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Khairthal-Tijara district

2023-10-05T17:44:50Z

K J Thakur:

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Khairthal-Tijara district
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Rajasthan|District]] of [[Rajasthan]]
| total_type = Total
| native_name =
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Khairthal-Tijara in Rajasthan (India).svg
| map_caption = Location of Khairthal-Tijara district in Rajasthan
| coordinates =
| coor_pinpoint =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajasthan]]
| subdivision_type2 = Division
| subdivision_name2 = [[Jaipur division|Jaipur]]
| established_title = Established
| established_date = August 2023
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Tijara]]
| parts_type = [[Tehsils of India|Tehsils]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_footnotes =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 966,821
| population_footnotes = <ref name="districtcensus"/>
| population_urban =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 =
| demographics1_title1 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]]
| demographics1_info1 =
| demographics1_title2 = Sex ratio
| demographics1_info2 =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| leader_title2 =
| leader_name2 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| registration_plate =
| blank_name_sec1 =
| blank_info_sec1 =
| blank_name_sec2 =
| blank_info_sec2 =
| website =
| official_name =
}}

'''Khairthal-Tijara district''' is a district of the Indian state of Rajasthan. It was carved out of erstwhile [[Alwar district]] on 7 August 2023 by Chief Minister [[Ashok Gehlot|Ashok Gelhot]].

==Demographics==
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Khairthal-Tijara district (2011)<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=Table C-01 Population By Religion - Rajasthan|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11390/download/14503/DDW08C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=census.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|72.66}}
{{bar percent|[[Rajasthani Muslims|Islam]]|green|24.23}}
{{bar percent|[[Sikhism]]|darkkhaki|2.77}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.34}}
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, the territory which would become Khairthal-Tijara district had a population of 966,821. The district had a population of 511,007 males and 455,814 females, with a sex ratio of 892 females per 1000 males. 189,866 (19.64%) lived in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes made up 165,680 (17.14%) and 9,373 (0.97%) respectively.<ref name="districtcensus">{{Cite web |title=District Census Handbook 2011 - Alwar|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1058/download/3246/DH_2011_0806_PART_A_DCHB_ALWAR.pdf|website=[[Census of India]]|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
| thumb = left
| caption = Languages in Khairthal-Tijara District (2011)
|label1 = [[Hindi]] |value1 = 76.94 |color1 = orange
|label2 = [[Mewati language|Mewati]] |value2 = 12.69 |color2 = indianred
|label3 = [[Rath tribe|Rathi]] |value3 = 2.98 |color3 = salmon
|label4 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] |value4 = 2.88 |color4 = pink
|label5 = Others |value5 = 4.51 |color5 = Grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 76.94% of the population spoke [[Hindi]], 12.69% [[Mewati language|Mewati]], 2.98% [[Rath tribe|Rathi]] and 2.88% [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] as their first language.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10220/download/13332/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-0800.XLSX|title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Rajasthan |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Districts of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Khairthal-Tijara district]]

Manprit Sarkaria

2023-09-24T18:14:09Z

K J Thakur: Created page with '{{Infobox football biography | name = Manprit Sarkaria | fullname = | image = SC Wiener Neustadt vs. FK Austria Wien II 2018-08-17 (097).jpg | b...'

{{short description|Austrian footballer (born 1996)}}
{{Expand language|topic=|langcode=de|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Manprit Sarkaria
| fullname =
| image = SC Wiener Neustadt vs. FK Austria Wien II 2018-08-17 (097).jpg
| caption = Sarkaria with Austria Wien in 2018
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1996|8|26}}
| birth_place = [[Austria]]
| height = 1.80 m
| position = [[Forward (association football)#Winger|Left winger]]
| currentclub = [[SK Sturm Graz|Sturm Graz]]
| clubnumber = 11
| years1 = 2017–2021 | clubs1 = [[FK Austria Wien|Austria Wien]] | caps1 = 69 | goals1 = 11
| years2 = 2021– | clubs2 = [[SK Sturm Graz|Sturm Graz]] | caps2 = 63 | goals2 = 24
| pcupdate = 16 September 2023
}}

'''Manprit Sarkaria''' (born 26 August 1996) is an Austrian professional footballer who plays for [[SK Sturm Graz|Sturm Graz]] as a [[Forward (association football)#Winger|left winger]].<ref>{{soccerway|manprit-sarkaria/344959}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Born in Austria, Sarkaria is a [[Sikh]]<ref>https://www.instagram.com/p/CV5QQZOA8n7/?hl=en</ref> of Indian [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] descent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fk-austria.at/de/n/news/2018/05/manprit-sarkaria--jungveilchen-im-portraet/|title=FK Austria Wien - Manprit Sarkaria: Jungveilchen im Porträt|website=www.fk-austria.at|access-date=22 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522200520/http://www.fk-austria.at/de/n/news/2018/05/manprit-sarkaria--jungveilchen-im-portraet/|archive-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> His family are from Amritsar in Punjab, India. Sarkaria has stated his free kick technique is inspired by former Brazilian footballer [[Ronaldinho]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sarkaria: A crook like Ronaldinho |work=laola1 |url=https://www.laola1.at/de/red/fussball/bundesliga/news/manprit-sarkaria--ein-schlitzohr-wie-ronaldinho/}}</ref>

== Career ==
In May 2023, Sarkaria scored two crucial goals for [[Sturm Graz]] to win the [[Austrian Cup]] against [[SK Rapid Wien|Rapid Wien]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Austrian Cup Final: Rapid Wien & Sturm Graz fans Light Up stadium with flares, Beautiful Scenes emerge from 28 Black Area – Check Out |work=Insider Sport |url=https://www.insidesport.in/austrian-cup-final-watch-rapid-wien-sturm-graz-fans-light-up-stadium-with-flares-beautiful-scenes-emerge-from-28-black-area-check-out/}}</ref> He also became the top scorer during the [[2022–23 Austrian Cup]] campaign. Sturm Graz Manager [[Christian Ilzer]], stated "Because he managed to get out of this difficult situation solely through his own work, through his professional behavior. He was massively rewarded for that with the cup victory."<ref>{{Cite news |title=Manprit Sarkaria - from noble reservist to cup winner and top scorer |work=Kicker |url=https://www.kicker.de/manprit-sarkaria-vom-edelreservisten-zum-cup-winner-und-torschuetzenkoenig-949320/artikel}}</ref>

==Career statistics==

{{updated|match played 21 September 2023}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|Cup
!colspan="2"|Continental
!colspan="2"|Other
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
|rowspan="5"|[[FK Austria Wien|Austria Wien]]
|[[2017–18 Austrian Football Bundesliga|2017–18]]
|[[Austrian Football Bundesliga|Austrian Bundesliga]]
|5||0||1||0||2{{efn|name=UEL|Appearance(s) in [[UEFA Europa League]]}}||0||colspan="2"|—||8||0
|-
|[[2018–19 Austrian Football Bundesliga|2018–19]]
|Austrian Bundesliga
|7||0||1||0||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||8||0
|-
|[[2019–20 Austrian Football Bundesliga|2019–20]]
|Austrian Bundesliga
|24||4||0||0||1{{efn|name=UEL}}||0||colspan="2"|—||25||4
|-
|[[2020–21 Austrian Football Bundesliga|2020–21]]
|Austrian Bundesliga
|33||7||4||3||colspan="2"|—||colspan="2"|—||37||10
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!69!!11!!6!!3!!3!!0!!colspan="2"|—!!78!!14
|-
|rowspan="4"|[[SK Sturm Graz|Sturm Graz]]
|[[2021–22 SK Sturm Graz season|2021–22]]
|Austrian Bundesliga
|31||13||3||4||8{{efn|name=UEL}}||0||colspan="2"|—||42||17
|-
|[[2022–23 SK Sturm Graz season|2022–23]]
|Austrian Bundesliga
|28||9||6||6||6{{efn|Two appearances in [[UEFA Champions League]], four appearances in UEFA Europa League}}||0||colspan="2"|—||40||15
|-
|[[2023–24 Austrian Football Bundesliga|2023–24]]
|Austrian Bundesliga
|4||2||1||0||1{{efn|name=UEL}}||0||colspan="2"|—||6||2
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!63!!24!!10!!10!!15!!0!!colspan="2"|—!!88!!34
|-
!colspan="3"|Career total
!132!!35!!16!!13!!18!!0!!0!!0!!166!!48
|}
{{notelist}}

==Honours==
'''Individual'''
* [[Austrian Football Bundesliga|Austrian Bundesliga]] Team of the Year: [[2021–22 Austrian Football Bundesliga#Team of the Year|2021–22]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bundesliga.at - Team der Saison - ADMIRAL Bundesliga |url=https://www.bundesliga.at/de/redaktion/news/21-22/team-der-saison---admiral-bundesliga/ |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=www.bundesliga.at}}</ref>

'''Sturm Graz'''
* [[Austrian Cup]]: [[2022–23 Austrian Cup|2022–23]]

== See also ==
*[[List of Sikh Footballers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{SK Sturm Graz squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sarkaria, Manprit}}
[[Category:1996 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sikhs]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]
[[Category:Austrian men's footballers]]
[[Category:Austrian people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Men's association football midfielders]]
[[Category:FK Austria Wien players]]
[[Category:SK Sturm Graz players]]
[[Category:Austrian Football Bundesliga players]]

{{Austria-footy-midfielder-stub}}

Erra Deexitha

2023-09-15T20:24:38Z

K J Thakur: Added a new release to the collection.

'''Erra Deexitha''' (born 25 September 1997) is an Indian [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifter]] from Mahabubabad, Telangana, who competes in the 59 kg weight class.

== Early life ==
Her father was an employee of the State Electricity Department and her mother is a home maker. Deexitha started weightlifting at the age of nine in 2006 at a local gymnasium. After joining the Sports Hostel she learnt the basics from coaches SA Singh and Olympian P Manikayala Rao.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=More women take up weightlifting after India's great medal success. A champ in the making. |url=https://bookofachievers.com/articles/women-weightlifters-are-increasing-hyderabads-girl-makes-international-news |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=BookOfAchievers |language=en-IN}}</ref> She did her BA at Nizam College, Hyderabad.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Srivastava |first=Namrata |title=Erra Deexitha: A weighty invite |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/in-other-news/251016/erra-deexitha-a-weighty-invite.html |url-status=live |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com}}</ref> Currently she is ranked 8th in the 53Kg class in the World Rankings.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=A Look At Erra Deexitha Gold's Weightlifting Career |url=https://sportsbeatsindia.com/player/erra-deexitha/ |access-date=2023-09-13 |website=sportsbeatsindia.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Tournaments ==

* 2012: Gold at the Commonwealth Youth Championship (53kg)<ref name=":2" />

* 2012: IWF Youth Championship (53kg)

* 2013: Commonwealth Youth Championship; (53kg)

* 2014: Asian Youth Championship; (53kg)

* November 2016: FISU World University Championships, Mexico representing Osmania University; (58kg)<ref name=":0" />

* 2017: Asian Junior Championships, Kathmandu, Nepal; (58kg)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Correspondent |first=DC |title=Commonwealth Weightlifting Championships: Telangana's Erra Deexitha lifts gold medal |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/in-other-news/070917/commonwealth-weightlifting-championships-telanganas-erra-deexitha-lifts-gold-medal.html |url-status=live |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com}}</ref>

* 2017: Gold at Commonwealth Junior Championship at Gold Coast, Australia;

* 2018: Commonwealth Games, Silver;<ref name=":3" />

* 2019: Commonwealth Weightlifting Championship, Bronze;<ref name=":3" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Deexitha, Erra}}
[[Category:1997 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian female weightlifters]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Telangana]]

Ujjal Dosanjh

2023-08-08T08:21:57Z

K J Thakur: added category:Canadian Sikhs

{{Short description|Canadian politician (born 1947)}}
{{Use Canadian English}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix = [[The Honourable]]
| name = {{ubl|Ujjal Dev Dosanjh|{{nobold|{{lang|pa|ਉੱਜਲ ਦੇਵ ਦੁਸਾਂਝ}}}}}}
| honorific-suffix = [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] [[King's Counsel|KC]]
| image = File:Ujjal Dosanjh2011.JPG
| caption = Dosanjh in 2011
| riding1 = [[Vancouver South]]
| parliament1 = Canadian
| term_start1 = June 28, 2004
| term_end1 = May 2, 2011
| predecessor1 = [[Herb Dhaliwal]]
| successor1 = [[Wai Young]]
| office = [[Minister of Health (Canada)|Minister of Health]]
| term_start = July 20, 2004
| term_end = February 5, 2006
| primeminister = [[Paul Martin]]
| predecessor = [[Pierre Pettigrew]]
| successor = [[Tony Clement]]
| order2 = 33rd
| office2 = Premier of British Columbia
| term_start2 = February 24, 2000
| term_end2 = June 5, 2001
| predecessor2 = [[Dan Miller (Canadian politician)|Dan Miller]]
| successor2 = [[Gordon Campbell]]
| monarch2 = [[Elizabeth II]]
| lieutenant_governor2 = [[Garde Gardom]]
| office3 = Leader of the [[British Columbia New Democratic Party]]
| term_start3 = February 24, 2000
| term_end3 = May 16, 2001
| predecessor3 = [[Dan Miller (Canadian politician)|Dan Miller]] (interim)
| successor3 = [[Joy MacPhail]] (interim)
| constituency_AM4 = [[Vancouver-Kensington]]
| assembly4 = British Columbia Legislative
| term_start4 = October 17, 1991
| term_end4 = May 16, 2001
| predecessor4 = ''Riding Established''
| successor4 = [[Patrick Wong]]
| office5 = [[Attorney General of British Columbia]]
| term_start5 = August 16, 1995
| term_end5 = February 29, 2000
| premier5 = [[Mike Harcourt]] [[Glen Clark]] [[Dan Miller (Canadian politician)|Dan Miller]]
| predecessor5 = [[Colin Gabelmann]]
| successor5 = [[Andrew Petter]]
| office6 = [[Executive Council of British Columbia|Minister responsible for multiculturalism and Human Rights]]
| term_start6 = May 10, 1995
| term_end6 = February 29, 2000
| premier6 = [[Mike Harcourt]] [[Glen Clark]] [[Dan Miller (Canadian politician)|Dan Miller]]
| predecessor6 = [[Moe Sihota]]
| successor6 = [[Sue Hammell]]
| office7 = [[Executive Council of British Columbia|Minister of Government Services]]
| term_start7 = April 10, 1995
| term_end7 = August 16, 1995
| premier7 = [[Mike Harcourt]]
| predecessor7 = [[Arthur Charbonneau]]
| successor7 = [[Colin Gabelmann]]
| office8 = [[Executive Council of British Columbia|Minister responsible for sports]]
| term_start8 = April 10, 1995
| term_end8 = August 16, 1995
| predecessor8 = [[Arthur Charbonneau]]
| premier8 = [[Mike Harcourt]]
| successor8 = [[Colin Gabelmann]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1947|9|9}}
| birth_place = [[Dosanjh Kalan]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party = [[Liberal Party of Canada]] (2004–present)
| otherparty = {{ubl|[[British Columbia New Democratic Party]]|[[New Democratic Party of Canada]] (1979–2002)}}
| spouse = Raminder Dosanjh
| profession = Lawyer
| alma_mater = {{ubl|[[Simon Fraser University]]|[[University of British Columbia]]|[[Langara College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://langara.ca/alumni/outstanding-alumni/past-recipients/2010-hon-ujjal-dev-sing-dosanjh.html|title=Outstanding Alumni|publisher=Langara College |access-date=October 8, 2017}}</ref>}}
| website =
}}
'''Ujjal Dev Dosanjh''', {{Post-nominals|country=CAN|PC|KC}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|uː|dʒ|əl|_|d|oʊ|ˈ|s|ɑː|n|dʒ}};<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://names.voa.gov/sounds/2218.mp3|title=VOA Pronunciation Guide}}</ref> {{lang-pa|ਉੱਜਲ ਦੇਵ ਦੁਸਾਂਝ}}; born September 9, 1947) is a [[Canadians|Canadian]] lawyer and politician. He served as the 33rd [[premier of British Columbia]] from 2000 to 2001 and as a [[Liberal Party of Canada]] member of Parliament from 2004 to 2011. He was [[Minister of Health (Canada)|minister of health]] from 2004 until 2006, when the party lost government. He then served in the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|Official Opposition]] from January 2006 until 2011. Dosanjh was one of four [[List of Visible Minority Canadian Cabinet Ministers|visible minorities]] to serve in [[Paul Martin]]'s Ministry.

Prior to being involved in federal politics, he spent ten years in provincial politics. He was elected in the [[Vancouver-Kensington]] riding in 1991 as a member of the [[British Columbia New Democratic Party]] (BC NDP) and re-elected there in 1996. He served as the [[Attorney General of British Columbia]] from August 1995 to February 2000. When the leader of his party resigned in 1999, Dosanjh put himself forward as a candidate and won the leadership vote. With the win he became Canada's first [[Indo-Canadian]] [[List of Asian-Canadian First Ministers|provincial leader]]. He served as the [[List of Premiers of British Columbia|33rd]] [[Premier of British Columbia]] until June 2001 when he lost the [[2001 British Columbia general election|province's general election]]. He was the last NDP premier of the province until [[John Horgan]] was elevated to the position in 2017.

Born in a village in the [[Jalandhar district]] of [[Punjab, India]], Dosanjh emigrated to the United Kingdom at the age of 17 before moving to Canada almost four years later. He worked numerous manual labour jobs and attended university, studying political science. He earned his law degree at the [[University of British Columbia]] and opened his own law firm. He has been a vocal opponent of violence and extremism.

==Early life and career==
Ujjal Dosanjh was born in Dosanjh Kalan,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=2505782101&v=photos |title=Niet compatibele browser |publisher=Facebook |access-date=May 17, 2011}}</ref> a village in [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]],<ref>Walton-Roberts, Margaret. 2001. ''[http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/13825/ubc_2001-715523.pdf?sequence=1 Embodied Global Flows: Immigration and Transnational Networks between British Columbia, Canada, and Punjab, India]'' (Ph.D. thesis) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160205002355/http://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/13825/ubc_2001-715523.pdf?sequence%3D1 Archive]), [[University of British Columbia]].[http://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/13825 Profile at] UBC. p. 2 (PDF p. 12/354). "On Thursday February 24th 2000, Ujjal Dosanjh, an Indian immigrant from Dosanjh Kalan village District Jalandhar Punjab,"</ref> [[Punjab, India]] in 1947 after the fall of [[Colonial India#British Raj|British Colonial India]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Parlinfo/Files/Parliamentarian.aspx?Item=ba1fd300-becd-4a2e-ba0c-a6e4696b81e5&Language=E |title= Dosanjh, The Hon. Ujjal, P.C., Q.C., B.A., LL.B. |access-date=February 10, 2009 |work= Parliamentarian File |publisher= Library of Parliament |year= 2009}}</ref> After moving to another village, he lived with his grandfather, Moola Singh Bains, who had established a primary school. Dosanjh gained an early interest in politics from listening to debates between his father, a follower of [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and [[Indian National Congress]], and his grandfather, a former [[British Raj]] freedom fighter and socialist.<ref name=Hunter>{{cite journal |first=Jennifer |last=Hunter |title= A faltering party's search for a new leader |journal= [[Maclean's]] |date= November 29, 1999 |volume=112 |issue=48 |pages= 22–25 }} - [https://web.archive.org/web/20150417130139/http://business.highbeam.com/4341/article-1G1-57790007/faltering-party-search-new-leader-attorney-general Available at] [[HighBeam Business]] "When Dosanjh was ready to be educated, he moved from his parents' home in a small Punjabi village to another small Punjabi village where his grandfather lived. There, he went to a primary school established by Bains."</ref> Dosanjh wanted to pursue an education in political science, but his father wanted him to be a doctor. In 1964, at the age of 17, Dosanjh left India for the United Kingdom where he could pursue his own interests. In London he learned English and worked as an assistant editor for a Punjabi-language newspaper. He emigrated to Canada three and a half years later, arriving in British Columbia on May 12, 1968, to live with his aunt.<ref name=Fotheringham>{{cite journal |first=Allan |last=Fotheringham |title=Dead man smiling |journal=[[Maclean's]] |volume=114 |issue=11 |date=March 12, 2001 |page=60 |url=https://business.highbeam.com/4341/article-1G1-71359981/dead-man-smiling |access-date=September 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901034950/https://business.highbeam.com/4341/article-1G1-71359981/dead-man-smiling |archive-date=September 1, 2016 |url-status = dead|df=mdy-all }}{{subscription required|s}}</ref> He completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in political science. He went on to earn a law degree from the [[University of British Columbia Faculty of Law]] in 1976, and was called to the bar the following year. During this time he taught [[English as a Foreign or Second Language|English as a second language]] courses at [[Vancouver Community College]] and worked as an assistant editor of a local Punjabi newspaper. He established his own law practice in 1979, specializing in family and personal injury law.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ela |last=Dutt |title= Ujjal Dosanjh is appointed Minister of Health; only Indian Canadian in Cabinet |url= http://www.newsindia-times.com/nit/2004/07/30/canada-top12.html |date=July 30, 2004 |access-date=February 7, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061115142343/http://www.newsindia-times.com/nit/2004/07/30/canada-top12.html |archive-date = November 15, 2006}}</ref> His involvement with community organizations included founding the Farm Workers’ Legal Information Service (later Canadian Farm Workers' Union), serving on the board of directors for [[British Columbia Civil Liberties Association|BC Civil Liberties Association]] and the Vancouver Multicultural Society, and the Labour Advocacy Research Association, as well as volunteer work with MOSAIC Immigrant Services Centre, and the South Vancouver Neighbourhood House.<ref>
{{cite book |title= Contemporary Canadian Biographies |chapter= Ujjal Dosanjh: premier and president of the Executive Council of British Columbia |publisher= [[Gale (Cengage)]] |date=March 2000 }}</ref>

A prominent moderate [[Sikh]] in Vancouver, Dosanjh spoke out against violence by [[Sikh extremism|Sikh extremists]] who advocated [[Khalistan]]i independence from India. As a result of these views, in February 1985 he was attacked in the parking lot of his law office by an assailant wielding an iron bar. Dosanjh, 37 at the time, suffered a broken hand and received 80 stitches in his head.<ref name=Fotheringham/><ref name="threat">Hamilton, Dwight. "Terror Threat: International and Homegrown terrorists and their threat to Canada", 2007</ref>

He was targeted again, on 26 December 1999, while he was a member of the [[Legislative Assembly of British Columbia]], when his constituency office was broken into and a [[Molotov cocktail]] left burning on a table.<ref>
{{cite news |author= Herald News Services |title= Dosanjh watch under wraps: Police silent on protection for B.C. attorney general |work=Calgary Herald |date=December 28, 1999 |page=A13}}</ref>

Dosanjh and his wife Raminder have three sons. In April 2000, his middle son, Aseem, was charged with assaulting an Ontario police officer during a bar brawl, but was found not guilty.<ref>{{cite news |title= Premier's son found not guilty of assaulting cop |newspaper= The Province |date=March 13, 2001 |page=A4}}</ref> Dosanjh has travelled back to India several times, on official state business and for personal reasons, since emigrating. In January 2003, he was awarded the [[Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]] (Expatriate Indian Honour) from Indian Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] in New Delhi. The award recognises individual excellence in various fields for persons of Indian origin across the world.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.moia.gov.in/showsublinklevel2.asp?sublink2id=345 |title= Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awardees – 2003 |access-date=February 12, 2009 |publisher= Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081218113533/http://moia.gov.in/showsublinklevel2.asp?sublink2id=345  |archive-date= December 18, 2008}}</ref>

In 2014, author Doug Welbanks published a biography, ''Unbreakable: The Ujjal Dosanjh Story''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Todd|first1=Douglas|title=Dosanjh biography details personal life of anti-extremist|url=https://vancouversun.com/news/staff-blogs/dosanjh-biography-details-personal-life-of-an-anti-extremist|work=Vancouver Sun|date=23 October 2014|access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref>

==Provincial politics==
Dosanjh ran as the [[British Columbia New Democratic Party]] candidate in the [[Vancouver South (provincial electoral district)|Vancouver South]] riding in the [[1979 British Columbia general election|1979]] and [[1983 British Columbia general election|1983]] provincial elections.<ref>{{cite news |first= Kim |last= Bolan |title= Long road to premiership for immigrant from India |work=Vancouver Sun |page= A3 |date= November 8, 1999}}</ref> He lost both times to the [[British Columbia Social Credit Party|BC Social Credit Party]] candidates. He ran in the [[1991 British Columbia general election|1991 provincial election]] in the [[Vancouver-Kensington]] riding where he won as his party came to power. He would be re-elected in that same riding in the [[1996 British Columbia general election|1996 provincial election]]. He spent his first few years as a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly]] as a [[backbencher]]. In 1993, he chaired the Select Standing Committee on Parliamentary Reform, Ethical Conduct, Standing Orders and Private Bills. He served two years as caucus chair for his party<ref name=Feldstein>{{cite journal |last= Feldstein |first= Margaret |author2=Maggie Sieger |date= November 17, 1997 |title= Ujjal Dosanjh |journal= Time Canada |volume= 150 |issue= 20 |pages= 36–37}}</ref> until April 10, 1995, when Premier [[Mike Harcourt]] dismissed [[Robin Blencoe]] from his cabinet and replaced him with Dosanjh as Minister of Government Services and Minister Responsible for Sports.<ref>{{cite news |first= Denise |last= Helm |title= Premier asked to explain Blencoe firing |work= [[Times-Colonist (Victoria)]] |page= 1 |date= May 5, 1995}}</ref> A month later, in a small cabinet shuffle upon the resignation of [[Moe Sihota]], Harcourt added Minister Responsible for Multiculturalism and Human Rights to Dosanjh's portfolio. In another cabinet shuffle, as Sihota was re-instated into the cabinet in August, Dosanjh's portfolio was changed to Minister Responsible for Multiculturalism, Human Rights and Immigration and he was appointed [[Attorney General of British Columbia|Attorney General]].<ref name=Feldstein/>

