented [[Tamasha]] dancer. However, his parents strongly oppose the relationship and persuade him to marry Kamala ([[Uma Bhende]]) instead, believing that a respectable woman is better suited to support a family and uphold social values. Meanwhile, Gulab’s cousin Balya (Rajshekhar), frustrated after losing a legal dispute over family property, turns his attention towards Bakula and attempts to take advantage of her situation. Determined to protect her dignity, Gulab takes a stand against him. As the story unfolds, Bakula fights for her self-respect, while Kamala gradually comes to terms with the realities of her marriage and her place within the family.
==Cast==
* [[Jayshree Gadkar]] as Bakula
* [[Suryakant Mandhare]] as Gulab
* [[Uma Bhende]] as Kamala
* [[Dada Salvi]] as Gulab's father
* Indira Chitnis as Gulab's mother
* Rajshekhar as Balya
* [[Vasant Shinde (actor)|Vasant Shinde]]
* Shanta Tambe
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0251823}}

[[Category:1965 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films about musical theatre]]
[[Category:1960s Marathi-language films]]
[[Category:Tamasha films]]
[[Category:Marathi-language family drama films]]

Manja Kuruvi

2026-04-27T01:06:32Z

KarmaConyers: Put up info

{{Short description|2022 Tamil language drama film}}
{{No plot|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Manja Kuruvi
| image = Manja Kuruvi.jpg
| caption = Promotional poster
| director = Arangan Chinnathambi
| producer = Vimala Rajanayagam
| writer =
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]]
*Vishwa
*Neeraja
*Rajanayagam
}}
| music = [[Soundaryan]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| runtime =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2022|12|02}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Manja Kuruvi''''' ({{langx|en|Sparrow}}) is a 2022 Indian Tamil-language drama film directed by Arangan Chinnathambi and starring [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]]. It was released on 2 December 2022.<ref>{{Citation |title=Manja Kuruvi Movie: Showtimes, Review, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos {{!}} eTimes |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-details/manja-kuruvi/movieshow/95878155.cms |access-date=2022-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211202721/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-details/manja-kuruvi/movieshow/95878155.cms |archive-date=11 December 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Kathir, a boy who loves Nandini, is rejected because Nandini says she will never love anyone again because of her brother's rowdiness and cruelty. Despite her dislike for her brother Guna, Kathir wants Nandini to be with him. So he joins Guna and teaches him about values and humanity.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*[[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] as Guna
*Vishwa as Kathir
*Neeraja as Nandhini
*Rajanayagam
*[[Ganja Karuppu]]
*[[Sujatha Sivakumar]]
*[[Pasanga Pandi]]
*Pasanga Sivakumar
*[[Senthi Kumari]]
*[[Supergood Subramani]]
}}

==Production==
[[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] opted not use a stunt double when filming action scenes for the film.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The kung fu master fight with actor Kishore without dupe at Manja Kuruvi film {{!}} நடிகர் கிஷோருடன் 'டூப்' இல்லாமல் சண்டை போட்ட குங்பூ மாஸ்டர் |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/app-lite/Cinema/CinemaThuligal/the-kung-fu-master-fight-with-actor-kishore-without-dupe-at-manja-kuruvi-film-783147 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211202724/https://www.dailythanthi.com/app-lite/Cinema/CinemaThuligal/the-kung-fu-master-fight-with-actor-kishore-without-dupe-at-manja-kuruvi-film-783147 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=www.dailythanthi.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=|first=|date=2022-07-07 |title=கிஷோர் கதையின் நாயகனாக நடிக்கும் "மஞ்ச குருவி" |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinemanews/tamil-cinema-actor-kishor-hero-in-manja-kuruvi-movie-482710 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211202722/https://www.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinemanews/tamil-cinema-actor-kishor-hero-in-manja-kuruvi-movie-482710 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=www.maalaimalar.com |language=ta}}</ref>

==Reception==
The film was released on 2 December 2022 across Tamil Nadu. A reviewer from ''[[Dina Thanthi]]'' noted that the film was disappointing.<ref>{{Cite web |last=|date=2022-12-06 |title=மஞ்சக் குருவி; சினிமா விமர்சனம் |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/couch-sparrow-cinema-review-852000 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211202723/https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/couch-sparrow-cinema-review-852000 |archive-date=11 December 2022 |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=www.dailythanthi.com |language=ta}}</ref> A reviewer from ''[[Maalai Malar]]'' gave the film 2.25 out of 5 stars, and noted it was "watchable".<ref>{{Cite web |last=|date=2022-12-04 |title=Manjakuruvi |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/movie-review/manjakuruvi-24972 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204183119/https://www.maalaimalar.com/movie-review/manjakuruvi-24972 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=www.maalaimalar.com |language=ta}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|23781508}}

[[Category:2022 films]]
[[Category:2022 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

{{2020s-Tamil-film-stub}}
{{2020s-drama-film-stub}}

Asansol Junction railway station

2026-04-24T19:19:22Z

KarmaConyers:

{{short description|Railway station in West Bengal, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|50px]] {{font color|blue|ASANSOL JUNCTION}}
| type = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] '''''[[Indian Railways]] station'''''
| style = Indian Railways
| image = IMG asnrlyjn.jpg
| caption = Entrance view of Asansol Junction railway station
| address = Station Road, [[Asansol]], [[Paschim Bardhaman district]], [[West Bengal]]
| country = {{flagu|India}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|23.69131|N|86.974792|E|type:railwaystation_region:IN|format=dms|display=inline}}
| elevation = {{convert|96|m|ft}}
| line = [[Bardhaman–Asansol section]] and [[Asansol–Patna section]] of [[Howrah–Delhi main line]], [[Asansol–Gaya section]] of [[Grand Chord]] and [[Howrah–Gaya–Delhi line]], [[Asansol–Tatanagar–Kharagpur line]]
| other = Auto stand, bus stand, cab zone
| structure = [[Intersection_(road)#At_grade_railways|At grade]]
| platform = 7 platforms '''Length–''' '''''{{cvt|620|m}}'''''
| tracks = 11
| parking = {{rint|parking}} {{color|green|Available}}
| accessible = {{Access icon|20px}}
| bicycle = {{rint|bicycle}} {{color|green|Available}}
| opened = {{start date and age|1864}}
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = 1957–1962
| classification = '''NSG-2'''
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = '''ASN'''
| zone = [[Eastern Railway zone|Eastern Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Asansol}}
}}
| website = {{URL|https://www.irctc.co.in/nget/train-search}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| services = {{Adjacent stations|noclear=y
|system=Indian Railways
|line=Eastern Railway zone|left=Kalipahari|right=Barachak|to-left=Howrah Junction|to-right=New Delhi|type=[[Howrah–Delhi main line]]
|line2=South Eastern Railway zone|left2=|right2=Burnpur|to-right2=Kharagpur Junction|type2=[[Asansol–Tatanagar–Kharagpur line]]}}

{{Railway stations in West Bengal}}
{{Paschim Bardhaman topics}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1885]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Paschim Bardhaman district]]
[[Category:Railway junction stations in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Asansol railway division]]
[[Category:Transport in Asansol]]
| operator = [[Eastern Railway zone|Eastern Railways]]
| services_collapsible = yes
| route_map = {{Railways in Asansol}}
| status = {{color|green|Active}}
| former = [[East Indian Railway Company|East Indian Railway]]
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| map_type = India#India West Bengal#
| map_dot_label = '''Asansol Junction'''
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in [[Asansol]]##Location in India
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-caption = Interactive map of Asansol Junction
| mapframe-custom = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-align=center|frame-width=300|frame-height=180|zoom=14|type=point|marker=rail}}
}}
{{Bardhaman–Asansol section|collapse=y}}
{{Adra–Asansol line|collapse=y}}
{{Asansol–Tatanagar–Kharagpur line|collapse=yes}}

'''Asansol Junction''' (station code: '''ASN''') is a railway station of [[Eastern Railway (India)|Eastern Railway]] in [[Asansol Sadar subdivision|Asansol]] of [[Paschim Bardhaman district]] in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]]. The station is on the Howrah–Delhi main line. It is the 8th busiest railway station in India in terms of frequency of trains after {{stnlnk|Kanpur Central}}, {{stnlnk|Vijayawada Junction}}, {{stnlnk|Delhi Junction}}, {{stnlnk|New Delhi}}, [[Ambala Cantonment Junction railway station|Ambala Cant]], {{stnlnk|Howrah}} and {{stnlnk|Patna Junction}}.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} Around 171 trains pass through the station daily.
It serves [[Asansol]] and the surrounding areas.
[[File:IMGasnjn.jpg|thumb|View of Asansol railway junction]]
[[File:IMG_asn_jn01.jpg|thumb|Entrance gate of Asansol Railway Junction]]

==Overview==

===Mining-industry zone===
"The entire belt between Durgapur (158 km from Howrah), and all the way up to Dhanbad and beyond is industrialized. Apart from factories, there are many coalmines, some closed now, and some with fires burning deep in the mineshafts. Mining area extends for a large area, mostly to the south of the tracks. Quite a portion of the track passes through cuttings, where the surrounding area is higher than the track level, resulting in the profusion of characteristic small masonry bridges crossing the tracks." This description is from "Gomoh loco shed and CLW trip record" by Samit Roychoudhury.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irfca.org/members/trips/samit-20041112-clw.html |title= Gomoh loco shed and CLW trip record |work= Indian Railway Reports|publisher=IRFCA }}</ref>

==History==
During the middle of the nineteenth century, [[Carr, Tagore and Company]] transported coal from Narayankuri ghat on the [[Damodar River]] to [[Kolkata]], then known as Calcutta. However, as the flow of water in the river was inconsistent, supplies were irregular. In order to capture the lucrative coal transport business, [[East Indian Railway Company|East Indian Railway]], extended the railway track that had been laid between Kolkata and {{stnlnk|Hooghly}} to {{stnlnk|Raniganj}} in 1855 and up to Asansol in July 1863.<ref name=rail1>{{cite web |url =http://www.irfca.org/~mrinal/chronology.html |title =The Chronology of Railway Development in Eastern India. |access-date =12 November 2011 |publisher =railindia |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080316015721/http://www.irfca.org/~mrinal/chronology.html |archive-date =16 March 2008 |url-status =dead }}</ref><ref name=rail2>{{cite web |url = http://www.irfca.org/~mrinal/asansol.html |title = Asansol |access-date = 12 November 2011 |publisher = railindia |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170507171611/http://www.irfca.org/~mrinal/asansol.html |archive-date = 7 May 2017 |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name=rail3>{{cite web| url = http://irse.bravehost.com/IRHTML.htm| title = Indian Railway History Timeline| access-date = 12 November 2011| archive-url = https://archive.today/20120714085533/http://irse.bravehost.com/IRHTML.htm| archive-date = 14 July 2012| url-status = dead}}</ref>
<gallery class="center" widths="500px" heights="250px" caption="A" historic="" outline="" map="" of="" the="" raniganj="" coalfield="" limited="" showing="" proposed="" extension="" railway="" tracks="" from="" to="" asansol="">
File:Raniganj Coalfield 1867.jpg
</gallery>

The East Indian Railway needed land to develop the infrastructure for the railways. While the Searsol Raj, then the [[zamindar]] in the Raniganj area, refused to provide the land, the Panchakot Raj, then functioning from [[Kashipur (community development block)|Kashipur]], agreed to provide the land in Shergarh, of which Asansol was then a part in 1863–64, East Indian Railway purchased a large area of jungle land from the Panchakot Raj, thereby initiating the development of Asansol as an industrial area.<ref name=rail2/><ref name=rail3/>

Subsequently, Asansol gained further in importance. What was later known as the [[Sahibganj loop]] was the first line from Kolkata to Delhi and the first direct train started in 1866, but the shorter line via Asansol and [[Jhajha]] came up in 1871. It was initially called the Chord line but as it attracted more traffic, was rechristened the [[Howrah–Delhi main line|main line]] and the earlier main line became Sahibganj loop. With the completion of the {{stnlnk|Sitarampur}}–[[Gaya Junction railway station|Gaya]]–[[Mughalsarai Junction railway station|Mughalsarai]] [[Grand Chord]] in 1901 (formally inaugurated in 1906 and finally opened in 1907), the Kolkata–Delhi rail distance became even shorter, and Asansol started functioning as the junction station of the main and chord lines, as Sitarampur, the actual junction, near Asansol, is a comparatively smaller station.<ref name=rail3/><ref>{{cite web|url =http://www.irfca.org/docs/history/hazaribagh-district.html |title = Hazaribagh District (1918) | publisher= IRFCA | access-date = 12 November 2011}}</ref>

While momentous developments were taking place in connecting Delhi and Kolkata by rail, [[Bengal Nagpur Railway]] extended its tracks to the Asansol coal belt in 1887, thus connecting [[Adra, Purulia|Adra]] with Asansol.<ref name=rail1/>

The railway establishment at Asansol contributed substantially to its development and growth.<ref name=rail2/>

==Electrification==
Electrification of the railways gained momentum in the early fifties. Although initial installations were with 3 kV DC traction, the railways subsequently adopted the 25 kV AC system. Electrification of the Bardhaman–Mughalsarai section was completed in 1957 and the Howrah–Gaya stretch was electrified by around 1960.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-elec.html#hist |title = Electric Traction – I | publisher= IRFCA (Indian Railways Fan Club)|access-date = 12 November 2011}}</ref> The Tatanagar–Adra–Asansol section was electrified in the 1957–1962 period.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/ffeb2000/f020220002.html |title = Platinum Jubilee of Railway Electrification in India| publisher= Press Information Bureau|first= Arabinda| last= Ghose| access-date = 12 November 2011}}</ref>

==Locomotive shed==
[[Electric Loco Shed, Asansol|Asansol Electric Loco Shed]] is home to the oldest electric locomotive shed of Indian Railways. It houses [[WAP-4]], [[Indian locomotive class WAG-5|WAG-5]], [[Indian locomotive class WAM-4|WAM-4]] and [[Indian locomotive class WAG-7|WAG-7]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-shed.html |title = Sheds and Workshops | publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 12 November 2011}}</ref>

==Asansol Division==
Established in 1925, [[Asansol railway division|Asansol Division]] is one of the oldest divisions of Indian Railways. On the [[New Delhi–Howrah main line|Howrah–Delhi main line]], its jurisdiction extends from the distant signal of [[Khana railway station|Khana junction]] to the distant signal of Jhajha . On the [[Grand Chord|Grand Chord line]] its jurisdiction extends up to the distant signal of [[Pradhankhunta Junction railway station|Pradhankhunta]]. Branch lines under its jurisdiction are: [[Andal–Sainthia branch line|Andal–Sainthia]], Andal–Tapasi–Barabani–Sitarampur, [[Madhupur–Giridih–Koderma line|Madhupur–Giridih]], [[Jasidih–Baidyanathdham branch line|Jasidih–Baidyanathdham]] and [[Jasidih–Dumka–Rampurhat line|Jasidih–Dumka]]. With a total of 565 route kilometers, the division has quadruple lines (two up and two down line) from Khana to Sitarampur. It handles 100 mail/express trains daily and 212 passenger train runs per day. The number of originating passengers per day is 144,070.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.er.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,6,443,528,538 |title = Eastern Railway| work = Asansol Division |publisher= Eastern Railway| access-date = 12 November 2011}}</ref>

==Passenger movement==
Asansol is amongst the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railway.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrail.gov.in/7days_Avl.html |title=Indian Railways Passenger Reservation Enquiry |work=Availability in trains for Top 100 Booking Stations of Indian Railways |publisher=IRFCA |access-date=5 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140510115649/http://www.indianrail.gov.in/7days_Avl.html |archive-date=10 May 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref> 228 trains (including weeklies and bi-weeklies) originate or pass through Asansol railway station.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.indiantrains.org/station-details/?code=ASN&name=ASANSOL+JN |title= Trains at Asansol Junction |publisher= IRFCA |access-date= 1 January 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111103150252/http://www.indiantrains.org/station-details/?code=ASN&name=ASANSOL+JN |archive-date= 3 November 2011 |url-status= dead }}</ref> All trains including Sealdah Rajdhani, Howrah Rajdhani, Howrah Duronto, Sealdah Humsafar Express and Shalimar Duronto stops at Asansol Junction except '''12259/60 Sealdah - Bikaner Duronto Express''' and '''12305/06 Howrah - New Delhi Rajdhani Express.''' Halt of '''12301/02 Howrah - New Delhi Rajdhani Express''' was provided at Asansol Jn on request of politician [[Babul Supriyo]] in May 2018.

==Amenities==

Asansol railway station has three double-bedded AC retiring rooms, two double-bedded non-AC retiring rooms and an eight-bedded dormitory. Escalators are present at platforms no. 2 and 7.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.er.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,6,442,478,490 |title = Retiring Room Details| publisher= Eastern Railway| access-date = 19 April 2013}}</ref> WiFi service is available here. A food plaza in the station premises is open 24/7. It also has an air-conditioned premium lounge for upscale passengers.

==Gallery==
<gallery widths=180>
Asansol rail station in Asansol 05.jpg|Asansol railway station building
Asansol Railway station, Bardhaman 05.jpg|Asansol railway station, Bardhaman
Asansol railway station platform.JPG|Station platform
Asansol rail station in Asansol 06.jpg|Asansol Junction railway station platform
Asansol railway station platformboard.JPG|Station platform board
Asansol rail station in Asansol 02.jpg|a model railway station in Asansol, Paschim Bardhaman district in the Indian state of West Bengal
Asansol railway station nameplate.JPG|Asansol railway station nameplate
Asansol Railway station, Bardhaman 02.jpg|Asansol railway station, over-bridge view
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Asansol Junction railway station}}
* [http://indiarailinfo.com/departures/asansol-junction-asn/7 Trains at Asansol]

{{Wikivoyage inline|Asansol}}

Udai Pratap Nath Shah Deo

2026-04-21T03:18:20Z

KarmaConyers: put up initial details first draft...

{{Infobox royalty
| name = Udai Pratap Nath Shah Deo
| title = Maharaja
| image = Udai Pratap Nath Shah Deo.jpg
| caption = Photograph of Maharaja Shah Deo
| succession = 61st [[Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur|Nagvanshi king]]
| reign = 1869–1950
| predecessor = [[Jagannath Shah Deo]]
| successor = [[Lal Chintamani Sharan Nath Shahdeo]]
| birth_date = 23 March 1866
| birth_place = [[Bharno]], Chota Nagpur Division, Bengal Presidency
| coronation = 1872
| death_date = {{death date and age|1950|9|21|1866|3|23|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Ratu, Ranchi|Ratu]], Ranchi, Bihar (now [[Jharkhand]])
| spouse = {{plainlist|*Maharani Mohan Kumari (m.1881, died.1905)
*Saudamani Devi}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
*Neeladhri Nath Shah Deo
*Yugal Kishore Nath Shah Deo
*Braj Kishore Nath Shah Deo
*Nand Kishore Nath Shah Deo
*Rameshwar Nath Shahdeo
*Asheshwar Nath Shah Deo
*Raj Kishore Nath Shah Deo
*Ghanshyam Devi
*Jai Kishore Nath Shahdeo}}
| dynasty = [[Nagvanshi dynasty|Nagvanshi]]
| father =
| mother =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| regent =
| reg-type =
}}
'''Udai Pratap Nath Shahdeo''' (23 March 1866 {{En dash}} 21 September 1950), was the [[Maharaja]] of Chotanagpur Zamindari estate. He donated large tracts of land to build infrastructure of [[Ranchi]] city. He built the Ratu Palace in Ranchi in 1901.<ref name="Jagran">{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/jharkhand/ranchi-famous-tourist-destinations-in-ranchi-19774025.html|title=बीच और हिल स्टेशन से अलग इस बार छुट्टियों में रांची आएं, जहां देखने को हैं काफी कुछ|date=20 November 2019|website=jagran}}</ref> He was conferred the [[Kaiser-i-Hind Medal]] for public services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/ratu-royalty-stands-by-kin-cong-loses-traditional-trump-card-to-jvm-in-hatia-run-up/cid/420150|title=Ratu royalty stands by kin - Cong loses traditional trump card to JVM in Hatia run-up|date=20 May 2012|website=telegraphindia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.119550/2015.119550.The-Nagbanshis-And-The-Cheros_djvu.txt|title=The Nagbanshis And The Cheros|website=archive.org}}</ref> He reigned for 81 years, and 74 days, the longest-reigning Indian monarch, the longest-reigning Princely State ruler and [[List of longest-reigning monarchs#Monarchs of dependent or constituent states with verifiable reigns by exact date|third longest verifiable reign]] of any monarch in history.

==Early life==
Deo was born on 23 March 1866 in [[Bharno]]. The king [[Jagannath Shah Deo]] died in 1869. As mentioned in Mangobinda Banargee's book "Historical Outline of Pre-British Chotanagpur", he was the nephew of Maharaja Jagannath Shah Deo. As Maharaja Jagannath Shah Deo had no sons, Udai Pratap Shah Deo succeeded to the throne after several court cases as other relatives of Maharaja claimed to be entitled to become king. Then the queen of King Jagannath Shah Deo, Luchun Kunwar shifted from Bharno to Ratu in 1879 and a palace was built in 1975.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT219|title=Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar|isbn=9781000651522|last1=Ansari|first1=Tahir Hussain|date=20 June 2019}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Deo married Rajkumari Mohan Kumari, daughter of Maharaja Udit Narayan Singh Deo, Raja of [[Saraikela State]], in 1881. Rajkumari Mohan Kumari died in 1905. His second marriage was to Saudamani Devi, daughter of Raja Ram Kanhai Singh of [[Barabhum|Barabhum Estate]]. He had nine sons and two daughters.<ref name="royalty"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livehistoryindia.com/story/amazing-india/navratangarh-lost-kingdom-of-the-nagvanshis/|title=Navratangarh: Lost Kingdom of the Nagvanshis|website=livehistoryindia|date=27 August 2019|access-date=3 June 2021}}</ref>

==Reign==
King Udai Pratap Nath Shah Deo donated large tracts of the land in Ranchi to develop its infrastructure. He donated land for building [[Ranchi University]], [[Gossner Evangelical Lutheran Church in Chotanagpur and Assam|G.E.L church]], [[Gossner College]], Ranchi Club, Pepe compound and other institutions. He donated 320 acres of land to G.E.L. Church and 17 acres of land for the construction of Ranchi Club.<ref name="royalty">{{cite web|url=http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/c/chotanagpur.html|title=CHOTA-NAGPUR (Zamindari)|website=members.iinet.net.au|access-date=27 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505023305/http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/c/chotanagpur.html|archive-date=5 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ten thousand acres of land of [[McCluskieganj]] was built on his land.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.outlookhindi.com/country/state/worlds-fifth-longest-monarchical-system-remembering-the-nagavansh-on-the-pretext-of-documentation-60775|title=दुनिया की पांचवीं सबसे लंबी राजतंत्रीय व्‍यवस्‍था, डॉक्‍यूमेंट्री के बहाने नागवंश की याद|date=9 August 2021|publisher=outlookhindi|access-date=22 August 2022}}</ref>

He built Ratu Palace in [[Ratu, Ranchi|Ratu]]. The construction of Palace started in 1899 and completed in 1901. The Palace has 103 rooms and spread over 22 acres. It was constructed by British company of Kolkata and designed after [[Buckingham Palace]] in [[Westminster]], London.<ref name="Jagran"/><ref name="royalty"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/ratu-royals-welcome-goddess/cid/1312810|title=RATU ROYALS WELCOME GODDESS|date=10 January 2014|website=telegraphindia}}</ref>

==Death==
He died in 1950. He was succeeded by his great-grandson, [[Lal Chintamani Sharan Nath Shahdeo]].<ref name="royalty"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shah Deo, Udai Pratap Nath}}
[[Category:Indian royalty]]
[[Category:People from Ranchi district]]
[[Category:Nagpuria people]]
[[Category:1866 births]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]

Mrityudaata

2026-04-19T19:43:40Z

KarmaConyers: Put up new info!

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mrityudata
| image =Mrityudata.jpg
| caption =Poster
| director = [[Mehul Kumar]]
| producer = [[Amitabh Bachchan]]
| writer = Mehul Kumar Jalees Sherwani (dialogues)
| narrator =
| starring = [[Amitabh Bachchan]] [[Dimple Kapadia]] [[Karisma Kapoor]] [[Paresh Rawal]] [[Deepak Tijori]] Arbaaz Ali Khan
| music = [[Anand–Milind]]
| cinematography =Rusi Billimoria
| studio = [[Amitabh Bachchan Corporation Limited]]
| editing =Yusuf Sheikh
| released = {{film date|1997|04|25|df=y}}
| runtime = 149 mins<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/mrityudaata-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0zmdm3njm|title=Mrityudaata|website=[[British Board of Film Classification]]}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR|13 [[crore]]}}<ref name="boi">{{cite web |title=Mrityudaata – Movie |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2688 |publisher=[[Box Office India]] |accessdate=3 December 2018}}</ref><ref name=open/>
| gross = {{INR|17.37 crore}}<ref name="boi" />
}}
'''''Mrityudaata''''' ({{translation}}: Angel of Death) is a 1997 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[action film]] directed by [[Mehul Kumar]] with music by [[Anand Milind]]. Loosely adapted from the 1991 [[Bengali language|Bengali]] film ''Proshno'', the film is considered to be a comeback role for [[Amitabh Bachchan]], who temporarily left the industry in 1992. This film was produced by his own production company called Amitabh Bachchan Corporation Limited (ABCL). It marked Bachchan's comeback after five years but was a [[box-office bomb]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.boxofficeindia.com/1997.htm| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040402124251/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/1997.htm| archive-date = 2004-04-02| title = BOX OFFICE INDIA}}</ref> One of the songs in the film picturized on Amitabh and [[Daler Mehndi]] was very popular when released.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Vijiyan|first1=K.N.|title=Another good old Bachchan flick|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=sP1OAAAAIBAJ&sjid=HRUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7046%2C5004659|accessdate=13 March 2015|work=[[The New Straits Times]]|date=10 May 1997|page=23|via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Dr. Ram Prasad Ghayal is a renowned doctor who has been successful in all operations in his career and has skillfully operated many delicate surgeries. He lives with his wife Janki and brother Bharat (Arbaaz Ali Khan). Bharat is in love with Renu, the daughter of Umeshchan Jain. At the same time, Raja Tunga, the brother of Rana Tunga has a longing for Renu. The miscreant Raja with his mob severely assaults Bharat when Bharat resists Raja's advances toward Renu.

A corrupt minister Mohanlal wants to execute a disastrous scheme called the "Pawanghat Power Project" at the expense of the lives and property of the tribes living at the project site. He coaxes and later threatens Bharat, the concerned engineer to sign his approval for the project, whereas Bharat refuses to endorse such a scheme. On the other hand, Rana devises an evil plot against Bharat to wipe the latter out eventually leading to his brother Raja winning Renu. Bharat is framed for murdering a woman and Inspector Danapani, a subordinate of Rana, arrests him and puts him behind bars. Woefully, Bharat dies in jail presumably by committing suicide. The agony of Bharat's death claims the life of Janki as well. With the death of his beloved wife and brother, Dr. Ram becomes desolate and alcoholic. Renu marries Raja, without any regret for the death of her former lover.

Now that Bharat is dead, Mohanlal conspires with Rana for the implementation of the power project. However, they end up becoming enemies of each other. Mohanlal plans to kill Raja. His henchmen attack Raja who is critically injured. Raja is admitted to the hospital where Dr. Ram is to conduct his operation. Renu fears that Dr. Ram may kill Raja to take vengeance for the death of his brother. She refuses to sign the operation papers, but Dr. Ram, who considers it his moral duty to save the life of a patient regardless of them being his friend or foe, conducts the operation. His expertise pays off as Raja is saved. He goes out to convey the news to Renu but returns to find Raja dead, beyond all his expectations. Renu files an F.I.R. against Dr. Ram, who is arrested and imprisoned.

In jail, Dr. Ram meets an inmate bearing the number 92, Prof Nizamuddin Azad, a scientist of "Bharat Atomic Energy". He has been jailed after a false allegation of revealing confidential nuclear formulae to foreign nations. He tells Dr. Ram that his brother Bharat did not commit suicide, but was tortured to death by Insp. Danapani, which he witnessed. Dr. Ram now realizes that his past misfortune was a result of the evil motives of some antagonists of the nation. He becomes the Angel of Death ('''Mrityudaata'''), who will put all those malefactors to death.

Dr. Ram breaks away from jail and nabs Insp. Danapani says that Mohanlal planned the murder of Bharat using his influence over the police. He also says that Raja was killed by Dr. Siddiqui (Avtar Gill) by cutting off the oxygen supply after Mohanlal bribed him to kill Raja. Dr. Ram kicks Danapani off the building to his death.

Meanwhile, Mohanlal has allied with another influential politician, Trilochan Tripathi, a.k.a. TT or Terror of Terrors, who keeps up an honest appearance among the masses, but works for his interests at the cost of the welfare of the public. Dr. Ram corners Dr. Siddiqui on the roof of Umeshchan Jain's house, who confesses to killing Raja and accepting a bribe from Mohanlal. Dr. Ram captures a video of Dr. Siddiqui's revelation before putting him to death. Soon, Dr. Ram kills Mohanlal.

One day, Trilochan Tripathi addresses a gathering when Dr. Ram publicly puts a video on view in which Tripathi signs an agreement with a foreign syndicate related to the "Pawanghat Power Project". Later, Tripathi would fool the public with false promises of power distribution. The enraged crowd chases Tripathi through the streets when Rana arrives for his rescue. Rana fires at Dr. Ram who burns Rana and Tripathi to death.

The film ends with Dr. Ram succumbing to his injuries.

== Cast ==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Amitabh Bachchan]] as Dr. Ram Prasad Ghayal
*[[Dimple Kapadia]] as Mrs. Janki Ghayal
*[[Karishma Kapoor]] as Renuka Jain
*Arbaaz Ali Khan as Bharat Prasad Ghayal
*[[Paresh Rawal]] as Trilochan Tripathi (T.T.) / Terror of Terrors
*[[Mukesh Rishi]] as Rana Tonga
*[[Ashish Vidyarthi]] as Mohanlal
*[[Tiku Talsania]] as Umeshchan Jain
*[[Avtaar Gill]] as Dr. Rahim Siddiqui
*[[Mushtaq Khan]] as Police Inspector Danapani
*[[Deepak Tijori]] as Raja Tonga
*[[Aasif Sheikh]] as Uday; Mohanlal's son
*[[Farida Jalal]] as Mrs. Ghayal
*[[Pran (actor)|Pran]] as Professor Nizamuddin Azad / Prisoner #92
*[[Dinesh Hingoo]] as Maslani
*[[Daler Mehndi]] as himself (Special appearance in song "Na Na Na Na Re")
{{div col end}}

==Reception==
The film opened well with cinemas at 95% capacity however, attendance dropped in the second week falling to 45% capacity with disappointing grosses.<ref name=open>{{cite magazine|title=Bollywood all bowled out|magazine=[[Screen International]]|date=30 May 1997|page=23|last=Lall|first=Bhuva}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
Music composed by [[Anand–Milind]], their only film with [[Amitabh Bachchan]]. Lyrics by Sameer.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Title !! Singer(s)
|-
| 1
| "Na Na Na Na Re"
| [[Daler Mehndi]], [[Sudesh Bhosle]]
|-
| 2
| "Illa Loo Illa Loo"
| [[Vinod Rathod]], [[Sushma Shrestha|Poornima]]
|-
| 3
| "Hamre Deshva Ki Burai"
| Sudesh Bhosle
|-
| 4
| "Kabhi Khushiyon Ki Sargam"
| [[Mohammad Aziz]], Vinod Rathod, [[Alka Yagnik]]
|-
| 5
| "Tak Jhoom"
| [[Abhijeet Bhattacharya|Abhijeet]], Poornima
|-
| 6
| "Apne Baap Ka Kya Jata Hai" (Not in the film)
| Sudesh Bhosle
|}

3 million audio cassettes were sold. The soundtrack was a successful release for ABCL.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0119721}}
* {{cite web |last1=Karambelkar |first1=Deepak |title=Bachchan's feat of clay |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/bachchans-feat-of-clay |website=The Indian Express |access-date=24 August 2021 |language=en |date=2 May 1997}}

[[Category:1997 films]]
[[Category:1997 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Anand–Milind]]
[[Category:1997 action drama films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:Films about corruption in India]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in India]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mehul Kumar]]
[[Category:Hindi-language action drama films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Bengali films]]

Visakh N. R.

2026-04-18T13:18:32Z

KarmaConyers: put up first post initial version...

{{Short description|Indian chess grandmaster (born 1999)}}
{{Indian patronymic|Visakh|Narayanan Rajeshwari}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox chess player
| country = [[India]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1999|4|24}}
| birth_place = [[Nagercoil]], India
| title = [[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]] (2019)<ref name="FIDEGM">{{cite web|url=https://ratings.fide.com/crt/main227614.pdf|title=FIDE Title Application (GM)}}</ref>
| peakrating = 2566 (September 2022)
| FideID = 25012223
}}

'''Visakh Narayanan Rajeshwari''' is an Indian [[chess]] grandmaster.

==Chess career==
In August 2023, Visakh won the Leça Blitz Open 2023 ahead of his brother Vignesh and [[Harshit Raja]] after drawing the former and defeating the latter in tiebreaks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chessbase.in/news/Visakh-triumphs-at-Leca-Blitz-Open-2023-Vignesh-second-and-Harshit-Raja-third|title=Visakh triumphs at Leça Blitz Open 2023, Vignesh second and Harshit Raja third|date=31 August 2023|first=Shahid|last=Ahmed}}</ref>

In December 2023, Visakh won the 5th Roma Citta Aperta Masters section ahead of Krishna C. R. G. and [[Tigran Harutyunyan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chessbase.in/news/Visakh-N-R-wins-5th-Roma-Citta-Aperta-Master-2023-C-R-G-Krishna-second|title=Visakh N R wins 5th Roma Citta Aperta Master 2023, C R G Krishna second|date=21 December 2023|first=Shahid|last=Ahmed}}</ref>

==Personal life==
His older brother is [[Vignesh N. R.]], who is also a Grandmaster. The two became the first brothers and siblings from India to become grandmasters when Vignesh achieved the title in January 2023.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/chess/chess-vignesh-and-visakh-nr-become-indias-first-brothers-and-siblings-to-become-grandmasters-8456213/|title=Chess: Vignesh and Visakh NR become India's first brothers to become Grandmasters|date=20 February 2023 | newspaper=The Indian Express | accessdate=20 July 2025}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{fide|25012223}}

{{Indian grandmasters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Visakh N. R.}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1999 births]]
[[Category:Chess Grandmasters]]
[[Category:People from Nagercoil]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian chess players]]

Dhule Assembly constituency

2026-04-17T00:47:02Z

KarmaConyers: stub!

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dhule
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| district = [[Dhule district|Dhule]]
| division =
| loksabha_cons = [[Dhule Lok Sabha constituency|Dhule]]
| constituency_no =
| established = 1978
| reservation =
| abolished = 2008
| electors =
}}
'''[[Dhule]]''' Vidhan Sabha seat was one of the constituencies of [[Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha]], in [[India]]. It was a segment of [[Dhule Lok Sabha constituency]]. Dhule seat existed until the 2004 elections after which it was renamed [[Dhule City Assembly constituency|Dhule City]] seat in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php |title=District wise List of Assembly and Parliamentary Constituencies |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra website |accessdate=12 October 2017 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225084439/http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php |archivedate=25 February 2009 }}</ref>

==Members of Vidhan Sabha==
{|class=wikitable
! Year
! Member<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dhule Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/dhule-maharashtra-assembly-constituency |access-date= |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref>
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
| colspan="4" |{{Center|''Before 1978 : Constituency did not exist''}}
|-
|[[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
|Kisanrao Khopade
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)|dab=yes|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Kamalabai Ajmera
|-
|[[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| rowspan="2" |Shalini Borse
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|-
|[[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|Rajvardhan Kadambande
| {{party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|[[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|[[Anil Anna Gote]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya)}}
|-
|[[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|Rajvardhan Kadambande
|{{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
| colspan="4" |{{center|''2008 onwards: See [[Dhule City Assembly constituency|Dhule City]]''}}
|}

==Election results==
===Assembly Election 2004===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhule}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Kadambande Rajwardhan Raghojirao Alias Raju Baba |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 54,457 |percentage = 39.26% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Subhash Bhamre|DR. SUBHASH RAMRAO BHAMRE]] |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 49,114 |percentage = 35.41% |change={{increase}}3.88 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ansari Fazalur Raheman Saeed Ahemad |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 6,494 |percentage = 4.68% |change={{increase}}4.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shah Farooq Anwar |party=Samajwadi Party |votes = 1,458 |percentage = 1.05% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Mohite Youraj Ambar |party=Lok Janshakti Party |votes = 1,447 |percentage = 1.04% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shah Saleem Inoddin |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,151 |percentage = 0.83% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,343 |percentage = 3.85% |change= {{increase}}0.75 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 138,706 |percentage = 53.40% |change= {{increase}}1.62 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 138,693}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 259,770|ref = |change= {{increase}}9.41 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Nationalist Congress Party |loser = Samajwadi Janata Party (Maharashtra) |swing= {{increase}}4.63 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1999===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhule<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117044316/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Anil Anna Gote]] |party=Samajwadi Janata Party (Maharashtra) |votes = 40,986 |percentage = 34.64% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bapu Shardul |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 37,310 |percentage = 31.53% |change={{increase}}19.30 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Kadambande Rajwardhan Raghojirao Alias Raju Baba |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 33,352 |percentage = 28.19% |change={{increase}}12.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Mohamad Idris Abdul Gani |party=Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 4,679 |percentage = 3.95% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ashokbhai Vasudeo Dhulkar |party=Independent politician |votes = 904 |percentage = 0.76% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,676 |percentage = 3.11% |change= {{decrease}}4.72 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 122,935 |percentage = 51.78% |change= {{decrease}}11.21 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 118,323}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 237,423|ref = |change= {{increase}}9.42 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Samajwadi Janata Party (Maharashtra) |loser = Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}9.43 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1995===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhule<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1995 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121534/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Kadambande Rajwardhan Raghojirao Alias Raju Baba |party=Independent politician |votes = 34,456 |percentage = 25.21% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bapu Shardul |party=Independent politician |votes = 23,755 |percentage = 17.38% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Patil Ramrao Sitaram |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 20,990 |percentage = 15.36% |change={{decrease}}18.42 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ansari Bashir Ah.Rajjak |party=Janata Dal |votes = 20,269 |percentage = 14.83% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Navale Mohan Tulshiram |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 16,721 |percentage = 12.23% |change={{decrease}}20.47 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Borse Shalini Sudhakar |party=Independent politician |votes = 10,018 |percentage = 7.33% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Zulal Bhilajirao Patil |party=Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 2,523 |percentage = 1.85% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,701 |percentage = 7.83% |change= {{increase}}6.76 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 139,397 |percentage = 64.24% |change= {{increase}}8.22 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 136,680}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 216,991|ref = |change= {{increase}}20.67 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}8.57 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1990===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhule<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117080722/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Borse Shalini Sudhakar |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 33,266 |percentage = 33.78% |change={{decrease}}6.84 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bapu Shardul |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 32,210 |percentage = 32.70% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chaudhari |party=Communist Party of India |votes = 15,050 |percentage = 15.28% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shinde Vinayak (Bapuji) |party=Independent politician |votes = 14,211 |percentage = 14.43% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,056 |percentage = 1.07% |change= {{decrease}}10.35 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 99,738 |percentage = 55.46% |change= {{increase}}0.66 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 98,490}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 179,824|ref = |change= {{increase}}38.36 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}6.84 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1985===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhule<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117075119/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Shalini Sudhakar Borase |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 28,562 |percentage = 40.61% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Abasaheb N. C. Patil |party=Indian Congress (Socialist) |votes = 20,528 |percentage = 29.19% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bhai Madane |party=Independent politician |votes = 8,734 |percentage = 12.42% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=M. G. Dhivare |party=Republican Party of India (Khobragade) |votes = 7,435 |percentage = 10.57% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Andhari Shafik Fajlu Raheman |party=Independent politician |votes = 3,296 |percentage = 4.69% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bhagwatiprasad Rambharos Pande |party=Independent politician |votes = 494 |percentage = 0.70% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 8,034 |percentage = 11.42% |change= {{increase}}8.27 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 71,617 |percentage = 55.10% |change= {{increase}}2.06 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 70,328}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 129,970|ref = |change= {{increase}}13.35 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing= {{decrease}}2.19 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1980===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhule<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1980 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117083555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Ajmera Kamalabai Chhaganlal |party=Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 25,541 |percentage = 42.80% |change={{increase}}6.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Khopade Kisanrao Manikrao |party=Independent politician |votes = 23,661 |percentage = 39.65% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chauk Vijaya Vishnu |party=Janata Party |votes = 8,078 |percentage = 13.54% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Nerkar Hiraman Dhudaku |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,485 |percentage = 2.49% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dadabhai Jemi Echarsha |party=Independent politician |votes = 371 |percentage = 0.62% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,880 |percentage = 3.15% |change= {{decrease}}8.64 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 60,680 |percentage = 52.92% |change= {{decrease}}12.59 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 59,676}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 114,660|ref = |change= {{increase}}9.12 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing= {{increase}}6.09 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1978===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhule<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629182050/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-date=29 June 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Khopade Kisanrao Manikrao |party=Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 24,933 |percentage = 36.71% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Nerkar Hiraman Dhudaku |party=Independent politician |votes = 16,928 |percentage = 24.92% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ansari Abdul Waheb Abdul Kadir |party=Independent politician |votes = 11,284 |percentage = 16.61% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Karankal Kisanrao Sonu |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 7,487 |percentage = 11.02% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Choudhari Ramdas Bhagwan |party=Independent politician |votes = 6,010 |percentage = 8.85% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Patole Subhash Vithal |party=Independent politician |votes = 540 |percentage = 0.80% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 8,005 |percentage = 11.79% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 69,543 |percentage = 66.18% |change= }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 67,916}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 105,075|ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Maharashtra}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dhule Assembly constituency}}
[[Category:Dhule district]]
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 establishments in Maharashtra]]

Sirathu Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:07:39Z

KarmaConyers: put up new pg w/ infobox...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Sirathu
| map_image = 251-Sirathu.svg
| mla = [[Pallavi Patel]]
| party = {{Samajwadi Party}}
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Kaushambi district|Kaushambi]]
| reservation = None
| type = SLA
| electors = 3,81,662
| constituency_no = 251
}}

'''Sirathu''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] covering the city of Sirathu in the [[Kaushambi district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Sirathu is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Kaushambi Lok Sabha constituency]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 251 amongst 403 constituencies. This constituency is dominated by [[Kurmi|Patels]], [[Pasi (caste)|Pasis]] and [[Brahmin|Pandits]]. There exists a substantial population of [[Maurya (surname)|Mauryas]] and [[Kushwaha|Kushwahas]] as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/as-keshav-maurya-faces-a-high-stakes-battle-caste-equations-hold-key-7786341/|title=As Keshav Maurya faces a high-stakes battle, caste equations hold key|website=Indian express|accessdate=24 July 2023}}</ref>

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Sarojini Nagar Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/sirathu.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1962 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|[[Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Mangala Prasad Tiwari
|-
|[[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Ram Charan
|style="background-color: {{party color|Samyukta Socialist Party}}" |
|[[Samyukta Socialist Party]]
|-
|[[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Baij Nath Kushwaha]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Kranti Dal}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Kranti Dal]]
|-
|[[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Jagdish Prasad
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
|[[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Purushottam Lal
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|Radhey Shyam Bhartiya
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Janata Dal]]
|-
|[[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|Bhagirathi
|-
|[[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|Ram Sajiwan Nirmal
| rowspan="4" style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
| rowspan="4" |[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|-
|[[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| rowspan="2" |Matesh Chandra Sonkar
|-
|[[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|-
|[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|Vachaspati
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|[[Keshav Prasad Maurya]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|2014^
|Vachaspati
|style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|[[Sheetla Prasad]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Pallavi Patel]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)}}" |
|[[Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)]]
|}
* <ref name="election1957">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_UP_1957.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006234308/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_UP_1957.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="election1962">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1962/StatRep_UP_1962.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=7 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007085123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_UP_1962.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1967">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201967%20.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006114503/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201967%20.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1969">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1969/Statistical%20Report%201969%20Uttar%20Pradesh.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=7 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007134105/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1969/Statistical%20Report%201969%20Uttar%20Pradesh.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1974">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1974/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201974.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006080051/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1974/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201974.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1977">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201977.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=7 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007053924/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201977.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1980">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201980.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006054456/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201980.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1985">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201985.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006170606/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Uttar%20Pradesh%201985.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1989">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report_%20UP_1989.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006085257/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report_%20UP_1989.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1991">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/Stat_Rep_UP_91.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006055723/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/Stat_Rep_UP_91.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1993">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/StatisticalReport_UP_1993.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613130455/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/StatisticalReport_UP_1993.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election1996">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-UP96.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713084900/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-UP96.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election2002">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_UP_2002.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713105915/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_UP_2002.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election2007">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/StatReport_AS_2007_UTTAR_PRADESH.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713102642/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/StatReport_AS_2007_UTTAR_PRADESH.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="election2012">{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_Report_UP2012.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 March 2017 |archive-date=8 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508084526/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_Report_UP2012.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/sirathu.html Sitting and previous MLAs from Sirathu Assembly constituency]</ref><ref name="election2022">{{Cite web|url=https://www.india.com/hindi-news/uttar-pradesh/sirathu-assembly-constituency-result-up-election-2022-keshav-prasad-maurya-pallavi-patel-seema-devi-bjp-sp-bsp-win-loss-live-updates-5275667/|title = Sirathu Assembly Election Results 2022: केशव मौर्य की सिराथू विधानसभा सीट के चुनाव परिणाम का पल-पल का अपडेट | Result Live}}</ref>

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Sirathu]]<ref name="election2022"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = [[Pallavi Patel]]
|votes = {{formatnum:106278}}
|percentage = 46.49
|change = {{increase}}19.77
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Keshav Prasad Maurya]]
|votes = {{formatnum:98941}}
|percentage = 43.28
|change = {{increase}}3.21
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Munsab Ali
|votes = {{formatnum:10073}}
|percentage = 4.41
|change = {{decrease}}17.91
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Jeetendra Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:2686}}
|percentage = 1.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:727}}
|percentage = 0.32
|change = {{decrease}}0.61
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:7337}}
|percentage = 3.21
|change = {{decrease}}10.14
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:228626}}
|percentage = 59.9
|change = {{increase}}3.96
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Sirathu]]<ref name="election2017">{{cite web |date=2018-08-16 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Legislative Election 2017|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3471-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sheetla Prasad
|votes = {{formatnum:78621}}
|percentage = 40.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Vachaspati
|votes = {{formatnum:52418}}
|percentage = 26.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Saeedurrab
|votes = {{formatnum:43782}}
|percentage = 22.32
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Mukti Party
|candidate = Ashish Kumar Maurya
|votes = {{formatnum:4453}}
|percentage = 2.27
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Vishwajeet Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:2396}}
|percentage = 1.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Shiv Singh Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:2179}}
|percentage = 1.11
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1806}}
|percentage = 0.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:26203}}
|percentage = 13.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:196186}}
|percentage = 55.94
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Samajwadi Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin | title=By-election, 2014: Sirathu}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Vachaspati
|votes = 79,540
|percentage = 47.71
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Santosh Singh Patel
|votes = 55,018
|percentage = 33.00
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 1,68,351
|percentage = 49.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|winner = Samajwadi Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Sirathu]]<ref name="election2012"/>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Keshav Prasad Maurya]]
|votes = 57,926
|percentage = 30.3
|change = +30.3
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Anand Mohan
|votes = 48,063
|percentage = 25.1
|change = -23.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Kailash Chandra Kesarwani
|votes = 32,309
|percentage = 16.9
|change = -8.6
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Mohd Farid Khan
|votes = 20,890
|percentage = 10.9
|change = +3.2
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|party = Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)
|candidate = Istiyak Ahmad
|votes = 9,527
|percentage = 5.0
|change = -7.6
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 9,863
|percentage = 5.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 1,69,100
|percentage = 49.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|loser = Bahujan Samaj Party
|winner = Bharatiya Janta Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==

* [[Sirathu]]
* [[Kaushambi district]]
* [[Kaushambi Lok Sabha constituency]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
20.https://www.indiavotes.com/ac/summary/32821 indiavotes.com

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{coord|25.65|81.32|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Kaushambi district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1961]]
[[Category:1961 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]

Anchal Das

2026-04-14T03:20:07Z

KarmaConyers: article

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{infobox officeholder
| name = Anchal Das
| office = Member of Parliament, [[Lok Sabha]]
| constituency = [[Jajpur Lok Sabha constituency|Jajpur]]
| term_start = 1996
| term_end = 1998
| predecessor = [[Anadi Charan Das]]
| successor = Rama Chandra Mallick
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| other_party = [[Janata Dal]]
| image =
}}

'''Anchal Das''' is an Indian politician and a veteran leader in the [[Indian National Congress]]. He was a [[Lok Sabha]] MP from 1996 to 1998, elected from [[Jajpur Lok Sabha constituency|Jaipur]] (SC). He has been fielded as the Congress candidate from Jajpur in the [[2024 Indian general election]]. He used to be a member of the erstwhile [[Janata Dal]].<ref name="prameyanews">{{cite web|url=https://www.prameyanews.com/jajpur-ls--keen-contest-between-bjd-and-bjp-this-time|website=prameyanews.com|title=Lok Sabha Election 2024: Keen contest between BJD and BJP in Jajpur constituency|access-date=2024-05-05}}</ref><ref name="newindianexpress">{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2024/Apr/29/with-bjp-hot-on-its-tail-bjd-may-find-the-going-tough-in-jajpur-bastion|website=newindianexpress.com|title=With BJP hot on its tail, BJD may find the going tough in Jajpur bastion|access-date=2024-05-05}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Das, Anchal}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Odisha]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Janata Dal politicians]]
[[Category:India MPs 1996–1997]]

{{Odisha-INC-politician-stub}}

Chaari 111

2026-04-13T05:21:20Z

KarmaConyers: details!

{{Short description|2024 Telugu movie}}
{{use Indian English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Chaari 111
| image = Chaari 111 poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[TG Keerthi Kumar]]
| writer = TG Keerthi Kumar
| producer = Aditi Soni
| starring = [[Vennela Kishore]] [[Murali Sharma]] Samyuktha Viswanathan
| cinematography = Kashish Grover
| editing = A. Richard Kevin
| music = [[Simon K. King]]
| studio = Barkat Studios
| distributor =
| country = India
| released = {{Film date|2024|03|1|df=y}}
| runtime = 129 minutes
| language = Telugu
| budget =
}}

'''''Chaari 111''''' is a 2024 Indian [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]]-language [[Action film|action]] [[black comedy|comedy film]] written and directed by [[TG Keerthi Kumar]]. The film stars [[Vennela Kishore]] in the titular role.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/actor-vennela-kishore-discusses-his-telugu-film-chaari-111-says-he-is-happy-as-a-comedy-actor-than-as-a-protagonist/article67894842.ece |title=Vennela Kishore: If 'Chaari 111' works, there are possibilities of a spy universe and crossovers |first=Sangeetha Devi |last=Dundoo |date=28 February 2024 |work=The Hindu |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310133253/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/actor-vennela-kishore-discusses-his-telugu-film-chaari-111-says-he-is-happy-as-a-comedy-actor-than-as-a-protagonist/article67894842.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Simon K. King]] scored the music.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Vennela Kishore]] as Brahmachaari a.k.a. Agent Chaari<ref name="Vennela Kishore to headline ‘Chaari 111’, a Telugu spy action comedy to be directed by T.G. Keerthi Kumar">{{cite news |work=The Hindu |title=Vennela Kishore to headline 'Chaari 111', a Telugu spy action comedy to be directed by T.G. Keerthi Kumar |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vennela-kishore-to-headline-chaari-111-a-spy-action-comedy/article67226500.ece |accessdate=27 March 2024 |date=23 August 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327125053/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vennela-kishore-to-headline-chaari-111-a-spy-action-comedy/article67226500.ece |archivedate=27 March 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref>
*[[Murali Sharma]] as [[Major (rank)|Major]] Prasad Rao, Chief of Rudranetra
* Samyuktha Viswanathan as Agent Esha
* Chaithanya Pasupuleti as Raavan
*[[Pavani Reddy]] as Agent Priya
*[[Satya (Telugu actor)|Satya]] as Rahul, Rudranetra’s tech-guy
*[[Thagubothu Ramesh]] as Bunty, Chaari’s admirer and assistant
*[[Brahmaji]] as Srinivas, Business Industrialist
*[[Rahul Ravindran]] as the [[Chief minister|CM]] GMR
*[[Subhalekha Sudhakar]] as the former-CM Vijay Reddy
* Priya Malik as Mahima, Raavan and Priya’s mother
* Goldie Nissy as Madhu, Prasad’s assistant
* Ajit Koshy as Scientist Krishnan
* Prabhakaran Mogan as Agent Beedi Thatha}}

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack was composed by [[Simon K. King]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chaari 111 - All Songs |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/chaari-111/CT2KVlpc8,Q_ |website=[[JioSaavn]] |date=20 February 2024 |access-date=20 May 2025 |archive-date=4 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204122449/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/chaari-111/CT2KVlpc8,Q_ |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Theme Of Chaari 111
| length1 = 3:09
| lyrics1 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
| extra1 = [[Sanjeeta Bhattacharya]]
| title2 = Love Song
| length2 = 0:57
| lyrics2 = Akshitha
| extra2 = Akshitha
| title3 = Beedi Thatha
| length3 = 1:38
| lyrics3 = [[Niranj Suresh]]
| extra3 = Niranj Suresh
| total_length = 5:44
}}

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote that "''Chaari 111'' attempts to carve a niche within the spy comedy genre, offering a blend of espionage and humour. While it shines in performances and genre fusion, the film's comedic elements require a sharper edge to truly resonate with its audience".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/chaari-111/movie-review/108139722.cms?from=mdr |title=Chaari 111 Movie Review : Vennela Kishore shines in spy comedy with missed potential |work=The Times of India |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312072447/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/chaari-111/movie-review/108139722.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live}}</ref> Abhilasha Cherukuri of ''[[Cinema Express]]'' wrote, "The film’s plot has more holes than a slice of cheese, and its treatment is no less odorous. [...] ''Chaari 111'' shifts from comedy to drama to comedy in ways that only seem to reflect poor writing and decision-making."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/review/2024/Mar/01/chaari-111-movie-review-a-grating-exercise-in-comedy-52548.html |title=Chaari 111 Movie Review: A grating exercise in comedy |first=Abhilasha |last=Cherukuri |date=1 March 2024 |website=Cinema Express |access-date=19 May 2025 |archive-date=27 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250327174422/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/review/2024/Mar/01/chaari-111-movie-review-a-grating-exercise-in-comedy-52548.html |url-status=live}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Telugucinema.com]]'' rated the film 2/5 and wrote, "As a concept, “Chaari 111″—in which Vennela Kishore plays a humorous agent—sounds interesting, and at first, it even provides some decent comedy. However, the film eventually falls flat as the story unfolds."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://telugucinema.com/reviews/chaari-111-review-not-quite-funny |title=Chaari 111 review: Not quite funny! |date=1 March 2024 |website=Telugucinema}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|29996716}}

[[Category:Indian black comedy films]]
[[Category:2024 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]

Mohammad Naeem (field hockey)

2026-04-13T05:20:06Z

KarmaConyers: Put up new info

{{Short description|British Indian field hockey player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox field hockey player
| name = Syed Mohammad Naeem
| award =
| image =
| birth_date = January 1914
| birth_place = [[British India]]
| death_date = 1 November 1945
| death_place = [[Karnal]], [[British India]]
| height =
| position = [[Field hockey#Formations|Half-Back]]
| nationalteam1 = [[India men's national field hockey team|India]]
| nationalyears1 = 1935
| nationalcaps(goals)1 =
| nationalgoals1 =
| nationalcaps1 =
}}

'''Syed Mohammad Naeem''' ({{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|سید محمد نعیم}}}}; born 1914) is a former association field hockey player, who played as a Half-Back.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 May 1950 |title=TRIBUTES TO THE LATE MOHD. NAEEM |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19500503/129/0008 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 May 1950 |title=(Continued from Previous Column) sent, however much we would have loved it. On behalf of myself and my Committee |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19500503/125/0008 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref> He also represented the [[India men's national field hockey team|India]] hockey team in 1935.

== Early life ==
Naeem was born in January 1914, he would be educated from M.B. High School, Mozang. Before joining [[Government Islamia College, Civil Lines, Lahore|Islamia College]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=1 May 1950 |title=THE LATE SYED MOHD. NAEEM, An Outstanding Sportsman |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19500501/060/0004 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref>

== Club career ==
=== Early career ===
Naeem was the captain of Muslim Club of Mozang. As well as the [[Lahore]] based Brothers Hockey Club.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 December 1937 |title=HOCKEY TOURNAMENT, Brother's Club Win Final |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19371224/272/0018 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref> He would also play and captain the [[University of the Punjab|Punjab University]]. Representing the team in Inter-Provincial competitions.<ref name=":0" />

=== Senior career ===
In 1937, Naeem joined the Hockey department of Bhawanipore Hockey Club of [[Calcutta]]. Before then playing for Mohammedan Sporting. Where he captained the side for five consecutive years. Under his captainship, the team won the First Division Championship for the first time.<ref name=":0" />

== International career ==
In 1935, Naeem was selected for the All-India Hockey Team which toured [[New Zealand]] and [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 1935 |title=INDIA'S TEAM FOR NEW ZEALAND Punjab Representation (To the Editcr, C. and Id. Gazette) |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19350321/179/0011 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 1935 |title=MEN'S HOCKEY. RETURN OF INDIAN TEAM. |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/32890886 |website=trove.nla.gov.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NZ And Australia Tour-1935 {{!}} Sankalp India Foundation |url=https://www.sankalpindia.net/book/nz-and-australia-tour-1935 |access-date=2026-03-06 |website=www.sankalpindia.net}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
His brothers, Saleem, Shamim, Naseem and Moeen were also prominent players in hockey and football.<ref name=":0" />

== Death ==
He died at [[Karnal]] on 1st November, 1945. After a short illness of malarial fever.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 November 1945 |title=KOLL OF HONOUR |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003221/19451124/013/0002 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Syed, Mohammad Naeem}}
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1945 deaths]]
[[Category:Field hockey players from Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Indian men's field hockey players]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Deaths from malaria]]

Sharanya Manivannan

2026-04-10T17:07:59Z

KarmaConyers: put up first info from scratch

{{Short description|Indian author}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}

'''Sharanya Manivannan''' (born 1985) is an Indian author, columnist and poet.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-21 |title=Sharanya Manivannan |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/author/sharanya-manivannan |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Manivannan was born in India. She lived in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Malaysia]] and from 2007 she is residing in [[Chennai]], India.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Gxbfu4QL1Q |title=HLF Online with Savie Karnel and Sharanya Manivannan |language=en |access-date=2024-04-06 |via=www.youtube.com}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Excavating a Personal History: An Interview with Sharanya Manivannan – Michigan Quarterly Review |url=https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mqr/2021/08/excavating-a-personal-history-an-interview-with-sharanya-mannivanan/ |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=sites.lsa.umich.edu}}</ref> She received the Lavanya Sankaran Fellowship for 2008–2009. She writes a column, the 'Venus Flytrap' in [[the New Indian Express]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Four poems by Sharanya Manivannan {{!}} Superstition Review |url=https://superstitionreview.asu.edu/issue6/poetry/sharanyamanivannan |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=superstitionreview.asu.edu}}</ref>

Her 2018 book ''The Queen of Jasmine County'' is a fictionalised account of the 9th century Tamil Hindu poet [[Andal]].<ref name=":2" /> She combined prose with poetry in her lyrical novel where she imagines a young Kodhai transforming into poet goddess Andal.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Santhanam |first=Radhika |date=2020-03-21 |title=In conversation with Sharanya Manivannan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/andal-appeared-in-a-dream-and-told-me-to-write-a-novel-about-her-sharanya-manivannan/article31108839.ece |access-date=2025-08-18 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Selected works==
Some of her books are:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sharanya Manivannan |url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/4886398.Sharanya_Manivannan |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref>

* ''Incantations Over Water'' (graphic novel, 2021)
* ''Mermaids In The Moonlight'' (picturebook, 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Manivannan |first=Sharanya |date=2024-03-03 |title=Writer Sharanya Manivannan on her picture book being translated into Tamil, her mother tongue |url=https://scroll.in/article/1064409/writer-sharanya-manivannan-on-her-picture-book-being-translated-into-tamil-her-mother-tongue |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ''The Queen of Jasmine Country'' (novel, 2018)<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2018-12-21 |title=Sharanya Manivannan's First Novel On A 9th Century Poet Is About Love and Loneliness |url=https://www.huffpost.com/archive/in/entry/the-queen-of-jasmine-country-the-story-of-a-9th-century-poet-is-about-love-and-loneliness_in_5c1c9ef1e4b0407e90792226 |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-09-30 |title=The Queen of Jasmine Country by Sharanya Manivannan - Purple Pencil Project |url=https://www.purplepencilproject.com/book-review-queen-of-jasmine-country-sharanya-manivann/ |access-date=2024-04-06 |language=en-US}}</ref>
* ''The Altar of the Only World'' (poetry, 2017)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Wire: The Wire News India, Latest News, News from India, Politics, External Affairs, Science, Economics, Gender and Culture |url=https://thewire.in/books/i-painted-universal-writer-poet-sharanya-manivannan-latest-book-poetry |access-date=2024-04-06 |website=thewire.in}}</ref>
* ''The High Priestess Never Marries'' (short fiction, 2016)
* ''The Ammuchi Puchi'' (picturebook, 2016) and
* ''Witchcraft'' (poetry, 2008).

== Awards ==
Her book ''The High Priestess Never Marries'' received the 2016 South Asia Laadli award.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://sharanyamanivannan.in/2024/01/15/sharanya-manivannan-long-bio/ Her personal website.]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manivannan, Sharanya}}
[[Category:1985 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Chennai]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]

{{India-writer-stub}}

Jital

2026-04-01T07:45:25Z

KarmaConyers: adding the stub added tags

{{Short description|Medieval coin of the Indian subcontinent}}
[[File:Spalapati jital obverse.png|thumb|right|Kabul Shahi 750–900. Obverse: Sharada legend: ''Śrī Spalapati Deva'' (Radiant Spalapati the God). Silver 3.55 grams. 20 mm diameter. Tye #4.]]
[[File:Spalapati jital reverse.png|thumb|right|Reverse: Traces of Bactrian script to the right of rider's head. Tye #4.]]
[[File:Shahi jital back.png|thumb|right|Kabul Shahi 850–1000. Obverse: Recumbent bull with ''jhula'', ''[[trishula]]'' on rump. Sharada legend ''Śrī Sāmanta Deva'' (Radiant Sāmanta the God). Silver 3.21 grams, 18.5 mm diameter. Gandhāra-Ohind mint. Tye #14]]
[[File:Jital reverse.png|thumb|right|Reverse: Lance bearing rider on caparisoned horse. Legend: ''Bhi''. Silver 3.21 grams, 18.5 mm diameter. Gandhāra-Ohind mint. Tye #14]]

The '''jital''' was a silver coin introduced by the Kabul Shahis around 750 CE.

== History ==
The term ''jital'' (uncertain etymology) is used by numismatists for coins derived from the Shahi bull-and-horseman by one or more evolutionary steps.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 32.</ref> Silver jitals were accompanied by copper coins of lower denomination, often struck with the same die. The bull-and-horseman design (see images at right and below) was copied and adapted by subsequent Hindu and Muslim Medieval authorities in the territories corresponding to modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, North West India and eventually beyond.<ref>''Coins of India Through the Ages''. 1953. Government Museum, Madras. See VIII Coins of the Rajput Dynasties, p. 4.</ref> The jital, issued in vast numbers, perhaps hundreds of millions, by the [[Hindu Shahi]], is credited with expanding the geographic reach of a monetized economy in Medieval India.<ref>Kalra, M. 2019. Ancient Indian Monetary Systems and Minting Techniques c. 600 BCE c. 1200 CE. In ''History of Ancient India: Volume VII: Economy, Agriculture, Crafts & Trade'' ed. Dilip Chakravarti. p. 4.</ref><ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 34.</ref> Valued for their reliable silver content, bull-and-horseman jitals were circulated along trade routes from their Afghan source to northeastern Europe.<ref>Flood, F. (2009). Objects of translation: material culture and medieval "Hindu-Muslim" encounter. p. 25. Retrieved from https://hdl-handle-net.jpllnet.sfsu.edu/2027/heb31437.0001.001.</ref>

After the Shahi period, the silver jital gave way to the [[Rajput]] ''billon'' jital of silver mixed with copper, an alloy with continued use in the early coinage of the Muslim rulers of Delhi based on the silver ''[[History of the taka|taka]]'' or ''tanka'' currency. During the 11th and 12th centuries, bull and horseman coins were simultaneously issued by [[Ghaznavids]], Tomaras and Chauhans from different mints. This may have prompted the use of the name of the issuing monarch on the reverse of the coins, a feature of Ghaznavid and subsequent jitals.<ref>Bhatia, P. (1977). BULL/HORSEMAN COINS OF THE SULTANS OF GHAZNA, AD 1030—1186. ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', 38, 765–773. p.772.</ref> Iltutmish, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, introduced the coinage system at Delhi: silver tankas and copper jitals.<ref>Ray, A. (2019). ''The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): polity, economy, society and culture'' / Aniruddha Roy. (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 65.</ref> At the time of the eighth Mamluk sultan, [[Mahmud I]] (1246–1266), the average billon jital contained 14.4 grains of silver, leading Wright (1936) to conjecture that these early jitals of the Delhi sultanate were worth 1/12 of a tanka.<ref>Wright, N. 1936. ''The coinage and metrology of the Sultans of Delhi incorporating a catalogue of the coins in the Authorʼs Cabinet now in the Delhi Museum''. Government of India, Delhi. Central Secretariat Library, Government of India Source URL: http://192.168.1.42:8080//handle/123456789/6208 p. 398.</ref> Later, the jital was variously valued at 1/48, 1/50, 1/60 and 1/64 of a tanka, and the jital, in turn, was made up of lower denomination ''gani.'' The number of gani that made up a jital also varied, in some cases based on the silver content of the jital<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/S0035869X00016269 | title=Art, XIII.—The Initial Coinage of Bengal, under the Early Muhammadan Conquerors. Part II. Embracing the preliminary period between A.H. 614–634 (A.D. 1217–1236–7) | date=1873 | last1=Thomas | first1=Edward | journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society | volume=6 | issue=2 | pages=339–376 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/S0035869X00088353 | title=The Coinage and Metrology of the Sultans of Dehli. By H. Nelson Wright, F.R.N.S., I.C.S. (Retd.). Pp. Xx + 432. With 24 plates and map. Published for the Government of India. Delhi, Manager of Publications, 1936. 45 ''s'' . Net. | date=1938 | last1=Whitehead | first1=R. B. | journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland | volume=70 | issue=2 | pages=331–335 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jital: coin of medieval Northern India (king Prithviraj III) |url=https://www.dema-coins.com/2022/11/jital-coin-Chauhan-dynasty-India.html |access-date=2024-12-12 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Wright, N. 1936. ''The coinage and metrology of the Sultans of Delhi incorporating a catalogue of the coins in the Authorʼs Cabinet now in the Delhi Museum''. Government of India, Delhi. Central Secretariat Library, Government of India
Source URL: http://192.168.1.42:8080//handle/123456789/6208 pp. 167, 292.</ref> but the values of gani were not proportional to their silver content<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 78.</ref> and often unknown.<ref>Goron. S. & J.P. Goenka. 2002. ''The coins of the Indian sultanates: Covering the areas of present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh''. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. xvi</ref> Wright reports larger denomination coins of 2, 3, 4, 6, and of 12 jitals (a quarter tanka).<ref>Wright, N. 1936. ''The coinage and metrology of the Sultans of Delhi incorporating a catalogue of the coins in the Authorʼs Cabinet now in the Delhi Museum''. Government of India, Delhi. Central Secretariat Library, Government of India Source URL: http://192.168.1.42:8080//handle/123456789/6208 pp. 109, 167.</ref> Copper ''falūs'' were also issued by the Delhi sultans that may have been worth a quarter jital.<ref name="Goron. S. 2002. p. 10">Goron. S. & J.P. Goenka. 2002. ''The coins of the Indian sultanates: Covering the areas of present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh''. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 10.</ref> The unstable value of the tanka currency system was brought to a crisis by Sultan [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq]] (1321–1351) when he introduced representative coins of copper and brass that could be exchanged for fixed amounts of gold and silver from the Sultanate treasury. This created conditions for rampant forgery that led him to withdraw the system within eight days, reportedly buying back his brass coins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garg |first=Sanjay |date=2006-01-01 |title=Muhammad bin Tughluq: A Numismatic overview of an Enigmatic Persona |url=https://www.academia.edu/2401543 |journal=Coins in India: Power and Communication, ed. By Himanshu Prabha Ray}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Daniyal |first=Shoaib |date=2016-11-15 |title=History revisited: How Tughlaq's currency change led to chaos in 14th century India |url=https://scroll.in/article/821406/demonetisation-lessons-how-tughlaqs-unplanned-currency-change-in-14th-century-india-led-to-chaos |access-date=2024-12-12 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 45.</ref> Jitals were also issued in the south of the subcontinent. An early 15th century Ilkhanid ambassador to [[Vijayanagar]] ([[Karnataka]]) reported three types of coin in use there: gold alloy, pure silver and copper ''jital''.<ref>Deyell, J. 2019. Hard Money and ‘Cashless’ Economies: Medieval Bengal and the Greater Asian World, in Deyell & Mukherjee, eds. ''From Mountain Fastness to Coastal Kingdoms: Hard Money and ‘Cashless’ Economies in the Medieval Bay of Bengal World''. Routledge. p. 197</ref><ref>Mitchiner, M. 1998. ''The coinage and history of southern India: Part 1 Karnataka - Andra''. Hawkins Publications. {{ISBN|0904173224}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+

=== Jital ===
|-
| Span of issue || c.750 — c.1450 CE or 1599 CE
|-
| Composition || Silver, [[billon (alloy)]] including lead and antimony,<ref>Album, S. 2011. ''Checklist of Islamic Coins, 3rd edition'', p. 178.</ref> copper, base metal
|-
| Technique || Die-struck, hammered
|-
| Mass || Variable including 4.32, 3.6, 3.4, 3.3, and 2.2 gram standards
|-
| Origin || [[Kabul]] and [[Gandhara]]
|-
| Legend scripts || [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]], [[Sharada script|Sharada]], [[Nagari Hindi|Nagari]], [[Kufic]], [[Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]]
|}

== Visual elements of the jital ==
On the Shahi prototype, the obverse face of the coin shows a seated humpbacked [[Zebu]] bull with a [[Sharada script]] legend above with a dotted border. There is a horse and rider on the reverse. The bull is draped with a ''jhula'' (saddle-cloth), has a [[trishula]] (sacred trident) on its rump and a star shaped object hanging from its neck. As a symbol of Hinduism most associated with [[Shiva]], the trishula establishes the bull as [[Nandi (Hinduism)|Nandi]], Shiva's mount and devotee.<ref>Gopinatha Rao, T. A. 1997. Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 213. {{ISBN|9788120808775}}.</ref><ref>Flood, F. 2009. ''Objects of translation: material culture and medieval "Hindu-Muslim" encounter''. p. 26. Retrieved from https://hdl-handle-net.jpllnet.sfsu.edu/2027/heb31437.0001.001.</ref> The jitals of [[Chandela]] ruler Sallakshana-Pala-Deva, [[Tomaras]] Ananga-Pala-Deva and others feature a variety of marks on the jhula,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de S. Shortt |first=H. |date=1956 |title=A Bull-and-Horseman Hoard from India |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42678397 |journal=The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society |volume=16 |pages=313–325 |jstor=42678397 |issn=0267-7504}}</ref> numbers appear on the jhula of jitals issued by the Delhi rajas,<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India. R. Tye. p. 39.</ref> while tiny Kufic inscriptions are found on the jhula of some Ghaznavid jitals.<ref>Bhatia, P. (1977). BULL/HORSEMAN COINS OF THE SULTANS OF GHAZNA, AD 1030—1186. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 38, 765–773. p. 765.</ref> The horse is caparisoned including a back-strap with three or four circular pellets and the rider holds a lance with a waving pennon. The legend above the bull features formulaic language such as ''[[Śrī]] Spalapati Deva'' (Radiant Spalapati the God) and, later, ''Śrī Samanta Deva''. ''Spalapati'' means "war-lord" (from Persian ''spala'', army + Sanskrit ''pati'', master) and ''Sāmanta'', "governor" or "feudatory lord," thus the coins reference generic titles rather than specific persons, despite the possible existence of a Hindu Shahi king called Sāmand (c. 850-870 CE).<ref name=Rehman>{{cite thesis | doi=10.25911/5d74e50054bb9 | date=1976 | last1=Rehman | first1=Abdur | title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Sahis: An analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and palaeography |type=PhD Thesis |publisher=Australian National University}}</ref><ref>Cunningham. A. 1894. ''Coins of Medieval India: From the Seventh Century Down to the Muhammadan Conquests''. Indian Institute.</ref> On the Spalapati coins, the horseman wears turban-like head gear with a globule at the top whereas on subsequent Samanta coins the rider's head is stylized, resembling a cross.<ref name=Rehman/> Corrupted Bactrian script runs across the margin before the horseman which some interpret as ''Śrī Ispahbadh'', the Persian equivalent of Spalapati.<ref name=Rehman/> The image of the [[sacred bull]], communicating virility and power, amplifies the imputed divinity of the issuing authority and may have meant to assert Hindu sovereignty over their Turk Shahi predecessor or against the encroachment of neighboring Muslim rulers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Robert Tye - Academia.edu |url=https://independent.academia.edu/RobertTye/Books |access-date=2024-12-12 |website=independent.academia.edu}}</ref><ref>Pronk, T. 2009. Sanskrit (v)rsabhá-, Greek αρσην, ερσην: the spraying bull of Indo-European? ''Hist. Sprachforsch''. 122, 170-181, {{ISSN|0935-3518}}</ref> It would not be the last time that rulers in this contested frontier zone created numismatic self-representation with an eye on powerful neighbors.<ref>Flood, F. 2009. ''Objects of translation: material culture and medieval "Hindu-Muslim" encounter.'' pp. 44, 241. Retrieved from https://hdl-handle-net.jpllnet.sfsu.edu/2027/heb31437.0001.001.</ref> Coin circulation also serves to redraw cultural boundaries. Shiva's bull with trishula continued as a device on coins issued by Muslim rulers as far afield as the Abbasid caliphs of Iraq,<ref>Flood, F. (2009). ''Objects of translation: material culture and medieval "Hindu-Muslim" encounter''. p. 26. Retrieved from https://hdl-handle-net.jpllnet.sfsu.edu/2027/heb31437.0001.001.</ref> (although some think these to be Indian minted coins in the name of the Abbasid caliphs).<ref>Errington, E. (1996). R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review) [Review of R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review)]. ''Numismatic Chronicle'', 156, 394-. London: Royal Numismatic Society.</ref> A war elephant, an Indic military feature adopted by Muslim rulers, sometimes takes the place of the bull. Jitals issued by Muslim authorities featured bilingual [[Nāgarī]]/[[Persian language]] inscriptions or used Persian or Nāgarī alone. The skillful execution of images of the early high silver content jitals gave way to coins of cruder make and lower or no silver content both over time and when issued by mints at the geographic margins.<ref>Plant. R. 1973. ''Arabic Coins and How to Read Them''. Spink.</ref> The reverse sometimes names the issuing ruler and may contain a single nāgarī character such as A, Gu, K, Bhi, or M or other device beside the horseman that may indicate, per Bhatia (1973) the proper names of the Shahi rulers, or per Tye (1995), the badge of minting cities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bhatia |first=Pratipal |date=1973 |title=Bull/Horseman Coins of the Shahis, C. A.d. 650-1026 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44138589 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=34 |pages=50–61 |jstor=44138589 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref><ref>Cunningham. A. 1894. ''Coins of Medieval India: From the Seventh Century Down to the Muhammadan Conquests''. Indian Institute. pp. 63-64.</ref><ref name=":2"/><ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India. R. Tye</ref> The motif of the armed horseman extended beyond jitals to other denominations such as the gold tankas and quarter tankas of [[Muhammad of Ghor]], who also issued jitals (see Ghurid jital below). The horseman on these tankas wields a mace, axe, or sword rather than a lance. The mace (''[[List of mythological objects (Hindu mythology)|danda]]'') is an ancient symbol of sovereignty in India. Singh argues that the choice of weapons depicted on the coins held a propaganda function, to validate new Turkic rulers and their Islamic regime to the subjugated population.<ref>Singh, K. 2014. New variety of horseman type quarter tanka of Muhammad bin Sam. ''Numismatic Digest'', 38: 169-180. pp. 175-176.</ref>

== Jital as evidence against fixed "Hindu" and "Muslim" periods in the South Asian borderlands ==
[[File:Balban Jital reverse.png|thumb|right|Bilingual jital. Delhi Sultanate Mamluk Dynasty. Ghiyas-Ud-Din Balban 1266–1287. Reverse: ''Balban'' (Persian) in center. ''Śrī Sultan Gayasadin'' (Nagari) in margin. Tye #409.]]
Since the early 2000s, scholars of Indian history have opened up new approaches that undermine colonialist and nationalist ways of thinking on sectarian grounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Asif |first1=Manan Ahmed |title=Book Review: A Short History of the Mughal Empire (ISBN 9781848858725) |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=May 2017 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=553–555 |doi=10.1017/S0021911817000353}}</ref> For Flood (2009), the bull-and-horseman coin presents a challenge to the common sectarian assumptions of historians, social scientists and museum curators. Issued by both Hindu and Muslim authorities, featuring Indic and Iranic motifs, Persian-Nāgarī bilingual inscriptions, and changing weight systems based on Persian and Indic standards, the jital serves to challenge those scholars who divide transcultural premodern societies and their artifacts into artificially separate categories of Muslim and Hindu periods. The jital provides material evidence that such fixed and separated categories misrepresent the mobile, fluid, heterogeneous, cosmopolitan, polyglot societies of the South Asian borderlands. Flood further suggests that coins are not merely a medium of exchange but vehicles for the circulation of ideas.<ref>Flood, F. (2009). ''Objects of translation: material culture and medieval "Hindu-Muslim" encounter''. Retrieved from https://hdl-handle-net.jpllnet.sfsu.edu/2027/heb31437.0001.001.</ref> Robert Tye articulates an assessment similar to Flood's last point based on his study of the Indo-Persian jital, arguing that "peoples united in the use of a particular sort of currency are also likely to exchange ideas about how that coinage should be used, changed and developed.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India. R. Tye. p. 32.</ref>

Linguistic pluralism is evidenced by sixty-nine unique jitals in the Tye catalog inscribed in two languages spanning the Shahi period when the Arabic word for justice, ''Adl'', appears on Tye #23, through the close of the Delhi Sultanate when coin Tye #451 of Muhammad III (1325-1351) included the phrase ''Sri Mahamada'' in Nagari script. In addition to the Indo-Persian title ''Spalapati'' on the earliest coins, a great number of jitals feature Indianized Arabic terms such as ''Hamira'' for the title ''Amir'', and the Indic honorific ''Sri'' rendered in Arabic and added to Arabic names and titles such as ''Sri Sultan, Sri Shah, Sri Hamira, Sri Muhamada'', etc.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India. R. Tye. pp. 164-177.</ref> While most jitals with dates issued by Muslim rulers are inscribed with lunar Hijri or [[Islamic calendar]] years, the 2-gani coins of [[Muhammad Khilji]] are notable for using solar [[Vikram Samvat]] dates in Nagari.<ref>Goron. S. & J.P. Goenka. 2002. The coins of the Indian sultanates: Covering the areas of present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 11</ref>

The fused representation of bull and horseman itself evidences ''hybridity'' as the ongoing condition of all human cultural formation in which there are no zones of cultural purity but a continuous state of borrowing and lending.<ref>Rosaldo, R. 1995. Foreword. In N. Canclini, ''Hybrid cultures: Strategies for entering and leaving modernity'' (p. xv. University of Minnesota Press.</ref> The bull has been one of the primary symbols of Brahmanical Hinduism from the earliest Vedas (c. 1500-1000 BCE), associated with the sky god [[Indra]] worshiped as the "bull with bulls," i.e. the [[Maruts]] (storm deities), and [[Rudra]], praised as "the high bull."<ref>''The Rig Veda: An anthology: One hundred and eight hymns'' / selected, translated and annotated by Wendy Doniger. (W. Doniger, Tran.). (1981). Penguin Books.</ref> The bull and the [[nandipada]] or taurine symbol of the bull's hoof print appear in the earliest punchmarked coins of the subcontinent.<ref name="Gupta, P.L. 2014">Gupta, P.L. & T. Hardaker. 2014. ''Punchmarked Coins of the Indian Subcontinent: Magadha-Mauryan Series''. IIRNS Publication. Mumbai.</ref> Seated bulls, nearly identical to those appearing on the jital are found on the coins of Harikela (c. 630-1000 CE) of India and Lichavi (c. 576-750 CE) of Nepal. The territory of contemporary Afghanistan has been associated with horses and horsemanship since antiquity when the horseman motif was the universal obverse motif of coins in the region, with continued use by the [[Indo-Scythians]] and Indo-Parthians.<ref>Tye, R. & M. Tye. 1995. Jitals: A catalog and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India. Tye. R. p. 35.</ref> It is thought that jitals facilitated the trade in horses by guilds operating between a vast expanse from Central Asia to northern India.<ref>Errington, E. (1996). R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review) [Review of R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review)]. ''Numismatic Chronicle'', 156, 394-. London: Royal Numismatic Society,1966.</ref> Regardless of the religious affiliation of the issuing authority or the language scripts used on their coins, bull and horseman coins are artifacts of a pluralism that can not be pulled apart, much less assigned to ostensibly homogeneous Hindu or Muslim periods. Mukhia (2004) has criticized both communalist and nationalist historians for placing too much emphasis on elites and too much focus on continual cultural conflicts or, alternately, on mutual accommodation, but in both cases inappropriately projecting modern political frameworks and understandings on pre-modern peoples, especially the majority population outside of the ruling classes and their administrators.<ref>Mukhia, H. 2004. ''The Mughals of India''. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 9-10.</ref>

== Identifying jital coins ==
=== Major groupings ===
Weight and visual assessment can identify basic categories of jital. There are two primary divisions. The first consists of pictorial coins, predominantly bull and horseman, but lions and elephants also appear. The second are "iconoclastic" coins issued by Muslim rulers that contain no pictorial imagery (making images of animate beings is controversial within [[Islam]]) but only script and geometric devices.<ref>Errington, E. (1996). R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review) [Review of R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review)]. ''Numismatic Chronicle'', 156, 394-. London: Royal Numismatic Society. p. 395.</ref>

MacDowall (1968) has organized the jitals of Kabul and Gandhara into three major groupings with the following characteristics:
<blockquote>
I. Silver coins with Śrī Spalapati Deva, struck between 3.1 and 3.5 gm. with a remarkably uniform content of 70 per cent gold and silver with the types in good style, and a reverse legend in cursive script which is faithfully copied but progressively misunderstood.