As Attorney General, Dosanjh oversaw the resolution of the [[Gustafsen Lake Standoff]] involving the [[Secwepemc|Secwepemc Nation]],<ref name=Hunter/> set up a database for registering violent offenders,<ref>{{cite journal |last= Wickens |first= Barbara |date= March 31, 1997 |title= A blacklist of violent sex offenders |journal= Maclean's |volume= 110 |issue= 13}}</ref> established a hate crime division in the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]],<ref name=Feldstein/> and lobbied for more police officers, probation officers, and judiciary.<ref name=Goldberg>{{cite journal |last= Goldberg |first= Kim |date= March 2000 |title= Premier Dosanjh: Lights Out for the NDP? |journal= [[Canadian Dimension]] |volume= 34 |issue= 2 |page=5}}</ref> At the same time his office drew criticism for reducing legal aid and closing courthouses.<ref name=Hunter/> As the Minister Responsible for Multiculturalism, Human Rights and Immigration he successfully lobbied for laws giving same-sex couples the equal rights and responsibilities for child support, custody and access.<ref name=Goldberg/> In early 1999, a special prosecutor under the RCMP opened an investigation into possible influence peddling by Premier [[Glen Clark]] concerning casino licensing. On March 4, after the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) raided the Premier's house, they briefed Attorney General Dosanjh, whose office had to assist, and placed him under a gag order.<ref>{{cite news |first= Vaughn |last= Palmer |title= Ujjal Dosanjh and the Attorney-General defence |work=Vancouver Sun |page= A20 |date= November 6, 1999}}</ref> The order was lifted on August 13, he informed Clark, and called a press conference, after which Clark resigned as Premier. Dosanjh's actions were variously criticized for not informing his party caucus and not going public sooner, and applauded for avoiding perceptions of conflict of interest despite his power to intervene.<ref>{{cite news |first= Jody |last= Paterson |title= Dosanjh just doing his job |work= [[Times-Colonist (Victoria)]] |page= A3 |date= August 31, 1999}}</ref>

==Premier of British Columbia==
The [[British Columbia New Democratic Party leadership elections#Leadership convention, 2000|leadership convention]] to replace Clark was set for February 20, 2000. Dosanjh was among the front runners, along with [[Corky Evans]], [[Gordon Wilson (British Columbia politician)|Gordon Wilson]], and [[Joy MacPhail]] who all had served at various cabinet posts.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Willcocks |first= Paul |date= August 30, 1999 |title= Dubious Achievement Award |journal= Maclean's |volume= 112 |issue= 35| page=17}}</ref> Clark, Wilson and fellow MLA [[Moe Sihota]] campaigned specifically against Dosanjh.<ref name=Hunter/> MacPhail dropped out and endorsed Dosanjh followed by Wilson dropping out and endorsing Evans.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/dosanjh-vs-evans-showdown-in-b-c-1.228755 |title= Dosanjh vs. Evans: showdown in B.C. |access-date=April 15, 2014 |publisher=CBC |location=Canada |date= November 11, 2000}}</ref> Dosanjh was successful and became Premier on February 24, 2000, Canada's first [[Indo-Canadians|Indo-Canadian]] provincial leader.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Hunter |first= Jennifer |title= Survival games |journal= Maclean's |volume= 113 |issue= 10 |pages= 16–17 |date= March 6, 2000}}</ref>

As Premier for two and a half sessions of the 36th Parliament, between February 24, 2000 and June 5, 2001, Dosanjh gave priority to issues of health care, education, and balanced budgets. A boost in government revenue from rapidly expanding oil and gas development,<ref name=Star>{{cite news |title= Just another futile gesture? |work= Toronto Star |page= NR02 |date= December 9, 2000}}</ref> led Dosanjh to direct the Finance Minister to draft balanced budget legislation.<ref name=Leyne>{{cite news |last= Leyne |first= Les |title= NDP's legislative report card runs from A to D- |work= Times – Colonist |page= A8 |date= July 13, 2000}}</ref> With the previous year's budget unexpectedly in surplus and increased revenue expected to continue, Dosanjh was able to keep the provincial budget in surplus while increasing spending by 8% in the 2001 budget year.<ref>{{cite press release |title= Budget 2001 Highlights |publisher = Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations (British Columbia) |date= March 15, 2001 |url= http://www.fin.gov.bc.ca/archive/budget01/bgt2001_highlights.pdf |access-date =February 28, 2009}}</ref> The increased spending was mostly directed to renovations of hospital, public schools and higher education institutions, as well as building cancer treatment centers, lowering post-secondary tuition fees, and creating significantly more new spaces in the province's apprenticeship program and post-secondary institutions.<ref>{{cite press release |title= Budget 2001 News Release |publisher = Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations (British Columbia) |date= March 15, 2001 |url= http://www.fin.gov.bc.ca/archive/budget01/bgt2001_newsrelease.pdf |access-date =February 28, 2009}}</ref> Dosanjh became the first provincial leader to march in a gay pride parade and the provincial government adopted the Definition of Spouse Amendment Act which extended equal rights to same-sex couples.<ref>{{cite news |last= Wockner |first= Rex |title= B.C. Premier does Gay Pride |work= [[Bay Windows (newspaper)|Bay Windows]] |date= August 17, 2000}}</ref> With Dosanjh as Premier the [[Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|Legislative Assembly]] adopted the Tobacco Damages and Health Care Recovery Act which permitted [[tobacco politics|lawsuits against tobacco organizations]] to re-coup associated health care expenses, the Sex Offender Registry Act, and the Protection of Public Participation Act which prevented [[Strategic lawsuit against public participation|lawsuits against citizens who participated in public processes]].<ref name=Leyne/> 

However, the BC NDP were deeply unpopular within the province, reaching a low at 15% support in opinion polls at the time of Glen Clark's resignation as Premier in August 1999.<ref name=Star/> With Dosanjh as leader, support had risen to 21% by August 2000.<ref name=Star/> Dosanjh was consistently ranked higher personal popularity over opposition leader Gordon Campbell until the run-up to the May 16, 2001, provincial election.{{clarify|date=March 2012}}<ref>{{cite journal |last= Wood |first= Chris |date= October 2, 2000 |title= In need of a booster shot |journal= Maclean's |volume= 113 |issue= 40}}</ref><ref name=Star2>{{cite news |title= Dosanjh calls B.C. vote, admitting slim chances |work= Toronto Star |page= NE15 |date= April 19, 2001}}</ref> Dosanjh and the BC NDP knew they would not be reelected, so they concentrated their campaign to a few ridings in the [[Lower Mainland]] which were still considered competitive.<ref>{{cite news |title= Diehards aside, voters say they're sick of the NDP |work= Toronto Star |page= NR04 |date= April 28, 2001}}</ref> Their campaign focused on the expanding economy, issues of health care and education, and Dosanjh's personal popularity over Campbell.<ref name=Fotheringham/><ref name=Star2/> Dosanjh conceded defeat a week before the election, but requested voters consider making the NDP a strong opposition party.<ref>{{cite journal |last= MacQueen |first= Ken |date= May 21, 2001 |title= Vanishing Act |journal= Maclean's |volume= 114 |issue= 21 |pages=55–56}}</ref> After the [[2001 British Columbia general election|vote]], on May 16, Dosanjh lost his seat in [[Vancouver-Kensington]] along with all but two members of his Cabinet in the second-worst defeat of a sitting provincial government in Canada. The BC Liberals won all 77 other seats.

==Federal politics==

Following the election loss Dosanjh returned to practicing law and let his party membership lapse.<ref name=Layton>{{cite news |title= Layton says he twice asked former B.C. premier to run NDP federally |work= Canadian Press |date= April 2, 2004}}</ref> There had been speculation dating back to October 2002 that Dosanjh was interested in joining the [[Liberal Party of Canada]].<ref>{{cite news |last= Rana |first= Abbas |title= Former NDP premier Dosanjh could join Paul Martin's team |work= [[The Hill Times]] |date= October 28, 2002 }}</ref> [[New Democratic Party]] leader [[Jack Layton]] approached Dosanjh in 2003 to see if he was interested in running as a federal candidate but Dosanjh refused.<ref name=Layton/> In March 2004, with a federal election expected in the spring or summer, Prime Minister [[Paul Martin]] approached Dosanjh to be a candidate for the [[Liberal Party of Canada]]. Dosanjh agreed and Martin appointed him to [[Vancouver South]] over two other nomination candidates while announcing Dosanjh as part of a team of BC star candidates along with economist [[David Emerson]], union leader Dave Haggard, community activist Shirley Chan and Liberal party organizer Bill Cunningham.<ref>{{cite news |title= PM allows 'star' B.C. candidates to bypass nomination process |work=The Ottawa Citizen |page=A13 |date= April 1, 2004}}</ref> The advertising of Dosanjh emphasized the party's socially progressive aspect.<ref>{{cite news |last= O'Malley |first= Kady |title= A short primer on who's who among 28 new Liberal MPs |work= [[The Hill Times]] |date= July 19, 2004 |page =18}}</ref> In the [[2004 Canadian federal election|June election]] Dosanjh won his riding with 44.5% of the vote.

===38th Canadian Parliament===
In the [[38th Canadian Parliament]] Dosanjh was appointed [[Minister of Health (Canada)|Minister of Health]] in the [[Cabinet of Canada|federal Cabinet]]. As Health Minister, Dosanjh strongly supported Canada's existing single-tier, publicly funded [[Health care in Canada|health-care system]].<ref name=Dosanjh>{{cite news |last= Dosanjh |first= Ujjal |title= Holding our feet to fire on health |work=Toronto Star |date= August 21, 2005 |page =A17}}</ref> Dosanjh introduced legislation to make [[fire safe cigarettes|cigarettes fire safe]],<ref>{{cite news |title= Health Minister Wants 'Fire-Safe' Cigarettes |work= [[The Hamilton Spectator]] |date= December 3, 2004 |page =A12}}</ref> new regulations to further limit lead content in children's jewelry,<ref>{{cite news |title= Health Canada announces regulations for lead content in children's jewelry |work= [[The Canadian Press]] |date= June 1, 2005}}</ref> and supported an NDP motion to ban [[trans fats]].<ref>{{cite news |title= Commons backs motion to curb trans fats in food, find healthy alternatives |work= [[The Canadian Press]] |date= November 23, 2004}}</ref> He advocated that Canada ratify the [[World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control]], which they did in November 2004.<ref>{{cite news |title= Dosanh will push for Canada to ratify UN tobacco control treaty as soon as possible |work= [[The Canadian Press]] |date= September 29, 2004}}</ref> Dosanjh funded a program to revise the Canada food guide to include more multicultural foods and another program to integrate foreign-trained medical professionals into the health-care system.<ref>{{cite news |title= From Carrots to Bok Choy; Plans For Revised Canada Food Guide Include Cooking up Multicultural Offerings |work= [[The Hamilton Spectator]] |date= May 20, 2005 |page =G06}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Ottawa spending $75 million to help accredit foreign-trained doctors, nurses |work= [[The Canadian Press]] |date= April 25, 2005}}</ref> Supported by a unanimous vote in the House of Commons, the government agreed to compensate the 6,000 Canadians infected with [[hepatitis C]] from tainted blood transfusion.<ref>{{cite news |title= Commons votes for immediate compensation of "forgotten victims" tainted blood |work= [[The Canadian Press]] |date= April 20, 2005}}</ref> Along with Prime Minister Martin, a 10-year, $41 billion funding plan was negotiated with the provinces to deliver health care – with $5.5 billion to specifically address wait times that had been an election issue during the 2004 federal election – but they rejected Premiers' demands for a national program to purchase pharmaceuticals in bulk.<ref name=Dosanjh/><ref>{{cite news |title= Premiers remind PM of drug pledge |work=Toronto Star |date= September 3, 2004 |page=A14}}</ref> As the Minister of Health, Dosanjh introduced Bill C-12 ''An Act to prevent the introduction and spread of communicable diseases'' which updated the 1985 ''Quarantine Act''; it was given royal assent in May 2005.<ref>{{cite web |title= C-12 – An Act to prevent the introduction and spread of communicable diseases |url= http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/LEGISINFO/index.asp?Language=E&Session=13&query=4219&List=toc |work= LEGISinfo |publisher= Library of Parliament |access-date= January 23, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110211070508/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/LEGISINFO/index.asp?Language=E |archive-date= February 11, 2011 |url-status = dead|df= mdy-all }}</ref>

In May 2005, opposition MP [[Gurmant Grewal]] accused Dosanjh and the Prime Minister's [[Chief of Staff to the Prime Minister (Canada)|Chief of Staff]], [[Tim Murphy (Canadian politician)|Tim Murphy]], of attempting to bribe him with an ambassadorship and a senate seat for his wife, [[Nina Grewal]], if he would [[crossing the floor|cross the floor]] or abstain from a crucial upcoming vote.<ref>{{cite news |title= Grewal tape shows Martin in loop, Tory offered government position, says CTV |work= [[The Canadian Press]] |date= May 31, 2005}}</ref> Grewal released tapes he secretly recorded of the conversation between Dosanjh, Grewal, and Murphy. Dosanjh claimed innocence and accused Grewal of altering the tapes to imply wrongdoing and the Prime Minister dismissed calls to remove Dosanjh from cabinet.<ref>{{cite news |first= Alexander |last= Panetta |author2=Jim Bronskill |title= Grewal tapes 'altered' |work= [[Winnipeg Free Press]] |date= June 3, 2005 |page =A3}}</ref> Audio analysis concluded that the tapes were altered and the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] did not pursue any criminal investigations.<ref>{{cite news |title= Criminal investigation rejected in Grewal case |work= [[Winnipeg Free Press]] |date= August 13, 2005 |page =A11}}</ref> Nevertheless, fellow MP [[John Reynolds (Canadian politician)|John Reynolds]] filed a complaint with the [[Law Society of British Columbia]] accusing Dosanjh of violating the [[Criminal Code (Canada)|Criminal Code]] and the society's Professional Conduct Handbook.<ref>{{cite news |title= Tory MP files law society complaints against Peterson, Dosanjh and Murphy |work= [[The Canadian Press]] |date= June 15, 2005}}</ref> The Law Society reviewed the affair and concluded that Grewal had attempted to elicit rewards for his compliance but cleared Dosanjh and Murphy of misconduct charges.<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Neil |first=Peter |title= Law society clears Dosanjh in secret tape case |work= [[Canwest News Service]] |date= November 5, 2005}}</ref>

===39th Canadian Parliament===
In the [[2006 Canadian federal election|January 2006 federal election]], Dosanjh decisively won his riding against Tarlok Sablok, the Indo-Canadian Conservative candidate, and the community activist and NDP candidate [[Bev Meslo]].<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Connor |first=Naoibh |title= Competition says Dosanjh will go down with Liberals |work= [[Vancouver Courier]] |date= November 30, 2005 |page =12}}</ref> With the Liberal party forming the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|Official Opposition]], Dosanjh became the critic for National Defence and sat on the Standing Committee on National Defence and the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development. In the [[2006 Liberal Party of Canada leadership election|December 2006 Liberal leadership race]] he supported [[Bob Rae]], a fellow former-NDP premier.<ref>{{cite news |last =Canadian Press |title =Dosanjh and Cotler throw weight behind Rae |publisher =[[CTV Television Network|CTV]] |date =June 11, 2006 |url =http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060611/dosanjh_rae_060611/20060612/ |archive-url =https://archive.today/20110604170003/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060611/dosanjh_rae_060611/20060612/ |url-status =dead |archive-date =June 4, 2011 |access-date =June 17, 2007 }}</ref> When Rae was eliminated on the final ballot, Dosanjh supported [[Stéphane Dion]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bailey |first=Ian |title= B.C. Liberals late converts to Dion |work= [[The Province]] |date= December 3, 2006 |page=A6}}</ref> With Dion as the new leader, Dosanjh remained on the two committees but his critic responsibility was moved to Foreign Affairs.<ref>{{cite news |last =CTV.ca News Staff |title =Stéphane Dion unveils new shadow cabinet |publisher =[[CTV Television Network|CTV]] |date =January 18, 2007 |url =https://www.ctvnews.ca/stephane-dion-unveils-new-shadow-cabinet-1.224817 |access-date =June 17, 2007 |url-status = live|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070130171524/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070117/dion_shadow_070118/20070118 |archive-date =January 30, 2007 |df =mdy-all }}</ref> Dosanjh suffered a mild heart attack on the morning of February 13, 2007, outside the House of Commons. He was attended by fellow MP [[Carolyn Bennett]], who is also a doctor, and he was rushed to hospital where a successful [[surgery|operation]] to remove a [[blood clot]] near his heart was performed.<ref>{{cite news |last =Canadian Press |title =Dosanjh OK after scare over chest pains |publisher =[[CTV Television Network|CTV]] |date =February 13, 2007 |url =http://www.ctvnews.ca/dosanjh-ok-after-scare-over-chest-pains-1.228996 |access-date =June 17, 2007 |url-status = live|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070529061914/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070213/dosanjh_chestpains_070213/20070213?hub=Politics |archive-date =May 29, 2007 |df =mdy-all }}</ref> In the second session of the [[39th Canadian Parliament|39th Parliament]], from October 2007 to September 2008, Dosanjh sat on the Standing Committee on Public Safety and National Security and the Special Committee on the Canadian Mission in Afghanistan, and his critic responsibility was moved Public Safety.

===40th Canadian Parliament===
The [[2008 Canadian federal election|next election]] was called for October 2008. Dosanjh faced sociologist Wai Young running for the Conservatives, health worker Ann Chambers running for the NDP, and an IT consultant, Csaba Gulyas for the Green Party. Dosanjh won by 33 votes over Young, both receiving 38.4% of the vote. A recount confirmed Dosanjh's victory but only by a margin of 22 votes.<ref>{{cite news | last =CTV.ca staff | title =Dosanjh hangs on to B.C. seat by 22-vote margin | publisher =[[CTV Television Network|CTV]] | date =October 24, 2008 | url =http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20081024/Dosanjh_election_081024/20081024/ | access-date =October 26, 2008 |url-status = dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20081029104214/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20081024/Dosanjh_election_081024/20081024 | archive-date =October 29, 2008 | df =mdy-all }}</ref> The Conservative Party requested a second, judicial recount, which again confirmed Dosanjh as the victor.<ref>{{cite news |title= Second recount confirms Grit victory in B.C. |work= [[Calgary Herald]] |date= November 5, 2008 |page =A7}}</ref> In the [[40th Canadian Parliament]], with his party once again forming the official opposition, Dosanjh was appointed the National Defence critic for the first parliamentary session which was short-lived. During the [[2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute]] he defended the proposed coalition government as a reaction to inappropriate leadership on economic issues by the existing government.<ref>{{cite news |first=Doug |last = Ward | title =Western Canada may have less clout in coalition, Tories warn |work=Vancouver Sun |date =December 2, 2008 | page =A6}}</ref> When Dion resigned as party leader, Dosanjh considered but did not run for leadership citing his inability to speak French and again supported Rae's bid.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last = Lai |title =Dosanjh mulls run for Liberal leadership |work=Vancouver Sun |date =October 25, 2008 | page =B3}}</ref> In October 2009, [[Michael Ignatieff]] appointed Dosanjh as the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals']] critic for National Defence.<ref>{{cite news |last = Wicary, Stephen | title =Liberals unveil new critics |work=Globe and Mail |location=Canada |date =October 6, 2009 | url =https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/ottawa-notebook/liberals-unveil-new-critics/article4287931/ |access-date =April 6, 2021}}</ref>

When the [[40th Canadian Parliament|40th Parliament]] re-convened for its 2nd session Dosanjh continued as the National Defence critic and served on the Standing Committee on National Defence, as well as the Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights, and the Special Committee on the Canadian Mission in Afghanistan. In the 3rd session of the 40th Parliament Dosanjh continued with the Standing Committee on National Defence and the Special Committee on the Canadian Mission in Afghanistan, but also sat with the Standing Committee on Health. In September 2010 he was reassigned to being the critic on health for the Liberal Party. Dosanjh introduced private member bill C-467 ''An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (children born abroad)'' in the 2nd session, and re-introduced it in the 3rd session where it received 2nd reading in September 2010, which would grant natural citizenship to children born to, or adopted by, Canadian citizens working for the federal government (including members of the Canadian Forces).<ref>{{cite web |title= C-467 – An Act to amend the Citizenship Act (children born abroad) |url= http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/LEGISINFO/index.asp?Language=E&Session=23&query=6903&List=toc |work= LEGISinfo |publisher= Library of Parliament |access-date= January 23, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110211070508/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/LEGISINFO/index.asp?Language=E |archive-date= February 11, 2011 |url-status = dead|df= mdy-all }}</ref> The bill was meant to repeal portions of the April 2009 amendments to the ''Citizenship Act'' which repatriated [[Lost Canadians]] but also removed the ability of Canadians to pass their citizenship onto their children if the children are born outside of the country.<ref>{{cite news | last =Bramham | first =Daphne | title =Ireland saves Canadian's daughter from being stateless | work =Vancouver Sun | date =October 9, 2010 | url =http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=12fdf0eb-45b7-4ae5-a3be-6f3db6be3b4b | access-date =September 8, 2015 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref>

Dosanjh was defeated in the [[2011 Canadian federal election|2011 federal election]] which saw the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] reduced to third place in the [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]].

==Vaisakhi Parade controversy==

On April 16, 2010, the day prior to the annual [[Vaisakhi]] Parade held in Surrey, B.C., one of the parade organizers issued a statement indicating should Dosanjh and BC Liberal backbencher [[Dave Hayer]] choose to attend the parade, their safety could not be guaranteed. This was due in part to comments that Dosanjh had made after the parade in 2007, suggesting a police investigation into reports of a parade float that had a picture of [[Talwinder Singh Parmar]] on it, a former accused in the Air India Bombing. Dosanjh also expressed concerns over some attendees wearing [[International Sikh Youth Federation]] T-shirts, a group that is classified as a terrorist organization in Canada.

At least two complaints were made to RCMP about the comments by one of the parade organizers, Inderjit Singh Bains, on Sher-E-Punjab radio. During part of the show hosted by Gurvinder Dhaliwal, Bains spoke about the importance of honouring the Sikh faith and some logistics of the Surrey, B.C., parade that draws tens of thousands of people.

"Everybody's invited except those who've been excluded," he said of the event that would include security for some participants. "Everyone (is invited) except... two people – Ujjal Dosanjh and [[Dave Hayer]]," he said. "We've never invited them. If they come they should bring their own security."

Premier [[Gordon Campbell]] called for an apology. None was forthcoming and all three declined to attend the parade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metronews.ca/toronto/canada/article/505052--dosanjh-not-invited-campbell-wants-apology-before-attending-sikh-parade/ |title=Metro News |publisher=Metronews.ca |access-date=May 17, 2011}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=Ujjal+Dosanjh+videos&sk=&docid=1798520570822&mid=BD253AED8F658307BA1BBD253AED8F658307BA1B&FORM=LKVR24#/ |title=CBC Newsworld Video |publisher=Bing.com |access-date=May 17, 2011}}</ref>

On April 23, 2010, the RCMP launched an investigation into threats made against Dosanjh on a Facebook site, titled “Ujjal Dosanjh is a Sikh Traitor.” Canada's Parliamentarians condemned any death threats against Dosanjh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.com/CNEWS/Politics/2010/04/23/13697061-qmi.html|title=Liberal MP a target of Sikh threats|publisher=Canoe|date=April 23, 2010|access-date=September 8, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201450/http://cnews.canoe.com/CNEWS/Politics/2010/04/23/13697061-qmi.html|archive-date=March 4, 2016|url-status = dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/mp-ujjal-dosanjh-target-of-facebook-threats-1.505579 |title=MP Ujjal Dosanjh target of Facebook threats |publisher=Ctv.ca |date=2010-04-23 |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925133734/http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/QPeriod/20100423/Ujjal-Dosanjh-facebook-threats-100423/ |archive-date=September 25, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://telegraphjournal.canadaeast.com/north/article/1027351 |title=MP Ujjal Dosanjh target of Facebook threats following comments on Sikh extremism |last=Bains |first=Camille |publisher=The Canadian Press |date=April 24, 2010 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607043052/http://telegraphjournal.canadaeast.com/north/article/1027351 |archive-date=2011-06-07}}</ref>

==Award==
In 2003 he was awarded [[Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]] by [[President of India]].

In 2009 he was one of the recipients of the [[Top 25 Canadian Immigrant Awards]], presented by [[Canadian immigrant magazine|Canadian Immigrant Magazine]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canada's Top 25 Immigrants 2009|url=https://canadianimmigrant.ca/canadas-top-25-immigrants/canadas-top-25-immigrants-2009|access-date=2021-06-18|website=Canadian Immigrant|language=en-US}}</ref>

==References and notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*[http://airindia182.com/interviews/01.flv Interview footage of Dosanjh] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20150204195842/http://airindia182.com/interviews/01.flv Archive]) from the documentary ''[[Air India 182 (film)|Air India 182]]''

==External links==

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050210084341/http://www.ujjaldosanjh.ca/ Ujjal Dosanjh Member of Parliament website]
*[https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ujjal-dosanjh Ujjal Dosanjh] at ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051119195542/http://www.howdtheyvote.ca/member.php?id=90 How'd They Vote?: Ujjal Dosanjh's voting history and quotes]
*{{Canadian Parliament links|ID=11237}}

{{s-start}}
{{Canadian federal ministry navigational box header |ministry=27}}
{{ministry box cabinet posts
| post1preceded = [[Pierre Pettigrew]]
| post1 = [[Minister of Health (Canada)|Minister of Health]]
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| post1followed = [[Tony Clement]]
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{{succession box
| title = [[Order of precedence in British Columbia]]
| years = {{As of|2011|lc=on}}
| before = [[Dan Miller (Canadian politician)|Dan Miller]]
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{{BC NDP Leaders}}
{{BCPremiers}}
{{CA-Ministers of Health}}
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{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dosanjh, Ujjal}}
[[Category:1947 births]]
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[[Category:Canadian King's Counsel]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:Canadian Sikhs]]
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[[Category:Teachers of English as a second or foreign language]]
[[Category:Recipients of Pravasi Bharatiya Samman]]
[[Category:Langara College people]]
[[Category:Foreign-born Canadian politicians]]

Rajapur Saraswat

2023-07-14T19:42:21Z

K J Thakur: Just completed a new piece.