II. Silver coins with Śrī Sāmanta Deva, struck to a slightly lower weight standard between 2.9 and 3.3 gm. with good metal but more variety in purity ranging from 61 to 70 per cent, gold and silver. The reverse legend merely survives now as a stylized design, and other features of the types have been copied and progressively misunderstood.

III. Billon coins with Śrī Sāmanta Deva struck to a good weight standard but now merely billon with a gold and silver content of 25 to 30 per cent. There is a further sharp deterioration and progressive stylization of design.<ref name="Macdowall 1968 189–224">{{Cite journal |last=Macdowall |first=David W. |date=1968 |title=The Shahis of Kabul and Gandhara |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42666553 |journal=The Numismatic Chronicle |volume=8 |pages=189–224 |jstor=42666553 |issn=0078-2696}}</ref>
</blockquote>

Bhatia (1977) has divided the bull and horseman coins of the Ghaznavid sultans into three series:
<blockquote>
Series I - The Bull/Horseman type coins with the name Masud and Maudud inscribed in Kufic characters above the head of the reverse horse.

Series II - Bull/Arabic inscription type coins first introduced by Sultan Maudub b. Masud I (1041-50).

Series III - Bull/Horseman type anonymous issues<ref>Bhatia, P. (1977). BULL/HORSEMAN COINS OF THE SULTANS OF GHAZNA, AD 1030—1186. ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', 38, 765–773. p. 765</ref>
</blockquote>

=== Matching to catalog types ===
The exact coin is often identifiable by matching the legend and design to a cataloged coin type. Robert and Monica Tye's 1995 ''Jitals: A catalog and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North India'' includes clear illustrations, attributions and contexts for 418 jital types that numismatists can consult to match and identify coins. Other useful catalogs are Michael Mitchiner's 1977 ''Oriental coins and their values'', and Goron & Goenka's 2001 ''The coins of the Indian Sultanates'', both of which include photographic images of the coins.

A particular challenge is that the legends are often partially off flan, (beyond the edge of the coin), leading numismatists to make educated guesses based on visible parts of the legend.<ref name=":0">Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye.</ref> Francisco Palomares Bueno has brought focused attention to the minute details of nine, hard-to-differentiate jitals to further aid coin identification.<ref>Palomares Bueno, F. 2015. Learn to differentiate nine jitals. ''Revista Numismática Hécate'', 2, 125–146.</ref>

=== Dating jitals ===
Some jitals display the year of issue. Most of these show the lunar Islamic [[Islamic calendar|Hijri calendar]] denoted by numismatists as AH, for ''Anno Hegirae'', or year of the establishment of the first Muslim community, while some jitals display the solar Indian [[Saka calendar]] year.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 58.</ref> Dates may appear as numerals or, less frequently, spelled out. In addition to general guidance to reading Arabic and Persian script found on coins, Plant's ''Arabic coins & how to read them'' (2019) provides instructions for reading AH coin dates and converting them to common era calendar dates.<ref>Plant. R. 1973. ''Arabic coins & how to read them''. Spink. pp. 7-8.</ref> Tye & Tye (1995) provide a helpful chart of 14th century Indo-Muslim and 13th century Nagari numerals to assist identification, especially where Medieval subcontinental numerals differ from Arabic or Persian norms.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 178.</ref>

For an undated coin, a range of years in which it was issued may be established if the issuing authority is clearly marked and if the start and end dates of that authority's reign are known from the historical record. When clear dates or issuing authority is missing or unclear, the relative chronology of a coin can sometimes be determined from archeological coin deposits by examining such data as weight ranges, flan size, manufacturing methods, designs and other marks, metallic composition, overstrikes (especially when both old and new designs are discernible), and signs of wear relative to other coins in the find indicating relative length of circulation, etc.<ref>Gupta, P.L. & T. Hardaker. 2014. Punchmarked Coins of the Indian Subcontinent: Magadha-Mauryan Series. IIRNS Publication. Mumbai. p. 27.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dm95 |title=Numismatic Archaeology/Archaeological Numismatics |date=1997 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-900188-23-4 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvh1dm95.6|jstor=j.ctvh1dm95 }}</ref>

=== Mints ===
Tye & Tye (1995), Goron & Goenka (2001), and Mitchiner (1977) catalog listings include known (where the mint name is legibly inscribed on the coin) and likely mints where jitals were struck. Thomas (1847) provides Arabic to English transliteration of the names of mint cities inscribed on Ghanavid coins, which can further aid in their identification.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Edward |date=1847 |title=On the Coins of the Kings of Ghazní |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25207641 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=9 |pages=267–386 |jstor=25207641 |issn=0035-869X}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Visual details of bull that aid identification
|-
! Head shape !! Muzzle !! Dewlap !! Jhul (saddle cloth) !! Hump !! Rump !! Border !! Horns !! Ears !! Eyes
|-
| Rounded || Rounded || Pellet || Plain || Empty || Trishul || None || Large || None ||One
|-
| Squared || Squared || Plain || Double border || Pellet || Other symbols || Pellets || Small || Small || Two
|-
| — || Pointed || — || Numeral || — || — || — || None || — || —
|-
| — || Hooked || — || Other marks || — || — || — || — || — || —
|}

== The jital in history: The Shahi problem ==
The [[coinage of India]], dating back about 2500 years, provides material evidence of the abundance or scarcity of various metals, the names and sometimes dates and mint locations of ruling authorities, of written languages in use, of religious affiliation, the state of [[metallurgy]], systems of weight, currency systems and cultural values.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/S1380203811000146 | title=Rethinking numismatics. The archaeology of coins | date=2011 | last1=Kemmers | first1=Fleur | last2=Myrberg | first2=Nanouschka | journal=Archaeological Dialogues | volume=18 | pages=87–108 }}</ref> In the Indian subcontinent, indigenous coinage practices were interrupted by a series of invaders—Greek, Turkic, Mongol, and Persian—who variously imposed their own coinage practices, adapted to, or influenced indigenous coinage practices, establishing what can be seen as an enduring dialog in metal coin.<ref>Kalra, M. 2019. Ancient Indian Monetary Systems and Minting Techniques c. 600 BCE c. 1200 CE. In ''History of Ancient India: Volume VII: Economy, Agriculture, Crafts & Trade'' ed. Dilip Chakravarti. p. 5.</ref> Where textual sources are contradictory, incomplete or lacking, as is often the case in the early history of India, coins can be the primary or only evidence of historical facts,<ref>Gardner, P. 1966. ''The coins of the Greek and Scythic kings of Bactria and India in the British Museum''. Chicago: Argonaut. p. xvii.</ref> and numismatic conclusions may exceed confirmation of historical findings to illuminate government practices and market activities uniquely revealed by coinage.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 33.</ref> In the case of Shahi jitals, the inscriptions taken for the names of kings do not correspond to lists of kings known from literary sources. These discrepancies constitute what has been called the "Shahi problem."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bhatia |first=Pratipal |date=1973 |title=Bull/Horseman Coins of the Shahis, C. A.d. 650-1026 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44138589 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=34 |pages=50–61 |jstor=44138589 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

[[Al-Bīrūnī]]'s list (c. 1030) of the Hindu Shahi kings below bears few commonalities with names or titles on the coins. Sāmand (which could be a name but more likely a title) appears to correspond to Samanta Deva and Bhīm may correspond to Śrī Bhima Deva but the rest do not appear represented on any coins. The names Śrī Khudavayaka (likely governor of Kabul after 870)<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 36.</ref> and Śrī Vakka Deva appear on coins but not on the list. Khudavayka's coin was later copied (c. 920-95) by the Saffarid Amirs in Panjhir.<ref>Mitchiner, M. 1978. ''Oriental coins and their values: The ancient and classical world 600 B.C.‚A.D. 650''. London: Hawkins Publications. p. 245.</ref> Kalhana's 12th century ''Rājataraṅginī'' provides evidence disputing Al-Bīrūnī's list, maintaining that Kallar is a misreading of the later Kamalaku (Kamalū) and that because Samanta is not known in any other instance as a name, that this is merely a title.<ref>Kalhaṇa, 12th cent. 1900. Kalhana's ''Rājataraṅginī: A chronicle of the kings of Kaśmīr'' / Translated, with an introduction commentary, & appendices by M.A. Stein : v.1 (Vol. 1). Archibald Constable, 1900. pp. 100-101.</ref> Historians and numismatists have not been able to resolve these discrepancies.<ref name="Macdowall 1968 189–224"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|+

=== Hindu Shahi Kings ===
|-
! Name !! Known dates
|-
| Kallar || -
|-
| Sāmand || -
|-
| Kamalū || Rai of Hindustan at time of 'Amru Lais (878-90 CE)
|-
| Bhīm || Ruling in period 950-958 CE
|-
| Jaipāl || Ruling in period 964-1001 CE<ref>Shavarebi, E. & I. Strauch. 2022. The Mosque of the Forgotten City: The Bilingual Inscription of Zalamkot Revisited, ''East and West'' 62(3/2): 195-210, p. 201.</ref>
|-
|Ānandapāla || -
|-
| Tarojanapāla || Killed 1021 CE
|-
| Bhimapāla || Killed 1026 CE
|}

== Disputed duration ==
According to Cunningham (1894), the jital denomination and coin form was used for 750 years, continuing as late as the reign of Raja of [[Kangra State|Kangra]], Triloka Chandra (1420–1450), who Cunningham mistakenly claims as a contemporary of [[Jahangir]] (1605–1627).<ref>Cunningham. A. 1894. ''Coins of Medieval India: From the Seventh Century Down to the Muhammadan Conquests''. Indian Institute. pp. 55-67</ref> Other scholars report that [[Akbar]]'s ''zabt'' land revenue system was assessed in ''dāms'' and ''jitals''.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/S0035869X00051091 | title=I. Akbar's Land-Revenue System as described in the "Āin-i-Akbari" | date=1918 | last1=Moreland | first1=W. H. | last2=Ali | first2=A. Yusuf | journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland | volume=50 | pages=1–42 }}</ref> Having adopted the rupee currency system introduced by [[Sher Shah Suri|Sher Shah]] during the [[Sur Empire]] interregnum, by most accounts, Akbar did not issue jital coins, but retained the jital as an account value representing 1/25 of a copper dām and 1/1000 of a rupee.<ref>Wright, N. 1936. ''The coinage and metrology of the Sultans of Delhi incorporating a catalogue of the coins in the Author's Cabinet now in the Delhi Museum''. Government of India, Delhi. Central Secretariat Library, Government of India
Source URL: http://192.168.1.42:8080//handle/123456789/6208 p. vi.</ref><ref>''Coins of India Through the Ages''. 1953. Government Museum, Madras. p. 7.</ref> This accepted timeline is complicated by the existence of a single copper coin of Akbar's inscribed "jital" and "sanah (regnal year) 43," establishing a physical jital in 1599 which conforms to the theoretical weight of 1/25th dām.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kulkarni |first=Prashant |date=1988-01-01 |title=Jital, the thousand part of Akbar's rupee |url=https://www.academia.edu/57503604 |journal=Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society |issue=115 |pages=5–6}}</ref> Sher Shah's copper ''[[paisa]]'' was a direct representative of the billon jital but Akbar did not adopt this denomination from Sher Shah's rupee currency system.<ref>Wright, N. 1936. ''The coinage and metrology of the Sultans of Delhi incorporating a catalogue of the coins in the Author's Cabinet now in the Delhi Museum''. Government of India, Delhi. Central Secretariat Library, Government of India Source URL: http://192.168.1.42:8080//handle/123456789/6208 p. 384.</ref> Tye & Tye published a catalog and account of Jital coins in 1995 which documents the latest jitals as those of Mahmud of Jaunpur 1440–1457 CE.<ref name=":0"/> By this reckoning the jital as a coin was in use about 600 years. Accepting the single copper jital of 1599 and the continued use of the jital as a notional value in the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period extends the span of jital use to approximately 850 years.

== Purchasing power of the jital==
More research into markets and currency policy is needed to determine the purchasing power of the jital in epochs prior to that of the Delhi sultanate.<ref>Bhatia, P. (1977). BULL/HORSEMAN COINS OF THE SULTANS OF GHAZNA, AD 1030—1186. ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', 38, 765–773. p. 772</ref>

Iltutmish (1192–1236), the founder of the Delhi Sultanate, had been sold into slavery as a boy and later purchased by Ghorid general [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]] (himself the slave of [[Muhammad Ghori]]) for 100,000 jitals. This offer was accepted two years after slave dealers had refused an offer of 1,000 gold coins for Iltutmish.<ref>Ray, A. (2019). ''The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, economy, society and culture'' / Aniruddha Roy. (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 58.</ref>

Delhi Sultan [[Alauddin Khalji]] (1296–1316) regulated the prices of staple foods and essential commodities to prevent famine, discourage stockpiling, increase tax revenue, eliminate bribery, and insure that his military personnel were paid on time and could afford to live on their salaries. Battles could be lost if any part of the imperial workforce walked off the job for non-payment.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1177/0971945820961695 | title=War and the Non-Elite: Towards a People's History of the Mughal Empire | date=2022 | last1=Nath | first1=Pratyay | journal=The Medieval History Journal | volume=25 | pages=127–158 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.26555/ijish.v6i2.9260 | title=The Islamic economic policy: Some historical accounts on economic policies in the moslem world | date=2023 | last1=Karim | first1=Muhammad Abdul | journal=International Journal of Islamic Studies and Humanities | volume=6 | issue=2 | pages=87–99 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The salary of a calvaryman with his own horse was 235 tankas per year or 19 1/2 tankas per month (936 jitals).<ref>Lal, K. S. 1949. The salary of a soldier in the days of‘Alāuddin Khalji (1296-1316 A.D.). ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 12'', 176–178. pp. 177-178.</ref> The Delhi market prices during this period of economic and political stability appear below:<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Thind |first=Sona |url=https://archive.org/details/shdgnga.the-agrarian-system-under-the-delhi-sultanate-1206-to-1555-a-d |title=The Agrarian System Under the Delhi Sultanate 1206 to 1555 a d |date=2003-12-31 |publisher=Panjab University |language=English}}</ref><ref>Ray, A. (2019). ''The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) : polity, economy, society and culture'' / Aniruddha Roy. (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 118.</ref> For further background see [[Market reforms of Alauddin Khalji]]. At this time, 1 ''seer'' was 24 ''tolas'' in weight (1.25 kg/2.8 lbs), and 40 seers made one ''maund''.<ref>Ray, A. (2019). ''The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) : polity, economy, society and culture'' / Aniruddha Roy. (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 117.</ref>
[[File:Alauddin Khalji.png|thumb|right|[[Delhi Sultanate]]. [[Alauddin Khalji]] 1314 CE. Obverse: ''as-sultan al-a/'zam 'Ala ud-du/niya wa ud-din.'' Reverse: ''abu'l-muzaffar/Muhammad shah/as-sultan 714'' [AH year]. Silver 3.62 gm. 16 mm. Tye #418.]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Delhi market prices c. 1300
|-
! Commodity !! Weight !! Price
|-
| Sugar candy || 1 ''[[Seer (unit)|seer]]'' || 2 jitals
|-
| Raw sugar (gur) || 1 ''seer'' || .5 jital
|-
| Lamp oil || 3 ''seers'' || 1 jital
|-
| Ghee || 1 ''seer'' || .5 jital
|-
| Salt || 5 ''seers'' || 1 jital
|-
| Onions & garlic || 1 ''seer'' || 1 jital
|-
| Barley || per ''maund'' || 4 jitals
|-
| Wheat || per ''maund'' || 7 jitals
|-
| Rice || per ''maund'' || 5 jitals
|-
| Lentils || per ''maund'' || 5 jitals
|}

During the [[Tughluq dynasty]] (1320–1413), seven varieties of grapes were grown in Delhi that sold for 1 jital per ''[[Seer (unit)|seer]]'' (c. 25 lbs/11.34 kg).<ref name=":1" /> During the reign of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (1325–1351), prices rose considerably due to drought, famine, mismanagement and constant rebellion.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Muhammad bin Tughluq.png|thumb|right|[[Delhi Sultanate]]. [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] 1327. Obverse: ''as-sultan/al-‘adil''. Reverse: ''bin/Muhammad/ Tughluqshah 727'' [AH year]. Billon 3.7 grams. 41% silver. 14.5 mm diameter. Tye 441]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Delhi market prices c. 1350
|-
! Commodity !! Weight !! Price
|-
| Sugar candy || 4 ''seers'' || 8 jitals
|-
| Sugar || 5 ''seers'' || 8 jital
|-
| Barley || per ''[[Maund (unit)|maund]]'' || 8 jitals
|-
| Wheat || per ''maund'' || 12 jitals
|-
| Rice || per ''maund'' || 14 jitals
|}

== Changing metal, coin weight and weight systems in political context ==
[[File:Madana Pala Jital.png|thumb|left|[[Tomaras of Delhi]]. Madana Pala 1144-66. O: Bull, ''Śrī Samanta Deva''. R. Horseman, ''Śrī Madana Pala''. Billon 3.4 gm. 15 mm. Mint: (Delhi). Tye #45.]]
[[File:Khusraw Malik.png|thumb|left|[[Ghaznavid]]. [[Khusrau Malik]] 1160-86. Obv: Crescent above ''Khusrau Malik'', enclosed in circle and round pellets. Rev. ''as-sultan/al-a’zam/Suraj/ud-daulah''. Billon 3.3 grams. 15 mm diam. Mint: (Lahore). Tye 120.3]]
[[File:Muhammad bin Sam 2.png|thumb|left|[[Ghurid]]s of Ghor. Mohammad bin Sam 1173-1206. Obv: Bull with [[trishula]], ''Śrī MaHaMaDa SaMe'' above. Rev: Horseman, ''Śrī Hamira'' (Sanskritized Arabic title, "Amir"). Leaded copper (apparent from whitish color) 3.54 grams. 16 mm. Mint: (Delhi). Tye #185.]]
[[File:Ala al-din Muhammad Jital.png|thumb|left|[[Khwarezmshah]]. Ala al-din Muhammad 1200-20. Obv. ''Kurzuwan'' [within circle]. ''al-sultan ‘al-a’zam Muhammad bin al-sultan'' Rev. ''Allah/la ilah illa Allah/Muhammad rasul/al-Nasir.'' Billon 2.09 gm. 12 mm. Mint: Kurzuwan. Tye #246.]]
[[File:Ghorid Jital.png|thumb|left|[[Ghurid]]s of Ghor. Mahmud 1206-10. Obv: Elephant with rider bearing mace encircled by pellets. Rev: ''as-sultan/al-a’zam Ghiyath/ud-duniya wa ud-din/abu’l fath Mahmud/bin Muhammad.'' Copper 2.78 gm. 14 mm. Mint: (Shafurqan?) Tye #148.1]]
[[File:Malaya Varma.png|thumb|left|Rajahs of [[Narwar]]. Malaya Varma Deva. 1223-33. Obv: Horseman. Rev: ''Sri Man-ma/laya Vamma/Deva'' [date]. Billon. 3.5 gm. Mint: (Narwar). Tye #56.]]
[[File:Qarlugh.png|thumb|left|[[Qarlughids|Qarlugh]] of Sindh. Nasir ud-Din Muhammad bin Hasan Qarlugh. Post 1249. Obv: Horse. ''Nasir ud-duniya wa ud-din''. Rev: [Nagari] ''Sri Maha/mada Ka/raluka''. Billon. 3.5 gm. Tye #347.]]
[[File:Jalal-ud-din Firuz II.jpg|thumb|left|Delhi Sultanate. [[Jalal-ud-Din Khalji|Jalal-ud-din Firuz II]] (1290-96). Obv. ''Feroz Shah'' [Nagari] ''Srih Sulata Jalaudi''. Rev: ''as-sultan al-a/'zam Jalal ud-du/niya wa ud-di''n. Billon 3.65 gm. 16 mm. Tye #414. ]]
[[File:Qutb Ud Din Mubarak.png|thumb|left|Delhi Sultanate. [[Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah]] 1318 (CE). O: ''Qutb al Duniya wa'l Din'' ''Abul, Muzaffar, Khalifah, Allah'' R: ''Mubarak Shah al Sultan ibn al Sultan 718'' (AH). Billon 3.57 gm. 15x15 mm. Tye #422.2.]]
[[File:Giyath ud-din Tughluq.png|thumb|left|Delhi Sultanate. [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq]] 1320-25. O: ''Al-Sultan-ul-Ghazi Ghiyath ud-Dunya Wal Deen''. R: ''Abul Muzaffar Tughluq Shah al Sultan''. Billon 3.48 gm. 16 mm. Tye #437.]]
[[Kushano-Sasanian]] coin types struck to Persian weight standards dominated Medieval Indian circulation after the fall of the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 6th century. The ancient Hindu weight system, dating to [[Mohenjo Daro]], was based on the ''ratti'', the poisonous bright red seed of ''[[Abrus precatorius]]''. This weight system appears to have become extinct, at least with respect to coinage. After Kallar founded the [[Hindu Shahi]] dynasty (c. 843) in present day Afghanistan with Muslim caliphs at the border, the jital appears to have resurrected the ancient weight system at 3.4 grams, the same weight last used as the Mauryan ''dharana'' of a thousand years earlier as the weight of the silver punchmarked ''[[Karshapana]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tye |first=Robert |title=Coins, Weights and the Arthashastra |url=https://www.academia.edu/58328743 |journal=Academia}}</ref><ref name="Gupta, P.L. 2014"/> Errington finds it far-fetched that the Shahi brought back the weight system of the karshapana after a thousand years but if 100 ratti seeds (11 grams) had continued to be used as the weight standard for any commodity, a third of that unit, or 3.333 grams, is the most reasonable basis for the standard weight of the jital.<ref>Errington, E. (1996). R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review) [Review of R. and M. TYE, “Jitals” (Book Review)]. Numismatic Chronicle, 156, 394-. London: Royal Numismatic Society.</ref>

The early Shahi bull-and-horseman jitals have a consistent weight and high silver content over hundreds of years demonstrating a sound economy and stable political power.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bhatia |first=Pratipal |date=1973 |title=Bull/Horseman Coins of the Shahis, C. A.d. 650-1026 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44138589 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=34 |pages=50–61 |jstor=44138589 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> By about 1000 CE, the Shahi had lost some of their territory and silver mines and bull-and-horseman jitals had fallen in weight to about 3.2 grams.<ref name=":2"/> Decreased silver content is often attributed to shortages of bullion but other evidence suggests hoarding by elites motivated by short sighted greed or deliberate attempts to manipulate the economy as likely explanations.<ref name="Tye, R. 1995. p. 42">Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 42.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Aniruddha |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781000000467 |title=The Sultanate of Delhi (1206–1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture |date=2019-03-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-27746-7 |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780429277467}}</ref> Goron (2001) speculates that during the Delhi Sultanate, silver bullion was kept in the treasury while billon, and to a lesser extent copper, were predominantly used in circulating coins.<ref name="Goron. S. 2002. p. 10"/> In the 12th century, the [[Ghaznavid]] mint at Lahore and the [[Tomaras]] mint in Delhi dominated jital production. The Hindu Delhi Rajas, under nine different authorities from two ruling houses (Tomaras, then [[Chauhan dynasty|Chauhan]]) preserved highly consistent weight, metal content and design types. In contrast, the Ghaznavids, an occupying colonial power from 962-1186, debased its coinage dramatically eventually resulting in "black billon" coins.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 39.</ref><ref>Mitchiner, M. 1977. ''Oriental coins and their values: The world of Islam''. London: Hawkins Publications. p. 128.</ref>

The coin weight standard of the Shahi with minor variance would persist, despite haituses, another 400 years into the colonial period of British rule. The incursion of Mongol armies in the early 13th century impacted coin weight systems. Coins struck by the [[Khwarezmian Empire]] under Ala-ud-din Muhammad, (1200-1220 CE) and the jitals issued by [[Genghis Khan]] appear based on the ''[[mithqal]]'', the Persian standard silver weight unit of 4.32 grams.<ref name=":2" /> A hoard of mostly Mongol jitals showed no standard weight, ranging from 2.6 to 6.2 grams.<ref>Younis, M. 2018. Jital Hoard [With a die study]. ''Journal of Islamic Numismatics Center, Egypt'', 1:27-41. p. 36.</ref> Tye suggests that variable coin weight may have been a deliberate strategy to destabilize markets to reduce peasants to subsistence levels, pushing them into serfdom. Elites could still make large payments in coin by weighing them, using scales, an option unavailable to peasants making small purchases, driving them into the hands of middlemen.<ref name="Tye, R. 1995. p. 42"/> The coins issued after the [[Ghaznavid]] period by the [[Ghorid]]s, [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]], and the [[Khwarezm]] Shahs are noted for their "horrible alloy" and high lead content (note coloration of Muhammad bin Sam jital at left).<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye. p. 47.</ref> When the [[Ghorid]] armies captured Delhi and Bengal at the end of the 12th century, they established the silver ''tanka'' weighing about 10.5 grams. Versions of the bull-and-horseman jitals continued to be issued as subsidiary coinage, having been increased in weight to about one-third of the tanka at 3.6 grams. The dueling Hindu and Muslim weight systems, the use of ''billon'' (alloy) with varying degrees of silver content, copper, or crude base metal, and attempts to manipulate economic behavior produced shifting metal content, weight and value of the jital for much of its circulating life.<ref>Tye, R. 2022. ''Coin Weight and Historical Metrology'' (Third Revision). https://independent.academia.edu/RobertTye/Books</ref>

The [[Sultanate of Delhi]] brought a degree of stability with its tri-metallic currency system and a long lasting silver to gold coin ratio of 10:1. [[Iltutmish]] established the jital as a billon coin containing 3.90 grains or 2 ''rattis'' of silver. The tanka was one ''tola'', then 96 grains of silver, which, divided by 2, was made up of 48 jitals. [[Balban]]'s billon tankas contained 4.5 grains of silver and were worth two jitals. Balban introduced bilingual billon coins, a practice continued by his successors. He also issued 40 ''ratti'' pure copper coins, four of which made up a jital. [[Kaikobad]] issued a billon coin containing 8 grains of silver worth 3 jitals. [[Alauddin Khalji]] issued large numbers of gold and silver coins subsequent to his annexation of the Deccan including jitals of 25% silver. [[Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah]] issued square coins of varying silver content. [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq]] discontinued the bilingual coins in 1321. [[Muhammad Tughlaq]] issued billon jitals with the same silver content as those of Alauddin Khalji. He subsequently issued a billon coin containing 22.71 grains of silver that was the equivalent of an 8 jital coin known as ''hashtagani''. In 1326 Muhammad Tughluq issued an 80 ''ratti'' billon ''tanka'' containing 44.78 grains silver and worth 16 jitals. According to Afif in his book ''Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi'' (1357), [[Firuz Shah Tughluq]] issued silver ''tankas'' of various denominations equivalent to 48 jitals, 25 jitals, 24 jitals, 12 jitals, 10 jitals, 8 jitals, 6 jitals and
1 jital.<ref>Ray, A. (2019). The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526) : polity, economy, society and culture / Aniruddha Roy. (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 424-426.</ref>

The currency became stabilized in an enduring way when [[Sher Shah Suri]] abolished the use of mixed metals and introduced the rupee of 100 rattis (11.40 grams) of 96% pure silver.<ref name="In Search of Stability">{{cite book | doi=10.4324/9781315276816 | title=In Search of Stability | date=2016 | last1=Sivramkrishna | first1=Sashi | isbn=978-1-351-99749-2 }}</ref> Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]] further systematized weights and currency as below.<ref>Kulkarni, P. 1988. Jital, the thousanth part of Akbar's rupee. ''Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter'' No. 115: 5-6. https://www.academia.edu/57503604/Jital_the_thousand_part_of_Akbars_rupee_Journal_of_the_Oriental_Numismatic_Society_No_115_1988_pp_5_6</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Akbar's currency and weight system
|-
! Denomination !! Metal !! Value !! Weight
|-
| Jital || Copper (single example) || 1/25th dām / 1/1000 rupee || .838 grams
|-
| Damri || Copper || 1/8th dām || 2.62 grams
|-
| [[dam (Indian coin)|Dam]] || Copper || 1/40th rupee || 1.8 [[Tola (unit)|tola]] / 20.96 grams
|-
| [[Indian Rupee|Rupee]] || Silver || 40 dām || 176 grains troy silver / 1 [[Tola (unit)|tola]] / 11.66 grams
|-
| [[Mohur]] || Gold || 9-10 rupiya || 170-175 grains
|}

The purchasing power of the rupee was equal to the price of silver in the bullion market and the rupee was the only legal tender and money of account by which all other prices were expressed. Thus while the rupee was a fixed value, its purchasing power fluctuated. The chart above indicates the approximate value of other denominations relative to the rupee but there was no fixed rate of exchange.<ref name="In Search of Stability"/> The dām and rupee coins were also used as weights. The 11.66 gram [[Tola (unit)|tola]] persisted as a unit of mass, eventually adopted as standard under British rule, and while replaced by metric units in 1956, is still in current use in bullion markets and in the measurement of ''[[charas]]'' (hashish).<ref>Nath, R. 2005. ''The private life of the Mughals of India''. Namdhari eLibrary. https://archive.org/details/private-life-of-the-mughals-of-india/page/n97/mode/2up?q=jital p. 97</ref>

== Jital-issuing authorities ==
The following list of issuers and catalog numbers is based on Robert and Monica Tye's 1995 ''Jitals: A catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''.<ref>Tye, R., & Tye, M. 1995. ''Jitals: a catalogue and account of the coin denomination of daily use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India''. R. Tye</ref> The list is supplemented with additional jitals from later catalogues including Steven Album's ''Checklist of Islamic Coins'' (2011)<ref>Album, S. 2011. ''Checklist of Islamic Coins''. Third Edition. {{ISBN|978-0-615-56244-5}}</ref> and Michael Mitchiner's ''The coinage and history of southern India: Part 1 Karnataka - Andra'' (1998).<ref>Mitchiner, M. 1998. ''The coinage and history of southern India: Part 1 Karnataka - Andra''. Hawkins Publications. 0904173224</ref> The respective catalog number prefixes are Tye, AI and MSI.

{| class="wikitable"
|+

=== Jital-issuing authorities and coin types ===
|-
! Issuing Authority !! Era !! Catalog numbers
|-
| [[Hindu Shahis|Shahis]] || 750-1000 CE || Tye: 1-21
|-
| Islamic, Anonymous and Minor dynasties || 900-1200 || Tye: 21–40
|-
| Budaon ([[Pala empire]]) || late 12th century || Tye: 41
|-
| Delhi Rajas || late 12th century || Tye: 42–54
|-
| [[Narwar]] Rajas || late 12th century || Tye: 56–69
|-
| [[Kangra State|Kangra]] Rajas || after 1250 || Tye: 61–81
|-
| [[Ghaznavid]]s || late 10th through 13th centuries || Tye: 83–122
|-
| [[Ghorids]] of [[Ghor]] || mid-12th to early 13th century || Tye: 130–151
|-
| [[Ghorids]] of [[Bamiyan]] || mid-12th to early 13th century || Tye: 152–172
|-
| [[Ghorids]] of [[Ghazna]] || mid-12th to early 13th century || Tye: 173–192
|-
| [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]] || 13th century || Tye: 193–204
|-
| Qubacha ([[Emirate of Multan]]) || 13th century || Tye: 205–206
|-
| [[Khwarazmshah]] || mid-12th to early 13th century || Tye: 206–323
|-
| [[Saffarids]] || 12th century || Tye: 123–129, AI: 1425–1431
|-
| [[Ilkhan]] || late 13th century || Tye: 129e1
|-
| [[Mihrabanids]] || 13th century || Tye: 129e2, AI: B2358
|-
| [[Mongols]] || 13th century || Tye: 327–343, AI: F1986, 1978F, 19780, 1978E.2
|-
| [[Tomaras of Delhi]] || 12th century || Tye: 42–46
|-
| Malik of Kurzuwan || 1221<ref>Jital - temp. Malik of Kurzuwan Mongol Siege Issue. ''Numista'' https://en.numista.com/catalogue/pieces70781.html.</ref> || Tye: 324
|-
| [[Chauhan dynasty]] || 10th to 12th centuries || Tye: 49–52
|-
| [[Qarlughids]] || 13th century || Tye: 344–352, AI: 1819
|-
| Early Delhi sultans || 12th century || Tye: 364–374
|-
| [[Delhi Sultanate]] || 13th and 14th centuries || Tye: 375–454
|-
| [[Madurai Sultanate]] || 14th century || Tye: 455–475
|-
| Gulbarga Sultanate (modern [[Kalaburagi]], [[Karnataka]]) || 14th century || Tye: 476–477
|-
| [[Vijayanagara Empire]] || 15th century || MSI: 606, 607, 637
|-
| [[Malwa Sultanate]] || 15th century || Tye: 480
|-
| [[Jaunpur Sultanate]] || 15th century || Tye: 481
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Coins of India]]
[[Category:Medieval currencies]]
[[Category:Currencies of India]]
[[Category:Horses on coins]]
[[Category:Cattle on coins]]

Akshay Venkatesh

2026-03-27T13:44:55Z

KarmaConyers: fixed issues

{{Short description|Australian mathematician (born 1981)}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Akshay Venkatesh
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|size=100}}
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Venkatesh in 2014
| image = Akshay Venkatesh 2014.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1981}}
| birth_place = [[New Delhi]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| fields = Mathematics
| workplaces = [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (2005–2006, 2018–present) [[Stanford University]] (2008–2018) [[Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences]] (2006–2008)
| alma_mater = [[Princeton University]] [[University of Western Australia]]
| doctoral_advisor = [[Peter Sarnak]]
| doctoral_students =
| spouse = Sarah Paden
| known_for =Mathematical work, former [[child prodigy]]
| awards = [[Salem Prize]] (2007) [[SASTRA Ramanujan Prize]] (2008) [[Infosys Prize]] (2016) [[Ostrowski Prize]] (2017) [[Fields Medal]] (2018)
}}

'''Akshay Venkatesh''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS}} (born 1981) is an Australian [[mathematician]] and a professor (since 15 August 2018) at the School of Mathematics at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], Princeton.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ias.edu/scholars/venkatesh|title=Akshay Venkatesh|website=Institute for Advanced Study|language=en|access-date=2019-08-07}}</ref> His research interests are in the fields of [[counting]], [[equidistribution]] problems in [[automorphic form]]s and [[number theory]], in particular [[representation theory]], [[locally symmetric space]]s, [[ergodic theory]], and [[algebraic topology]].

He was the first Australian to have won medals at both the [[International Physics Olympiad]] and [[International Mathematical Olympiad]], which he did at the age of 12. In 2018, he was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] for his synthesis of [[analytic number theory]], [[Ergodic theory|homogeneous dynamics]], [[topology]], and [[representation theory]]. He is the second Australian and the second person of Indian descent to win the Fields Medal. He was on the Mathematical Sciences jury for the [[Infosys Prize]] in 2020.

== Early life and education ==
Akshay Venkatesh was born in [[New Delhi]], India, in 1981<ref>{{cite web |title=Akshay Venkatesh |url=https://www.infosysprize.org/laureates/2016/akshay-venkatesh.html |website=[[Infosys Prize]] |publisher=[[Infosys Science Foundation]] |access-date=7 March 2026}}</ref> His family emigrated to [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] in [[Western Australia]] when he was two years old. He attended [[Scotch College, Perth|Scotch College]]. His mother, [[Svetha Venkatesh|Svetha]], is a [[computer science]] professor at [[Deakin University]]. A [[child prodigy]], Akshay attended extracurricular training classes for gifted students in the state mathematical olympiad program,<ref>{{cite web|first = Phill|last = Schultz|title = My Automathography – 30 Years at UWA|url = http://staffhome.ecm.uwa.edu.au/~00003428/memoirs.html|date = 24 January 2005|access-date = 4 August 2018|publisher = [[University of Western Australia]]|archive-date = 24 March 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150324013335/http://staffhome.ecm.uwa.edu.au/~00003428/memoirs.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> and in 1993, whilst aged only 11, he competed at the 24th [[International Physics Olympiad]] in [[Williamsburg, Virginia]], winning a bronze medal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yalcineli.com/yeni_sayfa_15.htm |title=XXIV International Physics Olympiad Williamsburg |year=1993 |access-date=7 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205013210/http://www.yalcineli.com/yeni_sayfa_15.htm |archive-date=5 February 2012 }}</ref> The following year, he switched his attention to mathematics and, after placing second in the [[Australian Mathematical Olympiad]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amt.edu.au/amo1994.html|title=Highest AMO scorers, 1994|publisher=Australian Mathematics Trust|access-date=7 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324184829/http://www.amt.edu.au/amo1994.html|archive-date=24 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> he won a silver medal in the 6th [[Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amt.edu.au/apmo1994.html|title=Results of 6th Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad 1994|publisher=Australian Mathematics Trust|access-date=7 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429112914/http://www.amt.edu.au/apmo1994.html|archive-date=29 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> before winning a bronze medal at the 1994 [[International Mathematical Olympiad]] held in Hong Kong.<ref name = AustralianIMOteams>{{cite web|url = http://www.amt.edu.au/mathematics/australias-imo-results/former-imo-olympians/|title = Former IMO Olympians|year = 2017|access-date = 4 August 2018|publisher = [[Australian Mathematics Trust]]|website = amt.edu.au|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181213135147/http://www.amt.edu.au/mathematics/australias-imo-results/former-imo-olympians/|archive-date = 13 December 2018|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.news.uwa.edu.au/201107153742/awards-and-prizes/maths-boy-wonder-shows-how-stack-oranges|title=Maths boy wonder shows how to stack oranges|publisher=[[University of Western Australia]]|date=15 July 2011|access-date=4 August 2018|first=Janine|last=MacDonald|archive-date=4 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004105724/http://www.news.uwa.edu.au/201107153742/awards-and-prizes/maths-boy-wonder-shows-how-stack-oranges|url-status=dead}}</ref>

He also completed his secondary education 1994, turning 13 before entering the [[University of Western Australia]] as its youngest ever student. Venkatesh completed the four-year course in three years and became, at 16, the youngest person to earn [[First Class Honours]] in [[pure mathematics]] from the university.<ref name = AustralianIMOteams /> He was awarded the J. A. Woods Memorial Prize as the most outstanding graduate of the year from the Faculties of Science, Engineering, Dentistry, or Medical Science.<ref>{{cite web|publisher = [[University of Western Australia]]|title = Conditions – J. A. Wood Memorial Prizes [F1495-03]|url = http://apps.weboffice.uwa.edu.au/prizes-app/file/Conditions%20-%20J%20A%20Wood%20Memorial%20Prizes.RTF|access-date = 4 August 2018|date = 3 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title = UWA maths prodigy wins international award|date = 2 August 2018|access-date = 4 August 2018|first = David|last = Stacey|url = http://www.news.uwa.edu.au/2018080210831/uwa-maths-prodigy-wins-international-award|publisher = [[University of Western Australia]]|archive-date = 4 August 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180804200951/http://www.news.uwa.edu.au/2018080210831/uwa-maths-prodigy-wins-international-award|url-status = dead}}</ref> While at UWA he was also one of the founding members of the Honours Cricket Association.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maths.uwa.edu.au/~marty/HCA/cricket.html|title=Honours Cricket Association|publisher=Honours Cricket Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021213040145/http://www.maths.uwa.edu.au/~marty/HCA/cricket.html|access-date=22 August 2019|archive-date=13 December 2002}}</ref>

Venkatesh commenced his PhD at [[Princeton University]] in 1998 under [[Peter Sarnak]], which he completed in 2002,<ref name = CMI>{{cite web|url=http://www.claymath.org/people/akshay-venkatesh|title=Akshay Venkatesh|website=claymath.org|access-date=4 August 2018|date=2 August 2018|publisher=[[Clay Mathematics Institute]]}}</ref> producing the thesis "Limiting forms of the trace formula". He was supported by the Hackett Fellowship for postgraduate study.{{cn|date=March 2026}}

== Career ==
After completing his PhD, Venkatesh was awarded a postdoctoral position at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], where he served as a [[C.L.E. Moore instructor]]. He then held a Clay Research Fellowship from the [[Clay Mathematics Institute]] from 2004 to 2006,<ref name = CMI /> and was an associate professor at the [[Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences]] at [[New York University]].<ref name = IASprofile /><ref>{{cite web|title=Akshay Venkatesh – Research Interests|access-date=4 August 2018|url=http://math.stanford.edu/~akshay/research/research.html|publisher=[[Stanford University]]|website=math.stanford.edu}}</ref> He was a member of the School of Mathematics at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (IAS) from 2005 to 2006. He became a [[full professor]] at [[Stanford University]] on 1 September 2008.<ref name = IASprofile/>

After serving as distinguished visiting professor at the IAS in 2017–2018,<ref name = IASprofile>{{cite web|url=https://www.ias.edu/scholars/venkatesh|title=Akshay Venkatesh|publisher=[[Institute for Advanced Study]]|access-date=4 August 2018|year = 2018}}</ref> he became a permanent faculty member of IAS in August 2018.<ref name = IASPressRelease>{{cite press release|url=https://www.ias.edu/press-releases/2018/venkatesh|title=Mathematician Akshay Venkatesh Appointed to the Faculty of the Institute for Advanced Study|publisher=[[Institute for Advanced Study]]|access-date=6 August 2018|year = 2018}}</ref>

== Recognition and awards==
Venkatesh was awarded the [[Salem Prize]], given to a "young mathematician judged to have done outstanding work in [[Raphaël Salem|Salem's]] field of interest—the theory of [[Fourier series]]"<ref>{{cite press release|publisher = [[New York University]]|url = http://www.nyu.edu/about/news-publications/news/2007/08/22/nyus_venkatesh_25_wins.html|title = NYU's Venkatesh, 25, Wins Prize Given to Young Mathematicians for Work in Field of Analysis|date = 22 August 2007|access-date = 4 August 2018}}</ref> and the Packard Fellowship in 2007. In 2008, he received the US$10,000 [[SASTRA Ramanujan Prize]], given for "outstanding contributions to areas of mathematics influenced by the great Indian mathematician, [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]]" and "only awarded to those under the age of thirty-two (the age of Ramanujan at his time of death)."<ref name = AustralianIMOteams /><ref name = AMSRamanujan /> The prize was presented at the International Conference on Number Theory and Modular Forms, held at [[SASTRA University]] in [[Kumbakonam]], Ramanujan's hometown.<ref name = AMSRamanujan>{{cite journal|url=https://www.ams.org/notices/200901/tx090100056p.pdf|title=Venkatesh Awarded 2008 SASTRA Ramanujan Prize|journal=[[Notices of the AMS]]|date=January 2009|volume=56|issue=1|page=56}}</ref> In 2010, he was an [[list of International Congresses of Mathematicians Plenary and Invited Speakers|invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians]] (Hyderabad) and spoke on the topic "Number Theory and Lie Theory and Generalisations."<ref>{{cite web|publisher = [[International Mathematical Union]]|date = 11 June 2016|title = ICM Plenary and Invited Speakers since 1897|url = http://www.mathunion.org/db/ICM/Speakers/SortedByLastname.php|website = mathunion.org|access-date = 16 May 2016|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611042058/http://www.mathunion.org/db/ICM/Speakers/SortedByLastname.php|archive-date = 11 June 2016}}</ref> For his exceptionally wide-ranging, foundational and creative contributions to modern number theory, Venkatesh was awarded the [[Infosys Prize]] in Mathematical Sciences<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.infosys-science-foundation.com/prize/laureates/2016/akshay-venkatesh.asp|title=Infosys Prize – Laureates 2016 – Prof. Akshay Venkatesh|website=www.infosys-science-foundation.com|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref> in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Infosys Prize - Jury 2020|url=http://www.infosys-science-foundation.com/prize/jury/jury-2020.asp|access-date=2020-12-10|website=www.infosys-science-foundation.com}}</ref> In 2017 he received the [[Ostrowski Prize]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ostrowski.ch/pdf/preis2017.pdf|title=Citation for Akshay Venkatesh|website=ostrowski.ch|publisher=[[Ostrowski Foundation]]|access-date=4 August 2018|year=2017}}</ref> which is awarded every two years for "outstanding achievements in pure mathematics and in the foundations of numerical mathematics."<ref>{{cite web|title = Foundation A. M. Ostrowski for an international prize in higher mathematics|publisher = [[Ostrowski Foundation]]|website = Ostrowski.ch|access-date = 4 August 2018|url = https://ostrowski.ch/index_e.php?ifile=home|year = 2018}}</ref>

In 2018, he was awarded the [[Fields Medal]],<ref name = FieldsMedalIMU>{{cite web|url = https://www.mathunion.org/imu-awards/fields-medal/fields-medals-2018|publisher = [[International Mathematical Union]]|title = Fields Medals 2018|date = 2018|access-date = 4 August 2018|website = mathunion.org}}</ref><ref name="abc care">{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-01/fields-medals-to-be-awarded-to-best-mathematical-minds/10049510 |title=Maths hands out its 'Nobel Prize' to an Australian – here's why you should care |first=Daniel |last=Keane |date=2 August 2018 |work=ABC News |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> commonly described as the Nobel Prize of mathematics,<ref name = NobelPrizeofMaths /> becoming the second Australian (after [[Terence Tao]])<ref name = GuardianFieldsMedal /> and the second person of Indian descent (after [[Manjul Bhargava]])<ref name = IndiaTVNews>{{cite news|title = Indian-origin mathematician Akshay Venkatesh maths 'Nobel' Fields Medal|url = https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/world-indian-origin-mathematician-akshay-venkatesh-maths-nobel-fields-medal-455918|date = 2 August 2018|access-date = 4 August 2018|publisher = [[India TV|India TV News]]}}</ref> to be so honoured. The short citation for the medal declared that Venkatesh was being honoured for "his synthesis of analytic number theory, homogeneous dynamics, topology, and representation theory, which has resolved long-standing problems in areas such as the equidistribution of arithmetic objects."<ref name = FieldsMedalLongCitation>{{cite web|title = Venkatesh Short and Long Citation|url = https://www.mathunion.org/fileadmin/IMU/Prizes/Fields/2018/Venkatesh-Citation.pdf|publisher = [[International Mathematical Union]]|date = 2018|access-date = 4 August 2018|website = mathunion.org}}</ref> [[University of Western Australia]] Professor Michael Giudici said of his former classmate's work that "[i]f it was easy for me to explain, then he wouldn't have received the Fields Medal".<ref name = NobelPrizeofMaths>{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-02/fields-medal-aussie-genius-akshay-venkatesh-mathematics-prize/10062218 |title=Fields Medal: Aussie genius Akshay Venkatesh wins 'Nobel Prize of mathematics' |first=Michael |last=Slezak |date=2 August 2018 |work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |access-date=4 August 2018}}</ref> Australian mathematician and media personality [[Adam Spencer]] said that "[t]his century will be built by mathematicians, whether it's computer coding, algorithms, machine learning, artificial intelligence, app design and the like" and that "we should acknowledge the magnificence of the mathematical mind."<ref name="abc care"/> Director of the [[Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute]] Professor Geoff Prince said "Akshay is an exciting and innovative leader in his field whose work will continue to have wide-ranging implications for mathematics" and a worthy recipient of the Fields medal "given his contribution to improving mathematicians' understanding of analytic number theory, algebraic number theory, and representation theory".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/aussie-akshay-venkatesh-wins-the-nobel-prize-of-mathematics |title=Aussie Akshay Venkatesh wins 'the Nobel Prize of mathematics' |date=2 August 2018 |agency=AAP |work=[[SBS News]] |access-date=4 August 2018}}</ref>

The long citation for his Fields Medal describes Venkatesh as having "made profound contributions to an exceptionally broad range of subjects in mathematics" and recognises that he "solved many longstanding problems by combining methods from seemingly unrelated areas, presented novel viewpoints on classical problems, and produced strikingly far-reaching conjectures."<ref name = FieldsMedalLongCitation /><ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.science.org.au/news-and-events/news-and-media-releases/australian-mathematician-wins-fields-medal |title=Australian mathematician wins Fields Medal |date=3 August 2018 |publisher=[[Australian Academy of Science]] |access-date=4 August 2018| website = science.org.au}}</ref> Venkatesh's "use of dynamics theory, which studies the equations of moving objects to solve problems in number theory, which is the study of whole numbers, integers and prime numbers" was recognised in the award.<ref name = GuardianFieldsMedal /> "His work uses representation theory, which represents abstract algebra in terms of more easily-understood linear algebra, and topology theory, which studies the properties of structures that are deformed through stretching or twisting, like a Möbius strip."<ref name = GuardianFieldsMedal /> He described his work in 2016 as "looking for new patterns in the arithmetic of numbers".<ref name = GuardianFieldsMedal /> On receiving the award, which is presented every four years, Venkatesh said "A lot of the time when you do math, you're stuck, but at the same time there are all these moments where you feel privileged that you get to work with it. You have this sensation of transcendence, you feel like you've been part of something really meaningful."<ref name = GuardianFieldsMedal>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/aug/02/australian-akshay-venkatesh-wins-fields-medal-the-nobel-for-maths |title=Australian Akshay Venkatesh wins Fields medal – the 'Nobel for maths' |first=Naaman |last=Zhou |date=2 August 2018 |work=[[Guardian Australia]] |access-date=4 August 2018}}</ref>

He was elected as a [[Fellow of the American Mathematical Society]], in the 2025 class of fellows.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ams.org/fellows_by_year.cgi?year=2025|title=2025 Class of Fellows of the AMS|publisher=American Mathematical Society|access-date=2024-11-01}}</ref>

== Contributions to mathematics ==
Venkatesh has made contributions to a wide variety of areas in mathematics, including [[number theory]], [[automorphic form]]s, [[representation theory]], [[locally symmetric space]]s and [[ergodic theory]], by himself, and in collaboration with several mathematicians.<ref name = FieldsMedalLongCitation />

Using [[ergodic]] methods, Venkatesh, jointly with [[Jordan Ellenberg]], made significant progress on the [[Hasse principle]] for integral representations of quadratic forms by quadratic forms.<ref name = FieldsMedalLongCitation /><ref>{{cite journal|title=Local-global principles for representations of quadratic forms|first1=Jordan S.|last1=Ellenberg|author-link1=Jordan Ellenberg|first2=Akshay|last2=Venkatesh|year=2008|journal=[[Inventiones Mathematicae]]|volume=171|issue=2|pages=257–279|doi=10.1007/s00222-007-0077-7|arxiv=math/0604232|bibcode=2007InMat.171..257E|citeseerx=10.1.1.236.7085|s2cid=832133}}</ref>

In a series of joint works with [[Manfred Einsiedler]], [[Elon Lindenstrauss]] and [[Philippe Michel (number theorist)|Philippe Michel]], Venkatesh revisited the Linnik ergodic method and solved a longstanding conjecture of [[Yuri Linnik]] on the distribution of torus orbits attached to cubic number fields.<ref name = FieldsMedalLongCitation /><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://annals.math.princeton.edu/2011/173-2/p05|title=Distribution of periodic torus orbits and Duke's theorem for cubic fields|first1=Manfred|last1=Einsiedler|author-link1=Manfred Einsiedler|first2=Elon|last2=Lindenstrauss|author-link2=Elon Lindenstrauss|first3=Philippe|last3=Michel|author-link3=Philippe Michel (number theorist)|first4=Akshay|last4=Akshay|year=2011|journal=[[Annals of Mathematics]]|volume=173|issue=2|pages=815–885|doi=10.4007/annals.2011.173.2.5|arxiv=0708.1113|s2cid=6236918}}</ref>

Venkatesh also provided a novel and more direct way of establishing sub-convexity estimates for [[L-functions]] in numerous cases, going beyond the foundational work of Hardy–Littlewood–Weyl, Burgess, and Duke–Friedlander–Iwaniec that dealt with important special cases.<ref name = FieldsMedalLongCitation /><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://annals.math.princeton.edu/2010/172-2/p05|title=Sparse equidistribution problems, period bounds and subconvexity|first=Akshay|last=Venkatesh|year=2010|journal=[[Annals of Mathematics]]|volume=172|issue=2|pages=989–1094|doi=10.4007/annals.2010.172.989|arxiv=math/0506224|s2cid=119163205}}</ref><ref name = SubconvexityGL2>{{cite journal|arxiv=0903.3591|title=The subconvexity problem for GL2|author-link1=Philippe Michel (number theorist)|first1=Philippe|last1=Michel|first2=Akshay|last2=Venkatesh|year=2010|journal=[[Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS]]|volume=111|issue=1|pages=171–271|doi=10.1007/s10240-010-0025-8|citeseerx=10.1.1.750.8950|s2cid=14155294}}</ref> This approach eventually resulted in the complete resolution by Venkatesh and [[Philippe Michel (number theorist)|Philippe Michel]] of the sub-convexity problem for GL(1) and GL(2) L-functions over general number fields.<ref name = SubconvexityGL2 />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{MathGenealogy |id=69073}}
* {{IMO results}}
* [http://math.stanford.edu/~akshay/ Website at Stanford University]
* [https://av.tib.eu/search?f=creator%3Bhttp://d-nb.info/gnd/141737441 Videos of Akshay Venkatesh] in the AV-Portal of the [[German National Library of Science and Technology]]

{{Fields medalists}}
{{FRS 2019}}
{{Recipients of SASTRA Ramanujan Prize winners|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venkatesh, Akshay}}
[[Category:Date of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Fields Medalists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:International Mathematical Olympiad participants]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to Australia]]
[[Category:Australian mathematicians]]
[[Category:People from New Delhi]]
[[Category:Australian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Princeton University alumni]]
[[Category:Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences faculty]]
[[Category:Stanford University faculty]]
[[Category:Scientists from Delhi]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science faculty]]
[[Category:Institute for Advanced Study faculty]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Mathematical Society]]
[[Category:People educated at Scotch College, Perth]]
[[Category:Australian fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:21st-century mathematicians]]
[[Category:1981 births]]

Power Play (2021 film)

2026-03-27T00:21:07Z

KarmaConyers: entry...

{{Short description|2021 Indian film}}
{{plot needed|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Power Play
| image = Power Play (2021 film).jpg
| alt =
| caption = Official poster
| native_name = 
| director = Vijay Kumar Konda
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = Abhishek Agarwal T. G. Vishwa Prasad Mahidhar Devesh
| starring = [[Raj Tarun]] [[Hemal Ingle]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = I. Andrew
| editing = [[Prawin Pudi]]
| music = Suresh Bobbili
| studio =  People Media Factory
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2021|3|5}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Power Play''''' is a 2021 [[India|Indian]] [[Telugu language]] crime thriller film directed by Vijay Kumar Konda, of ''[[Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde]]'' fame. It stars [[Raj Tarun]], [[Hemal Ingle]], [[Poorna (actress)|Poorna]] in the main roles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/power-play-trailer-raj-taruns-film-is-a-crime-thriller/articleshow/80686918.cms |title='Power Play' Trailer: Raj Tarun's film is a crime thriller |date=4 February 2021 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The film was released on 5 March 2021 on [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/raj-tarun-starrer-power-play-release-date-is-here/articleshow/81167270.cms |title=Raj Tarun starrer ''Power Play'' release date is here |date=23 February 2021 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://telanganatoday.com/raj-taruns-power-play-garners-good-response |title=Raj Tarun's Power Play garners good response |work=[[Telangana Today]] |date=21 April 2021}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Raj Tarun]] as Vijay Kumar Konda
*[[Hemal Ingle]] as Keerthy
*[[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]] as Poorna, [[chief minister|CM]] candidate
*[[Kota Srinivasa Rao]]
*[[Prince Cecil]] as Ravi
*Madhu Sudhan as SI Karim
*[[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]]
*[[Raja Ravindra]]
*[[Pooja Ramachandran]]
}}

== Reception ==
Thadhagath Pathi of ''[[The Times of India]]'' opined that "''Power Play'' starts out well but goes down a slippery slope as the film progresses. A better treatment would’ve made this a must-watch."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/power-play/movie-review/81349202.cms |title=Power Play Movie Review : Raj Tharun steps out of his comfort zone, if only he did it for a better film |work=[[The Times of India]] |last=Pathi |first=Thadhagath |date=5 March 2021}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Telugucinema.com]]'' said that "Director Vijay Kumar Konda attempts a thriller for the first time and tries to narrate two parallel plots side by side and tries to mix them in the end. But the way he treats the scenes is not that impressive and it ends up as a bore".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://telugucinema.com/reviews/power-play-review-a-deadly-dull-thriller |title=Power Play Review: A deadly dull thriller |work=[[Telugucinema.com]] |date=6 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/movie-reviews/power-play-movie-review-rating-35-78206|title='Power Play' Movie Review & Rating: {3/5}|date=5 March 2021|work=[[The Hans India]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|13844126}}

[[Category:2021 films]]
[[Category:2021 crime thriller films]]
[[Category:2021 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2021 Indian films]]

United Kurung FC

2026-03-26T00:41:47Z

KarmaConyers: put up a details w/ sources...

{{Infobox football club
| clubname = United Kurung
| image = United Kurung FC.png
| upright = 0.9
| fullname = United Kurung Football Club
| ground = Various
| manager =
| league = [[Indrajit Namchoom Arunachal League]]
| season =
| position =
| current =
| pattern_la1 =
| pattern_b1 =
| pattern_ra1 =
| pattern_sh1 =
| pattern_so1 =
| leftarm1 =
| body1 =
| rightarm1 =
| shorts1 =
| socks1 =
| pattern_la2 =
| pattern_b2 =
| pattern_ra2 =
| pattern_sh2 =
| pattern_so2 =
| leftarm2 =
| body2 =
| rightarm2 =
| shorts2 =
| socks2 =
}}

'''United Kurung Football Club''', commonly known as '''United Kurung''', is an [[India|Indian]] professional [[association football|football]] club based in the [[Kurung Kumey district]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. The club competes in the [[Indrajit Namchoom Arunachal League]] (INAL), the premier state-level football competition organised by the [[Arunachal Pradesh Football Association]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=United Kurung FC scores, fixtures, standings and player stats |url=https://www.sofascore.com/football/team/united-kurung-fc/ |access-date=2025-11-09 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=United Kurung FC on INAL Official Website |url=https://inal.in/all-clubs/ |access-date=2025-11-09 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />
{{Football in India}}

[[Category:Football clubs in Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Kurung Kumey district]]

Chandragupta Maurya

2026-03-25T09:29:37Z

KarmaConyers: updated page

{{Short description|Founder of the Maurya Empire (340–295 BCE)}}
{{Redirect|Sandracottus|the genus of beetle|Sandracottus (beetle)}}
{{other uses|Chandragupta (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Chandragupta Maurya
| title =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = possibly {{circa|350–340 BCE}}
| birth_place = [[Pataliputra]], [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], [[Nanda Empire]] (near present-day [[Patna]]) (according to Buddhist legend)
| death_date = after {{circa}} 297 BCE
| death_place = [[Chandragiri hill|Kalbappu (Chandragiri)]] (present-day [[Karnataka]], India) (According to Jain tradition)
| succession = 1st [[List of Maurya emperors|Mauryan Emperor]]
| reign = {{circa|320|297 BCE}}<ref name=britchandrag/>{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=330}}
| coronation = {{circa|320 BCE}}
| predecessor = ''Position established''
| reg-type = Amatya
| successor = [[Bindusara]]{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=331}}
| spouse = [[Durdhara]] A [[Seleucid]] princess (name unknown)
| issue = [[Bindusara]]
| native_lang1_name1 =
| dynasty = [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]]
| religion = 
}}
{{Maurya}}
[[File:Nanda Empire, c.325 BCE.png|thumb|Possible extent of Nanda Empire, c. 325 BCE.]]
[[File:Chandragupta Maurya Empire 303 BCE 2.png|thumb|There are no contemporary records of Chandragupta's military conquests and the reach of his empire. The extent is deduced from Greek and Roman historians and religious Indian texts, all written centuries after his death. Based on these, Chandragupta's empire was extensive,<ref name=britchandrag>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chandragupta Chandragupta Maurya, Emperor of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310115220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chandragupta |date=10 March 2018 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=59-65}}{{sfn|Boesche|2003|p=7-18}} here conceptualized at {{circa|303 BCE}} as a network of core areas and trade- and communication-networks.{{efn-la|name="network_model"|See also [[Maurya Empire#cite note-map network model-1|Maurya Empire, network model]].}}{{efn-la|name="western_extent"}}]]
[[File:Chandragupta Maurya Empire 303 BCE 1.png|thumb|Traditional representation of extent of Chandragupta Maurya's empire {{circa|303 BCE}}, as a solid mass of territory.{{efn-la|name="solid_mass"|See also [[Maurya Empire#cite note-map solid mass-2|Mauryan Empire, solid mass.]]}}{{efn-la|name="western_extent"}} Some maps include all of Gedrosia, e.g., south-east Iran.]]

'''Chandragupta Maurya'''{{efn-la|{{langx|sa|चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य}} {{IAST3|Candragupta Maurya}}; {{langx|pi|चन्दगुत्त मोरीय}}, {{Transliteration|pi|Chandagutta Moriya}}; {{langx|grc|Σανδράκοπτος}}, {{transliteration|grc|Sandrákoptos}}, {{lang|grc|Σανδράκοττος}}, {{transliteration|grc|Sandrákottos}}, {{lang|grc|Ανδροκόττος}}, {{transliteration|grc|Androkóttos}}}} (reigned {{circa|320 BCE}}{{efn-la|name="dating"}} – c. 298 BCE){{efn-la|name="Fisher-2018_p71"}} was the founder and the first [[emperor]] of the [[Maurya Empire]], based in [[Magadha]] (present-day [[Bihar]]) in the [[Indian subcontinent]].

His rise to power began in the period of unrest and local warfare that arose after [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Indian campaign]] and early death in 323 BCE, although the exact chronology and sequence of events remains subject to debate among historians. He started a war against the unpopular [[Nanda dynasty]] in Magadha on the [[Ganges|Ganges Valley]],{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=6}} defeated them and established his own dynasty. In addition, he raised an army to resist the Greeks,{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=6-8, 22, 31-33}}{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=175–188}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|pp=144-145}}{{efn-la|name="Boesche_2003_assassination"}} defeated them, and took control of the eastern [[Indus Valley]].{{sfn|Danielou|2003|p=85-86}} His conquest of Magadha is generally dated to c. 322–319 BCE,{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=27, 61-62}}{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=18}} and his expansion to Punjab subsequently at c. 317–312 BCE,{{efn-la|name="dating_2"}} but some scholars have speculated that he might have initially consolidated his power base in Punjab, before conquering Magadha;{{efn-la|name="dating_2"}} an alternative chronology places these events all in the period c. 311–305 BCE.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=31}}{{efn-la|name="dating"}} According to the play [[Mudrarakshasa]], Chandragupta was assisted by his mentor [[Chanakya]], who later became his minister. He expanded his reach subsequently into parts of the western Indus Valley{{efn-la|name="Haig_1894_LIV"}} and possibly{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=452-453}} eastern Afghanistan{{efn-la|name="western_extent"}} through a [[Political marriages in India|dynastic marriage alliance]] with [[Seleucus I Nicator]] c. 305–303 BCE.{{sfn|Danielou|2003|p=85-86}} His empire also included [[Gujarat]]{{efn|Corroborated archaeologically at [[Sudarshana Lake]].}} and a geographically extensive network of cities and trade-routes.{{efn-la|name="network_model"}}{{efn-la|name="western_extent"}}

There are no historical facts about Chandragupta's origins and early life, only legends, while the narrative of his reign is mainly deduced from a few fragments in Greek and Roman sources, and a few Indian religious texts, all written centuries after his death. The prevailing levels of technology and infrastructure limited the extent of Chandragupta's rule,{{efn-la|name="Fisher_2018_p72"}} and the administration was decentralised, with provinces and local governments,{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=47, 52-53}}{{efn-la|name="Stein_Arnold_2010"}} and large autonomous regions within its limits.{{efn-la|name="Ludden_2013_p29"}} Chandragupta's reign, and the Maurya Empire, which reached its peak under his grandson [[Ashoka|Ashoka the Great]],{{efn-la|name="Maurya_Empire_maximum_extent"}} began an era of economic prosperity, reforms, infrastructure expansions. [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Ājīvika]] prevailed over the non-Maghadian [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] and [[Brahmanism|Brahmanistic]] traditions,{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}} initiating, under Ashoka, the [[Buddhism#Ashokan Era and the early schools|expansion of Buddhism]], and the [[Hindu synthesis|synthesis]] of Brahmanic and non-Brahmanic religious traditions which converged in [[Hinduism]]. His [[Digvijaya (conquest)|legend]] still inspires visions of an undivided Indian nation.

==Historical sources==
Chandragupta's confrontations with the Greeks and the Nanda king are shortly referred to in a few passages in Greek-Roman sources from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE. Impressions of India at that time are given by a number of other Greek sources. He is further mentioned in Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain religious texts and legends, which give impressions of his later reception; they significantly vary in detail.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=2-14, 229-235}} According to Mookerji, the main sources on Chandragupta and his time, in chronological order are:{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=3-14}}
* Greek sources by three companions of Alexander, namely [[Nearchus]], [[Onesicritus]], and [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia]], who write about Alexander and do not mention Chandragupta;
* The Greek ambassador [[Megasthenes|Megasthanes]], a contemporary of Chandragupta, whose works are lost, but fragments are preserved in the works of other authors, namely Greco-Roman authors [[Strabo]] (64 BCE–19 CE), [[Diodorus]] (died c. 36 BCE, wrote about India), [[Arrian]] (c. 130–172 CE, wrote about India), [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st cent. CE, wrote about India), [[Plutarch]] (c. 45–125 CE), and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] (2nd cent. CE). According to Mookerji, without these sources this period would be "a most obscure chapter of Indian history."{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=3}}
* The Brahmanical [[Puranas]] (Gupta-times), religious texts which viewed the Nandas and Mauryas as illegitimate rulers, because of their [[shudra]] background;
* Later Brahmanical narratives include legends in [[Vishakhadatta]]'s [[Mudrarakshasa]] (4th–8th cent), [[Somadeva]]'s [[Kathasaritsagara]] (11th cent.) and [[Kshemendra]]'s [[Brihatkathamanjari]] (11th ). Mookerji includes the [[Arthasastra]] as a source, a text now dated to the 1st–3rd century CE, and attributed to Chanakya during Gupta-times.{{sfn|Olivelle|2013}}
* The earliest Buddhist sources are dated to the fourth-century CE or after, including the Sri Lankan Pali texts [[Dipavamsa]] (''Rajavamsa'' section), [[Mahavamsa]], [[Mahavamsa tika]] and [[Mahabodhivamsa]].
* 7th to 10th century Jain inscriptions at [[Shravanabelagola|Shravanabelgola]]; these are disputed by scholars as well as the Svetambara Jain tradition.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Fleet|1892|pp=156–162}} The second Digambara text interpreted to be mentioning the Maurya emperor is dated to about the 10th-century such as in the ''Brhatkathakosa'' of [[Harisena (Jain monk)]], while the complete Jain legend about Chandragupta is found in the 12th-century [[Parisishtaparvan]] by [[Hemachandra]].

The Greek and Roman texts do not mention Chandragupta directly, except for a second-century text written by the Roman historian [[Justin (historian)|Justin]]. They predominantly describe India, or mention the last [[Nanda Empire|Nanda emperor]], who usurped the throne of the king before him (Curtis, Diodorus, Plutarch).{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=5-6}} Justin states that Chandragupta was of humble origin, and includes stories of miraculous legends associated with him, such as a wild elephant appearing and submitting itself to him as a ride to him before a battle. Justin's text states that Chandragupta "achieved [India's] freedom", and "aspired to royalty by all men," as he offended Nanda and was ordered to death, but saved himself "by a speedy flight."{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=5-7}}

Plutarch states that Chandragupta, as a young man, saw [[Alexander the Great]].{{sfn|Mookerji|1966|p=5}} He is described as a great king, but not as great in power and influence as [[Porus the Elder|Porus]] in northwestern India or Agrammes ([[Dhana Nanda]]) in eastern India.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|pp=264–265}}

The Brahmanical Puranic texts do not discuss the details of Chandragupta's ancestry, but rather cover the ancestry of the last Nanda king, and the restoration of just rule by Kautilya{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=7–9}} (Chanakya; the identification with Kautilya, the author of the Arthashastra, dates from a later period{{Sfn|Olivelle|2013}}). The Nanda king is described to be cruel, against [[dharma]] and [[shastra]]s, and born out of an illicit relationship followed by a coup.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=7–9}} According to Mookerji, the ''Arthasastra'' refers to the Nanda rule as against the spiritual, cultural, and military interests of the country, a period where intrigue and vice multiplied.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=7–9}} In a later addition,{{sfn|Olivelle|2013}} the ''Arthasastra'' states that the text was written by him who returned dharma, nurtured diversity of views, and ruled virtuously that kindled love among the subjects for his rule,{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=7–9}} an insertion linking the Guptas to the Mauryans.{{sfn|Olivelle|2013}}

Buddhist texts such as ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' describe Chandragupta to be of [[Kshatriya]] origin.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=14}} These sources, written about seven centuries after his dynasty ended, state that both Chandragupta and his grandson Ashoka – a patron of Buddhism {{En dash}} were [[Moriya (tribe)|Moriya]]s, a branch of [[Gautama Buddha]]'s [[Shakya]] noble family.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=13-15}} These Buddhist sources attempt to link the dynasty of their patron Ashoka directly to the Buddha.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=12}} The sources claim that the family branched off to escape persecution from a King of [[Kosala]] and Chandragupta's ancestors moved into a secluded Himalayan kingdom known for its peacocks. The Buddhist sources explain the epithet ''maurya'' comes from these peacocks, or ''Mora'' in Pali (Sanskrit: [[Mayura (mythology)|Mayura]]).{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=13-15}}<ref name="britchandrag" /> The Buddhist texts are inconsistent; some offer other legends to explain his epithet. For example, they mention a city named "Moriya-nagara" where all buildings were made of bricks colored like the peacock's neck.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=13-14}} The ''[[Bodhivaṃsa|Maha-bodhi-vasa]]'' states he hailed from Moriya-nagara, while the ''[[Dīgha Nikāya|Digha-Nikaya]]'' states he came from the [[Moriya (tribe)|Maurya clan]] of [[Pipphalivana]].{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=14}} The Buddhist sources also mention that "[[Brahmin]] [[Chanakya]]" was his counselor and with whose support Chandragupta became the king at Patliputra.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=13-14}} He has also been variously identified with [[Shashigupta]] (which has same etymology as of Chandragupta) of [[Paropamisadae]] on the account of same life events.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seth |first1=H. C. |title=Did Candragupta Maurya belong to North-Western India? |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |date=1937 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=158–165 |jstor=41688339 |issn=0378-1143}}</ref>

[[File:7th-century Bhadrabahu Sanskrit inscription, Purvahale Kannada script, Shravanabelgola Karnataka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.65|7th-century [[Bhadrabahu]] inscription at [[Shravanabelagola]] ([[Sanskrit]], Purvahale Kannada script). This is the oldest inscription at the site, and it mentions Bhadrabahu and [[Prabhācandra|Prabhacandra]]. [[B. Lewis Rice|Lewis Rice]] and [[Digambara Jainism|Digambara Jains]] interpret Prabhacandra to be Chandragupta Maurya, while others such as [[John Faithfull Fleet|J F Fleet]], [[V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar]], and [[Śvētāmbara|Svetambara]] Jains state this interpretation is wrong.{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Fleet|1892|pp=156–162}}]]
The 12th-century [[Digambara]] text ''[[Parishishtaparvan]]'' by [[Hemachandra]] is the main and earliest Jain source of the complete legend of Chandragupta. It was written nearly 1,400 years after Chandragupta's death. Canto 8, verses 170 to 469, describes the legend of Chandragupta and Chanakya's influence on him.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=14}}{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}} Other Digambara Jain sources state he moved to [[History of Karnataka|Karnataka]] after renouncing his kingdom and performed [[Sallekhana]] – the Jain religious ritual of peacefully welcoming death by fasting.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=xxviii}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=59-65}} The earliest mention of Chandragupta's ritual death is found in [[Harisena]]'s ''Brhatkathakosa'', a Sanskrit text of stories about Digambara Jains. The ''Brhatkathakosa'' describes the legend of Bhadrabahu and mentions Chandragupta in its 131st story.{{sfn|Jaini|1991|pp=43–44}} However, the story makes no mention of the Maurya Empire, and mentions that his disciple Chandragupta lived in and migrated from [[Ujjain]] – a kingdom (northwest [[Madhya Pradesh]]) about a thousand kilometers west of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] and [[Pataliputra|Patliputra]] (central Bihar). This has led to the proposal that [[Harisena (Jain monk)|Harisena]]'s Chandragupta may be a later era, different person.{{sfn|Jaini|1991|pp=43–44}}{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}{{sfn|Upādhye|1977|pp=272–273}}

==Biographical information==

=== Date ===
None of the ancient texts mention when Chandragupta was born. [[Plutarch]] claims that Chandragupta in his youth saw [[Alexander the Great]] during the [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|latter's invasion of India]] ({{Circa|326}}–325 BCE): {{blockquote|Androcottus [Chandragupta], when he was a [[wiktionary:stripling|stripling]], saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since [[Dhana Nanda|its king]] was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=28-29}}}} Assuming the Plutarch account is true, Raychaudhuri proposed in 1923 that Chandragupta may have been born after 350 BCE.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1923|p=142}} There is also a passage of Justin's history which had been read as referring to a meeting between Chandragupta and Alexander. However, according to Thomas Trautmann, this was a due to mistranslation in early printed book, and the correct reading was ''Nandrum'' (Nanada king), rather than ''Alexandrum''. {{blockquote|Some early printed editions of Justin's work wrongly mentioned "Alexandrum" instead of "Nandrum"; this error was corrected in philologist [[J. W. McCrindle]]'s 1893 translation. In the 20th century, historians [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] and [[R. C. Majumdar]] believed "Alexandrum" to be correct reading, and theorized that Justin refers to a meeting between Chandragupta and [[Alexander the Great]] ("Alexandrum"). However, this is incorrect: research by historian [[Alfred von Gutschmid]] in the preceding century had clearly established that "Nandrum" is the correct reading supported by multiple manuscripts: only a single defective manuscript mentions "Alexandrum" in the margin.{{sfn|Trautmann|1970|pp=240-241}}}}

According to other Greco-Roman texts, Chandragupta attacked the Greek-Indian governors during a period of unrest and local warfare after Alexander's death (died {{Circa|323 BCE}}), acquiring control of the eastern Indus Valley.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1923|p=137}} The chronology and dating of Chandragupta's activities in the Punjab is uncertain,{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=36, note 15; p.38, note 67}} either before or after he took the Nanda-throne.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=36, note 15}} The defeat of the Greeks is dated by Mookerji at 323; Jansari dates the arrival of Chandragupta in the Punjab at c. 317, in line with the chronology of Greek history.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=17}}{{efn-la|name="dating"}}

The texts do not include the start or end year of Chandragupta's reign.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1923|p=138}} According to some Hindu and Buddhist texts, Chandragupta ruled for 24 years.{{sfn|Thapar|1961|p=13}} The Buddhist sources state Chandragupta Maurya ruled 162 years after the death of the [[The Buddha|Buddha]].{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|pp=134–142}} However, the Buddha's birth and death vary by source and all these lead to a chronology that is significantly different from the Greco-Roman records. Similarly, Jain sources composed give different gaps between [[Mahavira]]'s death and his accession.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|pp=134–142}} As with the Buddha's death, the date of Mahavira's death itself is also a matter of debate, and the inconsistencies and lack of unanimity among the Jain authors cast doubt on Jain sources. This Digambara Jain chronology, also, is not reconcilable with the chronology implied in other Indian and non-Indian sources.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|pp=134–142}}

Historians such as [[Irfan Habib]] and Vivekanand Jha assign Chandragupta's reign to c. 322–298 BCE.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=15}} [[Upinder Singh]] dates his rule from 324 or 321 BCE to 297 BCE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=331}} Kristi Wiley states he reigned between 320 and 293 BCE.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}} Jansari, admitting that c.320/319 is the date conventionally accepted by most scholars,{{efn-la|name="dating_2"}} follows Cribb in re-assessing Justin (XV section 4.12-22), who states that Chandragupta's became {{"'}}ruler of India' when Seleucus was 'laying the foundations' of his own empire." According to Jansari, "this reference appears to refer to the period c.311– c.308," implying that "Chandragupta gained power, and was possibly already the first Mauryan king, between c.311 and c.305 BCE."{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=30-31}}

Chandragupta and Seleucus Nicator entered into a dynastic marriage-alliance at c. 305–303 BCE.

The circumstances and year of Chandragupta's death are also unclear and disputed.{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Fleet|1892|pp=156–162}} According to Roy, Chandragupta's abdication of throne may be dated to c. 298 BCE, and his death between 297 and 293 BCE.{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=61–62}}

=== Name ===
Greek writer [[Phylarchus]] (c. third century BCE), who is quoted by [[Athenaeus]], calls Chandragupta "Sandrokoptos". The later Greco-Roman writers [[Strabo]], [[Arrian]], and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] (c. second century) call him "Sandrocottus".{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|p=139}} In [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] accounts, Chandragupta is known as '''Sandrakottos''' ({{langx|el|Σανδράκοττος}}) and '''Androcottus''' ({{langx|el|Ανδροκόττος}}).{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=177}}<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 41694901|title = The Indika of Megasthenes — an Appraisal|journal = Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|volume = 72/73|issue = 1/4|pages = 307–329|last1 = Arora|first1 = U. P.|year = 1991}}</ref>

British [[Oriental studies|orientialist]] and [[philologist]] Sir [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]] (1746–1794) was the first to propose, in 1793, that Chandragupta Maurya known from the Sanskrit literature must be equivalent to the Indian king known as "Sandracottus" in Graeco-Roman historical sources. Jones' discovery "was of vital importance," states historian [[Sushma Jansari]], because "it meant, for the first time, that Indian and Graeco-Roman history could be synchronised and dates assigned to this period of ancient Indian history." Consequently, Chandragupta's reign has been referred to as "the [[wikt:sheet anchor|sheet anchor]] of Indian chronology."{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=69–70}}

===Titles===
The king's epithets mentioned in the Sanskrit play ''[[Mudrarakshasa]]'' include "Chanda-siri" (Chandra-shri), "Piadamsana" (Priya-darshana), and Vrishala.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|p=139}} Piadamsana is similar to [[Priyadasi]], an epithet of his grandson [[Ashoka]].{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|pp=139-140}} The word "Vrishala" is used in Indian epics and law books to refer to non-orthodox people. According to one theory, it may be derived from the Greek royal title [[Basileus]], but there is no concrete evidence of this: the Indian sources apply it to several non-royals, especially wandering teachers and ascetics.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|p=140}}

===Religion===
In contrast to the [[Jainism|Jain]] legends which developed 900 years later,{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=20–22}} contemporary Greek evidence states that Chandragupta did not give up performing the rites of sacrificing animals associated with [[Vedic Brahminism]]; he delighted in hunting and otherwise leading a life remote from the Jain practice of ''[[ahimsa]]'' or nonviolence towards living beings.{{sfn|Majumdar|Raychauduhuri|Datta|1960}}{{efn-la|name="Majumdar"}}

==Biography==

===Historical background===
[[File:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|thumb|right|Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of [[Āryāvarta]] with Janapadas in northern India. Beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India—[[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]], [[Panchala]], [[Kosala]], [[Videha]].]]

Around 350 BCE Magadha, ruled by the [[Nanda dynasty]], emerged as the dominant power after a "process of internecine warfare" between the [[janapadas]].{{sfn|Allchin|Erdosy|1995|pp=187–194}}

[[Alexander the Great]] entered the Northwest Indian subcontinent in his [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Indian campaign]], which he aborted in 325 BCE due to a mutiny caused by the prospect of facing another large empire, presumably the [[Nanda Empire]], and before Chandragupta came into power. Alexander left India, and assigned the northwestern (Indus Valley) Indian subcontinent territories to Greek governors.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=2, 25-29}}{{sfn|Sastri|1988|p=26}} He died in 323 BCE in Babylon, whereafter war broke out between his generals.

===Early life===

====Family background====
There is no historical information on Chandragupta's youth. One medieval commentator states Chandragupta to be the son of one of the Nanda's wives with the name Mura.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=7–9}} Other narratives describe Mura as a concubine of the king.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of India |year=1968 |editor=Edward James Rapson |volume=4 |page=470 |quote="His surname Maurya is explained by Indian authorities as mean 'son of Mura,' who is described as a concubine of the king. |editor2=Wolseley Haig |editor3=Richard Burn |editor4=Henry Dodwell |editor5=Mortimer Wheeler}}</ref> Another Sanskrit dramatic text [[Mudrarakshasa]] uses the terms ''Vrishala'' and ''Kula-Hina'' (meaning - "not descending from a recognized clan or family") to describe Chandragupta.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=9–11}} The word ''Vrishala'' has two meanings: one is the ''son of a [[shudra]]''; the other means the ''best of kings''. A later commentator used the former interpretation to posit that Chandragupta had a Shudra background. However, historian [[Radha Kumud Mukherjee]] opposed this theory, and stated that the word should be interpreted as "the best of kings".{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=9–11}} The same drama also refers to Chandragupta as someone of humble origin, like Justin.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=9–11}} According to the 11th-century texts of the [[Kashmiri Hindus|Kashmiri Hindu]] tradition – [[Kathasaritsagara]] and ''Brihat-Katha-Manjari'' – the Nanda lineage was very short. Chandragupta was a son of Purva-Nanda, the older Nanda based in Ayodhya.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=13}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=15-18}}{{efn-la|According to {{harvtxt|Roy|2012|pp=61–62}}, Chandragupta Maurya was a [[Shudra]] lineage, king.}} The common theme in the Hindu sources is that Chandragupta came from a humble background and with Chanakya, he emerged as a dharmic king loved by his subjects.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=7–13}}

====Chanakya====
[[File:Chanakya artistic depiction.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Chanakya|Chandragupta's [[guru]] was [[Chanakya]], with whom he studied as a child and with whose counsel he built the Empire. This image is a 1915 attempt at depicting Chanakya.]]

Legends about [[Chanakya]] couple him to Chandragupta, acting as his mentor and spiritual teacher, complementing the image of a [[chakravartin]].{{efn-la|Compare the [[Vijayanagara Empire#Background and origin theories|origin of the Vijayanagara Empire]] and the role of [[Vidyaranya]].}}

According to the Digambara legend by Hemachandra, Chanakya was a Jain layperson and a Brahmin. When Chanakya was born, Jain monks prophesied that Chanakya will one day grow up to help make someone an emperor and will be the power behind the throne.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=6}}{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}} Chanakya believed in the prophecy and fulfilled it by agreeing to help the daughter of a peacock-breeding community chief deliver a baby boy. In exchange, he asked the mother to give up the boy and let him adopt him at a later date.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=14}}{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}} The Jain Brahmin then went about making money through magic, and returned later to claim young Chandragupta,{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}} whom he taught and trained. Together, they recruited soldiers and attacked the [[Nanda Empire]]. Eventually, they won and proclaimed Patliputra as their capital.{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}}

The Buddhist and Hindu legends present different versions of how Chandragupta met [[Chanakya]]. Broadly, they mention young Chandragupta creating a mock game of a royal court that he and his shepherd friends played near [[Vindhya Range|Vinjha forest]]. Chanakya saw him give orders to the others, bought him from the hunter, and adopted Chandragupta.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=15–17}} Chanakya taught and admitted him in [[Taxila]] to study the Vedas, military arts, law, and other shastras.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=15–17}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Modelski | first=George | title=Kautilya: Foreign Policy and International System in the Ancient Hindu World | journal=American Political Science Review | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=58 | issue=3 | year=1964 | doi=10.2307/1953131 | pages=549–560| jstor=1953131 | s2cid=144135587 }}; Quote: "Kautilya is believed to have been Chanakya, a Brahmin who served as prime Minister to Chandragupta (321–296 B.C.), the founder of the Mauryan Empire."</ref>

According to the Buddhist legend, Chanakya was chosen as president of the ''samgha'' which administered the ''Danasala'', a charity foundation, but was dismissed by Dhana Nanda due to his ugliness and manners. Chanaky cursed the king, fled Pataliputra, and then met Chandragupta.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=19–20}}

===Rise to power===

====Unrest and warfare in the Punjab====

The Roman historian [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] (2nd Century CE) states, in ''Epit. 15.4.12-13'', that after Alexander's death, Greek governors in India were assassinated, liberating the people of Greek rule. This revolt led by Chandragupta, who in turn established an oppressive regime himself "after taking the throne":{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=6-8, 31-33}}{{efn-la|name="Boesche_2003_assassination"}}
{{blockquote|India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos [Chandragupta], but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination." | [[Junianus Justinus]]|''Histoires Philippiques Liber'', XV.4.12-13 <ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20030902205057/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/trad15.html Justin XV.4.12-13]}}</ref>}}

Raychaudhuri states that, according to Justin ''Epitome'' 15.4.18–19, Chandragupta organized an army. He notes that early translators interpreted Justin's original expression as "body of robbers", but states Raychaudhuri, the original expression used by Justin may mean mercenary soldier, hunter, or robber.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|p=144}} Mookerji refers to McCrindle as stating that "robbers" refers to the people of the Punjab, "kingless people." Mookerju further quotes Rhys Davids, who states that "it was from the Punjab that Chandragupta recruited the nucleus of the force with which he besieged and conquered Dhana-Nanda."{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=22}}

The nature of early relationship between these governors and Chandragupta is unknown. According to Habib & Jha, Justin mentions Chandragupta as a rival of the Alexander's successors in north-western India.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=15}} [[Alain Daniélou]] further explains:
{{blockquote|In the Swat, Nicanor was killed. Philip, who was guarding Taxila with Ambhi, replaced Nicanor as satrap of Gandhara, but was himself assassinated in 325 B.C.E.[...] Chandragupta began attacking the Greek principalities. The Brahmans fomented revolts against the unclean foreigners. Peithon withdrew to Arachosia (Kandahar) in 316. After treacherously killing an Indian prince probably Ambhi. Eudemus left India with one hundred and twenty elephants to join Eumenes army. He was beaten and put to death with Eumenes by Antigonus, king of Babylon. It took no great effort for Chandragupta to annex the Greek kingdoms, which had prepared the terrain for him.{{sfn|Danielou|2003|p=85-86}}}}

According to Mookerji, the Buddhist text ''Mahavamsa Tika'' describes how Chandragupta and Chanakya raised an army by recruiting soldiers from many places after the former completed his education at Taxila, to resist the Greeks. Chanakya made Chandragupta the leader of the army.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=22}} The Digambara Jain text ''Parishishtaparvan'' states that this army was raised by Chanakya with coins he minted and an alliance formed with Parvataka.{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=175–188}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1967|pp=144-145}} According to Nath Sen, Chandragupta recruited and annexed local [[Gaṇasaṅgha|military republics]] such as the [[Yaudheya]]s that had resisted Alexander's Empire.<ref>{{cite book|title= Ancient Indian History and Civilization|first= Sailendra |last= Nath sen |publisher= Routledge |year=1999 |page=162|isbn= 9788122411980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&q=maurya+dynasty+sen
}}</ref>

The chronology and dating of Chandragupta's activities in the Punjab is uncertain.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=36, note 15; p.38, note 67}} This may be either before or after he took the Nanda-throne.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=36, note 15}} The defeat of the Greeks is dated by Mookerji at 323 BCE; Jansari dates the arrival of Chandragupta in the Punjab at c. 317, in line with the chronology of Greek history.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=17}}{{efn-la|name="dating"}}

====Offense of the Nanda-king and flight====
According to [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], Chandragupta offended the Nanda king ("Nandrum" or "Nandrus") who ordered his execution.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=6}} Mookerji quotes Justin as stating
{{blockquote|Sandracottus (Chandragupta) was the leader who achieved its freedom. He was born in humble life but was prompted to aspire to royalty by an omen. By his insulent behaviour he had offended Nandrus{{efn-la|Some early printed editions of Justin's work wrongly mentioned "Alexandrum" instead of "Nandrum"; this error was corrected in philologist [[J. W. McCrindle]]'s 1893 translation. In the 20th century, historians [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri]] and [[R. C. Majumdar]] believed "Alexandrum" to be correct reading, and theorized that Justin refers to a meeting between Chandragupta and [[Alexander the Great]] ("Alexandrum"). However, this is incorrect: research by historian [[Alfred von Gutschmid]] in the preceding century had clearly established that "Nandrum" is the correct reading supported by multiple manuscripts: only a single defective manuscript mentions "Alexandrum" in the margin.{{sfn|Trautmann|1970|pp=240-241}}}} and was ordered to be put to death when he sought safety by a speedy flight.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=6}}}}

Justin narrates two miraculous incidents as omens and portents of Sandracottus (Chandragupta) fate. In the first incident, when Chandragupta was asleep after having escaped from Nandrum, a big lion came up to him, licked him, and then left. In the second incident, when Chandragupta was readying for war with Alexander's generals, a huge wild elephant approached him and offered itself to be his steed.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=32}}

The ''Mudrarakshasa'' states that Chanakya felt insulted by the king, whereafter he swore to destroy the Nanda dynasty.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=18}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=History: Biography of Chandragupta Maurya and His Maurya Empire |url=https://www.mizanurrmizan.info/2022/08/history-biography-of-chandragupta-maurya-and-his-maurya-empire.html |access-date=2022-08-05 |website=Md. Mizanur Rahaman Mizan|date=4 August 2022 }}</ref> The Jain version states that it was the Nanda king who was publicly insulted by Chanakya.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=18}} In either case, Chanakya fled, found Chandragupta, and started a war against the Nanda king.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=14}}

==== War against the Nandas and seizure of Pataliputra ====
[[File:Nanda Empire, c.325 BCE.png|thumb|Nanda Empire, c. 325 BCE]]
{{Main|Nanda–Mauryan War}}

According to Mookerji, ''after'' defeating the Greeks,{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=21}}{{efn-la|name="dating"}} the army of Chandragupta and Chanakya revolted against the unpopular Nandas{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=6}} and conquered the Nanda outer territories, and then advanced on Pataliputra, the capital city of the Nanda Empire, which according to Mookerji they conquered deploying [[guerrilla warfare]] methods with the help of mercenaries from conquered areas.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=6}}{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=61–62}}{{sfn|Grant|2010|p=49}} With the defeat of Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire.{{sfn|Roy|2012|p=62}}

The Buddhist ''Mahavamsa Tika'' and Jain ''Parishishtaparvan'' records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital.{{Sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=175–188}} Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=33}} He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There [[Dhana Nanda]] accepted defeat.{{sfn|Malalasekera|2002|p=383}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=33-34}} In contrast to the easy victory in Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}}{{sfn|Sen|1895|pp=26–32}} These legends state that the Nanda emperor was defeated, deposed and exiled by some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he was killed.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}}

Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign into Pataliputra are unavailable and the legends written centuries later are inconsistent. While his victory, and ascension of the throne, is usually dated at c. 322–319 BCE,{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=27, 61-62}}{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=31}} which would put his war in the Punjab after his ascension, an ascension "between c. 311–305 BCE" is also possible, placing his activity in the Punjab at c. 317 BCE.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=17-18, 31}}{{efn-la|name="dating"}}

The conquest was fictionalised in ''Mudrarakshasa'', in which Chandragupta is said to have acquired [[Punjab]], and then allied with a local king named Parvatka under the Chanakya's advice, where-after they advanced on Pataliputra.{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=27, 61-62}}{{efn-la|{{harvtxt|Bhattacharyya|1977|p=8}} states that the empire was built by a gradual conquest of provinces after the initial consolidation of Magadha.}}{{efn-la|{{harvtxt|Hemacandra|1998|pp=176–177}} notes that according to the Digambara Jain version by Hemachandra, the success of Chandragupta and his strategist Chanakya was stopped by a Nanda town that refused to surrender. Chanakya disguised himself as a [[Sannyasa|mendicant]] and found seven mother goddesses ([[Saptamatrika|''saptamatrikas'']]) inside. He concluded these goddesses were protecting the town people. The townspeople sought the disguised mendicant's advice on how to end the blockade of the army surrounding their town. Hemacandra wrote Chanakya swindled them into removing the mother goddesses. The townspeople removed the protective goddesses and an easy victory over the town followed. Thereafter, the alliance of Chandragupta and Parvataka overran the Nanda empire and attacked Pataliputra with an "immeasurable army". With a depleted treasury, exhausted merit, and insufficient intelligence, the Nanda emperor lost.}}

In contrast to the easy victory of Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}}{{sfn|Sen|1895|pp=26–32}}Greco-Roman writer [[Plutarch]] stated, in his ''Life of Alexander'', that the Nanda king was so unpopular that had Alexander tried, he could have easily conquered India.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=14}}{{sfn|Stoneman|2019|p=155}} Buddhist texts such as ''[[Milindapanha]]'' claim Magadha was ruled by the Nanda dynasty, which, with Chanakya's counsel, Chandragupta conquered to restore ''[[dhamma]]''.{{sfn|Thapar|2013|pp=362–364}}{{sfn|Sen|1895|pp=26–32}}

Legends narrate that the Nanda emperor was defeated, but was allowed to leave Pataliputra alive with a [[Ratha|chariot]] full of items his family needed.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}} The Jain sources attest that his daughter fell in [[love at first sight]] with Chandragupta and married him.Though daughter is not named the source later name mother of Chandragupta's son as [[Durdhara]].{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=176–177}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=14}}

===Dynastic marriage-alliance with Seleucus===
[[File:Malan Range.jpg|thumb|right|Malan Range and limit of ceded territory according to Tarn (1922)]]
{{Main|Seleucid–Mauryan War}}

According to Appian, [[Seleucus I Nicator]], one of Alexander's Macedonian generals who in 312 BCE established the [[Seleucid Empire]] with its capital at [[Babylon]], brought Persia and [[Bactria]] under his own authority, putting his eastern front facing the empire of Chandragupta.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=2-3, 35-38}}{{sfn|Appian|p=55}}

Somewhere between 305 and 303 BCE Seleucus and Chandragupta confronted each other, Seleucus intending to retake the former satrapies each of the Indus. Yet, Seleucus Nicator and Chandragupta formed a dynastic marriage-alliance, Seleucus receiving five hundred elephants, and Chandragupta gaining control over the regions bordering at the east on the Indus.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|p=34}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23120|title=Strabo 15.2.1(9)|access-date=14 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203225004/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23120|archive-date=3 February 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Strabo]], in his ''[[Geographica]]'', XV, 2.9 composed about 300 years after Chandragupta's death, describes a number of tribes living along the Indus, and then states that "The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians."<ref>Strabo, Geography, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239%3Abook%3D15%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D9 XV, 2, 9]</ref>
{{blockquote|The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the [[Paropamisadae]], above whom lies the [[Paropamisus Mountains]]: then, towards the south, the [[Arachosia|Arachoti]]: then next, towards the south, the [[Gedrosia|Gedroseni]], with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but [[Seleucus Nicator]] gave them to [[Sandrocottus]] [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants.<ref>[[Strabo]], ''Geography'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/15B*.html#2.9 xv.2.9]</ref>}}

The exact extent of the acquired territories is unknown.{{sfn|Jansari|2023}}{{efn-la|name="western_extent"}} A modest interpretation limits the extension to the western Indus Valley, including the coast of eastern [[Gedrosia]] ([[Balochistan]]) up to the Malan mountain raing (Hingol river),{{sfn|Smith|1914|p=149}}{{sfn|Tarn|1922|p=100}} the Punjab,{{sfn|Tarn|1922|p=100}}{{sfn|Boesche|2003}}{{efn-la|{{harvtxt|Boesche|2003}}: "taking much of western India (the Punjab and the Sindh) from the Greeks and concluding a treaty with Seleucus"}} and the eastern part of [[Paropamisadae]] ([[Gandhara]]). [[Arachosia]] ([[Kandahar]], present-day Afghanistan), is a possibility,{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=33}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=36–37, 105}}{{sfn|Clark|1919}} while Aria (present-day Herat, Afghanistan) is also often mentioned, but rejected by contemporary scholarship.{{efn-la|name="Herat"}} Tarn, writing in 1922,{{sfn|Tarn|1922|p=100}} and Coningham and Young,{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=452-453}} have questioned the inclusion of eastern Afghanistan (Kabul-Kandahar), Coningham and Young noting that "a growing number of researchers would now agree that the Ashokan edicts may have represented 'an area of maximum contact rather than streamlined bureaucratic control'."{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=452}} Coningham & Young also question the extent of control over the lower Indus Valley, following Thapar, noting that this may have been an area of peripheral control.{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=452}} [[Raymond Allchin]] also notes the absence of major cities in the lower Indus valley.{{sfn|Allchin|1995|p=208}}{{efn-la|name="Haig_1894_LIV"}}

The details of the engagement treaty are also not known.{{sfn|Barua|2005|pp=13-15}} Since the extensive sources available on Seleucus never mention an Indian princess, it is thought that Chandragupta himself or his son Bindusara marrying a Seleucid princess, in accordance with contemporary Greek practices to form dynastic alliances. The Mahavamsa states that Chandragupta married a daughter of Seleucus not long after the latter's defeat.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=277}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dissanayake |first=Daya |date=2019 |title=Who was Ashoka: A Critic |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/465818945/WHO-WAS-ASHOKA-a-Critic |access-date=December 25, 2024 |website=Scribd, Inc.}}</ref> As well, an Indian [[Puranic]] source, the [[Pratisargaparvan|Pratisarga Parva]] of the [[Bhavishya Purana]], described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek ("[[Yavana]]") princess, daughter of Seleucus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sagar |first=Chandra |title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=1992 |page=83}}</ref>

Chandragupta sent 500 [[war elephant]]s to Seleucus, which played a key role in Seleucus' victory at the [[Battle of Ipsus]].<ref>''India, the Ancient Past'', Burjor Avari, p. 106-107</ref>{{sfn|Majumdar|2003|p=105}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tarn | first1 = W. W. | year = 1940 | title = Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita | journal = The Journal of Hellenic Studies | volume = 60 | pages = 84–94 | doi = 10.2307/626263 | jstor = 626263 | s2cid = 163980490 }}</ref> In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched [[Megasthenes]] as an ambassador to Chandragupta's court, and later [[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochos]] sent [[Deimakos]] to his son Bindusara at the Maurya court at Patna.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=38}}

[[Megasthenes]] served as a Greek ambassador in his court for four years.{{sfn|Roy|2012|p=62}}

===Control of Gujarat===
In the south-west, Chandragupta's rule over present-day [[Gujarat]] is attested to by Ashoka's inscription in [[Junagadh]]. On the same rock, about 400 years later, [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman|Rudradaman inscribed]] a longer text sometime about the mid second–century.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=194, 199–200 with footnote 2}} Rudradaman's inscription states that the [[Sudarshana lake]] in the area was commissioned during the rule of Chandragupta through his governor Vaishya Pushyagupta and conduits were added during Ashoka's rule through Tushaspha. The Mauryan control of the region is further corroborated by the inscription on the rock, which suggests that Chandragupta controlled the [[Malwa]] region in Central India, located between Gujarat and Pataliputra.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=19}}

=== Jain accounts of renunciation and retirement in Karnataka ===
[[File:Jain Inscription.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=Inscription|1,300-year-old Shravanabelagola relief shows death of Chandragupta after taking the vow of [[Sallekhana]]. Some consider it about the legend of his arrival with Bhadrabahu.{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Fleet|1892|pp=156–162}}]]
[[File:Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu.jpg|thumb|A statue depicting Chandragupta Maurya (right) with his spiritual mentor [[Acharya Bhadrabahu]] at [[Shravanabelagola]]]]
[[File:Tijara Jain temple painting 32.jpg|thumb|Chandragupta Maurya having 16 [[auspicious dreams in Jainism]] ]]

According to Digambara Jain accounts Chandragupta abdicated at an early age and settled as a monk under [[Bhadrabāhu]] in [[Shravanabelagola]], in present-day south Karnataka.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=20}} According to these accounts, Bhadrabāhu forecast a 12-year famine because of all the killing and violence during the conquests by Chandragupta Maurya. He led a group of Jain monks to south India, where Chandragupta Maurya joined him as a monk after abdicating his empire to his son Bindusara. Together, states a Digambara legend, Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu moved to [[Shravanabelagola]], in present-day south Karnataka.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=20}} Chandragupta lived as an ascetic at [[Shravanabelagola]] for several years before fasting to death as per the practice of ''[[sallekhana]]'', according to the Digambara legend.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=39–41, 60–64}}{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=xxviii}}{{sfn|Bentley|1993|pp=44–46}} In accordance with the Digambara tradition, the hill on which Chandragupta is stated to have performed asceticism is now known as [[Chandragiri hill]], and Digambaras believe that Chandragupta Maurya erected an ancient temple that now survives as the [[Chandragupta basadi]].{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=40}}

The 12th-century Svetambara Jain legend by Hemachandra presents a different picture. The Hemachandra version includes stories about Jain monks who could become invisible to steal food from imperial storage and the Jain Brahmin Chanakya using violence and cunning tactics to expand Chandragupta's empire and increase imperial revenues.{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}} It states in verses 8.415 to 8.435, that for 15 years as emperor, Chandragupta was a follower of non-Jain "ascetics with the wrong view of religion" and "lusted for women". Chanakya, who was a Jain convert himself, persuaded Chandragupta to convert to Jainism by showing that Jain ascetics avoided women and focused on their religion.{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}} The legend mentions Chanakya aiding the premature birth of Bindusara,{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=155–157, 168–188}} It states in verse 8.444 that "Chandragupta died in meditation (can possibly be ''sallekhana''.) and went to [[Svarga|heaven]]".{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=185–188}} According to Hemachandra's legend, Chanakya also performed ''sallekhana''.{{sfn|Hemacandra|1998|pp=185–188}}

====Textual sources====
The Digambara Jain accounts are recorded in the ''Brihakathā kośa'' (931 CE) of Harishena, ''Bhadrabāhu charita'' (1450 CE) of Ratnanandi, ''Munivaṃsa bhyudaya'' (1680 CE) and ''Rajavali kathe'',{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=60}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=178}}

Regarding the inscriptions describing the relation of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya, [[Radha Kumud Mukherjee|Radha Kumud Mookerji]] writes,<blockquote>The oldest inscription of about 600 AD associated "the pair (''yugma''), Bhadrabahu along with Chandragupta ''Muni''." Two inscriptions of about 900 AD on the [[Kaveri]] near [[Srirangapatna|Seringapatam]] describe the summit of a hill called [[Chandragiri hill|Chandragiri]] as marked by the footprints of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta ''munipati''. A [[Shravanabelagola]] inscription of 1129 mentions Bhadrabahu "''Shrutakevali''", and Chandragupta who acquired such merit that he was worshipped by the forest deities. Another inscription of 1163 similarly couples and describes them. A third inscription of the year 1432 speaks of ''Yatindra'' Bhadrabahu, and his disciple Chandragupta, the fame of whose penance spread into other words.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mookerji|first=Radhakumud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C|title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times|date=1966|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0405-0|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>Along with texts, several Digambara Jain inscriptions dating from the 7th–15th century refer to Bhadrabahu and a Prabhacandra. Later Digambara tradition identified the Prabhacandra as Chandragupta, and some modern era scholars have accepted this Digambara tradition while others have not,{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Fleet|1892|pp=156–162}} Several of the late Digambara inscriptions and texts in Karnataka state the journey started from Ujjain and not Patliputra (as stated in some Digambara texts).{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Fleet|1892|pp=156–162}}

====Analysis of the sources====
[[File:Footprint of Chandragupta Maurya.jpg|thumb|The Footprints of Chandragupta Maurya on [[Chandragiri hill|Chandragiri]] Hill, where Chandragupta (the unifier of India and founder of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] Dynasty) performed [[Sallekhana]]]]

According to [[Jeffery D. Long]], in one Digambara version it was Samprati Chandragupta who renounced, migrated and performed ''sallekhana'' in Shravanabelagola. Long notes that scholars attribute the disintegration of the Maurya empire to the times and actions of Samprati Chandragupta, the grandson of Ashoka and great-great-grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, concluding that the two Chandraguptas have been confused to be the same in some Digambara legends.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=60–61}}

Scholar of Jain studies and Sanskrit [[Paul Dundas]] says the Svetambara tradition of Jainism disputes the ancient Digambara legends. According to a fifth-century text of the Svetambara Jains, the Digambara sect of Jainism was founded 609 years after Mahavira's death, or in first-century CE.{{sfn|Dundas|2003|pp=46–49}} Digambaras wrote their own versions and legends after the fifth-century, with their first expanded Digambara version of sectarian split within Jainism appearing in the tenth-century.{{sfn|Dundas|2003|pp=46–49}} The Svetambaras texts describe Bhadrabahu was based near Nepalese foothills of the Himalayas in third-century BCE, who neither moved nor travelled with Chandragupta Maurya to the south; rather, he died near Patliputra, according to the Svetambara Jains.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Dundas|2003|pp=46–49, 67–69}}{{sfn|Jyoti Prasad Jain|2005|pp=65–67}}

According to [[V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar]] – an Indologist and historian, several of the Digambara legends mention Prabhacandra, who had been misidentified as Chandragupta Maurya particularly after the original publication on Shravanabelagola epigraphy by [[B. Lewis Rice]]. The earliest and most important inscriptions mention Prabhacandra, which Rice presumed may have been the "clerical name assumed by Chadragupta Maurya" after he renounced and moved with Bhadrabahu from Patliputra. Dikshitar stated there is no evidence to support this and Prabhacandra was an important Jain monk scholar who migrated centuries after Chandragupta Maurya's death.{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}

According to historian [[Sushma Jansari]], "A closer look at the evidence for Chandragupta's conversion to Jainism and his and Bhadrabāhu's association with Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa reveals that it is both late and problematic. In addition, except for Jain sources, there is no evidence to support the view of Chandragupta's conversion and migration."{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=20}} Jansari concludes, "Overall, therefore, the evidence as it currently stands suggests that the story of Chandragupta's conversion to Jainism and abdication (if, indeed, he did abdicate), his migration southwards and his association (or otherwise) with Bhadrabāhu and the site of Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa developed after c.600 AD."{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=22}}

Dikshitar has taken Rice's deduction of Chandragupta Maurya retiring and dying in Shravanabelagola as the working hypothesis, since no alternative historical information or evidence is available about Chandragupta's final years and death.{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}

====Assumed control of Southern India====
There is uncertainty about the other conquests that Chandragupta may have achieved, especially in the [[Deccan]] region of southern India.{{sfn|Habib|Jha|2004|p=19}} At the time of his grandson Ashoka's ascension in c. 268 BCE, the empire extended up to present-day [[Karnataka]] in the south, so the southern conquests may be attributed to either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara.

According to Mookerji, Chandragupta expanded his empire into the south,{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=38-42}} referring to Plutarch, who stated that "Androcottus [...] with an army of six hundred thousand men overran and subdued all India."<ref>Plutrach, ''Alexander''[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D62 62]</ref>{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=38}} Mookerji notes that details are lacking, but argues that "there is reliable evidence for it in the inscriptions of Ashoka."{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=38}} Mookerji also refers to the Jain tradition that Chandragupta retired at [[Sravana Belgola]], Karnakata,{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=39-41}} and to references in Tamil records.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=41-42}}

According to Kulke and Rothermund, if the Jain tradition about Chandragupta ending his life as a renunciate in Karnakata is considered correct, it appears that Chandragupta initiated the southern conquest.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=64}}

Yet, the Digambara Jain accounts are problematic. His conversion and retirement at Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa with Bhadrabāhu are only attested in Digambara Jain sources, which developed after 600 CE.{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=22}} They may actually refer to Samprati Chandragupta the great-great-grandson of Chandragupta Maurya,{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=60–61}} and are contradicted by Svetambaras Jain texts, who situate Bhadrabahunear the Nepalese foothills of the Himalayas in third-century BCE, neither moving nor travelling with Chandragupta Maurya to the south.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=50–52}}{{sfn|Dundas|2003|pp=46–49, 67–69}}{{sfn|Jyoti Prasad Jain|2005|pp=65–67}} The Digambara legends may also have misidentified Prabhacandra, an important Jain monk scholar who migrated centuries after Chandragupta Maurya's death, as Chandragupta Maurya.{{sfn|Dikshitar|1993|pp=264–266}}

Two poetic anthologies from the Tamil [[Sangam literature]] corpus – ''[[Akananuru]]'' and ''[[Purananuru]]'' – allude to the Nanda rule and Maurya empire. For example, poems 69, 281 and 375 mention the army and chariots of the Mauryas, while poems 251 and 265 may be alluding to the Nandas.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|pp=53-54}} However, the poems dated between first-century BCE to fifth-century CE do not mention Chandragupta Maurya by name, and some of them could be referring to a different Moriya dynasty in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region in the fifth century CE.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=41–42}} According to Upinder Singh, these poems may be mentioning Mokur and Koshar kingdoms of Vadugars (northerners) in Karnataka and [[History of Andhra Pradesh|Andhra Pradesh]], with one interpretation being that the Maurya Empire had an alliance with these at some point of time.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|pp=330–331}}

==Empire==

=== Administration ===
[[File:Mauryan Empire. Circa late 4th-2nd century BC.jpg|thumb|Chandragupta Maurya period [[Karshapana|Karshapana coin]], circa 315–310 BCE<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=335378|title=Auction 396. INDIA, Mauryan Empire , Karshapana (14mm, 3.32 g). circa 315-310 BC|website=www.cngcoins.com|access-date=2024-04-24}}</ref>]]
After conquering northern India, Chandragupta and [[Chanakya]] passed a series of major economic and political reforms.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}} Chandragupta established a decentralised administration with provinces and local governments,{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=47, 52-53}} and a ''mantriparishad'' (council of advisers) advising the king.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=80}} While it is often thought that Chandragupta applied the statecraft and economic policies described in ''[[Arthashastra]]'', which was earlierly thought to be written by his minister [[Chanakya]]{{sfn|Boesche|2003|pp=7–18}}<ref>MV Krishna Rao (1958, Reprinted 1979), Studies in Kautilya, 2nd Edition, {{oclc|551238868}}, {{ISBN|978-8121502429}}, pages 13–14, 231–233</ref> but it's now thought by most scholars that the Arthashastra is not of Mauryan origin, and contains prescriptions which are incompatible with Chandragupta's reign.{{sfn|Olivelle|2013|pp=26}}{{efn-la|name="Stein_Arnold_2010"}}

The Maurya rule was a structured administration; Chandragupta had a council of ministers (''[[amatya]]''), with Chanakya was his chief minister.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Modelski | first=George | title=Kautilya: Foreign Policy and International System in the Ancient Hindu World | journal=American Political Science Review | volume=58 | issue=3 | year=1964 | doi=10.2307/1953131 | pages=549–560| jstor=1953131 | s2cid=144135587 }}; Quote: "Kautilya is believed to have been Chanakya, a Brahmin who served as [[Chief Minister]] to Chandragupta (321–296 B.C.), the founder of the Mauryan Empire."</ref>{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2017|p=220}} The empire was organised into territories (''[[janapada]]''), centres of regional power were protected with forts (''durga''), and state operations were funded with treasury (''kosa'').{{sfn|Allchin|Erdosy|1995|pp=189–192}} Strabo, in his ''[[Geographica]]'' composed about 300 years after Chandragupta's death, describes aspects of his rule in his chapter XV.46–69. He had councillors for matters of justice and assessors to collect taxes on commercial activity and trade goods. His officers inspected situations requiring law and order in the cities; the crime rate was low.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=62–63, 79–80, 90, 159–160}}

According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta's rule was marked by three parallel administrative structures. One managed the affairs of villages, ensuring irrigation, recording land ownership, monitoring tools supply, enforcing hunting, wood products and forest-related laws, and settling disputes.{{sfn|Sastri|1988|pp=120–122}} Another administrative structure managed city affairs, including all matters related to trade, merchant activity, visit of foreigners, harbors, roads, temples, markets, and industries. They also collected taxes and ensured standardized weights and measures.{{sfn|Sastri|1988|pp=120–122}} The third administrative body overlooked the military, its training, its weapons supply, and the needs of the soldiers.{{sfn|Sastri|1988|pp=120–122}}

Chanakya was concerned about Chandragupta's safety and developed elaborate techniques to prevent assassination attempts. Various sources report Chandragupta frequently changed bedrooms to confuse conspirators. He left his palace only for certain tasks: to go on military expeditions, to visit his court for dispensing justice, to offer sacrifices, for celebrations, and for hunting. During celebrations, he was well-guarded, and on hunts, he was surrounded by female guards who were presumed to be less likely to participate in a coup conspiracy. These strategies may have resulted from the historical context of the Nanda emperor who had come to power by assassinating the previous emperor.{{sfn|Allan|1958|pp=25–28}}

During Chandragupta's reign and that of his dynasty, many religions thrived in India, with [[Buddhism]], Jainism and [[Ajivika]] gaining prominence along with other folk traditions.{{sfn|Obeyesekere|1980|pp=137–139 with footnote 3}}{{sfn|Albinski|1958|pp=62–75}}

=== Infrastructure projects ===
[[File:MauryanCoin.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Coins|Silver punch mark coin ([[Karshapana]]) of the [[Maurya Empire]], with symbols of wheel and elephant (3rd century BCE)]]
The empire built a [[Maurya Empire#Economy|strong economy]] from a solid infrastructure such as irrigation, temples, mines, and roads.{{sfn|Allchin|Erdosy|1995|pp=187–195}}{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=62–63}} Ancient epigraphical evidence suggests Chandragupta, under counsel from Chanakya, started and completed many irrigation reservoirs and networks across the Indian subcontinent to ensure food supplies for the civilian population and the army, a practice continued by his dynastic successors.{{sfn|Allchin|Erdosy|1995|pp=187–194}} Regional prosperity in agriculture was one of the required duties of his state officials.{{sfn|Allchin|Erdosy|1995|pp=192–194}}

The strongest evidence of infrastructure development is found in the [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]] in Gujarat, dated to about 150 CE. It states, among other things, that [[Rudradaman I|Rudradaman]] repaired and enlarged the reservoir and irrigation conduit infrastructure built by Chandragupta and enhanced by Asoka.{{sfn|Allchin|Erdosy|1995|p=189}} Chandragupta's empire also built mines, manufacturing centres, and networks for trading goods. His rule developed land routes to transport goods across the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta expanded "roads suitable for carts" as he preferred those over narrow tracks suitable for only pack animals.{{sfn|Allchin|Erdosy|1995|pp=194–195}}

According to Kaushik Roy, the Maurya dynasty rulers were "great road builders".{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=62–63}} The Greek ambassador Megasthenes credited this tradition to Chandragupta after the completion of a thousand-mile-long highway connecting Chandragupta's capital [[Pataliputra]] in Bihar to [[Taxila]] in the north-west where he studied. The other major strategic road infrastructure credited to this tradition spread from Pataliputra in various directions, connecting it with [[Ancient Nepal|Nepal]], [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]], [[Dehradun]], [[Mirzapur]], [[History of Odisha|Odisha]], [[History of Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]], and Karnataka.{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=62–63}} Roy stated this network boosted trade and commerce, and helped move armies rapidly and efficiently.{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=62–63}}

Chandragupta and Chanakya seeded weapon manufacturing centres, and kept them as a state monopoly of the state. The state, however, encouraged competing private parties to operate mines and supply these centres.{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=63–64}} They considered economic prosperity essential to the pursuit of [[dharma]] (virtuous life) and adopted a policy of avoiding war with diplomacy yet continuously preparing the army for war to defend its interests and other ideas in the ''[[Arthashastra]]''.{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=64–68}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2013|pp=49–51, 99–108, 277–294, 349–356, 373–382}}

=== Arts and architecture ===
The evidence of arts and architecture during Chandragupta's time is mostly limited to texts such as those by Megasthenese and Kautilya. The edict inscriptions and carvings on monumental pillars are attributed to his grandson Ashoka. The texts imply the existence of cities, public works, and prosperous architecture but the historicity of these is in question.{{sfn|Harrison|2009|pp=234–235}}

Archeological discoveries in the modern age, such as those [[Didarganj Yakshi]] discovered in 1917 buried beneath the banks of the Ganges suggest exceptional artisanal accomplishment.{{sfn|Guha-Thakurta|2006|pp=51–53, 58–59}}{{sfn|Varadpande|2006|pp=32–34 with Figure 11}} The site was dated to third century BCE by many scholars{{sfn|Guha-Thakurta|2006|pp=51–53, 58–59}}{{sfn|Varadpande|2006|pp=32–34 with Figure 11}} but later dates such as the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] era (1st-4th century CE) have also been proposed. The competing theories state that the art linked to Chandragupta Maurya's dynasty was learnt from the Greeks and West Asia in the years Alexander the Great waged war; or that these artifacts belong to an older indigenous Indian tradition.{{sfn|Guha-Thakurta|2006|pp=58–61}} Frederick Asher of the University of Minnesota says "we cannot pretend to have definitive answers; and perhaps, as with most art, we must recognize that there is no single answer or explanation".{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=421–423}}

===Religion===
Chandragupta sponsored Vedic sacrifices{{sfn|Eraly|2002|pp=414–415}} and Brahmanical rituals,{{sfn|Sastri|1988|pp=163–164}} and hosted major festivals marked by procession of elephants and horses.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=62–63, 79–80, 90, 159–160}}

While many religions thrived within his realms and his descendants' empire, [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Ājīvika]] gained prominence prevailing over [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] and [[Brahmanism|Brahmanistic]] traditions,{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}} initiating, under Ashoka, the [[Buddhism#Ashokan Era and the early schools|expansion of Buddhism]] and the [[Hindu synthesis|synthesis]] of Brahmanic and non-Brahmanic religious traditions which converged in [[Hinduism]].

==Legacy==
[[File:Chandragupt maurya Birla mandir 6 dec 2009 (31) (cropped).JPG|thumb|A modern statue depicting Chandragupta Maurya, [[Laxminarayan Temple]], Delhi{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=138-140|ps=: It is "idealised" including a [[Chatra (umbrella)|royal parasol]] and halo, as influenced by ancient sculptures from [[Sarnath]], and "brings together a disparate variety of styles and motifs, none of which can easily be attributed to a specific period, region or genre", including "a helmet with a circular disc"; and with "traditional Indian unstitched clothing", intricate jewellry, and a [[yajnopavita|sacred thread]] to mark him as a [[kshatriya]], but also "a European style, hard-cover book". The plinth below depicts a map of India to symbolise Chandragupta's perceived importance to the nation.}}]]
[[File:Chandragupta Maurya stamp.jpg|thumb|Chandragupta Maurya stamp issued by Indian Government in 2001{{sfn|Jansari|2023|pp=174-176|ps=. This modern stamp has used symbols from [[punch-marked coins]], and depicts him in "minimalist" manner gesturing the [[abhayamudra]] with one hand and with a sword in the other, and wearing "traditional unstitched Indian clothing" and jewelry drawn from other ancient artworks; and with [[:File:Patna griffin.jpg|throne components]] inspired by [[Ashoka]]'s sculptures.}}]]

A memorial to Chandragupta exists on [[Chandragiri hill]] in [[Shravanabelagola]], [[Karnataka]].{{sfn|Vallely|2018|pp=182–183}} The [[Indian Postal Service]] issued a [[Commemorative stamp|commemorative postage stamp]] honouring Chandragupta Maurya in 2001.<ref name=PIBRelease>[http://pib.nic.in/archieve/lreleng/lyr2001/rjul2001/19072001/r190720012.html Commemorative postage stamp on Chandragupta Maurya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427002333/http://pib.nic.in/archieve/lreleng/lyr2001/rjul2001/19072001/r190720012.html |date=27 April 2013 }}, Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India</ref>

Historian Sushma Jansari notes that, in the 20th century, diverging views on Chandragupta have developed between western academics and Indian scholars.{{sfn|Jansari|2023}} While westerners tend to take a reserved view on Chandragupta's accomplishments, Indian authors have portrayed Chandragupta as a very successful king who established the first Indian nation.{{sfn|Jansari|2023}}

==In popular culture==
* ''[[Mudrarakshasa]]'' ("The Signet Ring of [[Rakshasa (amatya)|Rakshasa]]") is a political drama in [[Sanskrit]] by [[Vishakhadatta]] composed 600 years after the conquest of Chandragupta – probably between 300 CE and 700 CE.{{sfn|Roy|2012|pp=61–62}}
* [[Dwijendralal Ray|D. L. Roy]] wrote a Bengali drama named ''[[Chandragupta (play)|Chandragupta]]'' based on the life of Chandragupta. The story of the play is loosely borrowed from the [[Puranas]] and the Greek history.{{sfn|Ghosh|2001|pp=44–46}}
* Chanakya's role in the formation of the Maurya Empire is the essence of a historical/spiritual novel ''The Courtesan and the Sadhu'' by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash.<ref>''The Courtesan and the Sadhu, A Novel about Maya, Dharma, and God'', October 2008, Dharma Vision LLC., {{ISBN|978-0-9818237-0-6}}, Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934274</ref>
*''Chandragupta'' is a 1920 Indian silent film about the Mauryan king.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Bhagwan Das Garga]]|title=So Many Cinemas: The Motion Picture in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wXRZAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Eminence Designs|isbn=978-81-900602-1-9|page=43}}</ref>
*[[Chandragupta (film)|''Chandragupta'']] is a 1934 Indian film directed by [[Abdur Rashid Kardar]].
*''[[Chandraguptha Chanakya]]'' is an Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language historical drama film directed by C. K. Sachi, starring Bhavani K. Sambamurthy as Chandragupta.
*''Samrat Chandragupta'' is a 1945 Indian historical film by [[Jayant Desai]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Screen World Publication's 75 Glorious Years of Indian Cinema: Complete Filmography of All Films (silent & Hindi) Produced Between 1913-1988|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7UEAQAAIAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Screen World Publication|page=109}}</ref>
*''Samrat Chandragupt'' is a 1958 Indian historical fiction film by [[Babubhai Mistry]], a remake of the 1945 film. It stars [[Bharat Bhushan]] in the titular role of the emperor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hervé Dumont|title=L'Antiquité au cinéma: vérités, légendes et manipulations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ke0nAQAAIAAJ|year=2009|publisher=Nouveau Monde|isbn=978-2-84736-476-7}}</ref>
* The story of [[Chanakya]] and Chandragupta was made into a film in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] in 1977 titled ''[[Chanakya Chandragupta]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0259242/|title=Chanakya Chandragupta (1977)|work=IMDb|date=25 August 1977|access-date=2016-02-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311074910/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0259242/|archive-date=11 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* The television series ''[[Chanakya (TV series)|Chanakya]]'' is an account of the life and times of Chanakya, based on the play ''Mudrarakshasa''.<ref name="ie-8sept91">{{cite news |title= Television |newspaper= The Indian Express |date= 8 September 1991 |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=0X1lAAAAIBAJ&pg=0,1743861 |access-date= 22 August 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180511072641/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=0X1lAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wZ0NAAAAIBAJ&pg=0,1743861 |archive-date= 11 May 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref>
* In 2011, a television series called ''[[Chandragupta Maurya (2011 TV series)|Chandragupta Maurya]]'' was telecast on [[Imagine TV]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/idiotbox/chandragupta-maurya-comes-to-small-screen_79683.html|title=Chandragupta Maurya comes to small screen|work=Zee News|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235717/http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/idiotbox/chandragupta-maurya-comes-to-small-screen_79683.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|df=dmy-all|date=2011-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Chandragupta-Maurya-on-Sony-TV/articleshow/13009059.cms|title=Chandragupta Maurya on Sony TV?|work=The Times of India|date=5 May 2012 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104234227/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Chandragupta-Maurya-on-Sony-TV/articleshow/13009059.cms|archive-date=4 January 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=TV|first=Imagine|title=Channel|url=http://www.imagine.tv/in/shows/subhome/123/1779/|work=TV Channel|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194239/http://www.imagine.tv/in/shows/subhome/123/1779/|archive-date=25 July 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* In 2016, the television series ''[[Chandra Nandini]]'' was a fictionalized romance saga.<ref>{{cite news |title= Real truth behind Chandragupta's birth, his first love Durdhara and journey to becoming the Mauryan King |date= 17 October 2016 |url= https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/real-truth-about-chandragupta-maurya-his-birth-his-real-wives-and-death |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171028043805/https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/real-truth-about-chandragupta-maurya-his-birth-his-real-wives-and-death |archive-date= 28 October 2017 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>
* In the 2016 video game [[Civilization VI]], Chandragupta is a playable leader for the Indian civilization.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://civilization.com/civilization-6-rise-and-fall/news/entries/civilization-vi-rise-and-fall-chandragupta-leads-india/ | title=Civilization® VI – the Official Site | News | CIVILIZATION VI: RISE AND FALL - CHANDRAGUPTA LEADS INDIA }}</ref>
* In 2018, a television series called ''[[Chandragupt Maurya (2018 TV Series)|Chandragupta Maurya]]'' portrays the life of Chandragupta Maurya.<ref>{{cite news |title='Chandraguta Maurya' to launch in November on Sony TV |url=https://www.bizasialive.com/chandragupta-maurya-to-launch-in-november-on-sony-tv/ |access-date=18 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113170050/https://www.bizasialive.com/chandragupta-maurya-to-launch-in-november-on-sony-tv/ |archive-date=13 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*''[[Nobunaga the Fool]]'', a Japanese stage play and anime, features a character named Chandragupta based on the emperor.
*In the 2001 film ''[[Asoka (2001 film)|Aśoka]]'', directed by [[Santosh Sivan]], Bollywood director and producer [[Umesh Mehra]] played the role of Chandragupta Maurya.

==See also==
{{Portal|History|India}}
*[[List of Indian monarchs]]
**[[List of monarchs of Magadha]]
*[[Mauryan art]]
*[[Devavarman (Maurya)]]
*[[Dasharatha Maurya]]
*[[Samprati]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|35em|group=lower-alpha|refs=


{{efn-la|name="Boesche_2003_assassination"|{{harvtxt|Boesche|2003}}, referring to Radha Kumud Mookerji, ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'', 4th ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988 [1966]), 31, 28-33: "Just after Alexander's death in 323 B.C.E., Chandragupta and Kautilya began their conquest of India by stopping the Greek invaders. In this effort they assassinated two Greek governors, Nicanor and Philip, a strategy to keep in mind when I later examine Kautilya's approval of assassination. "The assassinations of the Greek governors," wrote Radha Kumud Mookerji, "are not to be looked upon as mere accidents.""}}


{{efn-la|name="dating"|'''Dating''': like his other dates, the date of Chandragupta's ascencion of the throne is uncertain. {{harvtxt|Jansari|2023|p=18}}: "...widely, and casually, accepted that Chandragupta came to power in c.320/319 bc. However, all of the information concerning Chandragupta’s rise to power and the dates of his reign must be treated with caution: the evidence, such as it is, is based on limited and problematic Graeco-Roman and South Asian sources, little of the content of which is contemporary with the events they report." Chandragupta's conquest of the Punjab happened after a prolonged period of unrest and warfare, and, synchronized with Greek history, happened around 317 BCE {{harv|Jansari|2023|p=17}}. Jansari, admitting that c.320/319 BCE is the date conventionally accepted by most scholars, follows Cribb in re-assessing Justin (XV section 4.12-22), who states that Chandragupta’s became "‘ruler of India’ when Seleucus was ‘laying the foundations’ of his own empire." According to Jansari, "this reference appears to refer to the period c.311– c.308 bc," implying that "Chandragupta gained power, and was possibly already the first Mauryan king, between c.311 and c.305 bc" {{harv|Jansari|2023|pp=30–31}}
* {{harvtxt|Jansari|2023|pp=17–18}}: "Most scholars assert that Chandragupta’s arrival here came after his overthrow of the Nanda dynasty and his establishment of his own dynasty in its place. This timing, however, like many other aspects of Chandragupta’s reign, remains uncertain, and some scholars have also suggested that Chandragupta’s activities in the region preceded the foundation of the Mauryan empire. [note 15] The inconclusive and problematic evidence for Chandragupta’s life and events means that either interpretation is possible."
* {{harvtxt|Jansari|2023|p=36, note 15}}: "The commentary alongside this section of Justin in Yardley, Wheatley and Heckel (2011, 278–9) provides a good overview of the arguments, from those put forward by scholars writing in the early nineteenth century to those of recent decades, in relation to the timing of Chandragupta’s arrival in the region before or after he took the Nanda throne."
* {{harvtxt|Jansari|2023|pp=29–30}}: "According to Justin, it was around the time that Eudamus murdered Porus and travelled west, c.317 bc, that Chandragupta first entered the Punjab [...] It is also not clear how long Chandragupta had been in power at this stage. While some scholars have argued that he was still in the process of challenging Nanda supremacy, the general consensus at present, with a few exceptions couched in tentative language, is that he had already established his own dynasty. [note 67 ]"
* {{harvtxt|Jansari|2023|p=p.38, note 67}}: "Just. Epit. 14.4.12–14. Trans. J. C. Yardley. Yardley, Wheatley and Heckel (2011, 278–9) provide a good overview of the way the scholarship falls on both sides of the debate. Singh (2008, 330) suggests the possibility that Chandragupta was in the process of empire-building when he arrived in the Punjab at this time."}}
{{efn-la|name="dating_2"|It is noted by Jansari, "there is no statement in Justin relating to the start of Chandragupta’s reign, simply that he was ‘ruler of India’ while Seleucus was securing and establishing the foundations of his own empire."{{harv|Jansari|2023|p=31}} Trautman interprets it as meaning that Chandragupta had already conquered both the Nanda Empire and Punjab at that point when Seleucus was coming to power in 311-305.{{harv|Trautmann|1970|pp=59–60}} Yardley, Wheatley and Heckel think that the conquest of Punjab / Indus Valley was still happening in 311-308 BCE, but after Chandragupta had already overthrown the Nandas to become king of Magadha.{{harv|Yardley|Wheatley|Heckel|2011|pp=277–291}}
*Tarn refers to some traditional Jain chronologies which place Chandragupta's accession in 313/312 BCE, but he interprets it to be date Chandragupta had completed his conquests, excepting the later western expansion acquired from Seleucus.{{harv|Tarn|1922|pp=46–47}} Tarn has interpreted Justin's original Latin passage differently from Trautman (who, p.59, footnote 1 criticizes Tarn for "straining the word-order and the sense and tense" of the Latin), interpreting it to be saying Chandragupta getting his kingdom contemporary with Seleucus. However, even so, Tarn (p.47, footnote 3) takes the view "Chandragupta seized the crown of Magadha c. 321 and completed the conquest of his empire by 312", excepting the later western expansion acquired from Seleucus.
*The statement of Justin that {{blockquote|"Chandragupta ‘gathered a band of outlaws and incited the Indians to revolution’ against the Nanda dynasty, after which ‘he was preparing for hostilities against Alexander’s governors’"{{harv|Jansari|2023|p=29}}}} has also been interpreted by {{harv|Trautmann|1970|pp=57–58}} and {{harv|Yardley|Wheatley|Heckel|2011|p=289}} as saying clearly that Chandragupta's conquest of Magadha took place before Alexander's satraps in Punjab were overthrown. However, they note that some scholars have nevertheless speculated about Chandragupta becoming a ruler in Punjab first, before conquering Magadha.
*Yardley, Wheatley and Heckel state that Justin's ''Epitome'' "is the critical text for reconstructing the chronology of events in India after the death of Alexander" but "matters of detail, sequence of events, and chronology are rendered difficult to interpret by the spasmodic and compressed nature of the ''Epitome'', drawing second-hand, as it does" {{harv|Yardley|Wheatley|Heckel|2011|p=277}}}}


{{efn|name="Fisher-2018_p71"|{{harvtxt|Fisher|2018|p=71}}: "Chandragupta (r. 320 – c. 298 BCE) led a rebellion that seized power in Magadha and founded the Maurya Dynasty. He located his capital Pataliputra (today’s Patna) at an especially strategic trading and defensive location, on the south bank of the Ganges where the Son River joined it. The actual origins of the Maurya family remain uncertain, but consensus holds that Chandragupta was low-born. One popular account asserts he was the previous king’s son by a low-ranked queen or concubine and overthrew his royal half-brothers. Maurya means “peacock,” and some Jain texts identify his family as low peacock herders, ranked by Brahmans as Shudra at best.}}

{{efn-la|name="Fisher_2018_p72"|{{harvtxt|Fisher|2018|p=72}}: "Chandragupta’s many military and diplomatic conquests extended his overlordship further than any previous Indian ruler: from Afghanistan to Bengal and from the Himalayas down into the northern Deccan. But his administration lacked the technology and infrastructure to penetrate very deeply into society outside of Magadha."}}


{{efn-la|name="Haig_1894_LIV"|{{harvtxt|Haig|1894|p=24}}: "...the general rising of the northern peoples headed by Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya dynasty of Pataliputra, followed in rapid succession. The Lower Indus Valley now became free from foreign rule, and the local chiefs were no doubt left to their own devices. Nominally the territory may have been a dependency of the Mauryan kingdom, but, separated from the main body of that kingdom by a wide expanse of desert, and at a vast distance from the capital on the Ganges, its tie of allegiance must have been of the slightest. This independence, or semi-independence, lasted under no doubt varying degrees of definiteness […] till […] [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]], in the second century B.C., invaded [[Patalene]] in force and completely subjected it to Bactria."}}

{{efn-la|name="Herat"|According to Grainger, Seleucus "must ... have held Aria" (Herat), and furthermore, his "son [[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochos]] was active there fifteen years later". (Grainger, John D. 1990, 2014. ''Seleukos Nikator: Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom''. Routledge. p. 109).}}


{{efn-la|name="Ludden_2013_p29"|{{harvtxt|Ludden|2013|pp=29–30}}: "The geography of the Mauryan Empire resembled a spider with a small dense body and long spindly legs. The highest echelons of imperial society lived in the inner circle composed of the ruler, his immediate family, other relatives, and close allies, who formed a dynastic core. Outside the core, empire travelled stringy routes dotted with armed cities. Outside the palace, in the capital cities, the highest ranks in the imperial elite were held by military commanders whose active loyalty and success in war determined imperial fortunes. Wherever these men failed or rebelled, dynastic power crumbled. ... Imperial society flourished where elites mingled; they were its backbone, its strength was theirs. Kautilya’s ''Arthasastra'' indicates that imperial power was concentrated in its original heartland, in old ''Magadha'', where key institutions seem to have survived for about seven hundred years, down to the age of the Guptas. Here, Mauryan officials ruled local society, but not elsewhere. In provincial towns and cities, officials formed a top layer of royalty; under them, old conquered royal families were not removed, but rather subordinated. In most ''janapadas'', the Mauryan Empire consisted of strategic urban sites connected loosely to vast hinterlands through lineages and local elites who were there when the Mauryas arrived and were still in control when they left."}}


{{efn-la|name="Majumdar"|The authors and their affiliations listed in the title page of ''[[An Advanced History of India]]'' are: R. C. Majumdar, M.A., Ph.D. Vice-Chancellor, Dacca University; H. C. Raychaudhuri, M.A., Ph.D., Carmichael Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Calcutta University; and Kalikinkar Datta, M.A., Ph.D. Premchand Raychand Scholar, Mount Medallist, Griffith Prizeman, Professor and Head of the Department of History, Patna College, Patna}}

{{efn|name="Maurya_Empire_maximum_extent"|At its peak, the Mauryan Empire extended across [[North India]], from modern day [[Bengal]] in the east, to as far westward as [[Ancient history of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] below the [[Hindu Kush]], as well as making inroads into [[Central India]] and as far south as the northern [[Deccan]]:
* {{harvtxt|Bose|Jalal|p=39}}: "The political history of the centuries following the rise of Buddhism and Jainism saw the emergence and consolidation of powerful regional states in northern India. Among the strongest of these was the kingdom of Magadha, with its capital at Pataliputra (near the modern city of Patna). The Magadhan kingdom expanded under the Maurya dynasty in the fourth and fifth centuries BCE to become an empire embracing almost the whole of the subcontinent. Chandragupta Maurya founded the dynasty in 322 BCE, just a few years after Alexander the Great's brief foray into northwestern India. The Maurya empire reached its apogee under the reign of Ashoka (268–231 BCE)."
* {{harvtxt|Ludden|2013|p=47}}: "IMPERIAL BHARAT The Mauryas defined an ancient territory called Bharat. Marching along old trade routes, the empire acquired the geometrical shape of a tall triangle with a broad base, with its apex in Magadha. One long northern leg ran west up the Ganga, across Punjab, into the Hindu Kush; and one long leg ran south-west from Pataliputra, up the Son river valley, down the Narmada River into Berar, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. The broad base spanned Punjab, the Indus, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and western Maharashtra. The northwestern frontier revolved around Gandhara and Kashmir; the south-western frontier around Nasika, now Nasik, in Maharashtra. North of Kashmir and west of the Khyber Pass, Greek dynasties held sway. South of Nasika, the Mauryan presence consisted primarily of diplomatic missions."}}



{{efn-la|name="Stein_Arnold_2010"|{{harvtxt|Stein|Arnold|2010}}: "Around 270 bce, the first Indian documentary records, issued by the Buddhist king Ashoka, were added to the Greek source. Though Ashoka’s inscriptions were deciphered in the nineteenth century, we still cannot be sure about the political formation that existed under this Mauryan king, much less under the kingdom’s founder, Ashoka’s grandfather Chandragupta, who was possibly a contemporary of Alexander. Evidence in the form of a Sanskrit treatise called the Arthashastra – depicting a centralized, tyrannical, spy-ridden and compul sively controlling regime – probably does not pertain to Mauryan times. If its political world was not pure theory, it could only have been achieved within a small city-state, not a realm as vast as that defined by the distribution of Ashoka’s inscriptions, over some 1500 miles from Afghanistan to southern India."}}