The '''Rajapura Saraswat''' are a [[Hindu]] community in [[Maharashtra]], [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]]. They are also known as ''Rajpuri'' or ''Rajapur''.<ref name="KSS">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcpa_T-7oVQC&pg=PA729|title=Global Encyclopaedia of the South Indian Dalit's Ethnography, Volume 1|editor=Nagendra Kr Singh|publisher=Global Vision Publishing House| year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title= Indias Communities|page=2925|publisher=oxford university press|quote=In Kerala , the Rajapuri / Rajapura Saraswat are called Rajapura Saraswat in the contiguous area of Dakshin Kannad|author=K. S. Singh|year=1998}}</ref>

==History==
The Rajapura Saraswat claim to have migrated to Kerala from Ratnagiri, Maharashtra after being subjected to atrocities under the Portuguese rule. Their typical last name is ''Nayak''.<ref name="KSS"/>

==Culture==
Some of them eat goat, fowl and fish but most are vegetarian and mainly eat rice. Alcohol consumption is common amongst men. According to N.K.Singh, one section of them, called the ''Kudlukaras'' follow customs similar to [[Brahmin]]s. They worship their ancestors and do not consume non-vegetarian food on the day of worship.<ref name="KSS"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Social groups of Kerala]]

Dhania (gotra)

2023-07-13T22:30:40Z

K J Thakur: Article drafted.

#REDIRECT [[Chamar]]

Tiger Ali Singh

2023-06-12T20:39:31Z

K J Thakur: Tiger Ali Singh

{{short description|Canadian professional wrestler}}
{{Update|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox professional wrestler
| name = Tiger Ali Singh
| image = Tiger Ali Singh in Brampton - 2018 (29303924108) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Singh in 2019
| birth_name = Gurjit Singh Hans<ref name="Lentz2015"/>
| names = Mick Hans<ref name="Halton"/> Tiger Ali Singh<ref name="WWFbio"/> Tiger Jeet Singh, Jr.<ref name="CanoeBio"/><ref name="Oliver1997"/>
| height = 6 ft 5 in<ref name=oww>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profile/tiger-ali-singh/|title=Tiger Ali Singh Profile|access-date=June 21, 2021|publisher=Online World of Wrestling}}</ref>
| weight = 290 lb<ref name=oww/>
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1971|3|9}}<ref name="NRI"/>
| birth_place = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], Canada<ref name="Lentz2015"/><ref name="NRI"/>
| billed = "[[Asia]]"<ref name="WWFbio"/>
| family = [[Tiger Jeet Singh]] (father)<ref name="WWFbio"/>

[[Sukhjit Hans]] (mother)

| spouse = Sukhjit Hans (m. 1995)

| children = 3

| trainer = [[Antonio Inoki]]<ref name="Oliver1997"/> [[Ron Hutchison]]<ref name="CanoeBio"/> [[Sweet Daddy Siki]]<ref name="CanoeBio"/>
| debut = November 1992<ref name="Lentz2015"/>
| retired = July 1, 2014
}}
'''Gurjit Singh Hans''' (born March 9, 1971) is a Canadian [[Professional wrestling|professional wrestler]]. He is best known for his appearances in the [[World Wrestling Entertainment|World Wrestling Federation]] (WWF) from 1997 to 2002 under the [[ring name]] '''Tiger Ali Singh'''. He is the son of professional wrestler [[Tiger Jeet Singh]].<ref name="Lentz2015">{{cite book|author=Harris M. Lentz III|title=Biographical Dictionary of Professional Wrestling, 2d ed.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjGSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA320|date=2015|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|isbn=978-1-4766-0505-0|pages=320}}</ref><ref name="WWFbio">{{cite web|url=http://wwf.com/first.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981202073407/http://wwf.com/first.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 2, 1998|title=Tiger Ali Singh|accessdate=May 16, 2019|date=December 2, 1998|publisher=[[WWE|World Wrestling Federation]]|work=[[WWE|WWF.com]] (via [[Wayback Machine]])}}</ref>

== Professional wrestling career ==
=== Early Career (1992–1997) ===
Hans trained to be a professional wrestler by [[Antonio Inoki]] in the [[New Japan Pro-Wrestling|New Japan Pro-Wrestling Dojo]] and under [[Ron Hutchison]] and [[Sweet Daddy Siki]] at Sully's Gym in Toronto. He debuted as a professional wrestler in November 1992 under the ring name "Tiger Jeet Singh, Jr.", teaming with his father against [[Sabu (wrestler)|Sabu]] and [[Kareem Sudan]] in a [[tag team]] match for [[Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling]].<ref name="Lentz2015"/><ref name="CanoeBio"/><ref name="Oliver1997">{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/2011/06/21/18314726.html|title=Tiger Ali Singh ready to take on the world|accessdate=May 16, 2019|date=1997|publisher=[[Postmedia Network]]|work=[[Canoe.com]]}}</ref>

=== World Wrestling Federation (1997–2002) ===
[[File:Tiger Ali Singh bulldog.jpg|thumb|Singh (top) performing the ''[[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving bulldog|Tiger Bomb]]'' on [[Viscera (wrestler)|Viscera]] in 2013.]]
Singh signed with the [[WWE|World Wrestling Federation]] in January 1997, with the signing announced at a press conference at [[SkyDome]] in Toronto.<ref name="NRI"/> Singh's most notable accomplishment in the company occurred in 1997, when he won the second WWF Kuwait Cup Tournament, held on April 9, 1997 in [[Kuwait City]]. He defeated [[Owen Hart]] in the finals to become the second and final WWF Kuwait Cup winner.<ref name=WWF9099Book>{{cite book | first=Graham | last=Cawthon | title=the History of Professional Wrestling|volume=2: WWF 1990–1999 | publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | year= 2013 | asin=B00RWUNSRS}}</ref> He made his official WWF debut on the April 21, 1997 episode of ''[[WWE Raw|Raw]]''.<ref name=WWF9099Book/> He would also participate and be managed by his father at the WWF's United Kingdom-exclusive pay-per-view event [[WWF One Night Only|One Night Only]] on September 20, 1997, facing off against and defeating [[Al Snow|Leif Cassidy]].<ref name=PWH>{{cite web|title=One Night Only|url=http://www.prowrestlinghistory.com/supercards/usa/wwf/wwfuk.html#onenight|publisher=Pro Wrestling History|accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref><ref>Martin, Fin. "The Complete History of Wrestling On Pay-Per-View". ''[[Power Slam]]''. Issue 223/March 2013. p. 16/17.</ref>

He would disappear from WWF television in November 1997 until the [[World Wrestling Entertainment#The Attitude Era|Attitude Era]]. His gimmick was that of a rich and arrogant Asiatic heir to a fortune (similar to [[Ted DiBiase]]'s character).<ref name="WWFbio"/> He came to the ring accompanied by a [[Domestic worker|manservant]] named [[Pablo Márquez (wrestler)|Babu]], and would pay [[List of professional wrestling terms#P|random people in the audience]] each week to perform humiliating stunts.<ref name=WWF9099Book/> On the Sunday night Heat before [[Survivor Series (1998)]], Singh lost to [[Val Venis]] and at [[WWF Capital Carnage|Capital Carnage]] he defeated [[Edge (wrestler)|Edge]]. At the [[Royal Rumble (1999)]], Singh competed in the royal rumble match where he was eliminated by [[Viscera (wrestler)|Mabel]]. On Sunday Night Heat before [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House]] Singh faced [[Billy Gunn]] which ended in a no contest. on Sunday Night Heat before [[WrestleMania XV]], Singh competed in a Battle Royal to determine #1 contenders to the WWF Tag Team Championship which was won by [[D'Lo Brown]] and [[Test (wrestler)|Test]] and at [[No Mercy (UK)]], Singh defeated [[Gillberg (wrestler)|Gillberg]].

Singh was later sent to Puerto Rico to work on his in-ring skills. He returned in late 2000 as the manager of Lo Down ([[D'Lo Brown]] and [[Mosh (wrestler)|Chaz]]). Lo Down and Singh were eventually sent to [[International Wrestling Association (Puerto Rico)|International Wrestling Association]] in [[Puerto Rico]], removing them from WWF programming as [[The Invasion (professional wrestling)|The Invasion]] of 2001 started. Down in IWA, Singh became a two-time tag team champion.<ref name="NRI"/><ref name=IWATag/> He eventually suffered what he claimed was a career-ending injury and was sent home to Toronto to recover. He was later released from his contract in July 2002.<ref name="Lentz2015"/>

==== Career-ending injury ====
In December 2001 Singh suffered his third concussion in 9 months. He was sent to Puerto Rico to heal. At an outdoor wrestling match, it had begun to rain and Singh went back to his dressing room to change back into his street clothes and the promoter came and forced Singh to go back out to finish the match. Singh was given an ultimatum by the promoter to finish the match in the rain or he would be fired by the WWE. He agreed to finish the match and within 5 minutes, he slipped on the wet ring surface and hit his head. He was knocked unconscious and when he came to, he found himself left alone and sensed something was not right.

In fear of meeting a similar fate of [[Bruiser Brody]], a pro wrestler killed in Puerto Rico for going against the wrestling promoter, Singh immediately left for the airport and flew back to Toronto. Upon arriving in Toronto, he sought medical attention and focused on healing from his injuries. Three months later WWE sent him his termination papers. To this day, Singh believes he was left to die in Puerto Rico.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|title=WWE's Tiger Ali Singh Exclusive Interview {{!}} In Conversation with Amin Dhillon (Ep. 12)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QnX0UGOoIWU|language=en|access-date=2021-04-08}}</ref>

It took Singh 5 years to fully heal from his injuries. In an appearance on [[Amin Dhillon|"In Conversation with Amin Dhillon"]] podcast, Singh reveals the extent of his injuries and how he tried to take his own life twice.

=== Retirement (2002–2008) ===
The following month, Singh filed a $7 million lawsuit against World Wrestling Entertainment. Among his claims were that his career-ending injury was the result of being forced to wrestle in the rain while in Puerto Rico. He also accused other WWE wrestlers of frequently calling him "taxi driver", and that he was the victim of a [[Rib (professional wrestling)|stunt]] in 1999 where his [[turban]] was stuffed with garbage. WWE attorney Jerry McDevitt countered by noting that the company was not responsible for any injuries occurring in a different organization, and that Singh's contract could legally be ended if he suffered an injury.<ref name="NRI">{{cite web|url=http://www.nriinternet.com/NRIwrestling/CANADA/A_Z/T/Tiger_Ali_Singh/Bio.htm|title=Tiger Ali Singh: ("Mick" Hans, Tiger Jeet Singh Jr)|accessdate=May 16, 2019|work=NRIInternet.com}}</ref>

=== Later Career (2008–2014) ===
In late-2008, Hans, under the new ring name "Mick Hans", returned to wrestling as a part of the [[Hustle (professional wrestling)|HUSTLE]] promotion in Japan. He made his return by teaming up with his father in a tag team match against [[Genichiro Tenryu]] and [[Shiro Koshinaka]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cagematch.net/?id=1&nr=40669 | title=HUSTLE Hustle Tour 2008 – Tag 9 | date=November 20, 2009 | accessdate=December 23, 2015 | publisher=Cagematch.net}}</ref><ref name="Halton">{{cite web|url=https://www.insidehalton.com/community-story/2900355-tiger-jr-back-with-a-bang/|title=Tiger Jr. back...with a bang|accessdate=May 16, 2019|date=December 5, 2008|work=[[Burlington Post]]}}</ref>

On June 5, 2010, Singh won a battle royal for MPW Wrestling.

On September 24, 2011, Singh and [[Shawn Daivari|Daivari]] defeated Kaine and Darkko for SCW Wrestling.

On July 1, 2013, at an event called TigerFest, Singh and Harry Smith defeated [[Viscera (wrestler)|Big Daddy V]], [[Rhyno|Rhino]] and Darkko in a handicap match.

On July 1, 2014, at another event called TigerFest, Singh and Rhino match ended in a no contest which led to another match where Singh, [[David Hart Smith|Davey Boy Smith Jr.]] and [[Sonjay Dutt]] defeated Rhino, Soa Amin and [[Steve Corino]] in a best 2 out of 3 falls match, falls count anywhere match.

== Miracle on Main Street and Tiger Jeet Singh Foundation ==

After witnessing his nephew successfully battle [[leukemia]], Singh vowed to give back to the community. The idea was to collect toys that would be distributed to various children's hospitals while promoting the spirit of inclusion. Every year, Miracle on Main Street takes place on Main St in [[Milton, Ontario|Milton]], Ontario and school children are invited to come down with toy donations and enjoy food, entertainment, amusement rides, and meet local celebrities. Over $3 million has been raised from sponsorship to date. <ref name=":0" />

==Championships and accomplishments==
*'''[[International Wrestling Association (Puerto Rico)|International Wrestling Association]]'''
**[[IWA World Tag Team Championship]] ([[IWA World Tag Team Championship#Title history|2 times]]) – with Big Ross McCollough (1 time) and Pain (1 time)<ref name=IWATag>{{cite web|url=http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/ttiwap.html|title=IWA World Tag Team Championship history}}</ref>
*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
**Ranked No. '''250''' of the top 500 singles in the "[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated#PWI 500|PWI 500]]" in 1999
*'''[[WWE|World Wrestling Federation]]'''
**[[WWE tournaments|Kuwait Cup (1997)]]<ref name="CanoeBio">{{cite web|url=http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/singh-tigerali.html|title=SLAM! Wrestling Canadian Hall of Fame: Tiger Ali Singh|accessdate=May 16, 2019|publisher=[[Postmedia Network]]|work=[[Canoe.com]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

* {{Professional wrestling profiles}}
* {{IMDb name|0802073|Gurjit Singh Hans}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Tiger Ali}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Canadian male professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:Canadian sportspeople of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Professional wrestlers from Toronto]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Milton, Ontario]]
[[Category:20th-century professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:21st-century professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:Canadian Sikhs]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Punjabi descent]]

Basic structure doctrine

2023-05-15T21:25:17Z

K J Thakur: Added a new contribution to the collection.

{{short description|Common law legal doctrine}}
{{Indian Constitution TOC}}
The '''basic structure doctrine''' is a [[common law]] [[legal doctrine]] that the constitution of a sovereign state has certain characteristics that cannot be erased by its legislature. The doctrine is recognised in [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Malaysia]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Uganda]]. It was developed by the [[Supreme Court of India]] in a series of [[constitutional law]] cases in the 1960s and 1970s that culminated in ''[[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala]]'', where the doctrine was formally adopted. Bangladesh is perhaps the only legal system in the world which recognizes this doctrine with an expressed, written and rigid constitutional manner through article 7B of its [[Constitution of Bangladesh|Constitution]].

In ''Kesavananda'', Justice [[Hans Raj Khanna]] propounded that the [[Constitution of India]] has certain ''basic features'' that cannot be altered or destroyed through [[amendments to the Constitution of India|amendments]] by the [[Parliament of India]].<ref name=hindu-basic-features>{{cite news|url=http://hindu.com/2004/09/26/stories/2004092600491600.htm|title=The basic features|access-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725005100/http://hindu.com/2004/09/26/stories/2004092600491600.htm|archive-date=2012-07-25|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|url-status=dead}}</ref> Key among these "basic features", as expounded by Justice Khanna, are the [[Fundamental rights in India|fundamental rights]] guaranteed to individuals by the constitution.<ref name=hindu-basic-features/><ref name=ik-257876>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|title=Kesavananda Bharati .... vs State Of Kerala And Anr on 24 April, 1973|publisher=Indian Kanoon|access-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214053355/http://indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|archive-date=2014-12-14|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=frontline-revisiting>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2901/stories/20120127290107100.htm|title=Revisiting a verdict|publisher=Frontline|volume=29|issue=1|access-date=2012-07-09|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203063934/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2901/stories/20120127290107100.htm|archive-date=2013-12-03}}</ref> The doctrine thus forms the basis of the power of the Supreme Court of India to review and strike down constitutional amendments and acts enacted by the Parliament which conflict with or seek to alter this "basic structure" of the Constitution. The basic features of the Constitution have not been explicitly defined by the Judiciary, and the claim of any particular feature of the Constitution to be a "basic" feature is determined by the Court in each case that comes before it.

The Supreme Court's initial position on constitutional amendments had been that any part of the Constitution was amendable and that the Parliament might, by passing a Constitution Amendment Act in compliance with the requirements of article 368, amend any provision of the Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights and article 368.

In 1967, the Supreme Court reversed its earlier decisions in ''[[I.C. Golak Nath and Ors. vs. State of Punjab and Anr.|Golaknath v. State of Punjab]]''. It held that Fundamental Rights included in Part III of the Constitution are given a "transcendental position" and are beyond the reach of Parliament. It also declared any amendment that "takes away or abridges" a Fundamental Right conferred by Part III as unconstitutional. In 1973, the basic structure doctrine was formally introduced with rigorous legal reasoning in Justice [[Hans Raj Khanna]]'s decisive judgment in the [[landmark decision]] of ''[[Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala]]''.<ref name=ik-257876-316>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|title=Kesavananda Bharati ... vs State Of Kerala And Anr on 24 April, 1973|at=Para. 316|publisher=Indian Kanoon|access-date=2012-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214053355/http://indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|archive-date=2014-12-14|url-status=live}}</ref> Previously, the Supreme Court had held that the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution was unfettered.<ref name=hindu-basic-features/> However, in this landmark ruling, the Court adjudicated that while Parliament has "wide" powers, it did not have the power to destroy or emasculate the basic elements or fundamental features of the constitution.<ref name=ik-257876-787>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|title=Kesavananda Bharati ... vs State Of Kerala And Anr on 24 April, 1973|at=Para. 787|publisher=Indian Kanoon|access-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214053355/http://indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|archive-date=2014-12-14|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although ''Kesavananda'' was decided by a narrow margin of 7–6, the basic structure doctrine, as propounded in Justice Khanna's judgement, has since gained widespread legal and scholarly acceptance due to a number of subsequent cases and judgments relying heavily upon it to strike down Parliamentary amendments that were held to be violative of the basic structure and therefore unconstitutional. Primary among these was the imposition of a state of [[The Emergency (India)|emergency]] by [[Indira Gandhi]] in 1975, and her subsequent attempt to suppress her prosecution through the 39th Amendment. When the ''Kesavananda'' case was decided, the underlying apprehension of the majority bench that elected representatives could not be trusted to act responsibly was perceived as unprecedented. However, the passage of the 39th Amendment by the [[Indian National Congress]]' majority in central and state legislatures, proved that in fact such apprehension was well-grounded. In ''Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain'' and ''[[Minerva Mills v. Union of India]]'', Constitution Benches of the Supreme Court used the basic structure doctrine to strike down the [[Thirty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India|39th Amendment]] and parts of the [[Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India|42nd Amendment]] respectively, and paved the way for restoration of Indian democracy.<ref name="frontline-revisiting"/>

The Supreme Court's position on constitutional amendments laid out in its judgements is that Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot destroy its "basic structure".

The basic structure doctrine was rejected by the [[High Court of Singapore]]. It was initially also rejected by the [[Federal Court of Malaysia]], but was later accepted by it. Conversely, the doctrine was initially approved in [[Belize]] by the [[Supreme Court of Belize|Supreme Court]].

==Definition==
That the Constitution has "basic features" was first theorised in 1964, by Justice [[Janardan Raghunath Mudholkar|J.R. Mudholkar]] in his dissent, in the case of ''Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan''. He wrote,{{quotation|It is also a matter for consideration whether making a change in a basic feature of the Constitution can be regarded merely as an amendment or would it be, in effect, rewriting a part of the Constitution; and if the latter, would it be within the purview of Article 368 ?"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indialawjournal.com/volume3/issue_2/article_by_rushminsunny.html|title=India Law Journal|website=www.indialawjournal.com|access-date=7 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080137/http://indialawjournal.com/volume3/issue_2/article_by_rushminsunny.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}

Supreme Court, through the decisive judgement of Justice H. R. Khanna in Keshavananda Bharti v. State of Kerala (1973) case, declared that the basic structure/features of the constitution is resting on the basic foundation of the constitution. The basic foundation of the constitution is the dignity and the freedom of its citizens which is of supreme importance and can not be destroyed by any legislation of the parliament.<ref>{{cite web|title=13 member constitutional bench verdict (refer paras 316 and 317) in Kesavananda Bharati ... vs State Of Kerala And Anr on 24 April,1973|url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|access-date=5 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214053355/http://indiankanoon.org/doc/257876/|archive-date=14 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The basic features of the Constitution have not been explicitly defined by the Judiciary. At least, 20 features have been described as "basic" or "essential" by the Courts in numerous cases, and have been incorporated in the basic structure. Only Judiciary decides the basic features of the Constitution. In ''Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Naraian'' and also in the ''Minerva Mills'' case, it was observed that the claim of any particular feature of the Constitution to be a "basic" feature would be determined by the Court in each case that comes before it. Some of the features of the Constitution termed as "basic" are listed below:

# Supremacy of the Constitution
# [[Rule of law]]
# The principle of [[separation of powers]]
# The objectives specified in the [[Preamble to the Constitution of India|preamble]] to the [[Constitution of India]]
# [[Judicial review]]
# Articles 32 and 226
# [[Federalism]] (including financial liberty of states under [[s:Constitution of India/Part XII|Articles 282 and 293]])
# [[Secularism]]
# The [[Sovereignty|sovereign]], [[Democracy|democratic]], [[republic]]an structure
# [[Freedom]] and [[dignity]] of the individual
# Unity and integrity of the nation
# The principle of equality, not every feature of equality, but the quintessence of [[Equal justice under law|equal justice]];
# The "essence" of other fundamental rights in [[Fundamental rights in India|Part III]]
# The concept of [[social justice|social]] and [[economic justice]] — to build a [[welfare state]]: [[Directive Principles|Part IV]] of the Constitution
# The balance between [[Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India|fundamental rights and directive principles]]
# The [[parliamentary system]] of government
# The principle of [[free and fair election]]s
# Limitations upon the amending power conferred by Article 368
# [[Judicial independence|Independence of the judiciary]]
# Effective [[access to justice]]
# Powers of the [[Supreme Court of India]] under Articles 32, 136, 141, 142
# Legislation seeking to nullify the awards made in exercise of the judicial power of the state by arbitration tribunals constituted under an act<ref name = "Lok Sabha Secretariat"/>

==Background==
The Supreme Court's initial position on constitutional amendments was that no part of the Constitution was unamendable and that the Parliament might, by passing a Constitution Amendment Act in compliance with the requirements of article 368, amend any provision of the Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights and article 368. In ''Shankari Prasad Singh Deo v. Union of India'' (AIR. 1951 SC 458), the Supreme Court unanimously held, "The terms of article 368 are perfectly general and empower Parliament to amend the Constitution without any exception whatever. In the context of article 13, "law" must be taken to mean rules or regulations made in exercise of ordinary legislative power and not amendments to the Constitution made in exercise of constituent power, with the result that article 13 (2) does not affect amendments made under article 368. In ''Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan'' ([[case citation]]: 1965 AIR 845, 1965 SCR (1) 933), by a majority of 3–2, the Supreme Court held, "When article 368 confers on Parliament the right to amend the Constitution, the power in question can be exercised over all the provisions of the Constitution. It would be unreasonable to hold that the word "Law" in article 13 (2) takes in Constitution Amendment Acts passed under article 368."<ref name="Lok Sabha Secretariat">{{cite web|title=Constitution Amendment: Nature and Scope of the Amending Process|url=http://164.100.47.134/intranet/CAI/1.pdf|work=Lok Sabha Secretariat|access-date=1 December 2013|pages=14–20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203013055/http://164.100.47.134/intranet/CAI/1.pdf|archive-date=3 December 2013}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> In both cases, the power to amend the rights had been upheld on the basis of Article 368.

===''Golaknath'' case===
{{Main|I.C. Golak Nath and Ors. vs. State of Punjab and Anr.}}
In 1967, the Supreme Court reversed its earlier decisions in [[I.C. Golak Nath and Ors. vs. State of Punjab and Anr.|''Golaknath v. State of Punjab'']].<ref name = "Lok Sabha Secretariat"/> A bench of eleven judges (the largest ever at the time) of the Supreme Court deliberated as to whether any part of the [[Fundamental Rights in India|Fundamental Rights]] provisions of the constitution could be revoked or limited by amendment of the constitution. The Supreme Court delivered its ruling, by a majority of 6-5 on 27 February 1967. The Court held that an amendment of the Constitution is a legislative process, and that an amendment under article 368 is "law" within the meaning of article 13 of the Constitution and therefore, if an amendment "takes away or abridges" a Fundamental Right conferred by Part III, it is void. Article 13(2) reads, "The State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the right conferred by this Part and any law made in contravention of this clause shall, to the extent of contravention, be void." The Court also ruled that Fundamental Rights included in Part III of the Constitution are given a "transcendental position" under the Constitution and are kept beyond the reach of Parliament. The Court also held that the scheme of the Constitution and the nature of the freedoms it granted incapacitated Parliament from modifying, restricting or impairing Fundamental Freedoms in Part III. Parliament passed the 24th Amendment in 1971 to abrogate the Supreme Court ruling in the Golaknath case. It amended the Constitution to provide expressly that Parliament has the power to amend any part of the Constitution including the provisions relating to Fundamental Rights. This was done by amending articles 13 and 368 to exclude amendments made under article 368, from article 13's prohibition of any law abridging or taking away any of the Fundamental Rights.<ref name = "Lok Sabha Secretariat"/> Chief Justice [[Koka Subba Rao]] writing for the majority held that:
* A law to amend the constitution is a law for the purposes of Article 13.
* Article 13 prevents the passing of laws which "take away or abridge" the Fundamental Rights provisions.
* Article 368 does not contain a power to amend the constitution but only a procedure.
* The power to amend comes from the normal legislative power of Parliament.
* Therefore, amendments which "take away or abridge" the Fundamental Rights provisions cannot be passed.