<ref group=lower-alpha name="western_extent">The western extent is disputed. 
'''Gedrosia''' and '''Kandahar'''
* {{harvtxt|Kosmin|2014|p=33}}: "Seleucus transferred to Chandragupta's kingdom the easternmost satrapies of his empire, certainly [[Gandhara]], [[Parapamisadae]] [Kabul], and the eastern parts of [[Gedrosia]], and possibly also [[Arachosia]] [Kandahar] and [[Aria (region)|Aria]] as far as [[Herat]]."
* {{harvtxt|Kosmin|2014|p=277}}: "The discovery in Kandahar of two royal edicts issued by Chandragupta's famous grandson, Ashoka, confirming Mauryan possession of Arachosia, at least by the mid-third century; [...] in the absence of evidence of later Mauryan expansion and with the friendly relations maintained between the two kingdoms (see later), the most economical explanation is that Seleucus ceded the region of Kandahar, but the state of our evidence obliges caution."
'''Parapamisadae (Kabul) and Arachosia (Kandahar)'''
* {{harvtxt|Tarn|1922|p=100}} and {{harvtxt|Coningham|Young|2015|pp=452–453}} have questioned the inclusion of eastern Afghanistan (Kabul-Kandahar). {{harvtxt|Coningham|Young|2015|p=452}} note that "a growing number of researchers would now agree that the Ashokan edicts may have represented 'an area of maximum contact rather than streamlined bureacrayic control'."
'''Gedrosia''': 
* {{harvtxt|Smith|1914|p=149}}: "The satrapy of Gedrosia (or Gadrosia) extended far to the west, and probably only the eastern part of it was annexed by Chandragupta. The Malin range of mountains,[c] which Alexander experienced such difficulty in crossing, would have furnished a natural boundary."
* {{harvtxt|Tarn|1922|p=100}}: "In Gedrosia the boundary is known: the country ceded was that between the Median Hydaspes (probably the Purali[e]) and the Indus."
'''Gujarat'''
* {{harvtxt|Chakrabarty|2010|p=29}}: "We are assuming that the basic historical-geographical configuration of the Magadhan power was achieved before the beginning of the Maurya dynasty, whose founder Chandragupta Maurya simply added to it the stretch from the Indus valley to the southern foot of the Hindukush, giving the Mauryan India a strong foothold in the Oxus to the Indus interaction zone of Indian history. The evidence is in some cases, as in the cases of Gujarat, Bengal, and Assam, shadowy, but if Chandragupta had undertaken expeditions in these directions, there would have been echoes of these expeditions in the literary traditions."
'''Aria (Herat)'''
* {{harvtxt|Raychaudhuri|Mukherjee|1997|p=594}}:"[Aria] has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars [...] on the basis of wrong assessments of the passage of Strabo [...] and a statement by Pliny."
* {{harvtxt|Grainger|2014|p=109}}: "Seleucus "must [...] have held Aria", and furthermore, his "son Antiochos was active there fifteen years later."
* {{harvtxt|Sherwin-White|Kuhrt|1993|pp=79–80}}: "The region of Aria is definitely known to have been Seleucid under Seleucus I and Antiochus I as it definitely was after [[Antiochus III]]'s great campaign in the east against the Parthians and Bactrians. [...] There is no evidence whatever that it did not remain Seleucid, like [[Drangiana]], with which it is linked by easy routes."
* "For more than a century, the Seleucids remained in control of the [Drangiana] region. [...] Drangiana was conquered by the Parthians." [https://www.livius.org/articles/place/drangiana/].</ref>
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}

* {{citation |last=Albinski |first=Henry S. |title=The Place of the Emperor Asoka in Ancient Indian Political Thought |journal=Midwest Journal of Political Science |volume=2 |issue=1 |year = 1958 |pages=62–75 |jstor=2109166 |doi=10.2307/2109166 }}
* {{citation |last=Allan |first=J |title=The Cambridge Shorter History Of India |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99610 |year=1958 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
* {{citation | last =Allchin | first =F. R. | year =1995 | chapter =The Mauryan State and Empire | editor-last1 =Allchin | editor-first1 =F. R. | editor-last2 =Erdosy | editor-first2 =George | title =The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-37695-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C}}
* {{citation |last1=Allchin |first1=F. R. |last2=Erdosy |first2=George |title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-37695-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Appian |title=History of Rome, The Syrian Wars }}
* {{citation |last=Asher |first=Frederick |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Rebecca M. |editor-last2=Hutton |editor-first2=Deborah S. |title=A Companion to Asian Art and Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DX-CAAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-01953-4 }}

* {{citation |last=Barua |first=Pradeep |title=The State at War in South Asia |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/11919 |publisher=Nebraska Press |year=2005 |volume=2 |isbn=9780803240612 |quote=via [[Project MUSE]] {{subscription required}} }}
* {{citation |last=Bentley |first=Jerry |title=Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 }}
* {{citation |last=Bhattacharyya |first=P. K. |title=Historical Geography of Madhyapradesh from Early Records |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] | year =1977 }}
* {{citation |last=Boesche |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Boesche |year=2003 |title=Kautilya's ''Arthaśāstra'' on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=67 |issue=1 |page=9 |doi=10.1353/jmh.2003.0006 |s2cid=154243517 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/journal_of_military_history/v067/67.1boesche.pdf |issn=0899-3718 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book|last1=Bose|first1=Sugata|author1-link=Sugata Bose|last2=Jalal|first2=Ayesha|author2-link=Ayesha Jalal|title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite book |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst |year=2007 |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the culture of early India |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-15719-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GNG5KuH73QC&q=greater+magadha |language=en|oclc=897004884}}

* {{citation|last=Chakrabarty|first=Dilip K.|year=2010|author-link=Dilip K. Chakrabarti|title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties |location=New Delhi, Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-908832-4}}
* {{cite journal | last1 =Clark | first1 =Walter Eugene | year = 1919 | title = The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_classical-philology_1919-10_14_4/page/n3 | journal = Classical Philology | volume = 14 | issue = 4| pages = 297–313 | doi = 10.1086/360246 | s2cid = 161613588 }}
* {{cite book | last1 =Coningham | first1 =Robin | last2 =Young | first2 =Ruth | year =2015 | title =The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =978-1-316-41898-7}}

* {{cite book | last =Danielou | first =Alain | year =2003 |title =A Brief History of India | publisher =Inner Traditions | isbn =978-0-89281-923-2 | url =https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin00dani/page/n3/mode/2up}}
* {{citation |last=Dikshitar |first=V. R. Ramachandra |title=The Mauryan Polity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LA91rqvCB2EC |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1023-5 }}
* {{citation |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-26605-5 }}
* {{citation |last=Dupree |first=Louis |title=Afghanistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yvr_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher= Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5891-0 }}

* {{citation |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |title=Gem In The Lotus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YokatCwNG90C |year=2002 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-93-5118-014-2 }}

* {{citation | last =Fisher | first =Michael | year =2018 | title =An Environmental History of India, From the Earliest Times to the Twenty-First-Century | location =Cambridge and New York | series =New Approaches in Asian History Series | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =9781107111622}}
* {{citation |last=Fleet |first=J.F. |title=Bhadrabahu, Chandragupta and Shravanabelagola (Indian Antiquary) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjdCAQAAMAAJ |year=1892 |publisher=Archaeological Society of India |volume=21 }}

* {{citation |last=Ghosh |first=Ajit Kumar |title=Dwijendralal Ray |edition=1st |year=2001 |series= Makers of Indian Literature |publisher=Sahitye Akademi |location= New Delhi |isbn= 978-81-260-1227-5 }}
* {{citation |last=Grainger | first =John D. | date=2014 | title=Seleukos Nikator: Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0r3KAgAAQBAJ |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-80099-6}}
* {{citation |last=Grant |first=R.G. |title=Commanders |publisher=Penguin |year=2010 }}
* {{citation |last=Guha-Thakurta |first=Tapati |editor1-last=Chatterjee |editor1-first=Partha |editor2-last=Ghosh |editor2-first=Anjan |title=History and the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-1eCdLyrpV8C |year=2006 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-224-6 }}

* {{citation |last1=Habib |first1=Irfan |last2=Jha |first2=Vivekanand |title=Mauryan India |series=A People's History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUvGQgAACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Aligarh Historians Society / [[Tulika Books]] |isbn=978-81-85229-92-8 }}

* {{cite book | last =Haig | first =Malcolm Robert | year =1894 | title =The Indus Delta Country: A Memoir, Chiefly on Its Ancient Geography and History | publisher =K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Company, Limited}}
* {{citation |last=Harrison |first=Thomas |title=The Great Empires of the Ancient World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDzbX7h3h-gC |year=2009|publisher=Getty Publications|isbn=978-0-89236-987-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Hemacandra |translator=R.C.C. Fynes |title=The Lives of the Jain Elders |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quNpKVqABGMC |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283227-6 }}

* {{citation |last=Jain |first=Jyoti Prasad |title= Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India: 100 BC - AD 900 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UTUwAQAAIAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=9788121511407 |ref={{sfnref|Jyoti Prasad Jain|2005}} }}
* {{citation |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |title=Gender and Salvation |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GRA-uoUFz3MC |year=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06820-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Jansari |first=Sushma |title=Chandragupta Maurya: The creation of a national hero in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BOG9EAAAQBAJ |year=2023 |publisher=UCL Press |isbn=9781800083882}}
* {{citation |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 }}
* {{citation |first=Jeffery D |last=Long |title=Jainism: An Introduction |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=I3gAAwAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-0-85771-392-6 }}

* {{citation |last=Kosmin |first=Paul J. |author-link=Paul J. Kosmin |title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire |date=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-72882-0 }}
* {{citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |title=A History of India |edition=4th |year=2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-15481-9 }}

* {{Cite book |last=Lal bhargava |first=Purushottam |year=1996|title=Chandragupta Maurya A Gem of Indian History |publisher=D.K Printworld |isbn=9788124600566 }}
* {{citation |last=Ludden |first=David|year=2013|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-108-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29}}

* {{citation |last=Majumdar |first=R. C. |author-link=R. C. Majumdar |title=Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] | year =2003 |orig-year=1952 |isbn=978-81-208-0436-4 }}
* {{citation|last1=Majumdar|first1=R. C.|author-link1=R. C. Majumdar|last2=Raychauduhuri|first2=H. C.|author-link2=H. C. Raychaudhuri|last3=Datta|first3=Kalikinkar|title=An Advanced History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MyIWMwEACAAJ|year=1960|publisher=Macmillan & Company Ltd; New York: St Martin's Press|location=London}}
* {{citation |last=Malalasekera |first=Gunapala Piyasena |title=Encyclopaedia of Buddhism: Acala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UfYAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Government of Ceylon }}
* {{citation |last=Mookerji |first=Radha Kumud |author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee |title=Aśoka |year=1962 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (reprint 1995) |location=Delhi |isbn= 978-81208-058-28 |edition=3rd Revised., repr}}
* {{citation |last=Mookerji |first=Radha Kumud |author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee |title=Chandragupta Maurya and his times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C |edition=4th |year=1988 |orig-year=first published in 1966 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=81-208-0433-3 }}

* {{citation |last=Obeyesekere |first=Gananath |editor-first=Wendy |editor-last=Doniger |title=Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4WZTj3M71y0C |year=1980 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-03923-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra | year=2013 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford UK | isbn = 978-0199891825| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6MlgU0oQb4sC }}

* {{citation |last=Raychaudhuri |first=H. C. |author-link=H C Raychaudhuri |year=1923 |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty |publisher= Oxford University Press (1996 reprint, with B. N. Mukerjee Introduction) |url =https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000rayc/page/n7/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book | last1 =Raychaudhuri | first1 =Hem Chandra | last2 =Mukherjee | first2 =B.N. | year =1997 | edition =eight | orig-year=1923 | title =Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty | publisher =Oxford University Press India | url =https://www.scribd.com/document/786334583/Political-History-of-Ancient-India-From-the-Accession-of-Parikshit}}
* {{citation |last=Raychaudhuri |first=H. C. |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |chapter=India in the Age of the Nandas / Chandragupta and Bindusara |editor=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |editor-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |title=Age of the Nandas and Mauryas |edition=Second |chapter-url=https://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/age-nandas-and-mauryas-0 |year=1967 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (1988 reprint) |isbn=978-81-208-0466-1 }}
* {{citation |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-107-01736-8 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vRE3n1VwDTIC }}

* {{citation |last=Salomon |first=Richard |title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535666-3 }}
* {{citation |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel |year=2010 |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
* {{citation |last=Sastri |first=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta |title=Age of the Nandas and Mauryas |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/age-nandas-and-mauryas-0 |year=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0466-1 }}
* {{citation |last=Sen |first=R.K. |title=Journal of the Buddhist Text Society of India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r0ZBAQAAMAAJ |year=1895 |publisher=The Society |chapter=Origin of the Maurya of Magadha and of Chanakya }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Madhulika |year=2001 |title=Fire Worship in Ancient India |publisher=Publication scheme |isbn=9788186782576}}
* {{cite book | last1 =Sherwin-White | first1 =Susan | last2 =Kuhrt |first2 =Amelie | year =1993 | title =From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire | publisher =University of California Press}}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-93-325-6996-6 |ref={{sfnref|Upinder Singh|2016}} }}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=Political Violence in Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-674-97527-9 |ref={{sfnref|Upinder Singh|2017}} }}
* {{cite book | last =Smith | first =V.A. | year =1914 | title =The Early History Of India Third Edition | edition =third | publisher =Oxford University Press | url =https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283158/page/n171/mode/2up?q=Aria}}
* {{citation|last1=Stein|first1=Burton|year=2010|author1-link=Burton Stein|last2=Arnold|first2=David|author2-link=David Arnold (historian)|title=A History of India|page=16|edition=2|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6}}
* {{citation |last=Stoneman |first=Richard |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MFnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 |year=2019 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18538-5 }}

* {{cite book | last =Tarn | first =W. W. | year =1922 | title =The Greeks in Bactria and India | publisher =Cambridge University Press | url =https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.125997/page/n3/mode/2up}}
* {{citation |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwJuAAAAMAAJ |year=1961 |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
* {{citation |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC |year=2004 |orig-year=first published by Penguin in 2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 }}
* {{citation |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=The Past Before Us|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Trautmann |first=Thomas R. |title=Alexander and Nandrus in Justin 15.4.16. |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=51 |issue=1/4 |year=1970 }}

* {{citation |last=Upādhye |first=Ādinātha Neminātha |title=Mahāvīra and His Teachings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gO8JAQAAIAAJ |year=1977 |publisher=Bhagavān Mahāvīra 2500th Nirvāṇa Mahotsava Samiti }}

* {{citation |last=Vallely |first=Anne |editor-last=Kitts |editor-first=Margo |title=Martyrdom, Self-Sacrifice, and Self-Immolation: Religious Perspectives on Suicide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XHhUDwAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-065648-5 }}
* {{citation |last=Varadpande |first=Manohar Laxman |title=Woman in Indian Sculpture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsE5KAja3jAC |year=2006 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-474-5 }}

* {{citation |last=Wiley |first=Kristi L. |title=The A to Z of Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUz9o-EKTpwC |date=16 July 2009 |publisher=Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-6821-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-03591-5}}
* {{citation |last1=Yardley |first1=John |last2=Wheatley |first2=Pat |last3=Heckel |first3=Waldemar |title=Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Volume II: Books 13-15, The Successors to Alexander the Great (Translation, Appendices and Commentary) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQJTek1salEC |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press, Clarendon Ancient History Series |isbn=}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box}}
*{{cite book |last=Bongard-Levin |first=Grigory Maksimovich |date=1985 |title=Mauryan India |location=New Delhi |publisher=Sterling Publishers |oclc=14395730 |author-link=Grigory Bongard-Levin }}
* {{citation |last1=Brown |first1=Rebecca M. |last2=Hutton |first2=Deborah S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DX-CAAAQBAJ |title=A Companion to Asian Art and Architecture |isbn=9781119019534 |date=2015-06-22 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}
* {{citation |last=Kosmin |first=Paul J. |author-link=Paul J. Kosmin |title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-674-72882-0 | ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Mandal |first=Dhaneshwar |title=Ayodhya, Archaeology After Demolition: A Critique of the "new" and "fresh" Discoveries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvTBfbfxAukC |isbn=9788125023449 |year=2003 |publisher=Orient Blackswan }}
* {{citation |last=Mani |first=Braj Ranjan |title=Debrahmanising history: dominance and resistance in Indian society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kEwAQAAIAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Manohar |isbn=978-81-7304-640-7 }}
* {{citation |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |title=Warfare in Pre-British India–1500BCE to 1740CE |publisher=Routledge | year=2015 }}
* {{citation |last=Sagar |first=Krishna Chandra |title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC |isbn=9788172110284 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.34822/page/n3 Maurya and Sunga Art], N R Ray

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|Maurya dynasty||||}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Dhana Nanda]] (as king of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha Empire]])}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Maurya Empire#List of rulers|Emperor of the Maurya Empire]]|years=322–297 BCE}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Bindusara]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Patna|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chandragupta Maurya}}
[[Category:Chandragupta Maurya| ]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:4th-century BC Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:290s BC deaths]]
[[Category:Mauryan dynasty]]
[[Category:Founding monarchs in Asia]]
[[Category:3rd-century BC Hindus]]
[[Category:4th-century BC Hindus]]
[[Category:Emperors of Magadha]]
[[Category:People from Patna]]
[[Category:Hassan district]]
[[Category:Taxila Tehsil]]

Tantric sex

2026-03-17T06:41:12Z

KarmaConyers: put up first article w/ sources

{{Short description|Tantric sexual practices}}{{Redirect|Sexual yoga|text=Not to be confused with [[Tantric massage]]}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
[[File:Khajuraho10.jpg|thumb|[[Maithuna]], [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India]]
'''Tantric sex''' is any of a range of practices in [[Tantra|Hindu]] and [[Vajrayana|Buddhist tantra]] that utilize [[Human sexual activity|sexual activity]] in a [[Ritual sex|ritual]] or [[Yoga|yogic]] context. Tantric sex is associated with [[Antinomianism|antinomian]] elements such as the consumption of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]], and the offerings of substances like [[meat]] to [[deities]]. Moreover, sexual fluids may be viewed as power substances and used for ritual purposes, either externally or internally.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=159-160}}{{Sfn|Flood|2006|pp=i-ii}}

The actual terms used in the classical texts to refer to this practice include "[[Karmamudrā|Karmamudra]]" ([[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]]: ལས་ཀྱི་ཕྱག་རྒྱ ''las kyi phyag rgya'', "action seal") in Buddhist tantras and "[[Maithuna]]" ([[Devanagari]]: मैथुन, "coupling") in Hindu sources. In Hindu Tantra, Maithuna is the most important of [[Panchamakara|the five makara]] (five tantric substances) and constitutes the main part of the Grand Ritual of [[Tantra]] variously known as [[Panchamakara]], [[Panchatattva (Tantra)|Panchatattva]], and Tattva Chakra. In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], karmamudra is often an important part of the [[Tibetan tantric practice|completion stage of tantric practice]].

While there may be some connection between these practices and the [[Kamashastra|Kāmashāstra]] literature (which include the [[Kama Sutra|''Kāmasūtra'']]), the two practice traditions are separate methods with separate goals. As the British Indologist [[Geoffrey Samuel]] notes, while the kāmasāstra literature is about the pursuit of sexual pleasure ([[Kama|kāmā]]), sexual yoga practices are often aimed towards the quest for liberation ([[moksha]]).{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=273}}

==History==
{{main|Tantra#History}}

In its earliest forms, Tantric intercourse was usually directed to generate sexual fluids that constituted the "preferred offering of the Tantric deities."{{sfn|White|2000|p=17}}<ref name=Baier>{{harvnb|Baier|Maas|Preisendanz|2018|p={{page needed|date=November 2020}} }}</ref> There is already a mention of ascetics practicing [[Coitus reservatus|semen retention]] in the 4th century CE ''[[Mahabharata]]'', although those techniques were rare until late Buddhist Tantra. Up to that point, sexual emission was both allowed and emphasized.{{sfn|White|2000|p=17}} Around the start of the first millennium, Tantra began to include practices of semen retention, like the [[Tapas (Indian religions)|penance ceremony]] of ''asidharavrata'' and the posterior [[Hatha Yoga|yogic]] technique of [[vajroli mudra]]. They were probably adopted from ancient, non-Tantric celibate schools, like those mentioned in ''Mahabharata''.{{sfn|White|2000|p=17}}

The ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadaranyaka Upanisad]]'' contains various sexual rituals and practices which are mostly aimed at obtaining a child which are concerned with the loss of male virility and power.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=283}} One passage from the ''Brhadaranyaka Upanishad'' states:

<blockquote>Her vulva is the sacrificial ground; her pubic hair is the sacred grass; her labia majora are the Soma-press; and her labia minora are the fire blazing at the centre. A man who engages in sexual intercourse with this knowledge obtains as great a world as a man who performs a Soma sacrifice, and he appropriates to himself the merits of the women with whom he has sex. The women, on the other hand, appropriate to themselves the merits of a man who engages in sexual intercourse with them without this knowledge. (''[[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' 6.4.3, trans. Olivelle 1998: 88){{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=282}}</blockquote>

[[File:Vajradhara_L2011.64_01.jpg|thumb|Vajradhara in union with consort|331x331px]]
[[File:Jambhala 01.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Jambhala (Kubera) deity in Tibet (18th–19th century)]]

According to Samuel, late Vedic texts like the ''[[Jaiminiya Brahmana]]'', the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogya Upanisad]]'', and the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadaranyaka Upanisad]],'' "treat sexual intercourse as symbolically equivalent to the [[Yajna|Vedic sacrifice]], and ejaculation of semen as the offering."{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=283}} However, he also writes that while it is possible that some kind of sexual yoga existed in the fourth or fifth centuries, "Substantial evidence for such practices, however, dates from considerably later, from the seventh and eighth centuries, and derives from Saiva and Buddhist Tantric circles."{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=276}}

Tantric sexual practices are often seen as exceptional and elite, and not accepted by all sects. They are found only in some tantric literature belonging to Buddhist and Hindu Tantra, but are entirely absent from Jain Tantra.{{Sfn|Gray|2016|p=17}} In the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tradition and others where sexual fluids as power substances and ritual sex are mentioned, scholars disagree in their translations, interpretations and practical significance.{{sfn|Flood|2006|pp=164-168}}{{sfn|Larson|2008|pp=154–157}}{{sfn|Payne|2006|pp=19–20}}

Emotions, eroticism and sex are universally regarded in Tantric literature as natural, desirable, a means of transformation of the deity within. [[Kama|Pleasure]] and sex is another aspect of life and a "root of the universe", whose purpose extends beyond procreation and is another means to the spiritual journey and its fulfillment.{{sfn|Flood|2006|pp=84-86}} This idea flowers with the inclusion of kama art in Hindu temple arts, and its various temple architecture and design manuals such as the ''Shilpa-prakasha'' by the Hindu scholar Ramachandra Kulacara.{{sfn|Flood|2006|pp=84-86}}

==Practice==
===In Hinduism===
{{main|Tantra#Hindu tantra}}
{{further|Panchamakara}}

The actual term used in Hindu classical texts to refer to this practice is {{IAST|[[maithuna]]}} ([[Devanagari]]: मैथुन, "coupling"). In the [[Tantras (Hinduism)|Hindu Tantras]], {{IAST|maithuna}} is always presented in the context of {{IAST|[[panchamakara]]}} (the five {{IAST|makara}} or tantric substances) which constitutes primary ritual of Tantra. These may also be referred to as "the five Ms", {{IAST|panchatattva}} or the {{IAST|tattva chakra}}, which consist of {{IAST|madya}} ([[Alcoholic drink|alcohol]]), {{IAST|māṃsa}} ([[meat]]), {{IAST|matsya}} ([[Fish as food|fish]]), {{IAST|mudrā}} (pound grain), and {{IAST|maithuna}} ([[sexual intercourse]]). [[Taboo]]-breaking elements are only practiced literally by "left-hand path" tantrics (''[[vamachara|vāmācārin]]''s), whereas "right-hand path" tantrics (''[[dakṣiṇācāra|dakṣiṇācārin]]''s) use symbolic substitutes.{{sfn|Rawson|1978|p={{page needed|date=January 2021}}}}

[[Jayanta Bhatta]], the 9th-century scholar of the [[Nyaya]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]] and who commented on Tantra literature, stated that the Tantric ideas and spiritual practices are mostly well placed, but it also has "immoral teachings" such as by the so-called "Nilambara" sect where its practitioners "wear simply one blue garment, and then as a group engage in unconstrained public sex" on festivals. He wrote, this practice is unnecessary and it threatens fundamental values of society.{{sfn|Flood|2006|pp=48-49}} This sect might have been an offshoot of the [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pashupata Shaivite]] school,{{sfn|Flood|2006|p=52}} or possibly a Buddhist cult of [[Vajrapani]].{{sfn|Davidson|2006|p=204}}

Ascetics of the [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] school of [[Mantra marga|Mantramarga]], in order to gain supernatural power, reenacted the penance of [[Shiva]] after cutting off one of [[Brahma]]'s heads ([[Bhikshatana]]). They worshipped Shiva with impure substances like alcohol, blood and sexual fluids generated in orgiastic rites with their consorts.{{sfn|English|2013|p=40}}

Douglas Renfrew Brooks states that the antinomian elements such as the use of intoxicating substances and sex were not [[animistic]], but were adopted in some Kaula traditions to challenge the Tantric devotee to break down the "distinctions between the ultimate reality of Brahman and the mundane physical and temporal world" (Maya). By combining erotic and ascetic techniques, states Brooks, the Tantric broke down all social and internal assumptions, became Shiva-like.{{sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=69–71}} In [[Kashmir Shaivism]], states David Gray, the antinomian transgressive ideas were internalized, for meditation and reflection, and as a means to "realize a transcendent subjectivity".{{sfn|Gray|2016|p=11}}

As part of tantric inversion of social regulations, sexual yoga often recommends the usage of consorts from the most taboo groups available, such as close relatives or people from the lowest [[Varna (Hinduism)|castes]]. They must be young and beautiful, as well as initiates in tantra.{{sfn|English|2013|p=41}}

===In Buddhism===
{{main|Vajrayana}}
[[File:Mahasiddhas and consorts practicing karmamudra.png|thumb|Buddhist Mahasiddhas practicing tantric yoga]]

According to English, Buddhist sexual rites were incorporated from Shaiva tantra.{{sfn|English|2013|p=41}} One of the earliest mentions of sexual yoga is in the [[Mahayana]] Buddhist ''[[Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika|Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra]]'' of [[Asanga]] (c. 5th century). The passage states:

<blockquote>Supreme self-control is achieved in the reversal of sexual intercourse in the blissful Buddha-poise and the untrammelled vision of one's spouse.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=276}}</blockquote>

According to [[David Snellgrove]], the text's mention of a ‘reversal of sexual intercourse’ might indicate the practice of withholding ejaculation. Snellgrove states:

<blockquote>It is by no means improbable that already by the fifth century when Asanga was writing, these techniques of sexual yoga were being used in reputable Buddhist circles, and that Asanga himself accepted such a practice as valid. The natural power of the breath, inhaling and exhaling, was certainly accepted as an essential force to be controlled in Buddhist as well as Hindu yoga. Why therefore not the natural power of the sexual force? [...] Once it is established that sexual yoga was already regarded by Asanga as an acceptable yogic practice, it becomes far easier to understand how Tantric treatises, despite their apparent contradiction of previous Buddhist teachings, were so readily canonized in the following centuries.{{sfn|Snellgrove|1987|p=127}}</blockquote>

Deities like [[Vajrayogini]], sexually suggestive and streaming with blood, overturn traditional separation between intercourse and menstruation.{{sfn|English|2013|p=41}} Some extreme texts would go further, such as the 9th-century Buddhist text ''Candamaharosana-tantra'', which advocated consumption of bodily waste products of the practitioner's sexual partner, like wash-water of her [[Human anus|anus]] and [[genitalia]]. Those were thought to be "power substances", teaching the waste should be consumed as a diet "eaten by all the Buddhas."{{Sfn|Flood|2006|pp=84-85}}

====Japanese Buddhism====
{{main|Shingon Buddhism|Shugendō|Tendai}}
{{Expand section|date=September 2023}}

The 12th-century Japanese school [[Tachikawa-ryu]] did not discourage ejaculation in itself, considering it a "shower of love that contained thousands of potential Buddhas".<ref name="Stevens 1990">{{harvnb|Stevens|1990|p={{page needed|date=December 2020}} }}</ref> They employed emission of sexual fluids in combination with worshipping of human skulls, which would be coated in the resultant mix in order to create [[honzon]].<ref name="Stevens 1990"/> However, those practices were considered heretical, leading to the sect's suppression.<ref name="Stevens 1990"/>

====Tibetan Buddhism====
{{Main|Tibetan tantric practice}}
{{Further|Karmamudrā}}

In Tibetan Buddhism, the higher tantric [[yoga]]s are generally preceded by preliminary practices ([[Tibetic languages|Tib]]. ''[[Ngöndro|ngondro]]''), which include [[sutrayana]] practices (i.e. non-tantric Mahayana practices) as well as preliminary tantric meditations. Tantric initiation is required to enter into the practice of tantra.

Tibetan tantric practice refers to the main [[Tantra|tantric]] practices in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. The great [[Rimé movement|Rime]] scholar [[Jamgon Kongtrul|Jamgön Kongtrül]] refers to this as "the Process of Meditation in the Indestructible Way of Secret Mantra" and also as "the way of mantra," "way of method" and "the secret way" in his ''Treasury of Knowledge''.{{sfn|Jamgön Kongtrül|2005|p=74}}{{sfn|Jamgön Kongtrül|2008}} These [[Vajrayāna]] Buddhist practices are mainly drawn from the [[Tantras (Buddhism)|Buddhist tantras]] and are generally not found in "common" (i.e. non-tantric) [[Mahayana]]. These practices are seen by Tibetan Buddhists as the fastest and most powerful path to [[Buddhahood]].{{sfn|Powers|2007|p=250}}

''[[Anuttarayoga Tantra|Unsurpassable Yoga Tantra]]'', ([[Sanskrit|Skt.]] ''anuttarayogatantra'', also known as ''[[Mahayoga]]'') are in turn seen as the highest tantric practices in Tibetan Buddhism. Anuttarayoga tantric practice is divided into two stages, the ''generation stage'' and the ''completion stage.'' In the generation stage, one meditates on emptiness and visualizes one's chosen deity (''[[yidam]]''), its [[mandala]] and companion deities, resulting in identification with this divine reality (called "divine pride").{{sfn|Garson|2004|p=52}} This is also known as [[deity yoga]] (''devata yoga'').

In the completion stage, the focus is shifted from the form of the deity to direct realization of ultimate reality (which is defined and explained in various ways). Completion stage practices also include techniques that work with the [[subtle body]] substances (Skt. ''bindu'', Tib. ''thigle'') and "vital winds" (''vayu, lung''), as well as [[Luminous mind|the luminous or clear light nature of the mind.]] They are often grouped into different systems, such as the [[Six Dharmas of Naropa|six dharmas of Naropa]], or the six yogas of [[Kalachakra]].

Karmamudrā refers to the female [[yogini]] who engages in such a practice and the technique which makes use of [[Sexual intercourse|sexual union]] with a physical or visualized consort as well as the practice of inner heat ([[tummo]]) to achieve a [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dual]] state of bliss and insight into [[emptiness]].<ref>{{harvp|Kragh|2015|pp=381–386}}</ref> In [[Buddhism in the United States|Tibetan Buddhism]], proficiency in tummo yoga, a completion stage practice, is generally seen as a prerequisite to the practice of karmamudrā.<ref>{{harvp|Tsong-Kha-Pa|2005|p=70}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Hinduism|Religion|India}}
* [[Coitus reservatus]]
* [[Mahamudra]]
* [[Yab-yum]]
* [[Yogini]]
* [[Neotantra]]
* [[Edging (sexual practice)|Edging]], a modern practice

==References==
{{reflist|24em}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baier |first1=Karl |last2=Maas |first2=Philipp André |last3=Preisendanz |first3=Karin |title=Yoga in Transformation: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives |year=2018 |publisher=V&R Unipress |isbn=978-3-73700-862-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Brooks |first=Douglas Renfrew |title=The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Sakta Tantrism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f22pAqKz3zsC |year=1990 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-07569-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Davidson |first1=Ronald M.|title=Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement |year=2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-23112-619-9}}
* {{cite book |last=English |first=Elizabeth |title=Vajrayogini: Her Visualization, Rituals, and Forms |url= |year=2013 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-861-71657-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin D. |author-link=Gavin Flood |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo | url-access=registration|year=1996| publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0}}
* {{cite book| last=Flood | first=Gavin D. |author-link=Gavin Flood | title=The Tantric Body, The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion | publisher=I.B Taurus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC | year=2006 | isbn=978-1-84511-011-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Garson |first=Nathaniel DeWitt |title=Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra |year=2004}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
* {{cite book | last=Gray | first=David B. | title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |chapter=Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2016 | doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.59 | isbn=9780199340378 }}
* {{cite book |author-link=Jamgon Kongtrul |author=Jamgön Kongtrül |translator=Elio Guarisco and Ingrid McLeod |year=2005 |title=The Treasury of Knowledge, Book Six, Part Four Systems of Buddhist Tantra |publisher=Snow Lion Publications}}
* {{cite book |author=Jamgön Kongtrül |translator=Elio Guarisco and Ingrid McLeod |year=2008 |title=The Treasury of Knowledge: Book Eight, Part Three: The Elements of Tantric Practice |publisher=Shambhala Publications}}
*{{cite book |last=Kragh |first=Ulrich Timme |year=2015 |title=Tibetan Yoga and Mysticism A Textual Study of the Yogas of Naropa and Mahamudra Meditation in the Medieval Tradition of Dags po |place=Tokyo |publisher=International Institute for Buddhist Studies |series=Studia Philologica Buddhica |isbn=978-4-906267-72-9}}
* {{cite journal |last=Larson |first=Gerald |author-link=Gerald James Larson |date=January–March 2008 |jstor=25608318 |title=Reviewed Work: Kiss of the Yoginī: 'Tantric Sex' in Its South Asian Contexts by David Gordon White |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=154–157}}
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Richard K. |title=Tantric Buddhism in East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Y0PUmrAxyMC |year=2006 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-86171-487-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Powers |first=J. |year=2007 |title=Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism |edition=Rev |place=Ithaca |publisher=Shambhala |isbn=978-1559392822}}
* {{cite book |last=Rawson |first=Philip |year=1978 |title=The Art of Tantra |publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=0500201668}}
* {{cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel |year=2010 |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521695343}}
* {{cite book |last=Snellgrove |first=D. L. |year=1987 |title=Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and their Tibetan Successors |publisher=Serindia }}
* {{cite book |first=John |last=Stevens |author-link=John Stevens (scholar) |title=Lust for Enlightenment: Buddhism and Sex |date=1990 |publisher=Shambala Publications |isbn=978-0834829343}}
* {{cite book |translator-link=Glenn Mullin |translator=Glenn H. Mullin |author=Tsong-Kha-Pa |author-link=Je Tsongkhapa |year=2005 |title=The Six Yogas Of Naropa, Tsongkhapa's Commentary Entitled a Book of Three Inspirations a Treatise on the Stages of Training in the Profound Path Of Naro's Six Dharmas |publisher=Snow Lion Publications |isbn=1-55939-234-7}}
* {{cite book | editor-last=White | editor-first=David Gordon | year=2000 | title=Tantra in Practice | publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-05779-8}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Boner |first1=Alice |last2=Śarmā |first2=Sadāśiva Rath |year=1966 |title=Silpa Prakasa Medieval Orissan Sanskrit Text on Temple Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=itQUAAAAIAAJ |publisher=Brill Archive |oclc=29092186}}
* {{cite book |last=Harle |first=James C. |year=1994 |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Rabe |first=Michael |editor=David Gordon White |year=2001 |title=Tantra in Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hayV4o50eUEC&pg=PA442 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=442–443 |isbn=978-81-208-1778-4}}
* {{cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |author-link=David Gordon White |year=2003 |title=Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in Its South Asian Contexts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5RwARVMg2_4C |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-02783-8}}
* {{cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |author-link=David Gordon White |year=2005 |chapter=Tantrism: An Overview |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |title=MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Macmillan Publishers}}

{{Yoga}}
{{Meditation}}
{{Sex}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Human sexuality]]
[[Category:Sexual acts]]
[[Category:Sexuality and religion]]
[[Category:Tantra]]
[[Category:Tantric practices]]
[[Category:Vajrayana]]

Swati Ghosh

2026-03-14T06:28:53Z

KarmaConyers: put up some info from scratch...

{{Short description|Indian artist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Swati Ghosh
| image = Swati Ghosh 2025.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Swati Ghosh in 2025
| birth_name = Swati Roy Chowdhury
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1983|7|28}}
| birth_place = [[Jamshedpur]], [[Jharkhand]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| field = {{hlist|[[Painting]]|[[drawing]]|[[Fine Art]]}}
| education =
| awards =
| website = {{URL|https://www.swatighoshart.com/}}
}}

'''Swati Ghosh''' (born 28 July 1983) is an [[Indian people|Indian]] [[artist]].<ref name='ndtv'>{{Cite web |title=अपनी कला के बदौलत आर्टिस्ट "स्वाति घोष" को विदेश में मिली पहचान, उनकी चर्चित पेंटिंग को मिला पुरस्कार |url=https://ndtv.in/zara-hatke/due-to-her-art-artist-swati-ghosh-got-recognition-abroad-her-famous-painting-got-award-3939710 |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=NDTVIndia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Swati Ghosh Artist : ফের বাংলার মুখ উজ্জ্বল করলেন কলকাতার স্বাতী, ইত্যালিতে জিতলেন আন্তর্জাতিক পুরস্কার |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/kolkata/story/swati-ghosh-kolkata-west-bengal-painter-wins-international-award-italy-suk-455492-2022-10-06 |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=Aaj Tak বাংলা |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-09 |title=POWER OF ENERGY: 'পাওয়ার অফ এনার্জি' চিত্র শিল্পে ইতালিতে পুরষ্কৃত কলকাতার স্বাতী |url=https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/lifestyle/indian-artist-swati-ghosh-awarded-in-italy-for-her-artwork-power-of-energy_445850.html |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=Zee24Ghanta.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bengali Artist at Times square |url=https://eisamay.com/photo-gallery/news/bengali-artist-swati-ghosh-picture-showed-with-100-world-best-artist-at-times-square-bill-board/photoshow/101734765.cms |website=[[Ei Samay Sangbadpatra]] |language=bn}}</ref> She is known for depictions of peace and freedom in her artworks.<ref name="india.com">{{cite web |title=कौन हैं स्वाति घोष? जिन्होंने दक्षिण कोरिया में भारत के नाम का बजाया डंका |url=https://www.india.com/hindi-news/webstories/career-hindi/who-is-swati-ghosh-who-made-india-proud-in-hwpl-world-peace-summit-south-korea-8096317/ |website=India.com |language=hi |date=24 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gautam |first=Prateek |date=2023-05-03 |title=Swati Ghosh's art conveys positive message of peace |url=https://news24online.com/lifestyle/swati-ghoshs-art-conveys-positive-message-of-peace/130992/ |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=News24 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Ghosh is the first woman art judge from India by the International Council of Arts Federation, and appointed as [[Cultural ambassador|Cultural Ambassador]] by [[International Council of Museums]] Asia Pacific for Geoje International Art Festival.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-13 |title=ফের চমক বঙ্গতনয়ার! আন্তর্জাতিক আর্ট ফেস্টিভ্যালে বিচারকের ভূমিকায় স্বাতী ঘোষ |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/kolkata/swati-ghosh-become-the-first-indian-woman-to-judge-in-an-international-art-festival-at-south-korea-ss-626080.html |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=News18 Bengali |language=bn}}</ref><ref name="bartamanpatrika.com 2023 l252">{{cite web | title=আন্তর্জাতিক আর্ট ফেস্টিভ্যালে বিচারক বঙ্গতনয়া স্বাতী | website=bartamanpatrika.com | date=21 October 2023 | url=https://bartamanpatrika.com/home?cid=42&id=304897 | access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref> She also honored as Judge by IWPG and guest at HWPL world peace summit in South Korea.<ref name="india.com"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Swati Ghosh honoured at South Korea summit |url=https://avenuemail.in/jamshedpurs-swati-ghosh-honoured-at-south-korea-summit/ |website=The Avenue Mail |date=22 September 2025}}</ref>

Swati's paintings have been displayed numerous museums worldwide, including the [[Palazzo della Cancelleria|Palazzo Della Cancelleria]] in Rome, Snai [[San Siro]] Hippodrome in Milan, Italy, Chiesa [[Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto|Santa Maria Dei Miracoli]] Rome, Salon International D'art Contemporizing [[Carrousel du Louvre|Carrousel Du Louvre]] in Paris, [[Palazzo d'Accursio]] in Bologna and other places.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Tamara Art Award" 2023: l'arte internazionale della De Lempicka arriva al Micro |url=https://www.paeseroma.it/lifestyle/arte/2023/03/27/tamara-art-award-2023-larte-internazionale-della-de-lempicka-arriva-al-micro/ |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=PaeseRoma |date=27 March 2023 |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dialoghi d'arte tra natura e vita - Mostra collettiva - Arte.Go.it |url=https://www.arte.go.it/event/dialoghi-darte-tra-natura-e-vita-mostra-collettiva/ |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=Arte.Go: Mostre, Eventi, Corsi e Concorsi |date=17 September 2022 |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=जीवन कैद में सुखद और खुशहाल नहीं हो सकती..., चर्चित पेंटिंग ने कर दिया कमाल |url=https://www.lokmatnews.in/weird/swati-ghosh-her-art-abroad-famous-painting-got-international-award-life-cannot-be-pleasant-and-happy-b507/}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Ghosh (former name, Swati Roy Chowdhury) was born on 28 July 1983 in the city of Jamshedpur (Jharkhand)<ref>{{Cite web |title=स्वाति घोष भी दिखी टाइम स्क्वायर की स्क्रीन पर |url=https://www.inextlive.com/jharkhand/jamshedpur/swati-ghosh-also-appeared-on-the-screen-of-time-square-1688495324 |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=inextlive |language=hi}}</ref> India to Partha Sarathi Ray Chaudhuri (father) who was a senior auditor in the Field Gun Factory, Govt. of India in Kanpur and Parna Roy Chowdhury (mother). Her family lived in [[Armapur Estate]], Kanpur until Swati married a [[Merchant navy|Merchant Navy]] Engineer named Prasenjit Ghosh and moved to Kolkata. She has a son named.<ref>{{Cite web |title=कानपुर की स्वाति घोष को दक्षिण कोरिया में 21वें आर्ट कांटेस्ट में किया गया सम्मानित |url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/kanpur/swati-ghosh-from-kanpur-honored-at-the-21st-art-contest-in-south-korea |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-30 |title=বাঙালি তরুণীর শিল্প এবার ইতালীয় মডেলের পোশাকে, বিদেশে ফের পুরস্কৃত কলকাতার স্বাতী |url=https://www.thewall.in/news/bengali-artist-made-peace-motif-dress-awarded-in-italy/ |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=TheWall |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Career==
Ghosh was selected as judge for the 7th and 8th Geoje International Art Festival in [[Haegeumgang Theme Museum]] in [[South Korea]] in 2021 and 2022 by International Culture and Arts Federation (ICAF) as a first Indian women judge in South Korean museum for an art festival.<ref name="Bangla 2021 c962">{{cite web | last=Bangla | first=Aajtak | title=Swati Ghosh:মুখ উজ্জ্বল বাংলার, আন্তর্জাতিক আর্ট ফেস্টিভ্যালের বিচারক গড়িয়াহাটের স্বাতী | website=Aaj Tak বাংলা | date=1 August 2021 | url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/kolkata/story/bengali-painter-swati-ghosh-becomes-first-indian-woman-judge-south-korean-art-festival-sus-289641-2021-08-01 | language=bn | access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref> At the same time in 2021 she was appointed as Cultural Ambassador for the 7th [[Geoje]] International Art Festival in South Korea by ICOM [[International Council of Museums]] ASPAC during her work as judge in the museum.<ref>{{Cite web |title=स्वाती घोष बनीं कोरिया आर्ट फेस्टिवल की एंबेसडर |url=https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/kanpur-city-swati-ghosh-becomes-ambassador-of-korea-art-festival-21778915.html |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref><ref name="Mondal 2023 b218">{{cite web | last=Mondal | first=Susmita | title=বঙ্গ তনয়ার শিল্পকর্ম ইতালিয় মডেলের পোশাকে, বিদেশে ফের পুরষ্কৃত কলকাতার স্বাতী | website=Best News Portal in Kolkata | date=30 March 2023 | url=https://ekdinnews.com/west-bengal-girls-art-work-in-italian-model-dress-kolkatas-swati-awarded-again-abroad-for-her-new-artwork/ | access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="Hindusthan Samachar Bangali 2022 t509">{{cite web | title=ইতালির মিলানে পুরস্কৃত বঙ্গললনা স্বাতী, প্রদর্শনীর উদ্বোধন | website=Hindusthan Samachar Bangali | date=4 October 2022 | url=https://bengali.hindusthansamachar.in/Encyc/2022/10/4/Inauguration-of-swati-exhibition-in-Milan-Italy.php | access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref>

==Notable Exhibition==
*2023: PASOLINI e, l'arte Mostra D'arte Contemporanea, Milano Art Gallery, Milan, Italy<ref name='ndtv'/>
*January 2024 Exhibition PremioTeodorico 2, Venice, ITALY
*October 2023 Biennale Internazionale at Pescara, ITALY

==Awards==
*In September 2025, Ghosh honored as Judge by IWPG and guest at HWPL world peace summit in South Korea.<ref>{{cite web |title=Swati Ghosh honored in south korea becoming india face at peace conference know her education qualification how a science student become international artist |url=https://www.timesnowhindi.com/education/swati-ghosh-honored-in-south-korea-becoming-india-face-at-peace-conference-know-her-education-qualification-how-a-science-student-become-international-artist-article-152879174 |website=Times Now Navbharat |language=hi |date=23 September 2025}}</ref>
*The Diplôme de Médaille d'Étain award 2024 in Paris<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Artist Swati Ghosh Honored with Prestigious DiplÃ´me de MÃ©daille d'Ã‰tain in Paris |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2024/new/indian-artist-swati-ghosh-honored-with-prestigious-dipl--me-de-m--daille-d---tain-in-paris.html |website=The Pioneer |language=en}}</ref>
*Médaille d'honneur du travail award 2024 in [[Paris]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamshedpur Artist Swati Ghosh Receives International Honor In Paris, Awarded |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJbglE3SluQ |website=YouTube |publisher=Wonderwebworld |date=10 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Success Story: साइंस स्टूडेंट स्वाति घोष ने चुनी कला की राह, मेहनत और जुनून से पेरिस में पाया अंतर्राष्ट्रीय सम्मान |url=https://www.timesnowhindi.com/education/indian-artist-swati-ghosh-received-diplome-de-medaille-d-etain-in-france-know-her-education-qualification-article-114067952 |website=Times Now Navbharat |language=hi |date=9 October 2024}}</ref>
*Arte and Cavallo Trofeo 2022 in [[Milan]], [[Italy]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-11 |title=Indian artist wins The 'Arte and Cavallo Trofeo' award in Milan for her oil artwork titled 'Power of Energy' |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/viral/indian-artist-wins-the-arte-and-cavallo-trofeo-award-in-milan-for-her-oil-artwork-titled-power-of-energy-article-94783165 |access-date=2023-06-28 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref>
*Swati Ghosh was featured into 'World’s 100 Women Artists,' which was appeared on the screen of [[Times Square]], New York in the event held from 20 June to 30 June in [[Bologna]], Italy.<ref>{{cite web |title=विश्व की 100 महिला कलाकारों में स्वाति घोष भी |url=https://www.lokmatnews.in/weird/times-square-swati-ghosh-in-world100-women-artists-showed-strength-in-art-festival-b507/ |website=www.lokmatnews.in |publisher=[[Lokmat]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghosh, Swati}}
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Artists from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Artists from Jharkhand]]
[[Category:People from Jamshedpur]]
[[Category:Indian contemporary painters]]
[[Category:Indian women contemporary artists]]
[[Category:Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University alumni]]

Violet Line (Delhi Metro)

2026-03-13T05:16:18Z

KarmaConyers:

{{Short description|Line on the Delhi Metro system}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox rail line
| color = {{rail color|Delhi Metro|Violet}}
| name = Violet Line (Line 6)
| image = DelhiMetroVioletLine.JPG
| image_width =
| caption = Fleets of Violet line trains supplied by Mitsubishi. Here, a train leaves from JLN Stadium Metro Station.
| type = [[Rapid transit]]
| system = [[Delhi Metro]]
| status = Operational
| locale = [[Delhi]] and [[Faridabad]]
| start = [[Kashmere Gate metro station|Kashmere Gate]]
| end = [[Raja Nahar Singh metro station|Raja Nahar Singh]]
| stations = 34
| daily_ridership = 300,000 (May 2018)<ref>{{cite news|last1=Goswami|first1=Sweta|title=Violet Line users for more coaches|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/violet-line-users-for-more-coaches/article7316641.ece|access-date=6 September 2015|date=15 June 2015}}</ref>
| open = *3 October 2010 ([[Central Secretariat metro station|Central Secretariat]] – [[Sarita Vihar metro station|Sarita Vihar]])
*14 January 2011 ([[Sarita Vihar metro station|Sarita Vihar]] – [[Badarpur Border metro station|Badarpur Border]])
*26 June 2014 ([[Central Secretariat metro station|Mandi House]] – [[Central Secretariat metro station|Central Secretariat]])
*8 June 2015 ([[ITO metro station|ITO]] – [[Mandi House metro station|Mandi House]])
*6 September 2015 ([[Badarpur Border metro station|Badarpur Border]] – [[Escorts Mujesar metro station|Escorts Mujesar]])
*29 May 2017 ([[Kashmere Gate metro station|Kashmere Gate]] – [[ITO metro station|ITO]])
*19 November 2018 ([[Escorts Mujesar metro station|Escorts Mujesar]] – [[Raja Nahar Singh metro station|Raja Nahar Singh‌‌ (Ballabhgarh)]])
| close =
| owner = DMRC
| operator = Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
| character = Underground and Elevated
| stock = Mitsubishi-ROTEM-BEML Standard gauge
| linelength = {{convert|46.34|km|mi}}
| tracklength =
| tracks =
| gauge = {{track gauge|sg|allk=on}}
| electrification = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} [[overhead line|overhead catenary]]
| elevation =
| map = {{Delhi Metro Violet Line Route}}
| map_state = Show
}}

The '''Violet Line (Line 6)''' is a [[rapid transit]] metro line of the [[Delhi Metro]] in [[Delhi]], [[India]]. The line connects [[Kashmere Gate metro station|Kashmere Gate]] station in New Delhi with [[Raja Nahar Singh metro station|Raja Nahar Singh]] in [[Ballabhgarh]] via [[Faridabad]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/pm-to-flag-off-escorts-mujesar-raja-nahar-singh-section-on-monday/articleshow/66670486.cms|title=PM to flag off Delhi metro's Escorts Mujesar-Raja Nahar Singh section on Monday|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=17 November 2018 }}</ref> The line consists of 34 [[List of Delhi metro stations|metro stations]] with a total length of {{convert|46.34|km|mi}}.<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=Route map|url=http://www.delhimetrorail.com/Zoom_Map.aspx|access-date=2021-08-23|website=www.delhimetrorail.com}}</ref>

This line acts as a parallel link for those who travel in the heavily used [[Yellow Line (Delhi Metro)|Yellow Line]] and connects the interior parts of South Delhi, and a little of Central Delhi to the satellite town of Faridabad.<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi Metro's Mandi House-Central Secretariat line opens|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-Metros-Mandi-House-Central-Secretariat-line-opens/articleshow/37243174.cms|access-date=13 August 2014|date=26 June 2014|ref=toi25}}</ref> The stretch between [[ITO metro station]] and [[Kashmere Gate metro station]] is popularly known as the '''Heritage Line'''.<ref name = "Delhi Metro - Phase 3 Challenges">{{cite book |last=Dayal |first=Anuj |author-link= |date=5 April 2018 |title=Delhi Metro - Phase 3 Challenges |location=New Delhi |publisher=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation}}</ref>{{rp|16}} The line will be extended further in the coming future up to the upcoming [[Noida International Airport]] in [[Jewar]] via [[Palwal]].

==History==
The Violet Line was originally planned to open in March 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://railwayjob.wordpress.com/2009/09/28/metros-noida-badarpur-lines-running-late/ |title=Metro's Noida, Badarpur lines running late « Railway job India |access-date=2 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104331/http://railwayjob.wordpress.com/2009/09/28/metros-noida-badarpur-lines-running-late/ |archive-date=18 July 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On 12 July 2009, a portion of an under-construction bridge collapsed when its cantilever pier collapsed on load of launching girder at Zamrudpur, near East of Kailash, on the [[Central Secretariat metro station|Central Secretariat]] – [[Badarpur metro station|Badarpur]] corridor. Six people were killed and 15 others injured.<ref name="Delhi Metro bridge collapses; 5 dead">{{Cite web |date=2009-07-12 |title=A chronology of Delhi Metro accidents |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi/a-chronology-of-delhi-metro-accidents/story-sLeHNhHvW5diUXA8kIBk5K.html |access-date=2025-12-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> The day after, on 13 July 2009, a crane that was removing the debris collapsed, and with a bowling pin effect knocking down two other nearby cranes, injuring six.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Day-2-3-cranes-fall-Metro-image-takes-beating/articleshow/4774296.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103144923/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-14/delhi/28207036_1_cranes-metro-construction-sites-launcher|url-status=live|archive-date=2012-11-03|title=Day 2: 3 cranes fall, Metro image takes beating|date=2009-07-14|author=Megha Suri|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=2010-01-06}}</ref>

An extension from the [[Badarpur metro station]] of the line was opened on 6 September 2015 to provide connectivity to the neighbouring satellite city of Faridabad. This is the second line to cross the Delhi-Haryana border after the [[Yellow Line (Delhi Metro)|Yellow Line]] to Gurgaon. This extension runs fully elevated for {{Convert|13.87|km|abbr=on}} and has 9 stations.<ref name="faridabad">{{Cite news |date=2015-09-06 |title=PM launches metro's Faridabad corridor |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/pm-launches-metros-faridabad-corridor/article7623190.ece |access-date=2025-12-12 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

A further extension to Ballabhgarh ([[Raja Nahar Singh metro station]]) was opened on 19 November 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wefornews.com/delhi-metro-violet-line-escorts-mujesar-ballabgarh-flagged-off-by-pm-modi/|title=Delhi Metro Violet Line Escorts Mujesar-Ballabgarh flagged off by PM Modi - WeForNews | Latest News, Blogs|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613203716/https://www.wefornews.com/delhi-metro-violet-line-escorts-mujesar-ballabgarh-flagged-off-by-pm-modi/|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
The following dates represent the dates the section opened to the public, not the private inauguration.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! align="center" colspan="6" style="background:#{{rcr|Delhi Metro|Violet}};"| History
|-
! Phase
! Extension date
! colspan="2"|Termini
! Length
! Stations
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''II'''
|3 October 2010||[[Central Secretariat metro station|Central Secretariat]]||[[Sarita Vihar metro station|Sarita Vihar]]||{{convert|15.34|km|mi|sp=us}}||13
|-
|14 January 2011||[[Sarita Vihar metro station|Sarita Vihar]]||[[Badarpur Border metro station|Badarpur Border]]||{{convert|4.82|km|mi|sp=us}}||3
|-
| rowspan="5" |'''III'''
|26 June 2014||[[Mandi House metro station|Mandi House]]||[[Central Secretariat metro station|Central Secretariat]]||{{convert|3.23|km|mi|sp=us}}||2
|-
|8 June 2015||[[Mandi House metro station|Mandi House]]||[[ITO metro station|ITO]]||{{convert|0.97|km|mi|sp=us}}||1
|-
|6 September 2015||[[Badarpur Border metro station|Badarpur Border]]||[[Escorts Mujesar metro station|Escorts Mujesar]]||{{convert|13.56|km|mi|sp=us}}||9
|-
|28 May 2017||[[Kashmere Gate metro station|Kashmere Gate]]||[[ITO metro station|ITO]]||{{convert|5.07|km|mi|sp=us}}||4
|-
|19 November 2018||[[Escorts Mujesar metro station|Escorts Mujesar]]
|[[Ballabhgarh metro station|Raja Nahar Singh]]||{{convert|3.35|km|mi|sp=us}}||2
|-
! colspan="2"|Total||Kashmere Gate||Raja Nahar Singh||{{convert|46.34|km|mi|sp=us}}||34
|}

The depot is in Sarita Vihar adjacent to [[Mohan Estate metro station]] as a part of Phase-II of the Delhi Metro Network of the Violet Line, and in Ajronda adjacent to [[Neelam Chowk Ajronda metro station]] as a part of Phase-III of the Delhi Metro Network of the Violet Line.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.delhimetrorail.com/press_reldetails.aspx?id=McdDRoLE0Zclld|title = Badarpur (Delhi) - YMCA Chowk (Faridabad) Corridor Details}}</ref>

==Stations==
{{main|List of Delhi Metro stations}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" width="100%"
|-
! style="background:#{{rail color|Delhi Metro|Violet}};" colspan="10" |Violet Line
|-
! rowspan="2" |#
! colspan="2" |Station Name
! rowspan="2" |Opening
! rowspan="2" |Interchange Connection
! rowspan="2" |Station Layout
! rowspan="2" |Platform Level Type
|-
![[English language|English]]||[[Hindi]]
|-
|1
|[[Kashmere Gate metro station|Kashmere Gate]]
|कश्मीरी गेट
|28 May 2017
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Red|croute}} {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Yellow|croute}} {{rint|bus}} [[Maharana Pratap Inter State Bus Terminus|Kashmere Gate ISBT]]
|Underground
|Island
|-
|2
|[[Lal Qila metro station|Lal Qila]]
|लाल क़िला
|28 May 2017
|None
|Underground
|Island
|-
|3
|Jama Masjid
|जामा मस्जिद
|28 May 2017
|None
|Underground
|Island
|-
|4
|[[Delhi Gate metro station|Delhi Gate]]
|दिल्ली गेट
|28 May 2017
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Magenta|croute}} (Phase 4 - Under Construction)
|Underground
|Island
|-
|5
|[[ITO metro station|ITO]]
|आईटीओ
|8 June 2015
|None
|Underground
|Island
|-
|6
|[[Mandi House metro station|Mandi House]]
|मण्डी हाउस
|26 June 2014
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Blue|croute}}
|Underground
|Island
|-
|7
|[[Janpath metro station|Janpath]]
|जनपथ
|26 June 2014
|None
|Underground
|Island
|-
|8
|[[Central Secretariat metro station|Central Secretariat]]
|केंद्रीय सचिवालय
|3 October 2010
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Yellow|croute}} {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Magenta|croute}} (Phase 5A – Approved)
|Underground
|Side
|-
|9
|[[Khan Market metro station|Khan Market]]
|ख़ान मार्किट
|3 October 2010
|None
|Underground
|Island
|-
|10
|[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium metro station|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]]
|जवाहर लाल नेहरू स्टेडियम
|3 October 2010
|None
|Underground
|Island
|-
|11
|[[Jangpura metro station|Jangpura]]
|जंगपुरा
|3 October 2010
|[[Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System|Delhi-Meerut RRTS]]
|Underground
|Island
|-
|12
|[[Lajpat Nagar metro station|Lajpat Nagar]]
|लाजपत नगर
|3 October 2010
| {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Pink|croute}} {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Golden|croute}} (Phase 4 - Under Construction)
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|13
|[[Moolchand metro station|Moolchand]]
|मूलचंद
|3 October 2010
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|14
|[[Kailash Colony metro station|Kailash Colony]]
|कैलाश कॉलोनी
|3 October 2010
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|15
|[[Nehru Place metro station|Nehru Place]]
|नेहरू प्लेस
|3 October 2010
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|16
|[[Kalkaji Mandir metro station|Kalkaji Mandir]]
|कालकाजी मंदिर
|3 October 2010
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Magenta|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|17
|[[Govindpuri metro station|Govindpuri]]
|गोविंदपुरी
|3 October 2010
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|18
|[[Harkesh Nagar Okhla metro station|Harkesh Nagar Okhla]]
|हरकेश नगर ओखला
|3 October 2010
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|19
|[[Jasola Apollo metro station|Jasola Apollo]]
|जसोला अपोलो
|3 October 2010
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|20
|[[Sarita Vihar metro station|Sarita Vihar]]
|सरिता विहार
|3 October 2010
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|21
|[[Mohan Estate metro station|Mohan Estate]]
|मोहन एस्टेट
|14 January 2011
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|22
|[[Tughlakabad Station metro station|Tughlakabad Station]]
|तुग़लकाबाद स्टेशन
|14 January 2011
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|golden|croute}} (Phase 4 - Under Construction) [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|link=Delhi_Suburban_Railway|20x20px|up]] [[Tughlakabad railway station|Tughlakabad]]
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|23
|[[Badarpur Border metro station|Badarpur Border]]
|बदरपुर बॉर्डर
|14 January 2011
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|24
|[[Sarai metro station|Sarai]]
|सराय
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|25
|[[NHPC Chowk metro station|NHPC Chowk]]
|एनएचपीसी चौक
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|26
|[[Mewla Maharajpur metro station|Mewla Maharajpur]]
|मेवला महाराजपुर
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|27
|[[Sector 28 metro station|Sector 28]]
|सेक्टर 28
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|28
|[[Badkhal Mor metro station|Badkal Mor]]
|बड़कल मोड़
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|29
|[[Old Faridabad metro station|Old Faridabad]]
|ओल्ड फ़रीदाबाद
|6 September 2015
|{{ric|Indian Railways}} [[Faridabad railway station|Faridabad]]
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|30
|[[Neelam Chowk Ajronda metro station|Neelam Chowk Ajronda]]
|नीलम चौक अजरौंदा
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|31
|[[Bata Chowk metro station|Bata Chowk]]
|बाटा चौक
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|32
|[[Escorts Mujesar metro station|Escorts Mujesar]]
|एस्कॉर्ट्स मुजेसर
|6 September 2015
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|33
|[[Sant Surdas (Sihi) metro station|Sant Surdas - Sihi]]
|संत सूरदास - सिहि
|19 November 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|34
|[[Raja Nahar Singh metro station|Raja Nahar Singh]]
|राजा नाहर सिंह
|19 November 2018
|{{ric|Indian Railways}} [[Ballabhgarh railway station|Ballabhgarh]]
|Elevated
|Side
|}

== Train info ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! style="background: #{{rail color|Delhi Metro|Violet}};" colspan="4" |Violet Line
|-
!Rakes
|Mitsubishi
|Hyundai Rotem
|BEML
|-
!Train Length
| colspan="3" |6
|-
!Train Gauge
| colspan="3" |4 ft {{frac|8|1|2}} in (1,435 mm) [[standard gauge]]
|-
!Electrification
| colspan="3" |25 kV, 50 Hz [[Alternating current|AC]] through [[overhead catenary]] OHE
|-
!Train's Maximum Speed
| colspan="3" |100 km/h
|-
!Train Operation
| colspan="3" |Kashmere Gate - Badarpur Border
Kashmere Gate - Old Faridabad

Kashmere Gate - Raja Nahar Singh
|}

==Rolling stock==

This line has the standard gauge trains manufactured by a consortium of Mitsubishi-ROTEM-BEML. A total of 196 cars were ordered for 4-car configuration (46 trains) and 6-car configuration (2 trains). These trains are used in this line and [[Green Line (Delhi Metro)|Green Line]]. One train was manufactured in Changwon in South Korea and rest of the trains are manufactured at BEML's facility in Bangalore. Trains are {{RailGauge|1435mm|allk=on}} as compared to {{RailGauge|1676mm}} of [[broad gauge]] trains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2009/03/18/stories/2009031850811500.htm |title=The Hindu Business Line : Delhi Metro gets standard gauge train |access-date=5 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623134155/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2009/03/18/stories/2009031850811500.htm |archive-date=23 June 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==Future extensions==
{{anchor | Future | Extension | Extensions}}

Ballabgarh (existing Raja Nahar Singh metro station) to Palwal 24-km-long extension along [[National Highway 44 (India)|NH-44]], costing INR4320 cr with 10 new stations, was approved in October 2025, including new stations at Ballabgarh Sector 58-59, Sikri, Softa, Prithla (will integrate with [[Haryana Orbital Rail Corridor]]), Baghola, Alapur, Palwal Bus Stand. [[RITES Limited]] will conduct the techno-feasibility study and construction will be completed in 3 years by end of 2028.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-25 |title=Delhi Metro Expansion: Ballabhgarh-Palwal Route Gets Centre's Nod {{!}} Check Distance, Stations, Deadline |url=https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/delhi-metro-violet-line-expansion-ballabhgarh-raja-nahar-singh-palwal-project-gets-centre-nod-check-distance-stations-deadline-10275819 |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=www.thedailyjagran.com |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[List of Delhi Metro stations]]
*[[Transport in Delhi]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Delhi Metro}}
* [http://www.delhimetrorail.com/ Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)]
* [http://www.delhimetrorail.com/annual_report.aspx/ Delhi Metro Annual Reports]

{{Delhi Metro}}
{{Delhi & NCR Metro stations|violet line=yes}}
{{Rapid transit in India}}
{{Rapid transit in Asia}}
{{Railways in Northern India}}

[[Category:Delhi Metro lines]]
[[Category:Railway lines opened in 2010]]

Poetry

2026-03-12T09:13:33Z

KarmaConyers: added references

{{Short description|Form of literature}}
{{About|the art form}}
{{redirect|Love poem|the EP|Love Poem (EP){{!}}''Love Poem'' (EP)|the IU song|Love Poem (song)}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}

{{Literature}}

'''Poetry''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''[[poiesis]]'', "making"{{NoteTag|''Poietes'', poets{{snd}}"makers"{{snd}}have had a major hand in the "making" (the forming) of their respective languages. Hence many of the most memorable poets have been early ones.}}) is a form of [[literature|literary art]] that uses [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] and often [[rhythm]]ic<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/poetry?q=poetry |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618104733/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/poetry?q=poetry |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 June 2013 |title=Poetry |year=2013 |website=Oxford Dictionaries |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote=poetry [...] Literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity by the use of distinctive style and rhythm; poems collectively or as a genre of literature.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poetry |title=Poetry |year=2013 |website=Merriam-Webster |quote=poetry [...] 2 : writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/poetry?s=t |title=Poetry |year=2013 |website=Dictionary.com |quote=poetry [...] 1 the art of rhythmical composition, written or spoken, for exciting pleasure by beautiful, imaginative, or elevated thoughts. |postscript=—Based on the Random House Dictionary}}</ref> qualities of [[language]] to evoke [[meaning (linguistics)|meanings]] in addition to, or in place of, [[Denotation|literal]] or surface-level meanings. Any particular instance of poetry is called a '''poem''' and is written by a [[poet]]. Poets use a variety of techniques called [[poetic device]]s, such as [[assonance]], [[alliteration]], [[literary consonance|consonance]], [[Phonaesthetics#Euphony and cacophony|euphony and cacophony]], [[onomatopoeia]], [[rhythm]] (via [[metre (poetry)|metre]]), [[rhyme scheme]]s (patterns in the [[Syllable#Rime|type and placement]] of a [[phoneme]] group) and [[sound symbolism]], to produce [[music]]al or other artistic effects. They also frequently organize these devices into [[:Category:Poetic forms|poetic structure]]s, which may be strict or loose, conventional or invented by the poet. Poetic structures vary dramatically by language and cultural convention, but they often rely on [[Metre (poetry)|rhythmic metre]]: patterns of [[syllable stress]] or [[syllable weight|syllable (or mora) weight]]. They may also use repeating patterns of [[phoneme]]s, [[phoneme]] groups, [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]], words, or entire phrases. Poetic structures may even be [[semantic]] (e.g. the [[volta (literature)|volta]] required in a [[Petrachan sonnet]]).

Most written poems are formatted in [[verse (poetry)|verse]]: a series or stack of [[Line (poetry)|line]]s on a page, which follow the poetic structure. For this reason, '''verse''' has also become a [[synonym]] (a [[metonym]]) for poetry.{{NoteTag|The word "verse" functions here as a [[synecdoche]] which takes the poetic element of verse as representative of the entire art form. The word "verse" is often so used when contrasting the format of poetry with the format typical of most other writings: [[prose]].}} Some poetry types are unique to particular [[culture]]s and [[genre]]s and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Adam Mickiewicz|Mickiewicz]], or [[Rumi]] may think of it as written in [[Line (poetry)|lines]] based on [[rhyme]] and regular [[meter (poetry)|meter]]. There are, however, traditions, such as [[Biblical poetry]] and [[alliterative verse]], that use other means to create rhythm and [[euphony]]. Other traditions, such as [[Somali literature|Somali poetry]], rely on complex systems of alliteration and metre independent of writing and have been described as structurally comparable to ancient Greek and medieval European oral verse.<ref>Mario Maino, ''La lingua somala: strumento d'insegnamento professionale'' (Alessandria: Ferrari, Occella, 1953), p. 45. Accessed 21 March 2025. <nowiki>https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/bitstream/2307/1541/1/La%20lingua%20somala%20strumento%20d%27insegnamento%20professionale_lavorato.pdf</nowiki></ref> Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eliot |first=T. S. |title=Selected Essays |publisher=Faber & Faber |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-15-180387-3 |pages=13–34 |chapter=The Function of Criticism |orig-date=1923}}</ref> testing the principle of euphony itself or altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Longenbach |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/modernpoetryafte0000long |title=Modern Poetry After Modernism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-510178-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/modernpoetryafte0000long/page/9 9], 103 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/harvillbookoftwe0000unse/page/ |title=The Harvill Book of Twentieth-Century Poetry in English |publisher=Harvill Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-86046-735-6 |editor-last=Schmidt |editor-first=Michael |pages=[https://archive.org/details/harvillbookoftwe0000unse/page/ xxvii–xxxiii]}}</ref> {{Anchor|Speaker}} In first-person poems, the lyrics are spoken by an "I", a [[character (arts)|character]] who may be termed the ''speaker'', distinct from the [[poet]] (the ''author''). Thus if, for example, a poem asserts, "I killed my enemy in Reno", it is the speaker, not the poet, who is the killer (unless this "confession" is a form of [[metaphor]] which needs to be considered in closer [[context (linguistics)|context]] – via [[close reading]]).

Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential [[Aesthetic interpretation|interpretations]] of words, or to evoke [[emotion|emotive]] responses. The use of [[ambiguity]], [[symbol]]ism, [[irony]], and other [[stylistics (linguistics)|stylistic]] elements of [[poetic diction]] often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, figures of speech such as [[metaphor]], [[simile]], and [[metonymy]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strachan |first1=John R. |title=Poetry: an introduction |last2=Terry |first2=Richard G. |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8147-9797-6 |page=119}}</ref> establish a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual [[Verse (poetry)|verses]], in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.

Poetry has a long and varied [[history of poetry|history]], evolving differentially across the globe. It dates back at least to prehistoric times with hunting poetry in [[Africa]] and to [[panegyric]] and [[elegiac]] court poetry of the empires of the [[Nile]], [[Niger River|Niger]], and [[Volta River]] valleys.<ref>Ruth Finnegan, ''Oral Literature in Africa'', Open Book Publishers, 2012.</ref> Some of the earliest written poetry in Africa occurs among the [[Pyramid Texts]] written during the 25th century BCE. The earliest surviving Western Asian [[epic poem]], the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', was written in the [[Sumerian language]]. Early poems in the [[Eurasia]]n continent include folk songs such as the Chinese [[Classic of Poetry|''Shijing'']], religious [[hymn]]s (such as the [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit]] ''[[Rigveda]]'', the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Gatha (Zoroaster)|''Gathas'']], the ''[[Hurrian songs]]'', and the Hebrew ''[[Psalms]]''); and retellings of oral epics (such as the Egyptian ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'', [[Indian epic poetry]], and the [[Homer]]ic epics, the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]''). Ancient Greek attempts to define poetry, such as [[Aristotle]]'s [[Poetics (Aristotle)|''Poetics'']], focused on the uses of [[Speech communication|speech]] in [[rhetoric]], [[drama]], [[song]], and [[comedy]]. Later attempts concentrated on features such as [[Repetition (rhetorical device)|repetition]], [[line (poetry)|verse form]], and [[rhyme]], and emphasized aesthetics which distinguish poetry from the format of more objectively-informative, academic, or typical writing, which is known as [[prose]]. Poets – as, from the [[ancient Greek language|Greek]], "makers" of language – have contributed to the evolution of the linguistic, expressive, and utilitarian qualities of their languages. In an increasingly [[globalization|globalized]] world, poets often adapt forms, styles, and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. A [[Western culture|Western cultural]] tradition (extending at least from [[Homer]] to [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]]) associates the production of poetry with [[Artistic inspiration|inspiration]] – often by a [[Muse]] (either classical or contemporary), or through other (often canonised) poets' work which sets some kind of example or challenge.

==History==
{{Main|History of poetry|Literary theory}}
===Early works===
Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate [[literacy]], and developed from folk [[epic poetry|epics]] and other oral genres.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Höivik |first1= Susan |last2= Luger |first2=Kurt |date= 3 June 2009 |title= Folk Media for Biodiversity Conservation: A Pilot Project from the Himalaya-Hindu Kush |journal= International Communication Gazette |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=321–346 |doi= 10.1177/1748048509102184|s2cid= 143947520 |issn = 1748-0485 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Goody |first=Jack | author-link=Jack Goody |url= https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good |title= The Interface Between the Written and the Oral |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 1987 |isbn= 978-0-521-33794-6 |page= [https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good/page/78 78] |quote= [...] poetry, tales, recitations of various kinds existed long before writing was introduced and these oral forms continued in modified 'oral' forms, even after the establishment of a written literature. |url-access= registration}}</ref>
Others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing.<ref name="Goody, Jack 1987 98">{{Cite book |last= Goody |first=Jack |url= https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good |title= The Interface Between the Written and the Oral |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 1987 |isbn= 978-0-521-33794-6 |page= [https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good/page/98 98] |url-access= registration}}</ref>

The oldest surviving epic poem, the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', dates from the 3rd millennium{{nbsp}}BCE in [[Sumer]] (in [[Mesopotamia]], present-day [[Iraq]]), and was written in [[cuneiform]] script on clay tablets and, later, on [[papyrus]].<ref>{{Cite book |translator-last= Sanders | translator-first=N. K. | translator-link=Nancy Sandars |title= The Epic of Gilgamesh |publisher= Penguin Books |year= 1972 |edition= Revised |pages= 7–8}}</ref> The [[Istanbul 2461|Istanbul tablet #2461]], dating to {{circa}}{{nbsp}}2000{{nbsp}}BCE, describes an annual rite in which the king [[Hieros gamos|symbolically married]] and mated with the goddess [[Inanna]] to ensure fertility and prosperity; some have labelled it the world's oldest love poem.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.worldhistory.org/article/750/ |title= The World's Oldest Love Poem |last= Mark |first=Joshua J. |date= 13 August 2014 |quote= '[...] What I held in my hand was one of the oldest love songs written down by the hand of man [...].'}}</ref><ref name="oldest_poem">{{Cite news |last= Arsu |first= Şebnem |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/14/international/europe/14poem.html?_r=0 |title= Oldest Line in the World |access-date= 1 May 2015 |work= The New York Times|date= 14 February 2006 |quote= A small tablet in a special display this month in the Istanbul Museum of the Ancient Orient is thought to be the oldest love poem ever found, the words of a lover from more than 4,000 years ago.}}</ref> An example of Egyptian epic poetry is [[Story of Sinuhe|''The Story of Sinuhe'']] (c. 1800 BCE).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chyla |first1=Julia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6u4mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 |title=Current Research in Egyptology 17 |last2=Rosińska-Balik |first2=Karolina |last3=Debowska-Ludwin |first3=Joanna |date=2017 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78570-603-5 |pages=159–161 |language=en}}</ref>

Other ancient epics includes the Greek ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]''; the Persian [[Avestan]] books (the ''[[Yasna]]''); the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[national epic]], [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'' (written between 29 and 19 BCE); and the [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]], the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]''. Epic poetry appears to have been composed in poetic form as an aid to memorization and oral transmission in ancient societies.<ref name="Goody, Jack 1987 98" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1= Ahl |first1=Frederick |url= https://archive.org/details/odysseyreformed00ahlf |title= The Odyssey Re-Formed |last2= Roisman |first2=Hanna M. |publisher= Cornell University Press |year= 1996 |isbn= 978-0-8014-8335-6 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/odysseyreformed00ahlf/page/1 1–26] |url-access= registration}}.</ref>

Other forms of poetry, including such ancient collections of religious [[hymn]]s as the Indian [[Sanskrit]]-language ''[[Rigveda]]'', the Avestan [[Gatha (Zoroaster)|''Gathas'']], the ''[[Hurrian songs]]'', and the Hebrew ''[[Psalms]]'', possibly developed directly from [[folk song]]s. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of [[Chinese poetry]], the ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' (''Shijing''), were initially [[lyrics]].<ref name="Ebrey">{{Cite book |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Buckley Ebrey |url=https://archive.org/details/chinesecivilizat00patr/page/11 |title=Chinese Civilisation: A Sourcebook |publisher=The Free Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-02-908752-7 |edition=2nd |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinesecivilizat00patr/page/11 11–13]}}</ref> The Shijing, with its collection of poems and folk songs, was heavily valued by the philosopher [[Confucius]] and is considered to be one of the official [[Four Books and Five Classics|Confucian classics]]. His remarks on the subject have become an invaluable source in [[Music theory#China|ancient music theory]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cai|first=Zong-qi|title=In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry|journal=Philosophy East and West|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399898|date=July 1999|volume=49|issue=3|pages=317–345|doi=10.2307/1399898|jstor=1399898|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "[[poetics]]"—the study of the aesthetics of poetry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abondolo |first=Daniel |title=A poetics handbook: verbal art in the European tradition |publisher=Curzon |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7007-1223-6 |pages=52–53}}</ref> Some ancient societies, such as China's through the ''Shijing'', developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gentz |first=Joachim |title=Text and Ritual in Early China |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-295-98787-3 |editor-last=Kern |editor-first=Martin |pages=124–148 |chapter=Ritual Meaning of Textual Form: Evidence from Early Commentaries of the Historiographic and Ritual Traditions}}</ref> More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's [[The Canterbury Tales|''Canterbury Tales'']] and [[Matsuo Bashō]]'s ''[[Oku no Hosomichi]]'', as well as differences in content spanning [[Hebrew Bible|Tanakh]] [[Biblical poetry|religious poetry]], love poetry, and [[rapping|rap]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Habib |first=Rafey |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofliterar0000habi/page/607 |title=A history of literary criticism |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-631-23200-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofliterar0000habi/page/607 607–609, 620]}}</ref>

Until recently, the earliest examples of [[stressed poetry]] had been thought to be works composed by [[Romanos the Melodist]] (''fl.'' 6th century CE). However, [[Tim Whitmarsh]] writes that an inscribed Greek poem predated Romanos' stressed poetry.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.archaeology.org/issues/459-2203/digs/10346-digs-roman-stressed-meter-poetry |title= Poetic License |author= Jarrett A. Lobell |date= March–April 2022 |website= Archaeology Magazine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207005404/https://www.archaeology.org/issues/459-2203/digs/10346-digs-roman-stressed-meter-poetry |archive-date= Dec 7, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/sep/08/i-dont-care-text-shows-modern-poetry-began-much-earlier-than-believed |title= 'I don't care': text shows modern poetry began much earlier than believed |author= Alison Flood |date= September 8, 2021 |website=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118071914/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/sep/08/i-dont-care-text-shows-modern-poetry-began-much-earlier-than-believed |archive-date= Jan 18, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Less Care, More Stress: A Rythmyic Poem From the Romas Empire |s2cid-access=free |author= Tim Whitmarsh |date= August 2021 |journal= The Cambridge Classical Journal|volume= 67 |pages= 135–163 |doi= 10.1017/S1750270521000051 |s2cid= 242230189 |doi-access= free }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="220">
File:The oldest love poem. Sumerian terracotta tablet from Nippur, Iraq. Ur III period, 2037-2029 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg|The oldest known love poem. Sumerian [[Istanbul 2461|terracotta tablet#2461]] from Nippur, Iraq. Ur III period, 2037–2029 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul
File:Confucius the scholar.jpg|The philosopher [[Confucius]] was influential in the developed approach to poetry and [[Music theory#China|ancient music theory]].
File:Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg|An early Chinese [[poetics]], the ''Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn'' (孔子詩論), discussing the [[Classic of Poetry|''Shijing'']] (''Classic of Poetry'')
</gallery>

===Western traditions===
[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Aristotle]]]]
Classical thinkers in the [[Western culture|West]] employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of [[Aristotle]]'s [[Poetics (Aristotle)|''Poetics'']] describe three genres of poetry—the epic, the comic, and the tragic—and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the perceived underlying purposes of the genre.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Aristotle's ''Poetics'' |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-14-044636-4 |editor-last=Heath |editor-first=Malcolm}}</ref> Later [[Aesthetics|aestheticians]] identified three major genres: epic poetry, [[Greek lyric|lyric poetry]], and [[Verse drama and dramatic verse|dramatic poetry]], treating [[comedy]] and [[tragedy]] as [[Genre|subgenres]] of dramatic poetry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frow |first=John |title=Genre |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-28063-1 |edition=Reprint |pages=57–59}}</ref>
[[File:John keats.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[John Keats]]]]
Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the [[Islamic Golden Age]],<ref>{{cite journal |last= Boggess |first=William F. |title='Hermannus Alemannus' Latin Anthology of Arabic Poetry |journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society |year= 1968 |volume= 88 |issue= 4 |pages= 657–670 |doi= 10.2307/598112 |jstor= 598112}} {{Cite book |last=Burnett |first=Charles |title=Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages: A Festschrift for Peter Dronke |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-04-11964-2 |pages=29–62 |chapter=Learned Knowledge of Arabic Poetry, Rhymed Prose, and Didactic Verse from Petrus Alfonsi to Petrarch}}</ref> as well as in Europe during the [[Renaissance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grendler |first=Paul F. |title=The Universities of the Italian Renaissance |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8018-8055-1 |page=239}}</ref> Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to [[prose]], which they generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |translator-last=Bernard |translator-first=J. H. |title=Critique of Judgment |publisher=Macmillan |year=1914 |page=131}} Kant argues that the nature of poetry as a self-consciously abstract and beautiful form raises it to the highest level among the verbal arts, with tone or music following it, and only after that the more logical and narrative prose.</ref>

This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought-process. English [[Romantic poetry|Romantic]] poet [[John Keats]] termed this escape from logic "[[negative capability]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ou |first=Li |title=Keats and negative capability |publisher=Continuum |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4411-4724-0 |pages=1–3}}</ref> This "romantic" approach views [[form (disambiguation)|form]] as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained influential into the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watten |first=Barrett |title=The constructivist moment: from material text to cultural poetics |publisher=Wesleyan University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8195-6610-2 |pages=17–19}}</ref>

During the 18th and 19th centuries, there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European [[colonialism]] and the attendant rise in global trade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abu-Mahfouz |first=Ahmad |year=2008 |title=Translation as a Blending of Cultures |journal=Journal of Translation |volume=4 |issue=1 |doi=10.54395/jot-x8fne|doi-access=free|pages=1–5}}</ref> In addition to a boom in [[translation]], during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Highet |first=Gilbert |title=The classical tradition: Greek and Roman influences on western literature |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-500206-5 |edition=Reissued |pages=355, 360, 479}}</ref>

===20th-century and 21st-century disputes===
[[File:Archibaldmacleish.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Archibald MacLeish]]]]
Some 20th-century [[Literary theory|literary theorists]] rely less on the ostensible opposition of prose and poetry, instead focusing on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and poetry as what the poet creates.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wimsatt |first1=William K. Jr. |title=Literary Criticism: A Short History |last2=Brooks |first2=Cleanth |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1957 |page=374}}</ref> The underlying concept of the poet as [[creative work|creator]] is not uncommon, and some [[modernist poetry|modernist poets]] essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media. Other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Jeannine |title=Why write poetry?: modern poets defending their art |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8386-4105-7 |page=148}}</ref>

The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the 20th century coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic prose and prosaic poetry. Numerous modernist poets have written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and [[Tone (literature)|tone]] established by [[Metre (poetry)|non-metrical]] means. While there was a substantial [[New Formalism|formalist]] reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge companion to modernist poetry |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-61815-1 |editor-last1=Jenkins |editor-first1=Lee M. |pages=1–7, 38, 156 |editor-last2=Davis |editor-first2=Alex}}</ref>

[[Postmodernism]] goes beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the reader of a text ([[hermeneutics]]), and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barthes |first=Roland |author-link=Roland Barthes |title=Image-Music-Text |publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux |year=1978 |pages=142–148 |chapter=[[Death of the author|Death of the Author]]}}</ref> Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at definition and classification that once made sense within a tradition such as the [[Western canon]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Connor |first=Steven |title=Postmodernist culture: an introduction to theories of the contemporary |publisher=Blackwell |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-631-20052-9 |edition=2nd |pages=123–28}}</ref>

The early 21st-century poetic tradition appears to continue to strongly orient itself to earlier precursor poetic traditions such as those initiated by [[Walt Whitman|Whitman]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]], and [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]]. The literary critic [[Geoffrey Hartman]] (1929–2016) used the phrase "the anxiety of demand" to describe the contemporary response to older poetic traditions as "being fearful that the fact no longer has a form",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Preminger |first=Alex |title=Princeton Encyclopaedia of Poetry and Poetics |publisher=Macmillan Press |year=1975 |isbn=978-1349156177 |location=London and Basingstoke |pages=919|edition=enlarged }}</ref> building on a trope introduced by Emerson. Emerson had maintained that in the debate concerning poetic structure where either "form" or "fact" could predominate, that one need simply "Ask the fact for the form." This has been challenged at various levels by other literary scholars such as [[Harold Bloom]] (1930–2019), who has stated: "The generation of poets who stand together now, mature and ready to write the major American verse of the twenty-first century, may yet be seen as what Stevens called 'a great shadow's last embellishment,' the shadow being Emerson's."<ref>
{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wS0rbeF72QC |title=Contemporary Poets |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1604135886 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Harold |editor-link=Harold Bloom |edition=revised |series=Bloom's modern critical views |location=New York |date=2010 |page=7 |chapter=Introduction |quote=The generation of poets who stand together now, mature and ready to write the major American verse of the twenty-first century, may yet be seen as what Stevens called 'a great shadow's last embellishment,' the shadow being Emerson's. |author-link=Harold Bloom |access-date=7 May 2019 |orig-date=1986}}
</ref>

In the 2020s, advances in [[artificial intelligence]] (AI), particularly [[Large language model|large language models]], enabled the generation of poetry in specific styles and formats.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Perlow |first=Seth |date=February 13, 2023 |title=AI is better at writing poems than you'd expect. But that's fine. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/books/2023/02/13/ai-in-poetry/ |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> A 2024 study found that AI-generated poems were rated by non-expert readers as more rhythmic, beautiful, and human-like than those written by well-known human authors. This preference may stem from the relative simplicity and accessibility of AI-generated poetry, which some participants found easier to understand.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Porter |first1=Brian |last2=Machery |first2=Edouard |date=2024-11-14 |title=AI-generated poetry is indistinguishable from human-written poetry and is rated more favorably |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=26133 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-76900-1 |issn=2045-2322|pmc=11564748 |bibcode=2024NatSR..1426133P }}</ref>

==Elements==
===Prosody===
{{Main|Meter (poetry)}}
Prosody is the study of the meter, [[rhythm]], and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of a poem. Rhythm and meter are different, although closely related.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pinsky|1998|p=52}}</ref> Meter is the definitive pattern established for a verse (such as [[iambic pentameter]]), while rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Prosody also may be used more specifically to refer to the [[scansion|scanning]] of poetic lines to show meter.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|pp=20–21}}</ref>

====Rhythm====
{{Main|Timing (linguistics)|tone (linguistics)|Pitch accent}}
[[File:Robinsonjeffers (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Robinson Jeffers]]]]
The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by [[stress-timed language|accents]], [[syllable-timed language|syllables]], or [[mora-timed language|moras]], depending on how rhythm is established, although a language can be influenced by multiple approaches. [[Japanese Language|Japanese]] is a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]-timed language. [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[French language|French]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] are called syllable-timed languages. Stress-timed languages include [[English language|English]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and, generally, [[German language|German]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schülter |first=Julia |title=Rhythmic Grammar |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2005 |pages=24, 304, 332}}</ref> Varying [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] also affects how rhythm is perceived. Languages can rely on either pitch or tone. Some languages with a pitch accent are Vedic Sanskrit or Ancient Greek. [[Tonal language]]s include Chinese, Vietnamese and most [[Niger–Congo languages|Subsaharan languages]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yip |first=Moira |author-link=Moira Yip |title=Tone |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-77314-0 |series=Cambridge textbooks in linguistics |pages=1–4, 130}}</ref>

Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called [[foot (prosody)|feet]] within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or [[elision|elided]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|p=12}}</ref> In the [[classical languages]], on the other hand, while the [[Meter (music)|metrical]] units are similar, [[vowel length]] rather than stresses define the meter.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jorgens |first=Elise Bickford |title=The well-tun'd word : musical interpretations of English poetry, 1597–1651 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8166-1029-7 |page=23}}</ref> [[Old English]] poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|pp=75–76}}</ref>

[[File:Marianne Moore 1935.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Marianne Moore]]]]
The chief device of ancient [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Biblical poetry]], including many of the [[psalms]], was ''[[parallelism (rhetoric)|parallelism]]'', a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to [[antiphon]]al or [[call and response (music)|call-and-response]] performance, which could also be reinforced by [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker-Jones |first=Arthur |title=Hebrew for biblical interpretation |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58983-086-8 |pages=211–213}}</ref> Some classical poetry forms, such as [[Venpa]] of the [[Tamil language]], had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a [[context-free grammar]]) which ensured a rhythm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bala Sundara Raman |first1=L. |last2=Ishwar |first2=S. |last3=Kumar Ravindranath |first3=Sanjeeth |year=2003 |title=Context Free Grammar for Natural Language Constructs: An implementation for Venpa Class of Tamil Poetry |journal=Tamil Internet |pages=128–136 |citeseerx=10.1.1.3.7738}}</ref>

[[Shi (poetry)|Classical Chinese poetics]], based on the [[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|tone system of Middle Chinese]], recognized two kinds of tones: the level (平 ''píng'') tone and the oblique (仄 ''zè'') tones, a category consisting of the rising (上 ''sháng'') tone, the departing (去 ''qù'') tone and the entering (入 ''rù'') tone. Certain forms of poetry placed constraints on which syllables were required to be level and which oblique.

The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of [[free verse]], rhythm is often organized based on looser units of [[Cadence (poetry)|cadence]] rather than a regular meter. [[Robinson Jeffers]], [[Marianne Moore]], and [[William Carlos Williams]] are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hartman |first=Charles O. |title=Free Verse An Essay on Prosody |publisher=Northwestern University Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-8101-1316-9 |pages=24, 44, 47}}</ref> Jeffers experimented with [[sprung rhythm]] as an alternative to accentual rhythm.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hollander|1981|p=22}}</ref>

====Meter====
{{Main|Scansion}}
[[File:Alkaios Sappho Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2416 n2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Attica|Attic]] [[red-figure]] ''kathalos'' painting of [[Sappho]] from c. 470 BCE<ref>{{Citation |last=McClure |first=Laura K. |title=Sexuality and Gender in the Classical World: Readings and Sources |date=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W742ZLpdLBoC&q=Glyptothek+Sappho+and+Alcaeus&pg=PA38 |page=38 |place=Oxford, England |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |isbn=978-0-631-22589-8 }}</ref>]]
In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a characteristic [[Foot (prosody)|metrical foot]] and the number of feet per line.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|p=24}}</ref> The number of metrical feet in a line are described using Greek terminology: [[tetrameter]] for four feet and [[hexameter]] for six feet, for example.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|pp=25, 34}}</ref> Thus, "[[iambic pentameter]]" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant kind of foot is the "[[Iamb (poetry)|iamb]]". This metric system originated in ancient [[Greek poetry]], and was used by poets such as [[Pindar]] and [[Sappho]], and by the great [[Tragedy|tragedians]] of [[Athens]]. Similarly, "[[dactylic hexameter]]", comprises six feet per line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "[[dactyl (poetry)|dactyl]]". Dactylic hexameter was the traditional meter of Greek [[epic poetry]], the earliest extant examples of which are the works of [[Homer]] and [[Hesiod]].<ref name="greek">{{Cite web |url=http://aoidoi.org/articles/meter/intro.pdf |title=Introduction to Greek Meter |last=Annis |first=William S. |date=January 2006 |publisher=Aoidoi |pages=1–15}}</ref> Iambic pentameter and dactylic hexameter were later used by a number of poets, including [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.unibl.eu/pdf/examples_metrical_systems.pdf |title=Examples of English metrical systems |publisher=Fondazione Universitaria in provincia di Belluno |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308211254/http://www.unibl.eu/pdf/examples_metrical_systems.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2012 |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref> The most common metrical feet in English are:<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|pp=23–24}}</ref>

[[File:Homer British Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Homer]]: Roman bust, based on Greek original<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=460092&partId=1 |title=Portrait Bust |website=britishmuseum.org |publisher=The British Museum}}</ref>]]
* [[Iamb (poetry)|iamb]] – one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (e.g. des-'''cribe''', in-'''clude''', re-'''tract''')
* [[trochee]]{{mdash}}one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (e.g. '''pic'''-ture, '''flow'''-er)
* [[dactyl (poetry)|dactyl]] – one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (e.g. '''an'''-no-tate, '''sim'''-i-lar)
* [[anapaest]]{{mdash}}two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (e.g. com-pre-'''hend''')
* [[spondee]]{{mdash}}two stressed syllables together (e.g. '''heart'''-'''beat''', '''four'''-'''teen''')
* [[pyrrhic]]{{mdash}}two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter)

There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a [[choriamb]], a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient [[Greek literature|Greek]] and [[Latin poetry]].<ref name=greek/> Languages which use [[vowel length]] or [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as [[Metre (poetry)#Ottoman Turkish|Ottoman Turkish]] or [[Vedic meter|Vedic]], often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kiparsky |first=Paul |date=September 1975 |title=Stress, Syntax, and Meter |journal=Language |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=576–616 |doi=10.2307/412889 |jstor=412889}}</ref>

Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=John |title=The Founding of English Meter |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1961 |page=36}}</ref> Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], as well as the differing pitches and [[vowel length|lengths]] of syllables.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pinsky|1998|pp=11–24}}</ref>

There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in describing meter. For example, [[Robert Pinsky]] has argued that while dactyls are important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests, feet which he considers natural to the language.<ref>{{Harvnb|Pinsky|1998|p=66}}</ref> Actual rhythm is significantly more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. [[Vladimir Nabokov]] noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from the natural pitch of the spoken words, and suggested that the term "scud" be used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nabokov |first=Vladimir |url=https://archive.org/details/notesonprosodyon0000nabo/page/9 |title=Notes on Prosody |publisher=[[Bollingen Foundation]] |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-691-01760-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/notesonprosodyon0000nabo/page/9 9–13]}}</ref>

Sanskrit poetry is organized according to [[Sanskrit prosody|chhandas]], which are manifold and continue to influence several South Asian languages' poetry.

====Metrical patterns====
{{Main|Meter (poetry)}}
[[File:Lewis Carroll - Henry Holiday - Hunting of the Snark - Plate 6.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'' (1876) is mainly in [[anapestic tetrameter]].]]
Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging from the Shakespearean [[iambic pentameter]] and the Homeric [[dactylic hexameter]] to the [[anapestic tetrameter]] used in many nursery rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a [[caesura]] (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a [[Meter (poetry)|feminine ending]] to soften it or be replaced by a [[spondee]] to emphasize it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|pp=36–71}}</ref> Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for example, [[iambic tetrameter]] in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur, or occurs to a much lesser extent, in English.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nabokov |first=Vladimir |url=https://archive.org/details/notesonprosodyon0000nabo/page/46 |title=Notes on Prosody |publisher=Bollingen Foundation |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-691-01760-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/notesonprosodyon0000nabo/page/46 46–47]}}</ref>

[[File:Kiprensky Pushkin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alexander Pushkin]]]]
Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include:
* [[Iambic pentameter]] ([[John Milton]], ''[[Paradise Lost]]''; [[William Shakespeare]], ''[[Shakespeare's Sonnets|Sonnets]]'')<ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|1997|p=206}}</ref>
* [[Dactylic hexameter]] (Homer, ''[[Iliad]]''; [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'')<ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|1997|p=63}}</ref>
* [[Iambic tetrameter]] ([[Andrew Marvell]], "[[To His Coy Mistress]]"; [[Alexander Pushkin]], ''[[Eugene Onegin]]''; [[Robert Frost]], ''[[Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening]]'')<ref name="tetra">{{Cite web |url=https://www.tetrameter.com |title=What is Tetrameter? |publisher=tetrameter.com |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref>
* [[Trochaic octameter]] ([[Edgar Allan Poe]], "[[The Raven]]")<ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|1997|p=60}}</ref>
* [[Trochaic tetrameter]] ([[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], ''[[The Song of Hiawatha]]''; the Finnish national epic, ''[[Kalevala|The Kalevala]]'', is also in trochaic tetrameter, the natural rhythm of Finnish and Estonian)
* {{lang|fr|[[Alexandrin]]}} ([[Jean Racine]], ''[[Phèdre]]'')<ref>{{Cite book |last1=James |first1=E. D. |url=https://archive.org/details/racinephdre00jame |title=Racine: Phèdre |last2=Jondorf |first2=G. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-39721-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/racinephdre00jame/page/32 32–34] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

===Rhyme, alliteration, assonance===
{{Main|Rhyme|Alliterative verse|Assonance}}
[[File:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Old English]] [[epic poem]] ''[[Beowulf]]'' is in [[alliterative]] [[Verse (poetry)|verse]].]]
Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and [[Literary consonance|consonance]] are ways of creating repetitive patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|p=65}}</ref> They can also carry a meaning separate from the repetitive sound patterns created. For example, [[Chaucer]] used heavy alliteration to mock Old English verse and to paint a character as archaic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Osberg |first=Richard H. |title=Essays on the art of Chaucer's Verse |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8153-2951-0 |editor-last=Gaylord |editor-first=Alan T. |pages=195–228 |chapter='I kan nat geeste': Chaucer's Artful Alliteration}}</ref>

Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at locations within lines ("[[internal rhyme]]"). Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alighieri |first=Dante |translator-last=Pinsky |translator-first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/infernoofdante00dant |title=The Inferno of Dante: A New Verse Translation |publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-374-17674-7 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language.<ref name="kiparsky">{{Cite journal |last=Kiparsky |first=Paul |date=Summer 1973 |title=The Role of Linguistics in a Theory of Poetry |journal=Daedalus |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=231–44}}</ref>

Alliteration is the repetition of letters or letter-sounds at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; or the recurrence of the same letter in accented parts of words. Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas. Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures.

Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in [[skald]]ic poetry but goes back to the Homeric epic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Russom |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Russom |url=https://archive.org/details/beowulfoldgerman0000russ |title=Beowulf and old Germanic metre |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-59340-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/beowulfoldgerman0000russ/page/64 64–86] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Liu |first=James J. Y. |title=Art of Chinese Poetry |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-48687-1 |pages=21–22}}</ref> Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element.<ref name=kiparsky/>

====Rhyming schemes====
{{Main|Rhyme scheme}}
[[File:Paradiso Canto 31 (148200393).jpg|thumb|left|''[[Divine Comedy]]'': [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] and [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]] see God as a point of light.]]
In many languages, including Arabic and modern European languages, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms, such as [[ballad]]s, [[sonnet]]s and [[couplet|rhyming couplets]]. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional [[rhyme scheme]]s. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wesling |first=Donald |url=https://archive.org/details/chancesofrhymede0000wesl |title=The chances of rhyme |publisher=University of California Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-520-03861-5 |pages=x–xi, 38–42 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Rhyme entered European poetry in the [[High Middle Ages]], due to the influence of the [[Arabic language]] in [[Al Andalus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Menocal |first=María Rosa |author-link=María Rosa Menocal |title=The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8122-1324-9 |page=88}}</ref> Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively not only with the development of literary Arabic in the [[6th century in poetry|sixth century]], but also with the much older oral poetry, as in their long, rhyming [[qasida]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Qasida poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10387-0 |editor-last=Sperl |editor-first=Stefan |page=49}}</ref> Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the [[chant royal]] or the [[Ruba'i|rubaiyat]], while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|1997|pp=71–104}}</ref>

Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line do not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an AA BA [[rhyme scheme]]. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|p=27}}</ref> Similarly, an A BB A quatrain (what is known as "[[enclosed rhyme]]") is used in such forms as the [[Petrarchan sonnet]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|1997|pp=88–91}}</ref> Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-bc" convention, such as the [[ottava rima]] and [[terza rima]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|pp=81–82, 85}}</ref> The types and use of differing rhyming schemes are discussed further in the [[rhyme scheme|main article]].

===Form in poetry===
Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognizable structures or forms and write in [[free verse]]. Free verse is, however, not "formless" but composed of a series of more subtle, more flexible prosodic elements.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://literarydevices.com/free-verse/ |title=FREE VERSE |date=25 May 2015 |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref> Thus poetry remains, in all its styles, distinguished from prose by form;<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/f/forms-of-verse-free-verse/ |title=Forms of verse: Free verse [Victoria and Albert Museum] |date=4 July 2011 |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref> some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in all varieties of free verse, however much such structures may appear to have been ignored.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitworth |first=Michael H. |title=Reading modernist poetry |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-6731-4 |page=74}}</ref> Similarly, in the best poetry written in classic styles there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hollander|1981|pp=50–51}}</ref>

Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line, the [[stanza]] or [[verse paragraph]], and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as [[canto]]s. Also sometimes used are broader visual presentations of words and [[calligraphy]]. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called ''poetic forms'' or poetic modes (see the following section), as in the [[sonnet]].

====Lines and stanzas====
{{main|Line (poetry)|Stanza}}
Poetry is often separated into lines on a page, in a process known as [[line break (poetry)|lineation]]. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|pp=7–13}}</ref> See the article on [[line break (poetry)|line breaks]] for information about the division between lines.

Lines of poems are often organized into [[stanza]]s, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a [[couplet]] (or [[distich]]), three lines a [[tercet|triplet]] (or [[tercet]]), four lines a [[quatrain]], and so on. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|pp=78–82}}</ref>

[[File:Alexander Blok - Noch, ulica, fonar, apteka.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Blok|Blok]]'s [[Russian language|Russian]] poem, "''Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka''" ("Night, street, lamp, drugstore"), on a wall in [[Leiden]]]]
Other poems may be organized into [[verse paragraph]]s, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|p=78}}</ref> Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middle English Literature: a guide to criticism |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-631-23290-2 |editor-last=Dalrymple |editor-first=Roger |page=10}}</ref>

In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the [[ghazal]] and the [[villanelle]], where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the [[strophe]], [[antistrophe]] and [[epode]] of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|pp=78–79}}</ref>

In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In [[skald]]ic poetry, the [[dróttkvætt]] stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd-numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture |publisher=Blackwell |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4051-3738-6 |editor-last=McTurk |editor-first=Rory |editor-link=Rory McTurk |pages=269–280}}</ref>

====Visual presentation====
[[File:Uma no Naishi 馬内侍女房三十六歌仙 Thirty-Six Immortal Women Poets.jpg|alt=Poem from an anthology. Left team, Uma no naishi: "Au koto wa kore ya kagiri no tabi naramu kusa no makura mo shimogarenikeri": portrait of Ume no naishi|thumb|upright=1.7|Poetry is often written down in verse, writing structures that echo the poetic structure. This poem by [[Uma no Naishi]] is written in [[chirashigaki]] (scattered writing). The characters are deliberately written out of order. The first part of the poem is written in the third column from the right, while the second column from the right comes later in the poem.<ref name="36poets">{{cite book |title=The Thirty-Six Immortal Women Poets, A Poetry Album with Illustrations |date=1991 |publisher=George Braziller |isbn=0-8076-1257-X |page=132 |url=https://www.nypl.org/node/29521 |access-date=7 December 2024}}, from commentary by Andrew J. Pekarik</ref> Chirashigaki may also retain the order, but divide and space the characters unconventionally, with a column break partway through a poetic line or a word. This slows and delinearizes the reading process, changing the read rhythm.<ref name="met_verse">{{cite web |title=Brush Writing in the Arts of Japan |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2013/brush-writing |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=7 December 2024}}</ref> It was also a convenient way of using expensive letter paper efficiently.<ref name="36poets"/>]]
{{Main|Visual poetry}}
Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added meaning or depth. [[Acrostic]] poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Freedman |first=David Noel |date=July 1972 |title=Acrostics and Metrics in Hebrew Poetry |journal=Harvard Theological Review |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=367–392 |doi=10.1017/s0017816000001620|s2cid=162853305 }}</ref> In [[Arabic poetry|Arabic]], [[Jewish literature#Poetry|Hebrew]] and [[Chinese poetry]], the visual presentation of finely [[calligraphy|calligraphed]] poems has played an important part in the overall effect of many poems.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kampf |first=Robert |title=Reading the Visual – 17th century poetry and visual culture |publisher=GRIN Verlag |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-640-60011-3 |pages=4–6}}</ref>

With the advent of [[printing]], poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some [[Modernism|Modernist]] poets have made the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page an integral part of the poem's composition. At times, this complements the poem's [[rhythm]] through visual [[caesura]]s of various lengths, or creates [[Contrast (linguistics)|juxtapositions]] so as to accentuate meaning, [[ambiguity]] or [[irony]], or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead to [[concrete poetry]] or [[asemic writing]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bohn |first=Willard |url=https://archive.org/details/aestheticsofvisu0000bohn/page/1 |title=The aesthetics of visual poetry |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-226-06325-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/aestheticsofvisu0000bohn/page/1 1–8]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/beyond_the_beyond/2009/07/web-semantics-asemic-writing/ |title=Web Semantics: Asemic writing |last=Sterling |first=Bruce |date=13 July 2009 |magazine=Wired |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027152452/http://www.wired.com/beyond_the_beyond/2009/07/web-semantics-asemic-writing/ |archive-date=2009-10-27 |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref>

===Diction===
{{Main|Poetic diction}}
Poetic diction treats the manner in which language is used, and refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barfield |first=Owen |title=Poetic diction: a study in meaning |publisher=Wesleyan University Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8195-6026-1 |edition=2nd |page=41}}</ref> Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where distinct [[grammar]]s and [[dialect]]s are used specifically for poetry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sheets |first=George A. |date=Spring 1981 |title=The Dialect Gloss, Hellenistic Poetics and Livius Andronicus |journal=American Journal of Philology |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=58–78 |doi=10.2307/294154 |jstor=294154}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Blank |first=Paula |title=Broken English: dialects and the politics of language in Renaissance writings |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-13779-9 |pages=29–31}}</ref> [[Register tone|Registers]] in poetry can range from strict employment of ordinary speech patterns, as favoured in much late-20th-century [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perloff |first=Marjorie |author-link=Marjorie Perloff |title=21st-century modernism: the new poetics |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-631-21970-5 |page=2}}</ref> through to highly ornate uses of language, as in medieval and Renaissance poetry.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Medieval lyric: genres in historical context |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-252-02536-5 |editor-last=Paden |editor-first=William D. |page=193}}</ref>

Poetic diction can include [[rhetorical device]]s such as [[simile]] and [[metaphor]], as well as tones of voice, such as [[irony]]. [[Aristotle]] wrote in the ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor."<ref>{{cite book|publisher=Gutenberg|title=The Poetics of Aristotle|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1974|date=1974|page=22}}</ref> Since the rise of [[Modernism]], some poets have opted for a poetic diction that de-emphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge companion to modernist poetry |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-61815-1 |editor-last1=Davis |editor-first1=Alex |pages=90–96 |editor-last2=Jenkins |editor-first2=Lee M.}}</ref> On the other hand, [[surrealism|Surrealists]] have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of [[catachresis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=San Juan |first=E. Jr. |title=Working through the contradictions from cultural theory to critical practice |publisher=Bucknell University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8387-5570-9 |pages=124–125}}</ref>

[[Allegory|Allegorical]] stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the West during classical times, the [[Allegory in the Middle Ages|late Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]]. ''[[Aesop's Fables]]'', repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 BCE, are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Treip |first=Mindele Anne |title=Allegorical poetics and the epic: the Renaissance tradition to Paradise Lost |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8131-1831-4 |page=14}}</ref> Other notables examples include the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'', a 13th-century French poem, [[William Langland]]'s ''[[Piers Ploughman]]'' in the 14th century, and [[Jean de la Fontaine]]'s ''Fables'' (influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century. Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain [[symbols]] or [[allusion]]s that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crisp |first=P. |date=1 November 2005 |title=Allegory and symbol – a fundamental opposition? |journal=Language and Literature |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=323–338 |doi=10.1177/0963947005051287|s2cid=170517936 }}</ref>

Another element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid [[imagery (literature)|imagery]] for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and [[haiku]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Richard |year=2004 |title=The Disjunctive Dragonfly |journal=Modern Haiku |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=21–44}}</ref> Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism or metaphor. Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer [[refrain]]. Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hollander|1981|pp=37–46}}</ref>

==Forms==
{{see also|Category: Poetic forms}}
[[File:Сортавала. Рунопевец с кантеле.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of runic singer Petri Shemeikka at Kolmikulmanpuisto Park in [[Sortavala]], [[Republic of Karelia|Karelia]]]]
Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more developed, closed or "received" poetic forms, the rhyming scheme, meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an [[elegy]] to the highly formalized structure of the [[ghazal]] or [[villanelle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|pp=160–165}}</ref> Described below are some common forms of poetry widely used across a number of languages. Additional forms of poetry may be found in the discussions of the poetry of particular cultures or periods and in the [[Glossary of poetry terms|glossary]].

===Sonnet===
{{Main|Sonnet}}
[[File:William Shakespeare by John Taylor, edited.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[William Shakespeare]]]]
Among the most common forms of poetry, popular from the [[Late Middle Ages]] on, is the sonnet, which by the 13th century had become standardized as fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. By the 14th century and the [[Italian Renaissance]], the form had further crystallized under the pen of [[Petrarch]], whose sonnets were translated in the 16th century by [[Thomas Wyatt (poet)|Sir Thomas Wyatt]], who is credited with introducing the sonnet form into English literature.<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|p=94}}</ref> A traditional Italian or [[Petrarchan sonnet]] follows the [[rhyme scheme]] ''<math>\mathrm{ABBA,ABBA,CDECDE}</math>'', though some variation, perhaps the most common being <math>\mathrm{CDCDCD}</math>, especially within the final six lines (or ''sestet''), is common.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Minta |first=Stephen |url=https://archive.org/details/petrarchpetrarch0000mint/page/15 |title=Petrarch and Petrarchism |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-7190-0748-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/petrarchpetrarch0000mint/page/15 15–17]}}</ref> The [[English sonnet|English (or Shakespearean) sonnet]] follows the rhyme scheme <math>\mathrm{ABAB \,\, CDCD \,\, EFEF \,\, GG}</math>, introducing a third [[quatrain]] (grouping of four lines), a final [[couplet]], and a greater amount of variety in rhyme than is usually found in its Italian predecessors. By convention, sonnets in English typically use [[iambic pentameter]], while in the [[Romance languages]], the [[hendecasyllable]] and [[Alexandrine]] are the most widely used meters.

Sonnets of all types often make use of a ''volta'', or "turn," a point in the poem at which an idea is turned on its head, a question is answered (or introduced), or the subject matter is further complicated. This ''volta'' can often take the form of a "but" statement contradicting or complicating the content of the earlier lines. In the Petrarchan sonnet, the turn tends to fall around the division between the first two quatrains and the sestet, while English sonnets usually place it at or near the beginning of the closing couplet.

[[File:Carol Ann Duffy (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Carol Ann Duffy]]]]
Sonnets are particularly associated with high poetic diction, vivid imagery, and romantic love, largely due to the influence of Petrarch as well as of early English practitioners such as [[Edmund Spenser]] (who gave his name to the [[Spenserian sonnet]]), [[Michael Drayton]], and Shakespeare, whose [[Shakespeare's sonnets|sonnets]] are among the most famous in English poetry, with twenty being included in the ''[[Oxford Book of English Verse]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Oxford Book of English Verse |title-link=Oxford Book of English Verse |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1900 |editor-last=Quiller-Couch |editor-first=Arthur}}</ref> However, the twists and turns associated with the ''volta'' allow for a logical flexibility applicable to many subjects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fussell|1965|pp=119–133}}</ref> Poets from the earliest centuries of the sonnet to the present have used the form to address topics related to politics ([[John Milton]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], [[Claude McKay]]), theology ([[John Donne]], [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]]), war ([[Wilfred Owen]], [[E. E. Cummings]]), and gender and sexuality ([[Carol Ann Duffy]]). Further, postmodern authors such as [[Ted Berrigan]] and [[John Berryman]] have challenged the traditional definitions of the sonnet form, rendering entire sequences of "sonnets" that often lack rhyme, a clear logical progression, or even a consistent count of fourteen lines.

===Shi===
{{Main|Shi (poetry)}}
[[File:Dufucalligraphy.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Du Fu]], "On Visiting the Temple of [[Laozi]]"]]
''Shi'' ({{zh|t=[[wikt:詩|詩]]|s=[[wikt:诗|诗]]|p=shī|w=shih}}) is the main type of [[Classical Chinese poetry]].<ref>[[Burton Watson|Watson, Burton]] (1971). ''Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century''. (New York: Columbia University Press). {{ISBN|0-231-03464-4}}, 1</ref> Within this form of poetry the most important variations are "folk song" styled verse (''[[yuefu]]''), "old style" verse (''[[gushi (poetry)|gushi]]''), "modern style" verse (''[[jintishi]]''). In all cases, rhyming is obligatory. The Yuefu is a folk ballad or a poem written in the folk ballad style, and the number of lines and the length of the lines could be irregular. For the other variations of ''shi'' poetry, generally either a four line (quatrain, or ''[[jueju]]'') or else an eight-line poem is normal; either way with the even numbered lines rhyming. The line length is scanned by an according number of characters (according to the convention that one character equals one syllable), and are predominantly either five or seven characters long, with a [[caesura]] before the final three syllables. The lines are generally end-stopped, considered as a series of couplets, and exhibit verbal parallelism as a key poetic device.<ref>[[Burton Watson|Watson, Burton]] (1971). ''Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century''. (New York: Columbia University Press). {{ISBN|0-231-03464-4}}, 1–2 and 15–18</ref> The "old style" verse (''Gushi'') is less formally strict than the ''jintishi'', or regulated verse, which, despite the name "new style" verse actually had its theoretical basis laid as far back as [[Shen Yue]] (441–513 CE), although not considered to have reached its full development until the time of [[Chen Zi'ang]] (661–702 CE).<ref>[[Burton Watson|Watson, Burton]] (1971). ''Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century''. (New York: Columbia University Press). {{ISBN|0-231-03464-4}}, 111 and 115</ref> A good example of a poet known for his ''Gushi'' poems is [[Li Bai]] (701–762 CE). Among its other rules, the jintishi rules regulate the tonal variations within a poem, including the use of set patterns of the [[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|four tones]] of [[Middle Chinese]]. The basic form of jintishi (sushi) has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of [[allusion]], and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faurot |first=Jeannette L |url=https://archive.org/details/drinkingwithmoon0000unse/page/30 |title=Drinking with the moon |publisher=China Books & Periodicals |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8351-2639-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/drinkingwithmoon0000unse/page/30 30]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Yugen |date=1 June 2004 |title=Shige: The Popular Poetics of Regulated Verse |journal=T'ang Studies |volume=2004 |issue=22 |pages=81–125 |doi=10.1179/073750304788913221|s2cid=163239068 }}</ref> One of the masters of the form was [[Du Fu]] (712–770 CE), who wrote during the Tang Dynasty (8th century).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schirokauer |first=Conrad |title=A brief history of Chinese and Japanese civilizations |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-15-505569-8 |edition=2nd |page=119}}</ref>

===Villanelle===
{{Main|Villanelle}}
[[File:AudenVanVechten1939.jpg|thumb|upright|[[W. H. Auden]]]]
The villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an AB alternating rhyme.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kumin |first=Maxine |author-link=Maxine Kumin|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/exaltationofform00finc/page/314 |title=An Exaltation of Forms: Contemporary Poets Celebrate the Diversity of Their Art |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-472-06725-1 |editor-last=Varnes |editor-first=Kathrine |page=[https://archive.org/details/exaltationofform00finc/page/314 314] |chapter=Gymnastics: The Villanelle}}</ref> The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late 19th century by such poets as [[Dylan Thomas]],<ref>"[[Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night]]" in {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Dylan |title=In Country Sleep and Other Poems |publisher=New Directions Publications |year=1952 |page=18}}</ref> [[W. H. Auden]],<ref>"Villanelle", in {{Cite book |last=Auden |first=W. H. |title=Collected Poems |publisher=Random House |year=1945}}</ref> and [[Elizabeth Bishop]].<ref>"One Art", in {{Cite book |last=Bishop |first=Elizabeth |title=Geography III |publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux |year=1976}}</ref>

===Limerick===
{{main|Limerick (poetry)}}
A limerick is a poem that consists of five lines and is often humorous. Rhythm is very important in limericks for the first, second and fifth lines must have seven to ten syllables. However, the third and fourth lines only need five to seven. Lines 1, 2 and 5 rhyme with each other, and lines 3 and 4 rhyme with each other. Practitioners of the limerick included [[Edward Lear]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson|Lord Alfred Tennyson]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Poets|first=Academy of American|title=Limerick {{!}} Academy of American Poets|url=https://poets.org/glossary/limerick|access-date=2020-10-10|website=poets.org|quote="Limericks can be found in the work of Lord Alfred Tennyson, Rudyard Kipling, Robert Louis Stevenson"}}</ref>

===Tanka===
{{Main|Tanka}}
[[File:Kakinomoto Hitomaro.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kakinomoto no Hitomaro]]]]
Tanka is a form of unrhymed [[Japanese poetry]], with five sections totalling 31 ''[[On (Japanese prosody)|on]]'' (phonological units identical to [[Mora (linguistics)|morae]]), structured in a 5–7–5–7–7 pattern.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Global linguistic flows |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8058-6283-6 |editor-last1=Samy Alim |editor-first1=H. |page=181 |editor-last2=Ibrahim |editor-first2=Awad|editor3-link=Alastair Pennycook |editor-last3=Pennycook |editor-first3=Alastair}}</ref> There is generally a shift in tone and subject matter between the upper 5–7–5 phrase and the lower 7–7 phrase. Tanka were written as early as the [[Asuka period]] by such poets as [[Kakinomoto no Hitomaro]] (''fl.'' late 7th century), at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where much of its poetry followed Chinese form.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brower |first1=Robert H. |title=Japanese court poetry |last2=Miner |first2=Earl |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8047-1524-9 |pages=86–92}}</ref> Tanka was originally the shorter form of Japanese formal poetry (which was generally referred to as "[[waka (poetry)|waka]]"), and was used more heavily to explore personal rather than public themes. By the tenth century, tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, to the point where the originally general term ''waka'' ("Japanese poetry") came to be used exclusively for tanka. Tanka are still widely written today.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The tanka anthology: tanka in English from around the world |publisher=Red Moon Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-893959-40-8 |editor-last1=McCllintock |editor-first1=Michael |pages=xxx–xlviii |editor-last2=Ness |editor-first2=Pamela Miller |editor-last3=Kacian |editor-first3=Jim}}</ref>

===Haiku===
{{Main|Haiku}}
Haiku is a popular form of unrhymed Japanese poetry, which evolved in the 17th century from the ''[[hokku]]'', or opening verse of a [[renku]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Corn|1997|p=117}}</ref> Generally written in a single vertical line, the haiku contains three sections totalling 17 ''on'' ([[Mora (linguistics)|morae]]), structured in a 5–7–5 pattern. Traditionally, haiku contain a [[kireji]], or cutting word, usually placed at the end of one of the poem's three sections, and a [[kigo]], or season-word.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Haiku moment: an anthology of contemporary North American haiku |publisher=Charles E. Tuttle Co |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-8048-1820-9 |editor-last=Ross |editor-first=Bruce |page=xiii}}</ref> The most famous exponent of the haiku was [[Matsuo Bashō]] (1644–1694). An example of his writing:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldhaikureview.org/5-1/whcj/basho_fuji.htm |title=Basho's Haiku on the theme of Mt. Fuji |last=Yanagibori |first=Etsuko |website=The personal notebook of Etsuko Yanagibori |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070528144552/http://www.worldhaikureview.org/5-1/whcj/basho_fuji.htm |archive-date=28 May 2007}}</ref>

{|class=wikitable
!Japanese!!Romanji||English
|-
|{{nowrap|{{poemquote|{{nihongo2|富士の風 や扇にのせて 江戸土産}}}}}}
|{{nowrap|{{poemquote|fuji no kaze
ya oogi ni nosete
Edo miyage}}}}
|{{nowrap|{{poemquote|the wind of Mt. Fuji
I've brought on my fan!
a gift from Edo}}}}
|-
|}

===Khlong===
{{Main|Thai poetry}}
The ''khlong'' ({{lang|th|โคลง}}, {{IPA|th|kʰlōːŋ|}}) is among the oldest Thai poetic forms. This is reflected in its requirements on the tone markings of certain syllables, which must be marked with ''mai ek'' ({{lang|th|ไม้เอก}}, {{IPA|th|máj èːk}}, {{lang|th|◌่}}) or ''mai tho'' ({{lang|th|ไม้โท}}, {{IPA|th|máj tʰōː|}}, {{lang|th|◌้}}). This was likely derived from when the Thai language had three tones (as opposed to today's five, a split which occurred during the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] period), two of which corresponded directly to the aforementioned marks. It is usually regarded as an advanced and sophisticated poetic form.<ref name="Hudak khloong">{{Cite web |url=http://thaiarc.tu.ac.th/poetry/khloong/khloonge.html |title=โคลง Khloong |website=Thai Language Audio Resource Center |publisher=Thammasat University |access-date=6 March 2012}} Reproduced form {{cite book |last=Hudak |first=Thomas John |title=The indigenization of Pali meters in Thai poetry |year=1990 |series=Monographs in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series |issue=87 |publisher=Ohio University Center for International Studies|location=Athens, Ohio |isbn=978-0-89680-159-2 }}</ref>

In ''khlong'', a stanza (''bot'', {{lang|th|บท}}, {{IPA|th|bòt}}) has a number of lines (''bat'', {{lang|th|บาท}}, {{IPA|th|bàːt}}, from [[Pali]] and [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Pada (foot)|pāda]]''), depending on the type. The ''bat'' are subdivided into two ''wak'' ({{lang|th|วรรค}}, {{IPA|th|wák}}, from Sanskrit ''varga'').{{NoteTag|In literary studies, ''line'' in western poetry is translated as ''bat''. However, in some forms, the unit is more equivalent to ''wak''. To avoid confusion, this article will refer to ''wak'' and ''bat'' instead of ''line'', which may refer to either.}} The first ''wak'' has five syllables, the second has a variable number, also depending on the type, and may be optional. The type of ''khlong'' is named by the number of ''bat'' in a stanza; it may also be divided into two main types: ''khlong suphap'' ({{lang|th|โคลงสุภาพ}}, {{IPA|th|kʰlōːŋ sù.pʰâːp|}}) and ''khlong dan'' ({{lang|th|โคลงดั้น}}, {{IPA|th|kʰlōːŋ dân|}}). The two differ in the number of syllables in the second ''wak'' of the final ''bat'' and inter-stanza rhyming rules.<ref name="Hudak khloong" />

====Khlong si suphap====
The ''khlong si suphap'' ({{lang|th|โคลงสี่สุภาพ}}, {{IPA|th|kʰlōːŋ sìː sù.pʰâːp|}}) is the most common form still currently employed. It has four ''bat'' per stanza (''si'' translates as ''four''). The first ''wak'' of each ''bat'' has five syllables. The second ''wak'' has two or four syllables in the first and third ''bat'', two syllables in the second, and four syllables in the fourth. ''Mai ek'' is required for seven syllables and ''Mai tho'' is required for four, as shown below. "[[Dead word (Thai language)|Dead word]]" syllables are allowed in place of syllables which require ''mai ek'', and changing the spelling of words to satisfy the criteria is usually acceptable.

===Ode===
{{Main|Ode}}
[[File:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Horace]]]]
Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as [[Pindar]], and Latin, such as [[Horace]]. Forms of odes appear in many of the cultures that were influenced by the Greeks and Latins.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gray |first=Thomas |title=English lyrics from Dryden to Burns |publisher=Elibron |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-4021-0064-2 |pages=155–56}}</ref> The ode generally has three parts: a [[strophe]], an [[antistrophe]], and an [[epode]]. The strophe and the antistrophe of the ode possess similar metrical structures and, depending on the tradition, similar rhyme structures. In contrast, the epode is written with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction and generally deal with a serious subject. The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gayley |first1=Charles Mills |title=English Poetry |last2=Young |first2=Clement C. |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4179-0086-2 |edition=Reprint |page=lxxxv}}</ref> Over time, differing forms for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One non-Western form which resembles the ode is the [[qasida]] in [[Arabic poetry]].<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Kuiper |editor-first=Kathleen |url=https://archive.org/details/poetrydramaliter0000unse/page/51 |title=Poetry and drama literary terms and concepts |publisher=Britannica Educational Pub. in association with Rosen Educational Services |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-61530-539-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/poetrydramaliter0000unse/page/51 51]}}</ref>

===Ghazal===
{{Main|Ghazal}}
The {{transliteration|ar|italic=no|ghazal}} (also {{transliteration|ar|italic=no|ghazel}}, {{transliteration|ar|italic=no|gazel}}, {{transliteration|ar|italic=no|gazal}}, or {{transliteration|ar|italic=no|gozol}}) is a form of poetry common in [[Arabic poetry|Arabic]], [[Bengali poetry|Bengali]], [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Urdu poetry|Urdu]]. In classic form, the {{transliteration|ar|italic=no|ghazal}} has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a [[refrain]] at the end of the second line. This refrain may be of one or several syllables and is preceded by a rhyme. Each line has an identical meter and is of the same length.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://poets.org/glossary/ghazal |title=Ghazal - glossary on poets.org |access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref> The ghazal often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Infobase |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |page=260}}</ref>

As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in [[Urdu]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Qureshi |first=Regula Burckhardt |date=Autumn 1990 |title=Musical Gesture and Extra-Musical Meaning: Words and Music in the Urdu Ghazal |journal=Journal of the American Musicological Society |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=457–497 |doi=10.1525/jams.1990.43.3.03a00040}}</ref> Ghazals have a classical affinity with [[Sufism]], and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical themes well.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sequeira |first=Isaac |date=1 June 1981 |title=The Mystique of the Mushaira |journal=The Journal of Popular Culture |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1111/j.0022-3840.1981.4745121.x}}</ref> Among the masters of the form are [[Rumi]], the celebrated 13th-century [[Persia]]n poet,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie | author-link=Annemarie Schimmel|date=Spring 1988 |title=Mystical Poetry in Islam: The Case of Maulana Jalaladdin Rumi |journal=Religion & Literature |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=67–80}}</ref> [[Attar of Nishapur|Attar]], 12th century Iranian Sufi mystic poet who Rumi considered his master,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Attar, the Sufi Poet and Master of Rumi, by Sholeh Wolpé |url=https://www.worldliteraturetoday.org/blog/cultural-cross-sections/attar-sufi-poet-and-master-rumi-sholeh-wolpe |access-date=2024-05-21 |website=World Literature Today |language=en}}</ref> and their equally famous near-contemporary [[Hafez]]. Hafez uses the ghazal to expose hypocrisy and the pitfalls of worldliness, but also expertly exploits the form to express the divine depths and secular subtleties of love; creating translations that meaningfully capture such complexities of content and form is immensely challenging, but lauded attempts to do so in English include [[Gertrude Bell]]'s ''Poems from the Divan of Hafiz''<ref>{{cite book |last=Hafez |author-link=Hafez |translator-first=Gertrude |translator-last=Bell |title=Poems from the Divan of Hafiz |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.507877 |place=London |date=1897 |ref=none}}</ref> and ''Beloved: 81 poems from Hafez'' ([[Bloodaxe Books]]) whose Preface addresses in detail the problematic nature of translating ghazals and whose versions (according to [[Fatemeh Keshavarz]], Roshan Institute for [[Persian Studies]]) preserve "that audacious and multilayered richness one finds in the originals".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloodaxebooks.com/ecs/product/beloved-1196 |title=Beloved: 81 poems from Hafez |date=2018 |publisher=Bloodaxe Books}}</ref> Indeed, Hafez's ghazals have been the subject of much analysis, commentary and interpretation, influencing post-fourteenth century Persian writing more than any other author.<ref>Yarshater. Retrieved 25 July 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.amaana.org/sultweb/msmhafiz.htm Hafiz and the Place of Iranian Culture in the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503140008/http://www.amaana.org/sultweb/msmhafiz.htm |date=3 May 2009 }} by [[Aga Khan III]], 9 November 1936 London.</ref> The [[West-östlicher Diwan]] of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], a collection of lyrical poems, is inspired by the Persian poet Hafez.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shamel |first=Shafiq |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwKfmAEACAAJ&q=goethe+hafiz |title=Goethe and Hafiz |year=2013 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-0343-0881-6 |access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.peterlang.com/index.cfm?event=cmp.ccc.seitenstruktur.detailseiten&seitentyp=produkt&pk=70235 |title=Goethe and Hafiz |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029210449/http://www.peterlang.com/index.cfm?event=cmp.ccc.seitenstruktur.detailseiten&seitentyp=produkt&pk=70235 |archive-date=29 October 2014 |access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lifeofthought.com/e69.htm |title=GOETHE |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905080250/http://www.lifeofthought.com/e69.htm |archive-date=5 September 2015 |access-date=29 October 2014}}</ref>

==Genres==
In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different [[genre]]s and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/intgenre/intgenre.html |title=Introduction to Genre Theory |last=Chandler |first=Daniel |publisher=Aberystwyth University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509013303/http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/intgenre/intgenre.html |archive-date=9 May 2015 |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref> Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Beyond the screen: transformations of literary structures, interfaces and genres |publisher=Verlag |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8376-1258-5 |editor-last1=Schafer |editor-first1=Jorgen |pages=16, 391–402 |editor-last2=Gendolla |editor-first2=Peter}}</ref>

===Narrative poetry===
{{Main|Narrative poetry}}
[[File:Chaucer manuscrit portrait (détail).jpeg |thumb|upright|[[Chaucer]]]]
Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a [[narrative|story]]. Broadly it subsumes [[epic poetry]], but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller works, generally with more appeal to [[human interest]]. Narrative poetry may be the oldest type of poetry. Many scholars of [[Homer]] have concluded that his ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'' were composed of compilations of shorter narrative poems that related individual episodes.

Much narrative poetry—such as Scottish and English [[ballad]]s, and [[Balts|Baltic]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] heroic poems—is [[performance poetry]] with roots in a preliterate [[oral tradition]]. It has been speculated that some features that distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, [[alliteration]] and [[kenning]]s, once served as [[memory]] aids for [[bard]]s who recited traditional tales.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kirk |first=G. S. |title=Homer and the Oral Tradition |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-13671-6 |edition=reprint |pages=22–45}}</ref>

Notable narrative poets have included [[Ovid]], [[Dante]], [[Juan Ruiz]], [[William Langland]], [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]], [[Fernando de Rojas]], [[Luís de Camões]], [[Shakespeare]], [[Alexander Pope]], [[Robert Burns]], [[Adam Mickiewicz]], [[Alexander Pushkin]], [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Alfred Tennyson]], and [[Anne Carson]].

===Lyric poetry===
[[File:Christine de Pisan - cathedra.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Christine de Pizan]] ''(left)'']]
{{Main|Lyric poetry}}
Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike [[epic poetry|epic]] and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more [[person]]al nature. Poems in this genre tend to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative. Rather than depicting [[Character (arts)|characters]] and actions, it portrays the poet's own [[feeling]]s, [[Qualia|states of mind]], and [[perception]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blasing |first=Mutlu Konuk |author-link=Mutlu Konuk Blasing |title=Lyric poetry : the pain and the pleasure of words |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-691-12682-1 |pages=1–22}}</ref> Notable poets in this genre include [[Hafez]], [[Christine de Pizan]], [[John Donne]], [[Charles Baudelaire]], [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]], [[Antonio Machado]], and [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]].

===Epic poetry===
{{Main|Epic poetry}}
[[File:Camões, por Fernão Gomes.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Camões]]]]
Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of [[narrative]] literature. This genre is often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a [[hero]]ic or [[mythological]] person or group of persons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hainsworth |first=J. B. |title=Traditions of heroic and epic poetry |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-947623-19-7 |pages=171–175}}</ref>

Examples of epic poems are [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'', [[Virgil]]'s [[Aeneid]], the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', [[Luís de Camões]]' ''[[Os Lusíadas]]'', the ''[[Cantar de Mio Cid]]'', the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', [[Lönnrot]]'s ''[[Kalevala]]'', [[Valmiki]]'s ''[[Ramayana]]'', [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnama]]'', [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]] (or Nezami)'s Khamse (Five Books), and the ''[[Epic of King Gesar]]''. A Sanskrit analogue to the epic poem is the ''mahākāvya''.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}

While the composition of epic poetry, and of [[long poem]]s generally, became less common in the west after the early 20th century, some notable epics have continued to be written. ''[[The Cantos]]'' by [[Ezra Pound]], ''[[Helen in Egypt]]'' by [[H.D.]], and ''[[Paterson (poem)|Paterson]]'' by [[William Carlos Williams]] are examples of modern epics. [[Derek Walcott]] won a [[Nobel prize]] in 1992 to a great extent on the basis of his epic, ''[[Omeros]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1992/press.html |title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1992: Derek Walcott |publisher=Swedish Academy |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref>

===Satirical poetry===
[[File:Jacob Huysmans - Portrait of John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester 1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Wilmot]]]]
Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for [[satire]]. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for [[political]] purposes. A notable example is the Roman poet [[Juvenal]]'s [[Satires of Juvenal|satires]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dominik |first1=William J. |title=Roman verse satire: Lucilius to Juvenal |last2=Wehrle |first2=T. |publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-86516-442-0 |pages=1–3}}</ref>

The same is true of the English satirical tradition. [[John Dryden]] (a [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]]), the first [[Poet Laureate]], produced in 1682 ''[[Mac Flecknoe]]'', subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." (a reference to [[Thomas Shadwell]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Broadview Anthology of British Literature |publisher=Broadview Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-55481-048-2 |editor-last=Black |editor-first=Joseph |volume=1 |page=1056}}</ref> Satirical poets outside England include [[Poland]]'s [[Ignacy Krasicki]], [[Iran]]'s [[Ubayd Zakani]], [[Azerbaijan]]'s [[Mirza Alakbar Sabir|Sabir]], [[Portugal]]'s [[Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage]], and Korea's [[Kim Kirim]], especially noted for his ''[[Gisangdo]]''.

===Elegy===
{{Main|Elegy}}
[[File:PortraitThomasGrayByJohnGilesEccart1747to1748.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Gray]]]]
An elegy is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem, especially a [[lament]] for the dead or a [[funeral]] song. The term "elegy," which originally denoted a type of poetic meter ([[elegiac]] meter), commonly describes a poem of [[mourning]]. An elegy may also reflect something that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The elegy, as a reflection on a death, on a sorrow more generally, or on something mysterious, may be classified as a form of lyric poetry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pigman |first=G. W. |url=https://archive.org/details/griefenglishrena0000pigm |title=Grief and English Renaissance elegy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-521-26871-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/griefenglishrena0000pigm/page/40 40–47] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=David |title=Elegy |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-20906-4 |pages=10–34}}</ref>

Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have included [[Propertius]], [[Khaqani]], [[Jorge Manrique]], [[Jan Kochanowski]], [[Chidiock Tichborne]], [[Edmund Spenser]], [[Ben Jonson]], [[John Milton]], [[Thomas Gray]], [[Charlotte Smith (writer)|Charlotte Smith]], [[William Cullen Bryant]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Evgeny Baratynsky]], [[Alfred Tennyson]], [[Walt Whitman]], [[Antonio Machado]], [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]], [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], and [[Virginia Woolf]].

===Verse fable===
[[File:Ignacy Krasicki 111.PNG|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Ignacy Krasicki|Krasicki]]]]
{{Main|Fable}}
The fable is an ancient [[literary genre]], often (though not invariably) set in [[Verse (poetry)|verse]]. It is a succinct story that features [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphised]] [[animal]]s, [[legendary creature]]s, [[plant]]s, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "[[moral]]"). Verse fables have used a variety of [[meter (poetry)|meter]] and [[rhyme]] patterns.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harpham |first1=Geoffrey Galt |last2=Abrams |first2=M. H. |title=A glossary of literary terms |year=2011 |publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-89802-3 |edition=10th |page=9}}</ref>

Notable verse fabulists have included [[Aesop]], [[Vishnu Sarma]], [[Phaedrus (fabulist)|Phaedrus]], [[Marie de France]], [[Nizami Ganjavi]], [[Rumi]], [[Robert Henryson]], [[Biernat of Lublin]], [[Jean de La Fontaine]], [[Ignacy Krasicki]], [[Félix María de Samaniego]], [[Tomás de Iriarte]], [[Ivan Krylov]], and [[Ambrose Bierce]].

===Dramatic poetry===
[[File:Goethe (Stieler 1828).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Goethe]]]]
{{Main|Verse drama and dramatic verse|Theatre of ancient Greece|Sanskrit drama|Chinese Opera|Noh}}
Dramatic poetry is [[drama]] written in [[Verse (poetry)|verse]] to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes related forms in many cultures. [[Greek tragedy]] in verse dates to the 6th century B.C., and may have been an influence on the development of Sanskrit drama,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Arthur Berriedale |title=Sanskrit Drama in its origin, development, theory and practice |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1992 |isbn=978-81-208-0977-2 |pages=57–58}}</ref> just as Indian drama in turn appears to have influenced the development of the ''[[bianwen]]'' verse dramas in China, forerunners of [[Chinese Opera]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dolby |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/chinesetheater00coli |title=Chinese Theater: From Its Origins to the Present Day |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-8248-1220-1 |editor-last=Mackerras |editor-first=Colin |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinesetheater00coli/page/17 17] |chapter=Early Chinese Plays and Theatre |url-access=registration}}</ref> [[East Asia]]n verse dramas also include Japanese [[Noh]]. Examples of dramatic poetry in [[Persian literature]] include [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]]'s two famous dramatic works, ''[[Layla and Majnun]]'' and ''[[Khosrow and Shirin]]'', [[Ferdowsi]]'s tragedies such as ''[[Sohrab|Rostam and Sohrab]]'', [[Rumi]]'s ''[[Masnavi]]'', [[Asad Gorgani|Gorgani]]'s tragedy of ''[[Vis and Ramin]]'', and [[Vahshi Bafqi|Vahshi]]'s tragedy of ''[[Farhad]]''. American poets of 20th century revive dramatic poetry, including [[Ezra Pound]] in "''Sestina: Altaforte,''"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Giordano|first=Mathew|title=Dramatic Poetics and American Poetic Culture, 1865–1904, Doctoral Dissertation|publisher=Ohio State|year=2004|location=Columbus, Ohio|quote=Dramatic poetry: Pound’s 'Sestina: Altaforte' or Eliot’s 'The Love Song of J. Alfred Proufrock'.}}</ref> [[T. S. Eliot|T.S. Eliot]] with "[[The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock]]".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Eliot|first=T. S.|date=1951|title=Poetry and Drama|url=https://tseliot.com/|access-date=2020-10-09|website=tseliot.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock {{!}} Modern American Poetry|url=https://www.modernamericanpoetry.org/poem/love-song-j-alfred-prufrock|access-date=2020-10-09|website=www.modernamericanpoetry.org}}</ref>

===Speculative poetry===
{{Main|Speculative poetry}}
[[File:Edgar Poe 1848.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Poe]]]]
Speculative poetry, also known as fantastic poetry (of which weird or macabre poetry is a major sub-classification), is a poetic genre which deals thematically with subjects which are "beyond reality", whether via [[extrapolation]] as in [[science fiction]] or via weird and horrific themes as in [[horror fiction]]. Such poetry appears regularly in modern science fiction and horror fiction magazines.

[[Edgar Allan Poe]] is sometimes seen as the "father of speculative poetry".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Mike |title=The alchemy of stars |publisher=Science Fiction Poetry Association |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8095-1162-4 |editor-last=Dutcher |editor-first=Roger |pages=11–17}}</ref> Poe's most remarkable achievement in the genre was his anticipation, by three-quarters of a century, of the [[Big Bang theory]] of the [[universe]]'s origin, in his then much-derided 1848 [[essay]] (which, due to its very speculative nature, he termed a "[[prose poem]]"), ''[[Eureka: A Prose Poem]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rombeck |first=Terry |date=22 January 2005 |title=Poe's little-known science book reprinted |url=https://www2.ljworld.com/news/2005/jan/22/poes_littleknown_science/ |journal=Lawrence Journal-World & News }}</ref><ref>[[Marilynne Robinson|Robinson, Marilynne]], "On Edgar Allan Poe", ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXII, no. 2 (5 February 2015), pp. 4, 6.</ref>

===Prose poetry===
{{Main|Prose poetry}}
[[File:Étienne Carjat, Portrait of Charles Baudelaire, circa 1862.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Baudelaire]]]]
Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the [[microfiction|micro-story]] ([[List of acronyms and initialisms: A#AK|a.k.a.]] the "[[short short story]]", "[[flash fiction]]"). While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where its practitioners included [[Aloysius Bertrand]], [[Charles Baudelaire]], [[Stéphane Mallarmé]], and [[Arthur Rimbaud]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monte |first=Steven |title=Invisible fences: prose poetry as a genre in French and American literature |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8032-3211-2 |pages=4–9}}</ref>

Independently of the European poetic tradition, Sanskrit prose-poetry (gadyakāvya) has existed from around the seventh century, with notable works including [[Kādambarī|Kadambari]].<ref> Dezso, C. (2012). The story of the irascible yakṣa and the king who nearly beheaded himself in dhanapāla's tilakamañjarī. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 22(1), 73-91. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1356186311000848 </ref>

Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity, with entire journals, such as ''The Prose Poem: An International Journal'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digitalcommons.providence.edu/prosepoem/ |title=''The Prose Poem: An International Journal'' |publisher=Providence College |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref> ''Contemporary Haibun Online'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://contemporaryhaibunonline.com |title=''Contemporary Haibun Online'' |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref> and ''Haibun Today''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://haibuntoday.com/pages/about.html|title=Haibun Today: A Haibun & Tanka Prose Journal|website=haibuntoday.com}}</ref> devoted to that genre and its hybrids. [[Latin American poetry|Latin American poets]] of the 20th century who wrote prose poems include [[Octavio Paz]] and [[Alejandra Pizarnik]].

===Light poetry===
{{Main|Light poetry}}
[[File:LewisCarrollSelfPhoto.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lewis Carroll]]]]
Light poetry, or [[light verse]], is poetry that attempts to be humorous. Poems considered "light" are usually brief, and can be on a frivolous or serious subject, and often feature [[word play]], including [[pun]]s, adventurous rhyme and heavy [[alliteration]]. Although a few free verse poets have excelled at light verse outside the formal verse tradition, light verse in English usually obeys at least some formal conventions. Common forms include the [[limerick (poetry)|limerick]], the [[clerihew]], and the [[double dactyl]].

While light poetry is sometimes condemned as [[doggerel]], or thought of as poetry composed casually, humor often makes a serious point in a subtle or subversive way. Many of the most renowned "serious" poets have also excelled at light verse. Notable writers of light poetry include [[Lewis Carroll]], [[Ogden Nash]], [[X. J. Kennedy]], [[Willard R. Espy]], [[Shel Silverstein]], [[Gavin Ewart]] and [[Wendy Cope]].

===Slam poetry===
{{Main|Poetry slam}}
[[File:Marc Smith - Slam à La Zone de Liege - 19 mars 2009.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Marc Smith (poet)|Smith]]]]
Slam poetry as a genre originated in 1986 in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], when [[Marc Kelly Smith]] organized the first slam.<ref name="maryhutchingsreed">{{Cite web |url=http://maryhutchingsreed.com/honoring-marc-kelly-smith-and-international-poetry-slam-movement/ |title=Honoring Marc Kelly Smith and International Poetry Slam Movement |website=Mary Hutchings Reed |access-date=5 May 2019 |ref=maryhutchingsreed}}</ref><ref name="aap">{{Cite web |url=https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/text/brief-guide-slam-poetry |title=A Brief Guide to Slam Poetry |website=Academy of American Poets |access-date=5 May 2019 |ref=aap}}</ref> Slam performers comment emotively, aloud before an audience, on personal, social, or other matters. Slam focuses on the aesthetics of word play, intonation, and voice inflection. Slam poetry is often competitive, at dedicated "[[poetry slam]]" contests.<ref name="powerpoetry">{{Cite web |url=https://www.powerpoetry.org/actions/5-tips-spoken-word |title=5 Tips on Spoken Word |website=Power Poetry |access-date=5 May 2019 |ref=powerpoetry}}</ref>

===Performance poetry===
{{main|Performance poetry}}
Performance poetry, similar to slam in that it occurs before an audience, is a genre of poetry that may fuse a variety of disciplines in a performance of a text, such as [[dance]], [[music]], and other aspects of [[performance art]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Wheeler | first=Lesley |author-link=Lesley Wheeler | title=Voicing American Poetry: Sound and Performance from the 1920s to the Present | publisher=Cornell University Press | year=2008 | isbn=978-0801446689}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Fernanda |last1=Seavon |title=Instantní Nostalgie |journal=A2 |date=March 2022 |issue=5/2022 |page=11 |url=https://www.advojka.cz/archiv/2022/5/instantni-nostalgie}}</ref>

===Language happenings===
The term ''[[happening]]'' was popularized by the [[avant-garde]] movements in the 1950s and regard spontaneous, site-specific performances.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Critical Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Drama: Volume 3 Beyond Broadway |first=Christopher W. |last=Bigsby |author-link=Christopher Bigsby |year=1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521278966 |page=45 |access-date=September 5, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_gZPUSNnDXwC&q=Allan+Kaprow+coined+happening&pg=PA45}}</ref> ''Language happenings'', termed from the [[poetics]] collective [[OBJECT:PARADISE]] in 2018, are events which focus less on poetry as a prescriptive [[literary]] genre, but more as a descriptive [[linguistic]] act and performance, often incorporating broader forms of [[performance art]] while poetry is read or created in that moment.<ref name="Radio Prague">{{cite web |last1=Gironès |first1=Cristina |title=Object Paradise, el colectivo artístico que quiere devolver la vida y la voz al barrio de Žižkov |url=https://espanol.radio.cz/object-paradise-el-colectivo-artistico-que-quiere-devolver-la-vida-y-la-voz-al-8742138 |website=Radio Prague International |date=16 February 2022 |access-date=21 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=obtydeník živé literatury |journal=Tvar |date=July 2022 |issue=7 |url=https://itvar.cz/z-cisla/noc-kdy-jsme-se-poznali |access-date=2 June 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Poetry}}
* [[Anti-poetry]]
* [[Digital poetry]]
* [[Glossary of poetry terms]]
* [[Improvisation]]
* [[List of poetry groups and movements]]
* [[Oral poetry]]
* [[Outline of poetry]]
* [[Persona poetry]]
* [[Phonestheme]]
* [[Phono-semantic matching]]
* [[Poetry reading]]
* [[Rhapsode]]
* [[Semantic differential]]
* [[Spoken word]]

==Notes==
{{NoteFoot}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite book |last=Adams |first=Stephen J. |url=https://archive.org/details/poeticdesigns00step |title=Poetic designs: an introduction to meters, verse forms and figures of speech |publisher=Broadview |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-55111-129-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Corn |first=Alfred |url=https://archive.org/details/poemsheartbeatma00corn |title=The Poem's Heartbeat: A Manual of Prosody |publisher=Storyline Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-885266-40-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fussell |first=Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/poeticmeterpoeti00fuss |title=Poetic Meter and Poetic Form |publisher=Random House |year=1965 |author-link=Paul Fussell |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hollander |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/rhymesreasonguid00holl_1 |title=Rhyme's Reason |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-300-02740-2 |author-link=John Hollander}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pinsky |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/soundsofpoetry00robe |title=The Sounds of Poetry |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-374-26695-0 |author-link=Robert Pinsky}}
* {{Cite book |last=Speyer |first=Leonora |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73705 |title=Fiddler's farewell |publisher=New York: Alred A. Knopf |year=1926 |author-link=Leonora Speyer}}

==Further reading==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource index}}
{{Wiktionary|poetry}}
{{Commons}}
'''Encyclopedias'''
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Greene |editor-given=Roland |editor-link=Roland Greene |display-editors=etal |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics |edition=4th rev. |year=2012 |url={{Google books|id=uKiC6IeFR2UC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |place=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15491-6}}

'''Other critics'''
* {{Cite book |last=Brooks |first=Cleanth |url=https://archive.org/details/wellwroughturnst00broo |title=The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry |publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company |year=1947 |isbn=978-0156957052 |author-link=Cleanth Brooks |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Finch |first=Annie |author-link=Annie Finch|title=A Poet's Ear: A Handbook of Meter and Form |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-472-05066-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fry |first=Stephen |title=The Ode Less Travelled: Unlocking the Poet Within |title-link=The Ode Less Travelled: Unlocking the Poet Within |publisher=Arrow Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-09-950934-9 |author-link=Stephen Fry}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Verse |volume= 27 |last= Gosse |first= Edmund William |author-link= Edmund William Gosse| pages = 1041–1047|short=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pound |first=Ezra |title=ABC of Reading |publisher=Faber |year=1951 |author-link=Ezra Pound}}
* [https://www.academia.edu/43045369/The_Science_of_Art Poetry, Music and Narrative – The Science of Art].
* [[Władysław Tatarkiewicz|Tatarkiewicz, Władysław]], "The Concept of Poetry", translated by Christopher Kasparek, ''Dialectics and Humanism: The Polish Philosophical Quarterly'', vol. II, no. 2 (spring 1975), pp. 13–24.