==''Kesavananda Bharati'' case (1973)==
{{Main|Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala}}
Six years later in 1973, the largest ever Constitution Bench of 13 Judges, heard arguments in ''Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala'' ([[case citation]]: AIR 1973 SC 1461). The Supreme Court reviewed the decision in [[I.C. Golak Nath and Ors. vs. State of Punjab and Anr.|Golaknath v. State of Punjab]], and considered the validity of the 24th, 25th, 26th and 29th Amendments. The Court held, by a margin of 7–6, that although no part of the constitution, including fundamental rights, was beyond the amending power of Parliament (thus overruling the 1967 case), the "basic structure of the Constitution could not be abrogated even by a constitutional amendment".<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite book |last=Austin |first=Granville |url=https://archive.org/details/workingdemocrati0000aust/page/258/mode/2up |title=Working a Democratic Constitution - A History of the Indian Experience |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-019565610-7 |location=New Delhi |pages=258–277 |url-access=registration}}</ref> The decision of the Judges is complex, consisting of multiple opinions taking up one complete volume in the law reporter "Supreme Court Cases". The findings included the following:
* All of the Judges held that the 24th, 25th and 29th Amendments Acts are valid.
* Ten judges held that ''Golak Nath'''s case was wrongly decided and that an amendment to the Constitution was not a "law" for the purposes of Article 13.
* Seven judges held that the power of amendment is plenary and can be used to amend all the articles of the constitution (including the Fundamental Rights).
* Seven judges held (six judges dissenting on this point) that "the power to amend does not include the power to alter the basic structure of the Constitution so as to change its identity".
* Seven judges held (two judges dissenting, one leaving this point open) that "there are no inherent or implied limitations on the power of amendment under Article 368".

Nine judges (including two dissenters) signed a statement of summary for the judgment that reads:

# Golak Nath's case is over-ruled.
# Article 368 does not enable Parliament to alter the basic structure or framework of the Constitution.
# The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid.
# Section 2(a) and 2(b) of the Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid.
# The first part of section 3 of the Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid. The second part namely "and no law containing a declaration that it is for giving effect to such policy shall be called in question in any court on the ground that it does not give effect to such policy" is invalid.
# The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1971 is valid.<ref name = "Lok Sabha Secretariat"/><ref name=nujs-todays-promise>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nujslawreview.org/articles2008vol1no3/satya_prateek.pdf|title=Today's Promise, Tomorrow's Constitution: 'Basic Structure', Constitutional Transformations And The Future Of Political Progress In India|author=Satya Prateek|journal=NUJS Law Review|volume=1|issue=3|year=2008|access-date=2012-07-17}}{{dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The ruling thus established the principle that the basic structure cannot be amended on the grounds that a power to amend is not a power to destroy.

===Defining the basic structure===
The majority had differing opinions on what the "basic structure" of the Constitution comprised

Chief Justice [[Sarv Mittra Sikri]], writing for the majority, indicated that the basic structure consists of the following:
* The supremacy of the constitution.
* A [[republic]]an and [[democracy|democratic]] system.
* The [[secular]] character of the Constitution.
* Maintenance of the [[separation of powers]].
* The [[Federation|federal]] character of the Constitution.

Justices Shelat and Grover in their opinion added three features to the Chief Justice's list:
* The mandate to build a [[welfare state]] contained in the [[Directive Principles of State Policy]].
* Maintenance of the unity and integrity of India.
* The sovereignty of the country.

Justices Hegde and Mukherjea, in their opinion, provided a separate and shorter list:
* The sovereignty of India.
* The democratic character of the polity.
* The unity of the country.
* Essential features of individual freedoms.
* The mandate to build a welfare state.

Justice Jaganmohan Reddy preferred to look at the preamble, stating that the basic features of the constitution were laid out by that part of the document, and thus could be represented by:
* A sovereign democratic republic.
* The provision of social, economic and political justice.
* Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
* Equality of status and opportunity.<ref name=jp-judicialization>{{cite web|url=http://www.juspoliticum.com/Understanding-Judicialization-Of.html|title=Understanding Judicialization Of Mega-Politics : The Basic Structure Doctrine And Minimum Core|author=Jasdeep Randhawa|publisher=Jus Politicum|access-date=2012-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115232718/http://www.juspoliticum.com/Understanding-Judicialization-Of.html|archive-date=2012-11-15|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==The Emergency (1975)==
The Court reaffirmed and applied the basic structure doctrine in ''Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain'', popularly known as Election case. The constitutionality of Article 329A, which had been inserted by the 39th Amendment in 1975 was challenged in this case.<ref name = "Lok Sabha Secretariat"/> Shortly after the imposition of the [[Indian Emergency|Emergency]], a bench of thirteen judges was hastily assembled to hear the case. Presided over by Chief Justice [[Ajit Nath Ray]], the court had to determine the degree to which amendments were restricted by the basic structure theory. Ray, who was among the dissenters in the Kesavananda Bharati case, had been promoted to [[Chief Justice of India]] on 26 April 1973, superseding three senior Judges, Shelat, Grover and Hegde (all in the majority in the same case), which was unprecedented in Indian legal history. On November 10 and 11, the team of civil libertarian barristers, led by [[Nanabhoy Palkhivala]], argued against the Union government's application for reconsideration of the Kesavananda decision. Some of the judges accepted his argument on the very first day, the others on the next; by the end of the second day, the Chief Justice was reduced to a minority of one. On the morning of 12 November, Chief Justice Ray tersely pronounced that the bench was dissolved, and the judges rose.

The 39th Amendment attempted, among other provisions, to legitimize the election of Indira Gandhi in 1971. Article 329A put the elections of the Prime Minister and Lok Sabha Speaker outside the purview of the judiciary and provided for determination of disputes concerning their elections by an authority to be set up by a Parliamentary law. The Supreme Court struck down clauses (4) and (5) of the article 329A, which made the existing election law inapplicable to the Prime Minister's and Speaker's election, and declared the pending proceedings in respect of such elections null and void.<ref name = "Lok Sabha Secretariat"/>

==Development==
Constitutional lawyer [[A. G. Noorani]] notes<ref>{{cite web|last=NOORANI|first=A. G.|title=Behind the 'basic structure' doctrine : On India's debt to a German jurist, Professor Dietrich Conrad|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1809/18090950.htm|work=Frontline|publisher=the Hindu group|access-date=22 March 2014|quote=THERE is, sadly, little acknowledgment in India of that debt we owe to a distinguished German jurist and a scholar steeped in other disciplines beyond the confines of law - Professor Dietrich Conrad, formerly Head of the Law Department, South Asia Institute of the University of Heidelberg, Germany....It was no mere coincidence that a German jurist had thought of implied limitations on the amending power. Article 79(3) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, adopted on May 8, 1949, six months before the drafting of India's Constitution ended, bars explicitly amendments to provisions concerning the federal structure and to "the basic principles laid down in Articles 1 and 20 (on human rights and the "democratic and social" set-up). The Germans learnt from the bitter experience of the Nazi era. The framers of the Constitution of India refused to look beyond the Commonwealth countries and the United States....Prof. Conrad aptly remarked that "in this free trade of constitutional ideas the Indian Supreme Court has come to play the role of an exporter. This holds true with respect to at least two major innovations introduced by the court"; namely, public interest litigation and "the basic structure doctrine".|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322194716/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1809/18090950.htm|archive-date=22 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> that the doctrine has "now spread far and wide beyond its frontiers.", but that the eventual attribution to [[Dietrich Conrad]] is absent, who propounded the arguments in a lecture to the law faculty in the [[Banaras Hindu University]]. The argument, Noorani narrates made way to [[M K Nambyar]] who read the excerpt out in ''Golaknath''.
{{Quote box
|title = Implied Limitations of the Amending Power
|quote = "Perhaps the position of the Supreme Court is influenced by the fact that it has not so far been confronted with any extreme type of constitutional amendments. It is the duty of the jurist, though, to anticipate extreme cases of conflict, and sometimes only extreme tests reveal the true nature of a legal concept. So, if for the purpose of legal discussion, I may propose some fictive amendment laws to you, could it still be considered a valid exercise of the amendment power conferred by Article 368 if a two-thirds majority changed Article 1 by dividing India into two States of Tamilnad and Hindustan proper?

"Could a constitutional amendment abolish Article 21, to the effect that forthwith a person could be deprived of his life or personal liberty without authorisation by law? Could the ruling party, if it sees its majority shrinking, amend Article 368 to the effect that the amending power rests with the President acting on the advice of the Prime Minister? Could the amending power be used to abolish the Constitution and reintroduce, let us say, the rule of a moghul emperor or of the Crown of England? I do not want, by posing such questions, to provoke easy answers. But I should like to acquaint you with the discussion which took place on such questions among constitutional lawyers in Germany in the Weimar period - discussion, seeming academic at first, but suddenly illustrated by history in a drastic and terrible manner."
|source = http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1809/18090950.htm
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The note is that in ''Kesavananda Bharati'' the dissenting judge, Justice Khanna, approved as "substantially correct" the following observations by Prof. Conrad:
{{Quote box
|title =
|align = center
|quote = Any amending body organised within the statutory scheme, howsoever verbally unlimited its power, cannot by its very structure change the fundamental pillars supporting its constitutional authority.
|source = Limitation of Amendment Procedures and the Constituent Power; Indian Year Book of International Affairs, 1966-1967, Madras, pp. 375-430
}}

==Evolution of the doctrine==
The basic structure doctrine was further clarified in ''[[Minerva Mills v. Union of India]]''. The [[Forty-second amendment of the Indian Constitution|42nd Amendment]] had been enacted by the government of Indira Gandhi in response to the Kesavananda Bharati judgment in an effort to reduce the power of the judicial review of constitutional amendments by the Supreme Court. In the Minerva Mills case, [[Nanabhoy Palkhivala]] successfully moved the Supreme Court to declare sections 4 and 55 of the 42nd Amendment as unconstitutional.<ref name=ssrn-minerva-mills>{{cite web|ssrn=1121817|title=Minerva Mills Ltd. & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors: A Jurisprudential Perspective|author=Raghav Sharma|publisher=Social Science Research Network}}</ref> The [[constitutionality]] of sections 4 and 55 of the 42nd Amendment were challenged in this case, when [[Charan Singh]] was [[Caretaker government|caretaker Prime Minister]]. Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment, had amended Article 31C of the Constitution to accord precedence to the Directive Principles of State Policy articulated in [[Directive Principles in India|Part IV]] of the Constitution over the Fundamental Rights of individuals articulated in [[Fundamental Rights in India|Part III]]. Section 55 prevented any constitutional amendment from being "called in question in any Court on any ground". It also declared that there would be no limitation whatever on the constituent power of Parliament to amend by way of definition, variation or repeal the provisions of the Constitution. On 31 July 1980, when Indira Gandhi was [[1980 Indian general election|back in power]], the Supreme Court declared sections 4 & 55 of the 42nd amendment as unconstitutional. It further endorsed and evolved the basic structure doctrine of the Constitution.<ref name="ssrn-minerva-mills"/><ref name="indianexpress2">{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/indian-constitution-sixty-years-of-our-faith/574507/0 |title=Indian Constitution: Sixty years of our faith |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=2013-12-01}}</ref> As had been previously held through the basic structure doctrine in the ''Kesavananda'' case, the Court ruled that Parliament could not by amending the constitution convert limited power into an unlimited power (as it had purported to do by the 42nd amendment).

In the judgement on section 55, Chief Justice [[Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud]] wrote, {{quotation|Since the Constitution had conferred a limited amending power on the Parliament, the Parliament cannot under the exercise of that limited power enlarge that very power into an absolute power. Indeed, a limited amending power is one of the basic features of our Constitution and therefore, the limitations on that power can not be destroyed. In other words, Parliament can not, under Article 368, expand its amending power so as to acquire for itself the right to repeal or abrogate the Constitution or to destroy its basic and essential features. The donee of a limited power cannot by the exercise of that power convert the limited power into an unlimited one.<ref name=oa-4488>{{cite web|url=http://openarchive.in/judis/4488.htm|title=Minerva Mills Ltd. & Ors. vs. Union of India & Ors.|publisher=Open Archive|access-date=2012-07-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404195325/http://openarchive.in/judis/4488.htm|archive-date=2012-04-04}}</ref>}} The ruling was widely welcomed in India, and Gandhi did not challenge the verdict.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/when-in-doubt-amend/504813/0 |title=When in doubt, amend |newspaper=Indian Express |access-date=2013-11-23}}</ref> In the judgement on Section 4, Chandrachud wrote:

{{quotation|Three Articles of our Constitution, and only three, stand between the heaven of freedom into which [[Rabindranath Tagore|Tagore]] [[Chitto Jetha Bhayshunyo|wanted his country to awake]] and the abyss of unrestrained power. They are Articles 14, 19 and 21. Article 31C has removed two sides of that golden triangle which affords to the people of this country an assurance that the promise held forth by the preamble will be performed by ushering an egalitarian era through the discipline of fundamental rights, that is, without emasculation of the rights to liberty and equality which alone can help preserve the dignity of the individual.<ref name=oa-4488/>}}

This latter view of Article 31C was questioned, but not overturned, in ''Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Co v Bharat Cooking Coal Ltd.'' (case citation: AIR 1983 SC 239). The concept of basic structure has since been developed by the Supreme Court in subsequent cases, such as ''Waman Rao v. Union of India'' (AIR 1981 SC 271), ''Bhim Singhji v. Union of India'' (AIR 1981 SC 234), ''S.P. Gupta v. President of India'' (AIR 1982 SC 149) (known as Transfer of Judges case), ''S.P. Sampath Kumar v. Union of India'' (AIR 1987 SC 386), ''P. Sambamurthy v. State of Andhra Pradesh'' (AIR 1987 SC 663), ''Kihota Hollohon v. Zachilhu and others'' (1992 1 SCC 309),'' L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India and others ''(AIR 1997 SC 1125), ''P. V. Narsimha Rao v. State (CBI/SPE)'' (AIR 1998 SC 2120), ''I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu and others'' (2007 2 SCC 1), and ''Raja Ram Pal v. The Hon'ble Speaker, Lok Sabha and others'' (JT 2007 (2) SC 1) (known as Cash for Query case).<ref name = "Lok Sabha Secretariat"/>

The Supreme Court's position on constitutional amendments laid out in its judgements is that Parliament can amend the Constitution but cannot destroy its "basic structure".<ref name="indianexpress2"/><ref name = "countrystudies">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/india/109.htm |title=India - The Constitution |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014185951/http://countrystudies.us/india/109.htm |archive-date=2012-10-14 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recognition==
Aside from India, the basic structure doctrine has been adopted in a number of jurisdictions, and rejected in some others.

===Bangladesh===

The basic structure doctrine was adopted by the [[Supreme Court of Bangladesh]] in 1989, by expressly relying on the reasoning in the Kesavananda case, in its ruling on ''Anwar Hossain Chowdhary v. Bangladesh'' (41 DLR 1989 App. Div. 165, 1989 BLD (Spl.) 1).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1809/18090950.htm |title=Behind the 'basic structure' doctrine |access-date=2013-12-02 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101220120644/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1809/18090950.htm |archive-date=2010-12-20 }}</ref> However, Bangladesh is the only legal system to introduce this concept through constitutional provisions. Article 7B of the Constitution of Bangladesh Introduced some parts of it as basic provisions of the constitution and referred to some others (which are not properly defined) as basic structure of the constitution and declares all of these as not amendable.

===Belize===

The basic structure doctrine was invoked by the [[Supreme Court of Judicature of Belize]] in ''[[Bowen v Attorney General]] BZ 2009 SC 2'' in rejecting the [[Belize Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Bill 2008]], which had sought to exclude certain deprivation of property rights from judicial review. The court recognised the fundamental rights granted by the constitution, respect for the rule of law and the right to the ownership of private property as basic features of the Belizean constitution, as well as the separation of powers, which [[Chief Justice of Belize|Chief Justice]] [[Abdulai Conteh]] noted had been recognised by the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in ''Hinds v The Queen [1977] AC 195'' (which was not a constitutional amendment case<ref name="BCBvAGBelize2011">{{cite web|title=British Caribbean Bank Ltd v AG Belize Claim No. 597 of 2011|publisher=[[Supreme Court of Judicature of Belize]]|url=https://www.italaw.com/sites/default/files/case-documents/italaw7738.pdf|access-date=2020-11-22|url-status=live|archive-date=2020-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122015535/https://www.italaw.com/sites/default/files/case-documents/italaw7738.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|41}}) as implicit in Westminster model constitutions in the Caribbean Commonwealth realm.<ref name="OBrien2013">{{cite web|last=O'Brien|first=Derek|title=Derek O'Brien: The Basic Structure Doctrine and the Courts of the Commonwealth Caribbean|url=https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2013/05/28/derek-obrien-the-basic-structure-doctrine-and-the-courts-of-the-commonwealth-caribbean/|publisher=UK Constitutional Law Association|work=UK Constitutional Law Blog|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2020-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021101350/https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2013/05/28/derek-obrien-the-basic-structure-doctrine-and-the-courts-of-the-commonwealth-caribbean/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Supreme Court affirmed the doctrine in ''[[British Caribbean Bank Ltd v AG Belize]] Claim No. 597 of 2011''<ref name="BCBvAGBelize2011"/> <ref name="">{{cite web|title=British Caribbean Bank Limited v. The Government of Belize PCA 2010-18|url=https://jusmundi.com/en/document/decision/en-british-caribbean-bank-ltd-v-the-government-of-belize-award-friday-19th-december-2014|publisher=[[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2020-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122030218/https://jusmundi.com/en/document/decision/en-british-caribbean-bank-ltd-v-the-government-of-belize-award-friday-19th-december-2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and struck down parts of the [[Belize Telecommunications (Amendment) Act 2011]] and [[Belize Constitution (Eighth) Amendment Act 2011]]. The amendments had sought to preclude the court from deciding on whether deprivation of property by the government was for a public purpose, and to remove any limits on the [[National Assembly (Belize)|National Assembly]]'s power to alter the constitution. This was found to impinge on the separation of powers, which had earlier been identified as part of the basic structure of the Belizean constitution.<ref name="OBrien2013"/>

===Malaysia===

In Malaysia, the basic features doctrine was initially found to be inapplicable by the [[Federal Court of Malaysia|Federal Court]] in ''Phang Chin Hock v. Public Prosecutor''.<ref>[1980] 1 M.L.J. [''Malayan Law Journal''] 70.</ref> The Court remarked that the Indian constitution was drafted by a constituent assembly representative of the Indian people in territorial, racial and community terms,<ref>{{citation|author=Jaclyn Ling-Chien Neo|author2=Yvonne C.L. Lee|chapter=Protecting Rights|title=Evolution of a Revolution: Forty years of the Singapore Constitution|editor= Li-ann Thio|editor-link=Thio Li-ann|editor2=Kevin Y[ew] L[ee] Tan|location=London; New York, N.Y.|publisher=Routledge-Cavendish|year=2009|page=169|isbn=978-0-415-43862-9}}</ref> and not "ordinary mortals", while the same could not be said for the [[constitution of Malaysia|Malaysian constitution]],<ref>''Phang Chin Hock'', p. 73.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.studocu.com/en/document/universiti-teknologi-mara/law/other/phang-chin-hock-v-public-prosecutor-1980/6171836/view|title=Phang CHIN HOCK v Public Prosecutor - [1980] - Law LAW224|website=StuDocu|language=en|access-date=2019-11-18}}</ref> which was enacted by an ordinary legislature.

The basic structure doctrine was first cited with approval by the Federal Court in ''obiter dicta'' in ''Sivarasa Rasiah v. Badan Peguam Malaysia'',<ref>[2010] 2 M.L.J. 333.</ref> before ultimately being applied by the same court in ''Semenyih Jaya Sdn Bhd v. Pentadbir Tanah Daerah Hulu Langat & Ano'r Case''<ref>[2017] 3 M.L.J. 561.</ref> and ''Indira Gandhi a/p Mutho v. Pengarah Jabatan Agama Islam Perak & 2 O'rs & 2 Other Cases''.<ref>Federal Court, 29 January 2018.</ref> In those cases, the Federal Court held that the vesting of the judicial power of the Federation in the civil courts formed part of the basic structure of the Constitution, and could not be removed even by constitutional amendment.

===Pakistan===

The basic structure doctrine was recognised in ''Constitution Petition No.12 of 2010, etc.''<ref>{{cite web|title=District Bar Association v Federation of Pakistan, 2015|publisher=[[Supreme Court of Pakistan]]|url=http://www.supremecourt.gov.pk/web/user_files/File/Const.P.12of2010.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122002330/https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl-nat.nsf/xsp/.ibmmodres/domino/OpenAttachment/applic/ihl/ihl-nat.nsf/6E4DCBAB2B307CE1C12581AD004FD725/CASE_TEXT/Pakistan%20-%20District%20Bar%20Association%20v%20Federation%20of%20Pakistan%2C%202015%20%5BEng%5D.pdf|archive-date=2020-11-22}}</ref> by the [[Supreme Court of Pakistan]] in 2015. The case was heard by the full 17-member bench, of which a plurality of 8 accepted the basic structure doctrine as a basis for limiting the ability of the [[Parliament of Pakistan]] to amend the [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]], 4 rejected the premise of such limitations, describing the basic structure doctrine as a "vehicle for judicial aggrandisement of power", and 5 accepted that some limitations exist but did not endorse the basic structure doctrine.<ref name="Sanghi2017">{{cite web|last=Sanghi|first=Sanskriti|title=The Basic Structure doctrine goes global|url=https://thelawblog.in/2017/01/22/the-basic-structure-doctrine-goes-global/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806222732/https://thelawblog.in/2017/01/22/the-basic-structure-doctrine-goes-global/|archive-date=2020-08-06|access-date=2020-11-22|work=[[The Law Blog]]|publisher=[[Law Matters Centre for Research, Education, and Social Action]]|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Rizvi2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.iconnectblog.com/2015/09/south-asian-constitutional-convergence-revisited-pakistan-and-the-basic-structure-doctrine/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808151409/http://www.iconnectblog.com/2015/09/south-asian-constitutional-convergence-revisited-pakistan-and-the-basic-structure-doctrine/|archive-date=2020-08-08|url-status=live|last=Rizvi|first=Majid|title=South Asian Constitutional Convergence Revisited: Pakistan and the Basic Structure Doctrine|work=[[I-CONnect]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|access-date=2020-11-22}}</ref><ref name="Isaam2015">{{cite web|last=bin Haris|first=Isaam|url=https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2015/09/24/isaam-bin-haris-judicial-review-of-constitutional-amendments-pakistans-uneasy-subscription-to-the-basic-structure-doctrine/|title=Isaam Bin Haris: Judicial Review of Constitutional Amendments – Pakistan's Uneasy Subscription to the Basic Structure Doctrine|publisher=UK Constitutional Law Association|work=UK Constitutional Law Blog|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922151050/https://ukconstitutionallaw.org/2015/09/24/isaam-bin-haris-judicial-review-of-constitutional-amendments-pakistans-uneasy-subscription-to-the-basic-structure-doctrine/|url-status=live|archive-date=2020-09-22}}</ref> The judgement identified democracy, federalism and independence of the judiciary as among the characteristics protected by the doctrine.<ref name="Isaam2015"/>

Before this decision, it was unclear whether the basic structure doctrine applied in Pakistan.<ref name="Rizvi2015"/> The doctrine was considered and rejected shortly after the ''Kesavananda'' decision, revived in 1997, and rejected again in 1998.<ref name="Sanghi2017"/> The 2015 decision addressed the issue directly and accepted the doctrine.<ref name="Sanghi2017"/><ref name="Rizvi2015"/>

===Singapore===

The [[High Court of Singapore]] denied the application of the basic features doctrine in Singapore in ''[[Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs]]''. Justice Frederick Arthur Chua held that the doctrine was not applicable to the Singapore Constitution: "Considering the differences in the making of the Indian and our Constitution, it cannot be said that our Parliament's power to amend our Constitution is limited in the same way as the Indian Parliament's power to amend the Indian Constitution."<ref>''Teo Soh Lung'' (H.C.), p. 479, para. 47.</ref>

=== Uganda ===
In December 2017, the Ugandan parliament passed a Constitutional Amendment which removed age limit of 75 years for the President and Chairpersons of the Local Council. The President Yoweri Museveni, who has been President of Uganda since 1986, signed the amendment into law in January 2018, aged '74 years' (Unsubstantiated evidence is available that the alleged dictator is in his late 80's). Several opposition leaders and the Uganda Law Society, challenged the constitutionality of the amendment before the Constitutional Court, which (majority) upheld the validity of the amendment. Taking note of the judgments in ''Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala,'' AIR 1973 SC and ''Minerva Mills v. Union of India,'' AIR 1980 SC 1789, the Supreme Court of Uganda in ''Mabirizi Kiwanuka & ors. v. Attorney General'', [2019] UGSC 6, unanimously upheld the Constitutional Court (majority) finding.

==See also==
* [[Judicial activism in India]]
* [[Liberal democratic basic order]]
* [[Entrenched clause]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* [https://www.humanrightsinitiative.org/publications/const/the_basic_structure_of_the_indian_constitution.pdf The Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution]. Human Rights Initiative.
* H M Seervai, 'Constitutional Law of India'
* V.N. Shukla 'Constitution of India' 10th edition
* [https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/legitimacy-of-the-basic-structure/article26168775.ece Legitimacy of the basic structure]. ''The Hindu.''
* Anuranjan Sethi (October 25, 2005), 'Basic Structure Doctrine: Some Reflections". {{SSRN|835165}}
* Conrad, Dietrich, Law and Justice, United Lawyers Association, New Delhi (Vol. 3, Nos. 1–4; pages 99–114)
* Conrad, Dietrich, Limitation of Amendment Procedures and the Constituent Power; Indian Year Book of International Affairs, 1966–1967, Madras, pp. 375–430

{{law}}

[[Category:Constitution of India]]
[[Category:Legal doctrines and principles]]
[[Category:Judicial review]]

Indian Constitution

2022-09-17T14:57:46Z

K J Thakur: Shared a valuable publication.