'''English language anthologies'''
{{Main|List of poetry anthologies}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Norton Anthology of Poetry |title-link=The Norton Anthology of Poetry |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-393-96820-0 |editor-last1=Ferguson |editor-first1=Margaret |edition=4th |editor-last2=Salter |editor-first2=Mary Jo |editor2-link=Mary Jo Salter|editor-last3=Stallworthy |editor-first3=Jon | editor-link3=Jon Stallworthy}}
* {{Cite book |title=New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250–1950 |title-link=New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250–1950 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-812136-7 |editor-last=Gardner |editor-first=Helen | editor-link=Helen Gardner (critic)}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse |title-link=The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1973 |editor-last=Larkin | editor-first=Philip |editor-link=Philip Larkin}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Book of English Verse |title-link=The Oxford Book of English Verse |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-214182-8 |editor-last=Ricks |editor-first=Christopher | editor-link=Christopher Ricks}}
* {{Cite book |title=Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892–1935 |title-link=Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892–1935 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1936 |editor-last=Yeats | editor-first=W. B. | editor-link=W. B. Yeats}}

{{Humanities}}
{{Schools of poetry}}
{{Poetry of different cultures and languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Poetry| ]]
[[Category:Aesthetics]]
[[Category:Genres of poetry| ]]
[[Category:Poetic forms| ]]
[[Category:Spoken word]]

Mukesh (actor)

2026-03-08T13:48:56Z

KarmaConyers:

{{short description|Indian actor and politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Text-source|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mukesh
| image = REALMUK.png
| caption = Mukesh in 2024
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|5 March 1957}}
| birth_name = Mukesh Babu<ref>{{cite web|title=AmmAKerala|url=https://ammakerala.com/meet-the-star/view/mukesh|website=AmmaKerala.com|publisher=[[Association of Malayalam Movie Artists]]|access-date=25 April 2024}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Kollam]], [[Kerala]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|[[film producer]]|[[Television host|TV host]]|politician}}
| office1 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member]] of the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = {{Start date|2016|06|02|df=yes}}
| term_end1 =
| constituency1 = [[Kollam Assembly constituency|Kollam]]
| predecessor1 = [[P. K. Gurudasan]]
| successor1 =
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| father = [[O. Madhavan]]
| mother = [[Vijayakumari]]
| spouse = {{Unbulleted_list
| {{Marriage|[[Saritha]]|1988|2011|reason=divorced}}
| {{Marriage|[[Methil Devika]]|2013|2021|reason=divorced}}
}}
| children = 2
| website =
| relatives = [[Divyadarsan R. Engoor]] (nephew)
}}
'''Mukesh Madhavan''' (born '''Mukesh Babu'''; 5 March 1957), known [[Mononymous person|mononymously]] as '''Mukesh''', is an Indian actor, [[film producer]], [[television presenter]], and politician who predominantly works in [[Malayalam cinema]] besides also having sporadically appeared in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language films.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mangalam.com/mangalam-varika/62862 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130608001926/http://www.mangalam.com/mangalam-varika/62862 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 June 2013 |title=താരങ്ങളുടെ കിടപ്പറയില്‍ ഒളിഞ്ഞു നോക്കുന്നവരുണ്ട്‌ |publisher=mangalam.com |date=2013-06-03 |access-date=2014-03-19}}</ref> In a film career spanning four decades, he has acted in over 275 Malayalam films.<ref name=":2" />

He made his onscreen debut in the 1982 film ''Balloon'' in the leading role.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Balloon (1982) |url=https://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=1302 |access-date=2022-10-08 |website=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref><ref>ജ്യോതിഷ്, വി.ആര്‍. (21 October 2016). [https://www.vanitha.in/just-in/latest-news/ramji-rau-speaking-film-back-scenes.html "ഫാസിൽ മനുഷ്യനെ പറ്റിക്കാൻ ഇറങ്ങിയിരിക്കുകയാണ്...റാംജിറാവുവിനൊപ്പം കഥകളും ഇറങ്ങി; സിദ്ദിഖ്–ലാൽ"]. [[Vanitha]]. Retrieved 21 October 2016.</ref> His 1996 film ''[[Kaanaakkinaavu]]'' premiered at the [[International Film Festival of India|IFFI]] and won the [[Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Bibekananda |last2=Joshi |first2=Naveen |title=Conscience of the race : India's offbeat cinema |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India | publication-place=New Delhi |date=2005 |isbn=81-230-1298-5 |oclc=70208425}}</ref> He co-produced ''[[Kadha Parayumbol]]'' (2007)'','' which won the [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-03 |title=State Film Awards |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawares.htm |access-date=2022-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232254/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawares.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> He also produced the 2012 film ''[[Thattathin Marayathu]],'' which is considered one of the defining films of the [[New Wave (Malayalam film movement)|Malayalam New Wave]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Thattathin Marayathu Movie Review {3.5/5}: Critic Review of Thattathin Marayathu by Times of India |newspaper=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/thattathin-marayathu/movie-review/14743903.cms |access-date=2022-10-08|last1=Kumar |first1=Aswin J. }}</ref>

He was the chairman of the [[Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Academy]]. Mukesh is the current [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] representing the [[Kollam (Assembly constituency)|Kollam constituency]] of [[Kerala]] state.<ref name=":1" />

== Early life ==
Mukesh was born to the actors [[O. Madhavan]] and [[Vijayakumari]], in [[Kollam]], [[Kerala]], on the 5th of March 1957.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/14kla/Members-Eng/70%20Mukesh%20M.pdf |title=KLA Title M. Mukesh |website=Fourteenth Kerala Legislative Assembly |access-date=12 July 2018}}</ref> He has two sisters, Sandhya Rajendran and Jayasree Shyamlal. Sandhya and her husband, E. A. Rajendran, are also actors (stage and film).

Mukesh attended Infant Jesus Anglo-Indian School in Kollam. He then pursued a bachelor's degree in science (B.Sc.) from the Sree Narayana College in Kollam. He also holds a second bachelor's degree in law from [[Kerala Law Academy|The Kerala Law Academy Law College, Thiruvananthapuram]].

Mukesh was active in the [[Theatre|stage dramas]] before his entry into the film industry.<ref name="Mukesh's profile">{{cite web |title=Mukesh's profile |url=http://cinidiary.com/searchpeople.php?searchtext=mukesh&pigsection=Actor&Search=Search |publisher=cinedairy.com |access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref>

== Acting career ==
===1982–1989===
Mukesh made his acting debut as a lead actor in the movie ''Balloon''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Balloon (1982) |url=https://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=1302 |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref> Later, that same year he acted in the drama film ''[[Ithu Njangalude Katha]],'' a remake of the Tamil-language film ''[[Palaivana Solai (1981 film)|Palaivana Solai]] along with Sreenath and Sanghi Krishna.'' The film was a hit, with the film's songs becoming chartbusters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ithu Njangalude Kadha (1982) |url=https://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=1395 |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref> In the mid-80s, he appeared in several comedy films directed by [[Priyadarshan]], usually in supporting roles. His first film as solo hero came in 1985 with ''[[Mutharamkunnu P.O.]]'' Despite being an average grosser at the box office, the film has over the years attained a [[Cult film|cult status]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-05 |title=മുത്താരംകുന്ന് പി.ഒ. {{!}} 04Dec2020 |work=Mathrubhumi |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/kottayam/news/04dec2020-1.5254482 |access-date=2022-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805102738/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/kottayam/news/04dec2020-1.5254482 |archive-date=5 August 2021 }}</ref> His first major commercial hit came with the 1985 film ''[[Boeing Boeing (1985 film)|Boeing Boeing]],'' directed by Priyadarshan. He starred alongside [[Mohanlal]] as one of the leads in the movie. This was his first collaboration with Mohanlal. They would go on to star in several films in the late 1980s, usually starring Mohanlal in the lead role.<ref name=":3" /> Examples include ''[[Ninnistham Ennishtam|Ninnishtam Ennishtam]]'' (1986)'', [[Adiverukal]]'' (1986), ''[[Hello My Dear Wrong Number]]'' (1986) and ''[[Mazha Peyyunnu Maddalam Kottunnu]]'' (1986). He also appeared in supporting roles to [[Mammootty]] in the late-80s with successful films like ''[[Snehamulla Simham]]'' (1986), [[Shyama (1986 film)|''Shyama'']] (1986), ''[[Thaniyavarthanam]]'' (1987), [[1921 (1988 film)|''1921'']] (1988), ''[[Sangham (1988 film)|Sangham]]'' (1988), ''[[Mahayanam]]'' (1989) and ''[[Nair Saab]]'' (1989). In 1988, he appeared as Chacko in the cult [[Crime fiction|investigative thriller]] ''[[Oru CBI Diary Kurippu]]'' also featuring Mammootty.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-19 |title=Not just Sukumara Kurup: 6 spine-chilling real-life murders that have inspired Malayalam films |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/not-just-sukumara-kurup-6-spine-chilling-real-life-murders-have-inspired-malayalam-films |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> The character of Chacko has over the years attained a cult status.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |title=Sethurama Iyer is coming back! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/movie-details/news-interviews/sethurama-iyer-is-coming-back/articleshow/12750349.cms |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=The Times of India |language=en |last1=Zachariah |first1=Ammu}}</ref> He reprised his role as Chacko in the [[CBI (film series)|CBI series]] sequels in 1989, 2004, 2005 and 2022.<ref name=":4" /> Then, in 1989, he starred in ''[[Ramji Rao Speaking]],'' a blockbuster that ran for 200 days in theatres and went on to become the second highest grossing film of the year.<ref>{{Cite news |last=George |first=Vijay |date=2013-11-07 |title=Three of a kind |language=en-IN |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/three-of-a-kind/article5325288.ece |access-date=2022-10-20 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The film gave Mukesh his major break.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-25 |title=''ഫാസിൽ മനുഷ്യനെ പറ്റിക്കാൻ ഇറങ്ങിയിരിക്കുകയാണ്...'' റാംജിറാവുവിനൊപ്പം കഥകളും ഇറങ്ങി; സിദ്ദിഖ്–ലാൽ |work=ManoramaOnline |url=http://www.vanitha.in:80/just-in/latest-news/ramji-rau-speaking-film-back-scenes.html |access-date=2022-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025231933/http://www.vanitha.in:80/just-in/latest-news/ramji-rau-speaking-film-back-scenes.html |archive-date=25 October 2016}}</ref> ''Ramji Rao Speaking'' is considered by audiences and critics to be one of the best comedy films made in Malayalam cinema.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Praveen |first=S. r |date=2013-03-24 |title=Malayalam online in wonderful calligraphy |language=en-IN |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/malayalam-online-in-wonderful-calligraphy/article4546026.ece |access-date=2022-10-20 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The film still has a huge [[cult following]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Priyardarshan on 20 years of 'Hera Pheri': Humour can never die |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/priyardarshan-on-20-years-of-hera-pheri-humour-can-never-die/articleshow/74893757.cms |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> The film has been subject to many [[meme]]s, with Mukesh's dialogue in the film "Kambilipothappu" becoming a catchphrase.<ref name=":5" /> He also starred alongside Mohanlal in ''[[Vandanam]]'' (1989), which is considered a cult classic in Malayalam cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/from-drishyam-to-oppam-why-mohanlals-films-are-remade-in-other-languages-often-3174430.html |title=From Drishyam to Oppam, why Mohanlal's films are remade in other languages often |date=26 December 2016 |website=Firstpost}}</ref>

===1990–1999===
In the beginning of the 1980, he made an extended guest role in Priyadarshan's ''[[Akkare Akkare Akkare]],'' which was the sequel to ''[[Pattanapravesham|Patanapravesham]]'' (1989). After the success of ''Ramji Rao Speaking,'' he was offered many leading roles. The film ''[[Cheriya Lokavum Valiya Manushyarum]]'' was then released, which was a commercial success.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} Following the success of ''Cheriya Lokavum Valiya Manushyarum'' he again collaborated with Siddique-Lal for ''[[In Harihar Nagar]],'' which is considered to be one of the defining films of the Malayalam golden age of comedy. The film was a box office success, running for 100 days in theatres. The film established Mukesh as a bankable lead actor in the industry. The film has over the years accumulated a [[cult following]] and huge fan base, with many scenes from the film being used in memes and online trolls today.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-10 |title='Gandhinagar 2nd Street' to 'Nadodikkattu': Malayalam cinema's cult comedy classics |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/gandhinagar-2nd-street-nadodikkattu-malayalam-cinema-s-cult-comedy-classics-96499 |access-date=2022-10-22 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> Following the success of ''In Harihar Nagar'', a series of unrelated low budget comedy films featuring the principal cast of the film were produced. These films usually starred Mukesh, [[Jagadish Kumar|Jagadeesh]] or [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]] in the lead roles.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Vijay |last1=George |url=http://hindu.com/fr/2009/01/02/stories/2009010250630200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131103614/http://hindu.com/fr/2009/01/02/stories/2009010250630200.htm |archive-date=31 January 2009 |title=The Hindu : Friday Review Thiruvananthapuram / On Location : Return to Harihar Nagar |date=2 January 2009 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> In 1990 he also formed a successful onscreen pairing with another rising star, [[Jayaram]] with successful films like ''[[Thoovalsparsham]]'', ''[[Marupuram]]'' and ''[[Malayogom]].'' He also starred as solo hero in commercially successful films like ''[[Gajakesariyogam]], [[Ottayal Pattalam]]'' and ''[[Champion Thomas]]'' in the same year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 20, 2018 |first=Rohith |last=BR |title=Jharkhand mahouts to get Kannada lessons, jumbos to learn Hindi |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/jharkhand-mahouts-to-get-kannada-lessons-jumbos-to-learn-hindi/articleshow/63836669.cms |access-date=2022-10-22 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> His role as a serial womanizer in ''[[Kouthuka Varthakal|Kouthugal Vaartakal]]'' boosted his popularity as a lead actor. He also made his Tamil debut that same year in ''[[Manaivi Oru Manickam]].''<ref>{{Cite web |last=தினத்தந்தி |date=2021-07-28 |title=நடிகர் முகேஷ் விவாகரத்து |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/CinemaThuligal/2021/07/28055620/Actor-Mukesh-and-Methil-Devika-heading-for-a-divorce.vpf |access-date=2022-10-22 |website=www.dailythanthi.com |language=ta}}</ref>

He then, in 1991 starred in the classic comedy film, ''[[Godfather (1991 film)|Godfather]]'' directed by Siddique-Lal, another blockbuster, the film ran for 417 days at Sreekumar Theatre in [[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Coronavirus outbreak: 'Tsunami' team calls off shoot |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/coronavirus-outbreak-tsunami-team-calls-off-shoot/articleshow/74667480.cms |access-date=2022-10-22 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> ''Godfather'' became the longest running film in Malayalam film industry.<ref name=":6" /> The film established him as one of the major stars of the Malayalam film industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spell of Mollywood Movies Released in 1991 Still Grips Hearts |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2016/jan/09/spell-of-mollywood-movies-released-in-1991-still-grips-hearts-866438.html |access-date=2022-10-22 |website=The New Indian Express|date=9 January 2016 }}</ref> He then teamed up with director [[P. G. Viswambharan|P. G. Vishwambaran]], who had earlier directed him in ''Ithu Njangalude Katha'' (1982), in several successful films like ''[[Ennathe Programme|Innathe Programme]]'' and ''Irrikku M. D. Akathundu. ''He then starred in the 1991 [[Cult film|cult]] [[Slapstick|slapstick comedy]] film ''[[Mookilla Rajyathu]],'' in which he played the role of a mental patient who escaped from a mental asylum. The film is widely regarded as a classic in Malayalam cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |last=WEBDUNIA |title=Thilakan excluded from Mookkilla Rajyathu? {{!}} മൂക്കില്ലാരാജ്യത്ത് 2: തിലകനെ ഒഴിവാക്കി? |url=http://malayalam.webdunia.com/article/film-gossip-in-malayalam/മൂക്കില്ലാരാജ്യത്ത്-2-തിലകനെ-ഒഴിവാക്കി-110071200056_1.htm |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=malayalam.webdunia.com |language=ml}}</ref> He starred in the critically acclaimed ''[[Kakkathollayiram]]'' in which he played the role of the brother to mentally ill woman.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-03 |title=+++++++++++++ official website of INFORMATION AND PUBLIC RELATION DEPARTMENT OF KERALA +++++++++++++ |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards3.htm |access-date=2023-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234157/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards3.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> He also worked with [[Shaji Kailas]] in ''[[Souhrudam]]'' (1991), in which he starred alongside [[Urvashi filmography|Urvashi]], [[Sai Kumar (actor, born 1960)|Sai Kumar]] and [[Parvathy Jayaram|Parvathy]]. However, ''Souhrudam'' was a [[box-office bomb]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Souhrudam (1991) |url=https://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=2435 |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref> The next year, he starred alongside Jayaram in [[Kamal (director)|Kamal]]'s ''[[Aayushkalam]]'' (1992), a super hit at the box office. This was the first in a set of successful collabs with director Kamal. They then teamed up for the [[romantic comedy]] ''[[Ennodishtam Koodamo]],'' another super hit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=റോജാ മധു വരുന്നു; തനി വില്ലത്തിയായി {{!}} Cinema {{!}} Deshabhimani {{!}} Monday Dec 3, 2018 |url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/amp/cinema/roja-fame-actress-madhubala-in-agnidev/767570 |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=www.deshabhimani.com}}</ref> He then starred in ''[[Makkal Maahathmiam]],'' which was written by Siddique-Lal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2014 |title=Cine artiste Mohiyudheen dies |url=http://sv1.mathrubhumi.com/english/movies/malayalam/145026/ |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=archive.ph |archive-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141017101415/http://sv1.mathrubhumi.com/english/movies/malayalam/145026/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> He then played the role of a petty thief in ''[[Manyanmaar|Manyanmar]].'' This was his first onscreen pairing with [[Sreenivasan]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} The following year, he starred in the Balachandra Menon directorial ''[[Ammayane Sathyam]].''<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-15 |title=From not having a voice to owning it: Different dubbing trends in Malayalam cinema |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/not-having-voice-owning-it-different-dubbing-trends-malayalam-cinema-156552 |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> The film was also a box office success, running for 100 days in theatres.<ref name=":7" /> The next year, he starred in ''[[Malappuram Haji Mahanaya Joji]],'' another box office success.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-13 |title=இப்படியும் காப்பி அடிக்கலாம் - மலப்புறம் ஹாஜியும், பூவே உனக்காக விக்ரமனும்! |url=https://tamil.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/cinema-malappuram-haji-mahanaya-joji-scene-copied-in-thalapathy-vijay-poove-unakkaga-jbr-scs-730628.html |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=News18 Tamil |language=ta}}</ref> It ran for 125 days in theatres and was one of the highest grossers of the year.<ref name=":8" />

He appeared in notable films such as ''[[Sipayi Lahala]]'' and ''[[Mannar Mathai Speaking]]'' (the sequel to ''[[Ramji Rao Speaking]]''). He appeared in a supporting role to [[Mammootty]] in the 1996 [[Comedy drama|comedy-drama]] film ''[[Hitler (1996 film)|Hitler]]'', directed by [[Siddique (director)|Siddique]] of the Siddique-Lal duo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hitler (1996) |url=https://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=2943 |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref> ''Hitler'' became one of the highest-grossing Malayalam films of all time. He then starred in [[Sibi Malayil]]'s 1996 film ''[[Kanakkinavu]],'' which was screened at the Indian Panorama section of the IFFI and won the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1997 |title=44th National Film Festival 1997 |url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/44th_nff_1997.pdf |access-date=2022-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013544/http://dff.nic.in/2011/44th_nff_1997.pdf |archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> The film was also commercially successful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Bibekananda |title=Conscience of the race : India's offbeat cinema |date=2005 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |others=Naveen Joshi, India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division |isbn=81-230-1298-5 |location=New Delhi |oclc=70208425}}</ref> The next year, all of his films except for ''[[Kalyana Kacheri]],'' bombed at the box office.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kalyana Kacheri |url=https://spicyonion.com/title/kalyana-kacheri-malayalam-movie/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141024191424/http://spicyonion.com/title/kalyana-kacheri-malayalam-movie/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=24 October 2014 |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=Spicyonion.com |language=en}}</ref> The following year, he starred in ''[[Mattupetti Machan]],'' which was one of the highest grossers of the year and ran for 100 days in theatres.<ref name="TOI.ur.2018.02.17">{{Cite news |date=17 February 2018 |title=Sreelekshmi and Manju Pillai to visit Badai Bungalow - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/sreelekshmi-and-manju-pillai-to-visit-badai-bungalow/articleshow/62962455.cms |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=The Times of India |language=en |last1=Ur |first1=Arya}}</ref> It was remade in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''[[Banda Paramasivam]]'', in Hindi as ''[[Housefull 2]]''.<ref name="TOI.ur.2018.02.17"/> He then made a cameo appearance as himself in the ''[[Sreekrishnapurathe Nakshathrathilakkam]].''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-08 |title=Malayalam cinema and the multiverse of misogyny |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/malayalam-cinema-and-the-multiverse-of-misogyny-7807136/ |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> 1999 was a successful year for Mukesh as he starred in two super-hits namely, ''[[Friends (1999 film)|Friends]],'' which was the highest grosser of the year (He starred alongside Jayaram for the first time in 7 years and Sreenivasan) and alongside [[Divyaa Unni|Divya Unni]] in the [[Vinayan]] directorial ''[[Aakasha Ganga]],'' which was the fourth highest grossing film of the year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crippled by failed productions and losses, Malayalam film industry banks on sleaze |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/films/story/20000626-crippled-by-failed-productions-and-losses-malayalam-film-industry-banks-on-sleaze-777791-2000-06-25 |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=India Today |date=26 June 2000 |language=en}}</ref>

===Later career===
[[File:Mukesh 2008.jpg|upright|thumb|Mukesh in 2008]]
In the 2000s and 2010s, he struggled to escape an image trap. Regardless, he came back with interesting supporting roles in ''[[Udayananu Tharam]]'', ''Goal'', ''[[Vinodayathra]]'', ''[[Boyy Friennd]]'', ''[[Kaiyoppu]]'', ''[[Naalu Pennungal]]'' and ''[[Katha Parayumbol]]''. He has been a part of many of Mohanlal's comedies, most of them directed by [[Priyadarshan]]. He also ventured into production with Sreenivasan, their first movie, ''[[Katha Parayumbol]]'', featured a cameo by [[Mammootty]].

Mukesh was the host of a [[Malayalam]] version of ''[[Deal or No Deal]]'', which was aired on [[Surya TV]]. He is now acting in [[Badai Bungalow|Badai bungalow]], a comedy and celebrity talk show hosted by [[Ramesh Pisharody]], launched on [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] from 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2016/feb/08/badai-bungalow---inciting-a-laugh-riot-889663.html |title='Badai Bungalow' - Inciting a Laugh Riot |date=8 February 2016 |work=The New Indian Express |access-date=8 July 2018}}</ref>

==Personal life==
He married [[South Indian]] film actress [[Saritha]] in 1988, and they have two sons. After a lengthy separation, they divorced in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/photo-features/malayalam-actors-who-have-married-more-than-once/Mukesh/photostory/48247353.cms |title=Mukesh - Malayalam actors who have married more than once |date=18 March 2018 |website=The Times of India |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=mangalam |url=http://www.mangalamvarika.com/index.php/en/home/index/125/28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209025837/http://www.mangalamvarika.com/index.php/en/home/index/125/28 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=9 February 2014 |title=Mangalam - Varika 3-Feb-2014 |publisher=Mangalamvarika.com |access-date=2014-03-19}}</ref> Their elder son Shravan made his acting debut in the 2018 film ''[[Kalyanam (film)|Kalyanam]].'' Mukesh married dance scholar [[Methil Devika]] on 24 October 2013.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/mb4eves/online/malayalam/kerala/women/articles/infocus_interview-article-410052 |title=ഇത് ഞങ്ങള്‍ കാത്തിരുന്ന വിവാഹം - articles, infocus_interview |publisher=Mathrubhumi.com |access-date=2014-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318180508/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/mb4eves/online/malayalam/kerala/women/articles/infocus_interview-article-410052 |archive-date=18 March 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/malayalam/news-and-interviews/My-marriage-with-Mukesh-is-an-arranged-one-Methil-Devika/articleshow/25502876.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114092006/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-11-09/news-and-interviews/43853904_1_love-marriage-mukesh-sandhya | url-status=live | archive-date=14 November 2013 |title=My marriage with Mukesh is an arranged one: Methil Devika |date=9 November 2013 | access-date=25 January 2014 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |author=Radhika C. Pillai}}</ref> The couple filed for divorce in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/dancer-methil-devika-announces-divorce-actor-mla-mukesh-sends-legal-notice-153010 |title=Dancer Methil Devika announces divorce from actor-MLA Mukesh, sends legal notice |date=27 July 2021 | access-date=29 August 2024 |newspaper=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref>

In 2007, Mukesh authored a book based on experiences while he was a student at college, and tales from his life as a movie actor.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/298271/ |title=എന്നെ ഒതുക്കാന്‍ നോക്കേണ്ടാ.., Interview |publisher=Mathrubhumi.com |date=2012-08-28 |access-date=2014-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829040205/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/298271/ |archive-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> titled ''Mukesh Kathakal – Jeevithathiley Nerum Narmavum''.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |url=http://indulekha.com/malayalambooks/2007/05/mukesh-kathakal.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310191612/http://indulekha.com/malayalambooks/2007/05/mukesh-kathakal.html |url-status=dead |title='Indulekha books: Mukesh Kathakal' |archive-date=10 March 2009}}</ref> It proved very successful.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/His-maiden-work-is-a-big-hit/article14720563.ece |title=His maiden work is a big hit |date=15 February 2007 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=9 July 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He authored another book, ''Mukesh Babu and Party in Dubai'', published by [[DC Books]] in 2009, marketed as a "realistic campus novel".<ref>{{cite news |last=Periera |first=Ignatius |title=A campus novel from Mukesh |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/A-campus-novel-from-Mukesh/article16877535.ece |access-date=25 April 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=28 August 2009}}</ref>

==Controversies ==
'''<big>Allegations from Former wife</big>'''

Mukesh's former wife [[Saritha]] has alleged that he subjected her to emotional and physical abuse during their marriage.<ref>{{cite web | title=When actor Mukesh's first wife Saritha alleged he kicked her in the stomach when she was pregnant, revealed she kept quiet about abuse at his father's request | date=28 August 2024 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/when-actor-mukesh-first-wife-saritha-alleged-he-kicked-her-stomach-when-pregnant-kept-quiet-abuse-father-request-9538155/ }}</ref> She also claimed that he had multiple extramarital affairs.<ref>{{cite web | title=When Mukesh's first wife Saritha revealed, "He kicked me in the stomach while I was pregnant" | work=The Times of India | date=4 September 2024 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/when-mukeshs-first-wife-saritha-revealed-he-kicked-me-in-the-stomach-while-i-was-pregnant/articleshow/112881242.cms }}</ref>

'''<big>Casting Couch Allegations</big>'''

In 2018, casting director Tess Joseph alleged that Mukesh had summoned her to his room multiple times around 19 years earlier.<ref>{{cite web | title=I left the place worried, didn't work on 'Koteeswaran' again: Tess Joseph on Mukesh | date=9 October 2018 | url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/i-left-place-worried-didnt-work-koteeswaran-again-tess-joseph-mukesh-89709 }}</ref> Mukesh denied the allegations.<ref>{{cite web | title=Actor Mukesh in spotlight as casting director Tess Joseph rakes up harassment claim | date=25 August 2024 | url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/tess-joseph-speaks-about-mukesh-calling-her-to-his-room-2ca317db }}</ref>

'''<big>Phone call leak controversy</big>'''

In 2021, a student called Mukesh for help but was received rudely. The phone call's recording was circulated on social media, leading to criticism of Mukesh. Mukesh claimed that the phone call was targeted harassment and was politically motivated.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-05 |title=Kollam MLA Mukesh kicks up row over phone call with school student |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2021/Jul/05/kollam-mla-mukesh-kicks-up-row-over-phone-call-with-school-student-2325525.html |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

'''<big>Hema Committee</big>'''

After the publication of the [[Hema Committee report]] in 2024, an actress alleged that Mukesh had sexually harassed her.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-27 |title=Two more women file police complaints against Malayalam film industry figures including actor-MLA Mukesh |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/two-more-women-file-police-complaints-against-malayalam-film-industry-figures-including-actor-mla-mukesh-9535586/ |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Shaju |last=Philip |date=August 27, 2024 |title=Two more women file police complaints against Malayalam film industry figures including actor-MLA Mukesh |newspaper=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/malayalam-actor-minu-muneer-alleges-sexual-abuse-pulled-me-on-bed-saying-idavela-babu-jayasurya-cpim-under-fire-11724661148502.html }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-27 |title=As its 2-time Kerala MLA faces 'Me Too' heat, will CPM do a Ranjith on Mukesh? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/cpm-mla-m-mukesh-faces-metoo-allegations/articleshow/112820145.cms |access-date=2024-08-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/malayalam-actor-mukesh-arrested-in-sexual-assault-case-reports-3204188|title=Malayalam actor Mukesh arrested in sexual assault case: Reports|publisher=Deccan Herald}}</ref>

On 24 September 2024, Mukesh was arrested by a Special Investigation Team in connection with a rape case. Following his arrest, Mukesh underwent a medical examination and potency test. He was subsequently released after being granted anticipatory bail by a sessions court earlier that month, as confirmed by his lawyer."
<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 September 2024 |title=CPI(M) MLA and actor M Mukesh arrested in rape case by Special Investigation Team, released on bail |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/cpim-mla-and-actor-m-mukesh-arrested-in-rape-case-by-special-investigation-team-released-on-bail/cid/2050231 }}</ref>

==Political career==
[[File:Mukesh during election campaign 2016b.jpg|right|thumb|Mukesh at [[Kollam]], during the election campaign in 2016]]
Mukesh is a member of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI-M). He was elected to the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] from [[Kollam Assembly constituency]] in the [[2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/kerala2016/kerala-assembly-polls-actors-in-the-fray/article8620389.ece |title=Kerala Assembly polls: Actors in the fray |date=19 May 2016 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=10 July 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517050123/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/kerala2016/kerala-assembly-polls-actors-in-the-fray/article8620389.ece |archive-date=17 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> He won again from the same constituency in the [[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Kollam Election Result 2021 LIVE: CPM's Mukesh defeats Bindhu Krishan |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/kollam-election-result-2021-live-how-to-check-kollam-assembly-vidhan-sabha-election-winners-losers-vote-margin-news-updates-9142451.htm |access-date=25 April 2024 |work=[[CNBC TV18]] |date=2 May 2021}}</ref> However, his victory margin came down from 17,611 in 2016 to 2072 in 2021. In the [[2024 Indian general election in Kerala|2024 Indian general election]], Mukesh contested for the [[Lok Sabha]] from the [[Kollam Lok Sabha constituency|Kollam constituency]] but lost to [[N. K. Premachandran|N.K. Premachandran]], the sitting UDF candidate.<ref name="DHNS">{{cite news |author1=DHNS |date=20 April 2024 |title=Lok Sabha Polls 2024 {{!}} Face-off: N K Premachandran vs M Mukesh |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/india/lok-sabha-polls-2024-face-off-n-k-premachandran-vs-m-mukesh-2987317 |access-date=25 April 2024 |work=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref>

== Awards ==
[[File:Mukesh malayalam.jpg|upright|thumb|Mukesh in 2010]]
* 2007 : [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Film|Asianet Film Award for Best Film]] (Producer) – ''[[Kadha Parayumbol]]''
* 2007 : [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Malayalam]] (Producer) – ''[[Kadha Parayumbol]]''
* 2007 : [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value]]-''[[Kadha Parayumbol]]''
* 2011 : ISC Award<ref name=":6">{{cite web |url=http://www.kottaka.com/blog/2011/08/mukesh-got-isc-award/ |title=Mukesh got ISC Award |access-date=27 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129085710/http://www.kottaka.com/blog/2011/08/mukesh-got-isc-award/ |archive-date=29 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 2013 : [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/Drishyam-Bags-Kerala-Film-Critics-Association-Awards/2014/01/30/article2027269.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221232342/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/Drishyam-Bags-Kerala-Film-Critics-Association-Awards/2014/01/30/article2027269.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 February 2014 |title='Drishyam' Bags Kerala Film Critics Association Awards |publisher=The New Indian Express |date=2014-01-30 |access-date=2014-03-19}}</ref> - Second Best Actor - [[English: An Autumn in London]], ''[[Vasanthathinte Kanal Vazhikalil]]''

==Filmography==

===Malayalam films===

==== 1980s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1982|| ''Balloon'' || Chandu ||
|-
|| ''[[Ithu Njangalude Katha]]'' || Ramankutty ||
|-
|| ''Daahikkunnavarude Vazhi'' || ||
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Pinnilavu]]'' || Sabu ||
|-
| 1984 || ''[[Odaruthammava Aalariyam]]'' || Gopan ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 1985 || ''[[Akkare Ninnoru Maran]]'' || Pavitran ||
|-
|| ''[[Akalathe Ambili]]'' || Ashokan ||
|-
|| ''[[Boeing Boeing (1985 film)|Boeing Boeing]]'' || Anil ||
|-
|| ''[[Kaiyum Thalayum Purathidaruthu]]'' || Passenger ||
|-
|| ''[[Mutharamkunnu P.O.]]'' || Dilip Kumar ||
|-
| rowspan=24 | 1986 || ''[[Ninnistham Ennishtam|Ninnishtam Ennishtam]]'' || Ramakrishna Pilla ||
|-
|| ''[[Naale Njangalude Vivaham]]'' || Unni ||
|-
|| ''[[Katturumbinum Kathu Kuthu]]'' || Soman ||
|-
|| ''Kaattuthee''|| ||
|-
|| ''[[Adiverukal]]'' || Ranger Sunny Varghese ||
|-
|| ''[[Koodanayum Kattu]]'' || James ||
|-
|| ''[[Ennu Nathante Nimmi]]'' || Sreeni ||
|-
|| ''[[Aalorungi Arangorungi]]'' || Vinod ||
|-
|| ''[[Atham Chithira Chothy]]'' || Rajan ||
|-
|| ''[[Ilanjipookal]]'' || Rajendran ||
|-
|| ''[[Snehamulla Simham]]'' || Mohan Menon ||
|-
|| ''[[Prathyekam Sradhikuka]]'' || Raju ||
|-
|| ''[[Kshamichu Ennoru Vakku]]'' || Satheesh ||
|-
|| ''[[Ithile Iniyum Varu]]'' || Ramu ||
|-
|| ''[[Dheem Tharikida Thom]]'' || Raghavan ||
|-
|| ''[[Shyama (film)|Shyama]]'' || Harikumar ||
|-
|| ''[[Ayalvasi Oru Daridravasi]]'' || Jayan ||
|-
|| ''[[Hello My Dear Wrong Number]]'' || Jacob, diamond thief || Guest Role
|-
|| ''[[Onnu Muthal Poojaym Vare]]'' || Man at icecream parlour || Guest Role
|-
|| ''[[Ashtabandham]]'' || Johnny ||
|-
|| ''[[Aval Kaathirunnu Avanum]]''|| ||
|-
|| ''[[Ponnum Kudthinu Pottu]]'' || College student ||
|-
|| ''[[Thalavattam]]'' || Hari ||
|-
||''[[Mazha Peyyunnu Maddalam Kottunnu]]'' || Shivan ||
|-
| rowspan=13 | 1987 || ''Swargam'' || Gopan ||
|-
|| ''Yagagni'' || Chinkan ||
|-
|| ''[[Thaniyavarthanam]]'' || Gopinathan ||
|-
|| ''[[Kurukkan Rajavayi]]'' || Prathapan Nair ||
|-
|| ''[[Kottum Kuravayum]]'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Kalam Mari Katha Mari]]'' || Yusaf ||
|-
|| ''[[Sruthi]]'' || Pradeep ||
|-
|| ''[[Athinumappuram]]'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Adimakal Udamakal]]'' || Jayan ||
|-
|| ''[[Manja Manthrangal]]'' || Issac ||
|-
|| ''[[Naradhan Keralathil]]'' || Narayanan Namboothiri ||
|-
|| ''[[Neeyethra Dhanya]]'' || Suresh Panicker ||
|-
|| ''[[P.C. 369]]'' || Johny Vargheese ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 1988 || ''[[1921 (1988 film)|1921]]'' || Haidrose ||
|-
|| ''[[Oru CBI Diary Kurippu]]'' || [[CBI (film series)|Chacko]] ||
|-
|| ''[[Vicharana]]'' || Kabeer ||
|-
|| ''Theerathinariyumo Thirayude vedana'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Aparan (film)|Aparan]]'' || George Kutty ||
|-
|| ''[[Moonnam Mura]]'' || Vinod ||
|-
|| ''[[Sangham (1988 film)|Sangham]]'' || Raju ||
|-
|| ''Oozham'' || Ravi ||
|-
|| ''[[Dinarathrangal]]'' || Ajayan ||
|-
| rowspan=12 | 1989 || ''[[Mahayanam]]'' || Ravi ||
|-
|| ''[[Nair Saab]]'' || Antony ||
|-
|| ''Varnatheru'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Jagratha]]'' || [[CBI (film series)|Chacko]] ||
|-
|| ''[[Aksharathettu (film)|Aksharathettu]]'' || James ||
|-
|| ''Muthukkudayum Choodi'' || Rajendran ||
|-
|| ''[[Oru Sayahnathinte Swapnam]]'' || Roy Mathew ||
|-
|| ''[[Ramji Rao Speaking]]'' || Gopalakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Vandanam]]'' || Peter Kaliyikkal ||
|-
|| ''[[Ammavanu Pattiya Amali]]'' || Suresh ||
|-
|| ''[[Mudra (film)|Mudra]]'' || Shashi ||
|-
|| ''[[Varnam]]'' || Gopan ||
|-
|}

==== 1990s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=13 | 1990 || ''[[Ee Thanutha Veluppan Kalathu]]''|| Ponnan ||Cameo Appearance
|-
|| ''[[Akkare Akkare Akkare]]'' || Surendran ||
|-
|| ''[[Cheriya Lokavum Valiya Manushyarum]]'' || Balu ||
|-
|| ''[[In Harihar Nagar]]'' || Mahadevan ||
|-
|| ''[[Kouthuka Varthakal]]'' || Mathew Ninan Koshy ||
|-
|| ''[[Maalayogam]]'' || Jose ||
|-
|| ''[[Champion Thomas]]'' || Dr. Mathews ||
|-
|| ''[[Marupuram]]'' || Roy ||
|-
|| ''[[Minda Poochakku Kalyanam]]'' || Krishnakumar ||
|-
|| ''[[Gajakesariyogam]]'' || Vinayachandran ||
|-
|| ''Nanma Niranjavan Srinivasan'' || Peter ||
|-
|| ''[[Ottayal Pattalam]]'' || Venu Gopalakrishnan / Col. R. K. Nair ||
|-
|| ''[[Thooval Sparsam]]'' || Boney ||
|-
| rowspan=15 | 1991 || ''[[Bhoomika (film)|Bhoomika]]'' || Chandikkunju ||
|-
|| ''Cheppukilukkana Changathi'' || Nandakumaran Thampi ||
|-
|| ''[[Ennathe Programme]]'' || Unnikrishnan Nair ||
|-
|| ''[[Onnaam Muhoortham]]'' || Vishwanathan ||
|-
|| ''[[Ezhunnallathu]]'' || Dasappan ||
|-
|| ''[[Ganamela]]'' || Venugopal ||
|-
|| ''[[Godfather (1991 film)|Godfather]]'' || Ramabhadran ||
|-
|| ''Irrikku M.D. Akathundu'' || Jayan ||
|-
|| ''[[Kakkathollayiram]]'' || Rajashekharan ||
|-
|| ''[[Mookilla Rajyathu]]'' || Benny ||
|-
|| ''Nattu Vishesham'' || Vinod Kumar ||
|-
|| ''[[Parallel College (film)|Parallel College]]'' || Balu ||
|-
|| ''Post Box No. 27'' || Suresh Kumar ||
|-
|| ''Ragam Anuragam'' || Dr. Rajeev ||
|-
|| ''[[Souhrudam]]'' || Royichan ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 1992 || ''[[Aayushkalam]]'' || Balakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''Kallanum Polisum'' || Prabhakaran ||
|-
|| ''[[Ellarum Chollanu]]'' || Ramachandran ||
|-
|| ''[[Ennodishtam Koodamo]]'' || Ramanunni ||
|-
|| ''Kaazhchakkppuram'' || A. Viswanathan ||
|-
|| ''[[Makkal Maahathmiam]]'' || Madhavankutty ||
|-
|| ''[[Manyanmaar]]'' || Thomas ||
|-
|| ''[[Poochakkaru Mani Kettum]]'' || Kochukrishnan ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 1993 || ''[[Sainyam]]'' || Zakir ||
|-
|| ''Thalamura'' || Mundackal Martin ||
|-
|| ''[[Ammayane Sathyam]]'' || Omanakuttan ||
|-
|| ''[[Bandhukkal Sathrukkal]]'' || Chandran a.k.a. Sahayam Chandran Kunju ||
|-
|| ''[[Customs Diary]]'' || Rony Vincent ||
|-
|| ''Dollar'' || Alex ||
|-
|| ''Ente Sreekuttikku'' || Appukuttan ||
|-
|| ''[[Pravachakan]]'' || Balagopalan ||
|-
|| ''[[Varam (film)|Varam]]'' || Actress Mohini ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 1994 || ''[[Kinnaripuzhayoram]]'' || Unnikrishnan's Friend ||
|-
|| ''[[Varaphalam]]'' || Balan ||
|-
|| ''[[Malappuram Haji Mahanaya Joji]]'' || Jitendra Varma ||
|-
|| ''[[Manathe Vellitheru]]'' || Babukuttan ||
|-
|| ''Shudhamaddalam'' || Appukkuttan ||
|-
| rowspan=10 | 1995 || ''[[Achan Rajavu Appan Jethavu]]'' || Unnikrishnan / Kunjuvarghese ||
|-
|| ''[[Kalamasseriyil Kalyanayogam]]'' || Balachandran ||
|-
|| ''[[Kalyanji Anandji (film)|Kalyanji Anandji]]'' || Kalyanakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''Keerthanam'' || Josekutty ||
|-
|| ''Manikya Chempazhukka'' || Ashokan Nair ||
|-
|| ''[[Mannar Mathai Speaking]]'' || Gopalakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Parvathy Parinayam]]'' || Shivankutty ||
|-
|| ''[[Sipayi Lahala]]'' || Rajendran ||
|-
|| ''Sundari Neeyum Sundaran Njanum'' || Balakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Tom & Jerry (1996 film)|Tom & Jerry]]'' || Balagopalan ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1996 || ''[[Hitler (1996 film)|Hitler]]'' || Mamangalath Balachandran ||
|-
|| ''[[Kaanaakkinaavu]]''|| Hamsa ||Won the [[Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration]]
|-
|| ''Mr. Clean'' || Rajagopal ||
|-
|| ''Nandagopaalante Kusruthikal'' || Nandagopalan ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 1997 || ''[[Chandralekha (1997 film)|Chandralekha]]'' || Photo Appearance
|-
|| ''[[Kalyana Kacheri]]'' || Ambadi Arjunan Nair ||
|-
|| ''[[Kalyanappittennu]]'' || Sathyendran ||
|-
|| ''[[Mannadiar Penninu Chenkotta Checkan]]'' || Chenkotta Sethuraman ||
|-
|| ''[[Newspaper Boy (1997 film)|Newspaper Boy]]'' || Krishnankutty ||
|-
|| ''[[Oru Mutham Mani Mutham]]'' || Balachandran ||
|-
|| ''Suvarna Simhaasanam'' || Vasudevan ||
|-
|| ''Vamsam'' || Kurushinkal Jimmy ||
|-
| rowspan=9 | 1998 || ''[[Amma Ammaayiyamma]]'' || Shekharankutty ||
|-
|| ''Chenapparambile Aanakkariyam'' || Gopikrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Manthrikumaran]]'' || Achuthankutty ||
|-
|| ''[[Mattupetti Machan]]'' || Mattupetti Machan ||
|-
|| ''Mayajalam'' || Valiyachunkatharayil Babu Narayanan Thampi ||
|-
|| ''[[Meenakshi Kalyanam]]'' || Earali Balan ||
|-
|| ''[[Oro Viliyum Kathorthu]]'' || Sreedharan ||
|-
|| ''[[Sreekrishnapurathe Nakshathrathilakkam]]'' || Himself ||Cameo appearance
|-
|| ''[[Aakasha Ganga]]'' || James ||
|-
| rowspan=5 | 1999 || ''English Medium'' || Gokulakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Angene Oru Avadhikkalathu]]'' || Nandakumar ||
|-
|| ''[[Friends (1999 film)|Friends]]'' || Chandu ||
|-
|| ''[[Swastham Grihabharanam]]'' || Unni ||
|-
|| ''[[Tokyo Nagarile Viseshangal]]'' || Chenkalcheri Chandrappan ||
|-
|}

==== 2000s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2000 || ''[[Vakkalathu Narayanankutty]]'' || Mathew Chandy ||
|-
|| ''[[Nakshathragal Parayathirunnathu]]'' || Nandakumar ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2001 || ''[[Sundara Purushan (2001 film)|Sundara Purushan]]'' || Dr.Geevarghese ||
|-
|| ''[[Kakkakuyil]]'' || Govindan ||
|-
|| ''[[One Man Show (film)|One Man Show]]'' || Himself as anchor of Kodipathi program ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Pakalppooram]]'' || Gouridasan Namboothiri ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2003 || ''[[Vasanthamalika]]'' || Balakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''Sahodharan Sahadevan'' || Aravindan, Mukundan ||
|-
|| ''[[Chronic Bachelor]]'' || Srikumar ||
|-
|| ''[[Thillana Thillana]]'' || Balachandran ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2004 || ''[[Sethurama Iyer CBI]]'' || Chacko ||
|-
|| ''[[Thekkekkara Superfast]]'' || Ulahannan ||
|-
|| ''[[Vismayathumbathu]]'' || Govindan Kutty ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2005 || ''[[Udayananu Tharam]]'' || Babykuttan ||
|-
|| ''[[Soumyam]]'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Boy Friend (2005 film)|Boy Friend]]'' || Minister Nateshan, Dineshan (double role) ||
|-
|| ''[[Nerariyan CBI]]'' || Chacko ||
|-
|| ''Chiratta Kalippattangal'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Junior Senior (2005 film)|Junior Senior]]'' || Manu ||
|-
|| ''Oraal'' || Gautam ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2006 || ''[[Balram vs Tharadas]]'' || Inspector Varma ||
|-
|| ''[[Rasathanthram]]'' || Shivan ||
|-
| rowspan=10 | 2007 || ''[[Athisayan]]'' || Radhakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Kaiyoppu]]'' || Sivadas "Kilippaattu" ||
|-
|| ''[[Kaakki]]'' || Ramakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Katha Parayumbol]]'' || Venu || Producer
|-
|| ''[[Naalu Pennungal]]'' || Nara Pillai ||
|-
|| ''[[Rock N Roll]]'' || Vishal ||
|-
|| ''[[Ayur Rekha]]'' || Thripayar Madhavan ||
|-
|| ''[[Vinodayathra]]'' || Shaji Raghavan ||
|-
|| ''[[Goal (2007 Malayalam film)|Goal]]'' || Isaac ||
|-
|| ''Best Friends'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 2008 || ''[[Twenty:20 (film)|Twenty:20]]'' || CI Jayachandran ||
|-
|| ''[[Kabadi Kabadi (2008 film)|Kabadi Kabadi]]'' || Vijayan ||
|-
|| ''[[Innathe Chintha Vishayam]]'' || Dr. Murali Krishanan ||
|-
|| ''[[Parthan Kanda Paralokam]]'' || Madhavan ||
|-
|| ''[[Gopalapuranam]]'' || Vishnu ||
|-
|| ''[[SMS (2008 film)|SMS]]'' || Robert Mathew ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 2009 || ''[[Kancheepurathe Kalyanam|Kanchipurathe Kalyanam]]'' || Pattarumadom Najeeb ||
|-
|| ''[[2 Harihar Nagar]]'' || Mahadevan || Sequel to ''[[In Harihar Nagar]]''
|-
|| ''[[Dr. Patient|Dr.Patient]]'' || Dr. Ruben Isaac ||
|-
|| ''[[Currency (film)|Currency]]'' || Danny D'Souza Aka Sayippu ||
|-
|| ''[[Bharya Onnu Makkal Moonnu]]'' || Gopikrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Shudharil Shudhan]]'' || Mohanachandran Pillai ||
|-
|| ''[[Kappal Muthalaali]]'' || Venkitt Raman ||
|-
|| ''[[Decent Parties]]'' || Himself ||
|-
|| ''[[Chemistry (2009 film)|Chemistry]]'' || Sreekanth IPS ||
|-
|| ''[[Calendar (2009 film)|Calendar]]'' || Dr. Roy ||
|-
|| ''Bharya Swantham Suhruthu'' || Girish Menon ||
|-
|}

==== 2010s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2010 || ''[[Pathinonnil Vyazham]]'' || Appu ||
|-
|| ''[[Advocate Lakshmanan – Ladies Only|Advocate Lakshmanan Ladies Only]]'' || Lakshmanan ||
|-
|| ''[[In Ghost House Inn]]'' || Mahadevan || Sequel to ''[[2 Harihar Nagar]]''
|-
|| ''[[Cheriya Kallanum Valiya Policum]]'' || Sadasivan ||
|-
|| || ||
|-
|| ''[[Swantham Bharya Zindabad]]'' || Himself ||
|-
|| ''[[Mummy & Me]]'' || Joseph ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 2011 || ''Kottarathil Kutty Bhootham'' || ||
|-
|| ''Happy Durbar'' || CID Ananthan ||
|-
|| ''[[Killadi Raman]]'' || Mahadevan ||
|-
|| ''[[Adaminte Makan Abu]]'' || Ashraf ||
|-
|| ''[[Sarkar Colony]]'' || Shivaramakrishnan ||
|-
|| ''[[Oru Marubhoomikkadha]]'' || Abdu Kupleri || 200th film
|-
|| ''[[Maharaja Talkies]]'' || Venugopal ||
|-
|| || ||
|-
|| ''[[Pachuvum Kovalanum]]'' || Pachu ||
|-
|| ''[[Ninnishtam Ennishtam 2]]'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Natakame Ulakam]]'' || Omanakuttan ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 2012 || ''[[Gruhanathan]]'' || Vishvanathan/ GV ||
|-
|| ''[[Masters (film)|Masters]]'' || SP Ravi Shanker ||
|-
|| ''[[Navagatharkku Swagatham]]'' || Rajasekharan aka Appettan ||
|-
|| ''[[My Boss]]'' || Head of the IT firm ||
|-
|| ''Red Alert'' || ||
|-
|| [[916 (film)|''916'']] || Dr. Ramesh ||
|-
|| ''[[Hide N' Seek (2012 film)|Hide N' Seek]]'' || Solomon / Niranjan ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2013 || [[Lucky Star (2013 film)|''Lucky Star'']] || Dr. John Chitillapally ||
|-
|| ''[[English: An Autumn in London]]'' || Joy || Won the [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards|Kerala Film Critics Association Award for Second Best Actor]]
|-
|| ''[[Sound Thoma]]'' || Plapparambil Mathai/Musthafa ||
|-
|| ''For Sale'' || Prathapan Guruji ||
|-
|| ''Ithu Manthramo Thanthramo Kuthanthramo'' || Sadanantha Bhoopathi Swami ||
|-
|| [[Philips and the Monkey Pen|''Philips and the Monkeypen'']] || Principal ||
|-
|| ''[[Escape from Uganda]]'' || Firoz ||
|-
| rowspan=11 | 2014 || ''[[Mannar Mathai Speaking 2]]'' || Gopalakrishnan || Sequel to ''[[Mannar Mathai Speaking]]''
|-
|| ''[[London Bridge (film)|London Bridge]]'' || Francis ||
|-
|| ''[[Vasanthathinte Kanal Vazhikalil]]'' || Journalist ||
|-
|| ''[[Praise the Lord (film)|Praise The Lord]]'' || Sunny ||
|-
|| ''[[To Noora with Love|To Noora With Love]]'' || || Cameo appearance
|-
|| ''[[Peruchazhi]]'' || Francis Kunjappan ||
|-
|| ''[[Persiakaran]]'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Ormayundo Ee Mukham]]'' || Doctor ||
|-
|| ''[[Mathai Kuzhappakkaranalla]]'' || Dr. Nandagopan ||
|-
|| ''Karanavar'' || || Cameo appearance
|-
|| ''To Let Ambadi Talkies'' || Circle Inspector Jayashankar ||
|-
| rowspan=8 | 2015 || ''[[1000 – Oru Note Paranja Katha]]'' || Jikku Mon's father ||
|-
|| ''Kalyanism'' || Kishore ||
|-
|| ''Elanjikkavu P.O'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Chandrettan Evideya]]'' || Sekharan ||
|-
|| ''[[Su Su Sudhi Vathmeekam]]'' || Himself ||
|-
|| ''[[John Honai]]'' || Sreenivasan ||
|-
|| ''[[Adi Kapyare Kootamani]]'' || Father Alfred Kattuvilayil || Nominated for the [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Comedian|Asianet Film Awards for Best Comedian]]
|-
|| ''[[Two Countries]]'' || Simon ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2016 || ''[[Kattumakkan]]'' || Madhavan ||
|-
|| ''[[Shikhamani]]'' || ||
|-
|| ''Neeranjana Pookal'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Angane Thanne Nethave Anjettennam Pinnale]]'' || Paala Thankachan ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2017 || ''[[Jomonte Suvisheshangal]]'' || Vincent ||
|-
|| ''[[Ramaleela ]]'' || Paulson Devassy, DYSP ||<ref>{{cite news |last1=Suresh |first1=Meera |title='Dileep and his character Ramanunni MLA share a lot of similarities' |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2017/Apr/20/dileep-and-his-character-ramanunni-mla-share-a-lot-of-similarities-1595532.html |access-date=2 April 2024 |publisher=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
|-
|| ''[[Masterpiece (2017 film)|Masterpiece]]'' || Vice principal Cherian Joseph || 250th film
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Kalyanam (2018 film)|Kalyanam]]'' || Sahadevan Nair ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2019 || ''[[Ganagandharvan]]'' || Aby ||
|-
|| ''[[Under World]]'' || Padmanabhan Nair ||
|-
|}

==== 2020s ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2020 || ''[[Dhamaka (2020 film)|Dhamaka]]'' || Pauly ||
|-
|| ''[[2 States (2020 film)|2 States]]'' || Vijayaraghavan ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2021 || [[Tsunami (2021 film)|''Tsunami'']] || Father Sylvester (Achankochapi) ||
|-
|| ''[[Marakkar: Arabikadalinte Simham]]'' || Dharmoth Panicker ||
|-
| 2022 || ''[[CBI 5]]'' || Chacko ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2023 || ''[[Oh My Darling (film)|Oh My Darling]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anikha Surendran's Oh My Darling trailer out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/feb/12/anikha-surendrans-oh-my-darling-trailer-out-39895.html |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=12 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pachuvum Athbutha Vilakkum]]'' || Rajan ||<ref>{{Cite news |title=Fahadh Faasil starrer 'Paachuvum Albhuthavilakkum' gets a release date! |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/fahadh-faasil-starrer-paachuvum-albhuthavilakkum-gets-a-release-date/articleshow/97937906.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-02-21 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Philip's (film)|Philip's]]'' || Philip Abraham || 300th film<ref>{{Cite web |title=Teaser for Mukesh-starrer Phillip's is out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/oct/15/teaser-for-mukesh-starrer-phillips-is-out-48631.html |access-date=2023-11-01 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=15 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kadhikan]]'' || Chandrasenan ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trailer of Mukesh, Unni Mukundan starrer Kadhikan is here |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/dec/07/trailer-of-mukesh-unni-mukundan-starrer-kadhikan-is-here-50207.html |access-date=2023-12-09 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=7 December 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=4 | 2024 || ''[[Iyer In Arabia]]'' || Srinivasa Iyer ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-17 |title=Director M A Nishad To Make His Comeback To Malayalam Cinema With Iyer Kanda Dubai |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/director-m-a-nishad-to-make-his-comeback-to-malayalam-cinema-with-iyer-kanda-dubai-6853999.html |access-date=2023-01-29 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-08 |title=Makers Of Dhyan Sreenivasan-starrer Iyer In Arabia Lock Release Date |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/makers-of-dhyan-sreenivasan-starrer-iyer-in-arabia-lock-release-date-8732420.html |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Super Zindagi]]'' || Mujeeb ||<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-08-04 |title=Dhyan Sreenivasan's Super Zindagi gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Aug/04/dhyan-sreenivasans-super-zindagi-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2024-08-06 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Virunnu]]'' || John Abraham ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-24 |title=Arjun Sarja's Virunnu Trailer Promises Thrilling Action Ahead Of August 29 Release |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/arjun-sarjas-virunnu-trailer-promises-thrilling-action-ahead-of-august-29-release-9026327.html |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Oru Anweshanathinte Thudakkam]]'' || Dysp Prem Kumar ||
|-
| 2025||''[[Mehfil (film)|Mehfil]]'' ||Mullassery Rajagopal||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2025-07-20 |title=ജയരാജിന്‍റെ നായകനായി മുകേഷ്; 'മെഹ്‍ഫിലി'ലെ ഗാനമെത്തി|url=https://www.asianetnews.com/music/mehfil-malayalam-movie-video-song-jayaraj-mukesh-asha-sharath-manoj-k-jayan-unni-articleshow-l85e3am |access-date=2025-07-22 |website=Asianet News|language=ml}}</ref>
|-
|}

===Tamil films===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Manaivi Oru Manickam]]'' || Ravi ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Jathi Malli]]'' || Kesavan ||
|-
| 2009 || ''[[Ainthaam Padai]]'' || Karunakaran ||
|-
| 2013 || ''Naanum En Jamunavum'' || ||
|}

===As producer===
* ''[[Katha Parayumbol]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Thattathin Marayathu]]'' (2012)

==Television career==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !!Channel!! Role!!Notes
|-
|2000||''Kodeeswaran'' (2000) ||[[Surya TV]] ||Anchor||
|-
|2001||''Sambavami Yuge Yuge''||[[Surya TV]]||Actor||TV Serial
|-
|2008|| ''Super Talent'' ||[[Surya TV]]||Anchor||
|-
|2009-2012|| ''[[Deal or No Deal]]'' || [[Surya TV]] || Anchor||
|-
|2013||''Abhinethri''|| [[Surya TV]]|| Serial Producer||TV serial
|-
|2013–2018|| ''[[Badai Bungalow]]'' || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] ||Co-Host||{{Won}}, Asianet Television award 2016-Golden Star of the Year 2nd Asianet Comedy awards -Evergreen hero Asianet Film Awards -Multifaceted talents of the year's Asianet Television Awards 2018- golden star of television
|-
|2015||''[[Sell Me the Answer (Indian game show)|Sell me the answer]]''|| [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Anchor||
|-
|2016||''[[Sell Me the Answer (Indian game show)|Sell me the answer season 2]]''|| [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Anchor||{{Won}}, Asiavision TV awards 2016 -Best game show anchor
|-
|2018||[[Bigg Boss (Malayalam season 1)]]|| [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] ||Himself(role-Investigator)||Episode - 54
|-
|2018-2019||''[[Sell Me the Answer (Indian game show)|Sell me the answer season 3]]''|| [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Anchor||
|-
|2019–2020|| ''[[Badai Bungalow|Badai Bungalow season 2]]'' || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] ||Co-Host||
|-
|2020||''[[Top Singer (TV series)|Top Singer]]''||[[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]]||Grand finale Judge||
|-
|2020–2021||''[[Top Singer (TV series)|Top Singer season 2]]''||[[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]]|| Judge||
|-
|2020||''Engane oru Bharyayum Bharthavum''||[[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]]|| Judge||
|-
|2020||''Chankanu Chackochan''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Himself||rowspan=2|Christmas special program
|-
|2020||''Utsavam With Lalettan''||[[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]]||Himself
|-
|2020||''Nammal Thammil''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Host||
|-
|2021||''Comedy Stars Season 2''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Special Judge||
|-
|2021||''Star Magic''||[[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]]||Mentor||
|-
|2021||''Oru Chiri Iru Chiri Bumper Chiri''||[[Mazhavil Manorama]]||Judge||
|-
|2021||''[[Kanyadanam (Malayalam TV series)|Kanyadaanam]]''||[[Surya TV]]||Narrator||TV serial
|-
|2021||''Minnum Tharam Season 2''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Judge||
|-
|2021||''Madhuram Shobhanam''||[[Zee Keralam]]||Himself||Special show
|-
|2021–2022||''Mukesh Speaking''||YouTube||Host||Online show
|-
|2021–2022||''Comedy Stars Season 3''||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]||Judge||
|-
|2022–2023||''kidilam''||[[Mazhavil Manorama]]||Judge||
|-
|2023||[[Uppum Mulakum]]||[[Flowers TV]]||Philips ||TV serial ( one episode for movie promotion)
|}

===Radio anchor===
* ''Laksham Laksham Pinnale'' (2013) (Reality show-Super 94.7 fm)

===Theater performance===
* Mukesh started Kalidasa Visual Magic for play productions. His first play ''Chayamukhi'' was in 2008 with [[Mohanlal]] and was written and directed by Prasanth Narayanan.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Bhima-and-Keechaka-on-a-new-mission/article15151152.ece |title=Bhima and Keechaka on a new mission |date=25 January 2018 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=10 July 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He also appeared with his sister, Sandhya Rajendan and his wife Methil in the 2015 adaptation of ''Naaga'', directed by [[Suveeran]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/naaga-an-adaptation-of-girish-karnads-nagamandala/article7557272.ece |title=Marrying myth and mystery |last=Paul |first=G. S. |date=20 August 2015 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=10 July 2018 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Mukesh (actor)}}
* {{IMDb name|0611481|Mukesh}}
* [http://malayalasangeetham.info/php/displayActorProfile.php?a=Mukesh Mukesh at MSI]

{{MLAs from Kerala assembly constituencies in Kollam city}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mukesh}}
[[Category:Male actors from Kollam]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Malayalam film producers]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 2016–2021]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Sree Narayana College, Kollam alumni]]
[[Category:Indian actor-politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Film producers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam theatre]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:1957 births]]

Savari (2018 film)

2026-03-03T20:33:23Z

KarmaConyers: put up initial pg initial version

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Savari
| image = File:Savaari_poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Ashok Nair
| producer =
| writer =
| screenplay = Ashok Nair
| story =
| based_on =
| starring = [[Suraj Venjaramoodu]]
| narrator =
| music = Justin Kalidas
| cinematography = S B Prajith
| editing =
| studio = Opened Eyes CreationsRoyal Vision
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2018|07|20}}
| country = India
| language = [[Malayalam]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Savari''''' is a 2018 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[comedy film]] written and directed by Ashok Nair. The film stars [[Suraj Venjaramoodu]] and [[Sunil Sukhada]]. It was produced under the banner of Opened Eyes CreationsRoyal Vision.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/savari-first-half-review-highlights-another-tale-about-thrissur-driven-by-surajs-performance/articleshow/65068605.cms | title=Savari first half review highlights: Another tale about Thrissur driven by Suraj's performance | date=20 July 2018 | newspaper=The Times of India | first=Deepa | last=Antony | accessdate=17 March 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/savari/movie-review/65070975.cms|title = Savari Movie Review {3/5}: Watch it for a brilliant performance by Suraj Venjarammood|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/review/savari-malayalam-movie-review-suraj-venjaramoodu-1.2989298|title=വലിച്ചുനീട്ടിയ സിനിമയാണെങ്കിലും സുരാജ് കയ്യടി നേടുന്നു- Movie Rating : 1.5/5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nowrunning.com/movie/21688/malayalam/savaari/|title=Savari (2018) {{pipe}} Savari Malayalam Movie {{pipe}} Movie Reviews, Showtimes|date=20 October 2017}}</ref>

==Plot==
The story begins with a man fondly known as Savaari (Suraj Venjaramoodu) waking up at dawn to start his day of menial work in Thrissur on his old rusty bicycle. On the first day of Thrissur Pooram, he fails to reach on time for the sample firecracker show as he was sent out of the city by one of the organizers of the Thrissur Pooram to buy watermelons. On the second day of the Pooram, his bicycle, that he is very attached to, is stolen. He goes around asking people he works for/ knows for help but no one cares. While he is waiting outside the police station, a local thief asks the inspector why Savaari is sad. After knowing that he is the cause for Savaari's sorrow, he returns the bicycle. Savaari continues his day as usual. An organisation for Autistic children has raised enough funds for a school and has invited its contributors and actor Dileep for the inauguration ceremony. During the event, people present are made aware of the contributions of Savaari for the betterment of the children.

==Cast==
* [[Suraj Venjaramoodu]] as Savari
* [[Dileep (actor)|Dileep]] as himself (Special Appearance)
* [[Sunil Sukhada]] as Job
* Jayaraj Varier as Venu Menon
*Harisanth as Ashokan
*[[Chembil Ashokan]] as Varghese
*Shivaji Guruvayoor as Unni Menon
*Rajeev as Rajeev
*[[Praveena]] as Nirmala Teacher
*Nandakishor Nellickal as Gopi
*V. K. Baiju as Police Inspector

==Release==
''Savaari'' was released on 20 July 2018.
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt7582978}}

[[Category:2018 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy films]]
[[Category:2018 comedy films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thrissur]]

{{2010s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Yashpal

2026-03-03T10:42:15Z

KarmaConyers: minor cleanup

{{Short description|Hindi writer (1903–1976)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{about|revolutionary and author Yashpal Singh||}}
{{Infobox writer 
| embed =
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Yashpal Singh
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Yashpal 2003 stamp of India.jpg
| image_size = 245px
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Yashpal Singh on a 2003 stamp of India
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1903|12|3|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Kangra district|Kangra Hills]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1976|12|26|1903|12|3|df=y}}
| death_place =
| resting_place =
| occupation = Author
| language = [[Hindi]]
| residence =
| nationality = [[Indian nationality|Indian]]
| citizenship = India
| education =
| alma_mater =
| period =
| genre = 
| subject = 
| movement =
| notableworks = {{unbulleted list | ''[[Jhutha Sach (novel)|Jhutha Sach]]'' | ''[[Meri Teri Uski Baat]]'' | ''Pinjre ki Uran''}}
| spouse = Prakashwati
| partner = 
| children =
| relatives =
| awards = {{awd|[[Padma Bhushan]]|1970}} {{awd|[[Sahitya Akademi Award]]|1976}}
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| years_active =
| module =
| website = 
| portaldisp = 
}}
{{Communism in India}}

'''Yashpal Singh''' (3 December 1903 – 26 December 1976) was a [[Hindi language|Hindi-language]] writer, political commentator, a [[socialist]] and an essayist. He wrote in a range of genres, including essays, novels and short stories, as well as a play, two travel books and an autobiography. He won the Hindi-language [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] for his novel ''[[Meri Teri Uski Baat]]'' in 1976 and was also a recipient of the [[Padma Bhushan]].