#REDIRECT [[Constitution of India]]

Parshvanatha

2022-08-27T13:57:48Z

K J Thakur:

{{short description|23rd Tirthankara in Jainism}}{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Jain
| deity_of = 23rd Jain [[Tirthankara]]
| image = Shri shankhwar.jpg
| caption = Idol of Tirthankara Parshvanatha at Shankeshwar, Gujarat
| alt = Statue of a cross-legged Parshvanatha
| other_names = Parshva, Paras
| venerated_in = [[Jainism]]
| symbol = [[Snake]]{{sfn|Tandon|2002|p=45}}
| color = [[Green]]
| birth_date = c. 872 BCE{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}
| moksha_date = c. 772 BCE{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}
| father = Vishvasena
| mother = Vamadevi
| tree = Ashok
| height = 9 cubits (13.5 feet) {{sfn|Sarasvati|1970|p=444}}
| age = 100 years{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=128}}
| predecessor = [[Neminatha]]
| successor = [[Mahavira]]
| birth_place = [[Varanasi]]
| moksha_place = [[Shikharji]]
}}
{{Infobox deity
| type =
| image =
| name =
| caption =
}}

'''''Parshvanatha''''', also '''{{IAST|Pārśvanātha}}''' ({{lang-sa|पार्श्वनाथः}}), '''''Parshva''''', {{IAST|Pārśva}} and '''''Parasnath''''', was the 23rd of 24 ''[[Tirthankara]]s'' (supreme preacher of [[Dharma (Jainism)|dharma]]) of [[Jainism]]. He is the only Tirthankara who gained the title of '''''Kalīkālkalpataru''' ([[Kalpavriksha]] in this "[[Kali Yuga]]").''

Parshvanatha is one of the earliest ''Tirthankaras'' who are acknowledged as historical figures. He was the earliest exponent of [[Karma]] philosophy in [[recorded history]]. The Jain sources place him between the 9th and 8th centuries BCE whereas historians consider that he lived in the 8th or 7th century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html|title=Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi}}</ref>

Parshvanatha was born 273 years before [[Mahavira]]. He was the spiritual successor of 22nd tirthankara [[Neminatha]]. He is popularly seen as a propagator and reviver of Jainism. Parshvanatha attained [[moksha]] on Mount [[Parasnath|Sammeda]] ([[Madhuban]], [[Jharkhand]]) popular as Parasnath hill in the [[Ganges]] basin, an important Jain pilgrimage site. His iconography is notable for the serpent hood over his head, and his worship often includes [[Dharanendra]] and [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]] (Jainism's serpent Devtā and Devī).

Parshvanatha was born in [[Varanasi|Benaras]] ([[Varanasi]]), [[India]]. Renouncing worldly life, he founded an ascetic community. Texts of the two major [[Jain sects]] ([[Digambara]]s and [[Śvētāmbara]]s) differ on the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira, and this is a foundation of the dispute between the two sects. The Digambaras believe that there was no difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira.

According to the Śvētāmbaras, Mahavira expanded Parshvanatha's first four restraints with his ideas on ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) and added the fifth monastic vow (celibacy). Parshvanatha did not require celibacy, and allowed monks to wear simple outer garments. Śvētāmbara texts, such as section 2.15 of the [[Acharanga Sutra]], say that Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshvanatha (linking Mahavira to a preexisting theology as a reformer of Jain mendicant tradition).

==Historicity==
Parshvanatha is the earliest Jain ''tirthankara'' who is generally acknowledged as a historical figure.{{sfn|Heehs|2002|p=90}}{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=62}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=182–183, 220}} According to [[Paul Dundas]], [[Jain text]]s such as section 31 of ''Isibhasiyam'' provide circumstantial evidence that he lived in ancient India.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=30}} Historians such as [[Hermann Jacobi]] have accepted him as a historical figure because his ''Chaturyama Dharma'' (Four Vows) are mentioned in [[Buddhist texts]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=11}} In the ''Manorathapurani,'' a Buddhist commentary on the [[Anguttara Nikaya]], Vappa, the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'s uncle, was a follower of Nataputta.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgNHE-48jNcC&q=Vappa+%28Manorathapurani%29&pg=PA163 |title=Encyclopaedia of Oriental Philosophy |publisher=Global Vision Pub House |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-8220-113-2 |language=en}}</ref>

Despite the accepted historicity, some historical claims such as the link between him and Mahavira, whether Mahavira renounced in the ascetic tradition of Parshvanatha and other biographical details have led to different scholarly conclusions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–33}}

Parshvanatha's biography with Jain texts saying that he preceded Mahavira by 273 years and that he lived 100 years.{{sfn|Britannica|2009}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=128}} Mahavira is dated to {{circa|599|527 BCE}} in the Jain tradition, and Parshvanatha is dated to {{circa|872|772 BCE}}.{{sfn|Britannica|2009}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=183}}{{sfn|Martin|Runzo|2001|pp=200–201}} According to Dundas, historians outside the Jain tradition date Mahavira as contemporaneous with the [[Buddha]] in the 5th century BCE and, based on the 273-year gap, date Parshvanatha to the 8th or 7th century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–31}}

Doubts about Parshvanatha's historicity are also supported by the oldest Jain texts, which present Mahavira with sporadic mentions of ancient ascetics and teachers without specific names (such as sections 1.4.1 and 1.6.3 of the ''Acaranga Sutra'').{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=39}} The earliest layer of Jain literature on cosmology and universal history pivots around two ''[[Arihant (Jainism)|jinas]]'': the Adinatha ([[Rishabhanatha]]) and Mahavira. Stories of Parshvanatha and [[Neminatha]] appear in later Jain texts, with the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'' the first known text. or depth, and the brief descriptions of the ''tirthankaras'' are largely modeled on Mahavira.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=39–40}} The ''Kalpa Sūtra'' is the most ancient known Jain text with the 24 ''tirthankaras'', but it lists 20; three, including Parshvanatha, have brief descriptions compared with Mahavira.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=83–84}} Early archaeological finds, such as the statues and reliefs near [[Mathura]], lack [[iconography]] such as lions and serpents.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|pp=82–85, Quote: "Thus the list of twenty-four Tirthankaras was either already evolved or was in the process of being evolved in the age of the Mathura sculptures in the first three centuries of the Christian era."}}

Two of the early bronze images of Parshvanatha can be found on [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya]] and [[Patna Museum]] dating back to second century BCE to first century CE.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=16}} A first century BCE [[Ayagapata]] is in [[State Museum Lucknow]] containing the image of Parshvanatha.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=16}} A seventh century CE statue was found in the [[Asthal Bohar]] village of [[Rohtak]], [[Haryana]].{{sfn|Vyas|1995|pp=67-68}}

== {{anchor|Biography in Jain tradition}}Jain biography ==
[[File:View of Ghats across the Ganges, Varanasi.jpg|thumb|alt=Small boats on the Ganges, seen from above|upright=0.85|Parshvanatha was born in Varanasi, a historic city on the Ganges.{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=271}}]]
Parshvanatha was the 23rd of 24 ''tirthankaras'' in Jain tradition.{{sfn|Fisher|1997|p=115}}

===Life before renunciation===
He was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the Hindu month of [[Pausha]] to King Ashwasena and Queen Vamadevi of [[Varanasi]].{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=30}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=184}}{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=104}} Parshvanatha belonged to the [[Ikshvaku dynasty]].{{sfn|Ghatage|1951|p=411}}{{sfn|Deo|1954|p=60}} Before his birth, Jain texts state that he ruled as the god [[Indra]] in the 13th heaven of Jain cosmology.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=183–184}} While Parshvanatha was in his mother's womb, gods performed the ''garbha-kalyana'' (enlivened the fetus). His mother dreamt sixteen auspicious dreams, an indicator in Jain tradition that a ''tirthankara'' was about to be born.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=194–196}} According to the Jain texts, the thrones of the Indras shook when he was born and the Indras came down to earth to celebrate his ''janma-kalyanaka'' (his auspicious birth).{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=196}}

Parshvanatha was born with blue-black skin. A strong, handsome boy, he played with the gods of water, hills and trees. At the age of eight, Parshvanatha began practicing the twelve basic duties of the adult Jain householder.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=196}}{{refn|group=note|According to Zimmer, the ''Tattvarthadhigama Sutra'' state the twelve householder vows to be: (1) do not kill any being, (2) do not lie, (3) do not use another's property without permission, (4) be chaste, (5) limit your possessions, (6) take a perpetual and daily vow to go only certain distances and take only certain directions, (7) avoid useless talk and action, (8) do not think sinful acts, (9) limit diet and enjoyments, (10) worship at fixed times in the morning, noon and evening, (11) fast on some days and (12) give charity by donating knowledge, money and such everyday.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=196 with footnote 14}}}} He lived as a prince and soldier in [[Varanasi]].{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=208}}
The [[Bhelupur Jain temple|temples in Bhelupur]] were built to commemorate place for [[Panch Kalyanaka|three kalyanaka]] of Parshvanatha.{{sfn|Cort|2001|p=179}}<ref name=juk>{{cite web|title=kalyanak-bhumi|url=http://www.jainuniversity.org/kalyanak-bhumi.aspx|publisher=jainuniversity.org|access-date=10 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022161637/http://www.jainuniversity.org/kalyanak-bhumi.aspx|archive-date=22 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=32}}

According to the [[Digambara]] school, Parshvanatha never married; [[Śvētāmbara]] texts say that he married Prabhavati, the daughter of [[Prasenajit]] (king of Kusasthala).{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=12}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=171}} [[Heinrich Zimmer]] translated a Jain text that sixteen-year-old Parshvanatha refused to marry when his father told him to do so; he began meditating instead, because the "soul is its only friend".{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=199–200}}

===Renunciation===
{{multiple image
|align=left
|image1=Shikharji Parasnath Giridih.jpg
|width1=182
|image2=IN-JH.svg
|width2=120
|footer=Parshvanatha achieved ''moksha'' (liberation of the soul) at Shikharji on Parasnath, the highest mountain in Jharkhand.
|alt1=Mountain with a shrine on top
|alt2=Map of India highlighting Jharkhand, in the northeast}}
At age 30, on the 11th day of the moon's waxing in the month of [[Pausha]] (December–January), Parshvanatha renounced the world to become a monk after seeing image of [[Neminatha]].{{sfn|Shah|2004|p=26}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1999|pp=24–28}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=201}} He removed his clothes and hair, and began fasting strictly.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=325}} Parshvanatha meditated for 84 days before he attained [[Kevala Jnana|omniscience]] under a [[dhaataki]] tree near Benares.{{sfn|Danielou|1971|p=376}} His meditation period included asceticism and strict vows. Parshvanatha's practices included careful movement, measured speech, guarded desires, mental restraint and physical activity, essential in Jain tradition to renounce the ego.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=325}} According to the Jain texts, lions and fawns played around him during his asceticism.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=201}}{{refn|group=note|Jain mythology describes a heavenly being attempting to distract (or harm) Parshvanatha, but the serpent god Dharanendra and the goddess Padmavati guard his journey to omniscience.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=201–203}}}}

[[Ahichchhatra]] is believed to be the place where Parshvanatha attained [[Kevala Jnana]] (omniscience). According to [[Vividha Tirtha Kalpa]], Kamath in an attempt to obstruct Parshvanatha from achieving ''Kevala Jnana'' caused continuous rain. Parshvanatha was immersed in water up to his neck and to protect him the serpent god [[Dharanendra]] held a canopy of thousand hoods over his head and the goddess [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]] coiled herself around his body. [[Ahichchhatra Jain temples]] are built to commemorate Parshvanatha attaining [[Panch Kalyanaka|Kēvalajñāna kalyāṇaka]].{{sfn|UP tourism|p=2}}{{sfn|Kapoor|2002|p=17}} On the 14th day of the moon's waning cycle in the month of [[Chaitra]] (March–April), Parshvanatha attained omniscience.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=202–203}} Heavenly beings built him a [[samavasarana]] (preaching hall), so he could share his knowledge with his followers.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=203–204}}

After preaching for 70 years, Parshvanatha attained [[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]] at [[Shikharji]] on [[Parasnath]] hill{{refn|group=note|Some texts call the place Mount Sammeta.{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=275}} It is revered in Jainism because 20 of its 24 ''tirthankaras'' are believed to have attained moksha there.{{Sfn|Cort|2010|pp=130–133}}}}{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=148}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=221}} at the age of 100 on Shravana Shukla Saptami according to Lunar Calendar.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=30}} His ''[[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]]'' (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) in Jain tradition{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=104}} is celebrated as Moksha Saptami. This day is celebrated on large scale at [[Parasnath]] tonk of the mountain, in northern [[Jharkhand]], part of the Parasnath Range{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=13}} by offering Nirvana [[Laddu]] (Sugar balls) and reciting of [[Nirvana Kanda]]. Parshvanatha has been called ''{{IAST|purisādāṇīya|italic=yes}}'' (beloved of the people) by Jains.{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=271 with footnote 1}}{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|pp=12–13}}{{sfn|Schubring|1964|p=220}}

==={{anchor|Previous births}}Previous lives===
[[File:Pārśvanātha-Kalugumalai.JPG|thumb|alt=Stone relief of Parshvanatha, his companion, and other figures|Parshvanatha and his ''[[yaksha]]'', [[Dharanendra]], in the 8th-century [[Tamil Nadu]] [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds]]]]
Jain mythology contains legends about Parshvanatha's human and animal rebirths and the maturing of his soul towards inner harmony in a manner similar to legends found in other Indian religions.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=187–188}}{{refn|group=note|The [[Jataka tales]], for example, describe the Buddha's previous lives.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jataka Jataka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425123034/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jataka |date=25 April 2017 }}, Encyclopaedia Britannica (2010)</ref>}} His rebirths include:{{sfn|Clines|2017|pp=867–872}}
* Marubhuti – Vishwabhuti, King Aravinda's prime minister, had two sons; the elder one was Kamath and the younger one was Marubhuti (Parshvanatha). Kamath committed adultery with Marubhuti's wife. The king learnt about the adultery, and asked Marubhuti how his brother should be punished; Marubhuti suggested forgiveness. Kamath went into a forest, became an ascetic and acquired demonic powers to take revenge. Marubhuti went to the forest to invite his brother back home, but Kamath killed Marubhuti by crushing him with a stone. Marubhuti was one of Parshvanatha's earlier rebirths.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=186–187}}
* Vajraghosha (Thunder), an elephant – He was then reborn as an elephant because of the "violence of the death and distressing thoughts he harbored at the time of his previous death".{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=189}} Vajraghosha lived in the forests of [[Vindhya Range|Vindyachal]]. Kamath was reborn as a serpent.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=189–190}}

King Aravinda, after the death of his minister's son, renounced his throne and led an ascetic life. When an angry Vajraghosha approached Aravinda, the ascetic saw that the elephant was the reborn Marubhuti. Aravinda asked the elephant to give up "sinful acts, remove his demerits from the past, realize that injuring other beings is the greatest sin, and begin practicing the vows". The elephant realized his error, became calm, and bowed at Aravinda's feet. When Vajraghosha went to a river one day to drink, the serpent Kamath bit him. He died peacefully this time, however, without distressing thoughts.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=189-190}}
* Sasiprabha – Vajraghosha was reborn as Sashiprabha (Lord of the Moon){{refn|group=note|Also known as ''Chandraprabha'',{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=107, Quote: In Paimacariyam, Candraprabha is called Sasiprabha"}} he also appears in Buddhist and Hindu mythology{{sfn|Paul Williams|2005|pp=127–130}} and is the eighth of twenty-four entities in Jain cosmology.{{sfn|Coulter|2013|p=121}}}} in the twelfth heaven, surrounded by abundant pleasures. Sashiprabha, however, did not let the pleasures distract him and continued his ascetic life.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=190}}
* Agnivega – Sashiprabha died, and was reborn as Prince Agnivega ("strength of fire"). After he became king, he met a sage who told him about the impermanence of all things and the significance of a spiritual life. Agnivega realized the importance of religious pursuits, and his worldly life lost its charms. He renounced it to lead an ascetic life, joining the sage's monastic community. Agnivega meditated in the [[Himalayas]], reducing his attachment to the outside world. He was bitten by a snake (the reborn Kamath), but the poison did not disturb his inner peace and he calmly accepted his death.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|pp=190-191}}

Agnivega was reborn as a god with a life of "twenty-two oceans of years", and the serpent went to the sixth hell.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=191}} The soul of Marubhuti-Vajraghosa-Sasiprabha-Agnivega was reborn as Parshvanatha. He saved serpents from torture and death during that life; the serpent god [[Dharanendra]] and the goddess [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]] protected him, and are part of Parshvanatha's iconography.{{sfn|Britannica|2009}}{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=26, 134, 186}}

===Disciples===
[[File:Thirakoil-Parsava nathar.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Outdoor stone relief of Parshvanatha, carved into a boulder|8th-century stone relief of Parshvanatha at [[Thirakoil]]]]
According to the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'' (a [[Śvētāmbara]] text), Parshvanatha had 164,000 [[śrāvaka (Jainism)|śrāvaka]]s (male lay followers), 327,000 śrāvikās (female lay followers), 16,000 ''[[Jain monasticism|sādhus]]'' (monks) and 38,000 ''Sadhvis or [[aryika]]s'' (nuns).{{sfn|Clines|2017|pp=867–872}}{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=274}}{{sfn|Cort|2001|p=47}} According to Śvētāmbara tradition, he had eight [[ganadhara]]s (chief monks): Śubhadatta, Āryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacāri, Soma, Śrīdhara, Vīrabhadra and Yaśas.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=13}} After his death, the Śvētāmbara believe that Śubhadatta became head of the monastic order and was succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra and [[Kesi (Ganadhara)|Keśī]].{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1999|pp=24–28}}

According to [[Digambara]] tradition (including the ''Avasyaka niryukti''), Parshvanatha had 10 ganadharas and Svayambhu was their leader. Śvētāmbara texts such as the ''[[Samavayanga Sutra|Samavayanga]]'' and ''Kalpa Sūtras'' cite Pushpakula as the chief ''aryika'' of his female followers,{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=274}} but the Digambara ''Tiloyapannati'' text identifies her as Suloka or Sulocana.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=171}} Parshvanatha's ''[[Digambara monk|nirgrantha]]'' (without bonds) monastic tradition was influential in ancient India, with Mahavira's parents part of it as lay householders who supported the ascetics.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=220}}
{{clear}}

=={{anchor|Teachings: similarities and differences with Mahavira}}Teachings==

Texts of the two major Jain sects (Digambara and Śvētāmbara) have different views of Parshvanatha and Mahavira's teachings, which underlie disputes between the sects.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=211}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=5}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=31–33}}{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=27–28}} Digambaras maintain that no difference exists between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=5}} According to the Śvētāmbaras, Mahavira expanded the scope of Parshvanatha's first four restraints with his ideas on ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) and added the fifth monastic vow (celibacy) to the practice of asceticism.{{sfn|Chapple|2011|pp=263–267}} Parshvanatha did not require celibacy,{{sfn|Kenoyer|Heuston|2005|pp=96–98}} and allowed monks to wear simple outer garments.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=211}}{{Sfn|Hoiberg|2000|p=158}} Śvētāmbara texts such as section 2.15 of the [[Acharanga Sutra]] say that Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshvanatha,{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp=90–91}} linking Mahavira to a preexisting theology as a reformer of Jain mendicant tradition.

According to the Śvētāmbara tradition, Parshvanatha and the ascetic community he founded exercised a fourfold restraint; Mahavira stipulated five great vows for his ascetic initiation.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–32}}{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}} This difference and its reason have often been discussed in Śvētāmbara texts.{{sfn|Jaini|1998|pp=13–18}}

The ''Uttardhyayana Sutra''{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=14}}{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=17}} (a Śvētāmbara text) describes [[Keśin Dālbhya]] as a follower of Parshvanatha and [[Indrabhuti Gautama]] as a disciple of Mahavira and discusses which doctrine is true: the fourfold restraint or the five great vows. Gautama says that there are outward differences, and these differences are "because the moral and intellectual capabilities of the followers of the ford-makers have differed".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=31-32}}

According to [[Wendy Doniger]], Parshvanatha allowed monks to wear clothes; Mahavira recommended nude asceticism, a practice which has been a significant difference between the Digambara and Śvētāmbara traditions.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=843}}{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=62–67}}

According to the Śvētāmbara texts, Parshvanatha's four restraints were ''ahimsa'', ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-possession), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing) and ''[[satya]]'' (non-lying).{{sfn|Britannica|2009}} Ancient Buddhist texts (such as the [[Samaññaphala Sutta]]) which mention Jain ideas and Mahavira cite the four restraints, rather than the five vows of later Jain texts. This has led scholars such as Hermann Jacobi to say that when Mahavira and the Buddha met, the Buddhists knew only about the four restraints of the Parshvanatha tradition.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=27–28}} Further scholarship suggests a more-complex situation, because some of the earliest Jain literature (such as section 1.8.1 of the Acharanga Sutra) connects Mahavira with three restraints: non-violence, non-lying and non-possession.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=283 with note 30}}

The "less than five vows" view of Śvētāmbara texts is not accepted by the Digambaras, a tradition whose canonical texts have been lost and who do not accept Śvētāmbara texts as canonical.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=27–28}} Digambaras have a sizable literature, however, which explains their disagreement with Śvētāmbara interpretations.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=27–28}} Prafulla Modi rejects the theory of differences between Parshvanatha's and Mahavira's teachings.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=5}} [[Champat Rai Jain]] writes that Śvētāmbara texts insist on celibacy for their monks (the fifth vow in Mahavira's teachings), and there must not have been a difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1939|p=102–103}}

[[Padmanabh Jaini]] writes that the Digambaras interpret "fourfold" as referring "not to four specific vows", but to "four modalities" (which were adapted by Mahavira into five vows).{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=28–29}} Western and some Indian scholarship "has been essentially Śvētāmbara scholarship", and has largely ignored Digambara literature related to the controversy about Parshvanatha's and Mahavira's teachings.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=28–29}} [[Paul Dundas]] writes that medieval Jain literature, such as that by the 9th-century Silanka, suggests that the practices of "not using another's property without their explicit permission" and celibacy were interpreted as part of non-possession.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=283 with note 30}}

=={{anchor|In Literature}}In literature==

The ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'' contains biographies of the ''tirthankaras'' Parshvanatha and Mahavira.{{sfn|Jacobi|1884}} [[Uvasagharam Stotra]] is an ode to Parshvanatha which was written by [[Bhadrabahu]].{{sfn|Kothary|2015|p=88}} [[Jinasena]]'s ''[[Mahapurana (Jainism)|Mahapurāṇa]]'' includes "[[Ādi purāṇa]]" and ''[[Uttarapurana]]''. It was completed by Jinasena's 8th-century disciple, [[Gunabhadra (Jain monk)|Gunabhadra]]. "Ādi purāṇa" describes the lives of [[Rishabhanatha]], [[Bahubali]] and [[Bharata Chakravartin|Bharata]].{{sfn|Upadhye|2000|p=46}} ''Parshvabhyudaya'' by Jinsena is a narration of the life of Parshvanatha.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=201}} ''Bhayahara Stotra'' composed by [[Acharya Manatunga]], 7th century, is an adoration of Parshvanatha.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=754}} ''Sankhesvara Stotram'' is hymn to Parshvanatha compiled by [[Mahopadhyaya Yashovijaya]].{{Sfn|Suriji|2013|p=5}} ''Shankheshwar Parshvanath Stavan'', hymn dedicated to Shankheshwar Parshvanath, is one of the most performed Jain prayer.{{sfn|Kelting|2007|p=130}}

''Pasanaha-chairu'' is a hagiography of Parshvanatha composed by Shridhara in 1132 AD.{{sfn|Dehejia|2009|p=8}} ''Parshvanatha bhavantara'' is a [[kirtan]] (devotion song), compiled by Gangadas in 1690 AD, which narrates life of previous nine births.{{sfn|Datta|1988|p=1781}} The medieval forty-four verse hymn ''Kalyanamandira stotra'', composed by Digambar kumudachandra, is a praise to Parshvanatha is popular among both Digambar and Śvētāmbara.{{sfn|Orsini|Schofield|2015|p=79}} ''Parshvanatha charite'' is a poem composed by Shantikirt Muni in 1730 AD, this poem narrates the seven siddhis of Parshvanatha.{{sfn|Reddy|2022|p=232}}

[[Guru Gobind Singh]] wrote a biography of Parshvanatha in the 17th-century [[Paranath Avtar]], part of the ''[[Dasam Granth]]''.{{Sfn|Bhattacharya|2011|p=270}}{{Sfn|Mansukhani|1993|p=6}}

==Iconography==
[[File:23rd Tirthankara Parshva Parsvanath Parshvanatha Jainism India.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|alt=Black statue of a seated Parshvanatha, adorned with flowers|Parshvanatha iconography is identified by a [[sesha]] hood above his head and a [[cobra]] stamped (or carved) beneath his feet. At the center of his chest is a [[shrivatsa]], which identifies Jain statues.]]