== Early life and activism ==
Yashpal was born on 3 December 1903 in the village of Bhumpal, (present-day [[Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur district]]) situated within the [[Kangra district|Kangra Hills]] in [[British Raj|British India]]. His mother was poor and had sole responsibility for raising her two sons. He grew up in an era when the popularity of the [[Indian independence movement]] was steadily increasing and with a mother who was a keen supporter of [[Arya Samaj]]. He attended an Arya Samaj [[gurukul]] in [[Haridwar]] on a "freeship" basis, due to the family's poverty.{{efn|The "freeship" included free food and clothing, as well as tuition.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}}} Such gurukuls were considered by the colonial administration to be "hotbeds of sedition" because they fostered pride in Hindu culture and Indian achievements, encouraging the notion that British rule was a "temporary setback or punishment for having permitted laxity in the Aryan religion." Yashpal later said that during his schooldays he had daydreamed of a time when Indians would reverse the current situation to the point of ruling the [[British people|British]] in England. He was bullied by his fellow pupils at the gurukul on account of his poverty, and he left the school when he suffered a prolonged attack of [[dysentery]].{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

Reunited with his mother in [[Lahore]], Yashpal attended middle school there before progressing to high school in [[Firozpur Cantonment|Ferozepur Cantonment]], where the family had subsequently moved. He found the urban environment and schooling to be more to his taste and he finished first in class in his matriculation exam.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

Yashpal had been a follower of [[Mahatma Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi's]] [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] organisation from the age of 17, while still in high school. He toured villages to promote Gandhi's message of [[Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)|non-cooperation]] among peasant people but they appeared disinterested and he realised that there was nothing in the Congress programme that addressed issues that affected them. It was after one such tour that he received his matriculation results, the success in which entitled him to a scholarship at a government college. He declined that award in favour of having to fund himself through studies at National College, Lahore, an institution that had been established by the Arya Samajist and Congress activist [[Lala Lajpat Rai]] with the aim of promoting social service and providing a quality education to Indians who did not want to be taught in British-administered colleges.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}{{sfnp|Pakistan Today|2011|ps=}}{{sfnp|Jones|1989|p=100|ps=}}

== Hindustan Socialist Republican Association ==
It was at National College that Yashpal met people such as [[Bhagat Singh]] and [[Sukhdev Thapar]] who were later to become the nucleus of the [[Punjab]]i armed revolution movement. Encouraged by the tutelage of Jaichandra Vidyalankar, a historian and associate of [[Ghadar Party|Ghadarites]], this group of students read widely of political theory and past revolutionaries from Europe and India.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}{{sfnp|Elam|Moffat|2016|ps=}} The Hindustan Republican Association became known as the [[Hindustan Socialist Republican Association]] (HSRA) in 1928, with the change of name probably being largely due to the influence of Bhagat Singh, who was a prominent figure in it.{{sfnp|Sawhney|2012|p=380|ps=}} Sharing Singh's disillusionment with the impact of Gandhi's non-cooperation strategy, Yashpal joined with it. His work for the HSRA was generally behind the scenes and he had a lower public profile than people who physically engaged in acts of revolution, such as Singh, [[Shivaram Rajguru|Rajguru]] and [[Chandrashekar Azad]]. While continuing his activism, he was employed as a clerk by the Lakshmi Insurance Company, a role that he deeply disliked and described {{quote|Before this, no one had ever been dissatisfied with me; in fact, I was always praised for my hard work and ability. But I proved to be totally incompetent as a clerk. Personally, I found the work so distasteful I could not apply myself to it. I made one mistake after another and was constantly criticized. Where were my lofty aspirations to be a successful lawyer or professor or effective political figure, sitting all day on my clerk's seat, sending interim receipts and writing dunning letters to clients to pay up their overdue premiums? ... I felt like I was sealed up inside a box, helpless, unable to break out. I felt that this was not my individual misfortune, but the lack of opportunity because of the way our society was managed. I felt that a change in the way the country and society were run was the only remedy. Then I saw the revolution, not only as a beneficence, but as a cry for my very existence.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}}}

Yashpal became a fugitive in April 1929, hiding for a few weeks with a relative (Pandit Shyama) in the Kangra area (village Samhoon near Rail in Hamirpur) after a recently established HSRA bomb factory in Lahore was raided by police. Realizing that the HSRA cause could not be furthered unless its members were organised, he was back in Lahore before June. Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev Thapar had both been arrested and he did not have contact details for any members who were free. Sukhdev Thapar was able to give him details of another member after Yashpal visited him in prison, posing as a lawyer, but the information was voided soon after due to a police raid on the HSRA's other bomb factory, in [[Saharanpur]]. Some of those arrested at both factories became informants.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

Yashpal then held discussions with leaders of the [[Hindu Mahasabha]]. However, he differed from them ideologically. Their offer to pay the HSRA 50,000 rupees to assassinate [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] was the final straw: the organisation of which he was a member were not to be guns for hire.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

The last significant armed act of the HSRA was the attempt on 23 December 1929 to blow up a train carrying the then [[viceroy]], [[Lord Irwin]]. Yashpal detonated that bomb, which destroyed the [[dining car]] but only inconvenienced Irwin.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xii|ps=}}{{efn|Irwin was travelling on that day to meet with Gandhi. The meeting went ahead as arranged and soon after it Gandhi published an article, ''The Cult of the Bomb'', that criticised the methods used by HSRA. Yashpal responded to the criticism by writing ''The Philosophy of the Bomb'', which the HSRA published.{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xxiii|ps=}}}} With several of its leaders imprisoned, some of whom were subsequently executed, Chandrashekar Azad reorganised the HSRA in 1930. Yashpal was appointed to the central committee and became organiser in Punjab. It was around this time that he met his future wife, Prakashvati Kapur, through his HSRA work. That relationship caused much jealousy and also concern among other HSRA members: the 17-year-old Prakashvati was considered too young to be involved with the group, although already paying a subscription, and was perceived as being vulnerable. There were also concerns about his commitment to the cause, since people thought that the life of a revolutionary was not compatible with marriage and HSRA members had taken a vow of celibacy. The outcome was dramatic: Yashpal found out that some of his colleagues were plotting to kill him for being a double agent of the British under orders from Azad, and the HSRA was beset with internal divisions regarding those concerns and also accusations that Yashpal might turn informant, His information came from the would-be assassin, a member of the HSRA who was acting as an informer for the British authorities. In September 1930, despite his personal acceptance of Yashpal's false integrity and honour, Azad felt it necessary to disband the fractured movement, distributing its weapons among the membership and telling them to go fight for the revolutionary cause on a decentralised, provincial basis rather than under direction from the committee.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}{{sfnp|Sharma|2009|p=1|ps=}}

While making various abortive attempts to visit Russia in order to investigate the outcomes of the [[Russian Revolution|revolution there]], Yashpal continued to work with Azad until the latter died in February 1931 during a shoot-out with police in [[Allahabad]]. He tried then to reunite the HSRA and was eventually successful, being elected commander-in-chief in January 1932 and putting his name to a seditious handbill that was distributed. He was arrested by the British in Allahabad on 22 January 1932.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}{{efn|Yashpal did eventually manage trips to the [[Soviet Union]], in 1952 and 1958.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}}}
Defended by a member of the [[Nehru family]], [[Shyam Kumari Nehru]], Yashpal tried to claim the status of a [[political prisoner]], which might improve the conditions of his confinement. He received a 14-year sentence of [[rigorous imprisonment]], seven of those being on the charge of attempted murder in [[Cawnpore]] and a further seven for attempting to kill a police officer in a shoot-out that had occurred a day after his arrival in Allahabad. Nehru told him that the judge had originally intended these sentences to run concurrently but had changed his decision to consecutive during a delay in finalising the paperwork. The change could have been significant because a fourteen-year sentence was ''de facto'' equivalent to one of life imprisonment: government review and permission for release was required once the sentence was complete. As events turned out, and after facing further charges in May 1932, resulting from the deliberations of the [[Delhi Conspiracy Commission]] and later abandoned, Yashpal served six years before being among those released under an amnesty agreement for political prisoners that was brokered by the newly formed Congress government in the [[United Provinces (1937-1950)|United Provinces]]. As far as Congress were concerned, there was no difference in status between people who had been imprisoned for non-cooperation (the ''[[satyagrahi]]s'') and those serving sentences for revolutionary activities. His release came on 2 March 1938, without any requirement for him to renounce his past activities.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xii|ps=}}

Despite his own misgivings concerning his future prospects, given his criminal history and increasingly poor health while in jail, Prakashvati had determined to marry him and did so at her insistence. The ceremony took place at [[Bareilly Central Jail]] on 7 August 1936 and was the first marriage to be conducted in an Indian jail. It caused a furore, being considered an unwarranted humanisation of the strictures of imprisonment. Prison manuals were amended to prevent a recurrence.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

== Writing ==
It was after Yashpal's release from prison that he began to write, seeing literature as a vehicle for righting the wrongs that he perceived to exist in Indian society. [[Marxism]] became his preferred ideology; he saw the [[Communist Party of India]] as the successor to the HSRA, although he joined neither that nor any other political party. {{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

Yashpal had been banned from entering Punjab following his release from prison and so settled with his wife in [[Lucknow]].{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xiii|ps=}} His first work, ''Pinjre ki Uran (Flight from the Cage)'' (1939), was a notable success. He worked briefly for ''Karmayogi'', a Hindi-language magazine, before establishing his own magazine, ''Viplav (Cataclysm)'', which was published in Hindi and Urdu until its closure in 1941. The closure became necessary because the government, which considered ''Viplav'' to be seditious, demanded a 13,000 [[rupee]] security; the magazine was restarted after [[independence of India|India gained independence]] in 1947.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}} In 1941, he established a publishing house called ''Viplava Karyalaya'' and, in 1944, a printing press called Sathi Press.{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xiii|ps=}}

Yashpal's next books – ''[[Dada Kamred]] (Comrade, The Big Brother)'' (1941) and ''Deshdrohi (Traitor)'' (1943) – were both fictional works that had the Communist Party as a central theme. Other essays, novels, and short stories were published between that time and Indian independence, and these added to the impression that he was an agitator. That impression caused his arrest in 1949 and jailing by order of the [[Government of Uttar Pradesh]], which was at that time arresting people with communist sympathies due to an illegal railway strike that had Communist Party support. A public outcry at his arrest ensued and the government had to back down in a humiliating manner, although they did succeed in banning him from Lucknow for a period of six months and thus caused the final closure of ''Viplav''.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

His autobiography, ''Sinhavalokan (A Lion's Eye-View'' or ''A Backward Glance)'', was published in three volumes between 1951–55{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xiii|ps=}} and is recognized for its detailed account of the armed struggle for independence in India as well as for information on his own early life.{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}{{sfnp|Datta|1987|p=279|ps=}} He was writing a fourth volume of this autobiography at the time of his death on 26 December 1976.

Yashpal was awarded the [[Padma Bhushan]] in 1970.{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xvi|ps=}}

== Literary criticism ==
Yogendra Malik notes that as a Marxist novelist, Yashpal formed a part of {{quote|one of the most important literary groups in Hindi dedicated to an ideological interpretation of politics. Committed to the concepts of "socialist realism" and "purposeful art", these writers analyse the social and political structures in India on the basis of Marxism and Leninism. Through their fictional heroes they propagate ideological precepts of Communism. Most of these novelists rarely deviate from the party line set by the Communist Party leadership at the national or international level or by the Marxist literary critics.{{sfnp|Malik|1975|pp=18–19|ps=}}}}

''Meri Teri Uski Baat (My, Your and Her Story)'' (1974), a novel, won the Hindi-language Sahitya Akademi Award in 1976, shortly before his death.{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xiv|ps=}} Writing on behalf of the same institution, Bhisham Sahni described Yashpal's short stories as carrying on the tradition of Premchand, although focussed more on urban society than that of the rural and lower-middle class.{{sfnp|Lal|1992|p=4044|ps=}} Corinne Friend says that "he has been characterised by many as the most gifted writer of Hindi literature since Prem Chand".{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}}

The two volumes of ''[[Jhutha Sach (novel)|Jhutha Sach]]'' (1958 and 1960), Yashpal's voluminous novel based on events surrounding the [[Partition of India]], have been compared to [[Tolstoy|Tolstoy's]] ''[[War and Peace]]'' by many writers and critics. Harish Trivedi, a professor of English, says that these comparisons were sufficiently numerous that "with his eyesight failing, Yashpal arranged for someone to read Tolstoy's great work to him — perhaps to figure out what the fuss was all about".{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xxiv|ps=}}

There are three themes that run throughout Yashpal's writings, being those of gender equality, revolution and romance. While much of his work concerns contemporary or near-contemporary situations, he explored the distant past in novels such as ''Divya'' (1945), ''Amita'' (1954) and ''Apsara ka Shap'' (1965).{{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|pp=xi–xvi|ps=}}

== Centenary celebrations ==
In 2003–2004, there were centenary celebrations of his birth{{cn|date=March 2014}} and a commemorative postage stamp was issued by [[India Post]] on 3 December 2003.{{sfnp|India Post|2003|ps=}}

== Works ==

Yashpal produced more than 50 works in Hindi,{{sfnp|Friend|1977|ps=}} many of which have been translated into other languages. Among his publications are:

=== Novels ===
*''[[Dada Kamred]]'' (1941)
*''Deshdrohi'' (1943)
*''Divya'' (1945)
*''Party Comrade'' (1946, reprinted as ''Gita''){{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xiv|ps=}}
*''Manushya Ke Roop'' (1949)
*'
*''[[Jhutha Sach (novel)|Jhutha Sach]]'' (two volumes, [[Vatan Aur Desh]] : 1958 and [[Desh Ka Bhavishya]] : 1960){{sfnp|Trivedi|2010|p=xi|ps=}}
*''Barah Ghante'' (1963)
*''Apsara Ka Shaap'' (1965)
*''[[Meri Teri Uski Baat]]'' (1974)
*''Ve Tufani Din''
*''Kyon Fanse''

=== Collections ===
*''Pinjre ki Uran'' (1939){{sfnp|Lal|1992|p=4047|ps=}}
*''Tark ka Toofan'' (1943){{sfnp|Lal|1992|pp=4300–4301|ps=}}
*''Phulo ka Kurta''
*''Dharmayudha''
*''Sach''

=== Travel ===
He also wrote two works based on his travels in Eastern Europe, ''Rah Beeti'' ("the story of the journey") and ''Dekha Socha Samjha'' ("Saw Thought Understood").

== Television adaptations ==
[[Sunil Batta]] has directed two television series adapting Yashpal's works: ''Guldasta'' in 1995 and ''Jeevan Ke Rang'' in 2005.{{cn|date=March 2014}}

== See also==
* [[List of Indian writers]]

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{notelist}}
'''Citations'''
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}
'''Bibliography'''
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature |volume=1 |editor-first=Amaresh |editor-last=Datta |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=1987 |isbn=9788126018031 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA279}}
*{{citation |first1=J. Daniel |last1=Elam |first2=Chris |last2=Moffat |year=2016 |title=On the Form, Politics and Effects of Writing Revolution |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=513–524 |doi=10.1080/00856401.2016.1199293 |doi-access=free }}
*{{citation |title=Yashpal: Fighter for Freedom -- Writer for Justice |first=Corinne |last=Friend |journal=Journal of South Asian Literature |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=Fall 1977 |pages=65–90 |jstor=40873491}} {{subscription required}}
*{{citation |url=http://www.indiapost.gov.in/Stamps2003.aspx |title=Stamps 2003 |year=2003 |author=India Post |publisher=India Post |access-date=9 March 2014}}
*{{citation |title=Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India |first=Kenneth W. |last=Jones |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=9780521249867 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HV4nHv8urgC&pg=PA100}}
*{{citation |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature |volume=5 |editor-first=Mohan |editor-last=Lal |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=1992 |isbn=9788126012213 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4300}}
*{{citation |title=Politics and the Novel in India |volume=6 |editor1-first=Yogendra Kumar |editor1-last=Malik |editor2-first=Carl |editor2-last=Lieberman |publisher=Brill |year=1975 |isbn=9789004042438 |chapter=Contemporary Political Novels in Hindi: An Interpretation |first=Yogendra Kumar |last=Malik |pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsnovelini0006unse/page/18 18–19] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IzAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA18 |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsnovelini0006unse/page/18 }}
*{{citation |title=Bradlaugh Hall's demise |date=17 April 2011 |url=http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2011/04/bradlaugh-halls-demise/ |author=Pakistan Today |publisher=Pakistan Today |access-date=20 February 2014}}
*{{citation |title=Punjab Reconsidered: History, Culture, and Practice |pages=377–402 |editor1-first=Anshu |editor1-last=Malhotra |editor2-first=Farina |editor2-last=Mir |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19807-801-2 |chapter=Bhagat Singh: A Politics of Death and Hope |first=Simona |last=Sawhney |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198078012.003.0054 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
*{{citation |title=Radical Politics in Colonial Punjab: Governance and Sedition |first=Shalini |last=Sharma |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=9781135261122 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3s-NAgAAQBAJ}}
*{{citation |title=This is Not that Dawn |chapter=Introduction |first=Harish |last=Trivedi |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2010 |isbn=9780143103134 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7B32yVCqGYC}} English translation by Anand of Yashpal's ''Jhutha Sach'')
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |title=Yashpal: Author and Patriot |first=Corinne |last=Friend |year=1969 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia}}
*{{cite book |title=Between Love and Freedom: The Revolutionary in the Hindi Novel |first=Nikhil |last=Govind |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-31755-976-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hg9BAAAQBAJ}}

{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 1970–79}}
{{Sahitya Akademi Award For Hindi}}
{{Authority control}}
{{portal bar|Biography|India|Literature}}

[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1976 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian editors]]
[[Category:Indian Marxists]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Indian Marxist writers]]
[[Category:Hindi-language writers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Hindi]]
[[Category:Hindustan Socialist Republican Association]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in literature & education]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Indian travel writers]]
[[Category:Indian political writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian essayists]]
[[Category:People from Kangra district]]
[[Category:Writers from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]
[[Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)]]

Vidhi (2021 film)

2026-03-03T09:44:20Z

KarmaConyers: put up the info first draft...

{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Vidhi (2021 film).jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Kannan Thamarakkulam]]
| writer = Dinesh Pallath
| producer = Abraham Mathew Sudarsanan
| starring = [[Anoop Menon]]
| cinematography = Ravichandran
| editing = V. T. Sreejith
| music = [[4 Musics]]
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2021|12 |30 }}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Vidhi''''' ({{translation|Fate}}) is a 2021 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language film directed by [[Kannan Thamarakkulam]], based on the [[Maradu apartments demolition order]]. The film stars [[Anoop Menon]], [[Dharmajan Bolgatty]], [[Manoj K. Jayan]], [[Sheelu Abraham]] and [[Senthil Krishna]]. It was released on released on 30 December 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2021 |title=Vidhi: The Verdict{{!}}നിയമ പോരാട്ടത്തിനൊടുവിൽ 'വിധി: ദി വെര്‍ഡിക്റ്റ്' തിയറ്ററുകളിലേക്ക് |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/kannan-thamarakkulam-movie-vidhi-the-verdict-release-date-r2edis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427072900/https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/kannan-thamarakkulam-movie-vidhi-the-verdict-release-date-r2edis |archive-date=27 April 2022 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[Asianet News]] |language=ml}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=August 2024}}
== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Anoop Menon]] as Bharath
* [[Manoj K. Jayan]]
* [[Dharmajan Bolgatty]] as Maniyan
* [[Baiju Santhosh]]
* [[Senthil Krishna]]
* [[Kailash (actor)|Kailash]]
* [[Hareesh Kanaran]]
* [[Abu Salim (actor)|Abu Salim]]
* [[Kalabhavan Haneef]]
* [[Sheelu Abraham]]
* [[Noorin Shereef]]
* [[Sarayu Mohan]]
* [[Anjali Nair (actress, born 1988)|Anjali Nair]]
* [[Jayakrishnan]]
}}

== Production ==
The film is based on the [[Maradu apartments demolition order]]. It began production in late January 2020 under the title ''Maradu 357''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2020 |title=What's different about 'Maradu 357' |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/what-s-different-about-maradu-357-122862 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727054227/https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/what-s-different-about-maradu-357-122862 |archive-date=27 July 2024 |access-date=27 July 2024 |website=[[The News Minute]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2021 |title=Anoop Menon Movie Vidhi release{{!}} മരട് 357 ഇനി 'വിധി' (ദി വെര്‍ഡിക്ട്); ചിത്രം നവംബര്‍ 25ന് തിയേറ്ററുകളിൽ |url=https://malayalam.indiatoday.in/cinema/story/anoop-menon-movie-vidhi-313051-2021-11-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726122014/https://malayalam.indiatoday.in/cinema/story/anoop-menon-movie-vidhi-313051-2021-11-11 |archive-date=26 July 2024 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[India Today]] |language=ml}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sidhardhan |first=Sanjith |date=20 October 2021 |title=Exclusive! Vidhi is still relevant due to the floods, ecological disasters in Kerala: Kannan Thamarakkulam |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/exclusive-vidhi-maradu-357-relevant-due-to-the-floods-ecological-disasters-in-kerala-kannan-thamarakkulam/abe489300a431 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726160933/https://www.ottplay.com/news/exclusive-vidhi-maradu-357-relevant-due-to-the-floods-ecological-disasters-in-kerala-kannan-thamarakkulam/abe489300a431 |archive-date=26 July 2024 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[OTTPlay]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 February 2021 |title=Court stays release of film on Maradu demolition |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/court-stays-release-of-film-on-maradu-demolition/article33865826.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726122317/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/court-stays-release-of-film-on-maradu-demolition/article33865826.ece |archive-date=26 July 2024 |access-date=26 July 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[4 Musics]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vidhi – The Verdict (2021) |url=https://www.raaga.com/malayalam/movie/vidhi-the-verdict-songs-M0003602 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726160929/https://www.raaga.com/malayalam/movie/vidhi-the-verdict-songs-M0003602 |archive-date=26 July 2024 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[Raaga.com]] |language=en}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Maanam Meethe
| length1 = 3:45
| lyrics1 = Madhu Vasudevan
| extra1 = Anwar Sadath, Vipin Xavier, Biby Mathew, Haritha Balakrishnan
| title2 = En Nenjinnullil
| length2 = 3:27
| lyrics2 = Rajeev Alunkal
| extra2 = Hari Raveendran, Evelyn Vincent
| title3 = Ho Jaane De
| length3 = 2:49
| lyrics3 = Unni Mukundan
| extra3 = Jyotsna Radhakrishnan
}}

== Release and reception ==
The film was initially scheduled to release on 19 February 2021,<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 January 2021 |title='Maradu 357' gets a release date |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/maradu-357-gets-a-release-date/articleshow/80232564.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519050757/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/maradu-357-gets-a-release-date/articleshow/80232564.cms |archive-date=19 May 2022 |access-date=27 July 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> but eventually released on 30 December.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sidhardhan |first=Sanjith |date=29 December 2021 |title=Vidhi release date: When and where to watch Anoop Menon's film on Maradu flats demolition |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/vidhi-release-date-when-and-where-to-watch-anoop-menon-film-on-maradu-flats-demolition/2937bacffc185 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802025043/https://www.ottplay.com/news/vidhi-release-date-when-and-where-to-watch-anoop-menon-film-on-maradu-flats-demolition/2937bacffc185 |archive-date=2 August 2024 |access-date=2 August 2024 |website=[[OTTPlay]] |language=en}}</ref> ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote, "It is interesting to see how a real-life story unfolds on screen, but doesn't really get you emotionally involved. You could give it a miss".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nair |first=V Vinod |date=31 December 2021 |title=Vidhi: The Verdict Movie Review : A real-life story that doesn't quite connect |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/vidhi-the-verdict/movie-review/88611411.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229000756/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/vidhi-the-verdict/movie-review/88611411.cms |archive-date=29 February 2024 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> ''[[OTTPlay]]'' wrote, "Too many subplots hinder the film from ever taking off".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sidhardhan |first=Sanjith |date=30 December 2021 |title=Vidhi movie review: Anoop Menon's final monologue can't save this drama weighed down by too many weak subplots |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/vidhi-movie-review-anoop-menon-final-monologue-cant-save-this-film-weighed-down-by-too-many-weak-subplots/cbc64fbcf3772 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102062819/https://www.ottplay.com/review/vidhi-movie-review-anoop-menon-final-monologue-cant-save-this-film-weighed-down-by-too-many-weak-subplots/cbc64fbcf3772 |archive-date=2 January 2023 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[OTTPlay]] |language=en}}</ref> ''[[Mathrubhumi]]'' reviewed the film more positively, praising the filmmaking, screenplay and music.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 December 2021 |title=മരടിലെ നൊമ്പര കാഴ്ചയുമായി വിധി |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/reviews/vidhi-the-verdict-movie-review-kannan-thamarakkulam-maradu-flat-demolition-1.6314812 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331062254/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/reviews/vidhi-the-verdict-movie-review-kannan-thamarakkulam-maradu-flat-demolition-1.6314812 |archive-date=31 March 2023 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[Mathrubhumi]] |language=ml}}</ref> ''[[Asianet News]]'' appreciated the music, cinematography and editing, saying they compliment the screenplay.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 December 2021 |title=Vidhi Movie Review : പ്രേക്ഷക മനസ് ആഗ്രഹിച്ച 'വിധി'; റിവ്യൂ |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/vidhi-movie-review-r4z64g |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726121751/https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/vidhi-movie-review-r4z64g |archive-date=26 July 2024 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=[[Asianet News]] |language=ml}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2021 Indian films]]
[[Category:2021 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:2021 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Kannan Thamarakkulam]]
[[Category:Films scored by 4 Musics]]

{{Improve categories|date=September 2024}}

Baha parab

2026-03-02T12:02:53Z

KarmaConyers: minor changes

{{Short description|Spring festival celebrated in India}}
{{context|date=August 2015}}
[[File:Baha parab dance by womens.jpg|thumb|Baha parab dance by women]]
'''Baha parab''', also known as '''Baa parab''', is a spring festival celebrated by the [[Ho people|Ho]], [[Santhal people|Santhal]], [[Munda people|Munda]] and other tribal communities in India. The word "Baha" or "Baa" means flower. During Baha parab, men, women and children dress in traditional attire, offer flowers to the deities ''[[Marang Buru]]'' and ''[[Jaher Ayo]]'', and celebrate with the beating of [[Madal]] and Tamak (drums) while dancing in traditional tribal style.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Islam |first=Mazharul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KFG3NjdeBMoC |title=Folklore, the Pulse of the People: In the Context of Indic Folklore |date=1985 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |language=en}}</ref>

==Celebration==
Marking the festival, the ''naike'' or ''deuri'' (the priest) performs a ritual. A ''kula'' with flowers and leaves of the Sal tree is offered at the [[Jaherthan]] (the altar), and devotees pray to Jaher Era, the deity.

After performing the rituals, the naike, along with others, goes from door to door with the ''kula'' to bless everyone. People in the household, particularly young girls or women, offer food to the naike. As he is welcomed by a family, his feet are washed with water as a sign of respect.

After the rituals, the second part of the program begins with dances and songs.<ref>Bharater adibasi, samaj</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:ᱠᱩᱞᱩᱯᱰᱟᱝᱜᱟ ᱵᱟᱦᱟ ᱵᱚᱸᱜᱟ 03.jpg|Baha festival in Birbhum
File:Crossing_Baha_festival_2025_80.jpg|Baha Parab in Jharkhand
File:Baha_Festival_at_jagannathpur_village_63.jpg| Baha Festival
File:Crossing_Baha_festival_Jaher_than_04.jpg| Baha Festival

</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book|title=Traditions and institutions of the Santals|first=P.O.|last=Bodding|date=2001|publisher=Gyan|isbn=8121206723|oclc=728672614}}
*{{Cite book|title=Tribal heritage : a study of the Santals|first=J.W.|last=Culshaw|isbn=9788121208574|oclc=904104068}}

==External links==
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiantribalheritage.org/?p=21797|title=Slideshow - Baha Parab, the Santal Flower Festival "celebrating Man's Communion with Nature" – West Bengal|website=www.indiantribalheritage.org|language=en|access-date=2017-05-19}}

[[Category:Festivals in India]]
[[Category:Tribal festivals in India]]
[[Category:Folk culture of West Bengal]]

Milagres School, Mangaluru

2026-02-22T17:19:15Z

KarmaConyers: Put up info

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Milagres School
| native_name =
| latin_name =
| logo =
| seal_image =
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| motto = Fortior Sanctior Doctior
| motto_translation = Passion for Perfection
| location =
| address =
| region =
| city = [[Mangaluru]]
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| province =
| county =
| postal_code = 575001
| zipcode =
| country = [[India]]
| country1 =
| coordinates = {{Coord|12.856721|74.836424|region:IN-KA_type:edu|display=inline,title}}
| schooltype =
| fundingtype =
| type = [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]]
| religious_affiliation =
| denomination =
| patron = Mother Mary
| established = {{start date and age|1848}}
| grades = 1 to 10, Pre-University and Degree
}}

'''Milagres School''', also known as Milagres CBSE School is located at the [[Hampankatta]] locality in [[Mangaluru]] city in the [[Karnataka]] state of [[India]].<ref name='thn'>{{cite web
|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/Milagres-College-to-be-opened-on-Wednesday/article16185264.ece |title=Milagres College to be opened on Wednesday |date=5 July 2010 |access-date=18 December 2018 |newspaper=The Hindu }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=651955|title=Mangaluru: Milagres High School celebrates Annual Day|date=10 December 2019|accessdate=30 December 2019|newspaper=Daijiworld}}</ref> It was established by Bishop Bernardin in the year 1848.<ref name='thn'/> Milagres school became affiliated to the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]] board in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=472818 |title=Mangaluru: Milagres English Medium School switches over to CBSE pattern |date=20 September 2017 |access-date=18 December 2018 |newspaper=Daijiworld}}</ref>

Various co-curricular activities include Dance classes, Drawing classes, Music classes, Karate classes and Sports classes mainly in Football, Cricket and Chess.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milagresschool.com/extra_curricular.php|title=Milagres CBSE School - Extra Curricular Activities}}</ref>

== History ==
Milagres Educational Institution was founded by Bishop Rt. Rev. Bernardin in 1848. In the beginning, it was started as a Primary English School with classes I to V and higher classes were added gradually. The Higher Secondary school was started on July 23, 1929. The Government of Karnataka upgraded the High School into Pre-University College on July 5, 1982.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://milagrescollege.edu.in/|title=Milagres College Mangalore|accessdate=30 December 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}


[[Category:High schools and secondary schools in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Christian schools in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Schools in Mangalore]]
[[Category:Schools in Dakshina Kannada district]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1848]]
[[Category:1848 establishments in British India]]

{{Karnataka-school-stub}}

Mohan Segal

2026-02-22T08:29:34Z

KarmaConyers: Put up new entry!

{{Short description|Indian film director and producer}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mohan Segal
| image = Segal.jpeg
| birth_date = 1 December 1921
| birth_place = [[Jalandhar]], British India
| death_date = 19 October 2005
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], India
| occupation = Film director, producer
| years_active = 1950s–1970s
| known_for = ''Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi'' (1970)
| relatives = [[Sharmin Segal]] (granddaughter)
}}
'''Mohan Segal''' (1 December 1921–19 October 2005) was an Indian film director and producer who worked primarily in [[Hindi cinema]]. Active mainly during the 1950s and 1960s, he is remembered for directing several commercially successful films and for introducing or mentoring actors who later became prominent in the Indian film industry.

== Life ==
Mohan Sehgal was born on 1 December 1921 in [[Jalandhar]], [[British India]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-19 |title=हमारी याद आएगी: पचासी झटके और 35 शहरों में सिल्वर जुबिली |url=https://www.jansatta.com/entertainment/today-is-mohan-sehgals-13th-death-anniversary-his-last-film-kasam-suhag-ki-released-in-1989/794356/ |access-date=2026-02-07 |website=Jansatta |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mitra |first=Mandira |date=28 October 2005 |title=The 'cute' loner at heart |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/the-cute-loner-at-heart/cid/969576 |url-status=live |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref>

He is known for introducing [[Rekha]] into the Bollywood in 1970 with ''[[Sawan Bhadon]]''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Das |first1=Tina |title=Vamps, NRIs, and the feudal system — the makings of Rekha's Hindi film debut Sawan Bhadon |url=https://theprint.in/feature/reel-take/rekha-bollywood-1970s/2855254/ |access-date=22 February 2026 |work=[[ThePrint]] |date=15 February 2026}}</ref> He is the grandfather of actress [[Sharmin Segal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Actress Rekha blesses 'Malaal' star Sharmin Segal |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2019/07/05/actress-rekha-blesses-malaal-star-sharmin-segal.html |access-date=2026-02-13 |website=Actress Rekha blesses 'Malaal' star Sharmin Segal |language=en}}</ref>

== Selected filmography ==

* ''[[Baazi (1951 film)|Baazi]]'' (1951) – assistant director
* ''[[Adhikar (1954 film)|Adhikar]]'' (1954)
* ''[[Aulad (1954 film)|Aulad]]'' (1954)
* ''[[Devar]]'' (1966)
* [[Sajan (1969 film)|''Sajan'']] (1969)
* ''[[Kanyadaan (1968 film)|Kanyadaan]]'' (1968)
* ''[[Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi]]'' (1970)
* ''[[Kartavya (1979 film)|Kartavya]]'' (1979)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-24 |title='Waste of Time...' When A Struggling Amitabh Bachchan Was Rejected By This Veteran Filmmaker |url=https://www.mensxp.com/entertainment/bollywood/172886-amitabh-bachchan-rejected-by-filmmaker-mohan-segal-sajan.html |access-date=2026-02-13 |website=MensXP |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
*{{Imdb name}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Segal, Mohan}}
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian film directors]]
[[Category:Indian filmmakers]]
[[Category:Indian film producers]]
[[Category:Hindi-language film directors]]

Thiagarajar College

2026-02-21T05:40:41Z

KarmaConyers: put up the details w/ infobox...

{{Short description|Government-aided College of Arts and Science in Madurai}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Thiagarajar College
| native_name =
| image =
| seal_image =
| alt =
| caption =
| motto =
| address = 139/140 Kamarajar salai
| city = [[Madurai]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| country = [[India]]
| postal_code = 625009
| schooltype = Public
| established = 1949
| founder = Shri.Kalaithanthai Karumuttu Thiagarajan
| president = Mr. Karumuttu T. Kannan.Hari Thiagarajan
| principal = Dr. D. Pandiaraja
| affiliation = [[Madurai Kamaraj University]]
| website = {{URL|tcarts.in}}
}}

'''Thiagarajar College''' is an autonomous government-aided college located in [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India. It is affiliated with [[Madurai Kamaraj University]] and is ranked 15th among colleges in India by the [[National Institutional Ranking Framework]] (NIRF) in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 NIRF Ranking |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/nirfpdfcdn/2024/pdf/Report/IR2024_Report.pdf}}</ref>

==Location==
It is located on Kamarajar road, opposite of [[Mariamman|Mariamman Temple]] pond, [[Vandiyur]].

== History ==
The college was established in 1949 by Kalaithanthai [[Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar]], a 20th-century South Indian [[philanthropist]]. The college was formally declared open by the [[Krishna Kumarsinhji Bhavsinhji]], [[Bhavnagar State|Maharaja of Bhavnagar]], the then [[List of Governors of Tamil Nadu|Governor of Madras]], on 12 October 1949. Its mission is to provide quality higher education to the rural masses to realize the vision of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. The college was originally affiliated to the [[Madras University]], for undergraduate degrees in arts and science streams.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tcarts.in/history/history.php|title = Tcarts:History}}</ref>
{{Infobox India university ranking
|type=College
|NIRF_C_2023=18}}

== Academics ==
The college currently provides 9 Ph.D., 11 M.Phil., 15 post-graduates, 24 undergraduates, 11 diploma and 13 certificate, educational programmes affiliated with [[Madurai Kamaraj University]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mkuniversity.ac.in/new/acollege/autocol | title=Madurai Kamaraj University - Official Site }}</ref> The college is currently managed by the Kalaithanthai Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar Memorial Trust.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tcarts.in/academics_new/acad.php|title = Academics}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/b-com-honours-started-at-thiagarajar-college/article28419437.ece| title = B. Com (Honours) started at Thiagarajar College - The Hindu| website = [[The Hindu]]| date = 13 July 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.tcarts.in Official website]

{{Education in Tamil Nadu}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|9|54|46.57|N|78|8|51.13|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1949]]
[[Category:1949 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Colleges in Madurai]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to Madurai Kamaraj University]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Madurai]]
[[Category:Academic institutions formerly affiliated with the University of Madras]]

Aseem Ali Khan

2026-02-06T05:49:05Z

KarmaConyers: stub!

{{short description|Indian actor (born 1983)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|Biography|date=August 2022}}
{{BLP sources|date=August 2022}}
{{BLP primary sources|date=August 2022}}
}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Aseem Ali Khan
| image =
| alt = Aseem Ali Khan
| caption = India Pageant in 2005.<ref name="aseemforzaa.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aseemforzaa.com/ |title=Aseem Forzaa| Brand Endorsement Company |access-date=26 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913102908/http://www.aseemforzaa.com/ |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| birth_date = 18 August
| birth_place = [[Bhopal]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India
| occupation = [[Actor]], [[Model (person)|model]]
| years active = 2005–present
| parents = Rehmat Ali Khan (Father) Shameem Khan (Mother)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/music-fest-in-memory-of-rehmat-ali-khan/story-I1cDXFociYCVw9UJg5ZjFL.html|title = Music fest in memory of Rehmat Ali Khan|date = 23 March 2006}}</ref>
| relatives = Ustad [[Hafiz Ali Khan]] (grandfather), [[Amjad Ali Khan]] (uncle)
}}
'''Aseem Ali Khan''' (born; 18 August) is an Indian actor and model. He is majorly known for his role in the films ''[[Zindagi Tere Naam]]'', ''Kyun Hua Achanak'' and his recent thriller ''Page 16''. In 2005, he was voted India's most photogenic man at Mr. India Pageant.<ref name="aseemalikhan.in">{{Cite web |url=http://aseemalikhan.in/ |title=Aseem Ali Khan |access-date=3 September 2016 |archive-date=11 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911051051/http://aseemalikhan.in/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Early life==
He was born on 18 August in [[Bhopal]], India, to Shameem Khan, who was a radio presenter and [[sarod]] musician Rehmat Ali Khan. Aseem Ali khan is the grandson of Padma Bhushan late Ustad [[Hafiz Ali Khan]] and nephew of [[Sarod]] maestro Ustad [[Amjad Ali Khan]]. When Aseem was two years old, his family lived through the [[Bhopal disaster]].

==Career==
=== Modelling ===
Upon moving to Mumbai in 2005, Aseem Ali Khan started modelling and participated in several TV shows and music videos. In 2005, he was voted India's most photogenic male model in the Mr. India Pageant and in 2006 followed by Hunk of the Month by Cosmopolitan magazine. The awards gave him more recognition and this caught the attention of the Bollywood Industry. Since then, Aseem has modelled for several clothing companies such as Hugo Boss, John Player and Killer Jeans. He is also a brand ambassador for the Kaya Designer Lounge.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-aseem-ali-khan-bollywood-bound-1027506|title = Aseem Ali Khan, Bollywood bound|date = 3 May 2006}}</ref><ref name="aseemforzaa.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aseemforzaa.com/ |title=Aseem Forzaa| Brand Endorsement Company |access-date=26 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913102908/http://www.aseemforzaa.com/ |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="aseemalikhan.in" />

=== Acting ===
While he was working as a model, Aseem Ali Khan completed acting courses held by Sutindar Singh, Raj Jagdish and Kishor Namit Kapoor to improve his acting skills. He was also mentored by the theatre actor Rakesh Chaturvedi. Soon afterwards, in 2006, he had a small cameo in the blockbuster-hit film ''[[Dus]]'', directed by [[Anubhav Sinha]]. It was then that he faced the camera with some of the most prestigious Bollywood actors for the first time, including [[Sanjay Dutt]], [[Abhishek Bachchan]], [[Shilpa Shetty]], [[Zayed Khan]] and [[Diya Mirza]]. This was a turning point in Aseem Ali Khan's career as he immersed himself fully in acting. In 2012, he experienced his first main leading role in Ashu Trikha's ''[[Zindagi Tere Naam]]'', with [[Mithun Chakraborthy]], Ranjeeta, [[Dia Mirza]] and Priyanka Mehta. The film is based on the internationally acclaimed, [[Nicholas Sparks]] novel ''[[The Notebook (2004 film)]]'' and the 2004 movie of the same name. In 2013, Aseem appeared as the main lead in the romantic suspense thriller ''Kyun Hua Achanak'', directed by Rajendra Shiv. He played an extremely shrewd and clever Vaditya. The film focuses on how the lives of four opportunistic individuals, in today's current scenario, cross each other and take a different turn. Recently he has portrayed Ajay, a character troubled by his past, in the paranormal thriller ''Page 16'', written and directed by Shamshad Pathan, starring [[Bidita Bag]], [[Kiran Kumar]] and others. Ajay is a very devoted father and husband, trapped between his mistakes from the past and scary paranormal activity that is happening in his house. Page 16 was released in August 2018. In 2019 Aseem is doing a different type of thriller film. The film is called "Sridevi Bungalow" The film has [[Priya Prakash Varrier]], [[Priyanshu Chatterjee]] and [[Mukesh Rishi]] as the leading actors.

==Personal life and charity work==
He is currently working on a project in which he gives a platform to talented young artists. Aseem Ali Khan is the joint secretary at the Ustad [[Hafiz Ali Khan]] Sangeet Academy in [[Bhopal]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aseemalikhan.in/about.html|title=Aseem Ali Khan | About}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Director !! Genre !! Notes

|-
| 2019|| ''Sridevi Bungalow'' || [[Prasanth Mambully]] || Suspense, Thriller || Post Production
|-
| 2018|| ''Page 16'' || Shamshad Pathan || Horror, Thriller || Released
|-
| 2013 || ''Kyun Hua Achanak'' || Rajendra Shiv
|| Romance, Thriller, Suspense || Released
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Zindagi Tere Naam]]'' || Ashu Trikha || Romance || Released
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Dus|DUS]]'' || [[Anubhav Sinha]] || Action, Crime, Drama || Released
|-
|}
<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://aseemalikhan.in/filmography.html |title=Aseem Ali Khan | Filmography |access-date=3 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911052909/http://aseemalikhan.in/filmography.html |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media| url-status = live| archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211208/fXGRVeTNM-I| archive-date = 2021-12-08| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXGRVeTNM-I| title = Aseem Ali Khan " talking about the controversy 'sridevi Bungalow" | website=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/celebrity/Aseem%20Ali-Khan | title=Aseem Ali Khan Net Worth, Height, Age, Boyfriend, Husband, Children, Family, Biography and More }}</ref>

== References ==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|16422}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Aseem Ali}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:1983 births]]

Tilbhita railway station

2026-01-22T16:00:18Z

KarmaConyers: Refined content and updated sections

{{Short description|Railway station in Jharkhand, India}}
{{multiple issues|
{{notability|Geo|date=January 2019}}
{{one source|date=January 2019}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Tilbhita
| type = [[Indian Railways]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image = Tilbhita nameboard.jpg
| image_caption =
| hangul =
| hanja =
| rr =
| mr =
| address = [[Sagarmpur]], [[Jharkhand]]
| country = India<ref>[http://d.indiarailinfo.com/station/map/tilbhita-tbb/6400 Tilbhita railway station]</ref>
| coordinates =
| elevation = 34 m
| line = [[Rampurhat-Malda Town Section]]
| other =
| structure = Standard
| platform = 2
| depth =
| levels =
| tracks = 3
| parking =
| bicycle =
| opened =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified =
| accessible =
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = TBB
| zone = [[Eastern Railway zone|Eastern Railways]]
| division = Howrah
}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator =
| zone =
| former = [[East India Railway]]
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services =
| map_locator =
}}

'''Tilbhita railway station''' (code:TBB) is a small halt [[Sahibganj loop|on the]] [[Rampurhat-Malda Town Section|Rampurhat-Malda Town section]], that serves as a stone crushing unit, and a loading place. A few local trains have a stoppage here.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Sahibganj loop stations|Tilbhita|Kotalpokhar|Pakur|47|0|2}}

{{Railway stations in Jharkhand}}
{{Santhal Pargana Division topics}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Pakur district]]
[[Category:Howrah railway division]]

{{Jharkhand-railstation-stub}}

1998 North Indian Ocean cyclone season

2026-01-14T10:34:54Z

KarmaConyers: done!

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Good article}}
{{Infobox tropical cyclone season
| Basin = NIO
| Year = 1998
| Track = 1998 North Indian Ocean cyclone season summary.jpg
| First storm formed = May 17, 1998
| Last storm dissipated = December 17, 1998
| Strongest storm name = [[1998 Gujarat cyclone|ARB 02]]
| Strongest storm pressure = 958
| Strongest storm winds = 90
| Average wind speed = 3
| Total disturbances = 12
| Total depressions = 10
| Total storms = 6
| Total hurricanes = 5
| Total intense = 3
| Total extreme = 1
| Total super = 0
| Fatalities = ≥10,212 direct, 12 indirect, >4,353 missing
| Damagespre = At least
| Damages = 3000
| five seasons = [[1996 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|1996]], [[1997 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|1997]], '''1998''', [[1999 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|1999]], [[2000 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|2000]]
| Atlantic season = 1998 Atlantic hurricane season
| East Pacific season = 1998 Pacific hurricane season
| West Pacific season = 1998 Pacific typhoon season
}}
The '''1998 North Indian Ocean cyclone season''' was an active season in annual cycle of [[tropical cyclone]] formation. The season has no official bounds but cyclones tend to form between April and December. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northern [[Indian Ocean]]. There are two main seas in the North Indian Ocean—the [[Bay of Bengal]] to the east of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the [[Arabian Sea]] to the west of India. The official [[Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre]] in this basin is the [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD), while the [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] releases unofficial advisories. An average of four to six storms form in the North Indian Ocean every season with peaks in May and November.<ref name="IMD">{{cite web|author=Staff Writer |url=http://www.imd.ernet.in/services/cyclone/tropical-cyclone.htm |title=IMD Cyclone Warning Services: Tropical Cyclones |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |access-date=October 21, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081104064430/http://www.imd.ernet.in/services/cyclone/tropical-cyclone.htm |archive-date=4 November 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cyclones occurring between the meridians [[45th meridian east|45°E]] and [[100th meridian east|100°E]] are included in the season by the IMD.<ref>{{cite web|author=Staff Writer |publisher=India Meteorological Department |date=January 2009 |access-date=May 17, 2009 |title=Report on Cyclonic Disturbances Over the North Indian During 2008 |url=http://www.imd.ernet.in/section/nhac/dynamic/rsmc.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529004113/http://www.imd.ernet.in/services/cyclone/tropical-cyclone.htm |archive-date=May 29, 2009 }}</ref>

With eleven depressions and eight tropical cyclones, this was one of the most active seasons in the ocean along with [[1987 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|1987]], [[1996 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|1996]], and [[2005 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|2005]].<ref name="IBT">{{Cite FTP |author=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|url=ftp://eclipse.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/ibtracs/v01cor-r01/ibtracs_tape/NorthernHemisphere.ibtracs.v01cor-r01.tape|year=2009|access-date=February 9, 2009|server=World Meteorological Organization|url-status=dead|title=Tracks for All Northern Hemisphere Tropical Cyclones}}</ref> The season caused a large loss of life, most of which was from one storm. Over 10,000 people were killed in India when [[1998 Gujarat cyclone|Tropical Cyclone 03A]] brought a {{convert|4.9|m|ft|abbr=off|adj=on}} storm surge to the [[Kathiawar Peninsula]], inundating numerous salt mines. Total damages from the storm amounted to [[Indian rupee|Rs.]] 120 billion (US$3 billion). Tropical Cyclone 01B killed at least 26 people and left at least 4,000 fishermen missing in eastern Bangladesh on May 20. A short lived depression in mid-October killed 122 people after triggering severe flooding in Andhra Pradesh. In November, Tropical Cyclone 06B killed six people and caused property damage worth [[Bhutanese ngultrum|BTN]] 880 million (US$20.7 million) in eastern India. An additional 40 people were killed and 100 fishermen were listed as missing after Tropical Cyclone 07B affected Bangladesh.

__TOC__
{{Clear}}

== Season summary ==
<div style="text-align: center;">
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:800 height:200
PlotArea = top:10 bottom:80 right:20 left:20
Legend = columns:3 left:30 top:58 columnwidth:270
AlignBars = early
DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy
Period = from:01/05/1998 till:31/12/1998
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMinor = grid:black unit:month increment:1 start:01/05/1998

Colors =
id:canvas value:gray(0.88)
id:GP value:red
id:TD value:rgb(0,0.52,0.84) legend:Depression_(31–50_km/h)
id:DD value:rgb(0.43,0.76,0.92) legend:Deep_Depression_(51–62_km/h)
id:TS value:rgb(0.3,1,1) legend:Cyclonic_Storm_(63–88_km/h)
id:ST value:rgb(0.75,1,0.75) legend:Severe_Cyclonic_Storm_(89–117_km/h)
id:VS value:rgb(1,0.85,0.55) legend:Very_Severe_Cyclonic_Storm_(118–165_km/h)
id:ES value:rgb(1,0.45,0.54) legend:Extremely_Severe_Cyclonic_Storm_(166–220_km/h)
id:SU value:rgb(0.55,0.46,0.9) legend:Super_Cyclonic_Storm_(≥221_km/h)

Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas
BarData =
barset:Hurricane
bar:Month

PlotData=
barset:Hurricane width:10 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,-4) anchor:till
from:17/05/1998 till:20/05/1998 color:ST text:"BOB 01 (SCS)"
from:27/05/1998 till:28/05/1998 color:TD text:"ARB 01 (D)"
from:04/06/1998 till:09/06/1998 color:ES text:"[[1998 Gujarat cyclone|ARB 02 (ES)]]"
from:13/06/1998 till:15/06/1998 color:DD text:"BOB 02 (DD)"
from:30/09/1998 till:01/10/1998 color:TD text:"ARB 03 (D)"
from:06/10/1998 till:09/10/1998 color:DD text:"ARB 04 (DD)"
from:11/10/1998 till:17/10/1998 color:TS text:"ARB 05 (CS)"
barset:break
from:13/10/1998 till:15/10/1998 color:DD text:"[[1998 Andhra Pradesh cyclone|BOB 03 (DD)]]"
from:28/10/1998 till:29/10/1998 color:DD text:"BOB 04 (DD)"
from:13/11/1998 till:16/11/1998 color:VS text:"BOB 05 (VS)"
from:17/11/1998 till:23/11/1998 color:VS text:"BOB 06 (VS)"
from:13/12/1998 till:17/12/1998 color:ST text:"ARB 06 (SCS)"

bar:Month width:5 align:center fontsize:S shift:(0,-20) anchor:middle color:canvas
from:01/05/1998 till:01/06/1998 text:May
from:01/06/1998 till:01/07/1998 text:June
from:01/07/1998 till:01/08/1998 text:July
from:01/08/1998 till:01/09/1998 text:August
from:01/09/1998 till:01/10/1998 text:September
from:01/10/1998 till:01/11/1998 text:October
from:01/11/1998 till:01/12/1998 text:November
from:01/12/1998 till:31/12/1998 text:December

</timeline>
</div>

The first storm of the season developed on May 18 out of an area of low pressure over the Bay of Bengal. It reached its peak intensity with winds of {{convert|130|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} before making landfall near [[Chittagong]], [[Bangladesh]]. The storm dissipated shortly after.<ref name="01B ATCR"/> Later that month, a short-lived storm developed over the Arabian Sea and dissipated the next day without impacting land.<ref name="02A ATCR"/> The most intense storm of the season formed in early June off the southwestern coast of India. It slowly traveled towards the west, remaining relatively weak before turning towards the north and intensifying. The storm reached its peak intensity with winds of {{convert|195|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} shortly before making landfall near [[Porbandar]] in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. The cyclone rapidly dissipated on the same day.<ref name="03A ATCR"/>

After three months of inactivity, five storms developed in late September and October.<ref name="GPOctober Summary"/> Two of them strengthened into tropical storms, neither of which impacted land.<ref name="04A ATCR"/><ref name="05A ATCR"/> In early November, the sixth tropical cyclone of the season developed in the Bay of Bengal. The storm quickly developed and reached its peak intensity upon landfall with winds of {{convert|155|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. The storm rapidly dissipated the same day it made landfall.<ref name="06B ATCR"/> Shortly after 06B dissipated, the remnants of [[Tropical Storm Chip (1998)|Tropical Storm Chip]]<ref name="Chip ATCR"/> triggered the development of a new cyclone over the Bay of Bengal. The storm tracked along the edge of a subtropical ridge, reaching its peak intensity over open waters with winds of {{convert|140|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. The cyclone entered an area of higher wind shear shortly after and rapidly weakened before making landfall. Then it dissipated in Bangladesh.<ref name="07B ATCR"/> The final cyclone of the season developed in the Arabian Sea during mid-December. It reached its peak intensity with winds of {{convert|120|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} before weakening due to strong wind shear. It made landfall in Oman on December 17 as a minimal tropical storm shortly before dissipating.<ref name="08A ATCR"/>

== Systems ==

=== Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 01 (01B) ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = Tropical Cyclone 01B 1998.jpg
| Track = Cyclone 01B 1998 track.png
| Formed = May 17
| Dissipated = May 20
| 1-min winds = 70
| 3-min winds = 60
| Pressure = 972
}}
The first cyclone in the region developed as a tropical disturbance on May 13 over the southern [[Bay of Bengal]] to the southeast of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name="01B ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 8, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 01B Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/01b.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607044840/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/01b.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> At 0700 UTC on May 17, the [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] (JTWC) issued a [[Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert]] (TCFA).<ref name="GPMay Summary">{{cite web |author=Gary Padgett |date=June 6, 1998 |title=Monthly Tropical Cyclone Summary for May 1998 |url=http://www.typhoon2000.ph/may98.txt |access-date=February 8, 2009 |publisher=Typhoon 2000}}</ref> Shortly after, the [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD) declared that the disturbance developed into Depression BOB 01.<ref name="IMDBT" /> At 0600 UTC on May 18, the first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 01B was issued by the JTWC,<ref name="01B ATCR" /> while the IMD upgraded BOB 01 to a deep depression.<ref name="IMDBT"/>

Continuing on a northeasterly track, BOB 01 gradually intensified as it neared [[Bangladesh]], strengthened into a cyclonic storm twelve hours later.<ref name="GPMay Summary"/> Early on May 20, BOB 01 reached its peak intensity as a severe cyclonic storm with winds of {{convert|110|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and a [[barometric pressure]] of 972 mbar (hPa).<ref name="IMDBT"/> The JTWC assessed the storm to have peaked with winds of {{convert|130|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}, equivalent to a [[Category 1 hurricane]] on the [[Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale]].<ref name="01B ATCR"/> An [[Eye (cyclone)|eye]] developed and the system made landfall several hours later near Chittagong.<ref name="GPMay Summary"/> After making landfall, the storm quickly weakened,<ref name="GPMay Summary"/> dissipating later that day.<ref name="01B ATCR"/>

Ahead of the storm, officials in Bangladesh relocated an estimated 650,000 people, resulting in a lower loss of life.<ref name="IRFC01B">{{cite web |author=Peter Rees-Gildea |date=May 25, 1998 |title=Bangladesh: Cyclone Information Bulletin No. 3 |url=http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/rpts98/bd004.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214083528/http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/rpts98/bd004.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2009 |access-date=February 9, 2009 |publisher=Operations Fundraising and Reporting Department}}</ref> But BOB 01 adversely affected low-lying areas,<ref name="01B ATCR"/> destroying 6,000 homes and damaging another 9,945.<ref name="IRFC01B"/><ref name="OCHA01B two">{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=United Nations|date=May 25, 1998|access-date=February 8, 2009|title=Bangladesh: Cyclone Situation Report No. 2|url=http://cidi.org/disaster/98a/0082.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050316221117/http://www.cidi.org/disaster/98a/0082.html |archive-date = March 16, 2005}}</ref> It produced a [[storm surge]] of {{convert|1.8|to|3|m|ft|abbr=on}}, inundating coastal towns.<ref name="OCHA01B one">{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=United Nations|date=May 19, 1998|access-date=February 8, 2009|title=Bangladesh: Cyclone Situation Report No. 1|url=http://cidi.org/disaster/98a/0076.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050316213634/http://www.cidi.org/disaster/98a/0076.html |archive-date = March 16, 2005}}</ref> At least 35 people were killed by the storm and 504 others were injured.<ref name="IRFC01B"/><ref>Staff Writer (May 21, 1998). Thousands return home in wake of killer cyclone in Bangladesh ''Deutsche Presse-Agentur''</ref><ref name="R01B1">{{cite news|author=Nizam Ahmed|agency=Reuters|date=May 20, 1998|access-date=May 9, 2009|title=Chittagong — Bangladesh storm kills 26, injures more than 100|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/ACOS-64C2VE?OpenDocument&rc=3&emid=ST-1998-0164-BGD}}</ref> Additionally, an estimated 4,000 fishermen were listed as missing at sea.<ref>{{cite web|author=International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|publisher=United Nations|date=May 20, 1998|access-date=May 9, 2009|title=Bangladesh: Cyclone Information Bulletin Number 2|url=http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/rpts98/bd003.pdf| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090515222039/http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/rpts98/bd003.pdf| archive-date= 15 May 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> Two ships owned by the Bangladesh Shipping Corporation sustained significant damage.<ref name="R01B1"/>
{{Clear}}

=== Depression ARB 01 (02A) ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = 02A 1998-05-28 0000Z.png
| Track = Cyclone 02A 1998 track.png
| Formed = May 28
| Dissipated = May 29
| 1-min winds = 35
| 3-min winds = 25
| Pressure = 997
}}
On May 27, an area of low pressure developed over the central [[Arabian Sea]].<ref name="02A ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 02A Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/02a.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607044846/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/02a.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> Early the next day, the JTWC issued their first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 02A while the system was located about {{convert|740|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of [[Masirah Island]].<ref name="GPMay Summary"/> The IMD only briefly monitored the system as a weak depression, designating it as ARB 01.<ref name="IMDTrack">{{cite web|publisher=India Meteorological Department|date=July 14, 2009|access-date=July 16, 2009|title=1998 Best Track from the IMD|url=http://www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/dynamic/1998.jpeg|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205061743/http://imd.gov.in/section/nhac/dynamic/1998.jpeg|archive-date=December 5, 2010}}</ref> Upon being classified a tropical cyclone, 02A reached its peak intensity. The speed of its winds was {{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="02A ATCR"/> Soon, it began to dissipate due to increasing vertical [[wind shear]]. The [[Eye (cyclone)|center of circulation]] quickly became devoid of [[Atmospheric convection|convection]]. The storm weakened below tropical storm intensity later that day before dissipating on May 29 over open waters.<ref name="02A ATCR"/><ref name="GPMay Summary"/>
{{Clear}}

=== Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm ARB 02 (03A) ===
{{main|1998 Gujarat cyclone}}
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = 03A 1998-06-08 1330Z.png
| Track = Cyclone 03A 1998 track.png
| Formed = June 4
| Dissipated = June 10
| 1-min winds = 105
| 3-min winds = 90
| Pressure = 958
}}
On June 1, an area of low pressure developed over the [[Lakshadweep|Laccadive Islands]]. Two days later, the JTWC issued a TCFA for the system as it became better organized. Early on June 4, the JTWC issued its first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 03A.<ref name="03A ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 03A Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/03a.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607044854/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/03a.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> Around the same time, the IMD began monitoring the system as Depression ARB 02. Shortly after, the depression was upgraded to a deep depression and further strengthened into a cyclonic storm the following day.<ref name="IMDBT"/> The small storm moved slowly towards the west and weakened as wind shear began to increase. The storm weakened below tropical storm intensity later that day and the initial final advisory was issued. However, the system redeveloped and advisories resumed the next day. The storm gradually intensified as it moved towards the northwest. [[Dvorak technique|Dvorak satellite intensity estimates]] on June 6 reached T4.0, corresponding to an intensity of {{convert|120|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="GPJune Summary">{{cite web|author=Gary Padgett|publisher=Typhoon 2000|date=July 14, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Monthly Tropical Cyclone Summary for June 1998|url=http://www.typhoon2000.ph/jun98.txt}}</ref> The IMD also marked the increase in intensity, upgrading ARB 02 to a severe cyclonic storm.<ref name="IMDBT"/> Around this time, the storm began to turn towards the north and accelerate due to an approaching mid-level [[Trough (meteorology)|trough]]. As the storm neared the Indian coastline, an eye developed and the storm strengthened into the equivalent of a [[Category 3 hurricane|major hurricane]] with winds reaching {{convert|185|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="03A ATCR"/> The IMD assessed the storm to be a very severe cyclonic storm at this time, with winds up to {{convert|165|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar (hPa).<ref name="IMDBT"/> After slightly weakening early on June 9,<ref name="GPJune Summary"/> 03A re-strengthened, attaining its peak intensity with winds of {{convert|195|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="03A ATCR"/> Then it made landfall near [[Porbandar]] in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]<ref name="GPJune Summary"/> between 0100 and 0200 UTC.<ref name="IMDBT"/> The storm weakened following landfall and the JTWC issued their final advisory later that day.<ref name="03A ATCR"/> The IMD continued to monitor ARB 02 until June 10, by which time it had weakened to a depression before dissipating.<ref name="IMDBT"/>

Tropical Cyclone 03A brought a large storm surge of {{convert|4.9|m|ft|abbr=on}} which devastated coastal communities and salt mines.<ref name="GPJune Summary"/> An estimated 4,000 to 10,000 people were killed by the storm,<ref name="Munich Re Group2">{{cite web|url=http://www.munichre.com/en/press/press_releases/1998/1998_12_29_press_release.aspx|title=1998 Natural Catastrophes: Top 10|author=Staff Writer|date=December 29, 1998|publisher=Munich Re|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080210160122/http://www.munichre.com/en/press/press_releases/1998/1998_12_29_press_release.aspx|archive-date=February 10, 2008|url-status=dead|access-date=December 8, 2015}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/cyclone-vayu-gujarat-landfall-1998-kandla-destruction-1548051-2019-06-13|title=Cyclone Vayu spares Gujarat: 21 yrs ago, a cyclone rained death, killed thousands in state|last=Rawat|first=Mukesh|date=2019-06-13|website=India Today|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> many of whom were salt mine workers who did not own a radio and received little or no warning of the cyclone. The large loss of life was partially attributed to contractors who wanted to continue making profits and did not inform their workers of the approaching storm.<ref name="GPJune Summary"/> According to the official figures, 1173 people died and 1774 people went missing.<ref name=":02"/> Also, the region had witnessed only 17 cyclones since 1890, all of which were weaker than 03A. As a result, its vulnerability was miscalculated by the local population and the disaster management administration.<ref>{{cite book |title=Early warning systems for natural disaster reduction |last=Zschau|first=Jochen |author2=Andreas N. Küppers |year=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=3-540-67962-6|page=200}}</ref> Power supply to numerous residences was lost due to the storms high winds.<ref name="OCHA03A one">{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=United Nations|date=June 10, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|url=http://cidi.org/disaster/98a/0107.html|title=India: Cyclone Situation Report No. 1 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050316221915/http://www.cidi.org/disaster/98a/0107.html |archive-date = March 16, 2005}}</ref> A microwave tower in Porbandar collapsed, causing widespread disruption in telecommunication.<ref name="OCHA03A two">{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=United Nations|date=June 11, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|url=http://cidi.org/disaster/98a/0110.html|title=India: Cyclone Situation Report No. 2 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050316215654/http://www.cidi.org/disaster/98a/0110.html |archive-date = March 16, 2005}}</ref> Hundreds of other power transmission towers also fell, causing an estimated loss of Rs 10 billion for the Gujarat Electricity Board.<ref name="Insurance">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980704/18550084.html |title=Insurance companies lose Rs 1,300 crore in Gujarat cyclone |work=Indian Express |date=July 3, 1998 |access-date=May 22, 2009 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20090528135236/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980704/18550084.html |archive-date=May 28, 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> At least 893 people were injured by the storm and over 11,000 animals were killed. Over 162,000 structures were damaged or destroyed throughout the affected area and damages amounted to [[Indian rupee|Rs.]] 120 billion (US$3 billion).<ref name="OCHA03A four">{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=United Nations|date=June 19, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|url=http://cidi.org/disaster/98a/0119.html|title=India: Cyclone Situation Report No. 4 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050316214257/http://www.cidi.org/disaster/98a/0119.html |archive-date = March 16, 2005}}</ref> In [[Kandla]], the damages were estimated around {{INRConvert|1855.33|c|year=1998}}.<ref name=":02"/> Over the next one month, insurance companies had lost approximately Rs. 13 billion (US$266.5 million).<ref name="Insurance"/> The remnants of the storm produced heavy rains over Pakistan which electrocuted 12 people.<ref name="GPJune Summary"/> In the wake of the storm, the [[United States Government]] provided US$25,000 for rehabilitation of the affected population.<ref name="OCHA03A four"/> The [[Government of Denmark]] also contributed $72,992 in funds for relief efforts.<ref>{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=ReliefWeb|date=March 3, 1999|access-date=May 8, 2009|title=India — Cyclone — June 1998 Contributions Report|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/arfts/nd1998/ind981.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019222613/http://www.reliefweb.int/arfts/nd1998/ind981.htm|archive-date=October 19, 2007}}</ref> The Gujarat government deployed approximately 330 medical teams to the affected areas. Local aid, amounting to {{nowrap|Rs 1 billion}} (US$20.5 million) was provided to assist victims.<ref name="OCHA03A four"/>
{{Clear}}

=== Deep Depression BOB 02 ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = BOB 02 1998-06-14 1336Z.png
| Track = BOB-02 1998 track.png
| Formed = June 13
| Dissipated = June 15
| 3-min winds = 30
| Pressure = 992
}}
On June 13, the IMD began monitoring a depression over the central Bay of Bengal. Tracking towards the west, the depression intensified into a deep depression, peaking with winds of {{convert|55|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and a minimum pressure of 992 mbar (hPa). Around 15:00 UTC on June 14, the deep depression made landfall near Visakhapatnam. Shortly thereafter, it weakened to a depression and dissipated early the following day.<ref name="IMDBT">{{cite web|publisher=India Meteorological Department |year=2009 |access-date=July 16, 2009 |title=IMD Best Tracks Data ( 1990 - 2008 ) |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/dynamic/bestpara.xls |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091116093857/http://www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/dynamic/bestpara.xls |archive-date=November 16, 2009 }}</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Depression ARB 03 (04A) ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = 04A 1998-09-30 0209Z.png
| Track = Cyclone 04A 1998 track.png
| Formed = September 30
| Dissipated = October 1
| 3-min winds = 25
| 1-min winds = 35
| Pressure = 997
}}
In late September, an area of low pressure developed over the Arabian Sea within an east–west oriented surface [[Trough (meteorology)|trough]] while located about {{convert|740|km|mi|abbr=on}} west of Mumbai, India. The system gradually intensified as it moved slowly towards the west.<ref name="04A ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 04A Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/04a.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607044905/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/04a.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> Early on September 30, the JTWC issued its first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 04A. Its winds peaked at {{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. Located within an area of moderate wind shear, the storm quickly weakened<ref name="GPSeptember Summary">{{cite web|author=Gary Padgett|publisher=Typhoon 2000|date=October 26, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Monthly Tropical Cyclone Summary for September 1998|url=http://www.typhoon2000.ph/sep98.txt}}</ref> and dissipated early on October 1.<ref name="04A ATCR"/>
{{Clear}}

=== Deep Depression ARB 04 ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = ARB 04 1998-10-08 1019Z.png
| Track = ARB-04 1998 track.png
| Formed = October 6
| Dissipated = October 9
| 3-min winds = 30
| Pressure = 998
}}
On October 8, the IMD began monitoring a tropical depression located about {{convert|835|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of [[Mumbai]]. The depression was briefly classified as a deep depression with winds of {{convert|55|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and a minimum pressure of 998 mbar (hPa) as it moved towards the west-northwest. Shortly after reaching its peak intensity, the depression weakened. The last advisory was issued the next day while the storm was over open waters.<ref name="GPOctober Summary">{{cite web|author=Gary Padgett|publisher=Typhoon 2000|date=November 29, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Monthly Tropical Cyclone Summary for October 1998|url=http://www.typhoon2000.ph/oct98.txt}}</ref><ref name="IMDBT"/>
{{Clear}}

=== Cyclonic Storm ARB 05 (05A) ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = 05A 1998-10-16 1452Z.png
| Track = Cyclone 05A 1998 track.png
| Formed = October 11
| Dissipated = October 18
| 1-min winds = 35
| 3-min winds = 35
| Pressure = 996
}}
The IMD began monitoring an area of low pressure over the Laccadive Islands on October 10. The low traveled towards the northwest with little development.<ref name="GPOctober Summary"/> On October 15, the JTWC issued a TCFA as the system became better organized. Although wind shear increased, the first advisory was issued the next day. With minimal convection, the storm never intensified past {{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="05A ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 05A Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/05a.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607044925/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/05a.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> The system traveled towards the northeast and weakened due to strong wind shear. On October 17, the storm fell below tropical storm status and made landfall on the [[Kathiawar Peninsula]], near the same area where 03A made landfall in early June.<ref name="GPOctober Summary"/> The storm dissipated shortly after landfall.<ref name="GPOctober Summary"/><ref name="05A ATCR"/>

As the storm neared land, officials in [[Gujarat]] evacuated hundreds of residents from coastal areas. Due to the low-intensity of the storm, no damage was reported on land and only light rain fell. However, offshore, more than 250 people were reported as missing when contact was lost with numerous fishing vessels. One-hundred-twenty people on twelve ships from [[Satpathy village]] were among the missing. One of the ships capsized; however, the crew of 12 swam to shore. One boat from [[Vasai]] carrying 20 people was also missing. Ten fishermen from [[Colaba]] were reported as missing, three of which later swam to shore. The [[Indian Coast Guard]] immediately dispatched search and rescue ships and naval helicopters to find the missing people.<ref>Staff Writer (October 17, 1998). 250 Missing ''Hindustan Times''.</ref><ref>Staff Writer (October 17, 1998). 250 fishermen missing in Indian storm: report ''Agence France-Presse''.</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Deep Depression BOB 03 ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = BOB 03 1998-10-14 0911Z.png
| Track = BOB-03 1998 track.png
| Formed = October 13
| Dissipated = October 15
| 3-min winds = 30
| Pressure = 998
}}{{Main|1998 Andhra Pradesh cyclone}}
On October 13, the IMD began monitoring a tropical depression off the eastern coast of India.<ref name="GPOctober Summary"/> The depression remained relatively weak, with winds peaking at {{convert|45|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} before the storm made landfall near [[Narsapur, Medak district|Narsapur]] in the [[Andhra Pradesh]] early on October 14.<ref name="GPOctober Tracks">{{cite web|author=Gary Padgett|publisher=Typhoon 2000|date=November 29, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Monthly Tropical Cyclone Tracks for October 1998|url=http://www.typhoon2000.ph/oct98tks.txt}}</ref> The depression dissipated shortly after landfall.<ref name="GPOctober Summary"/> Heavy rains produced by the depression damaged croplands and property.<ref name="FE1">Ashok B. Sharma (October 19, 1998). Southern States Still Under Monsoon Spell. ''Financial Express''.</ref> Twenty-four-hour rainfall totals reached {{convert|110|mm|in|abbr=on}} in localized areas, triggering flash floods in areas severely impacted by another system a week earlier. In [[Hyderabad]], schools and government offices were closed.<ref>Staff Writer (October 14, 1998). Heavy rain to continue due to depression. ''The Hindu''.</ref> During the morning of October 14, overflow from a dam inundated the Srisailam powerhouse, forcing officials to shut down the plant. Numerous highways were also closed due to flowing water.<ref name="Oct16TH2">Staff Writer (October 16, 1998). Srisailam power plant under water, shut down. ''The Hindu''.</ref> The following day, the water level of the dam continued to rise, leading to the evacuation of nearly 53,000 residents in the area.<ref>Staff Writer (October 17, 1998). Krishna rising, thousands evacuated. ''The Hindu''.</ref> Throughout Andhra Pradesh, flooding from the depression resulted in 101 fatalities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=February 1999 |title=IMD TCR 1998 |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/report/27/27_01a386_35_872370_1998.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127130551/https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/report/27/27_01a386_35_872370_1998.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2022-11-27 |journal=[[India Meteorological Department]] |pages=40–44}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Deep Depression BOB 04 ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = BOB 04 1998-10-28 0011Z.png
| Track = BOB-04 1998 track.png
| Formed = October 26
| Dissipated = October 29
| 3-min winds = 30
| Pressure = 1002
}}
Early on October 28, the IMD began monitoring a tropical depression located about {{convert|555|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southeast of [[Visakhapatnam]] in the Andhra Pradesh. The depression strengthened to a deep depression later that day with winds peaking at {{convert|55|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} before undergoing a weakening trend. The depression dissipated the next day near the Andhra Pradesh coastline.<ref name="GPOctober Summary"/> The [[rainband|outer bands]] of the depression produced light rainfall over the coast of Andhra Pradesh.<ref>Staff Writer (October 30, 1998). Depression may bring rain; storm unlikely ''The Independent''.</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 05 (06B) ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = 06B 1998-11-15 0632Z.png
| Track = Cyclone 06B 1998 track.png
| Formed = November 13
| Dissipated = November 16
| 3-min winds = 77
| 1-min winds = 85
| Pressure = 982
}}
On November 10, an area of low pressure developed over the Bay of Bengal within a [[monsoon]]al trough. Moving towards the northwest,<ref name="GPNovember Summary">{{cite web|author=Gary Padgett|publisher=Typhoon 2000|year=1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Monthly Tropical Cyclone Summary for November 1998|url=http://www.typhoon2000.ph/nov98.txt}}</ref> the low gradually developed and the JTWC issued a TCFA early on November 13. The next day, the first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 06B was issued.<ref name="06B ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 06B Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/06b.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607044934/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/06b.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> A brief period of [[rapid deepening|rapid development]] took place as the storm strengthened just below Category 1 status. Shortly before making landfall near Visakhapatnam,<ref name="GPNovember Summary"/> 06B reached its peak intensity with winds of {{convert|155|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="06B ATCR"/> At this time, the IMD classified the cyclone as a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm and reported that it had a {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide [[eye (cyclone)|eye]].<ref name="06Brainfall"/> Rapid weakening followed shortly after landfall and the storm dissipated early on November 16.<ref name="06B ATCR"/><ref name="GPNovember Summary"/>

Major crop losses, property damage, and six fatalities were reported from the affected areas.<ref name="06B ATCR"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Staff Writer|publisher=PTI news agency|date=November 16, 1998|access-date=May 8, 2009|title=India: Six die as cyclone batters north coastal Andhra|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F98E723C98615A7&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM}}</ref> Four of the fatalities were in Visakhapatnam and the other two were in east Godavari.<ref name="06BAP1"/> Hundreds of trees and power lines had fallen.<ref name="LAT06B">{{cite news|author=Staff Writer|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=November 26, 1998|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Earthwatch: A Diary of the Planet|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-nov-26-me-47942-story.html}}</ref> At least {{convert|116000|acre|km2}} of cropland and more than 2,000 homes were damaged.<ref name="06BAP1">{{cite web|author=Staff Writer|publisher=Indian Express Newspapers|date=November 16, 1998|access-date=May 8, 2009|title=AP cyclone kills 6|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19981117/32150164.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=UNI|publisher=Rediff|date=November 16, 1998|access-date=May 8, 2009|title=Cyclonic storm crosses Andhra coast, claims two lives|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/nov/16ap1.htm}}</ref> Waves produced by the storm at Visakhapatnam were recorded up to {{convert|5.74|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|author=V. Sanil Kumar, K. Ashok Kumar and N. S. N. Raju|publisher=Ocean Engineering Division, National Institute of Oceanography|date=January 31, 2004|access-date=May 8, 2009|title=Wave characteristics off Visakhapatnam coast during a cyclone|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun102004/1524.pdf}}</ref> The storm dropped rainfall in excess of {{convert|100|mm|in|abbr=on}} throughout the region.<ref name="06Brainfall">Staff Writer (November 16, 1998). Storm crosses coast near Vizag, relief teams rushed ''The Hindu''</ref> Damages from the storm were estimated at [[Bhutanese ngultrum|BTN]] 880 million (US$20.7 million).<ref>Staff Writer (November 17, 1998). Officials warn typhoon building in the South ''Emerging Markets Datafile''.</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 06 (07B) ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = 07B 1998-11-25 1332Z.png
| Track = Cyclone 07B 1998 track.png
| Formed = November 17
| Dissipated = November 23
| 1-min winds = 75
| 3-min winds = 65
| Pressure = 984
}}
[[Tropical Storm Chip (1998)|Tropical Storm Chip]] dissipated over [[Vietnam]] on November 15, 1998.<ref name="Chip ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Storm Chip Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/21w.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607044946/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/21w.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> The remnants of Chip crossed the [[Malay Peninsula]] on November 17 and entered the Bay of Bengal.<ref name="07B ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 07B Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/07b.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607045052/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/07b.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> The system moved along the edge of a [[Subtropical cyclone|subtropical]] [[High-pressure area|ridge]] within an area of strong wind shear. After turning towards the northwest, the low entered an area of lower wind shear and began to become better organized.<ref name="GPNovember Summary"/> Between November 18 and 20, the JTWC issued three TCFAs before issuing first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 07B early on November 20.<ref name="07B ATCR"/> While recurving towards the northeast,<ref name="GPNovember Summary"/> 07B reached its peak intensity on November 22 with winds of {{convert|140|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="07B ATCR"/> Shortly after reaching peak intensity, the cyclone entered an area of strong wind shear which caused convection associated with the storm to become dislocated from the center.<ref name="GPNovember Summary"/> This caused 07B to rapidly weaken before making landfall to the west of Chittagong, Bangladesh.<ref name="07B ATCR"/><ref name="GPNovember Summary"/> It dissipated on November 23.<ref name="07B ATCR"/>

Tropical Cyclone 07B produced a storm surge of {{convert|1.2|to|2.4|m|ft|abbr=on}} which inundated coastal areas of Bangladesh,<ref name="Sidr report">{{cite web|author=Staff Writer|publisher=Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology|date=January 2008|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Field Investigation on the Impact of Cyclone Sidr in the Coastal Region of Bangladesh|url=http://teacher.buet.ac.bd/akmsaifulislam/research/report_SIDR.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319182649/http://teacher.buet.ac.bd/akmsaifulislam/research/report_SIDR.pdf|archive-date=2009-03-19|url-status=dead}}</ref> killing 40 people and leaving at least 103 others missing.<ref name="07B ATCR"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=Asian Disaster Reduction Center|date=December 18, 1998|access-date=May 9, 2009|title=Bangladesh : Cyclone : 1998/11|url=http://web.adrc.or.jp/nationframe.php?URL=./view_disaster_en.php&lang=en&KEY=26&NationCode=50&Frame=yes|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722120453/http://web.adrc.or.jp/nationframe.php?URL=.%2Fview_disaster_en.php&lang=en&KEY=26&NationCode=50&Frame=yes|archive-date=July 22, 2011}}</ref> Winds gusting up to {{convert|80|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and heavy rains impacted a large area of the country. A large area of rice paddies was lost due to flooding and numerous homes were buried in mud.<ref name="OCHA07B one">{{cite web|author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|publisher=United Nations|date=November 24, 1998|access-date=February 8, 2009|title=Bangladesh: Cyclone Situation Report No. 1|url=http://cidi.org/disaster/98b/0121.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050317010819/http://www.cidi.org/disaster/98b/0121.html |archive-date = March 17, 2005}}</ref> A total of 5,780 families were left homeless. About 8,755 homes sustained severe damage and an estimated 300,000 people were affected by 07B.<ref name="07BRW">{{cite web|author=Oxfam|publisher=ReliefWeb|date=February 5, 1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Emergency Bulletin: India|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/ACOS-64DEKG?OpenDocument}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Severe Cyclonic Storm ARB 06 (08A) ===
{{Infobox tropical cyclone small
| Basin = NIO
| Image = 08A 1998-12-15 1108Z.png
| Track = Cyclone 08A 1998 track.png
| Formed = December 11
| Dissipated = December 17
| 3-min winds = 55
| 1-min winds = 65
| Pressure = 993
}}
On December 7, a broad area of low pressure developed near southern India within an area of moderate wind shear.<ref name="GPDecember Summary">{{cite web|author=Gary Padgett|publisher=Typhoon 2000|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Monthly Tropical Cyclone Summary for December 1998|url=http://www.typhoon2000.ph/dec98.txt}}</ref> On December 11, the JTWC issued a TCFA for the system as it drifted towards the northwest over the Arabian Sea. Two days later, the first advisory on Tropical Cyclone 08A was issued.<ref name="08A ATCR">{{cite web|author=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|year=1999|access-date=February 9, 2009|title=Tropical Cyclone 08A Preliminary Report|url=http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/08a.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607045107/http://www.usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/atcr/1998atcr/pdf/08a.pdf|archive-date=June 7, 2011}}</ref> The large cyclone slowly organized and intensified as it turned towards the north.<ref name="GPDecember Summary"/> By December 15, the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of {{convert|120|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="08A ATCR"/> Then, it turned towards the west into an area of higher wind shear.<ref name="GPDecember Summary"/> The cyclone gradually weakened as it traveled towards [[Oman]]. It made landfall in the country on December 17 with winds of {{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} and dissipated later that day.<ref name="08A ATCR"/> Although it made landfall as a tropical storm, no known damage was reported.<ref name="GPDecember Summary"/> The remnants of the storm sank a ship, killing 18 fishermen.<ref>{{cite web|author=Staff Writer|publisher=Indian Express Newspapers|date=December 26, 1998|access-date=April 15, 2009|title=Minister sends experts to check Wanakbori weir|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19981226/36050124.html}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Season effects ==
This is a table of the storms in 1998 and their landfall(s), if any. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but are still storm-related.