Parshvanatha is a popular ''tirthankara'' who is worshiped (''[[bhakti]]'') with Rishabhanatha, [[Shantinatha]], [[Neminatha]] and Mahavira.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=40}}{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=86, 95–98, 132–133}} He is believed to have the power to remove obstacles and save devotees.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=33, 40}} In Shvetambara tradition, there are 108 prominent idols of Parshvanath idols these idols derive their name from a geographical region, such as [[Shankheshwar Jain Temple|Shankheshwar Parshvanath]] and [[Panchasara Jain temple|Panchasara Parshvanath]].{{sfn|Cort|2001|p=234}}

Parshvanatha is usually depicted in a [[Lotus position|lotus]] or [[kayotsarga]] posture. Statues and paintings show his head shielded by a multi-headed serpent, fanned out like an umbrella. Parshvanatha's snake emblem is carved (or stamped) beneath his legs as an icon identifier. His [[iconography]] is usually accompanied by Dharnendra and Padmavati, Jainism's snake god and goddess.{{sfn|Britannica|2009}}{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=26, 134, 186}}

Serpent-hood iconography is not unique to Parshvanatha; it is also found above the icons of [[Suparshvanatha]], the seventh of the 24 ''tirthankaras'', but with a small difference.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=278–279}} Suparshvanatha's serpent hood has five heads, and a seven (or more)-headed serpent is found in Parshvanatha icons.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=19}} Statues of both ''tirthankaras'' with serpent hoods have been found in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, dating to the 5th to 10th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/337768|title=From the Harvard Art Museums' collections Tirthankara Suparsvanatha in Kayotsarga, or Standing Meditation, Posture and Protected by a Five-Headed Naga|last=Harvard|website=www.harvardartmuseums.org|access-date=13 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324211403/http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/337768|archive-date=24 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Pal|Huyler|Cort|2016|p=204}} Earliest images of Parshvanatha having seven snakes over his head date back to first century BCE.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=19}}

Archeological sites and medieval Parshvantha iconography found in temples and caves include scenes and ''[[yaksha]]''. Digambara and Śvētāmbara iconography differs; Śvētāmbara art shows Parshvanatha with a serpent hood and a [[Ganesha]]-like ''yaksha'', and Digambara art depicts him with serpent hood and Dhranendra.{{sfn|Brown|1991|pp=105–106}}{{sfn|Pal|1995|p=87}} According to Umakant Premanand Shah, Hindu gods (such as Ganesha) as ''yaksha'' and Indra as serving Parshvanatha, assigned them to a subordinate position.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|pp=220–221}}

The ''[[Parsvanatha ayagapata]]'', a circa 15 CE [[ayagapata]] excavated from [[Kankali Tila]], is a tablet of homage dedicated to Parshvanatha.{{sfn|Quintanilla|2007|p=201}}{{sfn|Quintanilla|2007|p=406}} The table represents Parshvanatha in the center surrounded by a bunches of lotus.{{sfn|Smith|1901|p=17}} Parshvanatha is depicted in [[Mudra#Dhyāna Mudrā|dhyāna mudrā]] with ankle crossed in lotus position seated on a pedestal with a seven-hooded sesha hood above his head and [[shrivatsa]] on the chest.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=16}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=171}}{{sfn|Quintanilla|2000|p=106}}

<gallery perrow="8">
File:Jina Parsvanatha ayagapata, Mathura circa 15 CE.jpg|[[Parsvanatha ayagapata]], [[Mathura art]], {{circa|15 CE}}
File:Mathura (Uttar pradesh), tirthankara parshvanatha, II sec.JPG|alt=Stone relief|[[Uttar Pradesh]], 2nd century ([[Museum of Oriental Art (Turin)|Museum of Oriental Art]])
File:Parshvanatha - 2CE - CSMVS (2).jpg|alt=Bronze idol|Eastern India, 2nd century CE ([[CSMVS]])
File:Kakandi.jpg|Parshvanath relief of [[Kahaum pillar]], 5th century
File:Parshvanatha 5 AD.jpg|alt=Lotus position|5th century ([[Satna]], [[Madhya Pradesh]])
File:6th century Parshvanatha red sandstone statue Jainism Uttar Pradesh India.jpg|alt=Lotus position|6th century, [[Uttar Pradesh]]
File:Tirthankara, India, Akota, Gujarat, 7th century, bronze, HAA.JPG|alt=Lotus position|7th-century [[Akota Bronzes|Akota Bronze]] ([[Honolulu Museum of Art]])
File:India Uttar Pradesh or Bihar 4th - 5th C - Jina in bronze IMG 9561 Museum of Asian Civilisation.jpg|6th-7th century bronze statue in [[Asian Civilisations Museum]]
File:Central India, 9th century - Parshva - 1961.419 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|9th century - [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]
File:WLA lacma Jain Altarpiece with Parshvanatha Mahavira and Neminatha.jpg|alt=Lotus position|10th-century copper, inlaid with silver and gemstones ([[LACMA]])
File:Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum Dhubela Exhibit Item (2).JPG|alt=Lotus position|11th century, [[Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum]]
File:Karnataka, jaina tirthankara parshavanatha col cappuccio di serpenti seduto in meditazione (dhyanamudra), xii secolo.jpg|alt=Lotus position|[[Karnataka]], 12th century ([[Art Institute of Chicago]])
File:Jirawala Parshwanath.jpg|Jirawala Parshwanath
File:Sri Jiravala Parshvanath, Santhu.JPG|Parshvanath
</gallery>

=={{anchor|Colossal Statues}}Colossal statues==
# The [[Navagraha Jain Temple]] has the tallest statue of Parshvanatha: 61 feet (18.6 m), on a 48-foot (14.6-m) pedestal. The statue, in the kayotsarga position, weighs about 185 tons.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/hubli-gets-magnificent-jinalaya/article368643.ece Hubli gets magnificent 'jinalaya'.] The Hindu, 6 January 2009.</ref>
# The [[Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments]] were built between 1398 and 1536. The largest cross-legged statue of Parshvanatha – {{convert|47|ft}} tall and {{convert|30|ft}} wide – is in one of the caves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gwalior.nic.in/Tourism.html|title=Welcome to official website of District Administration Gwalior (M.P.) India|website=gwalior.nic.in|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207111541/http://gwalior.nic.in/Tourism.html|archive-date=7 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
# An 11th-century [[Parshvanatha basadi, Shravanabelgola|Parshvanatha basadi]] in [[Shravanabelagola]] enshrines an {{convert|18|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall}} statue of Parshvanatha in a [[kayotsarga]] position.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anandbharat.com/2016/10/22/shravanabelagola-a-unique-destination/|title=Shravanabelagola- A Unique Destination|website=Anand Bharat|access-date=13 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007224703/http://anandbharat.com/2016/10/22/shravanabelagola-a-unique-destination/|archive-date=7 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
# [[Jain temples, Halebidu|Parshvanatha basadi, Halebidu]], built by Boppadeva in 1133 AD during the reign of King [[Vishnuvardhana]], contains an {{convert|18|ft|adj=on}} black granite kayotsarga statue of Parshvanatha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://asibengalurucircle.in/parsvanatha-basti-halebid|title=Parsvanatha Basti, Halebid|website=Archaeological Survey of India|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref>
# A {{convert|31|ft|adj=on}} kayotsarga statue was installed in 2011 at the Vahelna Jain Temple.{{Sfn|Vahelna|Government of Uttar Pradesh}}
# [[Vadodara Municipal Corporation|VMC]] has approved construction of 100 foot tall statue in Sama pond in [[Vadodara]].{{Sfn|Times of India|2019}}

<gallery>
File:Jain-navagraha-temple (cropped).jpg|{{convert|61|ft}} colossal at [[Navagraha Jain Temple]]
File:Gopachal - Parshvanatha.jpg|{{convert|47|ft}} Parshvanatha statue in lotus position, [[Gopachal]]
File:Bhagwan Parshvanath (cropped).jpg|alt=Outdoor standing statue|{{convert|31|ft}} statue at [[Vahelna Jain temple]]
File:Statue in the inner sanctum in the Parsvanatha Basadi at Shravanabelgola.jpg|alt=Standing statue in niche|{{convert|18|ft}} statue at [[Parshvanatha basadi, Shravanabelgola]]
File:Eighteen feet tall sculpture of Parshvanatha in the Parshvanatha basadi at Halebidu.JPG|alt=Standing statue|{{convert|18|ft}} statue at [[Jain temples, Halebidu|Parshvanatha temple]] in [[Halebidu (town)|Halebidu]]
File:Ellora Jain temple (2).jpg|{{convert|16|ft}} rock-carved image inside [[Ellora Caves#Rock carved image of Lord Parshvanath|Ellora Jain temple]], 1234 CE
</gallery>

==Temples==
[[File:Sikharji jalmandir.jpg|thumb|Jal Mandir, [[Shikharji]], [[Parasnath]] ]]

Parshvanatha is one of the five most devotionally revered Tirthankaras, along with Mahavira, Rishabhanatha, Neminatha and Shantinatha.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=40}} Various Jain temple complexes across India feature him, and these are important pilgrimage sites in Jainism. Mount [[Parasnath]] of [[Jharkhand]], for example, which is believed to have been a place where 20 out of 24 Tirthankaras achieved [[Moksha (Jainism)|nirvana]], along with Parshvanatha.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=130–133}} [[Shankheshwar Parshvanath]]{{sfn|Clines|2017|pp=867–872}} in northern [[Gujarat]], along with Mount [[Shatrunjaya]] is considered the holiest shrine among [[Śvētāmbara]] murtipujaka.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=143–144}} The replicas of Parshvanath temples are popular among Śvētāmbara murtipujaka, for example, [[Godiji]] is located in [[Sindh]] has a replica in [[Mumbai]]. According to Jain belief, worshipping these local replication idols allow them to directly worship to the original idol.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=186}} Parshvanath is prayed to obtain various desires, especially [[Tantra|tantric rites]], is therefore also known as Chintamani (wish fulfilling gem) and a tantric diagram called 'Chintamani [[yantra]]' is also worship.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=187}}

Important Parshvanatha temple complexes include: [[Shikharji]] (Sammet Sikhar) in Jharkhand, [[Mirpur Jain Temple]], [[Kanakagiri Jain tirth]], [[Panchasara Jain temple]], [[Humcha Jain temples]], [[Ahichchhatra Jain temples|Ahi Kshetra]], [[Kallil Temple]], [[Mel Sithamur Jain Math]], [[Pateriaji]], [[Nainagiri]], [[Kundadri]], [[Bijoliaji]], [[Jirawala]], [[Gajpanth]], [[Andeshwar Parshwanath]], [[Bada Gaon]], [[Akkana Basadi]], and [[Guru Basadi]].

<gallery>
File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg|[[Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho]], [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]
File:Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal.JPG|[[Pattadakal#Jain Narayana Temple|Pattadakal Jain Temple]], [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]
File:Jain temples, Jaisalmer Fort - panoramio.jpg|[[Parshavanth temple, Jaisalmer Fort]], [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] as part of [[Hill Forts of Rajasthan]]
File:Profile of the Parshvanatha basadi (1133 AD) at Halebidu.JPG|[[Parshvanatha Basadi, Halebidu|Parshvanatha basadi]] at [[Halebidu]]: tentative list for [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]
File:Calcutta Jain Temple-Sheetalnath Mandir-P1080642.jpg|[[Calcutta Jain Temple]]
File:Templejaindanvers.jpg|[[Antwerp Jain Temple]], [[Belgium]]
File:Kalpesh,Nakoda Tirath 2007.JPG|[[Shri Nakodaji]]
File:Samovsaran Mandir, Palitana.jpg|Samovsaran Mandir, [[Palitana]]
File:Lodurva Temples.jpg|[[Lodhurva Jain temple]]
File:Digambar Jain Lal Mandir, Chandni Chowk, Delhi.jpg|[[Sri Digambar Jain Lal Mandir|Lal Mandir]]
File:Kere Basadi - Varanga.jpg|[[Kere Basadi]]
File:Gori Mandar.jpg|alt=Godiji Parshwanath (Gori) Temple at Tharparkar - tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage|[[Godiji]] [[Gori Temple, Nagarparkar|(Gori) Temple]] in [[Tharparkar]] - tentative list for [[UNESCO World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage]]
File:Jirawala Parshwanath Jain Tirth.jpg|JIrawala Parshwanath Tirth
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Naminath]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|23em}}

===Sources===
==== Books ====
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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{{Refend}}

==== Books ====
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{citation |last=Clines |first=Gregory M. |title=Buddhism and Jainism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] | location=[[Netherlands]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-94-024-0851-5 |editor-last=Sarao |editor-first=K. T. S. |series=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions |language=en |chapter=Pārśvanātha (Jainism) |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/34492961 |editor-last2=Long |editor-first2=Jeffery D. }}
* {{cite journal | last=Deo | first=S. B. | title=The History of Jaina Monachism from Inscriptions and Literature | publisher= [[Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute]] | volume=16 | issue=1/4 | year=1954 | pages=1–608 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/42929542 | jstor=42929542 | oclc=555200984 | access-date=8 July 2022}}
* {{cite journal | last=Kelting | first=M. Whitney | author-link=Mary Whitney Kelting | title=Candanbala’s Tears: Recovering the Emotional Life of Jainism | journal=[[Numen (journal)|Numen]] | volume=54 | issue=2 | year=2007 | pages=109–37 | jstor=27643255 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/27643255 | access-date=25 January 2023 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Quintanilla | first=Sonya Rhie | title=Āyāgapaṭas: Characteristics, Symbolism, and Chronology | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249941 | journal=[[Artibus Asiae]] | volume=60 | issue=1 | year=2000 | pages=79–137 | doi=10.2307/3249941 | jstor=3249941 | access-date=20 April 2022}}
* {{citation | title= Parshvanatha: Jaina Saint, in ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' | url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |year=2009 |ref={{sfnref|Britannica|2009}} }}
* {{Cite web | url=https://muzaffarnagar.nic.in/tourist-place/vehlna/ | title=Vahelna - Jain temple | publisher=[[Government of Uttar Pradesh]] | ref={{SfnRef|Vahelna|Government of Uttar Pradesh}} }}
* {{cite web | author=Uttar Pradesh Tourism | url=https://uptourism.gov.in/pdf/E-Brochure/ahicchatra_high.pdf | title=Ahicchatra | publisher=[[Uttar Pradesh Tourism]] }}
* {{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/standing-committee-nod-for-100-foot-tall-parshwanath-statue-in-sama-pond/articleshow/70403100.cms|title=100-feet Parshwanath idol gets Vadodara civic body nod| date=27 July 2019| work=[[The Times of India]] | ref={{SfnRef|Times of India|2019}} }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==

{{Jain Gods}}
{{Jainism topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parsva}}
[[Category:Parshvanatha| ]]
[[Category:Tirthankaras]]
[[Category:870s BC births]]
[[Category:770s BC deaths]]
[[Category:Indian Jain monks]]
[[Category:8th-century BC Indian Jains]]
[[Category:8th-century BC Jain monks]]
[[Category:8th-century BC Indian monks]]
[[Category:8th-century BC Indian philosophers]]
[[Category:8th-century BC religious leaders]]
[[Category:9th-century BC religious leaders]]

1978 Indian Rajya Sabha elections

2022-08-13T03:45:50Z

K J Thakur: Added structure.

#REDIRECT [[1978 Rajya Sabha elections]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Seleucid Empire

2022-06-09T07:48:10Z

K J Thakur: Just finished drafting a fresh piece.

{{Short description|Hellenistic-era Greek state in Western Asia (312–63 BC)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{lang|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν}} {{lang|grc-Latn|Basileía tōn Seleukidōn}}
| conventional_long_name = Seleucid Empire
| common_name = Seleucid Empire
| era = [[Hellenistic period]]
| government_type = [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] [[monarchy]]
| status =
| status_text =
| year_start = 312 BC 
| year_end =  63 BC
| event_start = [[Wars of the Diadochi]]
| event_end = [[Roman Syria|Annexed by Rome]]
| event1 = [[Battle of Ipsus]]
| date_event1 = 301 BC
| event2 = [[Roman–Seleucid War]]
| date_event2 = 192–188 BC
| event3 = [[Treaty of Apamea]]
| date_event3 = 188 BC
| event4 = [[Maccabean Revolt]]
| date_event4 = 167–160 BC
| event5 = [[Seleucia]] taken by [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]]
| date_event5 = 141 BC
| event6 = [[Battle of Ecbatana]]
| date_event6 = 129 BC
| p1 = Macedonian Empire
| flag_p1 = Vergina Sun - Golden Larnax.png
| border_p1 = no
| s1 = Parthian Empire
| flag_s1 =
| s2 = Maurya Empire
| flag_s2 =
| s3 = Syria (Roman province){{!}}Province of Syria
| flag_s3 =
| s4 = Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
| flag_s4 =
| s5 = Hasmonean kingdom
| flag_s5 =
| s6 = Osroene
| flag_s6 =
| stat_year1 = 303 BC
| stat_area1 = 3000000
| ref_area1 = <ref name="size">{{Cite journal |last=Taagepera |first=Rein |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth–Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. |journal=Social Science History |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |page=121 |doi=10.2307/1170959 |jstor=1170959}}</ref>
| stat_year2 = 301 BC
| stat_area2 = 3900000
| ref_area2 = <ref name=size/>
| stat_year3 = 240 BC
| stat_area3 = 2600000
| ref_area3 = <ref name=size/>
| stat_year4 = 175 BC
| stat_area4 = 800000
| ref_area4 = <ref name=size/>
| stat_year5 = 100 BC
| stat_area5 = 100000
| ref_area5 = <ref name=size/>
| stat_pop2 = 30,000,000+
| ref_pop2 = <ref name="grant">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Grant (author) |title=The Hellenistic Greeks: From Alexander to Cleopatra |series=History of Civilisation |location=London |publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]] |pages=21–24, 48 |isbn=0-297-82057-5 }}</ref>
| image_map = Seleucid_Empire_alternative_map.jpg
| image_map_size = 280px
| image_map_caption = The Seleucid Empire (light blue) in 281 BC on the eve of the murder of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]
| capital = {{Plainlist|
* [[Seleucia]] {{small|(305–240 BC)}}
* [[Antioch]] {{small|(240–63 BC)}}
* [[Lysimachia (Thrace)|Lysimachia]] {{small|(secondary and {{lang|la|de facto}}, 190s BC)}}{{sfn|Grainger|2020|pp=130, 143}} }}
| common_languages = {{Plainlist|
* [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] (official)<ref name="Frye">Richard N. Frye, ''The History of Ancient Iran'', (Ballantyne Ltd, 1984), 164.</ref>
* [[Persian language|Persian]]
* [[Aramaic]]<ref name="Frye" />}}
| image_coat = 201209071746a Berlin Pergamonmuseum, Tetradrachme Seleukos' I, Silber, Pergamon, 281-280 v.u.Z.jpg
| coa_size = 220px
| symbol_type = [[Tetradrachm]] of Seleucus I – the horned horse, the elephant and the anchor all served as symbols of the Seleucid monarchy.<ref>Cohen, Getzel M; ''The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa'', p. 13.</ref><ref>Lynette G. Mitchell; Every Inch a King: Comparative Studies on Kings and Kingship in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds, p. 123.</ref>
| symbol_type_article =
| religion = {{Plainlist|
* [[Ancient Greek religion|Olympianism]] / [[Hellenistic religion|Hellenism]]
* [[Babylonian religion]]<ref>Julye Bidmead, ''The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia'', (Gorgias Press, 2004), 143.</ref>
* [[Hellenistic Judaism]]
* [[Zoroastrianism]]
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Hinduism]]<ref>Primer of Hinduism, p. 81, J. N. Farquhar, Asian Educational Services</ref>
* Local beliefs}}
| leader1 = [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]] (first)
| leader2 = [[Philip II Philoromaeus|Philip II]] (last)
| year_leader1 = 305–281 BC
| year_leader2 = 65–63 BC
| title_leader = [[List of Seleucid rulers|Basileus]]
| demonym =
| area_km2 =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
| today =
}}

The '''Seleucid Empire''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|ˈ|lj|uː|s|ɪ|d}};<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', {{nowrap|1st ed}}. "Seleucid, ''n.'' and ''adj.''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1911.</ref> {{lang-grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν|translit=Basileía tōn Seleukidōn|lit=Kingdom of the Seleucids}}) was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] state<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Niknami|first1=Kamal-Aldin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FDTnDwAAQBAJ|title=Archaeology of Iran in the Historical Period|last2=Hozhabri|first2=Ali|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-3-030-41776-5|pages=viii|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Eckstein|first=Arthur M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=magwDwAAQBAJ|title=Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25992-8|pages=106|language=en}}</ref> in [[West Asia]] that existed during the [[Hellenistic period]]. The Seleucid Empire was founded in 312 BC by the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] general [[Seleucus I Nicator]], following the [[Partition of Triparadisus|division]] of the [[Macedonian Empire]] founded by [[Alexander the Great]],<ref name="Jones, Kenneth Raymond 2006 174">{{Cite book |last=Jones, Kenneth Raymond |title=Provincial reactions to Roman imperialism: the aftermath of the Jewish revolt, A.D. 66–70, Parts 66–70 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-542-82473-9 |page=174 |quote=... and the Greeks, or at least the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid Empire, replace the Persians as the Easterners.}}</ref><ref name="Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England) 1993 211">{{Cite book |last=Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (London, England) |title=The Journal of Hellenic studies, Volumes 113–114 |publisher=Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies |year=1993 |page=211 |quote=The Seleucid kingdom has traditionally been regarded as basically a Greco-Macedonian state and its rulers thought of as successors to Alexander.}}</ref><ref name="Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth 2010 37">{{Cite book |last1=Baskin, Judith R. |title=The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture |last2=Seeskin, Kenneth |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-68974-8 |page=37 |quote=The wars between the two most prominent Greek dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel…As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids.}}</ref><ref name="Glubb, Sir John Bagot 1967 34">{{Cite book |last=Glubb, John Bagot |title=Syria, Lebanon, Jordan |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=1967 |page=34 |oclc=585939 |quote=In addition to the court and the army, Syrian cities were full of Greek businessmen, many of them pure Greeks from Greece. The senior posts in the civil service were also held by Greeks. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek officials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population.}}</ref> and ruled by the [[Seleucid dynasty]] until its annexation by the [[Roman Republic]] under [[Pompey]] in 63 BC.

After receiving the [[Mesopotamia]]n region of [[Babylonia]] in 321 BC, Seleucus I began expanding his dominions to include the [[Near East]]ern territories that encompass modern-day [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Syria]], all of which had been under Macedonian control after the fall of the former [[History of Iran|Persia]]n [[Achaemenid Empire]]. At the Seleucid Empire's height, it had consisted of territory that had covered [[Anatolia]], [[Persia]], the [[Levant]], and what are now modern [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[Turkmenistan]].

The Seleucid Empire was a major center of [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic culture]]. [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] customs and language were privileged; the wide variety of local traditions had been generally tolerated, while an urban Greek elite had formed the dominant political class and was reinforced by steady immigration from [[Ancient Greece|Greece]].<ref name="Glubb, Sir John Bagot 1967 34" /><ref name="Steven C. Hause, William S. Maltby 2004 76">{{Cite book |last1=Steven C. Hause |url=https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus |title=Western civilization: a history of European society |last2=William S. Maltby |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-534-62164-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus/page/76 76] |quote=The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by immigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Victor, Royce M. 2010 55">{{Cite book |last=Victor, Royce M. |title=Colonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-567-24719-3 |page=55 |quote=Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed.}}</ref> The empire's western territories [[Syrian Wars|were repeatedly contested]] with [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]]—a rival Hellenistic state. To the east, [[Seleucid–Mauryan war|conflict]] with the [[Ancient India|Indian]] ruler [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] of the [[Maurya Empire]] in 305 BC led to the [[cession]] of vast territory west of the Indus and a political alliance.

In the early second century BC, [[Antiochus III the Great]] attempted to [[Roman–Seleucid War|project Seleucid power]] and authority into [[Hellenistic Greece]], but his attempts [[Battle of Magnesia|were thwarted]] by the [[Roman Republic]] and its Greek allies. The Seleucids were forced to pay costly [[war reparations]] and had to relinquish territorial claims west of the [[Taurus Mountains]] in southern [[Anatolia]], marking the gradual decline of their empire. [[Mithridates I of Parthia]] conquered much of the remaining eastern lands of the Seleucid Empire in the mid-second century BC, while the independent [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] continued to flourish in the northeast. [[Seleucid dynasty|The Seleucid kings]] were thereafter reduced to a [[rump state]] in Syria, until their conquest by [[Tigranes the Great]] of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]] in 83 BC, and ultimate overthrow by the Roman general [[Pompey]] in 63 BC.

==Name==

Contemporary sources, such as a loyalist decree honoring Antiochus I from [[Ilium (Epirus)|Ilium]], in Greek language define the Seleucid state both as an empire ({{transl|grc|arche}}) and as a kingdom ({{transl|grc|basileia}}). Similarly, Seleucid rulers were described as kings in Babylonia.{{sfn|Sherwin-White|Kuhrt|1993|p=40}}

Starting from the 2nd century BC, ancient writers referred to the Seleucid ruler as the [[List of Syrian monarchs|King of Syria]], [[Lord of Asia]], and other designations;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nigel Wilson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pXhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA652 |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece |year=2013 |isbn=9781136788000 |page=652}}</ref> the evidence for the Seleucid rulers representing themselves as kings of Syria is provided by the inscription of [[Antigonus (Seleucid admiral)|Antigonus son of Menophilus]], who described himself as the "admiral of Alexander, king of Syria". He refers to either [[Alexander Balas]] or [[Alexander II Zabinas]] as a ruler.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=112}}

==History==

===Partition of Alexander's empire===
{{History of Greater Iran sidebar}}
{{main|Diadochi}}
[[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], who quickly conquered the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] under its last Achaemenid dynast, [[Darius III]], died young in 323 BC, leaving an expansive empire of partly Hellenised culture without an adult heir. The empire was put under the authority of a regent, [[Perdiccas]], and the vast territories were divided among Alexander's generals, who thereby became [[satrap]]s at the [[Partition of Babylon]], all in that same year.

===Rise of Seleucus===
Alexander's generals, known as [[diadochi|{{translit|grc|diadochi}}]], jostled for supremacy over parts of his empire following his death. [[Ptolemy I Soter]], a former general and then current satrap of [[Egypt]], was the first to challenge the new system, which eventually led to the demise of Perdiccas. Ptolemy's revolt created a new subdivision of the empire with the [[Partition of Triparadisus]] in 320 BC. [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]], who had been "Commander-in-Chief of the [[Companion cavalry]]" ({{translit|grc|hetairoi}}) and appointed first or court [[chiliarch]] (which made him the senior officer in the Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas since 323 BC, though he helped to assassinate him later) received [[Babylonia]] and, from that point, continued to expand his dominions ruthlessly. Seleucus established himself in [[Babylon]] in 312 BC, the year later used as the [[Seleucid era|foundation date]] of the Seleucid Empire.

=== Babylonian War (311–309 BC) ===
{{Main|Babylonian War}}
The rise of Seleucus in Babylon threatened the eastern extent of the territory of [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]] in Asia. Antigonus, along with his son [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius I Poliorcetes]], unsuccessfully led a campaign to annex Babylon. The victory of Seleucus ensured his claim of Babylon and legitimacy. He ruled not only Babylonia, but the entire enormous eastern part of Alexander's empire, as described by the historian [[Appian]]:

{{Quote|Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.<ref name="Appian Syrian Wars 55">Appian, ''History of Rome'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0230%3Atext%3DSyr.%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D55 "The Syrian Wars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104204509/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0230%3Atext%3DSyr.%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D55 |date=4 January 2022 }} 55</ref>}}

===Seleucid–Mauryan War (305–303 BC)===
{{Main|Seleucid–Mauryan war}}
[[Chandragupta Maurya]] ([[Sandrokottos]]) founded the [[Maurya Empire]] in 321 BC after the [[Conquest of the Nanda Empire|conquest]] of the [[Nanda Empire]] and their capital [[Pataliputra]] in [[Magadha]]. Chandragupta then redirected his attention to the Indus and by 317 BC he conquered the remaining Greek satraps left by Alexander. Expecting a confrontation, Seleucus gathered his army and marched to the Indus. It is said that Chandragupta could have fielded a [[conscript]] army of 600,000 men and 9,000 war elephants.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History VI'', 22.4</ref>

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received, formalized through a treaty, vast territory west of the Indus, including the [[Hindu Kush]], modern day [[Afghanistan]], and the [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] province of [[Pakistan]].<ref>[[Vincent Arthur Smith|Vincent A. Smith]] (1972). ''Aśoka''. Asian Educational Services. {{ISBN|81-206-1303-1}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=Walter Eugene |year=1919 |title=The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology |journal=Classical Philology |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=297–313 |doi=10.1086/360246 |s2cid=161613588}}</ref> Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], are known as far as [[Kandahar]] in southern Afghanistan. According to Appian:

{{Quote|He [Seleucus] crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship.<ref name="Appian Syrian Wars 55" />}}

[[File:Chandra Gupta Maurya entertains his bride from Babylon.jpg|thumb|alt=Marriage|"Chandra Gupta Maurya entertains his bride from Babylon": a conjectural interpretation of the "marriage agreement" between the Seleucids and Chandragupta Maurya, related by [[Appian]]<ref name="Appian Syrian Wars 55" />]]

It is generally thought that Chandragupta married [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus's]] daughter, or a [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] princess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500 [[war elephant]]s,<ref>Vijay Katchroo. ''Ancient India'', p. 196</ref><ref>William Hunter. ''[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]''. p. 167</ref><ref>C. D. Darlington. ''The evolution of man and society''. p. 223</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tarn |first=W. W. |year=1940 |title=Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita |journal=[[Journal of Hellenic Studies]] |volume=60 |pages=84–94 |doi=10.2307/626263 |jstor=626263|s2cid=163980490 }}</ref><ref>Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). ''Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy''. Gotham Books. {{ISBN|1-59240-053-1}}.</ref> a military asset which would play a decisive role at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, [[Megasthenes]], to Chandragupta, and later [[Deimakos]] to his son [[Bindusara]], at the Mauryan court at [[Pataliputra]] (modern [[Patna]] in [[Bihar state]]). Megasthenes wrote detailed descriptions of India and Chandragupta's reign, which have been partly preserved to us through [[Diodorus Siculus]]. Later [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], the ruler of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and contemporary of [[Ashoka the Great]], is also recorded by [[Pliny the Elder]] as having sent an ambassador named [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]] to the Mauryan court.<ref>Pliny the Elder, [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 "The Natural History"], Chap. 21 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728023626/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 }}</ref>

{{Quote|The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the [[Ariana|Ariani]] of them, and established there settlements of his own. But [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus Nicator]] gave them to [[Chandragupta Maurya|Sandrocottus]] (Chandragupta Maurya) in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23120| title = Strabo 15.2.1(9)}}</ref>}}

Other territories ceded before Seleucus' death were [[Gedrosia]] in the south-east of the Iranian plateau, and, to the north of this, [[Arachosia]] on the west bank of the [[Indus River]].

=== Westward expansion ===
[[File:SeleucosCoin.jpg|thumb|Coin of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]|alt=]]
Following his and [[Lysimachus]]' decisive victory over Antigonus at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301 BC, Seleucus took control over eastern [[Anatolia]] and northern [[Syria]].

In the latter area, he founded a new capital at [[Antioch on the Orontes]], a city he named after his father. An alternative capital was established at [[Seleucia on the Tigris]], north of Babylon. Seleucus's empire reached its greatest extent following his defeat of his erstwhile ally, Lysimachus, at [[Battle of Corupedion|Corupedion]] in 281 BC, after which Seleucus expanded his control to encompass western Anatolia. He hoped further to take control of Lysimachus's lands in Europe – primarily [[Thrace]] and even [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] itself, but was assassinated by [[Ptolemy Ceraunus]] on landing in Europe.

His son and successor, [[Antiochus I Soter]], was left with an enormous realm consisting of nearly all of the Asian portions of the Empire, but faced with [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] in Macedonia and [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] in Egypt, he proved unable to pick up where his father had left off in conquering the European portions of Alexander's empire.

===Breakup of Central Asian territories===
[[File:DiodotusGoldCoin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|In [[Bactria]], the satrap [[Diodotus of Bactria|Diodotus]] asserted independence to form the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]] {{Circa|245 BC}}.]]
[[File:Oborzos drachm.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Drachm of the [[Frataraka]] ruler [[Vahbarz]] (Oborzos), thought to have initiated the independence of [[Persis]] from the Seleucid Empire. The coin shows on the reverse an Achaemenid king slaying an armoured, possibly Greek or Macedonian, soldier.<ref name="DE">{{Cite book |last=Engels |first=David |url=https://www.academia.edu/37936254 |title=The Seleukid Empire, 281–222 BC: War within the Family |year=201 |editor-last=K. Erickson |location=Swansea |pages=173–196 |language=en |chapter=Iranian Identity and Seleucid Allegiance: Vahbarz, the Frataraka and Early Arsacid Coinage}}</ref><ref name="KE">{{Cite book |last=Erickson |first=Kyle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkaEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 |title=The Seleukid Empire 281–222 BC: War Within the Family |publisher=ISD LLC |isbn=9781910589953 |page=175 |language=en}}</ref> This possibly refers to the events related by [[Polyainos]] (Strat. 7.40), in which Vahbarz (Oborzos) is said to have killed 3000 Seleucid settlers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kosmin |first=Paul J. |author-link=Paul J. Kosmin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fnhyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 |title=Time and Its Adversaries in the Seleucid Empire |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674976931 |page=207 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="DE" /><ref name="KE" />]]
[[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochus I]] (reigned 281–261 BC) and his son and successor [[Antiochus II Theos]] (reigned 261–246 BC) were faced with challenges in the west, including repeated wars with [[Ptolemy II of Egypt|Ptolemy II]] and a [[Celt]]ic invasion of [[Asia Minor]]—distracting attention from holding the eastern portions of the Empire together. Towards the end of Antiochus II's reign, various provinces simultaneously asserted their independence, such as [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdia]]na under [[Diodotus of Bactria|Diodotus]], [[Cappadocia]] under [[Ariarathes III of Cappadocia|Ariarathes III]], and [[Parthia]] under [[Andragoras (Seleucid satrap)|Andragoras]]. A few years later, the last was defeated and killed by the invading [[Parni]] of [[Arsaces I of Parthia|Arsaces]]—the region would then become the core of the [[Parthian Empire]].

[[Diodotus of Bactria|Diodotus]], governor for the [[Bactria]]n territory, asserted independence in around 245 BC, although the exact date is far from certain, to form the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]. This kingdom was characterized by a rich [[Hellenistic]] culture and was to continue its domination of Bactria until around 125 BC when it was overrun by the invasion of northern nomads. One of the Greco-Bactrian kings, [[Demetrius I of Bactria]], invaded India around 180 BC to form the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]s.

The rulers of [[Persis]], called [[Fratarakas]], also seem to have established some level of independence from the Seleucids during the 3rd century BC, especially from the time of [[Vahbarz]]. They would later overtly take the title of [[Kings of Persis]], before becoming vassals to the newly formed [[Parthian Empire]].<ref name="DE" /><ref name="KE" />

The Seleucid satrap of Parthia, named [[Andragoras (3rd century BC)|Andragoras]], first claimed independence, in a parallel to the secession of his Bactrian neighbour. Soon after, however, a Parthian tribal chief called [[Arsaces I of Parthia|Arsaces]] [[Parni conquest of Parthia|invaded the Parthian]] territory around 238 BC to form the [[Parthian Empire|Arsacid dynasty]], from which the [[Parthian Empire]] originated.

Antiochus II's son [[Seleucus II Callinicus]] came to the throne around 246 BC. Seleucus II was soon dramatically defeated in the [[Third Syrian War]] against [[Ptolemy III of Egypt]] and then had to fight a civil war against his own brother [[Antiochus Hierax]]. Taking advantage of this distraction, Bactria and Parthia seceded from the empire. In Asia Minor too, the Seleucid dynasty seemed to be losing control: the Gauls had fully established themselves in [[Galatia]], semi-independent semi-Hellenized kingdoms had sprung up in [[Bithynia]], [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], and [[Cappadocia]], and the city of [[Pergamum]] in the west was asserting its independence under the [[Attalid dynasty]].{{citation needed}} The Seleucid economy started to show the first signs of weakness, as Galatians gained independence and Pergamum took control of coastal cities in Anatolia. Consequently, they managed to partially block contact with the West.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Castrén |first=Paavo |title=Uusi antiikin historia |publisher=[[Otava (publisher)|Otava]] |isbn=978-951-1-21594-3 |page=244 |language=fi}}</ref>

===Revival (223–191 BC)===
[[File:AntiochusIII.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Silver coin of [[Antiochus III the Great]].]]
[[File:Seleucid-Empire 200bc.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Seleucid Empire in 200 BC (before expansion into [[Anatolia]] and [[Greece]]).]]

A revival would begin when Seleucus II's younger son, [[Antiochus III the Great]], took the throne in 223 BC. Although initially unsuccessful in the [[Fourth Syrian War]] against Egypt, which led to a defeat at the [[Battle of Raphia]] (217 BC), Antiochus would prove himself to be the greatest of the Seleucid rulers after Seleucus I himself. He spent the next ten years on his [[wikt:anabasis|anabasis]] (journey) through the eastern parts of his domain and restoring rebellious vassals like Parthia and [[Greco-Bactria]] to at least nominal obedience. He gained many victories such as the [[Battle of Mount Labus]] and [[Battle of the Arius]] and [[Siege of Bactra|besieged the Bactrian capital]]. He even emulated Seleucus with an expedition into India where he met with King [[Sophagasenus]] ({{lang-sa|Subhagasena}}) receiving war elephants, perhaps in accordance of the existing treaty and alliance set after the Seleucid-Mauryan War.

Actual translation of Polybius 11.34 (No other source except Polybius makes any reference to Sophagasenus):

{{Quote|He [Antiochus] crossed the Caucasus Indicus (Paropamisus) (''Hindu Kush'') and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|pp=35–36}} Having traversed Arachosia and crossed the river Enymanthus, he came through Drangene to Carmania; and as it was now winter, he put his men into winter quarters there.<ref>Polybius, ''Histories'', Book 11, 1889, p. 78, trans. Friedrich Otto Hultsch, [[Evelyn Shirley Shuckburgh]]</ref>}}

When he returned to the west in 205 BC, Antiochus found that with the death of [[Ptolemy IV]], the situation now looked propitious for another western campaign. Antiochus and [[Philip V of Macedon]] then made a pact to divide the Ptolemaic possessions outside of Egypt, and in the [[Fifth Syrian War]], the Seleucids ousted [[Ptolemy V]] from control of [[Coele-Syria]]. The [[Battle of Panium]] (200 BC) definitively transferred these holdings from the Ptolemies to the Seleucids. Antiochus appeared, at the least, to have restored the Seleucid Kingdom to glory.

====Expansion into Greece and war with Rome====
{{Further|Roman–Seleucid War}}
[[File:Asia Minor 188 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The reduced empire (titled: ''Syria, Kingdom of the Seleucids'') and the expanded states of [[Kingdom of Pergamon|Pergamum]] and [[Rhodes]], after the defeat of [[Antiochus III]] by Rome. Circa 188 BC.]]
Following the defeat of his erstwhile ally [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip]] by Rome in 197 BC, Antiochus saw the opportunity for expansion into Greece itself. Encouraged by the exiled [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] general [[Hannibal]], and making an alliance with the disgruntled [[Aetolian League]], Antiochus launched an invasion across the [[Hellespont]]. With his huge army he aimed to establish the Seleucid empire as the foremost power in the Hellenic world, but these plans put the empire on a collision course with the new rising power of the Mediterranean, the [[Roman Republic]]. At the battles of [[Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)|Thermopylae]] (191 BC) and [[Battle of Magnesia|Magnesia]] (190 BC), Antiochus's forces suffered resounding defeats, and he was compelled to make peace and sign the [[Treaty of Apamea]] (188 BC), the main clause of which saw the Seleucids agree to pay a large indemnity, to retreat from [[Anatolia]] and to never again attempt to expand Seleucid territory west of the [[Taurus Mountains]]. The [[Kingdom of Pergamum]] and the [[Rhodes#Hellenistic and Roman periods|Republic of Rhodes]], Rome's allies in the war, gained the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia. Antiochus died in 187 BC on another expedition to the east, where he sought to extract money to pay the indemnity.

===Roman power, Parthia and Judea===
{{Further|Seleucid–Parthian Wars|Maccabean Revolt}}
[[File:Seleucid prince Massimo Inv1049.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''[[Hellenistic Prince]]'', a bronze statue originally thought to be a [[Seleucid empire|Seleucid]], or [[Attalus II]] of [[Kingdom of Pergamon|Pergamon]], now considered a portrait of a Roman general, made by a Greek artist working in Rome in the 2nd century BC.]]
The reign of his son and successor [[Seleucus IV Philopator]] (187–175 BC) was largely spent in attempts to pay the large indemnity, and Seleucus was ultimately assassinated by his minister [[Heliodorus (minister)|Heliodorus]].

Seleucus' younger brother, [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]], now seized the throne. He attempted to restore Seleucid power and prestige with a successful war against the old enemy, [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], which met with initial success as the Seleucids defeated and drove the Egyptian army back to [[Alexandria]] itself. As the king planned on how to conclude the war, he was informed that Roman commissioners, led by the [[Proconsul]] [[Gaius Popillius Laenas]], were near and requesting a meeting with the Seleucid king. Antiochus agreed, but when they met and Antiochus held out his hand in friendship, Popilius placed in his hand the tablets on which was written the decree of the senate and told him to read it. The decree demanded that he should abort his attack on Alexandria and immediately stop waging the war on Ptolemy. When the king said that he would call his friends into council and consider what he ought to do, Popilius drew a circle in the sand around the king's feet with the stick he was carrying and said, "Before you step out of that circle give me a reply to lay before the senate." For a few moments he hesitated, astounded at such a peremptory order, and at last replied, "I will do what the senate thinks right." He then chose to withdraw rather than set the empire to war with Rome again.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Livy's History of Rome |url=http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy45.html |website=mu.edu}}</ref>

On his return journey, according to [[Josephus]], he made an expedition to [[Judea]], took [[Jerusalem]] by force, slew a great many who had favored [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemy]], sent his soldiers to plunder them without mercy. He also spoiled the [[Second temple|temple]], and interrupted the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation, for three years and six months.<ref>Flavius Josephus, ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_I#Chapter_1 The War of the Jews 1.1§2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213031816/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jews/Book_I#Chapter_1 }}''</ref>

The latter part of his reign saw a further disintegration of the Empire despite his best efforts. Weakened economically, militarily and by loss of prestige, the Empire became vulnerable to rebels in the eastern areas of the empire, who began to further undermine the empire while the Parthians moved into the power vacuum to take over the old Persian lands. Antiochus' aggressive Hellenizing (or de-Judaizing) activities provoked a full scale armed rebellion in [[Judea]]—the [[Maccabean Revolt]].<ref>[[Hanukkah|Chanukah]], Shabbat 21b, Babylonian Talmud</ref> Efforts to deal with both the Parthians and the Jews as well as retain control of the provinces at the same time proved beyond the weakened empire's power. Antiochus orchestrated a military campaign, capturing [[Artaxias I]], King of Armenia, and reoccupying Armenia.{{sfn|Debevoise|1938|p=20}} His offensive ventured as far as Persepolis, but he was forced from the city by the populace.{{sfn|Debevoise|1938|pp=20–21}} On his return home, Antiochus died in Isfahan in 164 BC.{{sfn|Debevoise|1938|p=21}}

===Civil war and further decay===
{{Further|Seleucid Dynastic Wars}}
[[File:AntiochusIVEpiphanes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Coin of [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]].]]
[[File:Syria in 124 BC.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Seleucid Syria in early 124 BC under [[Alexander II Zabinas]], who ruled the country with the exception of the city of [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia|Ptolemais]]]]

After the death of [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]], the Seleucid Empire became increasingly unstable. Frequent civil wars made central authority tenuous at best. Epiphanes' young son, [[Antiochus V Eupator]], was first overthrown by Seleucus IV's son, [[Demetrius I Soter]] in 161 BC. Demetrius I attempted to restore Seleucid power in [[Judea]] particularly, but was overthrown in 150 BC by [[Alexander Balas]]—an impostor who (with Egyptian backing) claimed to be the son of Epiphanes. Alexander Balas reigned until 145 BC when he was overthrown by Demetrius I's son, [[Demetrius II Nicator]]. Demetrius II proved unable to control the whole of the kingdom, however. While he ruled [[Babylonia]] and eastern [[Syria]] from [[Damascus]], the remnants of Balas' supporters—first supporting Balas' son [[Antiochus VI]], then the usurping general [[Diodotus Tryphon]]—held out in [[Antioch]].

Meanwhile, the decay of the Empire's territorial possessions continued apace. By 143 BC, the Jews in the form of the [[Maccabees]] had fully established their independence. [[Parthian Empire|Parthia]]n expansion continued as well. In 139 BC, Demetrius II was defeated in battle by the Parthians and was captured. By this time, the entire Iranian Plateau had been lost to Parthian control.

Demetrius Nicator's brother, [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]], took the throne after his brother's capture. He faced the enormous task of restoring a rapidly crumbling empire, one facing threats on multiple fronts. Hard-won control of [[Coele-Syria]] was threatened by the Jewish Maccabee rebels. Once-vassal dynasties in Armenia, Cappadocia, and Pontus were threatening Syria and northern [[Mesopotamia]]; the nomadic Parthians, brilliantly led by [[Mithridates I of Parthia]], had overrun upland Media (home of the famed [[Nisean horse]] herd); and Roman intervention was an ever-present threat. Sidetes managed to bring the Maccabees to heel and frighten the Anatolian dynasts into a temporary submission; then, in 133, he turned east with the full might of the Royal Army (supported by a body of Jews under the [[Hasmonean]] prince, [[John Hyrcanus]]) to drive back the Parthians.

Sidetes' campaign initially met with spectacular success, recapturing Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Media. In the winter of 130/129 BC, his army was scattered in winter quarters throughout Media and Persis when the Parthian king, [[Phraates II]], counter-attacked. Moving to intercept the Parthians with only the troops at his immediate disposal, he was ambushed and killed at the [[Battle of Ecbatana]] in 129 BC. Antiochus Sidetes is sometimes called the last great Seleucid king.

After the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes, all of the recovered eastern territories were recaptured by the Parthians. The Maccabees again rebelled, civil war soon tore the empire to pieces, and the Armenians began to encroach on Syria from the north.

===Collapse (100–63 BC)===
{{Continental Asia in 100 BCE}}
[[File:Syria under the Seleucids 87 BC.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Seleucid Kingdom in 87 BC|alt=]]
By 100 BC, the once-formidable Seleucid Empire encompassed little more than [[Antioch]] and some Syrian cities. Despite the clear collapse of their power, and the decline of their kingdom around them, nobles continued to play kingmakers on a regular basis, with occasional intervention from [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and other outside powers. The Seleucids existed solely because no other nation wished to absorb them—seeing as they constituted a useful buffer between their other neighbours. In the wars in Anatolia between [[Mithridates VI]] of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] and [[Sulla]] of Rome, the Seleucids were largely left alone by both major combatants.

Mithridates' ambitious son-in-law, [[Tigranes the Great]], king of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenia]], however, saw opportunity for expansion in the constant civil strife to the south. In 83 BC, at the invitation of one of the factions in the interminable civil wars, he invaded Syria and soon established himself as ruler of Syria, putting the Seleucid Empire virtually at an end.

Seleucid rule was not entirely over, however. Following the Roman general [[Lucullus]]' defeat of both Mithridates and Tigranes in 69 BC, a rump Seleucid kingdom was restored under [[Antiochus XIII]]. Even so, civil wars could not be prevented, as another Seleucid, [[Philip II Philoromaeus|Philip II]], contested rule with Antiochus. After the Roman conquest of Pontus, the Romans became increasingly alarmed at the constant source of instability in Syria under the Seleucids. Once Mithridates was defeated by [[Pompey]] in 63 BC, Pompey set about the task of remaking the Hellenistic East, by creating new client kingdoms and establishing provinces. While client nations like [[Armenia]] and [[Judea]] were allowed to continue with some degree of autonomy under local kings, Pompey saw the Seleucids as too troublesome to continue; doing away with both rival Seleucid princes, he made [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] into a [[Roman province]].

==Culture==
{{Further|Seleucid coinage}}
The domain of the Seleucids stretched from the [[Aegean Sea]] to what is now [[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]], therefore including a diverse array of cultures and ethnic groups. [[Greeks]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Georgians]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Medes]], Mesopotamians, [[Jew]]s, and more all lived within its bounds. The immense size of the empire gave the Seleucid rulers a difficult balancing act to maintain order, resulting in a mixture of concessions to local cultures to maintain their own practices while also firmly controlling and unifying local elites under the Seleucid banner.

The government established Greek cities and settlements throughout the empire via a program of colonization that encouraged immigration from Macedonia and Greece; both city settlements as well as rural ones were created that were inhabited by ethnic Greeks. These Greeks were given good land and privileges, and in exchange were expected to serve in military service for the state. Despite being a tiny minority of the overall population, these Greeks were the backbone of the empire: loyal and committed to a cause that gave them vast territory to rule, they overwhelmingly served in the military and government. Unlike [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], Greeks in the Seleucid Empire seem to rarely have engaged in mixed marriages with non-Greeks; they kept to their own cities.

The various non-Greek peoples of the empire were still influenced by the spread of Greek thought and culture, a phenomenon referred to as [[Hellenization]]. Historically significant towns and cities, such as [[Antioch]], were created or renamed with Greek names, and hundreds of new cities were established for trade purposes and built in Greek style from the start.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|pp=106–107}} Local educated elites who needed to work with the government learned the Greek language, wrote in Greek, absorbed Greek philosophical ideas, and took on Greek names; some of these practices then slowly filtered down to the lower classes. Hellenic ideas began an almost 250-year expansion into the Near East, Middle East, and Central Asian cultures.

Synthesizing Hellenic and indigenous cultural, religious, and philosophical ideas met with varying degrees of success. The result was times of simultaneous peace and rebellion in various parts of the empire. In general, the Seleucids allowed local religions to operate undisturbed, such as incorporating [[Babylonian religion|Babylonian religious tenets]] to gain support.<ref>Julye Bidmead, ''The Akitu Festival: Religious Continuity and Royal Legitimation in Mesopotamia'', 143.</ref> However, a rare exception proved one of the most heavily documented parts of Seleucid history: the [[Maccabean Revolt]] in Judea. While most Seleucid governments had ignored [[Judaism]], under King [[Antiochus IV]] the government rather uncharacteristically banned and restricted its practice after a period of favoritism and apparently selling the [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest]] position to the highest bidder. The result was the eventual loss of control of Judea to an independent [[Hasmonean kingdom]], proving the wisdom of the usual policy of not overly interfering with local religious practice.

==Military==
{{Main|Seleucid army}}
[[File:KINGS of PERSIS. Bagadates Early 3rd century BC (obverse).jpg|thumb|[[Bagadates I]] (Minted 290–280 BC) was the first native Seleucid satrap to be appointed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Iran: Seleucid Empire |url=http://www.iranchamber.com/history/seleucids/seleucids.php |website=iranchamber.com}}</ref>]]
As with the other major [[Hellenistic armies]], the Seleucid army fought primarily in the Greco-Macedonian style, with its main body being the [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]]. The phalanx was a large, dense formation of men armed with small shields and a long pike called the [[sarissa|{{transl|grc|sarissa}}]]. This form of fighting had been developed by the [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]] in the reign of [[Philip II of Macedon]] and his son Alexander the Great. Alongside the phalanx, the Seleucid armies used a great deal of native and mercenary troops to supplement their Greek forces, which were limited due to the distance from the Seleucid rulers' [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] homeland. The size of the Seleucid army usually varied between 70,000 and 200,000 in manpower.