{{North Indian Ocean areas affected (Top)}}
|-
| '''BOB 01''' || {{sort|0517|May 17– 20}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A2}}|{{Sort|4|Severe cyclonic storm}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A2}}|{{sort|110|{{convert|110|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A2}}|{{Sort|972|{{convert|972|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || West Bengal, Bangladesh || None || 35 ||
|-
| '''ARB 01''' || {{Sort|0528|May 28–29}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|DI}}|{{Sort|1|Depression}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|DI}}|{{Sort|045|{{convert|45|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|DI}}| {{sort|997|{{convert|997|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || None || None || None ||
|-
| '''[[1998 Gujarat cyclone|ARB 02]]''' || {{Sort|0613|June 13–15}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A4}}|{{Sort|6|Extremely severe cyclonic storm}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A4}}|{{Sort|165|{{convert|165|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A4}}|{{sort|958|{{convert|958|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || India || {{ntsp|3000000000}} || {{nts|4000}}–{{nts|10000}} ||
|-
| '''BOB 02''' || {{sort|1204|June 13–15}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|2|Deep Depression}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{sort|055|{{convert|55|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|992|{{convert|992|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || None || None || None ||
|-
| '''ARB 03''' || {{sort|0930|September 30 – October 1}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|DI}}|{{Sort|1|Depression}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|DI}}|{{Sort|045|{{convert|45|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|DI}}|{{sort|997|{{convert|997|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || None || None || None ||
|-
| '''ARB 04''' || {{Sort|1006|October 6–9}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|2|Deep Depression}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{sort|055|{{convert|55|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|998|{{convert|998|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || None || None || None ||
|-
| '''ARB 05''' || {{Sort|1011|October 11–18}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A1}}|{{Sort|3|Cyclonic storm}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A1}}|{{Sort|065|{{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A1}}| {{sort|996|{{convert|996|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || India || None || None ||
|-
| '''[[1998 Andhra Pradesh cyclone|BOB 03]]''' || {{Sort|1013|October 13–15}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|2|Deep Depression}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{sort|055|{{convert|55|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|998|{{convert|998|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || India || || {{nts|101}} ||
|-
| '''BOB 04''' || {{sort|1204|October 26–29}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|2|Deep depression}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{sort|055|{{convert|55|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|TD}}|{{Sort|1002|{{convert|1002|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || Andrah Pradesh || || ||
|-
| '''BOB 05''' || {{Sort|1113|November 13–16}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A3}}|{{Sort|5|Very severe cyclonic storm}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A3}}|{{Sort|145|{{convert|145|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A3}}|{{Sort|982|{{convert|982|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || India || {{ntsp|20700000}} || {{nts|6}}
|-
| '''BOB 06''' || {{Sort|1116|November 16–23}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A3}}|{{Sort|5|Very severe cyclonic storm}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A3}}|{{Sort|120|{{convert|120|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A3}}|{{Sort|984|{{convert|984|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || Bangladesh || || 40 ||
|-
| '''ARB 06''' || {{Sort|1211|December 11–17}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A2}}|{{sort|4|Severe cyclonic storm}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A2}}|{{Sort|100|{{convert|100|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}}} || bgcolor=#{{storm colour|A2}}|{{Sort|993|{{convert|993|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}}}} || Oman || || 18
|-
{{TC Areas affected (Bottom)|TC's=12 Systems|dates=May 17 –December 17|winds={{convert|165|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}|pres={{convert|958|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}} || damage=>{{ntsp|3020700000||$}}|deaths=4,233–10,233|Refs=}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Tropical cyclones}}

* [[Tropical cyclones in 1998]]
* [[1998 Atlantic hurricane season]]
* [[1998 Pacific hurricane season]]
* [[1998 Pacific typhoon season]]
* South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: [[1997–98 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season|1997–98]], [[1998–99 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season|1998–99]]
* Australian region cyclone seasons: [[1997–98 Australian region cyclone season|1997–98]], [[1998–99 Australian region cyclone season|1998–99]]
* South Pacific cyclone seasons: [[1997–98 South Pacific cyclone season|1997–98]], [[1998–99 South Pacific cyclone season|1998–99]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090619073130/http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/WCDRDOCS/Primer%20for%20Parliamentarians.pdf Primer for Parliamentarians]
* [http://australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/ Gary Padgett Summaries]
* [http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/n_indian/1998/index.html Unisys Track]
* [http://www.usno.navy.mil/JTWC/annual-tropical-cyclone-reports JTWC Archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120054907/http://www.usno.navy.mil/JTWC/annual-tropical-cyclone-reports |date=2010-01-20 }}

{{TC Decades|Year=1990|basin=North Indian Ocean|type=cyclone}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1998 North Indian Ocean Cyclone Season}}
[[Category:1998 North Indian Ocean cyclone season| ]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]

Vaitarna

2025-12-08T07:23:05Z

KarmaConyers:

{{hatnote|This actual river should be distinguished from [[Vaitarna River (mythological)|its mythological counterpart]]. For the river in Odisha sometimes known as the Vaitarna, see [[Baitarani River]].}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Vaitarna
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| name_other =
| name_etymology =

| image = Vaitarna_River.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Vaitarna River, view from Silent Hill Resort
| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption=

| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[India]]
| subdivision_type2 =
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 =
| subdivision_name5 =

| length_km = 154
| length_ref = approx.
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge1_location=
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg =
| discharge1_max =

| source1 = Trimbakeshwar, Nashik
| source1_location = [[Maharashtra]]
| source1_coordinates=
| source1_elevation =
| mouth = [[Arabian Sea]]
| mouth_location = [[Palghar district]], [[Maharashtra]]
| mouth_coordinates =
| mouth_elevation =
| progression =
| river_system =
| basin_size =
| tributaries_left =
| tributaries_right =
| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
}}
The '''Vaitarna River''' ([[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: ''Vaitarṇā'', pronunciation: [[Help:IPA/Marathi|[ʋəit̪əɾɳaː]]]) is a river in [[Nashik district|Nashik]] and [[Palghar district]] of [[Maharashtra]]. The [[Tansa River|Tansa]] is its left bank tributary and the [[Pinjal]], [[Dehraja]], and [[Surya]] its right bank tributaries. Upper stretches of the Vaitarna are clean but in lower stretches discharge of untreated industrial and civic waste makes the Vaitarna [[List of most-polluted rivers|one of the most polluted rivers]] in India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/maharashtra-has-the-most-polluted-rivers-in-india-report/story-niJlawYJcUykXtDmo1DQzJ.html|last=Badri Chaterjee|date= 4 October 2017|access-date=18 October 2017|location=[[Mumbai]]|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|title=Maharashtra has the most polluted rivers in India: Report}}</ref>

==Course==
It originates in Sahyadri mountain ranges near Trimbakeshwar. The Vaitarna is just 2 km away from India’s second longest river, the Godavari. Vaitarna has a confluence with the [[Tansa River|Tansa]] just before it enters the [[Arabian Sea]]. [[Jhow Island|Jhow]] and [[Wadhiv Island|Wadhiv]] islands lie in its estuary. [[Arnala Island]] lies off its mouth. It has three major dams which supply water to Mumbai.

==Significance==
The Vaitarna supplies much of Mumbai's drinking water. It is the largest river in the Northern Konkan region and drains [[Maharashtra]]'s whole Palghar district.

==Legacy==
The {{SS|Vaitarna}}, a steamship, was named after the river. On 8 November 1888, with hundreds of passengers on board, the ship went missing in the [[1888 Arabian Sea cyclone]] during a crossing from [[Mandvi]] to [[Bombay]]. The ship was nicknamed {{transliteration|gu|Vijli}} or ''Bijli'', literally electricity, as it was lit with electric bulbs.<ref name="Ved 2012">{{cite web |last=Ved |first=Mahendra |date=23 April 2012 |title=India, too, had sinking of 'Vilji' 124 years ago |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-204657197.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225015346/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-204657197.html |archive-date=25 February 2016 |access-date=10 August 2025 |publisher=New Straits Times}}</ref> The missing ship has also been called the "Titanic of Gujarat".<ref name="epaper.timesofindia.com 2010">{{cite web |date=November 20, 2010 |title=Vignettes of maritime history Ancient sea route maps, sketches of coastlines, architecture, textiles and rare pictures of legendary vessels are lined up for public viewing at an exhibition called 'Gujarat and the sea' at NID. The exhibition, which will be open on Saturday and Sunday, was inaugurated on Friday. One of the major attractions is a photo of the legendary vessel built in 1885 called Vaitarna or popularly known as Vijli because of its electric lights which was a rare sight those days. It capsized on November 8, 1888, drowning 1,300 people. |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_TOI&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOIA/2010/11/20&ID=Pc00410 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929112528/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_TOI&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOIA/2010/11/20&ID=Pc00410 |archive-date=September 29, 2015 |accessdate=10 August 2025 |website=epaper.timesofindia.com}}</ref><ref name="Vashi 2010">{{cite web |last=Vashi |first=Ashish |date=6 May 2010 |title=Gujarat saw a Titanic in 1888 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Gujarat-saw-a-Titanic-in-1888/articleshow/5895425.cms |accessdate=3 June 2015 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name="mDB2011">{{cite web |date=2011-04-14 |title=ગુજરાતની ટાઈટેનિક એટલે 'હાજી કાસમની વીજળી (Vijli was the Titanic of Gujarat) |url=http://m.divyabhaskar.co.in/news/Bhaskar-Gyan/2421/NAT-vijli-was-the-titanic-of-gujarat-2015600.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929102621/http://m.divyabhaskar.co.in/news/Bhaskar-Gyan/2421/NAT-vijli-was-the-titanic-of-gujarat-2015600.html |archive-date=2015-09-29 |accessdate=10 August 2025 |website=m.divyabhaskar.co.in |language=gu}}</ref>

A railway bridge over the river has been in the news for a number of people losing their life while crossing it.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vaitarna bridge claims fourth life this year |url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/vaitarna-bridge-claims-fourth-life-this-year/articleshow/70694177.html |access-date=2025-08-13 |website=Mumbai Mirror |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{coord|19|42|N|72|56|E|display=title|region:IN_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Rivers of Maharashtra]]

{{Thane-district-geo-stub}}
{{Palghar-district-geo-stub}}

Vidhya Venkatesh

2025-12-05T18:32:22Z

KarmaConyers:

{{Short description|Indian actress}}
{{Redirect|Vidhu|the 2010 Sri Lankan film|Vidhu (film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vidhya Venkatesh
| image = Vidya-Venkatesh-Actor.jpg
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India<ref name="dh1">{{cite web |last1=Srinivasa |first1=Srikanth |title=On a different plane |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/sep28/ent4.asp |work=Deccan Herald |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041225162915/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/sep28/ent4.asp |archive-date=25 December 2004 |date=28 September 2003}}</ref>
| other_names = Vidya Venkatesh<ref name="dh1"/>
| occupation = Actor
}}

'''Vidhya Venkatesh''' is an Indian actress, who has appeared in Tamil and Kannada language films. After making her debut with [[Kamal Haasan]] in the Tamil film ''[[Panchathanthiram]]'' (2002), she won critical acclaim for her performances in Kannada movies like ''[[Chigurida Kanasu]]'' (2003) and ''[[Nenapirali]]'' (2005). Her performance in ''Nenapirali'' won her Best Actress Award at [[53rd Filmfare Awards South]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianewengland.com/ME2/SiteMaps/Audiences/Document.asp?DocPath=F2864FB030A24918B9C6F6E145019C19%7C%7C%7CPublications%3A%3AArticle%7C%7C%7CRestaurants%2B%2526%2BDining%7C%7C%7C|work=India New England|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130208091407/http://www.indianewengland.com/ME2/Audiences/dirmod.asp?sid=&nm=&type=Abstract&mod=Publications::Article&mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&tier=1&id=F2864FB030A24918B9C6F6E145019C19&Author=By%20Viral%20Bhayani&ReturnUrl=/ME2/Audiences/dirmod.asp%3Fsid%3D%26nm%3D%26type%3DPublishing%26mod%3DPublications%253A%253AArticle%26mid%3D8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791%26AudID%3DRestaurants+%26+Dining%26tier%3D4%26id%3DF2864FB030A24918B9C6F6E145019C19|archive-date=8 February 2013|date=19 October 2006|access-date=5 December 2023|title=South indian film industry glitters at Filmfare Awards}}</ref>

==Career==
Vidhya Venkatesh did a degree a BA Literature at [[Ethiraj College for Women|Ethiraj College]], [[Chennai]] before beginning work as a part of the [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts]] franchise. She then spent two and a half years working as an air hostess for [[Singapore Airlines]], flying predominantly between Singapore and Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.viggy.com/interview/vidhya_venkatesh_eng.asp|title=An interview with 'Chiguridha Kanasu' heroine - Vidhya Venkatesh|website=www.viggy.com|accessdate=10 November 2023}}</ref> Vidhya was interested in acting in films and approached [[K. S. Ravikumar]] for a role in the [[Kamal Haasan]]-starrer ''[[Panchathanthiram]]'' (2002), and was able to successfully audition for the role of [[Sriman (actor)|Sriman]]'s Telugu wife in the film. She then appeared in the low-budget film ''Kalatpadai'' (2003) alongside several newcomers and won positive reviews for her portrayal, with a reviewer noting that she is "excellent in her role" and that "she comes into her own as the movie proceeds".<ref>[http://www.thiraipadam.com/cgi-bin/movie_review.pl?id=258&user_name=bbalaji&review_lang=english&lang=tamil Archived copy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307075554/http://www.thiraipadam.com/cgi-bin/movie_review.pl?id=258&user_name=bbalaji&review_lang=english&lang=tamil |date=7 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/location/kpadai.asp |title=Kaalaatpadai |website=chennaionline.com |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021222072956/http://www.chennaionline.com/location/kpadai.asp |archive-date=22 December 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Her modelling co-ordinator subsequently put her pictures through to Kannada director [[T. S. Nagabharana|Nagabharana]] and she next appeared in ''[[Chigurida Kanasu]]'' (2003). She followed it up with a critically acclaimed performance in ''[[Nenapirali]]'' (2005), for which she won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Kannada|Filmfare Award for Best Kannada Actress]].<ref name="sify.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14288036&cid=13319495|title=sify.com|accessdate=10 November 2023}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Language !! Notes
|-
|rowspan="1"|2002 || ''[[Panchathantiram]]'' || Reddy's wife || Tamil ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2003 || ''[[Kalatpadai]]'' || Priya || Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Chigurida Kanasu]]'' || Varalakshmi || Kannada ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|2005 || ''[[Nenapirali]]'' || Bindushree || Kannada || [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Kannada]]<ref name="sify.com"/>
|}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|nm8888618}}

{{FilmfareKannadaBestActress}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venkatesh, Vidhya}}
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Chennai]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

List of IPL Supernovas cricketers

2025-10-31T14:49:19Z

KarmaConyers: Made redirect

#Redirect [[List of Women's T20 Challenge Players#Supernovas]]

Ubaid Chono Kadavath

2025-10-07T12:14:37Z

KarmaConyers:

{{short description|Indian footballer (born 1990)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox football biography
| image =
| fullname = Ubaid Chono Kadavath
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1990|2|5|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Kuthuparamba]], [[Kannur]], [[Kerala]], India
| height = 1.85 m
| position = [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]]
| currentclub = [[Kannur Warriors FC|Kannur Warriors]]
| clubnumber =
| youthyears1 =
| youthclubs1 =
| years1 = 2011−2012
| clubs1 = [[Viva Kerala]]
| years2 = 2012−2013
| clubs2 = [[Dempo SC|Dempo]]
| years3 = 2013−2014
| clubs3 = [[Air India F.C.|Air India]]
| years4 = 2014−2015
| clubs4 = [[ONGC FC|ONGC]]
| years5 = 2015−2016
| clubs5 = [[Air India F.C.|Air India]]
| years6 = 2016−2017
| clubs6 = [[ONGC FC|ONGC]]
| years7 = 2017
| clubs7 = → [[FC Kerala|FC Kerala]] (loan)
| years8 = 2017−2019
| clubs8 = [[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]]
| caps8 = 9
| goals8 = 0
| years9 = 2019–2021
| clubs9 = [[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
| caps9 = 27
| goals9 = 0
| years10 = 2021–2025
| clubs10 = [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| caps10 = 28
| goals10 = 0
| years11 = 2025–
| clubs11 = [[Kannur Warriors FC|Kannur Warriors]]
| caps11 =
| goals11 =
| club-update = 18:36, 5 April 2025 (UTC)
}}

'''Ubaid Chono Kadavath''' (born 5 February 1990) is an Indian professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeeper]] for the [[Super League Kerala]] club [[Kannur Warriors FC|Kannur Warriors]].

==Career==
Ubaid was part of [[Maharashtra football team|Maharashtra Santhosh Trophy]] squad for the year 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maharashtra team for Santosh Trophy announced!|url=http://www.wifa.in/maharashtra-team-for-santosh-trophy-announced/|website=wifa.in|date=9 January 2015 |access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref> He represented the state of Maharashtra in the [[2015 National Games of India|National Games]] that followed too.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maharashtra name Men's squad for the 35th National Games|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/maharashtra-name-mens-squad-35th-national-games|website=SportsKeeda|date=February 2015 |access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref>

During [[COVID-19 pandemic]], he auctioned his first-ever [[2020–21 I-League|I-League]]-winning goalkeeping jersey to donate the sum to [[:ml:കേരള_മുഖ്യമന്ത്രിയുടെ_ദുരിതാശ്വാസനിധി|Kerala Chief Minister’s Distress Relief Fund]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ubaid CK auctions off Hero I-League winning jersey for Kerala CM’s COVID Relief Fund |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/article/ubaid-ck-auctions-off-hero-i-league-winning-jersey-for-kerala-cms-covid-relief-fund |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=www.the-aiff.com}}</ref>

===ONGC===
During his tenure at [[ONGC FC]], Ubaid was declared as the Best Goalkeeper for the season 2016-17 in the First Ever MDFA Awards.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Admin|first1=FC|title='First Ever' MDFA Awards Night adds cherry on top of the cake after a successful 2016-17 season|url=http://www.footballcounter.com/2017/first-ever-mdfa-awards-night-adds-cherry-top-cake-successful-2016-17-season/|website=footballcounter.com|date=15 May 2017 |access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref>

===East Bengal===
After his solid performance for [[F.C. Kerala|FC Kerala]] in the [[2016–17 Kerala Premier League|Kerala Premier League]] and Gadhinglaj All India Football Tournament,<ref>{{cite web|title=ഉബൈദിന്റെ മികവിൽ എഫ് സി കേരള ഫൈനലിൽ|url=http://fanport.in/football/fc-kerala-close-to-glory/|website=fanport.in|publisher=Fanport|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-date=18 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318183250/http://fanport.in/football/fc-kerala-close-to-glory/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ubaid moved to [[Kolkata]] side [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]] in a loan for the 2nd half of [[2017–18 I-League]].<ref>{{cite web|title=East Bengal has roped in the 4th goalkeeper for the upcoming season - Ubaid Chono Kadavath!|url=https://www.facebook.com/EBSamachar/photos/a.1108932312509784.1073741829.1071722672897415/1458288090907536/|website=facebook.com|publisher=EastBengal Samachar|access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref>

On 25 April 2018, it is announced that Ubaid has signed a renewal contract with East Bengal which keeps the shot stopper at the club till 2020.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chopra|first1=Vrinda|title=East Bengal sign Minerva Punjab's I-League-winning star|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/more-transfer-activity-at-east-bengal-as-ubaid-signs-renewal-and-minerva-star-signs|website=SportsKeeda|access-date=27 May 2018|date=25 April 2018}}</ref>

==Career statistics==
{{updated|5 December 2024}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|Domestic Cup
!colspan="2"|Continental
! colspan="2" |Other
! colspan="2" |Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
!Apps
!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]] (On Loan from [[F.C. Kerala|FC Kerala]])
|[[2017–18 I-League|2017–18]]
| rowspan="2" |[[I-League]]||7||0||4{{efn|name=SuperCup|Appearance(s) in [[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]]}}||0|| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—||11||0
|-
|[[2018–19 I-League|2018–19]]
|2
|0
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
|2
|0
|-
! colspan="2" |East Bengal Total
!9
!0
!4
!0
! colspan="2" |—
! colspan="2" |—
!13
!0
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala]]
|[[2018–19 I-League|2018–19]]
| rowspan="3" |[[I-League]]
|0
|0
|4{{efn|name=A|Appearances in [[Durand Cup]]}}
|0
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
|4
|0
|-
|[[2019–20 I-League|2019–20]]||13||0|| colspan="2" |— || colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—||13||0
|-
|[[2020–21 I-League|2020–21]]||14||0||3{{efn|name=B|Appearances in [[IFA Shield]]}} ||0|| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—||17||0
|-
! colspan="2" |Gokulam Kerala Total
!27
!0
!7
!0
! colspan="2" |—
! colspan="2" |—
!34
!0
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Sreenidi Deccan FC]]
|[[2021–22 I-League|2021–22]]
| rowspan="3" |[[I-League]]
|1
|0
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
|1
|0
|-
|[[2022–23 I-League|2022–23]]
|12
|0
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
|12
|0
|-
|[[2023-24 I-League|2023-24]]
|5
|0
|1{{efn|name=SuperCup|Appearance(s) in [[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]]}}
|0
| colspan="2" |—
| colspan="2" |—
|6
|0
|-
! colspan="2" |Sreenidi Deccan Total
!18!!0!!1!!0!! colspan="2" |—
! colspan="2" |—!!19!!0
|-
!colspan="3"|Career total
!54!!0!!12!!0!!0!!0
!0
!0!!66!!0
|}
{{notelist}}

==Honours==
===Club===
;[[Gokulam Kerala F.C.|Gokulam Kerala FC]]

* '''[[Durand Cup]]'''
:{{Gold1}}: Champions (1): [[2019 Durand Cup|2019]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/durand-cup-2019-final-mohun-bagan-vs-gokulam-kerala-live-streaming-score-updates-goals-kolkata-indian-football-suhair-francisco-marcus-joseph-ubaid/article29243177.ece|title=Durand Cup: Gokulam Kerala beats Mohun Bagan 2-1 to win title|first=Team|last=Sportstar|website=Sportstar|date=24 August 2019 }}</ref>

* '''[[I-League]]'''
:{{Gold1}} Champions (1): [[2020–21 I-League|2020–21]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Gokulam Kerala FC Stage Sensational Comeback To Win Maiden I-League Title vs TRAU|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/sports-news-gokulam-kerala-fc-stage-sensational-comeback-to-win-maiden-i-league-title-vs-trau/378463|website=Outlook India|date=27 March 2021 |access-date=27 March 2021}}</ref><ref>ഗോകുലം എഫ്.സി ഐ ലീഗ് ജേതാക്കളാകുന്ന ആദ്യ കേരളം ടീം; ചരിത്രനേട്ടം ട്രാവുവിനെ തകർത്ത്{{cite web|title=Gokulam Kerala Wins ILeague|url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/sports/gokulam-kerala-fc-win-i-league-2020-21-become-1st-team-from-kerala-to-do-so-int-sar-ar-364411.html|website=MalayalamNews18.com|access-date=28 November 2017}}</ref>

;[[Sreenidi Deccan FC]]
* '''[[I-League]]'''
:{{Silver2}} Runners-up (2): [[2022-23 I-League|2022-23]], [[2023-24 I-League|2023-24]]
:{{Bronze3}} Third-place (1): [[2021-22 I-League|2021-22]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ubaid}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Kannur district]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:Footballers from Kerala]]
[[Category:I-League players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Dempo SC players]]
[[Category:Air India FC players]]
[[Category:ONGC FC players]]
[[Category:FC Kerala players]]
[[Category:East Bengal Club players]]
[[Category:Men's association football goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Sreenidi Deccan FC players]]
[[Category:Kannur Warriors FC players]]
[[Category:Super League Kerala players]]

Raja Balram Singh

2025-09-19T06:57:44Z

KarmaConyers: done...

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
'''Raja Balram Singh''' was the ruler of [[Ballabgarh (jagir)|Ballabhgarh state]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Khattar |first1=Sohan Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M60zEAAAQBAJ&q=balram+singh+Ballabhgarh |title=Know Your State Haryana |last2=Kar |first2=Reena |date=2021-07-26 |publisher=Arihant Publications India limited |isbn=978-93-257-9038-4 |language=en}}</ref> He founded the town of [[Ballabhgarh|Ballabgarh]] in [[Faridabad]], which was named after him.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AO2AAAAIAAJ&q=ballabgarh+balramgarh |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India: Provincial Series |date=1908 |publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Oswald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23EIAAAAQAAJ&q=ballabgarh+balramgarh |title=Final Report on the Settlement of Land Revenue in the Delhi District, Carried on 1872-77, by Oswald Wood, and Completed 1878-80, by R. Maconachie |date=1882 |publisher=Printed at the Victoria Press |language=en}}</ref>

== Family ==
Raja Balram Singh Tewatia / Teotia was born to Rao Charandas Tewatia, the brother-in-law of [[Suraj Mal|Maharaja Surajmal]] of [[Bharatpur State|Bharatpur]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-02-27 |title=How Raja Nahar Singh Metro Station got its name? |url=https://lifeandmore.in/special-stories/how-raja-nahar-singh-metro-station-got-its-name/ |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=Life And More |language=en-US}}</ref> His grandfather, Chaudhary Gopal Singh, was the chief of [[Sihi]], who set up his state by defeating [[Rajput]] chief of that area.<ref name=":0" /> Chaudhary Gopal Singh became the head of [[Faridabad]] pargana in 1710 by concluding a treaty with [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]].<ref name=":0" /> He was succeeded by Chaudhary Charan Das, who stopped paying taxes to Mughals and became renowned in whole Faridabad pargana due to his resistance against Mughals.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Sheoran |first=C. B. Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiCeDwAAQBAJ&q=charandass+refused+to+make+it+to |title=Gallant Haryana: The First and Crucial Battlefield of AD 1857 |date=2019-06-17 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-43913-7 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Raja Balram}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Faridabad]]
[[Category:Faridabad district]]
[[Category:Jat rulers]]
[[Category:Rulers of Bhallabhgarh]]

{{India-royal-stub}}

Agara, Bengaluru

2025-08-29T12:31:30Z

KarmaConyers: done

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Agara
| settlement_type = suburb
| image_skyline = Anjaneya Swamy Idol beside Puri Jagannath Temple at Agara.JPG
| image_caption = Puri Jagannath's temple and huge Hanuman statue at Agara
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Bangalore
| pushpin_label_position = right
| coordinates = {{coord|12|55|28|N|77|38|59|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bangalore Urban district|Bangalore Urban]]
| subdivision_type3 = Metro
| subdivision_name3 = Bangalore
| subdivision_type4 = [[Taluka]]
| subdivision_name4 = Bangalore South
| established_title = 
| established_date = 1806
| governing_body = [[BBMP]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes =
| population_total =
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 560102
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 91-80
| registration_plate = KA 01
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = Bangalore
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Bangalore South
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = Bommanahalli
| blank4_name_sec1 = Civic agency
| blank4_info_sec1 = Village Panchayat (formerly), now under [[BBMP]]
| website =
}}

''' Agara, Bengaluru '''is a [[panchayat village]] in the [[South India|southern]] state of [[Karnataka]], [[India]].<ref name="censusindia">2001 Census Village code= 2061100, {{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/List_of_Villages/List_of_Villages_Alphabetical.aspx?cki=&State_Code=29&SearchKey=A|title=Census of India : List of Villages Alphabetical Order - Karnataka - A|work=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|page=12|access-date=2008-12-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608213224/http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/List_of_Villages/List_of_Villages_Alphabetical.aspx?cki=&State_Code=29&SearchKey=A|archive-date=8 June 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Reports of National Panchayat Directory: List of Census Villages mapped for: Agara Gram Panchayat,Bangalore South, Bengaluru Urban, Karnataka |publisher=Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India |url=http://panchayatdirectory.gov.in/adminreps/viewGPmapcvills.asp?gpcode=218400&rlbtype=V |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212224133/http://panchayatdirectory.gov.in/adminreps/viewGPmapcvills.asp?gpcode=218400&rlbtype=V |archive-date=2013-02-12 }}</ref><ref name="yahoomaps">{{cite web|url=http://in.maps.yahoo.com |title=Yahoo! maps India |access-date=2009-04-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218082545/http://in.maps.yahoo.com/ |archive-date=2008-12-18 }} Agara (Bangalore South), Bangalore, Karnataka</ref> It is located in the [[Bangalore South]] [[taluk]] of [[Bangalore Urban district]] in Karnataka, on [[Outer Ring Road, Bangalore|Outer Ring Road]], near [[Koramangala]] and [[HSR Layout]]. The Agara Bus Stop connects Koramangla with [[ITPL]], [[Varthur]], etc. Agara is notable for the Agara lake, as well as for being a locus of spiritual sites, containing temples dedicated to [[Jagannath|Shri Jagannatha]], [[Hanuman|Shri Hanuman]], [[Rama|Shri Ram]] and [[Sita]] as well as [[Radha Krishna|Radha-Krishna]], [[Shiva]]-[[Parvati]], [[Ayyappan|Ayyapa]], [[Durga|Durga Parmeshwari]] and [[Lakshmi|Shri Lakshmi]], as well as a [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] mosque. The [[Anjaneya|Abhayanjaneya]] Temple is particularly well known for its colossal statue of [[Hanuman]] which, remarkably, stands [[Hindu–Muslim unity|right next to the mosque]]. After winning the [[Srirangapatna|Shrirangapattan]] [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War|war]], the British moved their army to Bangalore. During the British period, it was one of the biggest army cantonments in South Asia. Madras Engineer Groups operated from Agara.

==References==
{{Commons category}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Settlements in Bangalore district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in East Bengaluru]]

{{Bangalore-geo-stub}}

Ashutosh Sharma (colonel)

2025-08-25T08:47:46Z

KarmaConyers:

{{Short description|Indian Army officer (martyred 2020)}}
{{For|other persons of the same name|Ashutosh Sharma (disambiguation){{!}}Ashutosh Sharma}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Colonel (India)|Colonel]]
| name = Ashutosh Sharma
| honorific_suffix = [[Sena Medal|SM]] [[Medal Bar|***]]
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1975|07|03}}{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}
| birth_place = [[Bulandshahr]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2020|05|02|1975|07|03}}
| death_place = [[Handwara]], [[Kupwara district]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]]
| allegiance = {{IND}}
| branch = {{army|India}}
| serviceyears = 2001-2020
| rank = [[File:Colonel_of_the_Indian_Army.svg|20px]] [[Colonel (India)|Colonel]]
| servicenumber =
| unit = [[Brigade of the Guards]]
| commands = [[Rashtriya Rifles|21 Rashtriya Rifles]]
| awards = [[File:Sena_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Medal Bar|Second bar to]] [[Sena Medal]] [[File:Sena_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Medal Bar|Bar to]] [[Sena Medal]] [[File:Sena_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Sena Medal]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Pallavi Sharma|2010|2020}}
}}

[[Colonel (India)|Colonel]] '''Ashutosh Sharma''', [[Sena Medal|SM]] [[medal bar|& two bars]] (died 2 May 2020) was an [[Indian Army]] officer. He was the [[commanding officer]] of the 21st battalion, [[Rashtriya Rifles]]. On 2 May 2020, he was [[martyred in action]] while leading encounter in [[Handwara]] in the [[Kupwara district]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He was awarded the Sena Medal for gallantry three times, the first bar to the Sena Medal being awarded a few months before his death and the second bar posthumously.

==Early life and education==
Sharma was born in [[Bulandshahr]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] to Shambhu Dutt Pathak, a soil conservation officer, and Sudha Sharma. The family hailed from the Parwana Mahmodpur village of Aurangabad area in Bulandshahr.<ref name="Statesman">{{cite web |title=Handwara martyr Col Ashutosh Sharma's village drowns in pall of gloom |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/handwara-martyr-col-ashutosh-sharmas-village-drowns-pall-gloom-1502883628.html |website=The Statesman |date=3 May 2020}}</ref> He completed his schooling and graduation in Bulandshahr and attended the DAV Inter College.<ref name="Amar Ujala">{{cite web |title=बुलंदशहर के रहने वाले थे कर्नल आशुतोष शर्मा, जिस गांव में बीता बचपन, वहां पसरा मातम |url=https://www.amarujala.com/delhi-ncr/bulandshahr-village-saddened-after-hearing-martyrdom-of-colonel-ashutosh-sharma |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref> Sharma wanted to join the Indian Army from a young age and attempted to join for over six years. He was successful in his thirteenth attempt and joined the [[Officers Training Academy]] (OTA), [[Chennai]].<ref name="DH">{{cite web |title=Who is Colonel Ashutosh Sharma? 10 things to know about officer killed in terrorist encounter in J&K's Handwara |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/who-is-colonel-ashutosh-sharma-10-things-to-know-about-officer-killed-in-terrorist-encounter-in-jks-handwara-833245.html |website=Deccan Herald |language=en |date=4 May 2020}}</ref> At OTA, he was part of the hockey team and represented the academy at the Inter Academy Games held at [[Indian Military Academy]] (IMA), [[Dehradun]].<ref name="SoM">{{cite web |title=Colonel Ashutosh Sharma SM: A terror to the terrorists |url=https://starofmysore.com/colonel-ashutosh-sharma-sm-a-terror-to-the-terrorists/ |website=Star of Mysore |date=7 May 2020}}</ref>

==Military career==
Sharma graduated from OTA, Chennai (SSC - 72), and was commissioned into the 19th battalion, [[Brigade of the Guards]] on 1 September 2001.<ref name="SoM" /> In his two decades of service in the Army, he was a part of multiple successful [[counter-insurgency]] operations in [[Indian Army operations in Jammu and Kashmir|Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name="NIE">{{cite web |title=Martyred in Handwara, Col Ashutosh Sharma was decorated twice for gallantry |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/may/03/martyred-in-handwara-col-ashutosh-sharma-was-decorated-twice-for-gallantry-2138593.html |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

Sharma was awarded the Sena Medal for gallantry on 26 January 2018.<ref name="PIB SM">{{cite web |title=390 Republic Day Gallantry and Other Defence Decorations Announced |url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1517875 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref> In 2019, he shot, at close range, a terrorist who was rushing towards his men and personnel of the [[Jammu and Kashmir Police]] with a hidden grenade, preventing him front harming them.<ref name="NIE"/> For this action, on 15 August 2019, when serving as the commanding officer of the 21st battalion, Rashtriya Rifles, he was awarded the bar to Sena Medal.<ref name="PIB Bar to SM">{{cite web |title=President approves 132 Gallantry Awards and other decorations to Personnel of Armed and Paramilitary Forces |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1581960 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

On 2 May 2020, intelligence reports were received indicating the presence of terrorists inside a house in the Changimulla village near Handwara. The civilians were held hostage. Sharma launched a [[cordon and search]] operation with the J&K police. The civilians were rescued and the team came under heavy fire. The communication links with the team were lost. After an 18-hour operation, the two terrorists were killed. Apart from Sharma, four other Indian security forces personnel were killed in the encounter, including Major Anuj Sood, SC.<ref name="DH"/><ref name="TimesNow">{{cite web |title='Army was his only dream': Handwara martyr Col Ashutosh Sharma took 6 years and 13 attempts to join military |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/army-was-his-only-dream-handwara-martyr-col-ashutosh-sharma-took-6-years-and-13-attempts-to-join-military/586728 |website=www.timesnownews.com |language=en}}</ref> Sharma was the first commanding officer in the last five years to have lost his life in an encounter.<ref name="DNA">{{cite web |title=Colonel Ashutosh Sharma: Remembering the two-time gallantry medal winner who was martyred in Handwara encounter |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-colonel-ashutosh-sharma-remembering-the-two-time-gallantry-medal-winner-who-was-martyred-in-handwara-encounter-2823462 |website=DNA India |language=en |date=3 May 2020}}</ref>

==Honours and legacy==
Sharma was cremated with full military honours on 5 May 2020 in [[Jaipur]]. The [[Chief Minister]] [[Ashok Gehlot]], Deputy Chief Minister [[Sachin Pilot]] and the [[General Officer Commanding-in-Chief]] [[South Western Command (India)|South Western Command]], [[Lieutenant General]] [[Alok Singh Kler]] paid their respects to the brave-heart and offered condolences to his family.<ref name="NDTV">{{cite web |title=Fighting Tears, Wife, Daughter Salute Colonel Killed In Action In J&K's Handwara |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/rising-above-grief-wife-daughter-salute-army-officer-colonel-ashutosh-sharma-killed-in-encounter-2223415 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Also present were the [[Member of Parliament]] [[Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore]], [[Pratap Singh Khachariyawas]], Minister for Ex- Servicemen Welfare Rajasthan and the [[Commissioner of Police (India)|Commissioner of Police]] and the [[District Collector]] of Jaipur.<ref name="PIB homage">{{cite web |title=HOMAGE TO HANDWARA MARTYR COLONEL ASHUTOSH SHARMA |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1621302 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

In the 2021 Republic Day honours list, Sharma was posthumously decorated with the second bar to the sena medal.<ref>{{cite web |title=LIST OF PERSONNEL BEING CONFERRED GALLANTRY AND DISTINGUISHED AWARDS ON THE OCCASION OF REPUBLIC DAY-2021 |url=https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/userfiles/PIB%20Delhi/FINAL%20AWARD%20RD%202021%20TO%20BE%20ANNOUNCED%20ON%2025%20JAN%202021.pdf |website=static.pib.gov.in/}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Sharma was married to Pallavi Sharma and the couple had a daughter, Tamanna.<ref>{{cite web |last1=JaipurMay 6 |first1=Dev Ankur Wadhawan |last2=May 6 |first2=Dev Ankur Wadhawan |last3=Ist |first3=Dev Ankur Wadhawan |title=My daughter would want to join army, says slain Colonel Ashutosh Sharma's wife |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/my-daughter-would-want-to-join-army-says-slain-colonel-ashutosh-sharma-s-wife-pallavi-1674848-2020-05-06 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharma, Ashutosh}}

[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sena Medal]]
[[Category:People from Bulandshahr]]

Naralokaviran

2025-06-01T01:50:41Z

KarmaConyers: Put up entry!

{{Short description|12th century general in the Chola army}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Naralokaviran
| allegiance = [[Chola Empire]]
| battles = * [[Pandya]] Wars
* Chera Rebellion
}}
'''Naralokaviran,''' also known by the title '''Kalinga Rayan,''' was a general in the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] army during the reign of [[Kulottunga Chola I|Kulothunga I]] (1070 – 1120) and his successor [[Vikrama Chola]] (1118 – 1135).<ref name="priestguide">{{Cite book |author= |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/26946 |title=Aghorasiva's Mahotsavavidhi |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780195378528 |editor-last= |editor-first= |page=19 |translator-last=Davis |translator-first=Richard H. |trans-title=A Priest's Guide for the Great Festival}}</ref> He led many Chola campaigns in the deep south and distinguished himself in the [[Pandya]] Wars.<ref name="tillai">{{cite book |author1=Natarajan |first=B. |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/600979465/Tillai-Nataraja-B-Natarajan |title=Tillai and Nataraja |publisher=Mudgala Trust |year=1994 |location=Madras (India) |page=50}}</ref> He had many titles such as "Madurantaka Ponnambala-koothar", "Sabharnataka", "Kalinga Rayan", "Porkoyil-Thondaiman", "Koothan", "Thondaiyarkon", and the "Lion of Kalinga".<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Natarajan |first=B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lA4uAAAAMAAJ |title=The City of the Cosmic Dance: Chidambaram |date=1974 |publisher=Orient Longman |page=71-72|isbn=978-0-88386-611-5 }}</ref>

Naralokaviran is also known for subduing the rebelling medieval [[Chera Perumal|Chera]] king of [[Kerala]] for his Chola overlord. The port of [[Kollam|Quilon]] was recovered by the Pandya-Chola forces in c. 1097 AD.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn= 978-81-88765-07-2|location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages=125–28 |chapter= |orig-year=1972}}</ref><ref>It was earlier assumed that the Cholas under Kulottunga oversaw two expeditions to south Kerala (c. 1077– 1081 and c. 1097 AD).</ref> However, the Cheras were able to recover [[Kollam|Quilon]]-[[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]]-[[Nagercoil]] region around 1100/02 AD (and thus "fixing the southern limit of the country at Kottar").<ref name=":3" /> These losses were later (c. 1102 - c. 1118) recovered by Jatavarman Parakrama [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] for [[Vikrama Chola]].<ref name=":3" />
== Family and residence ==
Naralokaviran was the headman of Arumbakkam and a resident of Manavil in Manavil Nadu in Thondai Mandalam. He maintained a large fief at Manavil.<ref name=":0" /> A son of Naralokaviran called Surainayakan alias Madhavarayan is known from inscriptions. He, too, served as an officer under [[Vikrama Chola]].<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Balasubrahmanyam |first1=S. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ujVAAAAMAAJ |title=Later Chola Temples: Kulottunga I to Rajendra III |last2=Natarajan |first2=B. |last3=Ramachandran |first3=Balasubrahmanyan |publisher=Mudgala Trust |year=1979 |pages=20 and 177}}</ref>
== Religious contributions ==
Naralokaviran is known for a number of benefactions to [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram|Nataraja Temple]] in [[Chidambaram]]. He was responsible for the construction of two large temple gateways and for the expansion of the goddess shrine within the temple complex. He took interest in festivals and made contributions for the provision of lamps on the processional routes, watering the streets during the festivals, a bull vehicle for the deity to ride during the Bhikshatana procession and a bugle inlaid with gold to herald the arrival of god [[Shiva]].<ref name=priestguide/> During the reign of Vikrama Chola, Naralokaviran built the "hundred-pillar hall" and named it after his overlord ("Vikrama Chola").<ref name=tillai/>
== Inscriptions ==
Naralokaviran figures in many inscriptions of [[Kulottunga Chola I|Kulothunga I]] (1070 – 1120) and his successor [[Vikrama Chola]] (1118 – 1135)

* Earliest reference: An inscription dated to of the 28th regnal year of Kulothunga I (1098 AD) (begins with the phrase "Pugal madu") from Neyvanai in South Arcot district states that some lands were renamed as Sungamtavirtta-sola-nallur (after the Chola king) and were donated to Porkudangudutta-aruliyadeva at Thirunelvennai upon request by Naralokaviran.<ref name=":1" />
* Naralokaviran continued to serve Kulothunga's successor [[Vikrama Chola]] (1118 – 1135) as well. He figures in an inscription of the 4th regnal year of Vikrama Chola (begins with the phrase "Pumadu Punara") from Thiruvarur [that states that Naralokaviran bought some lands from the sabha of Thirunallur; for providing garlands of red lilies to the Sri-mulasthanam Udaiyar (god) of Thiruvarur].<ref name=":1" />
* Latest reference: Another inscription of the 6th regnal year of Vikrama Chola (also begins with the phrase "Pumadu Punara") from Thribhuvani (Pondicherry) states that Naralokaviran set up some land for a temple site, a hall and a flower garden and dedicated it to Arulakara-Iswaram Udaiyar for the prosperity of the Chola king and the village.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |author=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.511960 |title=The Colas |publisher=University of Madras |year=1937 |volume=II (Part II) |pages=576, 614 and 618}}</ref>
He is the subject of a bilingual metrical composition in Sanskrit and Tamil, an excerpt as follows:

{{quote|'The koothan with the lance, who brought the whole earth under the shade of the umbrella of his overlord is our chief, the chief of the people of Manavil.'<ref>{{cite book |author=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.6951 |title=Studies in Cōḷa History and Administration |publisher=University of Madras |year=1932 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.6951/page/n13 187]}}</ref>
|author=|title=|source=}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== See also ==
*[[Karunakara Tondaiman]]
*[[Chola]]
*[[Tondaiman]]
[[Category:Chola generals]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

Vithal Nagesh Shirodkar

2025-05-28T14:14:32Z

KarmaConyers: added info

{{Short description|Indian gynaecologist (1899–1971)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{More footnotes|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Vithal Nagesh Shirodkar
|image = Vithal Nagesh Shirodkar.png
|image_size =
|caption = Portrait of Shirodkar
|birth_name =
|birth_date = {{birth date|1899|04|27|df=yes}}
|birth_place = [[Shiroda, Goa|Shiroda]], [[Portuguese Goa]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1971|03|07|1899|04|27|df=yes}}
|death_place =
|residence =
|citizenship =
|fields = [[Medicine]]
|workplaces =
|alma_mater = [[Grant Medical College]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|academic_advisors =
|doctoral_students =
|notable_students =
|known_for = Shirodkar cerclage
|author_abbrev_bot =
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|influences =
|influenced =
|awards = {{unbulleted list |[[Padma Bhushan]] (1960) |[[Padma Vibhushan]] (1971)}}
|signature =
|footnotes =
|spouse =
|ethnicity =
|religion =
}}
'''V. N. Shirodkar''' or '''Vithal Nagesh Shirodkar''' (27 April 1899 – 7 March 1971)<ref name=”Powell_2008”>{{cite journal | vauthors = Powell JL| title = Powell's Pearls: Vithal Nagesh Shirodkar, MD (1899 - 1971) | journal = Journal of Pelvic Medicine & Surgery | volume = 14 | issue = | pages = 75–76| date = 2008 | doi = 10.1097/SPV.0b013e31816543bb|url=https://journals.lww.com/fpmrs/Citation/2008/02000/Powell_s_Pearls__Vithal_Nagesh_Shirodkar,_MD.13.aspx |pmid = | pmc= | url-access = subscription}}</ref> was an Indian obstetrician and gynaecologist, hailing from the State of Goa.

==Biography==
Shirodkar was born in [[Shiroda, Goa|Shiroda]], [[Goa]]. He belonged to the ''Kalawantin'' community (now known as [[Gomantak Maratha Samaj]] in Goa).<ref name="Review">[http://www.goa-world.com/goa/books/briefrev.htm Goa world book review] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105185115/http://www.goa-world.com/goa/books/briefrev.htm |date=5 January 2009 }}</ref> After he graduated from [[Grant Medical College]], he went to [[United Kingdom]] and obtained his [[Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons]] in 1931. He was associated with Professor J. Chassar Moir, Victor Lack, J.D.Murdoch and others.

He returned to India and joined J.J.Group of Hospitals in 1935 as Honorary Obstetrician and Gynecologist. He was an inimitable teacher and innovator. His most widely known contribution is [[Cervical cerclage]] the "Shirodkar cerclage". His other contributions include operations for prolapse repair, tuboplasty and creation of neovagina. He published widely and took a keen interest in [[social medicine]].

He was member of the Shantilal Shah Committee on [[Abortion]]s and also established the [[Family Planning Association of India]].

He was honored by the Government of India with [[Padma Bhushan]] in 1960 and [[Padma Vibhushan]] in 1971.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web | url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231171650/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=31 December 2015 | title=Padma Awards | publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India | date=2015 | access-date=21 July 2015}}</ref>

==Shirodkar Cerclage==
A Shirodkar cerclage is very similar to the standard [[cervical cerclage]], but the sutures pass through the walls of the cervix so they're not exposed. This type of cerclage is less common and technically more difficult than a McDonald, and is thought (though not proven) to reduce the risk of infection. The Shirodkar procedure sometimes involves a permanent stitch around the cervix which will not be removed and therefore a Caesarean section will be necessary to deliver the baby. The Shirodkar technique was first described by Dr. V. N. Shirodkar in Bombay in 1955.<ref>Jena, S.K., Samal, S., Behera, B.K. and AIIMS, B., 2015. Cervical cerclage in modern obstetrics: A review. Health, 3(1).[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.707.4340&rep=rep1&type=pdf]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Shirodkar V.N. Contributions to Obstetrics and Gynaecology. London: E & S Livingstone Ltd., 1960.
*{{citation |url=http://medind.nic.in/jaq/t08/i1/jaqt08i1p22.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416232355/http://medind.nic.in/jaq/t08/i1/jaqt08i1p22.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 April 2009 |title=Milestones: Dr. Vithal Nagesh Shirodkar and the Cervical Cerclage |last1=Dastur |first1=Adi E. |last2=Tank |first2=P.D. |journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of India |volume =58|issue=1 |date=January 2008 |pages =22–23 }}

{{Padma Vibhushan Awards}}
{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 1960–69}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shirodkar, Vithal Nagesh}}
[[Category:Scientists from Goa]]
[[Category:Indian gynaecologists]]
[[Category:Indian obstetricians]]
[[Category:1899 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in medicine]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in medicine]]
[[Category:People from North Goa district]]
[[Category:Medical doctors from Goa]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian surgeons]]

K. Ravindranathan Nair

2025-02-14T18:35:35Z

KarmaConyers: adding initial info added tags

{{Short description|Indian film producer (1933–2023)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Krishna Ravindranathan Nair
| image = Kravindranathannair.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1933|07|03|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Kollam]], [[Travancore]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2023|07|08|1933|07|03|df=y}}
| death_place =
| other_names = Achani Ravi General Pictures Ravi
| occupation = Film producer
| yearsactive = 1967–2023
| spouse = Usha Ravi
| domesticpartner =
| children = 3
| father = Krishna Pillai
| website = {{URL||Official web site}}
| awards = [[J. C. Daniel Award]] [[National Film Awards|National Film Award]] [[Kerala State Film Award]]
}}

{{Indian name|Ravindranathan Nair|Krishna}}'''Krishna Ravindranathan Nair ''' (3 July 1933{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}} – 8 July 2023), also known as '''Achani Ravi''' or '''General Pictures Ravi''', was an Indian film producer of [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] films, industrialist and philanthropist. He was known for a number of critically acclaimed films he produced, such as [[Kanchana Sita]], [[Thampu]], [[Kummatty]], [[Esthappan]], [[Pokkuveyil]], [[Elippathayam]], [[Manju (film)|Manju]], [[Mukhamukham]], [[Anantaram]] and [[Vidheyan]]. Nair was credited with fostering the [[art film]] movement in Malayalam cinema during the period from the 1970s to the 1990s.<ref name="Mathrubhumi">{{cite web | url=http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/Programs/Episode/6114/a-meaningful-producer-who-stood-for-meaningful-cinema/E | title=Mathrubhumi | publisher=Mathrubhumi | date=2014 | access-date=6 December 2014 | archive-date=27 April 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427034954/http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/Programs/Episode/6114/a-meaningful-producer-who-stood-for-meaningful-cinema/E | url-status=dead }}</ref> A multiple recipient of [[National Film Awards|National]] and [[Kerala State Film Awards|State film awards]], Nair was awarded the [[J. C. Daniel Award]] by the [[Government of Kerala]], in 2008, for his contributions to Malayalam cinema.<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/The-alchemist-of-cinema/article15938715.ece | title=The alchemist of cinema | newspaper=The Hindu | date=19 June 2009 | first=C. S. | last=Venkiteswaran | access-date=4 September 2018 }}</ref><ref name="The New Indian Express">{{cite web | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article104502.ece?service=print | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223124128/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article104502.ece?service=print | url-status=dead | archive-date=23 December 2014 | title=The New Indian Express | publisher=The New Indian Express | date=2009 | access-date=6 December 2014}}</ref>

==Biography==
K. Ravindran Nair was the fifth son of ''Vendor'' Krishna Pillai, one of the cashew processing pioneers of Kerala.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} His passion for literature and arts brought him into [[Malayalam cinema]] and in 1967, he established ''General Pictures'' under the banner of which he produced his first movie, [[Anweshichu Kandethiyilla]], directed by [[P. Bhaskaran]].<ref name="The alchemist of Cinema">{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/article658871.ece | title=The alchemist of Cinema | work=The Hindu | date=19 June 2009 | access-date=6 December 2014}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2023}}<ref name="Kollam City">{{cite web | url=http://kollamcity.in/k-ravindran-nair | title=Kollam City | publisher=Kollam City | date=2014 | access-date=6 December 2014 | url-status=usurped | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208164151/http://kollamcity.in/k-ravindran-nair | archive-date=8 December 2014 }}</ref> This was followed by two more films the next year, [[Kattukurangu]] and [[Lakshaprabhu]], both directed by Bhaskaran. Ravi, as he is generally known, was silent for the next few years till he came out with his next film, [[Achani (film)|Achani]], an [[A. Vincent]] movie, in 1973, which earned him the moniker, ''Achani Ravi''. The film was reported to be a commercial success like his earlier films and Ravi is known to have contributed the returns from the movie to building a Public Library in Kollam,<ref name="Thiruvananthapuram First">{{cite web |date=11 June 2014 |title=Thiruvananthapuram First |url=http://www.thiruvananthapuramfirst.in/?p=244 |access-date=6 December 2014 |publisher=Thiruvananthapuram First}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2023}}<ref name="Achani">{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/achani-1973/article6044438.ece | title=Achani | publisher=Achani | date=25 May 2014 | access-date=6 December 2014}}</ref> of which he was a founder member and honorary secretary.<ref name="Thiruvananthapuram First" />{{Failed verification|date=June 2023}}

1977 marked a new chapter in Nair's life with the first of his films with the filmmaker [[G. Aravindan]], [[Kanchana Sita]] releasing that year. This was followed by four more Aravindan films, [[Thampu]] (1978), [[Kummatty]] (1979), [[Esthappan]] (1979) and [[Pokkuveyil]] (1981).<ref name="The alchemist of Cinema" /> {{Failed verification|date=June 2023}} <ref name="Kollam City" /> The next film he produced, [[Elippathayam]] (1981), was directed by [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]. Three more films, [[Mukhamukham]] (1984), [[Anantaram]] (1987) and [[Vidheyan]] (1993), with the same director were released in the ensuing years. In between, he also produced a film, [[Manju (film)|Manju]] (1982) for the [[Jnanpith]] and [[National Film Awards|National Film award]] winner, [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]].<ref name="The alchemist of Cinema" />{{Failed verification|date=June 2023}}<ref name="Kollam City" />

Nair produced a total of 14 films for which he received 18 awards before he retired from cinema.<ref name="Ee Vazhitharayil">{{cite AV media | url=http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/Programs/Episode/6114/a-meaningful-producer-who-stood-for-meaningful-cinema/E | title=Ee Vazhitharayil (Along this pathway) | publisher=Mathrubhumi News | date=2014 | medium=Documentary | location=Kerala | access-date=6 December 2014 | archive-date=27 April 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427034954/http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/Programs/Episode/6114/a-meaningful-producer-who-stood-for-meaningful-cinema/E | url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2023}}

==Personal life and death==
Usha Ravi, Nair's wife, was a playback singer having sung in movies such as [[Thampu]], Aambal poovu and Detective 909.<ref name="Usha Ravi">{{cite web | url=http://www.kaumudi.com/innerpage1.php?newsid=41684 | title=Usha Ravi | publisher=Kaumudi | date=3 October 2013 | access-date=6 December 2014 | archive-date=13 December 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213043330/http://www.kaumudi.com/innerpage1.php?newsid=41684 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Usha died on 2 October 2013.<ref name="Usha Ravi" />{{Failed verification|date=June 2023}}

Nair died on 8 July 2023, at the age of 90.<ref>{{cite news |title=Famous Film Producer Achani Ravi Passes Away |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=1103666 |access-date=8 July 2023 |publisher=Kaumudi Online |date=8 July 2023}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="0" width="100%"
! Film
! Year
! Director
! Awards
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|-BHAI NIRMAL SINGH JI ARTIST SHRI AMRITSAR SAHIB PUNJAB

|''[[Anweshichu Kandethiyilla]]''||1967||[[P. Bhaskaran]]||[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam|National Film Award]]<ref name="15thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/15th_nff_1967.pdf|title=15th National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|[[Kattukurangu]]||1968||[[P. Bhaskaran]]||-
|-
|[[Lakshaprabhu]]||1968||[[P. Bhaskaran]]||-
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|[[Achani (film)|Achani]]||1973||[[A. Vincent]]||-
|-
|[[Kanchana Sita]]||1977||[[G. Aravindan]]||[[National Film Award for Best Direction]]<ref name="25thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/25th_nff_1977.pdf|title=25th National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=4 October 2011|page=2,44}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|[[Thampu]]||1978||[[G. Aravindan]]||[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam|National Film Award]]<ref name="26thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/26th_NFA.pdf|title=26th National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref>
|-
|[[Kummatty]]||1979||[[G. Aravindan]]||[[Kerala State Film Award for Best Children's Film|Kerala State Film Award]]<ref name="1979 Film Awards">{{cite web | url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawares.htm | title=1979 Film Awards | publisher=Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala | access-date=6 December 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232254/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawares.htm | archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref>
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|[[Esthappan]]||1979||[[G. Aravindan]]||[[Kerala State Film Award]]<ref name="1979 Film Awards" />
|-
|[[Pokkuveyil]]||1981||[[G. Aravindan]]||-
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|[[Elippathayam]]||1981||[[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]||[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam|National Film Award]]<ref name="29thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/29th_nff_1982.pdf|title=29th National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> [[Kerala State Film Award]]<ref name="1979 Film Awards" />
|-
|[[Manju (film)|Manju]]||1982||[[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]]||-
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|[[Mukhamukham]]||1984||[[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]||[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam|National Film Award]]<ref name="32ndawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/32nd_nff_1985.pdf|title=32nd National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref>
|-
|[[Anantaram]]||1987||[[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]||[[National Film Award for Best Direction]]<ref name="35thawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/35th_nff_1988.pdf|title=35th National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=9 January 2012|pages=12–13}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=#edf3fe
|[[Vidheyan]]||1993||[[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]||[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam|National Film Award]]<ref name="41stawardPDF">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/41st_nff_1994.pdf|title=41st National Film Awards|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=3 March 2012}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[G. Aravindan]]
* [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]
* [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]]
* [[P. Bhaskaran]]
* [[A. Vincent]]
{{div col end}}
{{Portal|India}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2701/stories/19890610160.htm | title=Aravindan's art | author=Sashi Kumar | journal=Frontline |date=January 2010 | volume=27 | issue=1}}

==External links==
* {{cite AV media | url=http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/Programs/Episode/6114/a-meaningful-producer-who-stood-for-meaningful-cinema/E | title=Ee Vazhitharayil (Along this pathway) | publisher=Mathrubhumi News | date=2014 | medium=Documentary | location=Kerala | access-date=6 December 2014 | archive-date=27 April 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427034954/http://mathrubhuminews.in/ee/Programs/Episode/6114/a-meaningful-producer-who-stood-for-meaningful-cinema/E | url-status=dead }}
* {{imdb name|0619754}}

{{J. C. Daniel Award}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nair, K. Ravindran}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2023 deaths]]
[[Category:J. C. Daniel Award winners]]
[[Category:Kerala State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Kollam]]
[[Category:Indian philanthropists]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:Film producers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Malayalam film producers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian businesspeople]]

Chudawa

2025-01-13T10:21:10Z

KarmaConyers: formatting fix

{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{use Indian English|date=January 2018}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Chudawa
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village/Railway station
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra
| coordinates = {{coord|19.1805379|N|77.020966|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Parbhani district|Parbhani]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Gram panchayat]]
| governing_body =
| leader_title = Sarpanch
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 384
| population_total = 3657
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Chudawekar
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 431511
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 02452
| registration_plate = MH-22
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Chudawa''' or '''Chudava''' is a village and railway station on [[Purna]] taluka of [[Parbhani district]] in [[Indian state]] of [[Maharashtra]]. It is 12 km away from [[Purna]].

==Demography==
*As per 2011 census, Chudawa has total 696 families residing. Village has population of 3,657 of which 1,853 were males while 1,804 were females.
*Average Sex Ratio of village is 974 which is higher than Maharashtra state average of 929.
*Literacy rate of village was 74% compared to 82.95% of Maharashtra. Male literacy rate was 85.5% while female literacy rate was 63%.
*[[Schedule Caste]] (SC) constitutes 30% of total population while [[Schedule Tribe]] was 2.7%.

==Railway station==
Chudawa railway station, whose code is CRU, is a part of [[Indian Railways]]' [[South Central Railway zone]]. It lies at an elevation of {{convert|392|m|ft}} and is in [[Hazur Sahib Nanded railway station|Hazur Sahib Nanded division]] of [[Parbhani]] district. The station is served by 16 daily diesel trains and has two platforms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiarailinfo.com/train/nanded-manmad-passenger-57542-ned-to-mmr/3344 |title=57542/Nanded - Manmad Passenger (UnReserved) - Hazur Sahib Nanded/NED to Manmad/MMR |publisher=India Rail Info |date= |accessdate=2015-09-12}}</ref>

==Distances==
Following table shows distance of Chudawa from some of major cities.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! City !! Distance (km)
|-
| [[Nanded]] || 20
|-
| [[Purna]] || 12
|-
|[[Basmath|Basmat]]
|20
|-
| [[Loha, Nanded|Loha]] || 27
|-
| [[Parbhani]] || 42
|-
| [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]] || 221
|-
| [[Mumbai]] || 526
|}

==village administration==
{{Portal|India}}
{{reflist}}

{{Parbhani district villages}}Administration in chudawa village.

SARPANCH ( VILLAGE HEAD ) - RANJANA SHRIDHAR DESAI

DEPUTY SARPANCH - SUBHASH PANDURANG DESAI
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!school and colleges
!Name of the institute
|-
|school
|Guru jamnadas maharaj primary school, chudawa
|-
|school
|ZP high school, chudawa.
|-
|school
|kendriya primary school, chudawa
|-
|College
|chatrapati sambhaji jr. college, chudawa
|}

[[Category:Villages in Parbhani district]]

Rashi Kanojiya

2024-12-22T17:54:01Z

KarmaConyers: creating...

{{Short description|Indian cricketer (born 1998)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Rashi Kanojiya
| female = true
| image =
| caption =
| fullname = Rashi Kanojiya
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1998|8|20|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Agra]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| nickname =
| heightft =
| heightinch =
| heightm =
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = [[Left-arm orthodox spin|Slow left-arm orthodox]]
| role = [[Bowling (cricket)|Bowler]]

| international = true
| internationalspan =
| country = India

| onetest =
| testdebutdate =
| testdebutyear =
| testdebutagainst =
| testcap =
| lasttestdate =
| lasttestyear =
| lasttestagainst =

| odidebutdate =
| odidebutyear =
| odidebutagainst =
| odicap =
| lastodidate =
| lastodiyear =
| lastodiagainst =

| oneT20I = true
| T20Idebutdate = 13 July
| T20Idebutyear = 2023
| T20Idebutagainst = Bangladesh
| T20Icap = 76
| lastT20Idate =
| lastT20Iyear =
| lastT20Iagainst =

| club1 = [[Uttar Pradesh women's cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]
| year1 = {{nowrap|2016/17–present}}
| club2 = [[IPL Supernovas|Supernovas]]
| year2 = 2022

| columns = 3

| column1 = [[Women's Twenty20 International|WT20I]]
| matches1 = 1
| runs1 = –
| bat avg1 = –
| 100s/50s1 = –
| top score1 = –
| deliveries1 = 24
| wickets1 = 0
| bowl avg1 = –
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = –
| catches/stumpings1 = 0/–

| column2 = [[List A cricket|WLA]]
| matches2 = 37
| runs2 = 63
| bat avg2 = 6.30
| 100s/50s2 = 0/0
| top score2 = 14
| deliveries2 = 2,029
| wickets2 = 57
| bowl avg2 = 16.50
| fivefor2 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = 4/17
| catches/stumpings2 = 9/–

| column3 = [[Women's Twenty20|WT20]]
| matches3 = 43
| runs3 = 8
| bat avg3 = –
| 100s/50s3 = 0/0
| top score3 = 3[[not out|*]]
| deliveries3 = 894
| wickets3 = 48
| bowl avg3 = 16.45
| fivefor3 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| best bowling3 = 3/3
| catches/stumpings3 = 6/–

| date = 2 November 2023
| source = https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/1907/1907216/1907216.html CricketArchive
}}
'''Rashi Kanojiya''' (born 20 August 1998) is an Indian [[cricket]]er who currently plays for [[Uttar Pradesh women's cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]. She plays as a [[Left-arm orthodox spin|slow left-arm orthodox]] [[Bowling (cricket)|bowler]].<ref name="Cricinfo">{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/rashi-kanojiya-1213233 |title=Player Profile: Rashi Kanojiya |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref><ref name="CricketArchive">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/1907/1907216/1907216.html |title=Player Profile: Rashi Kanojiya |work=CricketArchive |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref>

She made her international debut in July 2023, in a [[Women's Twenty20 International|Twenty20 International]] for [[India women's national cricket team|India]] against [[Bangladesh women's national cricket team|Bangladesh]].<ref name="t20idebut">{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/india-women-in-bangladesh-2023-1381943/bangladesh-women-vs-india-women-3rd-t20i-1382165/match-report |title=Shamima, spinners steer tricky chase to hand Bangladesh win |work=ESPNcricinfo |date=13 July 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref>

==Early life==
Kanojiya was born on 20 August 1998 in [[Agra]], [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="CricketArchive"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/spinner-rashi-kanojiya-the-latest-from-agra-s-cricket-nurseries-to-india-squad-101688395701672.html |title=Spinner Rashi Kanojiya the latest from Agra’s cricket nurseries to India squad |work=Hindustan Times |date=3 July 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref>

==Domestic career==
Kanojiya made her debut for [[Uttar Pradesh women's cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]] in the [[2016–17 Senior Women's T20 League]] against [[Goa women's cricket team|Goa]], taking 2/12 from her 4 overs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/1021/1021719.html |title=Goa Women v Uttar Pradesh Women, 3 January 2017 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref> She was the joint-leading wicket-taker in the [[2021–22 Women's Senior One Day Trophy]], with 15 wickets at an average of 12.40.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/35/Inter_State_Womens_One_Day_Competition_2021-22/Bowling_by_Wickets.html | title=Bowling in Inter State Women's One Day Competition 2021/22 (Ordered by Wickets) |publisher=CricketArchive |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref> She took her [[List A cricket|List A]] best bowling figures in that tournament, with 4/17 from 10 overs against [[Pondicherry women's cricket team|Pondicherry]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/1187/1187231.html |title=Puducherry Women v Uttar Pradesh Women, 6 November 2021 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref> She was also the joint-leading wicket-taker in the [[2022–23 Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20]], with 10 wickets at an average of 9.50.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bcci.tv/domestic/243/senior-womens-inter-zonal-t20 |title=Senior Women's Inter Zonal T20/Stats |publisher=BCCI |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref>

She played for [[IPL Supernovas|Supernovas]] in the [[2022 Women's T20 Challenge]], appearing in one match, the final, as her side won the tournament.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bcci.tv/articles/2022/news/55555885/bcci-announces-squads-for-my11circle-women-s-t20-challenge |title=BCCI announces squads for My11Circle Women's T20 Challenge |publisher=BCCI |date=16 May 2022 |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/women-s-t20-challenge-2022-1314902/supernovas-vs-velocity-final-1314906/full-scorecard |title=Final (N), Pune, May 28 2022, Women's T20 Challenge: Supernovas v Velocity |work=ESPNcricinfo |date=13 July 2023 |access-date=2 November 2023}}</ref>

==International career==
In July 2023, Kanojiya was named in her first [[India women's national cricket team|India]] squad, for the side's upcoming [[India women's cricket team in Bangladesh in 2023|series against Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Senior players missing as India name limited-overs squad for Bangladesh series |url=https://icc-cricket.com/news/3564768 |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=30 October 2023}}</ref> She made her debut in the third [[Women's Twenty20 International|Twenty20 International]] of the series, bowling four overs for 31 runs.<ref name="t20idebut"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=1213233}}
* {{cricketarchive|id=1907216}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kanojiya, Rashi}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian women cricketers]]
[[Category:India women Twenty20 International cricketers]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh women cricketers]]
[[Category:IPL Supernovas cricketers]]

Sadar, Prayagraj

2024-08-04T19:15:10Z

KarmaConyers: put up initial post nd citations...

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sadar, Prayagraj
| native_name = Sadar
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh
| coordinates = {{coord|25.21|N|82.51|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Prayagraj district|Prayagraj]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = UP-70
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1000:1038 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Sadar''' is a town and a [[nagar panchayat]] in [[Prayagraj district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. <ref name=location>{{cite news|title=District administration|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-02-14/allahabad/31058850_1_mobile-number-control-room-assembly-seat|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103071026/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-02-14/allahabad/31058850_1_mobile-number-control-room-assembly-seat|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|accessdate=9 August 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Prayagraj district}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Prayagraj district]]

{{Prayagraj-geo-stub}}

Sanand Mitra

2024-07-26T08:21:04Z

KarmaConyers:

{{short description|Indian archer}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2022}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more footnotes needed|date=February 2010}}
{{BLP sources|date=February 2010}}
{{advert|date=October 2022}}
}}

[[File:Sanand Mitra Shooting.jpg|thumb|Shooting]]

'''Sanand Salil Mitra''' (born 5 May 1983) is an [[India|Indian]] national [[Compound archery|compound archer]]. He was twice awarded a national [[gold medal]] in the sport.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-01-31 |title=This 'Robin Hood' wants all of India sporting a bow and arrow |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/pune-news/former-national-player-on-a-mission-to-make-archery-people-friendly/story-lYSRIBhLijXWQFExm17R7L.html |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/footprints-to-turn-bigger-this-year/articleshow/7550131.cms | title='Footprints' to turn bigger this year | newspaper=The Times of India | date=22 February 2011 | accessdate=8 November 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* https://web.archive.org/web/20140130032956/http://www.dhanurved.org/
* [https://teerkhelaresults.com/ Teer Results]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mitra, Sanand}}
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male archers]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Chhattisgarh]]

{{India-sport-bio-stub}}