The distance from Greece put a strain on the Seleucid military system, as it was primarily based around the recruitment of Greeks as the key segment of the army. In order to increase the population of Greeks in their kingdom, the Seleucid rulers created military settlements. There were two main periods in the establishment of settlements, firstly under [[Seleucus I Nicator]] and [[Antiochus I Soter]] and then under [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]]. The military settlers were given land, "varying in size according to rank and arm of service'.<ref>Head, 1982, p. 20</ref> They were settled in 'colonies of an urban character, which at some point could acquire the status of a polis".<ref>Chaniotis, 2006, p. 86</ref> The settler-soldiers were called {{transl|grc|katoikoi}}; they would maintain the land as their own and in return, they would serve in the Seleucid army when called. The majority of settlements were concentrated in [[Lydia]], northern [[Syria]], the upper [[Euphrates]] and [[Medes|Media]]. [[Antiochus III]] brought Greeks from [[Euboea]], [[Crete]] and [[Aetolia]] and settled them in [[Antioch]].<ref>Chaniotis, 2006, p. 85</ref>

These Greek settlers would be used to form the Seleucid phalanx and cavalry units, with picked men put into the kingdom's guards' regiments. The rest of the Seleucid army would consist of native and mercenary troops, who would serve as light [[auxiliaries|auxiliary]] troops. While the Seleucids were happy to recruit from less populated and outlying parts of the Empire such as the [[Arabs]] and Jews, Iranian peoples in the east, and inhabitants of Asia Minor to the north, they generally eschewed recruiting native Syrians and native Mesopotamians ([[Babylon]]ians). This was presumably mostly from a desire not to train and arm the people who were an overwhelming majority in the trade and governmental centers of the Empire in [[Antioch]] and Babylon, risking revolt. While a revolt in a remote place could be put down by resolute action from the center, an uprising in [[Syria-Coele]] would have undermined the kingdom's very existence.<ref name="barkochva">{{cite book |last=Bar-Kochva |first=Bezalel |authorlink=Bezalel Bar-Kochva |title=Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521323525 |page=95–111}} . For the dismissive Greek attitudes toward Syrians, Bar-Kochva is citing [[Martin Hengel]]'s 1976 work ''Juden, Griechen und Barbaren'', p. 77.</ref>

Following losses of territory in Asia Minor during the [[Roman-Seleucid War]], King Antiochus IV sponsored a new wave of immigration and settlements to replace them and maintain enough Greeks to staff the phalanxes seen at the military parade at Daphne in 166–165 BC. Antiochus IV built 15 new cities "and their association with the increased phalanx... at Daphne is too obvious to be ignored".<ref>Griffith, 1935, p. 153</ref>

== Economy ==
As a Hegemonic empire, much of the state's wealth accumulation centered around maintaining its sizable military.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=van der Spek |first=Robartus Johannes |url=https://www.academia.edu/7782928 |title="The Seleucid State and the Economy" In Production and Public Powers in Antiquity |publisher=Cambridge Philological Society Supplementary |year=2000 |isbn=978-0906014257 |location=Cambridge |pages=27–36}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Michael J. |title=Sacred Plunder and the Seleucid Near East |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43297500 |journal=Greece & Rome |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=222–241 |doi=10.1017/S0017383514000175 |jstor=43297500 |s2cid=162810470 |via=JSTOR}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Reger |first=Gary |title="The Economy" in "A Companion to the Hellenistic World" by Andrew Erskine |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4051-3278-7 |location=Malden, Massachusetts |pages=331–353}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=van der Spek |first=Robartus Johannes |title=Palace, Temple and Market in Seleucid Babylonia |url=http://dj4real.com/9150078 |journal=Topoi |pages=303–332 |via=Academia}}</ref> While the motive is simple enough, the Seleucid empire boasts of a sophisticated political economy that extracts wealth from local temples, cities (or {{transl|grc|poleis}}), and royal estates; much of which was inherited from their Achaemenid predecessors. Recent discussion indicates a market-oriented economy under the Seleucids.<ref name=":3" /> However, evidencing limits our understanding of the Seleucid economy to the Hellenistic Near-East; that is, through their holdings in Syria, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. Little is known about the economy of the Upper Satrapies.

===Monetization===
[[File:Seleucid Bronze Coin Depictinding Antiochus III with Laureate head of Apollo Circa. 200 BCE.jpg|thumb|Seleucid Bronze Coin depicting Antiochus III with Laureate head of Apollo Circa. 200 BC]]
Currency plays an increasingly central role under the Seleucids; however, we should note that monetization was nothing new in their newly acquired lands.<ref name=":3" /> Rather, the introduction and widespread implementation of currency is attributed to Darius I's tax reforms centuries prior;<ref name=":3" /> hence, the Seleucids see a continuation rather than shift in this practice, i.e. the payment of taxation in silver or, if necessary, in kind.<ref name=":0" /> In this regard, the Seleucids are notable for paying their sizeable armies exclusively in silver.<ref name=":2" /> Nevertheless, there are two significant developments of currency during the Seleucid period: the adoption of the "Attic Standard" in certain regions,<ref name=":3" /> and the popularization of bronze coinage.<ref name=":2" />

The adoption of the Attic standard was not uniform across the realm. The Attic standard was already the common currency of the Mediterranean prior to Alexander's conquest; that is, it was the preferred currency for foreign transactions.<ref name=":2" /> As a result, coastal regions under the Seleucids—Syria and Asia Minor—were quick to adopt the new standard.<ref name=":2" /> In Mesopotamia however, the millennia-old shekel (weighing 8.33g Silver) prevailed over the Attic standard.<ref name=":2" /> According to Historian R.J. van der Spek, this is due to their particular method in recording price, which favored bartering over monetary transactions.<ref name=":3" /> The Mesopotamians used the value of one shekel as a fixed reference point, against which the amount of a good is given.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=van der Spek |first=Robartus Johannes |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272361591 |title="The Volatility of Prices of Barley and Dates in Babylon in the Third and Second Centuries BC." In Documentary Sources in Ancient Near Eastern and Greco-Roman Economic History, by Heather D. Baker and Michael Jursa |publisher=Oxbow Books |year=2014 |location=Oxford and Philadelphia |pages=234–259 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvh1dn9m.15}}</ref> Prices themselves are accounted in terms of their weight in silver per ton, i.e. 60 g Silver, Barley, June 242 BC.<ref name=":4" /> The minute difference in weight between a Shekel and Didrachm (weighing 8.6g Silver) could not be expressed in this barter system. And the use of a Greek tetradrachm would be "a far too heavy denomination…in daily trade."<ref name=":3" />

Bronze coinage, dating from the late fifth and fourth century, and was popularized as a "fiduciary" currency facilitating "small-scale exchanges" in the Hellenistic period.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> It was principally a legal tender which circulated only around its locales of production;[3]however, the great Seleucid mint at Antioch during Antiochus III's reign (which Numismatist Arthur Houghton dubs "The Syrian and Coele-Syrian Experiment") began minting bronze coins (weighing 1.25–1.5g) to serve a "regional purpose."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Houghton |first=Arthur |title=Some Observations on Coordinated Bronze Currency Systems in Seleucid Syria and Phoenicia |url=https://www.academia.edu/8883704 |journal=Israel Numismatic Journal |volume=15 |pages=35–47 |via=Academia}}</ref> The reasons behind this remain unclear. However, Spek notes a chronic shortage of silver in the Seleucid empire.<ref name=":3" /> In fact, Antiochus I's heavy withdrawal of silver from a satrap is noted by the Babylonian astronomical diary (AD No. – 273 B 'Rev. 33'): "purchases in Babylon and other cities were made in Greek bronze coins."<ref name=":3" /> This was unprecedented because "in official documents [bronze coins] played no part";<ref name=":3" /> it was a sign of "hardship" for the Seleucids.<ref name=":3" /> Nevertheless, the low denomination of bronze coinage meant it was used in tandem with bartering; making it a popular and successful medium of exchange.<ref name=":2" />

===Agriculture===

Agriculture, like most pre-modern economies, constituted a vast majority of the Seleucid economy. Somewhere between 80 and 90% of the Seleucid population was employed,<ref name=":0" /> in some form, within the prevailing agricultural structures inherited from their Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid predecessors.<ref name=":2" /> These included temples, {{transl|grc|poleis}}, and royal estates. We should clarify that the term {{transl|grc|poleis}}, according to Spek, did not confer any special status to cities in the Seleucid sources; it was simply the term for "city"—Greek or otherwise.<ref name=":0" /> Regardless, agricultural produce varied from region to region. But in general, Greek {{transl|grc|poleis}} produced: "grain, olives and their oil, wine…figs, cheese from sheep and goats, [and] meat."<ref name=":2" /> Whereas Mesopotamian production from temple land consisted of: "barley, dates, mustard (or cascuta/dodder), cress (cardamom), sesame and wool"; which, as the core region of the Seleucid empire, was also the most productive.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" />
[[File:Price of barley and dates per tonne.jpg|thumb|Price of barley and dates per tonne]]
Recent evidence indicates that Mesopotamian grain production, under the Seleucids, was subject to market forces of supply and demand.<ref name=":3" /> Traditional "primitivist" narratives of the ancient economy argue that it was "marketless"; however, the Babylonian astronomical diaries show a high degree of market integration of barley and date prices—to name a few—in Seleucid Babylonia.<ref name=":4" /> Prices exceeding ''370g'' silver per ton in Seleucid Mesopotamia was considered a sign of famine. Therefore, during periods of war, heavy taxation, and crop failure, prices increase drastically. In an extreme example, Spek believes tribal Arab raiding into Babylonia caused barley prices to skyrocket to 1493 grams of silver per ton from 5–8 May, 124 BC.<ref name=":4" /> The average Mesopotamian peasant, if working for a wage at a temple, would receive 1 shekel; it "was a reasonable monthly wage for which one could buy one kor of grain= 180 [liters]."<ref name=":4" /> While this appears dire, we should be reminded that Mesopotamia under the Seleucids was largely stable and prices remained low.<ref name=":3" /> With encouraged Greek colonization and land reclamation increasing the supply of grain production, however, the question of whether this artificially kept prices stable is uncertain.<ref name=":3" />

The Seleucids also continued the tradition of actively maintaining the Mesopotamian waterways. As the greatest source of state income, the Seleucid kings actively managed the irrigation, reclamation, and population of Mesopotamia.<ref name=":3" /> In fact, canals were often dug by royal decrees, to which "some were called the King's Canal for that reason."<ref name=":0" /> For example, the construction of the Pallacottas canal was able to control the water level of the Euphrates which, as Arrian notes in his Anabasis 7.21.5, required: "over two months of work by more than 10,000 Assyrians."<ref name=":0" />

===Role of the state–political economy===

As a hegemonic empire, the state's primary focus was maintaining its sizable army via wealth extraction from three major sources:<ref name=":2" /> tribute from autonomous {{transl|grc|poleis}} and temples, and proportional land-tax from royal land.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Mittwoch |first=A. |title=Tribute and Land-tax in Seleucid Judaea |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42619061 |journal=Biblica |volume=36. No.3 |issue=3 |pages=352–361 |jstor=42619061 |via=JSTOR}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last1=Gilles |first1=Gorre |url=https://www.academia.edu/5075417 |title=Egitto: Dai Faraoni Agli Arabi." Kings, Taxes and High Priests: Comparing the Ptolemaic and Seleukid Policies |last2=Honigman |first2=Sylvie |publisher=Dipartimento di Studi letterari, filologicie linguistici dell'Università degli Studi di Milano |isbn=978-8862276412 |location=Milan |pages=105–119}}</ref> The definition of "royal land" remains contested. While all agree {{transl|grc|poleis}} do not constitute royal land, some remain uncertain over the status of temple land.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=van der Spek |first=Robartus Johannes |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326989288 |title="New Evidence on Seleucid Land Policy". In ''De Agricultura: In Memoriam Pieter Willem de Neeve'', by Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg and Pieter Willem de Neeve |publisher=J. C. Gieben |year=1993 |isbn=978-90-50-63070-2 |location=Amsterdam |pages=303–332 |via=Research Gate}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Yet, they commanded notable economic power and functioned almost independently from the state.<ref name=":1" /> Nevertheless, the Seleucid manner of extraction, in contrast to earlier regimes, is considered more "aggressive" and "predatory".<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":1" />
[[File:Episodes of Seleucid Dispoliation from Michael J. Taylor's Sacred Plunder.jpg|thumb|Episodes of Seleucid dispoliation from Michael J. Taylor's ''Sacred Plunder'']]
In theory, the Seleucid state was an absolute monarchy that did not recognize private property in our modern sense.<ref name=":7" /> Any land that was not delegated to the{{transl|grc|poleis}} or temples was considered private property of the sovereign;<ref name=":7" /> thus, considered as Royal Land and liable to direct tax by the state. Here, a "proportional land-tax", that is, a tax based on the size of one's plot, is collected by the local governor (or Satrap) and sent to the capital.<ref name=":5" /> However, there is no evidence for the amount that was taxed on any given region.

Tribute was heavily levied on {{transl|grc|poleis}} and temples. Although tribute is paid annually, the amount demanded increases significantly during wartime. During a civil war in 149 BC, Demetrius II demanded the province of Judaea to pay 300 talents of silver, which was seen as "severe."<ref name=":5" /> But this was far from an isolated case. In fact, the Babylonian Astronomical Diaries in 308/7 BC note a hefty 50% tax on harvest "from the lands of the temple of Shamash (in Sipprar or Larsa)."<ref name=":7" /> Nevertheless, annual tribute was "a long-accepted and uncontroversial practice."<ref name=":1" /> Also, royal land was regularly donated to the temples and {{transl|grc|poleis}}; albeit under the assumption that a greater share of revenue is given to the state in exchange.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" />
The controversial practice of temple "despoliation", however, was a regular occurrence under the Seleucids—in contrast to earlier times.<ref name=":1" /> Although the Seleucid kings were aware and appreciated the sacrosanctity of religious treasures, their concentration in these places "proved irresistible" in the face of "short-term fiscal constraints."<ref name=":1" /> As an example, Antiochus III's despoliation of the Anahit Temple in Ecbatana, wherein he procured 4000 silver talents, was used to fund his Great Eastern campaign.<ref name=":1" /> According to historian Michael J. Taylor:<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>It is difficult to believe that these monarchs who knew enough to bow before Nabu, bake bricks for Esagil, and enforce kosher regulations in Jerusalem, would be blithely aware of the political hazards of removing Temple treasures. It is more likely that they knew the risks but took them anyway.</blockquote>

A rebellion in 169 BC during Antiochus III's campaign in Egypt demonstrates that these "risks" occasionally backfire.<ref name=":6" /> The increasingly bold interference is due, in large part, to the appointment of provincial high-priests by the monarch himself.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":0" /> Often they were his court "favorites",<ref name=":0" /> whose prerogatives were purely administrative; essentially, they served to collect tribute for the state.<ref name=":6" /> Unsurprisingly: "native elites profoundly feared that the arrival of a Seleucid official might quickly cascade into a wholesale removal of Temple treasures."<ref name=":1" />

=== Academic discussion ===
Interpretations on the Seleucid economy since the late 19th century traditionally fell between the "modernist" and "primitivist" camps.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> On one hand, the modernist view—largely associated with Michael Rostovtzeff and Eduard Meyer—argues that the Hellenistic economies operated along price-setting markets with capitalist enterprises exported over long distances in "completely monetarized markets."<ref name=":2" /> On the other hand, the primitivist view—associated with M.I. Finley, Karl Polanyi and Karl Bücher—interprets ancient economies as "autarchic" in nature with little to no interaction among each other. However, recent discussion has since criticized these models for their grounding on "Greco-centric" sources.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Aphergis |first=Gerassmimos George |title=The Seleucid Economy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20482569 |journal=The Classical Review |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=520–522 |jstor=20482569 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>

Recent discussion has since rejected these traditional dichotomies.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" /> According to Spek and Reger, the current view is that the Seleucid economy—and Hellenistic economies more broadly—were ''partially'' market-oriented, and ''partially'' monetarized.<ref name=":3" /> While the market was subject to forces of supply and demand, a majority of produce was still consumed by their producers and was, hence, "invisible" to the observer.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />

==Family tree of Seleucids==
{{main|Seleucid dynasty}}
{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=yes|Seleucid dynasty}}
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | Sel |Sel=Seleucus }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | Lao |~| Ant | | Pto |Lao=[[Laodice of Macedonia]]|Ant=[[Antiochus (father of Seleucus I Nicator)|Antiochus]] from Orestia, Macedonia|Pto=[[Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)|Ptolemy]] somatophylax}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | Apa |~| Se1 |~| Str | | Did |Apa=1.[[Apama]] daughter of [[Spitamenes]] satrap of Sogdiana|Se1=[[Seleucus I Nikator]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 305–281 BC|Str=2.[[Stratonice of Syria|Stratonice]] daughter of [[Demetrius Poliorcetes|Demetrius I]] king of Macedonia|Did=[[Didymeia (sister of Seleucus I Nicator)|Didymeia]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | Str |~| An1 | | Ach | | Phi |Str=[[Stratonice of Syria]] daughter of [[Demetrius Poliorcetes|Demetrius I]] king of Macedonia|An1=(1) [[Antiochus I Soter]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 281–261 BC|Ach=(1) [[Achaeus (son of Seleucus I Nicator)|Achaeus]] the Elder landowner in Asia Minor|Phi=(2) [[Phila (daughter of Seleucus)|Phila]] ∞ [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] king of Macedonia}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|(| | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| Apa | | Str | | Ber |~| An2 |~| La1 | | La2 | | Ale | | And | | Ant |Apa=[[Apama II]] ∞ [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] king of Cyrene|Str=[[Stratonice of Macedon|Stratonice]] ∞ [[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius II]] king of Macedon|An2=[[Antiochus II Theos]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 261–246 BC|La1=1.[[Laodice I]] |Ber=2.[[Berenice (Seleucid queen)|Berenice]] daughter of [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy II]] king of Egypt|Ant=[[Antiochis]] ∞ Attalus [[Attalid dynasty]]|Ale=[[Alexander (grandson of Seleucus I Nicator)|Alexander]] landowner in Asia Minor|And=[[Andromachus (son of Achaeus)|Andromachus]] landowner in Asia Minor|La2=[[Laodice II]] ∞ [[Seleucus II Callinicus]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | La2 |~| Se2 | | Ant | | Str | | Lao | | Ach |~| Lad |Str=(1) [[Stratonice of Cappadocia|Stratonice]] ∞ [[Ariarathes III of Cappadocia]]|Lao=(1) [[Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus)|Laodice]] ∞ [[Mithridates II of Pontus]]|Ant=(1) [[Antiochus Hierax]] ruler of Asia Minor|Se2=(1) [[Seleucus II Callinicus]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 246–225 BC|La2=[[Laodice II]] daughter of [[Achaeus (son of Seleucus I Nicator)|Achaeus]] landowner in Asia Minor|Ach=[[Achaeus (general)|Achaeus]] commander of Asia Minor|Lad=[[Laodice of Pontus|Laodice]] daughter of [[Mithridates II of Pontus]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|(| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | Ant | | Se3 | | An3 |~| La3 |Se3=[[Seleucus III Ceraunus]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 225–223 BC|An3=[[Antiochus III the Great]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 222–187 BC|La3=[[Laodice III]] daughter of [[Mithridates II of Pontus]]|Ant=[[Antiochis]] ∞ [[Xerxes of Armenia|Xerxes]] king of Sophene & Commagene}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{tree chart| Cl1 | | Ant |~| La4 |~| Se4 | | An4 | | Ans ||Ant=[[Antiochus (son of Antiochus III the Great)|Antiochus]] co-emperor 210–193 BC|La4=[[Laodice IV]] ∞ 3.[[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]]|Se4=[[Seleucus IV Philopator]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 187–175 BC|Cl1=[[Cleopatra I Syra]] ∞ [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes|Ptolemy V of Egypt]]|Ans=[[Antiochis (daughter of Antiochus the Great)|Antiochis]] ∞ [[Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia]]|An4=[[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 175–164 BC}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|-|'|,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|(| | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{tree chart| Nys | | Ani | | La5 |~| De1 | | An5 | | La6 | | Lao | | Ale |~| Cle |Nys=[[Nysa (wife of Pharnaces I of Pontus)|Nyssa]] ∞ [[Pharnaces I of Pontus]] [[Mithridatic dynasty]]|Ani=[[Antiochus (son of Seleucus IV)|Antiochus]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 175–170 BC|La5=[[Laodice V]] ∞ [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] king of Macedonia|De1=[[Demetrius I Soter]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 161–150 BC|An5=[[Antiochus V Eupator]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 164–161 BC|La6=[[Laodice VI]] ∞ [[Mithridates V of Pontus]] [[Mithridatic dynasty]]|Ale=[[Alexander Balas]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 152/150–146 BC|Lao =[[Laodice (wife of Mithridates III of Pontus)|Laodice]] ∞ [[Mithridates III of Pontus]]|Cle=[[Cleopatra Thea]] daughter of [[Ptolemy VI Philometor|Ptolemy VI]] of Egypt}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | Rho |~| De2 |~| Cle |~| An7 | | | | | | An6 |An6=[[Antiochus VI Dionysus]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 144–142/1 BC|De2=[[Demetrius II Nicator]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 145–138 BC|Cle=1.[[Cleopatra Thea]] daughter of [[Ptolemy VI Philometor|Ptolemy VI]] of Egypt queen of Syria 126–121 BC|Rho=2.[[Rhodogune of Parthia]] daughter of [[Mithridates I of Parthia]]|An7=[[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] emperor of Seleucid Empire 138–129 BC}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|(| | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | Se5 | | Try |~| An8 |~| CSS |~| An9 |~| Cl4 | | Al2 | | Se5=(1) [[Seleucus V Philometor]] co-king of Syria 126–125 BC|An8=(1) [[Antiochus VIII Grypus]] co-king of Syria 125–122 BC king of Syria 122–96 BC|Try=1.[[Tryphaena]] daughter of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]] of Egypt|CSS=2.[[Cleopatra Selene of Syria|Cleopatra Selene]] daughter of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]] of Egypt|Al2=[[Alexander II Zabinas]] king of Syria 128–123 BC|An9=[[Antiochus IX Cyzicenus]] king of Syria 116–96 BC|Cl4=[[Cleopatra IV of Egypt]] daughter of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]] of Egypt}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |!}}
{{tree chart| Se6 | | A11 | | La7 | | Ph1 | | De3 | | A12 | | A10 |~| CSS | Se6=(1) [[Seleucus VI Epiphanes]] king of Syria 96–94 BC|A11=(1) [[Antiochus XI Epiphanes]] king of Syria 94–93 BC|Ph1=(1) [[Philip I Philadelphus]] king of Syria 94–83/75 BC|De3=(1) [[Demetrius III Eucaerus]] king of Syria 96–87 BC|A12=(1) [[Antiochus XII Dionysus]] king of Syria 87–82 BC|La7=(1) [[Laodice VII Thea]] ∞ [[Mithridates I Callinicus]] king of Commagene|A10=[[Antiochus X Eusebes]] king of Syria 95–92/88 BC|CSS=[[Cleopatra Selene of Syria|Cleopatra Selene]] daughter of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]] of Egypt}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | Ph2 | | | | | | A13 | | Se7 |~| Be4 |Ph2=[[Philip II Philoromaeus]] king of Syria 65–64 BC|A13=[[Antiochus XIII Asiaticus]] king of Syria 69–64 BC|Se7=[[Seleucus VII Philometor]] king of Syria 83–69 BC|Be4=[[Berenice IV of Egypt|Berenice IV]] daughter of [[Ptolemy XII Auletes|Ptolemy XII]] of Egypt}}
{{tree chart/end}}
{{Chart bottom}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Greece}}
*[[Seleucid army]]
*[[Seleucid dynasty]]
*[[Hellenistic period]]
*[[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]
*[[Hasmonean dynasty]]
*[[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]
*[[Parthian Empire]]
*[[Cilician pirates]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book |title=A Political History of Parthia |first=Neilson C. |last=Debevoise |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1938 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Grainger |first=John D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zDQEDgAAQBAJ |title=The Seleucid Empire of Antiochus III. 223–187 BC |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-52677-493-4 |edition=Paperback |location=Barnsley |orig-year=1st pub. 2015}}
* {{cite book |last=Kosmin |first=Paul J. |authorlink=Paul J. Kosmin |title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-72882-0 }}
* {{cite book| last1=Sherwin-White| first1=Susan| last2=Kuhrt| first2=Amelie| author-link2=Amelie Kuhrt| title=From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire| year=1993| place=London| publisher=Duckworth| isbn=978-0-520-08183-3}}

==Further reading==
* [[1 Maccabees]]
* {{cite book| last = Chrubasik| first = Boris| title = [[Kings and Usurpers in the Seleukid Empire|''Kings and Usurpers in the Seleukid Empire: The Men who would be King'']]| publisher = Oxford University Press| date = 2016| location = London| pages =| isbn = 9780198786924}}
*G. G. Aperghis, ''The Seleukid Royal Economy. The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire'', Cambridge, 2004.
*Laurent Capdetrey, ''Le pouvoir séleucide. Territoire, administration, finances d'un royaume hellénistique (312–129 avant J.C.).'' (Collection "Histoire"). Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2007.
*D. Engels, ''Benefactors, Kings, Rulers. Studies on the Seleukid Empire between East and West'', Leuven, 2017 (Studia Hellenistica 57).
*A. Houghton, C. Lorber, ''Seleucid Coins. A Comprehensive Catalogue, Part I, Seleucus I through Antiochus III, With Metrological Tables by B. Kritt'', I-II, New York – Lancaster – London, 2002.
* R. Oetjen (ed.), ''New Perspectives in Seleucid History, Archaeology and Numismatics: Studies in Honor of Getzel M. Cohen'', Berlin – Boston: [[De Gruyter]], 2020
* J. Taylor, ''Antiochus the Great'' (Barnsley: [[Pen and Sword]], 2013).

==External links==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Seleucid Empire
|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [https://www.livius.org/se-sg/seleucids/seleucids.html The Seleucid Empire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719234709/https://www.livius.org/se-sg/seleucids/seleucids.html }} by Jona Lendering
*[http://www.seleucid-genealogy.com Genealogy of the Seleucids]
*[http://www.seleucid-genealogy.com/ssg_bibliography.html Seleucid Research Bibliography, compiled and maintained by the Seleucid Study Group] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324182257/http://www.seleucid-genealogy.com/ssg_bibliography.html }}

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